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+RESOURCE MANAGEMENT IN CONSTRUCTION
+Resource planning and management is one of the most important ingredients for competitiveness and profitability in today's construction industry.
+In order to control costs, equipment and labor should be utilized in the most efficient way possible.
+This can be achieved by minimizing the total cost of leased resources under the constraint of maximum and most efficient use of owned equipment and contracted labor force.
+This paper presents a mixedinteger linear programming model for the management of resources throughout the project life.
+Based on the Critical Path Method time analysis, the model derives the schedule for equipment rentals and transient resources, as well as the utilization scheme for owned equipment and other available resources.
+The model can be used as an estimating tool for multi-project resource planning and sharing, and as a means to implement the most efficient utilization of resources throughout the duration of the whole project.
+Most contractors use both owned and leased construction equipment, as confirmed by a recent study (3).
+The allocation of resources of different types to a construction project is a difficult managerial problem, particularly when construction equipment has to be shared among a number of project sites.
+Timing adequately the use of different pieces of equipment on a given project is an important cost control issue, since an inadequate allocation and scheduling of resources can lead to equipment idleness and consequently higher costs of leased equipment, due to the inefficient use of both leased and owned equipment.
+The purpose of this paper is to plan and schedule construction activities according to an optimal resource allocation scheme.
+This scheme is derived by using a model that minimizes the cost of leased resources (equipment, and possibly labor) over the project life, given a certain level of resources available, such as owned equipment.
+The model can be used by both private contractors and departments of public works, in that:
+(1) All resource types can be envisioned;
+and (2) the objective function and the constraints are relevant for the organization of any construction project.
+Scheduling and Resource Allocation in Construction.—The scheduling of construction activities in any fairly complex project is undertaken using the Critical Path Method (CPM).
+A comprehensive analysis of the method and its application in construction practice can be found in (1).
+Although the CPM is a time analysis method, the integration of 'Asst. Prof, of Civ. Engrg., Northeastern Univ.,.Boston, MA 02115.
+Grad. Student, Dept. of Civ. Engrg., Northeastern Univ., Boston, MA 02115.
+Note.—Discussion open until February 1, 1987.
+To extend the closing date one month, a written request must be filed with the ASCE Manager of Journals.
+The manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and possible publication on September 10, 1985.
+This paper is part of the Journal of Construction Engineering, Vol. 112, No. 3, September, 1986. ©ASCE, ISSN 0733-9364/86/0003-0346/$01.00.
+Paper No. 20866.
+resource allocation tasks has been previously achieved by simply scheduling construction activities in such a way that resource needs can be matched throughout the project life.
+This is usually done by heuristically and sequentially shifting activities the availability of resources "as needed," resource allocation is necessary to define a feasible schedule.
+The model presented hereafter uses the CPM time analysis as a starting point to a more comprehensive resource management and scheduling model.
+One of the major weaknesses of the Critical Path Method (CPM) is the fact that activities cannot be intermittent.
+It is often more cost effective to stop a specific activity for a certain period of time, thus allowing its resources to be used in another activity.
+This saves both time and money.
+By shifting activities within their allowable float, an optimal resource utilization schedule can be developed.
+Formulation of Model.—This comprehensive resource management model has a mixed integer-linear programming structure.
+It is based on the minimization of the total costs of leasing additional resources, under the time constraints obtained from the time analysis of the CPM.
+Resource analysis and allocation problems have been extensively studied in the literature.
+A feature common to these problems is the recognition that the resources involved in carrying out a project can influence scheduling either by their limited availability or by other kinds of restrictions.
+Four classes of resource analysis problems can be distinguished for project scheduling purposes:
+Resource loading, which produces, for a given project schedule, time charts regarding the usage of the various resources required by the project activities.
+These charts are then checked against resource availabilities to establish whether the project is feasible.
+Resource leveling, which focuses on the time pattern of resource usage.
+In optimizing scheduling decisions, no implicit costs are considered.
+Rather, it is implicitly assumed that varying the usage of a specific resource entails significant costs because of charges such as hiring, firing, overtime, and idle labor or equipment.
+For large networks, resource leveling requires the aid of a computer.
+Leveling procedures are generally heuristic.
+Resource constrained problems, which address the issue of allo-cating limited resources to competing activities in order to either achieve minimal project completion time or the minimal total cost schedule.
+The time-cost trade-off problem is centered on the idea that the duration of some activities can be cut down if additional resources are allocated to them.
+The use of quantitative methods in construction management is described in Ref. 2.
+Uses of linear optimization in construction management are also presented in Ref. 11.
+In Ref. 6, linear programming is used for sharing resources in linear construction where a fairly simple construction logic is repeated successively.
+This work was later discussed in Ref. 8.
+The optimization model presented herein uses the CPM output as an anchor for the selection of the most cost-effective schedule of construction operations.
+It is formulated as a problem combining resource-constrained, resource-leveling and time-cost trade-off themes in a structure that fits the reality of resource constraints in the construction industry.
+An assumption is made that the project duration required by the owner will be met.
+Objective Function.—The objective of the model is to minimize the cost of leasing additional resources, primarily in construction equipment.
+However, under the assumption of an open shop labor market, labor resources can be included in the set of resource types.
+For all resource types (r E R), activities (;
+' E /) and days (;
+' E I), the problem can be stated as
+_, = cost of leasing an additional unit of resource type r to use it in activity ;
+' on day i;
+RRr,j,i = number of leased additional units of resource type r to be allocated to activity ;
+' on day i;
+R = set of all types of resources;
+/ = set of all activities;
+I = set of all days within the project duration;
+= earliest start of activity ;
+and LFj = latest finish of activity ;
+Resource Requirement Constraints.—It is assumed that daily resource requirements of any activity are predetermined.
+In Ref. 9, it was found that a "best" crew combination for construction operations can be selected.
+Resource constraints are defined differently for critical and noncritical activities.
+For critical activities:
+Critical activities (i.e., activities on the critical
+path), have a completely defined time schedule.
+The sum of the number of leased units of a given resource and the number of available units of the same resource to be allocated to a critical activity on any day, should equal the activity requirements on that day.
+For critical activity ;
+', the following constraint is written on day i of the activity duration, and for resource type r required as
+RRr,iA + Rr,jj = nr,j 	(2) where Rr,j,i = number of available units of resource type r to be allocated to a critical activity ;
+' on day i;
+- = total number of required units of resource type r to be allocated to a critical activity / on any day within its duration.
+For noncritical activities:
+Noncritical activities have a time "float," which
+is the difference between their earliest and latest start (or finish).
+They only need to be "active" for a certain number of days (activity duration) between the earliest start and latest finish.
+In order to control whether an activity is "active" on a given day, a binary integer variable which takes the value 1 or 0 to represent, respectively, an active or an idle day, is introduced in a constraint similar to Eq. 2.
+The resource requirement constraint for a noncritical activity ;
+' on a day i between its earliest start and latest finish, and for any required resource type r, can be stated as
+(tt^-ING,,,) - RRTiji{ - RrJJ = 0 	(3) where ING;
+,, = A (0/1) variable that controls the status of activity ;
+' on day i.
+Time Constraint.—For any activity ;
+, LSj and LFj represent, respectively, its earliest start, latest start, earliest finish and latest finish days.
+Dj represents the activity duration.
+Again, it is necessary to differentiate between critical and noncritical activities.
+Critical activities:
+Since the duration of critical activities is indirectly
+implied in the preceding resource constraints, no additional time constraints are needed.
+Noncritical activities:
+The total number of "active" days for activity ;
+should be equal to D;
+t 	ING,,, = D, 	(4)
+Resource Availability Constraints.—The sum of all available resource units allocated to different activities on the same day should not exceed the total number of units available on that day.
+This can be stated as
+where AvTii = number of units of resource type r available on day i.
+Network Logic.—Network logic constraints are not required for the path(s) of critical activities since their network logic is implemented within resource requirements constraints of the type in Eq. 2.
+However, for those paths involving noncritical activities a catalyst integer variable is introduced to preserve the network logic (precedence relationships).
+In a precedence relationship, a leading activity is distinguished from a dependent activity.
+The idea behind this technique is to sequentially count the number of positive integers assigned to a leading activity at different points in time and compare it to the activity duration.
+As long as the leading activity /, is not completed, all dependent activities cannot start.
+In other words, as long as the sum of all integers from ESt to day m is less than D(, integer variables assigned to dependent activities for day (m + 1) have to equal zero (see Fig. 1).
+The following two groups of constraints related to every leading activity / make these conditions possible:
+£ INGU + B CAT,,,„+1 s D, 	(6)
+Leading activity 1 	\— m zone —H
+TABLE 1.—Network Logic Constraint
+Case of 	CAT,„„+1 = 	dGDepi
+2 	INGd,m+1 + B CAT,,,„+1 SB 	(7)
+for all leading activities and m such that m G M;
+, where ING;
+,,- = integer variable of the leading activity / on day i;
+Mi = set of days that go from the earliest start day of all dependent activities minus 1 to the latest finish day of leading activity / minus 1 (ESd - 1 ...
+B = large positive number;
+,„,+1 = (0/1) integer variable to determine whether ING ,}„,+!
+should necessarily be zero;
+Dep, = set of all activities dependent on the leading activity /;
+= duration of the leading activity;
+and INGd,„, = integer variable of the dependent activity d on day m.
+Eq. 6 states that if the sum of integer variables (ING;
+,,) of the leading activity / until day m is less than its duration D;
+, the integer variable
+However, once the leading activity is completed, (i.e., S^jss, ING;
+Dt), the integer variable CAT;
+,,„+1 is released (i.e., it does not have to equal 1 anymore).
+This makes it possible for the integer variables INGd,m+1 related to dependent activities d on day (m + 1) to take the values zero or 1.
+However, a nonzero CAT;
+,m+1 will restrict the dependent activities of /, due to Eq. 7.
+The summary of this relationship between integer variables is shown in Table 1.
+Constraints for Continuous Activities.—If all previous constraints are applied to a project the resulting schedule will fulfill resource requirements, time constraints, and network logic.
+Also, all activities (except critical activities) are allowed to be intermittent.
+However, some activities, such as pumping or dewatering, have to be continuous.
+The following two groups of constraints are used for the case of a continuous activity ;
+TABLE 2.—Continuous Activity Constraint
+Case of 	USE,,, =
+Eng. Manage., 1986, 112(3):
+flexible in that it can be slightly modified to take into account variations
+from the underlying assumptions of the model.
+Nonuniformity of Production Rates.—Instead of assuming a constant daily rate of production, the model can be changed to control and vary the production rate, while preserving the general time frame for different activities.
+Updating Possibilities.—The model can be easily modified to take into account a change in available resources, due to project related conditions or to external conditions.
+Also, changes in the market prices of resources and change orders can be translated in a change in the affected constraints.
+Budget Limitations.—For financial and risk control purposes, a contractor might wish to limit the total daily or weekly expenditures to a certain level Bud, (Budget for day or week i).
+This constraint can be stated as
+Sensitivity Analysis.—The model makes it possible to evaluate the time and cost impact of such measures as increasing the labor force engaged in some activity, subcontracting some portion(s) of the work, using an equipment type or method, or varying the production rate for some particular activity.
+The CPM time analysis related to any such scenario can be used to generate the resource and activity schedule, as well as the costs involved.
+Such a step can be performed during the estimating stage, and subsequently during the planning and construction stages.
+"Floating" Whole Project.—If the project duration determined by the CPM analysis is shorter than the duration required by the owner, the difference could be used as overall float for the project.
+This float can be added to the latest finish of each activity.
+As a result of this additional float, critical activities cease to be critical and are treated, in the model, as noncritical activities.
+The advantage of the model is that critical activities can now be intermittent, uniform or nonuniform rather than simply continuous.
+This can lead to major savings in shifting resources, according to the minimum cost solution.
+Transportation Costs.—In the foregoing model, a constant daily leasing cost for resources, is assumed.
+In practice, transportation and mobilization costs are often considerable for heavy equipment.
+For this rea-
+son the objective function can be modified to include transportation costs.
+The modified objective function becomes
+The following constraint is added to the previous set of constraints:
+where Tr/, = cost of transporting one unit of resource type r on day i;
+and F*j and FJT, = two non-negative variables, which cannot be both strictly positive.
+Limitations of Model.—The limitations of the model are issues of problem dimension.
+As the project increases in complexity, the number of integer variables becomes too large to handle with existing branchand-bound/LP software capabilities.
+However, systems such as LINDO and MPSX have sufficient capabilities for the resource optimization of small networks.
+One way to solve the dimensionality problem is to decompose the network in subnetworks of activities between two major milestones.
+Also some of the activities might not require any resource scheduling, as their resource utilization scheme is fairly simple.
+The purpose of such measures is to structure the resource optimization model by selecting the activities, the relevant time frames and subdivisions, in order to reduce the dimensionality of the problem.
+In this paper, a comprehensive resource management model was presented for scheduling construction projects based on an optimal resource utilization scheme.
+The model objective is to minimize the costs of leasing additional resources, given a certain level of resource availability.
+The model has the capability of mapping continuous, intermittent, uniform and nonuniform activities, and therefore preserves the integrity of construction operations.
+This model can be used as an estimating tool, since the logistics of the construction project are the output of the resource optimization.
+It can be used in multi-project planning, by running a number of projects as a single profit center.
+This is made possible by allocating available resources among different projects and evaluating and comparing different resource allocation schemes.
+The model can be used continuously in phased construction and can be updated as new information is gathered after the completion of successive milestones.
+In large projects, the model can be used to help plan the preliminary resource requirements and make lease versus buy decisions.
+Because of its fully defined resource schedules, the model can be used for cost control purposes, as durations can be tracked to any of the resource or time parameters, which makes it possible to correct and predict project cost changes.
+Adrian, J. J., Quantitative Methods in Construction Management, American Elsevier Publishing Co., Inc., New York, N.Y., 1973.
+Antill, J. M., and Woodhead, R. W., Critical Path Method in Construction Practice, 3rd ed., John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, N.Y., 1982.
+Arditi, D., "Construction Productivity Improvement," Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, ASCE, Vol. Ill, No. COl, Mar., 1985, pp. 1-
+Bradley, S. P., Hax, A. C, and Magnanti, T. L., Applied Mathematical Programming, Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., Reading, Mass., 1977.
+Frein, J. P., Handbook of Construction Management and Organization, 2nd ed., Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, Inc., New York, N.Y., 1980.
+Perera, S., "Resource Sharing in Linear Construction," Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, Vol. 109, No. COl, Mar., 1983, pp. 102-111.
+Pilcher, R., Principles of Construction Management for Engineers and Managers, McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, England, 1966.
+Schlick, H., discussion of "Resource Sharing in Linear Construction," by Srilal Perera, Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, ASCE, Vol. 110, No. 2, June, 1984, p. 295.
+Schlick, H., "Schedule and Resources of Fast Track Renovation Work," Journal of the Construction Division, ASCE, Vol. 107, No. C04, Dec, 1981, pp. 559-574.
+Schrage, L., Linear Programming Models with Lindo, The Scientific Press, Palo Alto, Calif., 1981.
+Stark, R. M., and Rober, H. M., Jr., Quantitative Construction Management, Uses of Linear Optimization, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, N.Y., 1983.
+The following symbols are used in this paper:
+Avrj 	= 	available number of units of resource type r on day i;
+B = 	large positive number;
+CAT i,m+\ — (0/1) catalyst integer variable used to prevent dependent activities from starting prior to completion of leading activity;
+, = cost of leasing one unit of resource type r to use in activity j on day i;
+Dj 	= 	duration of activity j ;
+D( 	= 	duration of leading activity 1;
+Depi 	= 	set of all activities dependent on leading activity 1;
+ESj 	= 	earliest start of activity ;
+F^t = non-negative variable to account for additional requirements for resource type r from day (i — 1) to day i;
+F^j = non-negative variable to account for decreasing requirements for resource type r from day (i — 1) to day i;
+I = set of all days within project duration;
+INGrf/„, 	= 	integer variable of dependent activity d on day m;
+ING^, = (0/1) integer variable that controls non-working/working status of activity;
+ING/,,- 	= 	same as ING^, for leading activity I on day i;
+} 	= 	set of all activities;
+LFj 	= 	latest finish of activity ;
+/ 	= 	index for leading activity;
+Mi 	= 	set of days that go from earliest start of dependent activities —1 to latest finish of leading activity —1 (£Sd — 1 ...
+m = day number varying between earliest start of dependent activities - 1 to latest finish of leading activity —1 (ESd —
+nrj = total required number of units of resource type r to be allocated to activity / on any day within its duration;
+R = set of all types of resources;
+Eng. Manage., 1986, 112(3):
+Eng. Manage., 1986, 112(3):
+Eng. Manage., 1986, 112(3):
+Eng. Manage., 1986, 112(3):
+Eng. Manage., 1986, 112(3):
+Eng. Manage., 1986, 112(3):
+Eng. Manage., 1986, 112(3):
+Eng. Manage., 1986, 112(3):
+Eng. Manage., 1986, 112(3):
+Eng. Manage., 1986, 112(3):
+Eng. Manage., 1986, 112(3):

cleaned_papers/cleaned_papers_without_ref/(ASCE)0733-9364(1988)114_2(279).txt

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+The speed with which the Construction Management (CM) system has entered the daily practices of the construction industry has caught educators in a lag.
+The management of construction and construction management were considered synonymous until construction management became a formal contracting system.
+Educators designed construction education programs around the needs of the general contractor and the requirements of the general contracting system.
+As CM became popular, educators began teaching the CM process but have not yet totally modified instructional programs to accommodate the unique requirements of construction managers.
+This paper establishes the differences between the educational requirements of a contractingoriented program and a construction management-oriented program with respect to the management tools and the philosophy of those using
+Construction management is an innovative approach to project delivery in the construction industry.
+At one end of the scale, construction management is clearly distinguishable from the traditional method of general contracting.
+At the other end of the scale, some forms of construction management closely resemble general contracting.
+The central theme of this paper is that no matter what form of construction management is used, it is sufficiently different from general contracting to merit a somewhat different philosophy with regard to the education of its practitioners.
+The construction management approach has been employed since the
+1950s, and it is assumed readers are familiar with its concepts so that further discussion is not necessary.
+For readers who wish to explore the various issues in construction management, however, several texts (Barrie and Paulson 1984;
+Kavanaugh 1978) and several journal articles (Tatum 1983;
+Haltenhoff 1986) offer excellent treatment of the topic.
+USE OF CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT
+The degree to which construction management is currently used is indicated in Table 1.
+Column one is broken out with forty contractors in each group.
+Group one represents the Engineering News Record top forty contractors, group two the next forty and so on.
+The amount of total contracts is listed in column two, and column three is the portion of column two which is the amount of the total comprising construction management contracts.
+This amount includes those contracts where the
+Prof., School of Civ. Engrg., Georgia Inst, of Tech., Atlanta, GA 30083.
+Note. Discussion open until November 1, 1988.
+To extend the closing date one month, a written request must be filed with the ASCE Manager of Journals.
+The manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and possible publication on
+December 15, 1986.
+This paper is part of the Journal of Construction Engineering an
+Construction Management Contracts'
+Construction
+Group 	contracts 	contracts 	CM 	only 	fee only
+Adapted from Engineering News Record, April 16, 1987.
+Figures in millions of dollars.
+construction manager assumes some degree of risk.
+Column five lists those contracts where the construction manager assumes no risk.
+Table 1 demonstrates that construction management contracts make up an important portion ($38.5 billion) of the total construction contracts let in the United States.
+These are contracts where the construction manager is directly responsible for a portion of the work and has at least $500,000 at risk (ENR 1987).
+Even when "fee only" contracts are considered, $8.9 billion would seem to be a significant enough amount to justify some degree of attention by educators in presenting the principles and philosophy of construction management.
+TASKS OF CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT
+It may now be useful to examine differences in terms of tasks of the construction manager and general contractor.
+Table 2 on the following page highlights some of the tasks of the construction manager and the general contractor.
+This list is not intended to be complete or inclusive;
+rather, it is intended to illustrate the relative timing of the involvement of the construction manager and the contractor during various phases of construction.
+Table 2 is also meant to serve as a reference for discussion of the allegiance of the two entities.
+The construction manager is obviously oriented toward the client, and just as obviously, the general contractor is oriented toward protecting his profit.
+Nothing sinister is implied in this orientation of the general contractor, nor is there an implication that the client's interests are not foremost in the general contractor's priorities.
+In the private sector, from the standpoint of future business, it would be imprudent for the general contractor to act otherwise.
+Nevertheless, because the general contractor assumes the financial risk for the completion of the project, it is reasonable to expect his motivation to be different from the construction manager.
+As expected, the construction manager is heavily involved during the predesign and design phase of a construction project.
+It is this early
+would be considered outside the scope of basic general contracting as defined in this paper.
+The predesign phase places heavy demands on the construction manager.
+In this phase, his versatility or lack of it makes a significant impact.
+Construction managers frequently become involved in the larger role of project management.
+Those construction managers with special skills have been asked to help clients negotiate the labyrinths of financial institutions.
+Environmental impact studies also require special skills, as do site selection and zoning.
+Even if the construction manager is not expert in all these areas, he coordinates the experts (consultants) and provides leadership and direction on behalf of the client.
+Thus, the construction manager must at least be knowledgeable in the areas just mentioned.
+The design phase is another phase where the tasks of construction managers are different from those of general contractors.
+As Table 2 suggests, this is a phase where the construction manager makes important contributions.
+Value-engineering studies and alternate construction methodology proposals have a far-reaching impact on the final cost of the project.
+Preparation of contract documents and advising on specification criteria is another opportunity for the construction manager to make a difference in the project.
+Few general contractors would admit to an inability to perform in the above areas, and it is not the intent of this paper to suggest otherwise.
+Because the general contractor in not usually involved in the project at this point, however, he has not polished the skills needed to do the tasks in the design phase.
+Also, there is undoubtedly some form of natural selection at work in the marketplace.
+Those general contractors who have survived have usually not done so on the strengths needed in the predesign and design phases of a project.
+Rather, they have accumulated their expertise in the construction phase.
+In the bid phase, the tasks of construction manager and general contractor begin to overlap, although for reasons noted earlier, they undertake these tasks from a different viewpoint.
+For example, the general contractor might propose new and untried methods or materials in his bid as alternates.
+On the other hand, since most clients do not want their facility to be a test-bed for experiments, the construction manager will take a more conservative approach to the suggestion of alternates.
+In the construction phase, the tasks of construction manager and general contractor are also similar.
+Both administer contracts, control cost and schedule, manage submittals, negotiate change orders, and coordinate and inspect work.
+The most notable difference is that the basic construction manager does not do work with his own forces.
+In those tasks where overlap exists, again the viewpoint is different—the construction manager attending to the owner's interest and the general contractor naturally attending to his own interests.
+Finally, as Adrian (1981) notes, the construction manager acting in the expanded role of project management could become involved with marketing and property management of the completed facility.
+This would be another instance of looking to the construction manager for skills not usually found in the general contractor's organization.
+In the past few years there has been an active, well-meaning, and reasoned debate as to what constitutes the best preparation for a career in the construction industry.
+Positions in this debate range from those advocating technology-based curricula to those advocating engineeringbased curricula.
+Positions are also taken concerning the length of time needed to properly educate or train people.
+Recognizing the need for experience, Warszawski (1984) poses a question as to whether any formal education can provide the skills needed in the management of construction.
+Others discuss the desirability of fiveyear or graduate programs (Haltenhoff 1986;
+Oglesby 1982).
+These authors as well as the Business Roundtable ("Management education and academic relations" 1982) and Jordan (1986) analyze the curriculum content of construction education programs.
+It would seem clear, given the additional tasks the construction manager is expected to perform, that he needs skills beyond those needed by the general contractor.
+It would also seem clear that the pressures of accreditation boards and curriculum committees leave little room in a four-year program for adding the additional courses needed to prepare a person for a role in a construction management firm.
+One is quickly led to the conclusion that if a program is to offer additional, in-depth course work, it would be best done over a five-year course, in the context of either an extensive bachelor's degree program or a program which would award a master's degree upon the successful completion of the fifth year.
+In those institutions where five-year programs are available, Table 3 is suggested as a list of courses specifically designed for students wishing to prepare for positions with a construction management firm.
+Most of the courses could be given in a graduate civil engineering curriculum, while others might necessarily be offered in architecture or management departments.
+The writer recently took a survey of the major institutions offering graduate degree programs in construction engineering and management.
+The survey indicates that many of the topics listed in Table 3 are offered in construction-related curricula.
+In some cases, however, several of the topics are grouped into one course.
+While this may be preferred to not offering the course at all, it is felt the topics listed merit separate and in-depth coverage.
+In addition to offering the courses listed in Table 3, the approach to teaching the courses is also relevant.
+Warszawski (1984) argues for a comprehensive approach.
+That is, treating the project as a whole and examining how all the elements fit together from design through construction.
+In the education of the construction manager, this is especially important, since he is involved at the earliest stages of the project.
+Equally important is the viewpoint from which the courses are offered.
+The owner's perspective should be balanced with that of the contractor.
+Case studies and seminars are also useful in the education of the construction manager.
+Case studies provide an opportunity for students to appreciate the problems of all parties to the construction process.
+Seminars provide a forum whereby practitioners from industry can share their experiences with students.
+Alternative Construction Methodologies 	Finance and Accounting
+Building Systems 	Human Relations
+Cost Engineering 	Insurance and Bonding
+Computer Applications Including CAD 	Labor Relations and Economics
+Concrete and Steel Construction 	Land Use Planning
+Construction Management Information Systems 	Real Estate Development
+Construction Safety
+Contract Administration
+Contract and Labor Law
+Environmental Planning Life Cycle Costing
+Mechanical & Electrical Systems
+Operations Research Methods
+Professional Construction Management
+Statistical Analysis
+Naturally, providing the formal courses in the proper framework is not a panacea for the construction industry.
+Most firms generally give additional training to new personnel, and it is acknowledged that extensive experience is required before one assumes a senior role in a construction management company.
+Formal education, however, will continue to play an important role in the initial preparation of construction managers.
+Construction management is now well established as an alternative to general contracting and design build.
+Although construction management may not be the best form of delivery for all projects, its popularity can reasonably be expected to grow as appropriate clients become more comfortable with its unique advantages.
+This paper has endeavored to show that the practice of construction management is different from the practice of general contracting.
+These differences are primarily reflected in the early involvement of the construction manager in the design phase.
+The other notable difference is in the client orientation of the construction manager.
+Many of the skills of the construction manager and the general contractor are interchangeable, but the additional demands on the construction manager warrant a somewhat different educational consideration.
+Further, it is recognized that schools should not devote all their attention to teaching construction management.
+It is also recognized that although not all graduates will find their way to construction management firms, all should benefit from an understanding of the characteristics of the construction management delivery method.
+Eng. Manage., 1988, 114(2):
+Eng. Manage., 1988, 114(2):
+Eng. Manage., 1988, 114(2):
+Eng. Manage., 1988, 114(2):
+Eng. Manage., 1988, 114(2):
+Eng. Manage., 1988, 114(2):

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+Conceptual stage expert systems:
+Expert systems whose ideas have been worked out and are at the programming and knowledge-acquisition phase.
+The expert systems of the first three groups have been included in Table 1.
+Conceptual expert systems have not been included because they are too many and too changeable.
+CHARACTERISTICS OF EXPERT SYSTEMS IN CONSTRUCTION
+The various characteristics of the state-of-the-art expert systems listed in Table 1 can be summarized:
+Developer institutions:
+Most of the expert-systems development work is being done in academic institutions.
+Of the 37 expert systems listed in Table 1, 22 are affiliated with universities, eight with research institutions, and only seven with the construction industry.
+Although this trend is expected for an emerging technology, it delays the field testing and marketing of potentially successful expert systems.
+It is very likely that several of the expert systems now being developed at universities will never be fully operational.
+Knowledge sources:
+For many of the expert systems listed in Table 1, the sources of knowledge encoded are not explicitly defined in the literature or in other sources used in this effort.
+It is roughly estimated that about 40% of the expert systems have extracted knowledge from experts and the remaining ones from books and journals.
+Twenty-four of the 37 expert systems listed were developed on the IBM PC class of microcomputers, and 10 were developed on LISP machines like the TI Explorer or the Xerox 1100 series.
+Others have used the HIT AC M200 Hitachi computer, PDP-11, and DEC mainframe computers.
+A distribution of the hardware used in the building of various expert systems is given in Table 2.
+The current trend is away from LISP machines and toward advanced PCs and workstations.
+Various types of software have been used in expert-systems de-velopment.
+The distribution of software is given in Table 3.
+Eighteen of the 37 expert systems used commercial expert system shells;
+seven were developed on expert-system environments like KEE, ART, KNOWLEDGECRAFT, and OPS5;
+seven have been implemented in AI programming languages (4 in PROLOG and 3 in LISP);
+and 5 were developed in other proprietary languages/environments.
+Hardware Used in Expert Systems Development
+Hardware 	Number of expert systems that used it
+IBM PC class of microcomputer 	24
+Other LISP machines 	5 Total 	37
+Construction areas covered:
+The distribution of the various areas addressed in the state-of-the-art expert systems is given in Table 4.
+A majority of the expert systems have been developed in the areas of project planning, scheduling, and control (11 out of 37) and in areas of project management (9 out of 37).
+No expert system has been developed in the areas of materials management, company management, constructability evaluation, and quality control.
+Blackboard architecture:
+Very few of the listed expert systems use knowl-edge from multiple sources.
+Construction process is a team effort and oftentimes the team members have diverse goals.
+Therefore, to gain success and acceptance in the construction environment an expert system will have to integrate knowledge from multiple sources in a blackboard architecture organized into a number of levels.
+Several planning, engineering, management, and operational tasks are candidates for expert-system formulation (Jounis 1988;
+Levitt 1987, 1985;
+Rehak and Fenves 1985):
+• Design of Construction Methods—The various candidate topics include configuration of crews;
+choice of construction methods;
+man-machine tradeoffs;
+choice of transportation mode(s) for the movement of materials, personnel, and equipment;
+selection of optimum sizes, configurations, and methods of jointing of various components in modular construction;
+and deep-excavation problems.
+• Concrete Mixing and Placement—The subsystems that need decisions include mix design to meet performance standards for a variable set of site conditions and materials;
+choice of a placement method;
+configuration of crushing, batching, and transportation equipment;
+and design of formwork.
+• Constructability Evaluation—Some important issues include analysis of the constructibility of designs, choice of construction materials, selection of the best design-function-cost combination, bid packaging, choice between prefabricated and in-situ construction, and feedback into the design process.
+• Temporary Facilities Layout—Optimal layout of temporary facilities that can have a significant effect on productivity such as access roads, parking areas, change rooms, material lay-down areas, fabrication shops, site office, and hoisting equipment.
+• Project Planning, Scheduling, and Control—Some candidate tasks in this area include developing variable time-cost estimates of activities;
+generation of construction schedules;
+critical-path analysis;
+resource allocation;
+time and cost control;
+diagnosing reasons for time, cost, and resource overruns;
+prescribing remedial actions;
+cost estimating;
+and construction-process monitoring.
+• Project Management—Several kinds of expert systems that could be built in this area include choice of a project-delivery strategy, selection of a contract type, design checking and management of design changes, construction-contract formulation, project-financing options, A/E and CM selection, prequalification of contractors, bidding strategies, bid evaluation, evaluating progress payments, evaluating claims, management of risks, evaluating the quality of a constructed component or facility, formulation
+of general conditions, and formulation of technical specifications.
+• Construction Quality Control—Several candidate tasks for expert-systems application include sample size, sample location, time of sampling, permissible tolerances, construction-quality-control methods, lab tests for quality assurance, and acceptance of subquality work.
+• Construction Company Management—The various candidate topics that can help a construction company include bidding strategy, financial planning, and equipment-policy decisions.
+• Equipment Selection, Diagnosis, and Repair—The various candidate problems in this area include selection of equipment types, sizes, and combinations;
+diagnosis and monitoring of equipment condition;
+preventive maintenance;
+and operational procedures based on crew behavior.
+• Human Resources Management—The various candidate topics in this area include designing project- and company-organization structures;
+personnel management;
+labor relations;
+safety management;
+and productivity-improvement techniques.
+• Operational Problems in Constructed Facilities—Some important problems that are usually solved using heuristics include causes and remedial actions for functional failures such as leaking, sweating, poor ventilation, and temperature control;
+causes and remedial actions for structural failures such as foundation settlement and cracking;
+posthazard damage assessment of facilities;
+and reconstruction and rehabilitation methods.
+• Materials Management—Some candidate topics in this area include choice of materials, scheduling order and movement of materials, materials handling and testing, and storing and use of explosives.
+• Legal Issues—The various potential areas that can be useful to the construction industry include generation of contract documents, maintaining historical data bases of settled cases and matching them with the current situation, settlement of claims and disputes, generating negotiating strategies, and changing conditions management.
+CONCLUSIONS
+Some enthusiasts rank expert systems with steam power, some with electricity.
+Some say with AI technology now in usable form, the second computer revolution has begun.
+These may be premature assessments.
+But Knowledge-Based Expert Systems (KBES) technology at least parallels the FORTRAN of the 1950s, the problem-oriented languages of the '60s and the CAD of the '70s (Buchanan and Duda 1982).
+The contribution of expert systems to the extension of human capability and to our effectiveness as managers will indeed be profound.
+The more we have learnt about expert systems, the more we have become convinced that expert systems will of course change the way people think about solving their problems.
+Expert systems have given us a way to collect and organize data that can be used to create information that in turn can be used to help make better decisions, for today as well as for the future.
+So far, most of us have learnt the hard way, by making mistakes and learning from them, since there was no mechanism to store the domain knowledge and experience of people in a friendly and usable manner.
+So far, the benefits of computers have been more confined to computer scientists.
+AI technology has now given us the art of building expert systems that
+Ashley, D. B., and Levitt, R. E. (1987). "Expert systems in construction:
+Work in progress." J. Computing in Civ. Engrg., ASCE, 1(4), 303-311.
+Buchnan, B. G., and Duda, R. O. (1982). "Principles of rule-based expert systems."
+Heuristic programming proj. report no.
+HPP-82-14, Stanford Univ., Stanford, Calif.
+Harmon, P., and King, D. (1985).
+Expert systems:
+Artificial intelligence in business.
+John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, N.Y.
+Hayes-Roth B. (1985). "A blackboard architecture for control." Artificial Intelligence, 26(3), 251-321.
+Helander, M. (1981).
+Human factors ergonomics for building and construction.
+John Wiley & Sons, New York, N.Y.
+Hendrickson, et al. (1987). "Expert system for construction planning." J. Computing in Civ. Engrg., ASCE, 1(4), 253-269.
+Jouni, J. E., and Salokivi. (1988).
+Expert systems interpreting collective agreements in the building industry.
+Draft Paper, Technical Research Center of Finland (VTT), Itatuulentie 2, Finland.
+Proc, Int. Joint Conf. on CAD and Robotics in Arch, and Constr., Marseilles, France, Revised Version.
+Levitt, R. E. (1987). "Expert systems in construction:
+State of the art." Expert systems for civil engineers:
+Technology and Application, M. L. Maher, ed., ASCE, New York, N.Y.
+Levitt, R. E. (1985).
+Research Areas for the Application of Knowledge Based Expert Systems to Construction Engineering and Management, white paper for NSF workshop, Champaign, 111.
+Navinchandra, D., Sriram, D., and Logcher, R. D. (1988). "GHOST:
+A project network generator." J. Computing in Civ. Engrg., ASCE, 2(3), 239-254.
+Logcher, R. D., and Sriram, D. (1986).
+Knowledge-based approaches to scheduling and controlling of projects, technical report, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Mass.
+Mohan, S. (1987).
+Expert systems technology in the domain of construction.
+4th Int. Symp. on Robotics & Artificial Intelligence in Building Constr., Haifa, Israel.
+Rehak, D. R., and Fenves, S. J. (1985). "Expert systems in civil engineering, construction and construction robotics." Annual Res. Review, Robotics Institute, Carnegie-Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pa.
+Rounds, J. L. (1987). "Small tailored expert systems for private companies." Proc.
+Int. Symp. on Robotics & Artificial Intelligence in Building Constr., Haifa, Israel.
+Sathi, A., Morton, T. E., and Roth, S. F. (1986). "CALLISTO:
+An intelligent project management system." Al Magazine, 7(5), 34-52.
+Waterman, D. A. (1986).
+A guide to expert systems.
+Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Reading, Mass.
+Eng. Manage., 1990, 116(1):
+Eng. Manage., 1990, 116(1):
+Eng. Manage., 1990, 116(1):
+Eng. Manage., 1990, 116(1):
+Eng. Manage., 1990, 116(1):
+Eng. Manage., 1990, 116(1):
+Eng. Manage., 1990, 116(1):
+Eng. Manage., 1990, 116(1):
+Eng. Manage., 1990, 116(1):
+Eng. Manage., 1990, 116(1):
+Eng. Manage., 1990, 116(1):
+Eng. Manage., 1990, 116(1):

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+STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT IN CONSTRUCTION
+By Paul S. Chinowsky,1 Associate Member, ASCE, and James E. Meredith2
+The traditional philosophy of management in construction, both in academia and in industry, places great emphasis on the ability to plan and execute projects.
+In contrast, a similar emphasis on strategic management has received less attention in the construction industry.
+Although the pressures of project performance can often obscure the broader social, economic, and professional context in which strategic management is undertaken, it is these broad contextual areas that make strategic management an essential issue for construction organizations.
+Rapidly changing social and technological issues are creating a professional environment that will look very different in the coming decades from that experienced in today’s organizations.
+This paper introduces a study of the current strategic management practices of construction organizations.
+This paper also introduces the concept of strategic management and the areas that organizations must address to compete in the global marketplace.
+A summary of an industry survey is documented together with the background research that
+prompted the investigation of these topics.
+The construction industry is one of the driving industries in the world economy.
+In the United States, construction volume in 1996 was in excess of $500 billion, with more than
+1,000,000 firms operating in the construction sector (Statistical 1997).
+However, in contrast to other manufacturing industries that fabricate a large number of units such as automobiles or personal computers, the construction industry is generally focused on the production of a single and unique end product.
+The achievement of these unique projects is achieved through what is termed the ‘‘project format’’ (Halpin and Woodhead 1998).
+In this format, the focus of management is on the planning and control of resources within the framework of the project.
+While project management topics receive significant focus from construction professionals, less attention is paid to strategic management.
+In this focus, strategic management addresses the challenges of operating a construction organization as opposed to an individual project.
+However, because of the extensive emphasis on project management requirements, significantly less attention is given to the unique requirements of strategic management.
+Specifically, existing literature and research reports provide far fewer avenues for construction professionals to obtain strategic management knowledge (Goodman 1998).
+In response to this issue, the current research effort was undertaken to examine strategic management practices in the construction industry and identify strategic areas requiring greater attention by the industry.
+This paper introduces the findings from a primary component of this study, the characterization of strategic management practices in the construction industry.
+This paper also introduces the need for this emphasis, the focus group selected for the survey, the data tabulations, and the analysis of the data collected.
+Finally, the paper addresses the need for action within the industry to achieve a greater level of effectiveness in the area of strategic management.
+Technology, communication, and market advances are fundamentally changing the global perspectives of time, distance, and spatial boundaries.
+Two decades ago organizations could identify themselves as local, regional, national, or international in scope and expect that these definitions were clearly defined.
+However, with the emergence of technological innovations, these boundaries have been blurred to the point where any organization can theoretically participate in a design or construction project in any location.
+Concurrently, the concepts of company loyalty, traditional competitors, and employee development are changing at a pace that has not previously been encountered in postindustrial times.
+Of particular interest is the emergence of three issues that form the need for a strategic management perspective by construction organizations— knowledge workers, new markets, and information technology.
+Today’s work place is evolving from a skill-based environment to one that is knowledge-based.
+Originally seen in manufacturing, this transformation focuses on the day-to-day tasks completed by staff personnel.
+In manufacturing, traditional operations required workers with machinery skills developed over long periods of employment.
+Knowledge of diverse engineering procedures was not as valuable as the skill required to keep the assembly line moving at each station.
+In contrast, today’s manufacturing facilities are characterized by highly automated machinery featuring robotics, automated vision systems, and artificial intelligence components.
+Operation of these advanced manufacturing facilities requires workers to operate an automated segment of the facility that formerly was manned by multiple teams of skilled operators.
+In this manner, manufacturing is transferring from a skill-based economy to one that values knowledge as the key to operational effectiveness.
+Similarly, the construction industry is witnessing the emergence of knowledge-based tasks as a central focus of organization operations.
+Previously, professionals were educated in specific disciplines and encouraged to remain with a single employer for an extended period of time in the tradition of professional apprenticeships.
+However, this trend is changing with the emerging focus on expertise in areas such as technology, automation, economics, and market development.
+The ability to access information from sources such as the Internet,
+government and corporate databases, and private agencies has become a critical attribute as information exchange is now a fundamental component of the business operation.
+A second challenge for the construction industry is the area of emerging markets and competition.
+Historically, the construction industry has divided markets into the traditional classifications of heavy, industrial, commercial, or residential clients.
+This division provided the opportunity for organizations to entrench themselves into narrowly defined competitive markets.
+Through this entrenchment, the industry elevated the leaders, challengers, and followers into an organized division of companies that battled for projects in an intense, but ordered, field of competition.
+Because competition from outside organizations was a secondary concern, security was defined through closely held market areas.
+Unfortunately, this stability is slowly changing.
+With pressure increasing on profit margins and market boundaries, the evidence is mounting that construction organizations address alternatives to traditional markets.
+Boundaries accepted as the limits of market focus can no longer constrain the organization from exploring alternative income opportunities.
+The entire life cycle of a construction project represents opportunities for professional services.
+However, the knowledge to identify, find, and pursue these opportunities must be developed as part of an expanded construction organization strategy.
+Information Revolution
+Although the developments in human resources and markets demand that construction organizations respond to changing circumstances in the employee and customer marketplace, the information revolution is impacting all aspects of the construction profession.
+Current computing technologies are providing construction professionals with access to rapidly expanding information repositories and evolving communication pathways.
+This access has profound implications for the construction industry in several areas including intraoffice communications, client relations, and site management.
+At the core of this transformation is the evolution from hierarchical information transfer to the concept of hyperarchical information access and transfer (Evans and Wurster 1997).
+Hyperarchical information concepts are breaking communication barriers by allowing any individual to electronically communicate with any other individual, regardless of title, rank, or office.
+Hyperarchical information access allows any individual to access information repositories anywhere in the world.
+Advancements in communication technologies are expanding these concepts by bringing project participants together through video, audio, and virtual reality environments.
+Communication, organization, marketing, human resource, and operational processes are fundamentally changing, and, as such, organizations must reexamine their attention to these technologies as a component of their long-term development.
+WHAT IS STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT?
+The history of strategy and strategic management covers a broad time line from ancient Greece to the twenty-first century.
+Organizations, practitioners, and researchers from every sector of the professional world have focused on strategy as a primary topic at some point (Chinowsky 1999a).
+In contrast to mathematics, physics, or material science, strategy does not contain universal truths that can be documented through scientific theorems and proofs.
+However, as illustrated through the extensive history of strategic management, scientific and management advancements have been integrally related to the field for centuries.
+From this development, strategic management encompasses principles from a combination of quantitative and qualitative fields.
+On the quantitative side, management and industrial sciences have formalized the domains of operations, logistics, and finance.
+Complementing this quantitative rigor are the human dimensions of psychology, sociology, and human resource management.
+In combination, these quantitative and qualitative elements address diverse organization needs including professional, technical, and strategic demands.
+However, similar to the difficulties that arise when architects, engineers, and constructors are unable to communicate due to incompatibilities in vocabulary, organizations cannot develop long-term plans when members are working from different definitional bases.
+Reducing uncertainty and miscommunication requires a common understanding and interpretation of foundational concepts.
+In the field of strategic management, these foundational concepts include strategy, strategic management, strategic planning, and strategic plans.
+Beginning at the highest level of abstraction, the first strategy concept is that of strategy itself.
+The basic concept of strategy is that of an idea.
+Specifically, an idea that sets in place a path that responds to multiple internal and external influences (Porter 1979;
+Hamel and Prahalad 1989;
+Collis and Montgomery 1991).
+In contrast to the execution and control plans developed for individual projects, strategies are concepts that contain no intrinsic steps to achieve the final destination.
+Originally developed by rulers and military leaders attempting to broaden their empires, the concept of strategy can be traced to the beginnings of recorded history.
+Examples of strategies that remain a part of today’s vocabulary or military foundation include the use of the Trojan Horse, the development of the warship, and the concept of the fortified castle.
+Each of these examples represented a new approach that responded to a current situation, predicted the needs of the future, or presented a new method for achieving a goal.
+Similar to the expansion of political empires, the expansion of business entities requires organizations to take proactive steps for both existing and anticipated industry conditions.
+The modern business interpretation of this concept is exemplified in industries as varied as telecommunications and grocery chains.
+The expansion of digital communications, global mergers, and the introduction of lean production have modified business practices to anticipate twenty-first century scenarios.
+These ideas are not implementation plans, but rather the visions from which specific action plans are being developed.
+In this context, strategy is defined as the underlying concept that responds to, or anticipates, industry conditions for the purpose of developing long-term plans.
+Strategic Management—Environment for Strategy
+The development of strategic concepts, whether from a military perspective or a modern business perspective, does not occur spontaneously.
+The development of strategic concepts requires an environment that fosters strategic thinking and focus.
+The establishment, continuation, and enhancement of this environment is the focus of strategic management.
+Strategic management models have been evolving in the business domain on a continuous basis since the late nineteenth century.
+Combining input from these models with the results of interviews conducted by the writers with civil engineering executives, the current study proposes that strategic management in the context of the construction industry comprises the following seven areas:
+• Vision, Mission, and Goals—The starting point for allorganization endeavors;
+establishing a vision provides each member with a direction to follow in all business practices.
+• Core Competencies—The business boundaries for an or-ganization;
+core competencies establish what an organization does best and where its strength resides.
+• Knowledge Resources—The combination of human andtechnology resources that provide the backbone for completing organization projects.
+• Education—A focus on the information and formal re-quirements for lifelong learning and understanding of evolving business conditions.
+• Finance—A broad focus on monetary concerns beyondthe project-to-project concerns of budget and schedule control.
+• Markets—The analysis of expanded business opportuni-ties within domains that are related to core competencies. • Competition—A focused analysis and understanding of existing, emerging, and future competitors in both existing and potential market segments.
+As illustrated in Fig. 1, the seven areas of strategic management can be pictured as a series of segments within an overall structure.
+Rather than viewing the structure as a linear segment, the illustration is circular to indicate that strategic management activities are a constant process that return to the beginning at regular intervals to ensure that a constant focus is retained on the core purpose of existence.
+Underlying this entire structure is the understanding that the purpose of these focal points is to provide the environment that allows organizations to formulate strategic concepts.
+Strategic Planning—Implementation Side of Strategy
+Strategy management provides the environment that encourages the development of strategic concepts.
+However, just as strategic concepts do not usually develop spontaneously, the existence of a strategic management environment does not guarantee that organization members will focus on developing strategic concepts.
+To encourage this focus, numerous academic and business writers have proposed various strategic planning models (Davis 1987;
+McCabe and Narayanan 1991;
+Mintzberg 1994;
+Lemmon and Early 1996;
+Thompson and Brooks 1997).
+These strategic planning models provide specific instructions for approaching, executing, and evaluating the development of strategic concepts.
+For example, a common model emphasizes the need for an organization to (1) build a strategic planning team;
+(2) set the strategic planning objectives;
+(3) gather member input;
+(4) synthesize the developed ideas;
+(5) develop an implementation plan;
+(6) execute the plan;
+and (7) evaluate the success of the ideas prior to the start of the next strategic planning time frame.
+However, as with any topic that focuses on procedural processes, the number of strategic planning methods is increasing at a rate that sometimes appears to be exponential.
+As such, the strategic
+Seven Areas of Strategic Management Work in Cyclical Procedure, Each Providing Feedback and Reinforcement to the Process
+planning process is slowly becoming synonymous with the entire field of strategy.
+This connection is incorrect.
+The strategic planning process is one element of the overall strategy topic.
+Strategic planning is the focused attention to the development of strategic concepts based on the inputs provided by the seven areas of strategic management.
+Strategic Plan—Putting It All Together
+The previous strategy elements combine to focus a construction organization in a particular direction for a particular planning period.
+Although this strategic direction is a major milestone for the strategic planning process, it is not the final conclusion required for implementation purposes.
+Rather, a strategic plan is required to outline the goals, objectives, mileposts, and evaluation criteria that must be followed to achieve the developed strategy.
+However, translating a strategy into a series of tasks that can be accomplished by individual departments is challenging.
+The time required to focus on broadening client bases, or examining new revenue streams, is often overridden by demands by projects for attention to budget, schedule, or personnel matters.
+Given this conflict for attention, a specific set of instructions is required to ensure that an organization remains focused on organization-level concerns.
+This set of instructions is the strategic plan.
+Encompassed within this plan are the measurable outcomes that both division and organization-level managers can evaluate for progress and final achievement.
+CURRENT STUDY
+The development of a survey to obtain data from construction organizations on strategic management processes is an extension of a larger study overseen by the writers.
+In the larger effort, an attempt is being made to identify the areas of strategic concern for civil engineering organizations and to develop an appropriate strategic management process for these organizations to implement and measure.
+In response to the first component, a 3-year study was conducted to determine what topics were identified by researchers and executives as the key strategic elements for the civil engineering industry.
+In this process, a content analysis methodology was employed on 574 papers from management and civil engineering journals to initially identify topics of common concern (Goodman 1998).
+Concurrently, over 50 personal interviews were conducted with civil engineering executives (vice-president level and above) to correlate the research data with actual experiences (Chinowsky 1999b).
+Combining the input from these studies provided the basis for the seven strategic management areas identified in the previous section.
+The identification of the strategic management concerns provided a basis on which to formally survey a segment of the industry.
+The segment selected for the initial survey effort was the 1998 ENR Top 400 Contractors (ENR 1998).
+This population was selected for two reasons:
+(1) It is an accepted measurement and list within the construction industry;
+and (2) the organizations within the list span a significant revenue span that, it was hypothesized, should be reflected in varied management practices.
+The specific individuals within the organizations that were identified for the survey were executivelevel individuals who were responsible for organization-level concerns.
+Once the topics and organizations were identified, the survey illustrated in Appendix I was mailed to the 400 organizations.
+It should be noted at this point that the intent of this survey is not to characterize the strategic management practices in the construction industry as a whole.
+A second survey effort addressing management practices of smaller organizations will follow shortly to obtain a broader industry perspective.
+However, the current study provides a perspective on the strategic management practices in the top organizations as ranked by revenue.
+The response rate for the first 400 questionnaires was 26.5% (106 responses).
+A second group of questionnaires was faxed to the organizations that did not respond to the initial survey.
+From this second group, an additional 27 responses were received (9%).
+Together, the first and second groups totaled 133 responses, or 33% of the ENR Top 400.
+A summary of the responses and percentages is provided in Appendix I.
+The respondents answering the survey all satisfied the criterion of holding an executive position.
+Of these respondents, 22 identified themselves as vice presidents, 1 as a secretary, and the remaining individuals identified themselves as president, chairman, or CEO. The respondents had an average length of tenure with their current organizations of 21.3 years and an average length of time as an executive of 17.1 years.
+To facilitate the analysis of the survey data, the 400 organizations were divided into five quintiles of 80 organizations each.
+This division provided the opportunity to group organizations with similar revenue streams into a single category.
+Once these groupings were created, the five groups could be analyzed to determine if the size of the organization has statistical significance in terms of differences in survey response.
+Table 1 illustrates the survey groups established for this study and the corresponding response rates obtained in each category.
+To present the analysis of the survey results, the analysis is divided into three overall categories—general perspectives, internal issues, and external issues.
+In each of these categories, the following discussions present a description of the category, the data obtained from the survey, and a summary of the statistical significance derived from the survey data.
+General Perspectives
+The first category of interest for the survey effort was an
+initial query concerning each organization’s practices in longterm planning.
+As illustrated in Appendix I, Question G asked the respondents what long-term planning period is used in the organization.
+The result of this question indicated a population trend for an advanced planning window of 3–4 years.
+Although Group 1 had a slightly higher average planning period response with the only category average exceeding 4.0 (Table 2), the statistical analysis indicates no statistical difference between the five groups (Table 3).
+Question H built upon Question G by asking the respondents to provide an indication of how strategic planning has been integrated into the organization.
+As illustrated in Appendix I, this is the first question to introduce the 1–7 answer scale employed in the survey.
+This scale provides a series of discrete implementation stages for respondents to indicate the
+Quintile Breakdown of Survey Groups
+Number of respondents
+Percentage of group
+Percentage of overall
+Quintile Averages for Internal Strategic Management Issues
+Statistical Analysis of Average Response and Criticality of Size of Organization on Response Average
+Criticality factor3
+current status of their organization’s strategic management efforts.
+Starting at a value of 1 that indicates the organization is not aware of the concept to a value of 7 that indicates full implementation and measurement of a concept, the seven values provide the opportunity for an organization to respond with their current status in terms of a specific strategic management concept.
+Rather than focusing on the amount of resources committed to the area, the focus of the scale is on the degree of implementation.
+From this perspective, Question H asks the respondents to indicate the status of overall strategic planning in the organization.
+As illustrated in Table 3, the results of Question H indicate that the industry average for the question is 5.26.
+This number reflects the perspective that management is predominantly in the initial or preliminary stages of implementing strategic planning within construction organizations.
+As further documented in Table 3, no statistical difference exists in the responses between the five groups.
+Additionally, the dispersion of answers within the five groups as indicated by the standard deviation is similar between each quintile (Table 2).
+Therefore, as will be seen repeatedly throughout the following sections, the size of the organization has little impact on the state of strategic management practices within the organization.
+The second category of interest in the strategic management survey is internal issues.
+In approaching the strategic management process, a fundamental division can be made between issues that are internal to an individual organization and issues that force a response to external forces.
+Questions I–N each focus on internal issues that emphasize the approach an organization takes to support the development of resources and long-term plans.
+The first of these questions, Question I, asked the respondents to indicate whether or not the organization had a vision statement.
+This question, together with Questions J and K, emphasize the organization’s focus on developing a long-term road map for the organization development.
+The vision component of this road map establishes the ultimate goal for the organization to achieve.
+As indicated in Appendix I, 58% of the total respondents indicated that their organizations have a vision statement.
+Of interest in this response is the fact that Question I had the only indication of size as a statistically significant difference between the respondents (Table 3).
+In this case, the larger the organization, the more likely it is to have a vision statement.
+Specifically, the respondents increase from a low of 42% of the organizations having a vision statement in Group 5 to a high of 82% in Group 1 (Table 4).
+Complementing the results generated from Question I are the results generated from Question J. In this second internal question, the respondents are asked to indicate the existence of a mission statement within the organization.
+The focus of this question is to determine if the organization has determined how they are going to achieve the stated vision.
+As indicated in Table 3, the response to this question returned to the uniformity discussed previously.
+Across the sample, 73% of the respondents indicated the existence of a mission statement (Appendix I).
+In contrast to the vision statement, no statistical difference was noted between the groups.
+Finally, Question K completed the group of three questions relating to establishing long-term goals and direction.
+In this question, the respondents were asked if they had established specific goals that would assist the organization reach their strategic objectives.
+Once again, the number increased as 82% of the respondents indicated the establishment of short-term objectives (Appendix I).
+The second focus of the internal issues component of the survey focused on the incorporation of the core competencies concept into the organization.
+The focus of Question L was on the emphasis that organizations are giving to their internal strengths and the use of these strengths as building blocks for
+Quintile Percentages for Vision, Mission, and Goal
+market development.
+As indicated in Table 3, size was not a factor in the responses given.
+The overall average for the question was 3.7, indicating that a plan to focus the organization on core competencies either is in the conceptual stage of development or has been developed but not as yet moved to the implementation stage.
+An interesting note in the response rate for this question is the dispersion in the answers as indicated by the standard deviation (Table 2).
+With an average greater than any other question, the standard deviation for each group approached 2.0.
+This standard deviation reflects the variability in responses received for this question.
+Although the average was 3.7, it was just as likely for an organization to respond with a 2 or a 6.
+More than any other issue in the survey, the respondents indicated that the core competency concept had a wide variability in use through the industry.
+The third internal focus emphasized a move toward new technologies as a tool to facilitate knowledge exchange between organization employees.
+Rather than focusing on computer tools that facilitate the completion of existing tasks such as scheduling and estimating, Question M queried the respondents on their focus on the future.
+Specifically, Question M emphasized the use of the Internet as a tool to facilitate organization employees working together through the exchange of knowledge.
+As indicated in Table 3, the response to this question was a stark contrast to Question L. Whereas the average for Question L was 3.7, the average for Question M was 5.4, the highest in the survey.
+The dispersion in the responses was similarly low at 1.2 or 1.6 (Table 2).
+This average and dispersion indicates that the use of the Internet is rapidly entering into the strategic plans of construction organizations, with the average organization currently focusing on the implementation of a strategic technology plan.
+The final focus on internal strategic issues was reflected by Question N. In this question, the organization focus on longterm education was analyzed by asking the respondents about the focus on procedures to support lifelong learning.
+The emphasis of this question was to focus the respondents on the move to organization learning, or the need for all individuals in the organization to continue their education throughout their careers.
+Although most of the respondents indicated some level of education was taking place in the organization, Question N revealed a strong focus on craft training rather than lifelong learning.
+As indicated in Tables 2 and 3, the average response to this question was 3.7, with a low of 3.0 and a high of 4.0.
+Once again, statistical significance to organization size was not found to be evident.
+However, a high dispersion in response was once again detected as organizations were found to be in the opposite direction as that taken toward technology integration.
+Whereas technology integration was found to be in the implementation stage, lifelong learning is predominantly in the conceptual stage of development.
+The final category of interest in the strategic management survey was the focus on external issues by construction organizations.
+In contrast to internal issues such as organization learning that can be addressed exclusively within the confines of the organization, external issues address factors that are industry-based rather than organization-based.
+Specifically, Questions O–Q address the response by organizations to the changing market and business forces occurring in the construction industry.
+The first external issue of concern was the response by organizations to the economic swings that occur in the construction industry.
+Question O asked the respondents to indicate the organization status in developing a long-term response to economic variability by putting in place procedures to forecast and anticipate economic changes.
+As indicated in Table 3, the
+average response to this question was a 4.4.
+The size of the organization did not prove to be a deciding factor in this response, and the dispersion in responses remained relatively equal throughout the survey participants.
+However, it should be pointed out that the dispersion was once again high at almost 2.0 (Table 5).
+This dispersion indicates a wide range of answers, with some organizations actively implementing plans and other organizations choosing to follow the twists and turns of the marketplace.
+Taken as an overall average, construction organizations have recognized the impact of economic swings and are attempting to develop action plans that will reduce the impact of these swings on long-term operations.
+The second issue of concern for organizations from external forces is the impact of new market opportunities on existing business practices.
+The central emphasis in this area is the identification of new market opportunities as a basis for expanding current market segments.
+This emphasis is important for organizations that are attempting to develop strategic plans that consider the expansion of market segments as a key component in increasing profits and reducing the pressure from existing competitors.
+Question P addressed this issue by asking respondents to indicate their organization’s status in proactively identifying new and expanded market opportunities.
+Similar to the focus on technology, construction organizations are making considerable progress in this area of strategic management.
+The average score for the respondents in this category was a 5.0 with little dispersion being evident in the groups (Tables 3 and 5).
+These responses indicate that the pursuit and analysis of new markets is receiving implementation-level attention with many organizations developing evaluation measures for their market entry efforts.
+The final issue of concern for external issues, protecting against competitors, also serves as the final area of concern for the strategic management survey.
+The proliferation of new competitors entering the construction arena is creating competition from areas such as management consultants, which were rarely considered threats only a decade ago.
+However, the long-term outlook for this competition indicates continued growth from these new competitors and, therefore, a need for existing organizations to protect existing market share.
+In response to this issue, Question Q asked respondents to indicate organization efforts to position against new competitors.
+As indicated in Table 3, the response to this question demonstrated a slightly lower implementation stage than that identified for Question P, with an average of 4.7 versus 5.0 for the previous question.
+Although the responses do not have a statistical significance in terms of organization size, it is interesting to note that Groups 3 and 4 had the highest average for this question (Table 5).
+Although statistically it is difficult to make a conclusion from this data, anecdotal evidence from associated interviews indicates that organizations in these lower revenue groups have established a greater awareness of the need to protect existing business from market competitors.
+The results of the strategic management survey provide a basis for analysis in the following areas:
+(1) Strategic areas that the industry is addressing in a positive manner;
+(2) strategic areas that the industry needs to address with greater emphasis;
+and (3) the impact of size on strategic management practices.
+Positive Strategic Management Areas
+The strategic management survey provides positive indications in two areas—technology and market awareness.
+nology, construction organizations in each of the quintiles indicate that the integration of technology to support knowledge transfer between members is an area that is receiving significant attention.
+With 57% of the respondents indicating that technology integration is either in the full implementation or measurement stage, technology integration moves to the forefront of strategic issue awareness.
+This action-oriented approach to technology integration is imperative when the impact of the latest information technology revolution is considered.
+As discussed at the beginning of this paper, the new wave of information technology capabilities in transforming the manner in which construction organizations will conduct business in the twenty-first century.
+The Internet and virtual office environments will become an accepted fact for future project environments (Fruchter 1997).
+Responding to these changes by implementing technology strategies ahead of the competition provides the opportunity to evaluate the impact of technology and implement a strategy that has the best potential to result in a positive outcome.
+Similar to the positive focus on technology, the construction industry respondents demonstrate an awareness of the need for market expansion.
+With 44% of the respondents indicating that market opportunity identification was in a full implementation or measurement stage, this question reflects the strong competition that exists in the construction industry.
+Understanding that a continued focus on a narrow market creates a scenario where the organization becomes vulnerable to market shifts (e.g., the nuclear sector), construction organizations are increasingly focusing on the need to identify and enter new market segments.
+As indicated by the lack of statistical significance attributed to organization size, this market focus is understood by organizations at every level.
+However, this result should not be extrapolated to infer that all organizations are entering appropriate markets.
+The survey did not inquire as to the types of markets that organizations were investigating.
+Rather, the analysis can state that construction organizations are aware of the need to strategically position themselves in new markets to respond to market shifts, and actions are being taken to establish these new positions.
+Areas for Greater Emphasis
+In contrast to the positive results obtained in the strategic management survey for the technology and market areas, the responses in two areas, education and competitive positioning, indicate a need for greater strategic emphasis.
+The first of these areas, education, demonstrates the broadest need for greater strategic emphasis.
+Although it was unanimous among all respondents that some type of education was taking place in the organization, the majority of organizations do not incorporate the concept of lifelong learning.
+With 36% of the respondents indicating that the concept is unfamiliar or no plan of action is in development, lifelong learning received the lowest focus of the strategic management issues.
+In contrast to the writers’ assumptions prior to the study, the size of the organization does not factor into this response.
+Although organizations in the Group 1 category indicate a greater institutional focus on craft and entry-level training, the emphasis on lifelong learning received no greater emphasis than that indicated by organizations in Group 5.
+This trend is consistent throughout the respondents.
+Although the need for craft and field education is apparent, less attention is being given to continuing the education opportunities of middle- and upper-level employees.
+The second area that the survey results indicate a need for greater emphasis is that of competitive positioning.
+Although the surveyed organizations appear to recognize the importance of new markets and opportunities, these same organizations are having a difficult time identifying ways to protect existing market positions.
+Although Porter (1979) stressed the need for organizations to protect against existing competitors and new entrants, this concept requires emphasis for the strategic planning of construction organizations.
+Specifically, construction organizations must acknowledge the fact that very few barriers exist to prevent new entrants from entering many segments of the market.
+Similarly, the same opportunities that exist for one organization to expand market presence into a new sector also exist for outside organizations to threaten the same organization.
+In this manner, market analysis and competitive positioning must become two halves of a common whole.
+Unfortunately, the current survey indicates that 43% of the respondents recognize the need for competitive positioning but have not fully implemented a competitive positioning strategy.
+This number contrasts with the 44% of the respondents who have fully implemented the market opportunity segment of their long-term strategy.
+Impact of Size
+Any research in the construction industry cannot ignore the fact that the industry comprises many more small organizations than large organizations.
+Based on Census Bureau statistics, there are approximately 206,000 general and heavy contractors in the United States (Statistical 1997).
+The top 400 contracting firms account for only 0.2% of the contracting population.
+However, these same contractors account for over 30% of the annual revenue generated by general and heavy contractors.
+Given this difference in size, different forces will act upon these organizations.
+Similarly, the writers believed prior to this survey being conducted that these same differences would exist between the top revenue generating group in the survey and the bottom group.
+Given that the average revenue for the respondents from Group 1 was $968,000,000 and the average for the respondents in Group 5 was
+$77,000,000, the hypothesis was developed that statistical differences should appear between the quintiles.
+However, as detailed in the data sections, these statistical differences did not appear.
+Rather, except for the vision statement question, no other question was found to have the size of the organization as a statistically significant variable.
+The same strengths and weaknesses were found in every quintile.
+Uniform strength was found in technology and markets, whereas uniform weaknesses were found in education and competitive positioning.
+Similarly, the dispersion in the responses was uniform across the survey.
+In areas such as core competencies and financial risk analysis, dispersion was high in each group, and areas such as planning periods and technology had uniformly low dispersion.
+In summary, the strategic management survey disproved the initial research hypothesis and indicated that strategic management practices are statistically similar throughout the top 400 contractors.
+CONCLUSIONS
+The first step in the process of moving to a strategic management perspective is to determine where current strengths exist, where gaps exist, and where the priorities will be set to build upon these answers.
+An organization should not be discouraged if it finds one or more areas have significant gaps at the present time.
+Every organization has room to improve.
+The difference between the organization that is destined to succeed and the one that is destined to ride the waves of the marketplace is the desire to fill these gaps.
+At the same time, the organization needs to be realistic about its efforts to fill these gaps.
+In some instances, significant investment is required to move forward toward strategic objectives.
+In these instances, the organization must set priorities and balance available resources.
+For example, if an organization finds itself with gaps in education and competitive analysis, then a decision must be made as to which of these gaps requires the greater attention at the current time.
+Because each of these gaps will require an investment of time, planning, and monetary resources, the organization must determine where the resources will be allocated.
+However, this process does not have to be an either-or situation.
+Rather, advancement in each area is an appropriate response.
+In this example, that response may be to establish a lunch-time seminar series with in-house personnel (a low-cost action to address education concerns), while at the same time investing in a team to analyze the current competitive situation in an identified market expansion area (a larger resource commitment, but one that is considered critical to long-term success by the organization).
+Similar to the balancing of resources on a project, the balancing of resources at an organization level is required to keep an organization on a continued path of advancement.
+Rather than advancing an individual area, leaders must retain an overall perspective acknowledging that each of the seven strategic management areas are equally important to achieving a longterm vision.
+Specifically, implementation cannot be undertaken without a focus on where the actions are ultimately intended to lead.
+Similarly, strategic goals must be evaluated on a regular basis and with the same rigor as applied to project objectives.
+Often overlooked by organizations, except in the context of market share or revenue projections, strategic evaluation emphasizes the need to evaluate the progress of each strategic management component on a regular basis.
+Similar to the current emphasis on business development evaluation, strategic management evaluation is required to determine progress toward achieving strategic objectives.
+However, in contrast to the business development evaluation, strategic management evaluation may not be quite so clear and well defined.
+Items such as education and core competencies cannot be measured in terms of dollars and market share.
+Rather, these strategic management issues need to be evaluated in terms of organization progress and movement toward an ultimate goal.
+For example, an organization that sets the goal of increasing the focus on core competency operations may not be able to place a dollar return on that specific objective.
+However, that does not translate into a failure of ability to evaluate progress toward that goal.
+Rather, the evaluation criteria must be altered to fit the criteria.
+In this case, the criteria may be the increase in clients requesting services related to the core competency, or the number of new hires related to the core strengths.
+In either case, the evaluation criteria focus less on dollars and more on building a foundation for long-term success.
+The strategic management survey illustrated that construction organizations are taking steps to increase this focus on strategic management issues.
+However, progress in several areas is still required.
+Undertaking the moves required to achieve this progress may be painful for some organizations, but this discomfort should be tempered by the thought that the organization is setting in place a road map for the future.
+In contrast to organizations that ride the waves of the marketplace, the organization that institutes a strategic management perspective will be setting its own direction and path through the changing waters of the market.
+It is through this independence, aggressiveness, leadership, and vision that organizations will move to the forefront of the construction industry and ensure themselves an opportunity to respond to the constant changes in the global marketplace.
+APPENDIX I.	(Continued)
+Chinowsky, P. S. (1999a).
+Strategic corporate management for civil engineering.
+Oxford University Press, New York.
+Chinowsky, P. S. (1999b). ‘‘Strategic management in construction education.’’ J. Constr.
+Educ., 3(1), 3–12.
+Collis, D., and Montgomery, C. (1991).
+Corporate strategy:
+A conceptual framework.
+Harvard Business School Press, Boston.
+Davis, R. T. (1987).
+Strategic planning revisited.
+Grad. School of Business, Stanford University, Stanford, Calif.
+ENR Top 400 Contractors Sourcebook. (1998).
+McGraw-Hill, New York.
+Evans, P. B., and Wurster, T. S. (1997). ‘‘Strategy and the new economics of information.’’ Harvard Business Rev., 75(5), 70–82.
+Fruchter, R. (1997). ‘‘A/E/C virtual atelier:
+Experience and future directions.’’ Proc., ASCE Comp. in Civ. Engrg., ASCE, New York, 395– 402.
+Goodman, R. E. (1998). ‘‘Taxonomy of knowledge requirements for executives of general contracting and construction management enterprises,’’ PhD dissertation, School of Civ. and Envir.
+Engrg., Georgia Inst. of Technol., Atlanta.
+Halpin, D. W., and Woodhead, R. W. (1998).
+Construction management, 2nd Ed., Wiley, New York.
+Hamel, G., and Prahalad, C. K. (1989). ‘‘Strategic intent.’’ Harvard Business Rev., 67(3).
+Lemmon, D. L., and Early, S. (1996). ‘‘Strategy and management at Amoco Pipeline Company.’’ Plng. Rev., 24(1), 12–14.
+McCabe, D. L., and Narayanan, V. K. (1991). ‘‘The life cycle of the PIMS and BCG models.’’ Industrial Marketing Mgmt., 20, 347–352.
+Mintzberg, H. (1994). ‘‘The fall and rise of strategic planning.’’ Harvard Business Rev., 72(1), 107–114.
+Porter, M. E. (1979). ‘‘How competitive forces shape strategy.’’ Harvard Business Rev., 57(2), 137–145.
+Statistical abstract of the United States:
+1996. (1997).
+U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Washington, D.C.
+Thompson, P., and Brooks, K. (1997). ‘‘A creative approach to strategic planning.’’ CMA Mag., 71(6), 20–22.
+1 Asst. Prof., School of Civ. and Envir.
+Engrg., Georgia Inst. of Technol., Atlanta, GA 30032-0355.
+[email protected]
+2 Lect., School of Civ. and Envir.
+Engrg., Georgia Inst. of Technol., Atlanta, GA.
+Note. Discussion open until July 1, 2000.
+To extend the closing date one month, a written request must be filed with the ASCE Manager of Journals.
+The manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and possible publication on June 25, 1999.
+This paper is part of the Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, Vol. 126, No. 1, January/February, 2000. qASCE, ISSN 0733-9634/00/0001-0001–0009/ $8.00 1 $.50 per page.
+Paper No. 21280.
+3 x2 number must exceed the criticality factor to indicate statistical significance.
+Eng. Manage., 2000, 126(1):

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+By Zhen Chen,1 Heng Li,2 and Conrad T. C. Wong3
+This paper presents a systematic approach to environmental management of pollution and/or hazards caused by urban construction projects in China.
+It proposes a qualitative approach to assess and control the problem and a method to calculate the construction pollution index (CPI), which provides a quantitative measurement of pollution and/or hazards caused by the urban construction projects.
+Based on the analysis and discussions, the paper further proposes that major construction companies in China should obtain ISO 14001 Environmental Management System (EMS) certifications.
+By doing so, the construction companies can integrate the concept of environmental management into their construction management practice.
+Pollution and hazards caused by urban civil construction projects have become a serious problem in China.
+Sources of pollution and hazards from construction sites include dust, harmful gases, noises, blazing lights, solid and liquid wastes, ground movements, messy sites, fallen items, and so forth.
+These types of pollution and hazards can not only annoy residents nearby, but also affect the health and well-being of people in the entire city.
+For example, in big cities such as Shanghai and Beijing, air quality has been deteriorating due to extensive urban redevelopment activities (Li 1998).
+In order to tackle the problems, the Chinese government has issued a number of laws and acts on environmental protection since the early 1980s.
+These laws and acts include the Oceanic Environment Act (issued in 1982), Water Pollution Protection Act (issued in 1984), Air Pollution Protection Act (issued in
+1987), and Noise Pollution Protection Act (issued in 1989).
+In 1998, the Ministry of Construction also issued the first construction law that explicitly includes the liabilities and responsibilities of contractors in preventing and reducing the emission of pollutants to the natural environment.
+This paper provides a systematic approach to dealing with environmental pollution caused by construction projects.
+This approach allows for both qualitative analysis and control and quantitative assessments through measuring the construction pollution index (CPI).
+We believe that the qualitative assessment and control method is useful because it can provide construction project managers with essential knowledge on how to limit environmental pollution to its minimum.
+The CPI is also necessary as it can be used to quantitatively measure the degree of pollution caused by particular construction projects.
+The concept of CPI can also help construction project managers to rearrange and revise construction plans and schedules in order to reduce the level of pollution and disturbance.
+Sources of pollution and/or hazards from construction activities can be divided into seven major types:
+dust, harmful gases, noises, solid and liquid wastes, fallen objects, ground movements, and others.
+In order to reduce and prevent the pollution and hazards, it is necessary to identify the construction operations that generate them.
+Table 1 lists construction activities that generate pollution and hazards and the corresponding methods for their prevention.
+The table is based on extensive studies of many construction sites in Shanghai, Beijing, and Hong Kong, as well as numerous discussions with many project managers.
+Methods for preventing pollution and hazards can be divided into the following four categories.
+This category recommends a range of advanced construction technologies that can reduce the amount of dust, harmful gases, noise, solid and liquid wastes, fallen objects, ground movements, and other sources of pollution and hazards.
+For example, replacing the impact hammer pile driver with the hydraulic piling machine can significantly reduce the level of noise generated by a piling operation.
+This category recommends the use of modern construction management methods that may help reduce the amount of dust, noise, solid and liquid wastes, fallen objects, and other sources of pollution and hazards.
+This category emphasizes revising and rearranging construction schedules to reduce the aggregation of pollution and hazards and has an effect on dust, noise, solid and liquid wastes, fallen objects, ground movements, and other sources of pollution and hazards.
+Better building material can also help reduce pollution and hazards.
+This category has an effect on harmful gases, fallen objects, ground movements, and other sources of pollution and hazards.
+The four categories of preventive methods and their effects are also summarized in Table 2.
+We believe that by adopting the above preventive methods, it is possible to effectively control and reduce the amount of pollution and hazards generated from construction activities.
+In order to further analyze the effect of pollution and hazards, the next section describes a method to quantify the amount of pollution and hazards generated by a construction project.
+Quantitative Analysis of Pollution and Hazards in Urban Construction Projects
+As a construction project spans over a year or even longer, the methods for quantitative analysis have to be a continuous monitoring and assessment of the whole project duration.
+Causes of Pollution and Hazards and Preventive Methods
+Methods to prevent
+Open-air rock power and soil
+Concrete and mortar making
+Static crushing/chemical breaking
+Static crushing/chemical breaking/wet excavation/wet drilling
+Covering/wet construction
+Awning/concrete goods/washing transporting equipment
+Concrete goods/packing and awning/wet keeping
+Awning/storehouse
+Concrete goods
+Construction machine—electric welder
+Construction machine—scraper
+Electric welding
+Construction machine—mixing machinery
+Construction machine—cutting machine
+Construction machine—scraper
+Static crushing/chemical breaking
+Static crushing/chemical breaking
+Laser cutting machine/prefabricated component/soundproof room
+Ground movements
+Forced ramming
+Static crushing/chemical breaking
+Static pressing-in pile
+Static compacting
+Solid-state waste—building material waste Solid-state waste—building material package
+Liquid waste—mud/building material waste
+Liquid waste—machinery oil
+Prefabricated component/recovery
+Liquid waste—construction water
+Construction tools—scaffold and board
+Construction tools—model plate
+Construction tools—building material
+Construction tools—sling/others
+Recycle of solid waste/technology improvement
+Technology improving/recovery
+Safety control/reliable tools
+Technology improving/safety control
+Technology improving/recovery
+Safety control
+Urban transportation—road encroachment
+Civic safety—demolition
+Civic safety—tower crane
+Civic safety—construction elevator
+Civic safety—foundation/earth dam
+Enclosing wall/night shift/underground construction
+Static crushing/chemical breaking
+Safety control
+Safety control
+Safety control
+Technology improving/plan preconception
+this section, we present a method to quantitatively measure the amount of pollution and hazards generated by a construction project within its project duration.
+The method sets to measure the construction pollution index (CPI), as shown in (1).
+where CPI = construction pollution index of an urban construction project;
+CPIi = construction pollution index of a specific construction operation i;
+hi = hazard magnitude per unit of time generated by a specific construction operation i;
+Di = duration of construction operation I that generates hazard hi;
+and n = number of construction operations that generate pollution and hazards.
+In (1), parameter hi is a relative value indicating the magnitude of a hazard generated by a particular construction operation in a unit of time.
+Its value is limited in the range of [0,1].
+If hi = 1, it means that the hazard can cause fatal damage or catastrophes to people and/or properties nearby.
+For example, if a construction operation can generate some noise and the sound level at the receiving end exceeds the ‘‘threshold of pain,’’ which is 140 dB (McMullan 1993), then the value of hi for this particular construction operation is 1.
+If hi = 0, then it indicates that no hazard is detectable from a construction operation.
+It is possible to identify values of hi for all types of pollution and hazards generated by commonly used construction operations and methods.
+For example, according to the information on sound emission from piling driven machines, as well as the types of piles, we can formulate the content of Table 3, which contains values of hi for some piling operations.
+Information and such data as the emission levels of noise, harmful gases, and wastes are normally available in the spec-
+JOURNAL OF CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT / JULY/AUGUST 2000 / 321
+Countermeasuresof Construction Pollution in Urban Civil Engineering and Their Effects
+lution and Hazards
+Ground movements
+Technological methods
+Managerial methods
+Building material methods
+. = more effective;
+ù = partial effective;
+J = noneffective.
+Values of hi for Some Piling Operations
+Prefabricated concrete piles using drop-hammer driver
+Prefabricated concrete piles using hydraulic piling driver
+Prefabricated concrete piles using static pressing-in driver
+ifications of the relevant construction machinery and plant, or can be conveniently measured.
+These data can then be converted to hi values by normalizing them into the range of [0,1].
+In case no data are available for such conversion, then hi values have to be decided based on users’ experience and expert opinions.
+Durations required for completing construction operations are measured in number of days.
+For example, the Shanghai Maxwell (Fig. 1) construction project involves a piling operation that includes the following activities and durations.
+Driving prefabricated concrete piles using drop-hammerdriver (duration 31 days)
+Driving sheet steel piles using hydraulic piling driver(duration 57 days)
+Then, according to (1), the value of the CPI for the piling operation is 0.5?
+The overall CPI value for the project is 747.2.
+The value of the CPI reflects the accumulated amount of pollution and hazards generated during the length of a construction project.
+Project Scheduling Together with Environmental Management
+It is also very useful to create a CPI bar chart, which is very similar to the ordinary bar charts used in construction scheduling, except that the thickness of the bars represents the hi value for the corresponding construction operation.
+By integrating the concept of CPI into MS Project, which is a commonly used tool for construction project management, we can develop a system to neatly combine environmental management with project management, as shown in Fig. 1, in which hi values are listed beside their corresponding construction operations.
+As the height of a bar represents the hi value, the area of the bar represents the CPI value of the construction operation.
+The aggregation of the thicknesses of bars, as indicated at the bottom of the bar chart, represents the distribution of the CPI value during the whole project.
+This distribution is particularly useful for project managers to identify the periods when the project will generate the highest amount of pollution and hazards.
+Therefore, preventive methods such as those listed in Table 1 can be used to reduce the amount of pollution and hazards during those periods.
+In this example, it can be seen from the distribution diagram in Fig. 1 that, during November to December 1998, the project generated the highest pollution and hazards, mainly because of the large amount of on-site mixing of concrete and masonry works.
+The project manager foresaw the problem and decided to reduce the amount of on-site mixing concrete in those months by using 25% ready-mixed concrete, which reduced the amount of noise generated from the on-site concrete mixing.
+This reduced the hi value in November and December 1998 from 3.3 to 2.5, a 25% reduction, which also indicates that the amount of pollution and hazards has been reduced.
+So far, a quantitative method for analyzing the magnitude of construction pollution and hazards has been presented.
+In order to ensure that the concept of environmental management is embedded in the daily practice of construction project management, we propose that major construction companies should obtain ISO 14001 Environmental Management System (EMS) certifications.
+Discussions of the ISO 14000 standards and ways of integrating the standards into construction project management are given in the next section.
+INTEGRATING ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT WITH CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT
+This section presents ISO 14000, the series of international standards on environmental management and the need for integrating environmental management into construction management.
+The ISO 14000 standards address the aspects of environmental management (Kloepfer 1997;
+Peglau 1999;
+Quality Network 1999) shown in Table 4.
+As a subset of ISO 14000, the EMS is a systematic approach to dealing with issues related to environmental management.
+It is a ‘‘tool’’ that enables a company of any size or type to control the impact of its activities, products, or services on the natural environment.
+Although many companies in other businesses have already obtained ISO 14001 EMS certifications, none of the construction companies (contractors) in China has such a certification.
+In order to build the concept of environmental management into construction management, we propose that it is fundamentally important for major construction companies in China to make necessary efforts to obtain certifications on ISO 14001 EMS.
+In the ISO 14001 EMS, environmental management is maintained through five stages (Fig. 2):
+Issuing environmental
+Title/Description
+Environmental Management Systems:
+Specification with Guidance for Use
+Guidelines for Environmental Auditing:
+General Principles of Environmental Auditing
+Guidelines for Environmental Auditing:
+Audit Procedures —Part 1:
+Auditing of Environmental Management Systems
+Guidelines for Environmental Auditing:
+Qualification Criteria for Environmental Auditors
+Guidelines for Environmental Auditing:
+Audit Programmers, Reviews and Assessments
+Environmental Labeling:
+Practitioner Programs—Guiding
+Principles, Practices and Certification Procedures of
+Life Cycle Assessment General Principles and Practices
+Guide for the Inclusion of Environmental Aspects in Product Standards
+implementation and operation;
+checking and corrective action;
+and management review.
+ISO 14001 EMS requires construction management to establish systematic policies and methods to deal with problems related to environmental management.
+Specifically, the certification requires a construction company to establish objectives, targets, and programs for environmental management.
+A thorough analysis of all processes and methods used in construction operations is necessary in order to identify the sources and magnitude of pollution and hazards.
+Once the sources are identified, the construction company needs to make all necessary efforts to reduce the amount of pollution and hazards generated from a particular operation.
+Also, it is important to have a regular management review to ensure the suitability and sustainable implementation of the established policies and methods.
+Key Stages of ISO 14000 EMS
+JOURNAL OF CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT / JULY/AUGUST 2000 / 323
+The establishment and implementation of ISO 14001 EMS requires total commitment and cooperation of all parties involved in the supply chain, including construction contractors, supervisors, designers, manufacturers, and investors (Cysewski 1995).
+However, in developing countries such as China, there are many difficulties and challenges ahead for implementing ISO 14001 EMS in the construction industry.
+The most formidable one is that efforts spent in environmental protection do not necessarily result in lower project cost and/or shorter durations.
+In fact, introducing environmental management into construction management increases the project direct costs because, at present, contractors do not need to pay for the pollution and hazards generated by their projects, if they can get away without obeying current environment and construction laws.
+Another difficulty is that the awareness of environmental protection among the general public is low compared to that in many developed countries.
+People seem to be too busy accumulating personal wealth to worry about the natural environment.
+As a consequence, the public pressure on the construction industry for improving its environmental management is not very high.
+With these difficulties and challenges in mind, we believe that it is important for the government to further reinforce relevant environmental protection laws on one hand, and promote the general education in the importance of protecting the natural environment on the other.
+CONCLUSIONS
+In order to tackle pollution and hazards generated by urban construction projects in China, we first presented a qualitative system to identify and categorize sources of pollution and hazards on construction sites.
+Methods for preventing or reducing the amount of pollution and hazards at the sources are provided.
+Then, a method is presented to quantitatively measure the construction pollution index (CPI), which indicates the accumulated pollution and hazards generated from a construction site.
+Integrated with MS Project, a popular scheduling software used by construction professionals in China, we developed a computer tool which can automatically generate the pollution and hazards distribution diagram over the project duration.
+The distribution diagram can assist project managers to identify the worst periods in terms of emission of pollution and to take necessary preventive measures to reduce the amount of pollution and hazards.
+The computer tool is being tested on different projects, and detailed descriptions of the computer tool and its test results will be reported in the future.
+As the concept of environmental management is relatively new in China, we recommend that it is vital for major construction companies in China to obtain ISO 14001 EMS certifications.
+By doing so, construction companies will establish comprehensive policies and regulations and safe-guard the implementation of environmental management within the context of construction management.
+Cysewski, J. B. (1995). ‘‘3M International Environmental Management System.’’ Total Quality and Envir.
+Mgmt., 5(2), 25–34.
+Kloepfer, R. J. (1997). ‘‘Will the real ISO 14001 please stand up?
+’’ Civ. Engrg., ASCE, 67(11), 45–47.
+ISO. (1999).
+The ISO Survey of ISO 9000 and ISO 14000 Certificates:
+Seventh cycle—1997, ^ Li, Z. (1998).
+Statutebook of Japanese laws in construction industry, China Aerial Industry Press, Beijing.
+McMullan, R. (1993).
+Environmental science in building, 3rd Ed., Macmillan, London.
+Peglau, R. (1999).
+The number of ISO 14001/EMAS registration of the world, ISO World Press, New York, ^ isoworld/english/analy14k.htm&.
+Quality Network. (1999).
+International Standard ISO 14000, ^
+Prof., Dept. of Build. and Real Estate, Hong Kong Polytechnic Univ., Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong.
+Note. Discussion open until January 1, 2001.
+To extend the closing date one month, a written request must be filed with the ASCE Manager of Journals.
+The manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and possible publication on March 2, 1999.
+This paper is part of the Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, Vol. 126, No. 4, July/ August, 2000. qASCE, ISSN 0733-9634/00/0004-0320–0324/$8.00 1 $.50 per page.
+Paper No. 20401.
+320 / JOURNAL OF CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT / JULY/AUGUST 2000
+Eng. Manage., 2000, 126(4):
+320 / JOURNAL OF CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT / JULY/AUGUST 2000
+Eng. Manage., 2000, 126(4):

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+INTERACTIVE SYSTEM FOR TEACHING CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT
+The focus in this paper is on a system, developed by the writers, called VIRCON (short for VIRtual CONstruction), in which the traditional construction planning is combined with 3D/4D models of the project.
+To facilitate current best practices with 3D/4D models of the project, VIRCON has been implemented using object-oriented programming, client/server configuration, database management information, and CAD systems.
+The real innovation in the design of VIRCON is associated with the unique scheduling and simulation engine developed to integrate cost planning and scheduling and accommodate integrated cross-impact analysis.
+VIRCON has been validated by means of student group projects on a course where many of the project management techniques are being taught.
+The teaching approach conducted with the utilization of VIRCON has shown the way forward in creating a dynamic and interactive learning atmosphere.
+This paper also outlines the experience gained from teaching construction planning fundamentals by means of the VIRCON system.
+To provide an effective dynamic planning environment for construction project managers and students, an interactive program is needed.
+Continual advances in computer technology have created a potential for the construction industry to vastly improve its techniques, processes, and managerial decisionmaking capabilities.
+Some areas where computing and information technologies can help the industry are networking multidiscipline teams, planning construction activities, cost management of the project, visualizing the finished product, reporting the status of the project, and assisting the project transaction and communication processes.
+Integrated visualization systems such as Jacobus Technology’s Schedule Simulator and Intergraph’s Schedule Review, have paved the way for development of smarter (IT) information technology based techniques, providing managers with a new generation of tools for effective decision making (Parfitt et al. 1993;
+Kartam 1994;
+Chin et al. 1995).
+Visualization of construction plans enables planners to share complex ideas.
+It encourages them to be more creative in providing and testing solutions by means of viewing the simulated time-lapse representation of corresponding construction sequences (McKinney and Fischer 1997).
+VIRCON has been designed and developed as a facility for integrated planning and visualization of construction plans.
+In VIRCON the construction management information system (CMIS) is a continuation of the work developed by Jaafari and Wong (1994).
+The original CMIS was written to operate within a relational database, using the database’s built-in programming environment.
+However, the current version (embodied in VIRCON) has been rewritten in C11/Visual C11 and integrated with an object-oriented database (ObjectStore) for data modeling and management.
+The shift to C11 has resulted in flexibility in system design and integration with other systems, particularly linking with CAD. The quality and range of graphics have also shown marked improvements compared to the original version.
+As stated, the system is based on a client-server configuration to permit sharing and integration of information for project team members.
+The visualization capability in VIRCON has been created using the programming facility offered by AutoCAD R14.
+AutoCAD’s approach is similar to C11 and fully compatible with the object database used in VIRCON. When coupled with the schedule simulation facility within VIRCON, it is possible to view a time-lapse presentation of the construction sequence in 3D and see details for clashes and other inconsistencies.
+Therefore, VIRCON has been researched and developed as both a planning tool and a teaching tool.
+It has the following aims:
+• To act as an interactive system for information manipu-lation and decision modeling of the construction phase
+• To run case projects that can act as the basis for settingstudent assignments/exercises, enabling them to respond to diverse learning challenges
+• To offer Intranet and Internet access for self-paced learn-ing of construction planning fundamentals
+In this paper a select number of project manager (PM) systems are briefly discussed.
+Then significant details of the VIRCON system will be summarized, outlining the underlying innovations and application to specific modules and functions developed and performed by the system.
+A point comparison of the systems reviewed, including VIRCON, will then be made showing the main differences of each system.
+Furthermore, validating VIRCON in the classroom will be presented, outlining the experiences gained.
+Finally, recommendations and future work on the program and the overall teaching methodology will be discussed.
+REVIEW OF TYPICAL ADVANCED SYSTEMS
+This section provides a short review of a number of advanced systems selected for comparative studies.
+The intention is to shed light on the types of integrated systems in use or developed in institutions.
+This software uses data from existing project planning software such as Primavera Project Planner, Open Plan, and Microsoft Project.
+Schedule Review helps analyze the construction process to avoid problems, show the construction sequence of specific units in the context of the overall project schedule, display the project as it should appear on a certain day, or fly through the model while displaying the construction sequence.
+Querying capabilities are also available to search the model for elements that match criteria in the project plan, such as Critical Path or Percent Complete.
+The results of the query would then be graphically displayed (‘‘Intergraph’s’’ 1999).
+Jacobus Technology’s Schedule Simulator
+This 4D (3D plus time) system provides an easy-to-use, dynamic environment for visually simulating the sequence of construction based on project scheduling information.
+Jacobus’s Schedule Simulator has the power to integrate project schedules, 3D CAD models, and real-time animation to visually simulate the project according to schedule dates.
+The software works hand in hand with leading project planning/scheduling tools, databases, and 3D modeling applications in multiple formats.
+The user can ‘‘play’’ the schedule and watch the logic and sequences of activities progressively unfold.
+Users can also clearly visualize planned activities as they see the project being built in a computer simulation (‘‘PlantSpace’’ 1997).
+P3e is a multiproject planning and control software, built on Oracle and Microsoft SQL Server relational databases for enterprisewide project management.
+P3e can stand alone for project and resource management, or it can be used in conjunction with other Primavera products, such as P3 and SureTrak, to consolidate decentralized project plans for ongoing cross-project analysis and insight.
+Summary cost accounts and global resource breakdown structures are just a few of the many features in P3e to anticipate control of project issues and risks.
+P3e has a straightforward interface that ensures an easy to learn and use software.
+P3e’s capabilities are complemented by an extensive project Web site and companion products for making visible the progress made on projects (‘‘Primavera’’ 1999).
+OPIS (Object model-based Project Information System) is a prototype integrated system that uses a shared object-oriented database as the central unifying core of an integrated project planning system.
+It includes an interface to an intelligent CAD and drafting program, plan-generation expert system, estimating application, and scheduling application.
+Integration is achieved by establishing standard models that all applications can adapt and share.
+This requires a standard data model that specifies the general data-representation approach, standard domain model that provides a language for representing construction information, and project database for information about a specific project that can be shared among multiple computer applications (Froese and Paulson 1994).
+This prototype system uses standard object-oriented project models to achieve computer-aided project management system integration.
+ISICAD (Interactive System for Integrating CAD and computer-based construction systems) captures selected design data and represents these data in an object-oriented project model.
+Throughout this system, design-related data are captured and stored within construction drawings and reasoning about these data is made possible.
+The object-oriented model provides computer-based construction systems (e.g., database management and knowledge-base expert systems) performing estimating, scheduling, cost control, etc. with necessary data input.
+Hence, it serves as a unified medium for integrating design and construction (Kartam 1994).
+As noted from the short description of the systems reviewed, there is great emphasis in integrating construction planning information with 3D CAD models of the project.
+The most popular computing technologies appled to develop such systems are object-oriented techniques, databases, knowledgebase systems, and CAD systems.
+In addition, the prototype systems, such as OPIS and ISICAD, have been developed as an extension to CAD, knowledge-base, and PM software.
+As seen, most systems primarily interface with popular PM software, such as Primavera’s Project Planner and Microsoft’s Project.
+The researchers of OPIS and ISICAD acknowledge that these prototype systems are for demonstration and research purposes, for the time being, because it requires an enormous amount of resources to push such systems toward commercialization.
+Most commercial systems have evolved using lowlevel programming techniques.
+The prototypes, on the other hand, have been built using high-level programming techniques.
+Thus, system performance differences stem from the different development techniques used.
+The following sections summarize VIRCON and highlight the underlying innovations incorporated in this system.
+VIRCON consists mainly of two modules (Fig. 1):
+CMIS is a Windows-based program written in MS Visual C11/C11 that provides an interface for data input as well as analysis and reporting.
+The user builds up a dedicated shared databank for each project within the CMIS shell by entering the relevant data interactively into specific fields provided by a series of dialog windows.
+Once a project is created within CMIS, the data are automatically stored in the objectoriented database.
+In the design of CMIS, the database management functions have been separated from data processing and reporting functions.
+The separation allows maintenance of data in real time and sharing of the information among all processing functions.
+Fig. 1 shows the processing functions incorporated within CMIS, they are (1) cost/budget management;
+(2) time management;
+(3) resource management;
+(4) risk management;
+(5) earned value analysis;
+(6) reporting;
+(7) cash flow analysis;
+and (8) alternative scenario analysis.
+Broad Architecture of VIRCON
+CMIS—SPECIAL FEATURES
+Although the general approach followed in the development of CMIS is based on current best practices in the construction industry [i.e., Barrie and Paulson (1992), Harrison (1985), and Gould (1997)], there are a number of innovations that make it different from similar systems that are commercially available:
+• It embodies a novel dynamic scheduling approach, whichis far more adaptable to accommodating changes than a critical path method or program evaluation and review technique, so impacts of delay or acceleration on cost, for example, can be forecasted [see Jaafari (1996) for more details].
+• It provides a basis for integration of schedule and cost(Fig. 2), as well as a more accurate basis for earned value and risk analysis functions.
+• It provides a facility for the stochastic analysis of theschedule;
+i.e. it will accept stochastic input data and generate a distribution for the project duration from which mean and variance or characteristic values can be estimated.
+• It enables derivation of a distribution for the total costestimate, which will reflect the uncertainties associated with the project duration, thus enabling multiple scenarios to be analyzed for locating the optimum plan.
+• It allows conducting the stochastic analysis at the activityor work package level as part of isolating high risk areas of the project.
+• It provides for monitoring of risks at each update intervalby plotting the time and cost risk bands (defined as 90% characteristic-value–mean-value of the respective time or cost function) against time.
+• It is possible to track transactions and changes over timeor produce special reports based on specific information requirements.
+• It provides a common project model [generic work break-
+Interrelationshipsto Time Function
+Work Breakdown Structure
+down structure of the project components (Fig. 3)] for sharing of program module data and multiuser access.
+As CMIS was designed and developed in-house, the opportunity to take advantage of the latest advances in system design and integration of functions was fully exploited.
+In-house design offers flexibility in that it does not require approval from owners of commercial systems.
+It is not dependent on connecting different systems together for a particular purpose.
+The processing functions have been designed as separate program modules held within a dynamic library linked to the project database.
+These programs access the same data sets for each project and exchange information among themselves.
+This design is well suited to a client/server setup in the sense that the database holding the project data is placed on a server and program modules will be located on client machines accessing the data via a local area network or even the Internet.
+But more importantly, the functions designed in CMIS are flexible in that new research can be readily incorporated into the system for practice enhancements or teaching purposes.
+Therefore, this configuration allows a much easier accommodation of future improvements to functions or changes in technology (with no need to wait for the next commercial release).
+The concept of visualization (creating a virtual reality model of a project) has been applied in most fields, such as architecture, biology, and arts, providing 3D graphics and animation to aid spatial interpretation of complex objects, creatures, or their movements.
+Visualization will reveal details normally beyond ordinary perception.
+There are basically two types of virtual reality (VR) models:
+immersive and nonimmersive.
+In immersive models the subject wears cyber headgear and gloves that will have the effect of the user feeling located within the VR environment of the model and interacting with its elements.
+Nonimmersive models display objects on computer screens.
+Manipulation of models can be achieved using normal input devices such as a mouse or keyboard.
+The VR environment selected for VIRCON is that of the nonimmersive type, as this facilitates a collaborative planning approach as well as sharing of information.
+Construction planning lends itself well to the application of visualization, due to its complexity and the multiple ways in which it can be approached.
+For an experienced planner, the mental framework to visualize construction operations is generally well developed.
+This ability is acquired through years of practice and experience of the actual projects in the field.
+However, even experienced planners often fail to think of all aspects of their plans and having a VR model of the project will prompt them to consider all missing details (e.g., safety and access) (Barsoum et al. 1996;
+Soedarmono et al. 1996;
+Wakefield 1999).
+But more importantly, VR conveys the right messages to a client, government agency, or public group (Eberhard 1996) on the subject project.
+The ability to visualize the physical dimension and thus determine the feasibility of the decisions made is not generally well developed in students.
+They have insufficient mental references to visualize the size of the task to be undertaken on a
+Flowchart of Schedule Simulator
+construction site.
+For this reason a tool that can assist in visualizing construction plans and sequences is considered helpful and engaging, although not a substitute for ‘‘real’’ world experience.
+As stated already, construction is a complex process and the schedule simulator facility within VIRCON is intended to improve the planner’s or student’s understanding of how a construction sequence will turn out in the real world, by means of a simulated time-lapse assembly of the components within a 3D VR environment.
+The visualization module provides the following tools in VIRCON:
+• A ‘‘schedule simulator’’ facility that compresses activitydurations into seconds and ‘‘constructs’’ a time-lapsed 3D representation of the constructed facility/plant according to the schedule
+• A ‘‘3D WalkThrough’’ tool that allows the planner tozoom and view details of the project
+The module was developed as part of an existing CAD system, which has in-built object-oriented programming capabilities.
+The 3D WalkThrough tool was provided via the 3D model of the project held within the CAD system.
+In essence, VIRCON is a hybrid system where half of the visualization module’s functionality is derived from the CAD system’s functionality.
+In short, the visualization module imports the construction planning data from CMIS. The walk-through and schedule simulation functions of VIRCON are performed within the CAD environment according to the program extensions.
+The visualization module’s Schedule Simulator is worthy of note because it utilizes an existing CAD system’s (AutoCAD R14’s ObjectARX) application programming interface environment, without the need to develop a CAD environment system.
+This feature was customized to provide Schedule Simulator’s functionality.
+Typical Interface for Manipulating CAD Objects and Activities
+Fig. 4 depicts the flowchart of the methodology embodied within VIRCON for creating a simulated construction sequence by means of the schedule simulator.
+Prior to the start of the simulator, the 3D CAD model of the project needs to be broken into components.
+The division will correspond to the relevant activities in the construction plan.
+In this manner it will be possible to establish a link (manually or automatically) between the 3D image of a component and its corresponding activity object.
+At present linkages are created manually by invoking the VIRCONoNEWLINK command in the system.
+An interface window to create or manipulate the connections between the activities and their respective 3D CAD objects will then be displayed (Fig. 5).
+Links can be released at any time with the ‘‘Unlink’’ button.
+Verifying an activityto-3D object link is provided using the ‘‘Display’’ button.
+The ‘‘Return display’’ button shows the original 3D CAD model.
+To start the simulation, the VIRCONoSIMULATE command is invoked.
+After simulation, it is possible to save the linking details as files, if desired, for future use or editing.
+The saved linked files are available by means of the VIRCONo EDITLINK command.
+Thus, editing of previous links can be made.
+The suitability of a new construction plan can then be tested by invoking the schedule simulator function.
+VIRCON has a number of key advantages, chief among which the following can be noted:
+• It integrates construction-planning information under asingle shared database, utilizing an object structure.
+• It supports scenario analysis and provides a capability toapply ‘‘what-if’’ questions effectively and interactively.
+• It provides a graphical simulation of the proposed workplan and helps constructibility analysis and optimization of work plans.
+• It provides a means for interdisciplinary communicationand teamwork.
+• It provides an effective means for conveying the planningresults.
+• It allows early problem detection, including clashes in de-sign and overall construction sequencing.
+• It provides a means for better interfacing of design withconstruction plans.
+• It allows querying of 3D model objects using the CADenvironment.
+POINT COMPARISON
+Table 1 shows the comparison of the selected systems including VIRCON. As seen, key characteristics have been selected to compare the systems.
+They are functional features, support systems, development technology, special functions/ techniques, and system status.
+Note that the systems selected and characteristics chosen are not intended to create any bias in the systems toward the VIRCON system but are merely to show the varying features that these types of systems can encompass.
+The results of the comparison can be summarized as follows.
+Intergraph’s Schedule Review and Jacobus Technology’s Schedule Simulator are very similar systems, although the latter system provides more features in animation and, more importantly, in integration with other compatible systems, such as PM software, databases using ODBC (Open Database Connectivity), and OLE (Object Linking Embedding).
+Primavera’s P3e is a PM software that provides the most important features needed by a PM firm.
+From the senior management level to the project and resource management levels, this system modifies the fundamental PM functions, such as the management of risk, schedule, cost/budgeting, and resources, for a PM firm.
+Also, the important features of clientserver and Internet configurations (facilitated by the project Web site) allows multiuser access.
+OPIS and ISICAD are research prototype systems, which utilize other applications, such as CAD, PM software, knowledge bases, and databases, for the AEC industry participants to share and integrate information.
+The research on these systems concentrates on a project model created to facilitate the integration of application systems to exchange, store, and process common data.
+These project models have been specifically designed and developed using the object technology.
+VIRCON facilitates some aspects of the features described in the selected systems.
+For example, under functional features, VIRCON’s Visualization module allows the user to prepare and see the 3D model simulated on the screen.
+Under support systems, CMIS provides as many PM functions as Primavera’s P3e.
+However, CMIS does not provide different levels of reporting for management and does not manage multiple projects.
+Also CMIS cannot be applied over the Internet but can be applied over a local area network.
+In development technology, CMIS compares well with others as it uses an integrated project model for the execution and analyses of its PM functions, as well as utilizing an object-oriented model and a database management system.
+Hence, all PM program modules in CMIS use the same project data that are held within a shared database.
+In addition, CMIS and VIRCON do not utilize knowledge bases or expert systems to aid in planning and control of projects.
+The planning and monitoring of projects should be an ‘‘art,’’ and a computer program should not dictate how one plans a project.
+Such expert systems should only facilitate in systematic information management (such as managing historical project data).
+But in the case of visualization, expert systems would be useful and can automatically link 3D model components to the construction activity or activities using rules and similar processes.
+Jacobus’s Schedule Simulator uses this technique effectively.
+As shown from the point comparison, VIRCON compares favorably with the advanced systems for educational and practical uses.
+As will be described, from the evaluation and tests conducted, VIRCON has proven to have the potential to facilitate many of the features offered by the advanced systems.
+To verify and validate the VIRCON system, it was applied as a client-server system established in 1999 as part of a course module in the undergraduate construction and project management program at the University of Sydney, Australia.
+Ninety students were enrolled in this module, who were then divided into nine groups of 10 students.
+The aim of the above course module is to impart knowledge and skills in integrated IT-supported planning, scheduling, and cost estimation of capital projects, including formal documentation and submission of a report, to be known as the ‘‘prebid’’ report.
+Each group was required to competitively bid for a case project.
+The entire project planning, scheduling, cost estimation, and documentation were required to be done using the VIRCON system provided on-line.
+This enabled students to view the relevant design details, plan the construction of works based on resources needed, estimate and evaluate activity duration, simulate the construction sequences, and assess the project as a whole, including evaluation of changes, risks, and uncertainties.
+Thus, the learning objectives were as follows:
+• To introduce a ‘‘real-life’’ case project to the groups forcompetitive bidding
+• To create a collaborative learning environment by settingup client-server applications
+• To set up and customize VIRCON for secure group workapplication (Fig. 6)
+Point Comparison of Selected Systems
+Selected systems
+Integrates with project schedules and
+Graphical simulations and animation
+Welcome Software
+Technology Open Plan
+Query functions to search model for criteria asked (for example, search for model elements that fall within critical path)
+Reviews schedule sequences in stationary and animated mode
+Associates tasks from schedule with element models automatically or manually
+Jacobus Technology’s Schedule
+Integrates with project schedules, 3D CAD models, real-time animation, and databases
+Graphical simulations and animation
+(similar to Intergraph’s Schedule
+PlantSpace Integration Tools
+Relate physical model elements with schedule activity relationship links
+Queries can be performed under certain rules and results shown graphically
+Use of animation to control construction sequence
+Simulate different aspects of same schedule side by side in multiple windows and multiple views
+Data connectivity using ODBC and OLE2
+Hierarchical PM consisting of WBSs, OBSs, centralized resource pools, cost account hierarchy, and custom activity coding structures
+Tracking and analysis (e.g., compares baseline, planned, and actual and remaining values)
+Proactive control of project issues (e.g., impact calculated based on probability for costs, resources, and schedule
+Performance measurement
+Project documents and steps
+Project reporting and communication
+Project Web site (e.g., wizard to publish complete project Web site including activities, resources, and documents)
+Portfolio analyst groups together any number of projects for comparison and analysis (for information at any level of detail for clear presentation and discussion)
+Progress reporter provides full work-group support and coordination of project resources;
+each member uses progress reporter to communicate time sheet and activity status feedback directly to PM and project database via local area network, e-mail, or Internet
+Scalable PM utilizing Oracle and Microsoft SQL server relational databases
+Supports unlimited number of projects, project groups or programs, activities, baselines, resources, and user-defined WBS
+and activity codes
+Approach uses integrated systems by establishing standard models that applications can adopt and share
+Features are essentially integrated application systems (i.e., CIFECAD is prototype CAD and drafting system used to create 3D models of project;
+AutoPlan is expert system that creates construction plan using knowledge bases;
+InCost is integrated estimating module;
+and InTime estimates schedule dates for activities)
+Object—C objectoriented programming language (for database project model)
+Standard domain data project model used for integration of systems
+AEC industry can then adopt this approach for integration between many application systems
+Features from AutoCAD and knowledge-base construction systems
+Design-related data to be stored within construction drawings so that reasoning about data is possible
+Construction knowledge bases
+Approach allows for sharing of engineering and construction knowledge by multiple people facilitated by object-oriented project model
+Scheduling and time management
+Performance monitoring (earned value)
+Cash flow analysis
+Project archiving
+ObjectStore (object-oriented database)
+AutoDesk WalkThrough
+Dynamic scheduling technique Integrated function modules
+Schedule simulator (graphical animated construction sequence)
+Educational Process Using VIRCON
+Key Dates for Submissions
+Group assignment definition and briefing
+Monday, April 27
+Construction plan and estimates of resources
+Submission of draft report
+Presentation to board of review
+Thursday, June 3
+N/A = does not apply.
+• Establish milestone dates for performance monitoring,feedback on intermediate submissions, and formative assessment (Table 2)
+• Provide timely assistance and tutorials for each group tofacilitate experiential learning and interaction with the system.
+The project introduced for this assignment was the proposed new Economics Building at the University of Sydney, which is currently under development.
+The building comprises approximately 7,200 m2 and is scheduled for completion in mid2001.
+The proposed building has five floors;
+the two lower floors are fully air-conditioned to house computing systems and graduate research areas, and the top three floors will be naturally ventilated and will house lecture halls and departmental offices.
+The building is based on a conventional design, using masonry up to the lower two floors, and a ‘‘high-tech’’ design for the three top floors.
+That is, the design is based on prefinished metal cladding panels, an innovative approach to the roof design, and a complex metal/plastic sun screening to the north elevation.
+There is also an open atrium space to the three upper floors, which serves two purposes:
+• Provision of natural ventilation of the building
+• Spatial relief to enhance the whole of the three top floors
+At the time of writing, the project is proceeding, pending the local authority permit.
+Each group had to submit electronically, in designated directories (as well as a formatted hard-copy document), an overall prebid report on the case project.
+The report had to include the following:
+• Description of any construction planning and method in-novations and how these affect the competitiveness of the formulated plans
+• Identification of the top 20% of items making up >80%of the contract sum
+• Alternative construction methods and selection of the pre-ferred method for each major (top 20%) item, as well as development of a proper method statement
+• Construction plans and schedule, and overall staging ofthe works
+• Cost estimate for the entire project (the bottom 80% itemswere to be estimated using an adjusted published schedule of rates, but the risk of cost overrun on such estimates was required to be evaluated and included using the VIRCON system)
+• An overall plan for the management of constructionOH&S, environmental impacts, and quality assurance, including a responsibility allocation chart, resources, and cost.
+• An estimate of the indirect costs and preliminaries thatmust also include provision of welfare and site amenities and an allowance for contractual liabilities on this project, such as security (surety), workers’ compensation insurance, and third party indemnity
+• An analysis of the expected competition and how confi-dent a particular group is of winning against the compe-
+To accomplish the tasks stated above in a reasonable time frame, key submission dates were set (Table 2).
+Groups were required (in formal attire) to present their winning prebid reports to a board of review.
+The board would then evaluate and select the winning group.
+Both quality of submission and conformity with the brief (terms of reference) were the basis of assessing the work done by students.
+SYSTEMS’ SETUP Method of Approach
+To provide uniformity of approach and test VIRCON, there was a ban on the use of any other system for planning and cost estimation on the case project.
+However, word processors were permitted to consolidate reports.
+In addition to providing tutorial and laboratory sessions, to further assist students using VIRCON, a manual was provided on-line.
+Also, examples of data input and report generation facilities were provided to facilitate self-learning as far as possible.
+Location of Programs and Files
+Each group was given access to an NT workstation as well as a user name and password.
+To access and store group files and documents, the NT server was connected to the workstations to serve as a central data repository, as well as providing administration facilities, but most importantly it facilitated multiusers in a collaborative environment required by VIRCON.
+Peer Evaluation
+To further improve the VIRCON system and student learning, each group member submitted an evaluation form on the VIRCON system, the teaching method, and peer evaluation of other group members.
+TEACHING RESULTS Progress Experiences
+During the course of the assignment, due emphasis was placed on students acquiring the necessary background knowledge on construction planning techniques.
+Each group was to nominate a group leader or coordinator to coordinate and direct other members in the group.
+The group divided the tasks among members in accordance with a work plan.
+The group leaders would then consult the writers, who acted as module coordinators, on any problems they faced (e.g., tasks, terminology, and system interface).
+It was found that most students were capable of operating and using computer programs, in particular Microsoft products.
+Understandably the use of the Windows-based applications, CMIS and VIRCON, posed no real problem in student interaction.
+As mentioned already, parallel with learning how to use VIRCON, students had to acquire knowledge about the fundamentals of construction project planning and management.
+The nominated textbooks and reference material were helpful, although many students had gained some knowledge during their work experience conducted earlier (i.e., 13 weeks minimum practical experience after completion of the third year and before commencement of the fourth year).
+They had also completed construction engineering courses during their second and third years.
+In addition, several tutorial sessions were held with the competing groups to assist them in proper understanding and applications of the relevant fundamentals, formulation, and evaluation of construction plans and related studies.
+CMIS also helped students in their endeavor by means of on-line provision of sample tutorials and information contained in the manual.
+During the process of entering data into the system, a minority of students thought that CMIS would plan their project for them.
+Clearly it was found that CMIS did not have ‘‘wizard’’ functions because it was up to the users to come up with their own WBS and associated input data.
+A few minor bugs were reported by students, who also made some useful suggestions that were implemented to improve the VIRCON system performance and facilitate teaching.
+For example, most data that were computed automatically by the system would have been well known to an experienced construction planner.
+However, novice students learning construction planning fundamentals blindly entered data into the computational fields.
+Thus, the relevant fields had to be disabled.
+Student groups preferred more graphical images or help functions.
+For example, when students or novice users begin to create their project databanks, an ‘‘agent’’ or wizard would direct the user to the definition or processes that are involved in inputting or obtaining a value for some data field or function.
+Applications of this sort are now widespread.
+Microsoft agents from the Microsoft Corporation allow such applications to be created.
+This feature will be implemented in due course.
+Finally, network system administrators have to acknowledge that the network will break down once in a while.
+In VIRCON’s case, delays occurred and consequently an extension to the assignment dates had to be given.
+From an administrator’s point of view, this was not a major concern, however, it was more of an educator’s nightmare, because this interrupted the overall schedule of the submissions students had to adhere to.
+Group Reports
+Table 3 shows a summary of the groups’ results (cost and duration estimates) generated using the VIRCON system.
+Note that the budget allocated for the same scope of works by the client was approximately $13,250,000 for a duration of about 52 weeks.
+Note also that the bid packages in the assignment given to the students do not contain all packages that the client
+Group Bid Results
+Distributionof Prebid Results
+Sample Cost and Schedule Trade-Off
+Fig. 7 also indicates the distributions of these results.
+As can be seen from this figure, ‘‘bid’’ points are widely distributed.
+Some are close to the client’s budget and others are not.
+In practice, because this project is heading for a traditional head contracting and fully documented contract, Group 9 (Table 3) was selected as the winner in terms of meeting budget and schedule targets.
+Its prebid estimate was $12,403,000, and it had a duration of about 39 weeks.
+For brevity, this ranking was not based on other aspects of the prebid report, such as management of quality and safety.
+Only time and cost estimates were used to rank the groups’ bids.
+Although Group 9’s bid was underbudget and came close to the client’s estimate, so too was their target schedule, which was earlier than the client’s duration of 52 weeks.
+The duration was set as the criteria (minimum duration) in the selection process because it was one of the client requirements.
+Note that Groups 6–8 were not considered because their bids were not logical and contained errors.
+These groups were missing certain cost items, activities, tasks, and so on.
+The use of VIRCON enabled the groups to learn the tradeoff that exists between the project’s objectives of total cost and construction duration.
+The groups were required to plot cost against different durations to locate the optimum duration (defined as a duration at which the estimated total cost is minimal).
+This type of analysis would not have been possible in such a short period of time had it not been for the availability of VIRCON. Fig. 8 shows an example of a group’s trade-off between total cost and duration.
+Based on the success of the first trial use of VIRCON for teaching, a new course called Project Planning and Tendering has been planned.
+It will be an entirely problem-centered, computer-mediated course integrating IT skills with project planning and estimating competencies.
+The assignments will be customized to fit the purpose of the course.
+Advantages of Teaching VIRCON
+There are many different ways VIRCON can be utilized for teaching construction management.
+The following are some of the ways that VIRCON can be taught for the new course:
+• Student groups can be asked to plan a project (schedulingonly) for meeting a contractual completion date.
+• An estimation of the total cost of the above can then bemade.
+• The duration at which the total cost will be minimum canbe found.
+• The cost penalty associated with the contractual comple-tion date can be established.
+• The stochastic analysis can be used to perform and esti-mate variances for both cost and time for formulating contingency provisions.
+• Students can be given simulated progress data and askedto locate major deviations and come up with recovery plans.
+• Students could be asked to redesign parts of the projectto minimize total cost or cut delivery time, or both.
+• Students could be asked to reflect on the above and comeup with suggestions to improve the data (case project), thus working backward on better planning and controlling of projects.
+CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK
+This paper described VIRCON, an integrated planning and educational system researched and developed for teaching and learning construction planning fundamentals.
+The basic system design philosophy embraced is that of intuitive user interaction with VIRCON supported by on-line help and guidance.
+The system capabilities extended to interactive planning of construction activities and tasks, risk analysis, alternative construction method investigation, cash flow plotting, and preparing various reports.
+VIRCON’s modules were described briefly, highlighting the innovative methods developed and technologies used.
+The paper described the CMIS module that was developed in-house using object-oriented techniques.
+The visualization module in VIRCON was programmed to operate within the general environment of a CAD system.
+It was found to be a cost-effective way to respond to the visualization needs in VIRCON, without having to develop complex computer programs.
+One advantage of this approach is that future 3D capabilities provided by major CAD systems will be on tap by substituting the new release for the present version of the CAD system used.
+The teaching environment provided an opportunity to test VIRCON and assess the feasibility of conducting fully integrated computer-based experiential learning.
+VIRCON provided flexibility in implementation, which consequently enabled quick fixes and improvements based on the suggestions received from students during their project work.
+It was found that, due to its modular (object-based) structure, VIRCON could be customized to fit the requirements in a relatively short period of time.
+Therefore, the experience gained from teaching, implementing, and developing VIRCON set a precedent for future module improvements and additions.
+VIRCON was initially planned as a joint project of the Departments of Civil Engineering at Sydney University and Stanford University, Stanford, Calif.
+The writers gratefully acknowledge the advice and input provided by Dr. Martin Fisher of CIFE at Stanford University.
+VIRCON was financially supported by a grant from the Department of Employment, Education, and Training of Youth Affairs.
+A project reference group, comprising a panel of academics and practitioners, oversaw the conduct of research and development work leading to this present version of VIRCON. The writers would like to thank them for their guidance and expertise.
+Also the support and facilities provided by the Department of Civil Engineering of the University of Sydney are acknowledged with gratitude.
+Special thanks go to John Krey, senior PM, Facility Management Office, University of Sydney, for facilitating the use of the proposed Economics Building project as a student project.
+Barrie, D. S., and Paulson, B. C. (1992).
+Professional construction management:
+Including C.M., design-construct, and general contracting, 3rd Ed., McGraw-Hill, New York.
+Barsoum, A. S., Hadipriono, F. C., and Larew, R. E. (1996). ‘‘Avoiding falls from scaffolding in virtual world.’’ Proc., 3rd Conf.—Computing in Civ. Engrg., ASCE, New York, 906–912.
+Chin, S., Liu, L. Y., Stumpf, A. L., Ganeshan, R., and Hicks, D. K. (1995). ‘‘CADD-based construction information management for corps of engineers projects.’’ Proc., 2nd Conf.—Computing in Civ. Engrg., vol. 1, ASCE, New York, 187–194.
+Eberhard, D. D. (1996). ‘‘Quicktime VR and interactive CD-ROM applications for communicating project alternatives.’’ Proc., 3rd Conf.— Computing in Civ. Engrg., ASCE, New York, 806–811.
+Froese, T. M., and Paulson, B. C., Jr. (1994). ‘‘OPIS:
+An object modelbased project information system.’’ Microcomputers in Civ. Engrg., 9, 13–28.
+Gould, F. E. (1997).
+Managing the construction process:
+Estimating, scheduling, and project control, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, N.J.
+Harrison, F. L. (1985).
+Advanced project management, 2nd Ed., Aldershot, Gower.
+‘‘Intergraph’s Schedule Review.’’ (1999). ^ visualization/schedrev.asp&.
+Jaafari, A. (1996). ‘‘Time and priority allocation scheduling technique for projects.’’ Int. J. Project Mgmt., 14(5), 289–299.
+Jaafari, A., and Wong, K. H. K. (1994). ‘‘Advanced construction management information systems.’’ Proc., Nat. Constr. and Mgmt. Conf., Institution of Engineers, Australia, and School of Civil Engineering, University of New South Wales.
+Kartam, N. A. (1994). ‘‘ISICAD:
+Interactive System for Integrating CAD and computer-based construction systems.’’ Microcomputers in Civ. Engrg., 9, 41–51.
+McKinney, K., and Fischer, M. (1997). ‘‘4D analysis of temporary support.’’ Proc., 1997 4th Congr. on Computing in Civ. Engrg., ASCE, New York, 470–476.
+Parfitt, M. K., Syal, M. G., Khalvati, M., and Bhatia, S. (1993). ‘‘Computer-integrated design drawings and construction project plans.’’ J. Constr.
+Engrg. and Mgmt., ASCE, 119(4), 729–242.
+‘‘Primavera project planner for the Enterprise P3e.’’ (1999). ^
+Soedarmono, D. R., Hadipriono, F. C., and Larew, R. E. (1996). ‘‘Using virtual reality to avoid construction falls.’’ Proc., 3rd Conf.—Computing in Civ. Engrg., ASCE, New York, 899–905.
+Wakefield, R. R. (1999). ‘‘Computer modeling and simulation for construction.’’ Engrg.
+Trans., Thailand, May–August, 87–98.
+Prof., Dept. of Civ. Engrg., Univ. of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia.
+[email protected]
+2 Doctoral Student, Dept. of Civ. Engrg., Univ. of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia.
+3 Doctoral Student, Dept. of Civ. Engrg., Univ. of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia.
+Note. Discussion open until July 1, 2001.
+To extend the closing date one month, a written request must be filed with the ASCE Manager of Journals.
+The manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and possible publication on September 13, 1999.
+This paper is part of the Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, Vol. 127, No.
+4 , January/February, 2001. qASCE, ISSN 0733-9634/01/0001-0066– 0075/$8.00 1 $.50 per page.
+Paper No. 21872.
+Eng. Manage., 2001, 127(1):

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+Enterprise Resource Planning for Construction Business
+Jonathan Jingsheng Shi, M.ASCE,1 and Daniel W. Halpin, M.ASCE2
+Enterprise resource planning ~ERP!
+was originated in the manufacturing industry.
+It provides a general working environment for an enterprise to integrate its major business management functions with one single common database so that information can be shared and efficient communications can be achieved between management functions.
+This paper first briefs the ERP technology, its origin, and its current development in general.
+Based on the needs of running a construction enterprise, ERP shows its potential for the construction industry.
+However, the unique nature of the industry prevents a direct implementation of existing ERP systems, which are primarily developed for the manufacturing industry.
+This paper underlines the importance of the establishment of the basic theory for developing construction enterprise resource planning systems ~CERP!
+A CERP must address the nature of the general industry practice.
+Fundamental features are identified and discussed in the paper.
+A three-tiered client/server architecture is proposed, with discussions on the functions and major components of each tier.
+Needed research issues are discussed, including CERP architectures, project management functions, advanced planning techniques, standardization of management functions, and modeling human intelligence.
+Construction management examples are incorporated into the discussions.
+CE Database subject headings:
+Construction management;
+Construction industry;
+Enterprise resource planning ~ERP!
+has its origins in manufacturing and production planning systems ~Fitzgerald 1992!
+The early systems were created three decades ago with the advent of materials requirement planning ~MRP!
+, which primarily organized the storage and allocation of production materials.
+Later, manufacturing resource planning, or MRP II, systems expanded those organizational efforts to include the allocation of production equipment and labor.
+The term ERP was born when the productionoriented systems were integrated with purchasing, financials, human resources, and other front-office applications to enhance management of all business operations across the enterprise.
+The scope of ERP offerings expanded in the mid-1990s to include other back-office functions such as order management, financial management, warehousing, distribution, quality control, asset management, and human resources.
+The range of functionality of ERP systems has further expanded in recent years to include more front-office functions, such as sales force, electronic commerce, and supply-chain systems ~Hare 1999!
+PhD, Associate Professor, Dept. of Civil and Architectural Engineering, Illinois Institute of Technology, 3201 South Dearborn St., Chicago, IL 60161-3793.
+PhD, Professor and Head, Division of Construction Engineering and Management, School of Civil Engineering, Purdue Univ., West Lafayette, IN 47907-1294.
+Note. Discussion open until September 1, 2003.
+Separate discussions must be submitted for individual papers.
+To extend the closing date by one month, a written request must be filed with the ASCE Managing Editor.
+The manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and possible publication on February 15, 2001;
+approved on April 11, 2002.
+This paper is part of the Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, Vol. 129, No. 2, April 1, 2003. ©ASCE, ISSN 0733-9364/2003/2214–221/$18.00.
+In a simple term, ERP is a computer program that provides a general working platform for all departments of an enterprise with their management functions being integrated into the program.
+The program runs off a single database so that all departments can easily share information and better communicate with each other.
+Today, an ERP system is more than traditional software.
+It is the information technology ~IT!
+backbone of the corporate infrastructure ~Bechler 1997!
+It provides an integrated multifunctional, multisite, and multinational business management tool ~Thompson 1996;
+Gibson and Holland 1999;
+Tinham 1999!
+ERP was a very fast-growing business in the 1990s.
+Its sales passed the $10 billion mark in 1998 ~Hill 1999!
+The world’s largest ERP providers include SAP, Oracle, PeopleSoft, and J. D. Edwards.
+SAP R/3 is the most popular system installed across the world ~O’Conner and Dodd 1999;
+Jacobs and Whybark 2000!
+ERP systems have brought success to the manufacturing industry ~Hare 1999!
+Some early adopters reported net return on investment ranging from 30 to 300% within a year after installing these systems.
+Oracle received 1 billion savings annually from the implemented ERP system ~Report 2000,  The great success sparked a leap in the research and development of ERP systems.
+Despite the reported business successes, a wide range of failures were also reported ~Krasner 2000!
+ERP systems are expensive and difficult to implement.
+ERP implementation costs from $2 million to $130 million, according to a survey of 15 implementations ~Ross 1999!
+, and takes at least 6 months for a simple business with the accelerated R/3 system ~Jacobs and Whybark 2000!
+Statistics show that the majority of implementations could not be completed in scheduled duration and within budget.
+A 1999 NSF-sponsored workshop realized the problems and concluded that a science base is not developed yet and that the ensemble of separated functional systems is untested on ERP technology.
+Construction enterprise operation
+The availability of resources defines the production capability of a contractor.
+In general, a construction company can access two categories of resources:
+internal resources, which the company owns;
+external resources, which the company can obtain from the open market at a price.
+The common objective is to maximize the usage of the company’s internal resources and use the market to balance the company’s operation.
+Given that construction projects are transient in nature, span different lengths of time periods, and require different resources, it is usually very difficult to achieve a balance between the production capability and the actual workload on hand for a construction enterprise all the time.
+In practice, a construction company has various ways to adjust its operations to approach such a balance.
+For instance, when the company does not have enough jobs, it may rent out some of its owned equipment and may bid lower prices on new projects.
+On the other hand, the contractor may rent outside equipment, recruit personnel, or request its employees to work overtime.
+Such enterprise-wide business decisions require using extensive information across the company and the market;
+otherwise, whether the company has made the best use of its owned and market available resources to serve its business objective remains a question.
+It is a common phenomenon to hear complaints from the people working in the construction industry.
+They complain of being overloaded and of being required to work overtime when the business is good;
+on the other hand, they worry about their job security if there is not enough work.
+Moreover, it is not unusual to see lower-than-cost bids when contractors are hungry for projects.
+Such a gambling strategy has driven many contractors out of business.
+Poor profits was found to be the top cause responsible for construction business failures ~Kangari 1987!
+Schematically, the operation of a construction enterprise can be described as shown in Fig. 1.
+The top of the figure presents the internal and external resources available to the enterprise.
+A solid line is used to represent the ‘‘owned-relationship,’’ showing the available resources inside the enterprise.
+A dotted line is used to describe the ‘‘can-have ownership,’’ for external resources that the company can get from the market at a price.
+How can a construction enterprise optimize the utilization of its internal and external resources in order to maximize its business objective?
+Specifically, it must decide:
+how to allocate corporate resources to the projects on hand;
+whether or not and how to compete for additional resources in the market;
+the strategy for bidding projects and how to run these potential projects if they are awarded.
+This business decision-making process involves utilizing so much information across so many fields that conventional human subjective and segregated methods are not adequate.
+Instead, advanced planning techniques are needed.
+Internet technology provides a collaborative working environment for traditionally segregated management functions so that information can be shared and collaborative decisions can be effectively made.
+This leads to the conclusion that an internet-based integrated resource planning system is a potential solution for achieving construction enterprise-wide business automation.
+Construction is the process of transforming materials and permanent equipment into a finished facility ~Peurifoy et al. 1996!
+Compared with other industries, typically the manufacturing industry, the unique characteristics of the construction industry have been widely recognized ~Tucker 1988;
+Oglesby 1990!
+From the business perspective, a construction company also operates in a different manner from its manufacturing counterpart.
+The uniqueness of the industry has prevented the direct implementation of many methods and concepts developed in the manufacturing industry, such as the mass production method.
+Such uniqueness forces researchers in the construction community to develop their own science base for the sustainability of this major industry.
+Construction enterprise resource planning ~CERP!
+systems need to be studied and developed.
+Basic Features Needed for Construction Enterprise Resource Planning System
+To facilitate various users in the industry in accepting and using the system, a CERP system should be:
+• Project-oriented:
+The construction business is operated around projects.
+Each project is an end product to be delivered and is expected to be completed on time and within budget.
+After a contract is signed, the price for delivering the product is usually fixed and the profit from the project is fully determined by the cost, which is subsequently determined by the efficiency of the site operations.
+A CERP system should be able to manage ongoing projects with the ability of reporting and predicting progress status, cost status, profitability, and potential problems such as falling behind schedule and overrunning cost so that appropriate actions can be taken before problems occur.
+Moreover, the profit and progress of a project affect the overall performance of the enterprise.
+Project progress information must be timely and periodically summarized and reported to the corporate level to reflect the overall position of the company as far as financing requirements, cash flow, purchasing, equipment, and human resources.
+If there are conflicts among projects—for instance, competition for the same resources—corporate level decisions must be made by maximizing the overall interest of the enterprise.
+This feature does not apply to an ERP system for manufacturers.
+• Integrated:
+A typical construction firm has two front-office functions ~i.e., estimating and operations!
+and many backoffice functions ~e.g., accounting, engineering, contracting, procurement and purchasing, and equipment!
+These front and back offices rely on each other for information and interact with each other in making decisions for running ongoing projects and winning new projects.
+To achieve high efficiency and automation, these offices should be connected in an integrated system.
+The system must contain enterprise-wide information and every office should have its corresponding level of access to the same system according to its business functions.
+Any office can get the needed information and decisions online for supporting its management functions;
+also, every office can update its responsible databases and make decisions, which become available online for other offices.
+For instance, material deliveries updated by the purchasing office allow site managers to plan their site operations;
+a newly awarded project entered by the bidding division allows the operations division to schedule and plan its construction.
+Although all ERP systems must be integrated with various front- and backoffice functions, a contractor has different offices and management functions from a manufacturer.
+• Paralleled and distributed:
+Multiple management functions are concurrently carried out by managers in various offices across a company.
+Therefore, an integrated ERP system must use parallel and distributed technology in order to support multiple concurrent applications or requests.
+For example, an estimator may be searching the historic cost database for determining the bid price of a new project;
+at the same time, a cost engineer may be updating the database with recently completed project data.
+This feature is commonly needed for all ERP systems.
+• Open and expandable:
+Applications are needed for supporting management functions, such as Timberline for estimating and Primavera Project Planner ~P3!
+~Primavera Systems 1999!
+for scheduling and planning.
+An ERP system may interact with an application through three different approaches:
+to run an application for responding a direct request—a user may start P3 to schedule a project;
+to call an application for getting needed information—when preparing a progress payment request, the project manager needs the percent completion of the project, which can be calculated by a project information system;
+to facilitate two-way data exchanges between an application and the ERP system—after a new project is added using an estimating or scheduling application, the project data should be stored in the central database for users to access.
+It is well known that each construction enterprise has its own characteristics essential for its success.
+Applications will vary significantly from company to company.
+An open and expandable architecture allows a company to tailor its needed applications to fit its business needs.
+Meanwhile, new applications can be added to the environment and unneeded ones can be removed from the environment.
+Therefore, a high level of customization must be achieved with a minimal effort needed for an end user.
+This feature is much more highly required for a CERP than for a general ERP system.
+• Scalable:
+Scalability is a common requirement for all ERP systems.
+Implementing an ERP system requires major capital investment and reengineering of business practices.
+An ERP system must be able to facilitate the strategic development of a company for many years to come.
+Scalability is reflected in the need for the system to accommodate expanded management functions.
+The functional offices of a construction enterprise are organized according to its tradition and size.
+A contractor may start implementing an ERP system with two functional modules, such as accounting and project management, so that only staff in the two offices can access the system at the initial stage.
+As time goes by, other functional modules and new users may be added to the system.
+Moreover, the construction business reflects the overall economic cycle.
+A scalable system is essential for a construction enterprise to meet rapidly expandable requirements and in the mean time to be flexible for economic down turns.
+• Remotely accessible:
+Each project is constructed on a specific site, which may be hundreds or thousands of miles away from the head office.
+Remote accessibility enables project managers and other site personnel to remotely access central information such as purchasing and financing data;
+meanwhile, the head office can obtain the updated project progress information so that the senior management can assess the project performance and its impact on the company.
+• Transparent:
+The construction industry is traditionally resistant to new technologies.
+One of the effective strategies to overcome this obstacle is to provide a self-explanatory mechanism in the system to allow users to trace down relevant reasoning for decisions or recommendations resulted in the system.
+For instance, the system may request a project manager ~PM!
+to reschedule the site work of a project under his/her supervision.
+The reasoning behind may be explained as ‘‘The needed material is not available because Universal Supplier, Inc., is unable to deliver the material as scheduled, based on the delivery information updated by the purchasing office.’’
+• Reliable and robust:
+This is a common feature required for all decision-supporting systems.
+For example, correct historical cost data must be retrieved from the cost database for supporting estimating;
+a purchase order must be reviewed and be approved in a right sequence;
+and a request for reserving a piece of equipment for a project must be processed accordingly and a reservation made, or the requester must be informed if the request cannot be satisfied.
+Conceptual Construction Enterprise Resource Planning Architecture
+ERP systems are commonly developed based on a three-tiered client/server architecture in order to offer the needed functional-
+ity, flexibility, scalability, and reliability.
+A CERP system can be based on the similar structure, but different components need to be built into the architecture.
+A conceptual architecture is shown in Fig. 2 with three tiers:
+user interfaces, management server, and applications.
+The primary function of the first tier is to present interfaces to various users across a construction enterprise.
+Users are categorized according to their office functions, such as payroll, accounting and financing, human resources, purchasing, equipment division, project management ~operations!
+, estimating and engineering, or corporate-level management.
+When a user logs onto the system, he/she is identified with his/her management responsibility and is presented with a corresponding interface, through which the user fulfills her/his management functions.
+A first-tier client depends on the second tier for identifying and executing needed applications on the third tier to perform expected management functions.
+With authorization of the management server, a first-tier client can install specific applications and tools in its local environment in order to reduce unneeded communications.
+A local application may work independently in the local environment if no information is needed from other applications or the central databases.
+For instance, a project manager can view the project schedule information at his local computer.
+If a first-tier client updates any system data under his/her responsibility, the corresponding data source should be updated accordingly.
+Moreover, construction data are usually summarized on many levels of details.
+Should other related data be updated?
+For example, if an activity is updated with a new estimated quantity, its cost estimate should be updated, and the cost estimates of the related work packages and the total project cost must also be updated.
+An application that accesses the data source before the updating would get the old data, but an application would get the new data if the data retrieval takes place after the updating.
+Whether or not an application with the old data should be automatically reexecuted to reflect the updating should be determined by corresponding business rules.
+Updating policies should be defined for data sources.
+For example, a project’s progress data may be collected and updated daily on the activity level;
+the project progress report may be generated on a weekly basis;
+and company-level summary on all ongoing projects may be updated monthly.
+The management server is the framework engine, which provides system administration and maintains central intelligence for facilitating clients and applications.
+It is the bridge between end users and applications.
+Process models function as the bridge.
+A process model is a list of interconnected management tasks that are executed for fulfilling a management function.
+After a request is raised, a corresponding process model will be identified and executed.
+When a process model is running, applications may be called by management tasks.
+Existing ERP systems provide a library of standard process models that are created based on the best industry/business practices.
+SAP R/3 contains more than 8,000 process models ~Jacobs and Whybark 2000!
+For example, if a client is soliciting tenders for a new project, the bidding division may send a request for determining a bid price on the first tier.
+A corresponding process model will be fired assuming three tasks:
+estimating direct cost;
+estimating indirect cost;
+determining profit margin.
+The three tasks may be performed by different offices and may call applications as needed.
+After the process is completed, the request is accomplished with a recommended bid price.
+If conflicts develop between different requests, they are resolved by the management server supported by intelligent agents or responsible managers.
+For instance, if two project managers are requesting the same piece of company-owned heavy equipment ~e.g., backhoe excavator!
+for two different job sites to catch up with late schedules, an application will be called to recommend a solution based on the progress of the two projects and their impacts on the company.
+The system may turn to a relevant decision maker for a recommendation if the installed applications cannot solve the conflict.
+The system scalability is achieved on this tier by defining and adding new users on the first tier and new applications on the third tier.
+As soon as a new user is registered with an assigned management responsibility, he/she can access the portion of the system corresponding to his/her responsibility.
+After a new application is added to the system, it becomes available for users in the system.
+Applications
+The third tier comprises the central database and applications.
+The central database contains cost data, project data, equipment information, and any other corporate-level information.
+Data warehousing is a new technology that provides a subject oriented, integrated, nonvolatile, and time-variant collection of data for an entire company ~Inmon 1992!
+It should be mentioned that a construction enterprise has different data from a manufacturer.
+Construction applications can be organized into three categories:
+corporate-level applications;
+project-level applications;
+back-office applications.
+The corporate-level applications mainly aim at planning corporate resources, determining bidding strategy for new projects, determining the marketing strategy, determining the operation and business strategy of the enterprise, and providing corporate management tools.
+The project-level applications serve the following project functions:
+cost estimating, scheduling, planning, resources management, progress reporting and control, and quality assurance.
+Back-office applications include human resources, purchasing, warehousing, accounting, financing, and equipment management.
+All applications are installed independently in the third tier, as illustrated in Fig. 3.
+Expected Benefits of Construction Enterprise Resource Planning
+The major expected benefits of a CERP system include information sharing, improved transparency of management responsibilities, and improved management efficiency.
+These benefits will allow better business decisions to be made in a timely manner.
+Organization of applications in third tier
+InformationSharing
+In a traditional management environment, construction information is maintained by responsible offices across a company.
+A user must cross over organizational barriers between offices in order to get information that belongs to other offices.
+An ERP system runs off one single database.
+As soon as a piece of information is generated, it is stored in the central database and is available to all eligible users in the system.
+For example, if equipment data are available online, project managers would be able to use the information to reserve their needed equipment online, although the same result can be achieved in a traditional environment through back-and-forth communications between the project team and the equipment department.
+If the delivery status of materials is available online, project managers would be able to promptly notice a late delivery and to evaluate its impact on a project schedule.
+Information sharing removes the necessity of regenerating or reentering the same information in different offices.
+Eliminating multiple data entries also help maintain data consistency and reduces human errors.
+For instance, the needed quantity of cement in a project is estimated by the staff in the estimating department.
+Using this information together with the project schedule, a purchasing officer can place an order.
+Traditionally, this information is reentered into various isolated systems such as scheduling and purchasing.
+Many management processes require a sequential set of tasks to be performed by various offices.
+For instance, a purchasing process involves preparing a purchase request, approval of the request, soliciting quotations from suppliers, sending a purchase order, and receiving the product.
+Traditional manual paper circulations between offices frequently cause delays or losses of information, or even errors in business decisions.
+For example, a purchase request from a project team may be misplaced somewhere so that the request is not processed.
+If the delivery information is not directly available to the project manager, the mistake may not be discovered until the material is needed on the job site.
+After the instance, it is very difficult to trace down the responsibility because the status of the request is not fully traced.
+The project team may criticize the purchasing staff, while the purchasing staff may argue that a request was never received.
+An ERP system performs a management function by executing a corresponding process model that consists of management tasks.
+Tasks are performed one-by-one by following the sequence given in the model.
+A seamless collaboration between offices is achieved through the networked connections between offices.
+After one task is performed, the ERP system will move to the next task in the model.
+During the process, the system keeps all details regarding when a task can be performed and when and by whom a task is performed.
+If a purchase request is generated, it is traceable to when it is generated and when it is sent to the purchasing office.
+Therefore, the responsibility is clear if the request is not processed anywhere.
+Moreover, with the delivery status online, the project team can discover the problem if the request is not processed properly.
+An ERP system improves management efficiency through two improved practices:
+providing timely consistent information;
+providing a coordinated decision-making environment.
+Making business decisions requires relevant information in a timely manner.
+In a traditional management environment, management is frequently confronted with different or even conflicting figures obtained from different sources.
+Decisions have to be delayed in order for the management to verify these figures.
+For instance, a consensus decision may be hard to reach for an ongoing project if the project team, the financial office, and the engineering department have presented different pictures for the project because they focused on different aspects, updated the project status at different time intervals, and/or did not communicate with each other during their updatings.
+In an ERP system, each piece of information has one single source and has one responsible party who may update it, so that all parties will have the same information.
+The network technology eliminates the physical barriers between offices so that all offices work on their responsible tasks in a coordinated manner.
+A management process runs from one office to another and information flows from one office to another seamlessly.
+For example, after a purchase request is initiated, the request will automatically be transmitted to a responsible office ~e.g., the financial controller’s office!
+for approval as defined in the process model.
+All requests for approval are listed on the terminals in the controller’s office.
+A control officer evaluates one request at a time.
+After being processed by the controller’s office, a request continues its journey to the next office.
+Research Issues
+There is no report on the implementation of ERP systems in typical construction firms.
+The writers believe that it will be hard to sell the current ERP systems to the construction industry for two major reasons:
+high cost and suitability.
+More than 90% of construction firms are of a small to medium size.
+They cannot afford millions of dollars for implementing an ERP system.
+Moreover, existing ERP systems emphasize standardization and automation.
+They are well-suited for large scale standard and repetitive operations and management processes ~Jacobs and Whybark 2000!
+, but they do not quite fit the needs of the construction industry.
+Research is needed to develop an ERP knowledge base that addresses the nature and the needs of the industry.
+It will be an extremely complex endeavor.
+The needed research issues include but are not limited to the following areas.
+CERPArchitectures
+A study conducted at the University of Texas at Austin, specifically investigated the SAP R/3 system for capital facility delivery ~O’Conner and Dodd 1999!
+The report concluded that R/3 can handle many functional needs through three modules:
+project systems ~PS!
+materials management ~MM!
+plant maintenance ~PM!
+These functions include cost management, schedule management, subcontractor management, construction planning, field equipment management, field materials warehouse management, procurement management, and facility operations and management.
+The report also identified the missing functions, including functionality for handling earned value, percent completion, and cost forecasts in determining project progress;
+functionality for handling project work breakdown structures, scheduling, and budgeting;
+functionality for project tracking and reporting;
+functionality for cash-flow planning and management;
+and improved functionality for reporting.
+It should be noted that SAP and other ERP systems are not primarily developed for construction.
+A manufacturer and a contractor face totally different business complexities and challenges.
+On the production level, a manufacturer’s challenges are to effectively manage a complex supplier chain around its products, including coordinating material suppliers, production facilities, warehousing facilities, distribution network, and costumers’ demands;
+but a contractor’s challenges are to win new projects and to ensure that all projects can achieve expected productivity levels and progresses.
+Many management functions essential to manufacturers are not needed for contractors, such as product ordering, warehousing, and distribution.
+On the other hand, managing a construction business requires many functions that are not necessarily essential to manufacturers, such as project cost estimating and project progress monitoring and control.
+An ERP system will be the IT backbone of an enterprise ~Bechler 1997!
+It must address the culture and general practice of the business in order to achieve its expected objectives.
+The construction business is project oriented.
+A CERP architecture should be established based on this business nature so that an ERP system can effectively support project-based estimating, scheduling, planning, procurement, resource allocation, monitoring, costing, billing, and controlling functions.
+Such an architecture will provide a familiar environment for construction users.
+Existing ERP systems aim at large international corporations with multiproduct, multiproduction facilities across regions or countries and a wide range of costumers over the world.
+Such a wide range of requirements have resulted in huge scale and expensive ERP systems in today’s market.
+If we develop an ERP architecture focusing only on the needs of typical construction firms, it would be able to effectively limit the size of the system.
+Consequently, the development and implementation costs will be significantly lower so that typical contractors can afford it.
+To address the project-oriented nature of the construction business, project management functions must be enabled in a CERP system.
+Project management functions have been widely researched on project, process, and activity levels covering many areas such as estimating, planning, scheduling, resource allocation/leveling/optimization, productivity and improvement, and progress reporting/monitoring/control ~Halpin and Riggs 1992;
+Popescu and Charoenngam 1994!
+Work is needed to integrate these results into a CERP system so that project management functions are available in an ERP environment.
+A contractor usually performs multiple projects concurrently.
+Improvement in delivering single projects is not the business objective of a contractor.
+An ERP system is intended to improve the overall efficiency of an entire enterprise.
+Therefore, research is also needed to integrate project management functions into enterprise-level business administration to facilitate a two-way communication between projects and the company management.
+On one hand, the company policy and available resources affect the execution of all ongoing projects;
+on the other hand, the status of ongoing projects jointly determines the business performance of the company.
+Research is needed to determine how the integration can be established.
+Research is also needed to study the internal interactions inside a company between projects and supporting back-office functions such as estimating, engineering, procurement, warehousing, equipment, accounting, and financing.
+The difficulty is that the interactions take place dynamically over the entire construction period of a project.
+For instance, after a change order is received, the project manager needs the estimating and/or engineering office’s assistance to determine cost and schedule estimates to be submitted to the owner’s representative/engineer.
+Moreover, developing interfaces between an ERP system and the external systems of the business partners of the company is another challenge.
+Typically, a contractor deals with many parties in a project, including the owner, owner’s representative, engineer, suppliers, and subcontractors.
+Today, many integrated project information systems ~PIS!
+provide a networked environment for all parties involved in the project to share their information ~e.g.,  A PIS serves a specific project.
+It remains to be defined how it should be integrated into a CERP system.
+Project- or process-level resource allocation, leveling, and optimization have been widely studied with common objectives such as meeting the needs of a project, maximizing the utilization/ productivity of resources, or minimizing a project’s duration/cost ~Popescu and Charoenngam 1994!
+A contractor owns various resources such as equipment and crews.
+It may have insufficient or extra resources to meet the needs of its ongoing projects.
+Allocating available resources to ongoing projects is an important company-level business decision in order to maximize the overall business objective of the company.
+Company-level resourceallocation techniques will provide quantitative tools to assist the senior management in making such resource-allocation decisions.
+A construction project is usually far away from other projects and from the head office.
+Allocating a resource from one project to another is greatly constrained, and it always involves extra costs and time losses.
+Moreover, uncertainties in a construction project often limit the planning accuracy regarding when a resource is needed on a job site and/or when it can be released.
+Furthermore, some construction operations cannot be performed if a key or driving resource ~e.g., crane!
+is not available.
+Contractors normally want to maximize the usage of key resources, but the utilization of other resources might be compromised.
+These factors must be considered while company-level resourceallocation techniques are studied.
+Existing ERP systems achieve business management automation through standardization.
+A standard process model is created based on the best practice for performing a management function.
+Whenever the management function is needed, the same standard process will be executed in an ERP environment.
+At the installation stage of an ERP system, a company has the option whether or not to activate a standard model.
+If the company decides to use it, its staff must follow the standard process to execute the function when the ERP system is up and running.
+Therefore, standardization usually requires a company to reengineer its business practices.
+The benefits of standardization include improved management efficiency and reduced human errors, but it requires the staff in the company to adopt new working procedures that are different from what they were used to.
+Although it is possible to request an ERP provider to customize standard processes to fit a company’s practices, it has proven expensive and time consuming, and presents a lack of compatibility with future releases of the ERP system ~Krasner 2000!
+Customization is therefore not recommended by existing ERP providers.
+There are two separate research issues:
+standardization and customization of construction management functions.
+Some management functions can be standardized based on the industrywide practice.
+Standardizing a management function includes:
+identifying management tasks;
+linking these tasks logically;
+defining performance procedures of the tasks.
+For example, an order cancellation management process is shown in Fig. 4.
+If the purchase office is informed that an order for a batch of window frames is cancelled because the supplier is out of business, a purchasing officer can activate the process.
+In the order cancellation box, ‘‘window frames’’ is highlighted.
+An alternative supplier is identified by the officer from the alternative supplier list, and a new order is placed with the endorsement of the purchasing officer.
+The affected project and offices are then informed of the updated cost and delivery information.
+The project manager can update the job-site plan to accommodate the new delivery date.
+On the other hand, the construction industry is characterized by nonstandardization in many areas.
+Many management processes cannot be standardized.
+Research is needed to develop corresponding technology that will allow custom management processes to be created with little or no effort ~Kurucu 2001!
+ModelingHumanIntelligenceinDecision-Making Processes
+Although an ERP system is intended for business management automation, there will always be situations in which human expert decisions work better.
+Human intelligence and experience are widely recognized as one of the most important assets for the success of a construction business.
+How such knowledge can be incorporated into an ERP system remains to be studied.
+An ERP system should not short-circuit decision makers.
+Governing rules must be developed for automated functions such as:
+level of automation;
+human responsibility;
+interactions between a human and the system.
+A decision maker may endorse a recommendation obtained from an automated process or overrule the system with a different decision as appropriate.
+For the order cancellation example illustrated above, if the purchasing officer is not pleased with the system-recommended alternative supplier, he/she may explore other alternatives by making phone calls or by searching webs.
+A new order may be placed differently from the one the system recommended.
+Moreover, an ERP may not be able to come up with a solution for many problems for various reasons ~e.g., insufficient information!
+, and it must turn to human experts for decisions.
+All of these remain challenges laying ahead in the process of developing the knowledge base of a CERP system.
+This paper discussed ERP technology and its potential in the construction industry.
+Because existing ERP systems are primarily developed for the manufacturing industry, they can hardly meet the needs of the construction industry.
+A knowledge base is needed for developing CERP systems by addressing the nature and business culture of the industry.
+This paper proposed a threetiered architecture for CERP systems and outlined the major features that a CERP system should have.
+Some key research issues are also elaborated.
+With this unprecedented challenge, developing the knowledge base requires a wide range of research activities and collaborations among researchers in the construction community.
+Acknowledgment
+This project was funded by the National Science Foundation ~NSF!
+under the Scalable Enterprise Systems Program Award CMS-0075568.

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+Four-Dimensional Visualization of Construction Scheduling and Site Utilization
+Four-dimensional ~4D!
+models link three-dimensional geometrical models with construction schedule data.
+The visual link between the schedule and construction site conditions is capable of facilitating decision making during both the planning and construction stages.
+The emphases of these 4D developments have often been placed at the level of construction components.
+Practical features assisting site management are at times lacking in the following areas:
+generation of site usage layouts;
+estimation of quantities of construction materials;
+cost evaluation.
+In order to pinpoint these deficiencies, the objective of this work is to enable visual study of the effects of job progress on the logistics and resource schedules.
+This paper presents a 4D visualization model that is intended both to help construction managers plan day-to-day activities more efficiently in a broader and more practical site management context and to thereby add to our knowledge and understanding of the relevance of modern computer graphics to the responsibilities of the construction site manager.
+A brief site trial of the software is described at the conclusion of the paper.
+CE Database subject headings:
+Computer aided scheduling;
+Graphic methods;
+Construction management;
+Construction planning;
+Three-dimensional models;
+Construction sites.
+Introduction
+Comprehensive planning and the efficient layout of site facilities are important factors contributing to successful construction management.
+A major characteristic of a contemporary construction project is its complex and multidisciplinary nature.
+This in turn demands more site staff effort and higher standards in planning and communication.
+It should be noted, however, that for most construction projects, the client’s requirements are still represented in terms of paper-based working drawings.
+An important task for the contractor is to formulate a project schedule that links different construction activities on the basis of these working drawings.
+In this process, planners have to take into consideration practical construction sequence, proper workspace logistics, and feasible resource allocation, which includes labor, material, equipment, and the use of site space.
+In practice, the initial site layout drawings that show the site organization and utilization are normally not updated as construction progresses.
+Planners usually only internally conceptualize new facilities arrangements as the conditions evolve.
+This lack of a formal representation cannot truly reflect the fact that the site layout is intuitively dependent on the construction schedule.
+Dept. of Civil and Structural Engineering, Hong Kong Polytechnic Univ., Hunghom, Kowloon, Hong Kong.
+Dept. of Civil Engineering, Tsinghua Univ., Beijing, People’s Republic of China.
+Note. Discussion open until January 1, 2005.
+Separate discussions must be submitted for individual papers.
+To extend the closing date by one month, a written request must be filed with the ASCE Managing Editor.
+The manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and possible publication on August 21, 2002;
+approved on May 29, 2003.
+This paper is part of the Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, Vol. 130, No. 4, August 1, 2004. ©ASCE, ISSN 0733-9364/
+Moreover, contemporary computer-aided tools including bar charts or critical path method network charts can only represent the construction schedule, but not the spatial features or the associated resource requirements.
+Visual representations of the project at different instants, including project progress and the status of site space usage, cannot be provided.
+Thus, in order to select the most feasible construction scheme as well as site usage layout, planners can only gather information from design documents and apply their judgment and experience.
+It is apparent that the potential capability of computers could be further exploited.
+During the past decade, previous research efforts have been made towards advanced four-dimensional ~4D!
+planning models by integrating three-dimensional ~3D!
+visualization with the time attribute.
+Retik et al. ~1990!
+studied the feasibility of using computer graphics in partnership with construction scheduling and explored the required functions.
+Zhang ~1996!
+reported on a 3D graphical construction model.
+Williams ~1996!
+designed a demand-driven 4D model for the generation of a graphical construction plan on the basis of simulation, visualization, and communication.
+Collier and Fischer ~1996!
+demonstrated visual-based 4D modeling and scheduling in a case study of the San Mateo County Hospital.
+McKinney et al. ~1996!
+proposed a fourdimensional computer-aided design ~4D-CAD!
+tool with visual and communicative functions to facilitate the design process.
+Adjei-Kumi and Retik ~1997!
+applied the concept of virtual reality to visualize the construction plan using a library-based 4D model.
+McKinney et al. ~1998!
+demonstrated the capability of 4D-CAD models to identify construction problems prior to their actual occurrence.
+McKinney and Fischer ~1998!
+studied the effectiveness of a hybrid 4D application using the contemporary software Primavera, AutoCAD, Jacobus Simulation Toolkit, and Walkthru.
+Zhang et al. ~2000!
+developed a 3D visualization model with schedule data at the level of construction components.
+Kamat and Martinez ~2001!
+presented a 3D visualization model depicting the entire process of a typical construction activity.
+This paper also presents a 4D visualization model for construction planning and site utilization by integrating a 3D geometrical model with a project activity schedule.
+A distinct feature of this model is the annotation also of a construction activity with its associated resources requirements:
+labor, material, and equipment.
+One of the major objectives of this work is to provide a flexible 4D graphical visualization capability that is also convenient to use for short term replanning and communication, usually for a specific part only of the whole project, because this is often required at site level.
+Other useful features for efficient site management are also included, such as construction schedule, site facilities layout, site workspace utilization, resources allocation, and cost estimation.
+One overall research objective is to promote our knowledge and understanding of the role for modern computer graphics in enabling construction site managers to better discharge their responsibilities.
+Characteristics of 4D Visualization Model
+The generation of this construction project 4D visualization model requires integration of a 3D geometrical model with the associated schedule of activities.
+Other computer-based techniques are also incorporated to enhance its capability to carry out useful site management functions over different spatial and temporal domains.
+The model provides a comprehensive site management tool for construction managers during the building cycle and enables visualized planning, linkage between the 3D geometrical model and the bar chart schedule, resource requirement analysis for each activity, material allocation, and cost breakdown.
+The visualization of the 3D construction site status, the completed work, and the status of uncompleted work is displayed at any specified time by moving forward or backward on a timeline.
+This is accomplished through the integration of the 3D geometrical model and the associated activity schedule for the construction project.
+It assists construction planners in making crucial decisions by enabling visualization of the details of the prospective work at any specified time.
+A variety of scenarios with alternative construction sequences can be tested, and identification of potential logistic problems is assisted.
+OtherEssentialSiteManagementFunctions
+Through the linking of symbolic and graphical data, this model incorporates facilities assisting other essential site management functions—e.g., computing the resource requirements of different activities for labor, material, and equipment;
+estimating the incurred cost in any specified time period;
+and evaluating and ranking various construction plans through its knowledge base.
+Overall, this model assists a manager to improve resource allocation during the planning and management of construction work, a task that is becoming more and more difficult to achieve nowadays.
+TraditionalManagementPractice
+A major impediment in the use of any new software is nonfamiliarity.
+In order to reduce this effect, the traditional site management representations of the construction schedule and site facility layout are simulated in the 4D visualization model as far as possible.
+Hence, drawings and bar charts are employed to represent site plans and project schedules, respectively.
+This model allows bidirectional data exchange between the 3D geometrical model and the project schedule.
+The user is granted the alternative to update the construction plan either through the 3D graphical environment or through the conventional bar chart scheduling environment.
+If the timing of a certain activity is modified graphically on the screen, synchronized adjustment of that activity will be made automatically to the bar schedule, and vice versa.
+Furthermore, the evaluation of the resource requirement schedule will also be updated to achieve consistency.
+GraphicalRepresentationfromDifferentAnglesof View
+This model is able to represent components of the 3D model graphically as viewed from different angles, because of the provision of a graphical user interface ~GUI!
+and input data on the geometry.
+Architecture of 4D Visualization Model
+Sample screen showing data input of building story
+In order to successfully integrate different components for construction planning and management, an essential requirement of the 4D visualization model is the ability to identify and organize various types of data.
+The algorithm for the model is mainly structured to satisfy this goal.
+Another essential requirement is for consistency of data within the 3D geometrical model, project schedule, and resources computations, in particular during modification.
+Owing to the wide availability of microcomputers in site offices, this prototype model has been developed on a personal computer under the contemporary Windows platform.
+Visual C11 is the programming development environment for the construction processor as well as for the user interface.
+AutoCAD has been selected as the graphics tool.
+Microsoft Project has been adopted as the project scheduling environment and Microsoft OLAP as the data warehouse for the model.
+Fig. 1 shows the architecture of the 4D visualization model.
+The prototype system comprises six principal components that interchange data synchronously through the dynamic data exchange facilities.
+The details of the components are listed as follows.
+The 4D visualization module, being central to the prototype system, undertakes various functions, including integration amongst other modules, 4D representations, and practical site management outputs.
+It comprises spatial representation via a 3D geometrical model that simulates the state of a project at a specific instant, together with the temporal representation via its associated schedule.
+The visualization output is produced as a series of graphics based on the 3D geometrical model, numerical representations of attributes of building components, and the locations of temporary site facilities, all as functions of time during the construction process.
+Dynamic changes to the visual attributes of the entities will then represent progress in 4D states with advance of construction time.
+In this context, a specific 4D state is defined as the graphical display of the project with visual and numerical attributes in a 3D format at a specified time.
+Moreover, this module enriches the 4D state with the annotation of other associated entities ~labor, material, equipment, workspace, and cost!
+for onward processing in resource evaluation, workspace analysis, and cost breakdown.
+ConstructionProcessorwithVisualC¿¿
+The construction processor, being the key instrument for exchanging data, is responsible for providing a link between the 3D geometrical model and the construction scheduling data for onward processing in the 4D visualization module.
+The construction processor checks the data feedback from the 4D visualization module to ensure synchronization with the scheduling data before the model regeneration results in any modifications.
+Moreover, it undertakes to represent construction activities symbolically as a function of time, to compute the resource requirements for any activities, to estimate associated workspace and temporary facilities, and to evaluate costs for any activities.
+Sample screen showing input data of various elements and their relationships
+In this prototype system, AutoCAD is employed as the graphical programming environment by a construction planner when generating a 3D geometrical model of the project.
+It is represented by various graphical construction components or other entities related to construction activities, which are broadly grouped under the three categories:
+structural elements;
+operational objects;
+temporary facilities.
+Structural hardware elements, usually on the basis of their relative locations, are further classified under different subclasses of building components such as floor, beam, column, slab, wall, and so on.
+Operational objects graphically represent the progress states of construction activities for a particular structural component.
+Typical examples of operational objects include formwork erection, falsework installation, steel fixing, and concreting, to name a few, and they are each represented in the 3D model by a different image pattern such as a variety of graphical textures.
+Temporary facilities such as site offices, items of mechanical plant, material storage, and site assembly areas are those construction-related entities that will not constitute the permanent structure on completion, but do occupy site space.
+BarChartSchedulingwithMicrosoftProject
+Microsoft Project is used in this system to display a bar chart scheduling environment that links the temporal relationships amongst various construction activities from start to completion of the construction project.
+This module is the main data source for the generation of the bar chart project schedule.
+Essential data include the duration of a specific construction activity, the commencement time and end time of an individual activity, sequencing data amongst the various activities, and symbolic site plan details.
+DataWarehousewithMicrosoftOLAP
+Because an enormous amount of data is generated in the 3D geometrical model, including scheduling and resource allocation annotations, data manipulation is crucial to the success of the 4D visualization system.
+In this study, a data warehousing technique has been adopted to manage the database.
+It represents the knowledge base that encompasses all the working details and construction management on the project.
+The integration of graphical data with different nongraphical scheduling data is attained based on their spatial-temporal relationships and the dynamic exchange.
+The data warehouse provides a data structure for bidirectional data flow between the construction schedule and resource data management features within the 4D model.
+Microsoft Online Analysis Processing ~OLAP!
+is employed as the data warehousing software ~Chau et al. 2003!
+UserInterfacewithVisualC¿¿
+An interface allows the user to specify all planning parameters and acquire the output results from the system.
+The user can evaluate the prospective construction progress during the planning process through the interface.
+In this prototype system, graphical user interfaces, consisting of layers of display screens and pop-up windows, are used for message transfer, resulting in the greater simplification of data handling.
+The user has control over the sequence of actions during the planning process subject to conformance with knowledge modules that store certain heuristic rules on construction technology.
+Algorithmic Process
+The algorithmic process in the 4D visualization system is divided into two major steps:
+4D visualization based on the data input;
+validation of data feedback from the 4D visualization.
+Sample screen showing data input of segments and associated scheduling
+The 3D geometrical model is based initially on the geometrical data input of the construction project.
+After this, the construction processor represents components by transforming graphical representations of all structural elements and temporary site facilities involved in the 3D geometrical model to corresponding symbolic representations.
+The construction activities involved at different levels, together with their interrelationships for various structural components, are retrieved from certain established or heuristic method statements, and the subsequent construction technology description is then stored in a knowledge base.
+Moreover, based on this knowledge base, adequate temporary facilities are automatically added on the site layout plan.
+The intermediate output acquired automatically at the end of this stage is initial scheduling data, which is then transferred automatically into the Microsoft Project environment for manipulation and validation before the generation of the bar chart schedule for the project.
+The user is allowed to refine and even drastically alter this scheduling data, so as to represent the intended initial construction plan.
+The data is subsequently transferred back to the construction processor for the ultimate compilation and generation of the 4D visualization model, by integrating the component representation data with this initial plan.
+The dynamic visual attribute of an individual component representation entity is epitomized in terms of a numerical expression as a function of time.
+Three types of visual attributes are available here:
+visible plus certain image patterns of other activities;
+The construction processor then provides the feature for each construction entity in accordance with the aforementioned knowledge base on construction technology.
+This ‘‘process representation’’ process expresses the spatialtemporal relationship between the 3D geometrical model and the scheduling data, in order to generate the 4D visualization model.
+The construction processor determines the visual attribute of each structural component or site facility for display of the 3D geometrical model against the time expended during daily operation of the project, on the basis of the process representation.
+It should be noted that the construction processor is the key to evaluating whether a structural element is visible, visible plus a specific operational object, or invisible, and whether a temporary facility is visible or invisible at a specified time.
+Furthermore, the construction processor integrates graphical and nongraphical data with construction annotations for the generation of the 4D visualization model.
+If any modifications are made to the 4D state via the graphic screen in the 4D visualization model, it is important to ensure that the scheduling data is also updated in a synchronous manner.
+A difficulty has been encountered in achieving this reverse data flow.
+It comes from the intuitive limitations of an individual 4D state, which cannot incorporate the activity relationships and the temporal attribute at the same time.
+A new algorithm with the introduction of certain operational attributes has been developed here to overcome this difficulty.
+In this algorithm, the activities displayed in a simulation of the 4D state representing the status for a specified time can be advanced, postponed, prolonged, shortened, or paused, via the GUI and adjustment of the corresponding visual attributes.
+Through these operations, any modifications to the 4D state can be reflected by updating of the scheduling data.
+A few assumptions have been made underlying the development of this new algo-
+Sample screen showing some predefined templates of construction activities
+Sample screen of 4D visualization linking 3D geometrical model with schedule
+Sample screen showing 4D state being updated
+rithm, with a view to reestablishing the temporal attributes and the activity relationships after the 4D state has been adjusted.
+They are listed as follows:
+• The total numbers of activities are not affected;
+• Activities happening prior to the modification timeline are not altered;
+• The orders and relationships amongst different construction activities are not affected;
+• The connectivity time between successors and predecessors of all activities are not changed;
+• In case any temporal attributes of an activity have been modified, the user is required to enter new values of the activity duration, commencement/completion/connectivity time, with all its successors and predecessors.
+The validation of data feedback from the 4D visualization model should also adhere to these assumptions.
+Once any proposed modifications are entered via the GUI to the 4D state in the 4D visualization model, the construction processor will determine whether or not the request is legitimate.
+The construction processor will adjust the process representation and the scheduling data relevant to the associated activities or temporary facilities on the basis of the construction technology knowledge base only if the request is considered legitimate.
+The temporal attribute of an activity will be adjusted.
+The construction processor will then update all the following activities that are affected.
+At the same time, the bar chart schedule under Microsoft Project will be updated synchronously.
+Moreover, the construction processor will use the updated scheduling data to regenerate both a 4D visualization model as well as a process representation.
+However, if the modification is considered illegitimate, the construction processor will revert to the original 4D visualization model, meaning that the modification is not successful.
+This prototype system was applied to the Tradeport Logistic Center—a three-story warehouse building site—during the actual construction of the project, in order to verify and validate its performance in real practice.
+The construction period for the structural works was from January to October 2002.
+Although the building was nominally of three stories, each story was of double height with mezzanine floors.
+Thus, together with the rooftop structure, the building had the height of a typical seven-story structure.
+The client, The Hong Kong Land Company Limited ~a major property development company in Hong Kong!
+and the contractor, Gammon Skanska Limited ~one of the largest in Hong Kong!
+, had entered into the contract on a guaranteed maximum price basis.
+The contractor was involved early in the preconstruction period and had made contributions to the design.
+The prototype 4D visualization system was employed throughout the construction process of this project to evaluate the data representation adequacy and also the effectiveness of the system.
+Sample screen of 4D visualization on projected date
+The data input and output are best demonstrated in terms of some sample screens for this practical application.
+Fig. 2 is a sample screen showing data input of a building story.
+Fig. 3 is a sample screen showing input data of various elements and their relationships.
+Fig. 4 is a sample screen showing data input of segments and associated scheduling.
+Fig. 5 is a sample screen showing some predefined templates of construction activities.
+Fig. 6 is a sample screen of a resulting 4D visualization linking a 3D geometrical model with a schedule.
+Fig. 7 is a sample screen showing a 4D state being updated.
+Finally, Fig. 8 shows a sample screen of the output 4D visualization on a projected date.
+In this application work, comments made by the site staff were also incorporated, resulting in substantial improvement in the practicality of the system.
+Moreover, the verification and validation did demonstrate the real application of the 4D visualization model in short-term site replanning activities.
+The experience gleaned from this verification process was delineated in Anson et al. ~2004!
+In this paper, a prototype 4D visualization model has been developed and implemented with a view to overcoming problems incurred in conventional construction planning methods and in incorporating practical site management features.
+This 4D visualization model, which links the 3D geometrical model with scheduling data, comprises the activity schedule, associated allocation of resources, and layout of site facilities at any projected instant.
+There are many potential benefits of a 4D visualization system, including facilitating site planning and management, predicting the occurrence of any potential site problems, and streamlining the site management practices.
+Moreover, the advancements in computing technology have assisted in this work, resulting in a user-friendly, comprehensive, and integrated site management tool.
+It is believed that 4D visualization will have strong potential in construction planning and management processes.
+Acknowledgment
+This research was supported by the Research Grants Council of Hong Kong ~PolyU5060/99E!

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+Delay Mitigation in the Malaysian Construction Industry
+This paper describes the importance of applying proper management in dealing with delays in construction for a growing economy.
+The main objective of this paper is to identify the management tools that are practiced in the local construction industry in mitigating delay.
+It also aims to identify the main factors that lead to project delays and to suggest recommendations on how to overcome or mitigate effects of the problem.
+Data is gathered from responses from questionnaire survey and interviews with those involved in construction project.
+The surveys and research findings indicate that delay incidents occur mainly during the construction phase of a project and one or more parties usually contribute to delay.
+This paper highlights the importance of having more experienced and capable construction managers as well as skilled laborers to enable the industry to develop at a faster rate either nationally or internationally.
+CE Database subject headings:
+Delay time;
+Construction management;
+Introduction
+The construction sector represents one of the most dynamic and complex industrial environments.
+Peurifoy and Ledbetter 1985 identify that the construction industry is one that deals mainly with the conversion of plans and specifications into a finished product.
+It comprises a mixed variety of organizations that face difficult situations and to some degree similar pressures.
+Many of these problematic situations are either beyond control and often lead to delay.
+In developing countries, the construction sector forms a high percentage of the economy.
+In Malaysia, for example, in the third quarter of 2004, the construction sector contracted by 3.0% compared to a positive growth of 2.4% in the same quarter a year ago DSM 2004.
+Up to the Asia-crisis average annual growth rate of 14% and demand for construction material increased by 37.7% in 2001 compared to 2000, budget 2001 allocates 24 billion RM for
+Center of Project and Facilities Management PFM, Faculty of Built Environment, Univ. of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia corresponding author.
+[email protected]
+Dept. of Real Estate & Construction, Oxford Brookes Univ., Oxford OX3 0BP, U.K. E-mail:
+[email protected]
+Dept. of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Univ. of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
+[email protected]
+Center of Project and Facilities Management PFM, Faculty of Built Environment, Univ. of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
+Center of Project and Facilities Management PFM, Faculty of Built Environment, Univ. of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
+Center of Project and Facilities Management PFM, Faculty of Built Environment, Univ. of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
+[email protected]
+Note. Discussion open until July 1, 2006.
+Separate discussions must be submitted for individual papers.
+To extend the closing date by one month, a written request must be filed with the ASCE Managing Editor.
+The manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and possible publication on November 18, 2002;
+approved on June 15, 2005.
+This paper is part of the Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, Vol. 132, No. 2, February 1, 2006. ©ASCE, ISSN 0733-9364/2006/ 2-125–133/$25.00.
+infrastructure projects Bank of Malaysia 2001.
+Meanwhile in the United Kingdom the construction industry has averaged 7.5% of the gross domestic product over the 5 years between 1992 and 1996, employing around 1.4 million people in 1998 Office of National Statistics 1997;
+Despite its great economic importance, the construction industry regularly shows lower levels of productivity when compared with the manufacturing industry.
+Indeed, in the United States it is reported that, between 1970 and 1995, the productivity of the sector had decreased at a rate of −1.3% per year while in the same period the manufacturing industry had increased at +3.5% per year Teicholz 1997.
+All parties involved in constructing a project must understand the sort of business they are in and should implement management well throughout the life of a project Harrison 1995.
+Andersen et al. 1995 found that the standard planning approach can be replaced with milestone planning, which will focus and promote result-oriented thinking rather than activity-oriented thinking.
+This finding is consistent with Bart 1993 that the traditional approach of planning and controlling of projects tend to fail mainly because of too much formal control which curtails creativity from playing a crucial role in execution of the project.
+Achieving economic and schedule goals will be possible only by adopting the appropriate control system especially during the construction phase.
+The use of control systems and similar applications will cost money, but the potential savings are several times the cost of implementing them through mitigating and even preventing delay during the construction.
+Advanced techniques cost more, but offer greater return if properly applied.
+Time–cost trade-off considerations mean that delays on a large project can easily cause additional costs, therefore if work can be carefully monitored and managed so that it proceeds without extra cost the final result would satisfy the client.
+Delays in Project
+Many construction projects suffer from delay.
+Suspension means stoppage of work directed to the contractor by a formal form from the client, while delay is a slowing down of work without stopping it entirely Bartholomew 1998.
+Delays give rise to disruption of work and loss of productivity, late completion of project, increased time related costs, and third party claims and abandonment or termination of contract.
+It is important that general management keep track of project progress to reduce the possibility of delay occurrence or identify it at early stages Martin 1976.
+Construction planning has to be a much more decentralized activity to cope with the inherently uncertain nature of task duration.
+However, Ballard and Howell 1998 argued that construction planners should make only “quality assignments” where tasks not meeting these criterias:
+1 sufficiently well defined to be coordinated with other work and the inputs to be identified and assembled;
+2 are ready to start material, design, and precedent works complete;
+3 have priority in the critical path for delivery to the customer;
+4 are commensurate in scale with the available labor for the coming week;
+and 5 are carried out within a system where the causes of incomplete or poor quality assignments are investigated and identified, should be deferred.
+Monitoring gives early warning of the possibility of contractor’s delays and helps in anticipating the consequences of changes that may be needed Cleland 1999;
+Abdul-Rahman and Berawi 2002a.
+Young and Jinijoo 1998 explain that top management support is required and this can be defined as the willingness of top management to provide necessary resources, authority, and power.
+Decision making at the right time is important especially with a fast-track project in preventing delays because the concept of using fast-tracking can be applied to traditional contract projects whereby construction starts prior to completion of the design/contract document Ahuja et al. 1994.
+Decision making process is used as the key to effective project management especially in value and risk analysis Stuckenburck 1982.
+Types of Delay in Project
+Delay is considered a major cause of construction claims.
+Claims could be due to three types of delay, namely:
+excusable, inexcusable, and compensable delays Ahuja et al. 1994.
+It is important to document all the causes in a proper way to obtain the claims approved.
+Cases of excusable delays include design problems, client initiated changes, acts of God, and uncertainties.
+Orr and McKenzie 1992;
+Pardu 1996;
+Clarke 1999;
+and Hartman 2000 all noted that lack of proper communication is one of the major reasons for the failure of many projects to meet their expectations.
+Compensable delays occur when the owner or the consultant has delayed the contractor in the completion of the work.
+It entitles the contractor to additional compensation and the contractor may be granted extension of time and money if there is any change in scope of work, late supply of owner materials or information, impeded site access, differing site conditions, and failure to provide timely and review shop drawings Potts 1995.
+Causes of Delays
+A common risk to project is failure to start work on time.
+Very long delays can be caused by variations, legal or planning difficulties, shortage of information, lack of funds or other resources, and other reasons which may lead to delay of the site possession.
+All of these factors can place a project manager in a difficult position and if the project is not allowed to start on time it can hardly be expected to finish on time Lock 1996.
+Based on a survey made among the contracting organizations of the United States working in developing countries we arrived at the conclusion that the owner is seen as the main reason for project cost overruns or schedule delays by 43.3% of the respondents.
+The owner in developing countries was not ready to pay extra cost to save time by 66.7% of the projects surveyed.
+In addition, the owner was the most frequent cause for contract changes during design and/or construction, a majority 70% of the respondents felt that the owner never made timely decisions Sundaram 1989.
+Delays caused by the designer can be classified into four main items:
+defects in design, slow correction of design problems, tardy review of shop drawings, and delay in tests and inspections Abdul-Rahman and Berawi 2001.
+Delay caused by contractors’ attributes most often is classified into five main items:
+failure to evaluate the site or design, management problem, inadequate resources, poor workmanship, and subcontractor failures.
+Deviations between performance and plans are not always the fault of project implementers;
+a lack of conformity to plans can also result from inappropriate plans rather than inadequate performance Goodman and Ralph 1980.
+Other causes of delay are attributed to improper management of materials and hampered by lack of an explicit and detailed model of the project materials management process Naief 2002 and due to lack of skillful management where less attention is paid to resources allocation, i.e., human, financial, and material resources Frimpong et al. 2003.
+Mitigation of Delay
+An analysis is needed to identify the impact of delay on time and cost followed by taking the appropriate action to mitigate delay and minimize the cost required Clogh 1981.
+It is important to improve the estimated activity duration according to the actual skill levels, unexpected events, efficiency of work time, and mistakes and misunderstandings Lock 1996.
+Mitigation efforts are necessary to minimize losses and this can be achieved by many procedures such as protection of uncompleted work, timely and reasonable reprocurement, and timely changing or cancellation of purchase orders Bramble and Callahan 1992.
+It is important to predict and identify the problems in the early stages of construction and diagnose the cause to find and implement the most appropriate and economical solutions Abdul-Rahman and Berawi 2002b.
+Construction projects involve more variables and uncertainties than in the product line.
+This factor increases the probability of delay occurrences in construction projects and makes effective management important to reduce the diversions from the original program.
+Planning is easiest done in a homogeneous task environment under stable conditions such as found in production firms than in a construction project and this presents a challenge for managers involved in construction projects.
+Research Objectives
+This research seeks to investigate the attitude of clients, consultants, and contractors in achieving the planned project completion time and to identify the main causes of delays in construction and to recommend procedures to mitigate it.
+The proposed research objectives are as follows:
+• Management concepts pursuant in the Malaysian construction industry facts and policy;
+• Validate finding using real life projects;
+• Suggestions to mitigate major delays in projects.
+Research Method
+The information needed for this research was obtained from three principal sources:
+• Literature reviews;
+• Questionnaire survey;
+The literature reviews provide useful guidelines and information on the construction management concepts and how by applying them can help point out the faults that will lead to delays.
+Those literature reviews were also used to guide the formation of questionnaire and interviews design.
+The research was then conducted with questionnaires survey and some interviews with construction practice.
+The main objectives of this survey are
+• To determine management’s responsibility and approaches used in minimizing the effect of delay;
+• To identify the types and causes of delays in construction;
+• To obtain feedback on procedures used to overcome or mitigate the effect of delay incidents.
+The use of the survey would enable the evaluation of management’s effectiveness in accomplishing organization objectives to perform the management functions of planning, organizing directing, controlling, and managerial decision making.
+The questionnaire was designed in two parts.
+The first part, known as Set-A, was meant for the top management level in the organization, and Set-B is for project managers or senior executives in a project.
+The questionnaires were distributed to selfselecting construction practitioners, that is, the units of analysis were self-proclaimed construction professionals.
+Addresses of organizations for the survey were selected from professional organizations which represent a practice community involved in the construction industry such as the Association of Consulting Engineers Malaysia, The Construction Industry Development Board of Malaysia CIDB, and Malaysian Architect Association PAM annual report.
+The questionnaires were distributed to 502 organizations including clients, consultants, and contractors located in the Klang Valley Kuala Lumpur and Selangor States.
+A 1-month period was allowed for the participants to complete and return the forms.
+The feedback from questionnaires has been analyzed using a statistical method Freund and Simon 1997;
+Spiegel and Stephens 1999;
+Freund and Wilson 2003 through a computer program.
+After going through the completed questionnaire forms, a few respondents were short listed to be interviewed based on the feedback and comments given in the questionnaire forms.
+Number of organizations
+Responsibility to Overcome Delay
+Number of respondent and its percentage
+The responsible person
+Project manager and staff in the project
+Management team as whole
+All the functional groups involved
+Depend on the project value and Complexity of the project
+purposed to gather further information regarding the issues raised in the questionnaire or comment given by the respondents and to reaffirm the responses of the survey.
+The interviews covered the three main parties involved in construction project including two clients, 10 contractors, and four consultants.
+Findings from the questionnaire survey and the interviews are used as indicators to the current construction management approaches used by the parties involved.
+Issues probed during the survey interviews include:
+when delay occurs, in which activity it occurs mainly, the main causes of delay in projects, and the pro-
+Procedures to Assure Quality and Progress
+Number of respondent and its percentage
+Rely on experienced and
+rely on inspection
+Rely on approval from the relevant authorities
+Holding site meeting regularly with all functional groups involved
+Preparing detail schedules for each project and updates it regularly
+Recommended the use of certain standard B.S. or M.S., ISO 9000
+Use of experienced subcontractors
+Sample and make up preparations
+Contract Types and Delays Management View
+Number of respondent and its percentage
+Relationship between contract types and delays
+cedures used to reduce its effect.
+A gap analysis was conducted to make the result explicit and underline the need for applying proper management in dealing with delays in construction projects.
+Survey Result Analysis
+The total number of firms that completed and returned the questionnaire sets was 502 comprising of eight. clients 2% of the total, 81 consultants 16%, and 413 contractors 82%.
+A total of 2,598 sets was submitted to the different firms, 1,002 copies of set-A and 1,598 of set-B.
+The response rate was 7.4%, as shown in Table 1 comprising 3.6% for set-A and 4.8% for set-B. The overall response to both sets were 113 copies out of 2,598.
+The low response rate was due to the relocation of many companies and some were too busy to handle daily routines in the bad economic climate.
+The respondent’s positions were classified into three categories, the highest 52.8% consisted of head departments followed by the heads of organizations 27.8%, senior engineers/designers 16.7%, while 2.7% did not specify their position.
+Management and Quality Policy
+About 29.2% of the respondents agreed that most of the responsibility to overcome a delay problem should be borne by the management team while the another 27.1% indicated all the functional groups should be responsible as shown at Table 2.
+About 23.9% of the respondents as shown in Table 3 considered holding site meetings regularly as a procedure to assure quality followed by a heavy reliance on experienced and skilled workers.
+About 17.7% prepared detailed schedules for each project and updated it regularly and 12.4% by quality control on project.
+Another way to assure quality by inspection activities and recommended the use of a certain standard as a quality system.
+Contract Types and Delays Minimum Influence
+Type of contract
+Design and build
+Turnkey contract
+Project Cycle and Delay
+Number of respondent and its percentage
+Construction
+Commissioning
+Contract Types and Delays
+Table 4 shows that 70.6% of the top management from all three parties agreed that there is a relationship between type of contract and delay, while 23.5% did not agree with this and 5.9% were not sure.
+The contractor and the consultants had almost the same views but the clients ranked negotiated tender as the best type that had minimum influence on contract time as a result from Table 5.
+Delay in Construction Project Cycle
+The construction phase has the highest number 45.9%, the commissioning phase was chosen by 19.7%, and tendering by 16.4% followed by 14.8% who selected design stage as Table 6 illustrates the phase in project lifecycle that suffers from delay as perceived by top management.
+Activities with Most Delay Incidents
+Table 7 shows that delay incidents occur mainly in the foundation/substructure activity 21.85%.
+Piling and finishing each contribute to 17.5% of the responses followed by other activities as shown in Table 8.
+The risk of delay problems in foundation works is high if the soil investigations were not done properly and sufficiently.
+Human errors such as mistakes in setting up have also been associated to this type of delay.
+The clients responses showed that finishing works experienced the highest number of delay incidents, while the contractor gave highest responses for foundation work.
+A delay can be caused by any one of the three parties.
+For instance, a client may not identify his needs
+Activities with the Most Delay Incidents
+Opinion in Quality of Design Activity
+Number of respondent and its percentage
+Perceptions based on experience
+The designer submitted a complete set of final drawings at the right time
+The designer has recognized project need requirements
+The designer has assessed the project
+The designer has successfully taken measures to anticipate quality
+The designer has satisfactorily reviewed
+the changes from
+There is a lack of design coordination and design discrepancy
+It is difficult to build
+Shortage of experienced designers
+Total and procedures
+Currently used
+Currently used
+Currently used
+Currently used
+Construct works tables follow method
+Using detailed work procedure
+Inspection on works prevention/appraisal
+Holding site meeting regularly with groups
+Planning and Controlling Techniques
+clearly and completely or the consultant did not provide suitable
+and complete details or the contractor performed the work with a poor quality or/and the productivity was less than expected.
+Quality of Design
+Table 8 exhibits the opinion of the respondent on the overall quality of design in the project.
+The highest number of 31 respondent 22.3% express their satisfaction for designers who had recognized project needs requirements and agreed that the designer had satisfactorily reviewed, checked, and amended the changes.
+The full satisfaction expressed by 10.1% was for the designer who submitted a complete set of final drawings at the right time, 5% said it was because the designer had assessed the project risk, and 4.3% because designers had successfully taken measures to anticipate the quality problem.
+About 34.6% expressed their dissatisfaction for either unclear, incomplete design details 13.7%, five respondent 5.6% said that it was difficult to build, and 2.15% of the respondents said the designer did not understand material and the designers had insufficient experience.
+Planning and Controlling Techniques
+Table 9 shows that there are three common methods used as tools for planning and controlling quality of performance and many projects use more than one technique.
+There were 25.6% of respondents who cited that they used bar charts, 22.7% depended on holding site meeting regularly with all functional groups involved, followed by 20.8% who used inspection on works during construction, and another 8.2% who used milestone monitoring.
+CPM scheduling network analysis and detailed work procedure were used by 7.7% of the respondents and another 6.28% used work table and follow through method.
+Table 10 also illustrates the types of tools that the respondent did not use but said would
+Opinion to Overall Management Process
+Satisfactory
+improve project performance if it was used.
+About 20.9% used CPM scheduling, followed by detailed work procedure 11.6% and milestone monitoring 11.6%.
+Twenty-two respondents 25.6% did not mention the use of any tool.
+This is an indicator that they were satisfied with what they were using then or that planning is done in a nonconventional way.
+Respondent Opinion to Overall Management Process in Project
+Table 10 shows 46.3 and 8.9% of the respondents were satisfied and very satisfied, respectively, with the management process held in the project.
+Another 38.8% were not very satisfied and 6% were not satisfied.
+The clients were not satisfied with the majority of two-thirds and the consultants agreed with the clients by the
+Major Causes of Delay Views from Top Management
+Number of respondent and its percentage
+Authority approvals
+Shortage of materials
+Construction method
+Delay in handing over the site
+Major Causes of Delay during Construction
+Number of respondent and its percentage
+Ask for many changes and/or additional works
+Client has no priority/ urgency to complete the project
+Labor shortage and lack of skills
+Not enough material
+Lack of maintenance for the equipment
+Poor inspection
+Poor documentation and no detailed written procedures
+Using systematic procedures
+Difficulty of having heavy equipment and more complex technology
+Delays in payment
+Conflict in amount of payments
+Lack of protection of complete work
+Failure in testing
+Poor communications and misunderstanding
+same percentage.
+This is probably because the client thinks management process is the responsibility of the contractor and it should be checked and monitored by consultants.
+Major Causes of Delay
+Table 11 identifies the most important causes leading to delay as seen by the top management.
+Financial problem had the highest responses of 12.4%, followed by 11.8% due to client’s influence, manpower problem, and poor site management.
+Main causes ranked by clients are manpower problem 23%, followed by three causes:
+authority approvals, poor site management, and subcontractors 15.4%.
+Consultants gave the highest response 11.8% to the following causes:
+the client influence, design problem, shortage of manpower, construction method, and poor site management.
+Contractors classified causes in the following sequence:
+financial problem was the main causes 14.9% followed by client influence 12.3% and poor site management 11.4%.
+Table 12 shows the major causes of delay during construction
+Recommend Procedures to Overcome Delay
+Number of respondent and its percentage
+Ask for extension of time
+Increase the productivity by working overtime hours, shifts, etc.
+Execute the delayed
+activities by subcontractors
+Ask for more site meetings with all functional groups
+Ask top management for more executive authorities to project manager
+More flexible work method e.g., accept
+wider range, early striking, etc.
+of the chosen projects.
+These causes mainly represent the contractor views as they represent approximately half the sample size.
+Additional work is the main cause as pointed out by 16.2% of the respondents, labor shortage and lack of skills by 10.8%, poor planning and scheduling was chosen by 10.3%.
+The clients response gave the priorities to both ask for many changes and/or additional works and poor site organization 13.3%.
+Consultants expressed that delay caused mainly 12.3% due to poor planning and scheduling, poor site organizing, and shortage of skilled labor.
+Recommended Procedures to Overcome or Mitigate Delay
+The recommended procedures to mitigate or even recover the delays are shown in Table 13, where more than one solution can be applied at the same time.
+This depends on the nature of the problem/s that cause the delay and the uniqueness of the project.
+About 29.2% of the respondents recommended the increase of productivity by working overtime hours or work by shifts, 24% chose request for extension of time;
+this is possible if delay was excusable or compensable.
+Two procedures pointed out by 13.5% recommended the execution of delayed activities by subcontractors and ask for more site meetings with all functional groups.
+About 9.4% of the respondents selected asking top management for more executive authorities to the project manager and 4.2% of the respondent would change the construction method or use different technology.
+The other procedures had less frequency but the choice of method is always subject to the overriding safety
+and quality factors.
+One of the respondents comments on using mixed construction methods to cut down the cost, save time, and upgrade the building quality like using cast in situ for main sections, precast for architecture portions, or using the conventional way for narrow and irregular sections.
+Analysis and Summary of Interviews
+A total of 16 interviews were conducted with six senior engineers or directors working in the head office, two designer, six project managers, and two assistant project managers.
+Most of the questions asked during the interview concentrated on the policy applied by a different firm and the present state of management in construction project, identifying the causes of delay in a project, and the understanding of the importance of proper management structure and quality in construction and its future in Malaysia.
+The finding from the questionnaire survey and the interviews can be classified to five main categories as follows.
+• The present state of management in Malaysia construction industry.
+The implementation and use of a quality management system would provide logical and progressive sequence of work and prevent or mitigate delay in construction.
+The importance of coordinating the various management teams is required in the project environment and should be encouraged by all management of the functional groups involved.
+Depending on the contract type, the main participants will have to understand and commit their roles.
+The survey pointed out that there is some correlation between the type of contracts and delay and the percentage of projects suffering from delay is relatively high.
+The other issues that were raised from the interviews conducted are
+In a large project a management consultant is used to assure quality while in medium-sized projects, contractors do not locate quality management staff on site but depend on the experience of the project manager;
+Resource utilization is the responsibility of the contractor;
+Most of the firms are not interested in spending money on education and training of their employees and they prefer to employ experienced people.
+• Management tools and techniques.
+The survey shows that there was satisfaction in the overall management process used currently.
+The respondents 25.6% used the bar chart as a tool for planning and controlling the project and agreed that using CPM scheduling 20.9% is better than a bar chart and it could improve project performance monitoring and control.
+• Probabilities of delay occurrence where and when.
+From the survey findings, all the levels from all parties agreed that delay occurs mostly during the construction phase.
+The top management level said that the commissioning phase comes second, but respondents directly working at project sites indicated that design stage is the second highest possibility.
+The respondents showed that delay appears during executing foundation and substructure 21.85% and followed by finishing 17.5%.
+• The causes of delay in construction.
+The main item which was raised during interviews is financial problems by 25% of the interviewees and due to that 31.25% of the respondents preferred to work with the government clients, moreover normally there will not be many conflicts in payment amount.
+However, 18.75% preferred working with the private sector because government clients took longer time in releasing the payments due to formal procedures.
+A financial problem is confirmed by the top management view in the survey as the main causes of delay in addition to manpower shortage as pointed out earlier.
+The interviews showed that the main cause of delay is due to the client influence asking for many changes, extra work, or has no urgency to complete as indicated by a majority of the interviewees.
+This was confirmed by the priority of the people working in the sites, followed by labor shortage and lack of skills, and due to poor planning and scheduling.
+The activities that experienced the highest number of delay incident foundation and substructure with the activities that experienced the highest number of variation in design mechanical and electrical.
+The interviews findings show that 6.25% of the interviewees considered that delay incident caused by unforeseen or unexpected events excusable or compensable delays, while 31.25% thought that it is due to human errors or due to someone else’s fault inexcusable delay and the rest said that it is mixture of both.
+• Recommended procedures to overcome or mitigate the effect of delay.
+All of the interviewees agreed that site meetings are essential in solving the problems with the condition that it should not be too frequent because then it will be a waste of people time, and those attending should be seniors and authorized to make decisions.
+This form of communication method confirmed the importance of site meeting to the top management view in the questionnaire findings.
+From the survey, recommended procedures were increasing the productivity by working overtime hours or working by shifts 29.2% followed by asking for extension of time 24%.
+If the problem was shortage of resources, 32.3% suggested rescheduling the activities within the available resources, using more general and skilled labors by 27.8% and by 12.8% using subcontractors.
+This means that there are no specific procedures to mitigate or overcome delays in projects but it depends mainly on the causes, the nature of the problem, and the availability of resources.
+Delays are known to cause losses to the clients/developers and the entire industry because construction has an important influence on the economy, especially in developing countries with a rapid growth economy.
+Identifying projects’ life cycles and when delay usually occurs will help to identify the cause of a delay in a construction project.
+Intensive management involvement is needed to prevent and alleviate problems that can delay projects.
+This was indicated from the survey findings derived from different levels of management that the major causes of delay are due to financial problems followed by manpower shortage and changes in the project requirements.
+All parties involved in the project also agreed that delay occurs mostly during the construction phase.
+Therefore, in resolving those problems, the units of analysis suggested to increase the construction productivity, followed by increase the expertise and skill of human resources, and conducted site meetings more frequently.
+A strategic view of solving delay problems should consider the importance of the management aspects, the effects of knowledge and information flow between the organization levels, and the importance of top management contribution in solving the problems.

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+Survey of the Construction Industry Relative to the Use of CPM Scheduling for Construction Projects
+Patricia D. Galloway, Ph.D., P.E., F.ASCE1
+While critical-path method CPM scheduling has been around since the 1950s, its application in the construction industry has still not received 100% acceptance or consistency in how it is used.
+Project controls, and CPM scheduling in particular, have gone unchanged in the standards arena with little focus for a common understanding and recognition of what is required for CPM schedule development, implementation, and use.
+In recent years, little research has been conducted relative to the use of CPM and its benefits.
+In order to determine how the industry views its applicability and usage, a survey was developed for the stakeholders in the construction industry.
+This paper summarizes extensive research that was performed of the construction industry relative to the use of CPM scheduling, its applicability and its acceptance in the execution of today’s constructed projects.
+The research obtained the stakeholders’ views on the use and effectiveness of CPM scheduling;
+the necessary qualifications of scheduling personnel;
+and opinions relative to whether standards and/or best practices are necessary.
+The paper discusses the different views of the stakeholders and recommendations as to how consistency can be obtained in the use of CPM scheduling in order to improve the construction industry.
+CE Database subject headings:
+Scheduling;
+Construction management;
+Project management;
+Professional development;
+Best management practice;
+Introduction
+While critical-path method CPM scheduling has been around since the 1950s, its application in the construction industry has still not received 100% acceptance or consistency in how it is used.
+In recent years, little research has been conducted relative to the use of CPM and its benefits.
+In order to determine how the industry views its applicability and usage, a survey was developed for the stakeholders in the construction industry.
+This paper summarizes extensive research that was performed of the construction industry relative to the use of CPM scheduling;
+its applicability and acceptance in the execution of today’s constructed project.
+Project controls, and CPM scheduling, in particular, have gone unchanged in the standard arena with little focus for a common understanding and recognition of what is required for CPM schedule development, implementation, and use.
+Project Management Institute PMI has recently added a college of scheduling as part of its organization.
+PMI, the world’s professional organization on project management, is internationally recognized as the leading institution setting standards on Project Management.
+With nearly 180,000 members and nearly 120,000 certified project management professionals PMPs, of which the writer is a PMP, PMI strives to provide consistency in all areas of project management.
+The writer sits as a board director on PMI’s college of
+Chief Executive Officer, The Nielsen-Wurster Group, Inc., 719 Second Ave., Suite 700, Seattle, WA 98104.
+[email protected]
+Note. Discussion open until December 1, 2006.
+Separate discussions must be submitted for individual papers.
+To extend the closing date by one month, a written request must be filed with the ASCE Managing Editor.
+The manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and possible publication on March 16, 2005;
+approved on December 28, 2005.
+This paper is part of the Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, Vol. 132, No. 7, July 1, 2006. ©ASCE, ISSN 0733-9364/2006/ 7-697–711/$25.00.
+scheduling PMICOS. One of the PMI objectives over the next 1–2 years is to develop a set of standards for CPM scheduling and its use.
+This standard is currently in draft form for review and is expected to be released in early 2006.
+PMICOS, through its scheduling excellence initiative SEI, is also undertaking the development of best practices guidelines which can be used by the stakeholders in the construction industry.
+Portions of the best practices guidelines are anticipated to be released in May 2006.
+The research for this paper is aimed at addressing the following key areas:
+Establish the views from both owners and contractors as to the use of CPM scheduling and its applicability in today’s constructed projects;
+Determine what is required of individuals who perform CPM scheduling;
+Determine whether standards, certifications and/or best practice guidelines are being sought by the industry;
+Determine whether CPM scheduling can assist in the risk management assessment process;
+The research then sets a minimum requirement of what is needed in the construction industry along with proposed recommendations on how this could be accomplished.
+The research presented in this paper is being proposed at a key critical time at which its results can be used by this internationally recognized professional institution as well as practitioners in the construction industry who are users of CPM scheduling.
+Positions held
+Results for this research were based on an on-line questionnaire survey.
+The survey is one of the most cost effective ways to involve a large number of people in the process in order to achieve better results.
+By focusing on the fact that different users of CPM scheduling will both use and perceive its benefits differently, in addition to the overall general questions, specific questions applicable to both owners and contractors were developed.
+While the construction industry remains one of the largest industries in the United States, statistics on the number of individuals performing CPM scheduling has not been tracked.
+The U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics BLS records information on the construction industry for top management, construction managers, management professionals, and related occupations and cost estimators.
+However, the BLS does not distinguish schedulers.
+Thus, in order to survey the most likely users of CPM scheduling, the writer called the Construction Management Association of America CMAA, the American General Contractors AGC, Engineering News Record ENR, PMICOS, Construction Users Roundtable CURT, the Association for the Advancement of Cost Engineering International’s AACEI, National Planning and Scheduling Committee, and the Construction Institute CI of the American Society of Civil Engineers ASCE to request assistance in having their members respond to the survey.
+All organizations agreed to participate.
+ENR indicated that they would sell a list of the top 400 international contractors, which the writer purchased.
+It was determined by the writer that the largest response would be received if those taking the survey could do so via an on-line based survey.
+An agreement was secured with the leading professional societies serving the construction industry noted above to send an e-mail to its members notifying its members of the online survey.
+As the professional societies would not make their respective membership lists available, the total number of potential respondents is not known.
+Personal calls were made to the ENR companies to gain the information regarding the name and address of the corporate project controls manager for the company.
+A hard copy of the survey was sent to the project controls manager of these contractors.
+In searching for prior studies on the use of CPM scheduling, the writer obtained a prior study performed by Andrew Kelleher as part of his Masters of Science in Civil Engineering at Virginia Polytechnic Institute presented to the department in 2004 Kelleher 2004.
+In addition to Kelleher’s study, only two previous studies of ENR top 400 contractors’ use of CPM have been performed, one by Edward Davis in 1974 and the other by Amir Tavakoli and Roger Riachi in 1990.
+Kelleher discussed other studies regarding CPM that have been undertaken, however, most of these studies were done in the 1960s and 1970s Kelleher 2004.
+Little research has been done in recent years.
+Kelleher noted that he limited his own study to the ENR 400 top contractors since “¼the top 400 contractors are more likely to be users of CPM than a sole proprietor or other small company” Kelleher 2004.
+Out of 400 contractors surveyed, Kelleher received responses from 65 companies.
+Recognizing the need for the survey to be representative of the construction industry, the writer monitored the responses being received weekly and determined that the majority of ENR’s top 20 international contractors had responded, as well as major owner companies, government agencies, and construction managers, thus reflecting largest users of CPM scheduling in the construction industry.
+The on-line survey was open for a period of 6 months.
+A total of 430 responses were received composed of approximately 41% owners private and government, 31% contractors, 19% engineers, and 19% construction managers.
+The remaining respondents were from universities and consultants serving the construction industry.
+Fig. 1 shows the positions held of those responding to the survey.
+The industry survey centered on the following subjects:
+• Contract requirements for CPM scheduling;
+• Resource and cost loading requirements and usage;
+• Computerized software required and used;
+• Applications and primary use of CPM scheduling;
+• Management decision making based on CPM schedules;
+• Advantages and disadvantages of CPM scheduling;
+• Success of CPM scheduling usage;
+• Knowledge regarding professional organizations supporting CPM scheduling;
+• Opinions relative to CPM scheduling standards and best practices;
+Size of organization
+• Opinions relative to university curriculums for the study of CPM scheduling;
+• Use of CPM schedules in claims avoidance and claims preparation.
+The data analysis for the results included calculating the overall percentage of each question of the responding companies.
+A statistical analysis of the respondents was not possible as the survey was voluntary.
+Since the survey was voluntary, it was not possible to say the results represented the entire construction industry with a certain confidence level.
+A confidence level calculation is not valid for a voluntary survey because underlying factors could exist as to why these companies chose to respond and others did not.
+Since a confidence level could not be obtained, the writer did request information on company size Fig. 2, type of construction Fig. 3, and annual construction budget/revenue Fig. 4 for assurance that there was a wide representation throughout the construction industry.
+Industry Survey
+While CPM scheduling has been around since the 1950s and is assumed to be a basic project control tool that is commonly used on all construction projects, the results of the industry survey demonstrate that CPM scheduling is still not a mandatory requirement nor is it a project control tool which has gained the trust of the industry.
+Based upon the results of the prior research performed on the course curriculums of the universities, it was not surprising to see some of the responses from industry relative to CPM scheduling.
+Primary industry
+Owner Specification Requirements for CPM
+Of the owners that responded, only 47.6% indicated that CPM scheduling is always required on their projects.
+Of those requiring CPM scheduling, 72.5% do specify CPM scheduling in their contracts, but only 55.9% require a baseline schedule.
+Owners were split on whether the CPM specification in their contracts was a standard specification or was customized for a particular project.
+Over 64% of the owners indicated that they used Primavera as their specified software with only just over 20% requiring MS Project.
+Other software mentioned included:
+• Government Proprietary software;
+While almost 46% of the owners indicated that they require precedence diagramming methods, 14% indicated that they still require arrow diagramming CPM scheduling.
+In addition, owners indicated the preference for using other scheduling techniques including:
+almost 50% indicated their preference for bar charts or some form thereof;
+27% indicating that they use PERT;
+4% indicated requirements for 4D Planning;
+and another 20% required either Line of Balance LOB or Linear Balance Charts vertical production methods in their specifications.
+Relative to the CPM specification requirements, nearly all respondents indicated that schedule updates were required and over 84% required schedule revisions;
+however, only 68% indicated that they distinguished between an update and a revision.
+Updates were deemed to be necessary on a monthly basis submitted in electronic format in over 2/3 of those responding.
+Almost 50% also indicated that they limited activity durations and nearly 65% indicated that they required activity coding.
+While the majority of the owners responding indicated that activity durations and coding was important, the owners were split as to whether resource loading was a specification requirement.
+Over 70% were primarily concerned with manpower loading on activity, while only 50% of the owners required cost loading or trade breakdown.
+A few owners also noted that they required resource loading for major equipment only, critical items, quantities or that “¼resource loading is not defined, it is just required.”
+Owner’s Viewpoints on CPM Scheduling
+Schedule Revisions
+Owners have a variety of reasons that they specify revisions in their specifications.
+The largest response as to why a schedule revision was required was equally shared 72% between:
+• Project behind schedule;
+The next major reason cited was critical path changes 56%.
+Other reasons noted by owners for requiring schedule revisions included:
+• Resource changes for either manpower or equipment;
+• When requested by the owner;
+and •	When time extensions are approved.
+Primary reasons by contractors for using CPM
+The owner respondents were vocal as to specific applications and why they liked or disliked specific scheduling techniques and why CPM may not be the most appropriate application for the type of project being constructed.
+Owners that preferred merely bar charts explained their response in that they were easy to understand, they can provide near-term look aheads, and are more appropriate on smaller projects as budgets do not allow the cost of CPM scheduling and/or the managers do not have the necessary training in order to review and monitor CPM schedules.
+Those owners indicating the use of linear scheduling and LOB indicated that CPM scheduling was not appropriate as the projects were linear in nature highway and/or pipeline projects in particular and linear scheduling was more accurate relative to measuring progress and specifically, production rates.
+Four-dimensional 4D modeling was discussed as primarily being used before the project was executed in determining the best schedule alternatives for a specific project before it starts as well as optimizing communication, planning, and visualizing the project.
+CPM scheduling was indicated as being advantageous in that “what if” scenarios could be performed when submitted in electronic format to determine impacts on changes and delays to the project.
+CPM also allowed summarization into a bar chart format for ease of understanding by management.
+The two main disadvantages noted by owners in the use of CPM scheduling were:
+The construction managers and project managers do not use the software enough to be knowledgeable in its use and what it is portraying;
+The contractor is more informed about CPM and can more easily manipulate the schedule and use it for claims.
+Owners felt that CPM was overkill for small projects with little cost justification.
+Owners were also concerned as while their preference was to use Primavera as the required software specified, that their experience was that many contractors still use MS Project which has limitations and does not allow the owner to perform the monitoring that it desires throughout project execution.
+For those owners using linear scheduling techniques, their primary concern was that few contractors understood this scheduling technique and that it was not well known in the industry.
+Contractor’s Viewpoints on CPM Scheduling
+Contract Specifications
+Over 50% of the contractors responding noted that they now find that their contracts require CPM scheduling.
+If CPM scheduling is not required, nearly 67% indicate that they still prepare a CPM for purposes of planning and monitoring their work.
+While the results did not determine whether Primavera was primarily used as a result of being a contract requirement, despite the responses received from the owners on the perception of software usage by contractors, nearly 65% indicated that they prefer to use Primavera software, with only 22% indicating they prefer MS Project.
+With respect to resource loading requirements, the contractor respondents were split relative to whether they found resource loading useful.
+Forty percent of those responding did not believe either manpower or cost loading was useful while 30% did believe resource loading was useful and 15% did not have an opinion one way or another.
+The remaining respondents commented that it was considered “extra work,” or depended on the specific project.
+Other comments made centered around lump sum contracting where it was noted it was not necessary in the respondent’s opinion to track manpower or costs per activity.
+The primary reasons noted by contractors for using CPM scheduling Fig. 5 included the following:
+• Periodic control of work after start of construction 85%;
+• Developing look-ahead schedules 85%;
+• Coordination of subcontractors 82.1%;
+• Detailed planning of work prior to construction 78.1%;
+• Schedule impact, claims analysis and tracking of changes
+• Coordination of own trades 59%;
+• Calculating payment requests for work performed 31%;
+• Operation and maintenance of projects 22%;
+• Tracking costs 18%;
+and •	Materials planning less than 3%.
+Over 80% of those contractors responding indicated that they rely on their CPM schedules for making decisions on the project execution.
+In response to a question on whether the contractor maintains a separate schedule to monitor the work in addition to the contract specified schedule, 28% indicated that they did and 52% indicated that they did not.
+The remaining respondents indicated that they would prepare a separate schedule based on the following:
+Contractor noted advantages of using CPM scheduling
+The need to prepare 4-week rolling for their own forces;
+The specific project;
+The need for a target schedule to provide better control;
+When they are a subcontractor and the general contractor’s schedule is not representative of the subcontractor’s work;
+Whether the owner is refusing to recognize delay and grant time extensions;
+The need to review fragments and provide an indication of change impacts;
+The need to have a more summary level schedule for presentation to management.
+Over 96% of the contractors responding indicated that they believed that there was an economic benefit to using CPM and over 89% indicated that they have had moderate to high success in achieving various benefits using CPM. The advantages of using CPM scheduling as noted by the contractors Fig. 6 included:
+• Improved planning before work starts 92%;
+• Improved scheduling 84%;
+• Improved understanding of the project 83%;
+• Improved project control after work starts 80%;
+• Improved communications among the workforce 54%;
+• Increased control over risk and uncertainty 53%;
+• Reduced delays 50%;
+• Minimization of disputes between the contractor and owner
+• Helps train future project managers 26%;
+and •	Positive psychological effect on employees 22%.
+Other comments that were specifically noted by those responding
+• Basis for earn value cost preplanning, cost reporting and time job cost control;
+• If owner approved, easier to show delays;
+• Easily flags adverse trends against the baseline schedule;
+• Allows ability to do “what if” scenarios.
+Nearly 40% of the contractors indicated that the primary disadvantage to CPM scheduling was logic abuse.
+As noted previously, this was also a concern of the owners and leads into comments that will follow relative to the need to scheduling standards, best practices, and certification.
+The other major common areas of concerns relative to CPM scheduling Fig. 7 included:
+• Requires excessive work to be implemented 32%;
+• Requires too much dependency on specialists 26%;
+• Not responsive to the needs of field personnel 21%.
+Other comments noted by contractors relative to the disadvantages of CPM scheduling included:
+Must be kept up to date if it is to be relied upon;
+No one knows how to use it properly;
+Too much interpretation which leads to owner mistrust and misuse;
+Owners attempt to use the CPM schedule against the contractor instead of working with the contractor to resolve delays and impacts;
+Requires users trained in CPM scheduling;
+P3 graphics are difficult to read;
+P3 software has become so sophisticated it requires skilled specialists to use the program.
+as to the benefits of CPM scheduling included:
+• Imparts a sense of control for the management team enabling The industry surveyed all the stakeholders relative to the skills them to accurately plan ahead;
+and qualifications of their respective personnel that develop and
+• Useful tool to discuss issues that could be clearer;
+use CPM scheduling on construction projects.
+The industry is
+• Gets owners to react more quickly;
+almost equally divided on whether the organization employs an
+Contractor noted disadvantages of using CPM scheduling
+overall manager for planning and scheduling with 59% indicating that they did not and the other 41% indicating that they did.
+However, this percentage switched slightly with respect to specific projects, with 57% of the respondents indicating that they did employ a person solely dedicated to this effort, while 43% indicated that they did not.
+Of those employing a dedicated scheduler, 84% responded that this individual is expected to perform other tasks in addition to CPM scheduling. 67% indicated that their scheduling is performed by in-house personnel, while only 7% indicated that they used outside consultants solely and the remainder indicated a combination of in-house and consultants.
+Most interestingly, when it came to the desired background of the personnel performing planning and scheduling, nearly 56% indicated that they preferred someone with an engineering background and 44% indicated that they desired someone with project management background.
+Some respondents also commented that it may vary project to project and that site experience and/or a certification might be preferred in addition to the backgrounds noted above.
+Relative to the specific credentials of the scheduler, the following credentials were noted as preferred for someone performing CPM scheduling Fig. 8:
+• On-job training 41%;
+• Scheduling training/coursework 36%;
+• No credentials needed 14%;
+• Graduate degree in construction management 5%.
+Respondents also commented that the following credentials would also be desirable:
+• Professional engineering license;
+Scheduler preferred credentials
+Primary uses of CPM scheduling by all parties
+• Certification such as PMP, certified cost engineer CCE,
+ICEC certification, or AACEI schedule certification PSP;
+CPM and CPM Standards
+When asked for the reasons why CPM scheduling was used, over 82% indicated that it was a beneficial planning tool that makes projects more efficient and cost effective.
+In response to the question that was asked to check all answers that applied, relative to the reasons why they used CPM scheduling, the following were noted:
+Claims, after the fact 53%;
+Other so noted
+Anticipated shifts in funding needs;
+Coordination of multiple construction projects;
+Identification of delay issues;
+Assists in getting buy-in from subcontractors.
+The primary uses of CPM scheduling were noted by all parties Fig. 9 to be:
+• Reduction of claims 55%;
+• Assists in claim presentations 10%;
+and • Assists in completing the project on time 10%.
+Those responding also indicated that 66% of their senior management used and relied upon the CPM schedules in making decisions while 25% indicated senior management did not use the schedules and 9% indicated that they did not know.
+One of the crying needs cited in the survey was with respect to the need for standards in CPM scheduling.
+Seventy nine percent indicated that standards should be defined in the area of CPM scheduling.
+However, there was no consensus as to who should develop these standards with multiple organizations cited and 50% of those responding indicating that they simply did not know.
+Of the two primary organizations focused on the improvement of the CPM scheduling industry, PMICOS and AACEI, 70% were not familiar with PMICOS and 77% were not familiar with AACEI. However, over 53% indicated that they were familiar with PMI’s body of knowledge PMBOK although over 89% indicated that they did not train their personnel in the use of PMBOK time management and 92% indicated that they did not attempt to assure that their CPM schedules and processes conformed to the PMBOK time management guidelines.
+However, while the majority of respondents were not familiar with the time management module of the PMBOK, over 58% indicated that certification of schedulers would improve the industry and a surprising 92% of those responding indicated that best practices guidelines should be developed that could be made available to owners and contractors.
+While 78% of those responding indicated that they believed it was important to have a consistent university curriculum for CPM scheduling, only 17% had indicated that they had ever reviewed a university curriculum to see what was being taught at the university level.
+However, over 55% indicated that the university curriculums should use the PMBOK as a guide to what should be taught with respect to CPM scheduling.
+Claims Avoidance and Usage of CPM Scheduling
+Over 67% of the survey respondents indicated that the use of CPM scheduling minimized claims on their projects.
+Over 82% indicated that they used CPM scheduling in claims resolution, and of those responding that they used CPM schedules in their claim resolution, over 85% indicated that they used the existing schedules that were used during the project.
+Further, over 84% indicated that they believed the use of CPM scheduling was essential in delay claim resolution.
+However, the methodologies for CPM delay analyses varied greatly with the following noted as being methods that have been used by respondents Fig. 10:
+• As-built 75%;
+• As-impacted 57%;
+• Time impact analysis 53%;
+• Window analyses 20%;
+• Collapsed as-built 15%;
+and •	Varied depending on project 9%.
+The respondents were almost equally split as to whether they had a company-wide risk management program with 47% indicating that they did and 53% indicating they did not.
+Surprisingly, while 41% indicated that they did have a risk management officer, 62% responded that they did not have a project risk management program for their specific projects undertaken.
+Despite the fact that no specific program was identified, 52% indicated that they now perform project risk assessments with over 83% indicating that they believed risk management assessments saved money on projects as follows Fig. 11:
+• 3–5% 30.5%;
+• 0% 11.7%;
+• 16–20% 3.6%;
+Forty six percent of those responding indicated that risk assessments were performed with in-house personnel, while 31% indicated a combination of in-house project team and other company personnel.
+Twenty percent indicated the use of a combination of in-house and external personnel as part of the risk management assessment team.
+Of those performing risk assessments, 75% indicated that they do not use simulation modeling and over 44% indicated periodic risk assessments throughout the life of the project, with quarterly being the preferred time interval 34% and 20% indicating a preferred monthly interval.
+General Observations/Conclusions Drawn from Survey
+As noted above, the survey respondents well represented the construction industry and were reasonably equally divided among owners, contractors, engineers/construction managers, all stakeholders in the project, and parties who have to live with the decisions based on the CPM scheduling information.
+It was interesting to note that while some differences existed between owners and contractors relative to the reasons CPM scheduling was used and/or its benefits, there were common opinions among all stakeholders relative to the following points:
+CPM scheduling has become a standard project control tool and both owners and contractors use the tool whether it is or is not required by contract.
+While all parties generally felt that CPM scheduling was a good project control tool for monitoring, planning, and executing a project, commonality existed relative to:
+CPM scheduling has become so sophisticated that specialists in CPM scheduling are now required to develop and understand CPM schedules;
+While Primavera software is the number one choice among the stakeholders, it is believed to be complex and difficult to understand, thus increasing the cost to the project;
+CPM schedules are easily manipulated, especially with respect to logic abuse.
+Of the two organizations which primarily have CPM scheduling as a key focus:
+PMICOS and AACEI, more than 70% of the respondents had not heard of one of the organizations.
+The majority of those responding indicated that they believed certification of schedulers would improve the industry.
+The majority of those responding indicated that there was an immediate need for standards for CPM scheduling although half of those responding did not know who should develop such standards and the remainder indicated multiple organizations;
+noting that the organizations should come together to develop common standards.
+Over 92% indicated that they desired to have some sort of best practices guidelines that could be issued to both owners and contractors relative to CPM scheduling.
+The majority of the respondents felt that CPM scheduling was beneficial in risk management applications.
+Most participants agreed that there should be consistency in the university curriculums.
+However, as noted in research that has been performed of the universities in the United States, Europe, and Asia Galloway 2006, there is no consistency in the universities as to how CPM scheduling is taught.
+By the answers to the industry survey questions, it is apparent that this is a major area requiring reform as CPM scheduling appears to mostly be taught and learned by onthe-job training, thus resulting in nonstandard development, usage, and interpretation of results from CPM schedules.
+Writer Recommendations Based on Survey Results
+Based on review of the findings of the survey, the writer makes the following recommendations to the construction industry:
+University programs must be reviewed to bring both consistency and relevancy practicality into the curriculums in order to better prepare individuals for the construction industry.
+While universities provide a good base understanding of CPM scheduling, unfortunately the industry still considers the programs to be too theoretical and that on-the-job training and specific courses offered by Primavera are still the only ways to bring an individual up to speed on CPM scheduling.
+The professional organizations such as AACEI, ASCE, CMAA, AGC, PMICOS, DBIA need to come together in a collation to address what is required relative to standards for CPM scheduling and to move those standards to the American National Standards Institute ANSI standards so as to provide a more trusting atmosphere and basis from which all stakeholders in the construction project can rely with respect to CPM scheduling.
+Certification of schedulers appears to be the wave of the future.
+AACEI is on the forefront in its certification examination of schedulers.
+Additional advanced certifications may be warranted relative to those individuals in a managerial role for the oversight and direction of the CPM schedules in either a company or a large capital project.
+Best practice guidelines should be developed sooner than later.
+Organizations such as PMICOS are already far along in their work relative to best practices guidelines using expert resources from all areas of the construction industry including owners private and public, contractors, construction managers, engineers, and consultants to the construction industry who have had to defend analyses based on CPM schedules used during the constructed project.
+Until the above four reform areas are addressed and implemented, the industry will continue to have its doubts over the use of CPM scheduling and that continued misuse, abuse, and multiple interpretations of the data will continue, thus reducing the benefits so noted by the stakeholders of reducing the cost, increasing efficiency, and reducing claims of the constructed project.
+Acknowledgments
+The writer would like to thank all the organizations that participated in this study and the information that they provided.
+The writer also wishes to thank Brook Maples for her assistance in designing the on-line survey and transmitting the results to the writer for the research and analysis of the data for development of this paper by the writer.
+Appendix I. Survey Questions and Results Thereof

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+Contractor’s Opportunistic Bidding Behavior and
+Equilibrium Price Level in the Construction Market
+C. L. Lin2;
+and M. R. Yan3
+The competitive bidding system has been to blame for abnormally low bids, which are considered as one of the main causes of poor project quality.
+Previous studies have regarded the pricing of bidders as an optimum decision based on contractor’s cost and market competition level.
+However, the sell to produce characteristic of construction projects may induce contractors to offer a low bid and then make up the amount initially sacrificed from beyond-contractual reward BCR gained through cutting corners and claims.
+System dynamics was adopted in this study to develop a contractor’s pricing model with consideration of the dimensions of cost, market competition, and BCR. The model was then examined by statistical analysis of data collected from 44 highway projects in Taiwan.
+It was found that the equilibrium market price is significantly associated with BCR, which is assumed to be determined by the strictness of the owner’s construction management, including both soundness of contract and tightness in construction supervision.
+Research results suggest that contractors divide the market into different segments according to the owner’s strictness of construction management and the equilibrium price level of each market segment varies.
+The price level for projects with a strict owner is remarkably higher than for those with relatively less strict owners.
+Improvement in the construction management system of projects is crucial to lower the possibility that contractors gain BCR and do opportunistic bidding, and to further enhance project quality.
+CE Database subject headings:
+Construction industry;
+Simulation models.
+Introduction
+Under the current competitive bidding system, fierce competition has long made contractors tender bidding prices substantially lower than owner’s budgets.
+Such abnormally low bids have been widely regarded as the main cause of poor quality in public projects.
+Abnormally low bids were defined as any bid whose price appears abnormally low and consequently may cause implementation problems Henriod and Lanteran 1988.
+In order to eliminate abnormally low bids, the Government of Taiwan has adopted a number of policies, e.g., average bid Ioannou and Leu 1993, ceiling price method Wang 2004, and the most advantageous tendering approach Yang and Wang 2003.
+However, in the past few years, it has still been common that the award price for a public construction project is substantially lower than the budget.
+In some extreme cases, the awarded price was even 50%
+Associate Professor, Dept. of Construction Engineering, National Kaohsiung First Univ. of Science and Tech., 1 University Rd., Yenchao,
+Assistant Professor, Dept. of Construction Engineering, National Kaohsiung First Univ. of Science and Tech., 1 University Rd., Yenchao,
+Ph.D. Candidate, Institute of Engineering Science and Tech., National Kaohsiung First Univ. of Science and Tech., 1 University Rd., Yenchao, Kaohsiung 824, Taiwan.
+[email protected]. edu.tw
+Note. Discussion open until November 1, 2007.
+Separate discussions must be submitted for individual papers.
+To extend the closing date by one month, a written request must be filed with the ASCE Managing Editor.
+The manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and possible publication on December 6, 2005;
+approved on December 28, 2006.
+This paper is part of the Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, Vol. 133, No. 6, June 1, 2007. ©ASCE, ISSN 0733-9364/2007/ 6-409–416/$25.00.
+lower than the budget.
+According to research conducted by the Taiwan Construction Research Institute on construction companies in Taiwan, improper bidding systems and malignant competition have become the major causes that affect the development of the construction industry Taiwan Construction Research Institute 2000.
+Previous studies have regarded the pricing of bidders as an optimum decision on account of cost and/or market competition level Friedman 1956;
+Drew et al. 2001.
+Given constant cost factor, abnormally low bids are attributed to insufficient market demand, excessive number of competitors, and unsound bid awarding methods.
+However, due to the time lag caused by the sell to produce characteristic of construction projects, contractors may be able to obtain rewards by cutting corners or by claims.
+Some contractors may even take advantage of project conditions and adopt opportunistic bidding strategies, submitting an abnormally low bid and then profiting from cutting corners or raising claims.
+The purpose of this study is to analyze in depth contractors’ opportunistic bidding behavior, and its impacts on the market price level.
+Beyond-Contractual Reward and Contractor’s Opportunistic Bidding Behavior
+In the competitive bidding system, price is the decisive criterion, so contractors may win the bid by tendering an abnormally low bid, accidentally or deliberately Grogan 1992.
+When contractors begin construction under an unfavorable condition in terms of price, they often adopt some strategies to compensate for the deficit, such as 1 cutting corners to lower the cost Winch 2000 or 2 bringing up claims against the owner Crowley and Hancher
+In this study, all compensations gained beyond the contract are called beyond-contractual reward BCR.
+In general, contractors tender an abnormally low bid due to insufficient professionalism or cursory calculation.
+Such situations are called “Winner’s Curse” Capen et al. 1971, by which the contractor who wins the bid undertakes the construction at a sacrifice.
+Winner’s curse can be avoided by improving contractors’ professionalism.
+The main factor that might cause serious problems for the construction market is contractors’ deliberate low-bidding behavior.
+Doyle and DeStephanis 1990 warned that certain bidders extensively review the bid documents, noting mistakes, cataloging ambiguities, and looking for future change orders or claims.
+These bidders can lower their bid prices with the knowledge that on subsequent change orders or claims they can recapture monies that were initially sacrificed for the award Crowley and Hancher 1995b.
+Rooke et al. 2004 introduced the concept of proactive claims and reactive claims and concluded that claims have been an important source of contractor’s profit.
+Ho and Liu 2004 applied game theory to analyze the relationship between claims and contractors’ bidding behavior and concluded that contractors will lower the bid when they expect profits from claims.
+In this research, contractors’ opportunistic bidding behavior refers to contractors’ deliberate low bids that cannot accord with the cost and their intention to obtain BCR through cutting corners or claims after undertaking the construction.
+Research Design
+This study consists of two parts.
+In the first part, system dynamics was adopted to develop a contractor’s pricing model with three dimensions of cost, market competition, and BCR. Iterative computer simulations are performed to analyze the effects of different pricing behaviors on market price level—with and without the consideration of BCR. In the second part, data collected from 44 highway projects in Taiwan, as well as a questionnaire survey, are used to verify the simulation results obtained in the first part.
+Role of the System Dynamics Model
+System dynamics SD is a modeling methodology whose purpose is to assist in the understanding of complex problems and provide an approach for representing the dynamic relationships between variables in a system.
+With a foundation of decision making, dynamic relationships, feedback analysis, and simulation, systems can be defined and modeled that will allow experimentation in a laboratory setting Chasey et al. 2002.
+In the past decades, SD has been comprehensively used to analyze many complex social systems, particularly in industrial contexts Rodrigues and Bowers 1996.
+As contractors’ pricing behaviors as well as the market price level are simultaneously influenced by many complex and interdependent factors, the SD model is not used to calculate contractors’ bidding prices and exact market prices;
+instead, it is adopted to simulate how specific pricing behaviors affect the market price level by controlling variables such as contractor’s cost, market competition level, and BCR. Through iterative simulations, the cause-effect relationships between specific variables of research interests can be understood from a systemic viewpoint.
+From the supply perspective, a market defined by economic theory is attributed to a set of companies who produce homogenous products.
+In the construction industry, a market segment can be formed when there is a set of contractors who tend to compete for projects with similar production conditions, such as owner, project location, project type, scale, and so on.
+While many factors could affect a contractor’s pricing, this research merely focuses on the three dimensions of cost, market competition, and BCR and makes the following assumptions:
+Contractor’s cost is defined as constant opportunity cost:
+The opportunity cost is defined as the lost benefit that the best alternative course of action could provide Maher 1997.
+Therefore, if the contract price equals opportunity cost, it actually includes both the production expenditure and normal profit Varian 1992.
+In addition, a contractor’s pricing factors including bids in hand and work in hand Drew and Skitmore 1992 are contained in this research with the use of the opportunity cost concept.
+Further, as contractor’s cost is only used in this model to reflect contractors’ bottom lines in pricing and market competition becomes the main consideration in pricing, contractors’ costs are simplified as constant values.
+The award prices of previous projects are assumed to be important references indicating competitor’s price:
+Assume contractors aim to obtain maximum profit, and the goal of pricing is to look for a price which is minimally lower than that of any other competitors.
+To achieve this goal, bidders need to assess and predict prices that their competitors may offer before they determine their own price.
+This phenomenon has been described in the Bertrand competition model of economics Carlton and Perloff 2000.
+In this case, the award prices of previous projects are assumed as important references to a competitor’s price.
+The level of competition is measured by the number of competitors and contractor’s pricing will reflect changes in the number of competitors:
+Carr 1983 proposed that, as the number of competitors varies from project to project, contractors typically adjust their markups to reflect increases and decreases in competition.
+In addition, De et al. 1996 has proposed that the larger the number of competitors is, the lower the profit the winner gains.
+Accordingly, this study assumes that contractors adjust their bidding price based on the number of competitors.
+There is potential BCR in all projects and the amount of BCR is affected by the strictness of the owner’s construction management system, including soundness of contract and tightness of construction supervision:
+If an owner exercises a stricter construction management, there will be less BCR and a less strict construction management more BCR.
+Measure of Market Price Level
+As the construction projects are different in project size and work contents, this study applies the concept of price level to rescale the projects for comparison. “Bid/budget ratio” is used for the measurement of the market price level, as shown in bid/budget ratio = award price/budget 1
+Contractors’ Pricing Model
+Contractor’s pricing without consideration of BCR
+To better explain contractors’ pricing, this part will introduce contractors’ pricing without and with the consideration of BCR, respectively, and then the market price level due to each pricing will be individually simulated and analyzed as well.
+Pricing without the Consideration of BCR
+This section explores contractors’ pricing by assuming the BCR is not taken into account.
+As shown in Fig. 1, contractors’ bidding price BP is influenced by interdependent variables from two dimensions of cost and market competition.
+According to the aforementioned assumptions, historical award prices termed market price MP, in Fig. 1 and number of competitors are the two fundamental considerations in the dimension of market competition.
+The relationships between each variable and contractors’ bidding price are modeled as follows.
+Modeling the Effect of MP on Contractors’ Pricing
+As MP is considered as a reference to competitors’ prices, it is reasonable to assume that contractors will determine a price lower than MP, so as to win the bid.
+The adjusted price is called expected market price EMP. The easiest adjustment can be made by making a discount on MP.
+Assume that the number of competitors in the market is “n”, the MP perceived by each competitor “i” differs with different timing and range of adjustment.
+Therefore, in Fig. 1, MP for each competitor is represented by “market price i”, where i ranges from 1 to n.
+The same concept applies to other variables labeled with “i”.
+As MPvariable that varies with time and depends on the contractor’s previous experience, this paper applies the typical stock-flow formulating technique in SD to propose the MP function by an integral equation as follows:
+change in MP i = award price − MP i/time to adjust MP i
+award price = MINbidding price i 4 where MPt0 indicates the initial value of MP, change in MP indicates the net rate of change of MP. The change in MP function is a first-order linear negative feedback system, which allows for the corrective action to be a constant fraction per time period of the discrepancy between the desired and actual state of the system Sterman 2000.
+Following the change in MP function, the MP can be constantly updated based on the discrepancy between previous MP and award price, so as to maintain MP as a representative reference.
+Time to adjust MP represents how quickly the contractor tries to correct the shortfall between MP and actual award price:
+if the contractor seeks to correct the shortfall quickly, the adjustment time would be small.
+Award price is the lowest price among all the offers.
+With MP taken into account, the EMP can be expressed as in
+where allowance factor represents the discount rate on the market price.
+A higher discount rate indicates the contractor is more eager to win the bid.
+Modeling the Effect of Number of Competitors on Contractors’ Pricing
+This study applies a variable, effect of competition on price ECP, to indicate the effect of number of competitors on contractors’ bidding price, as shown in the following equation.
+The bidding price is adjusted with regard to the number of competitors by
+where reference number of competitors RNC is the predicted number of competitors based on previous bids e.g., the average number of competitors in previous projects;
+and perceived number of competitors PNC is the number of competitors speculated before the bid.
+And sensitivity of ECP SECP represents the weight of this decision logic, where the value of SECP ranges from 0 to 1.
+According to Eq. 6, the decision logic is as follows:
+If the PNC equals the RNC, after deciding the bidding price based on the MP, contractors do not need to make further adjustment in accordance with number of competitors;
+In this case, ECP equals 0.
+If PNC is larger than RNC, the competition is keener and ECP will be negative.
+Therefore, contractors will lower their price to
+win the bid.
+On the contrary, if the PNC is smaller than RNC, the bid is less competitive and ECP will be positive.
+In this case, contractors may raise their bidding prices.
+The ranges of ECP are affected by SECP. The higher the SECP is, the more weight the contractor gives to the number of competitors in pricing, and the larger the range of adjustment.
+If a contractor’s SECP equals 0, that means the contractor takes no consideration for the number of competitors at all.
+According to the 44 sample projects collected in this research, the number of competitors ranges from 3 to 13, and the average is 7.
+Therefore, in the model, the RNC is set as 7 and the PNC is set between 3 and 13.
+Fig. 2 shows the relationships between ECP and PNC with different settings of SECP.
+To summarize, the decision function for contractors’ bidding price with considerations of both MP and number of competitors is as follows:
+It is assumed that contractors will not perform the construction at a sacrifice, if the estimated price is lower than cost, they will not lower the price but stay at the cost.
+Therefore, a more comprehensive decision function for pricing of each individual contractor has been shown in the following equation where the contractors choose a maximum value among the estimated price and cost:
+where C indicates contractor’s cost, MAX indicates contractors will choose a max value considering EMP+MPECP and C.
+Simulation of Market Price Level
+In this section, a simulation is conducted to portray the trend of market price when contractors proceed to determine their bidding price with the aforementioned pricing logics.
+The computer program used in this research is ithink Analyst 6.0.1 i.think.Inc., Dallas, Tex..
+The setting of each parameter in the model is shown in Table 1.
+The market price trend obtained by computer simulation is shown in Fig. 3.
+The X-axis indicates times of bid opening.
+Bx represents the initial budget estimated by the owner.
+The MP curve represents the simulated market price level that varies with time.
+C curve represents the cost of the contractor with the best cost advantage.
+C 2 and C 3 curves represent other contractor’s costs.
+Note that the costs, C, C 2, and C 3 are presented in Fig. 3 for demonstrating different contractor’s costs, whereas there are more contractors with other cost conditions in the market.
+The simulation results reveal that, under the price competition mechanism, the initial market price, i.e., the budget estimated by the owner, reduces as time proceeds, until it gets very close to contractor’s cost.
+In the short term, the market price level fluctuates as the number of competitors varies at different points of time.
+In the long term, the market price level will become stable and can be considered as an equilibrium market price level based on the assumed competition level and contractor’s cost.
+Throughout the process of competition, the market price lowers with the price offered by the contractor with the lowest cost.
+If a certain contractor does not efficiently reduce its cost as shown in the C 2 and C 3 curves in Fig. 3, in the long run, this contractor will surely lose its competitiveness.
+This section shows how contractors’ pricing with considerations of cost and market competition factors will reach an equilibrium market price level after a period of competition.
+In this case, this equilibrium price will cover both contractor’s production expenditure and normal profits.
+For the government, there will be no concern about excessive remuneration.
+This is the ideal “economy” situation advocated by the free market competition paradigm.
+Besides, such an ideal mechanism would also lead contractors to innovate in the use of production technologies to reduce costs, encouraging the growth of the contractors.
+Pricing with the Consideration of BCR
+This section explicates the contractors’ pricing with the consideration of BCR. The pricing model is expanded as shown in Fig. 4.
+This study developed a variable, reference beyond-contractual reward RBCR, to represent contractors’ perception of the pos-
+Setting of Model Variables
+Times of bid opening
+Allowance factor
+sible amount of BCR which can be obtained from a project.
+It is assumed that contractors will use RBCR as maneuvering room to lower their bidding price when the market price level drops.
+Therefore, the decision function of contractors’ pricing transforms from the equation of MAXEMP i+MP iECP i,Ci into that
+RBCRvariable that can constantly change in accord with previous experiences.
+The RBCR is directly influenced by previ-
+Contractors’ pricing with consideration of BCR
+and contractors make adjustments of the discrepancy between the RBCR and BCR actually earned after each project.
+Therefore, this paper similarly applies the typical stock-flow and first-order linear negative feedback system formulating techniques in SD to construct the RBCR functions shown in
+where RBCRt0 indicates the initial value of RBCR;
+change in RBCRnet rate of change of RBCR;
+EBCR represents the earned beyond-contractual reward in the latest project;
+and time to adjust expectationtime needed for contractors to adjust their RBCR.
+The EBCR is related to the strictness of the owner’s construction management and how much BCR the contractor attempts to obtain.
+As the owner’s construction management functions in reducing corner cutting and claims, it is reasonable to assume that there is a limit to BCR which can be obtained under a specific construction management system.
+Under different strictnesses of construction management on projects, even when all contractors intend to gain BCR, there should be differences among BCRs actually obtained.
+Accordingly, the EBCR is expressed as
+where ABCRattempted beyond-contractual reward;
+MBCR maximum beyond-contractual reward;
+and MIN indicates the minimum value between ABCR and MBCR.
+There are two sources of ABCR;
+the first is the attempted BCR estimated by contractors to make up for sacrifices at the tender stage, termed attempted reward for contract ARC. And the second is the contractor’s opportunism.
+Further explanation is as follows:
+Criterion for contractors’ conducting abnormal behavior for ARC is price feasibility PF, which is defined as:
+Simulated market price trends after contractors consider BCR in pricing
+PF=BP/C. If BP/C1, it means that the contractor will face loss and will be forced to pursue BCR. The lower the value of BP/C is, the higher the ARC of contractors.
+If BP/C1, it means that the bidding price covers part of the contractor’s profit, so the contractor has no pressure to look for ARC.
+Opportunism is one of the most important behavioral assumptions in economic theories.
+It says that companies always want more of what they like, and this may imply that interests are pursued in an opportunistic fashion Williamson 1985.
+Thus, it is reasonable to assume that, when the contractors have experienced obtaining BCRs in the past, they tend to repeat the abnormal behavior in order to gain the maximum profit, whether the award price is reasonable or not.
+Further, as contractors do not know how much BCR is the limit, they will try to attempt more BCR than RBCR to maximize their rewards.
+Based on the aforementioned assumptions, ABCR is expressed in the following equation as the maximum value between ARC and RBCR+RBCRDO:
+where DO represents contractors’ degree of opportunism.
+DO ranges between 0 and 1 in this study, and the higher it is, the stronger the tendency for the contractor to indulge in abnormal behaviors for RBCR.
+Simulation of Market Price Level
+Following the same setting of parameters for simulations aforementioned, it is further assumed that the maximum BCR is 10% of owner’s budget MBCR=0.1Bx. Then, even though the market price trends in the computer simulation still feature effects of market competition, obviously, the market price has become lower than the contractors’ cost Fig. 5.
+Contractors’ expectation of BCR is a feedback process in which the RBCR is evolved from contractors’ previous experiences.
+After a period of time and experience accumulated, the RBCR in the projects supervised by specific project owners will become more assessable and converge toward the limit.
+The level of RBCR reflects the gaps between market price level and contractor’s cost in Fig. 5 see Table 2 for numerical results.
+Further, market prices produced under different market competition levels are examined.
+As seen in the aforementioned case, the reference number of competitors assumed by contractors is 7;
+when the number exceeds 7, price competition among contractors becomes keener.
+Therefore, the parameter, PNC, was set as RAN-
+Numerical Analysis of the Simulation Results with the Consideration of BCR
+Times of bid opening
+The computer simulation showed that the market prices reached under different competition levels still can drop to a price level lower than contractor’s cost see Fig. 6 where the curve MP stands for moderate level of competition, MP2 stands for very keen competition level, and MP3 stands for very slack competition level.
+Further, when the market reaches a certain competition level, it forces contractors to lower their bidding prices and depend upon BCR in cases of PNC at least more than 5 in this study, even under different competition levels, the effects of competition level will be minor and all market prices eventually gather at the same equilibrium price, the contractors’ cost minus BCR refer to the curves MP and MP2 in Fig. 6.
+In cases without regard for BCR, the competitive bidding system assumes that the bidding prices of all contractors reflect their cost, and they abide by the contract and requirements for quality.
+However, results of the simulations reveal that, when excessive room for BCR exists in the market, contractors who apply opportunistic bidding behavior enjoy a higher possibility to take extra market share.
+Moreover, after contractors obtain BCRs, consequently their expectation for BCR in future construction projects rises.
+This will induce them to tender even lower prices, and then pursue compensation from BCR. Hence, even when the market price is moving toward a certain equilibrium level with time, the market price turns out to be lower than contractors’ cost, forcing other contractors in the market to survive upon BCR.
+Effects of BCR on the Market Price Level
+In this section, the influence of BCR on the equilibrium market price level is examined.
+Since the degree of strictness of the owner’s construction management on the project is assumed to affect the maximum amount of BCR, MBCR can be used to represent different strictnesses of construction management in different projects.
+The lower MBCR is, the stricter the construction management;
+and vice versa.
+The MBCR is separately set as 0.1Bx, 0.06Bx, and 0.02Bx to simulate the market prices under three different degrees of strictness of owner’s construction management on projects.
+The simulation result shows that, at the same competition level, different BCR levels result in different equilibriums of market price see Fig. 7.
+It is logical to infer from this result that, when contractors begin to take BCR into account for pricing decisions, the key determinant of contractors’ pricing and market price is BCR instead of market competition level.
+Therefore, projects with different degrees of strictness in construction management would be naturally divided into different market segments, and their equilibrium market prices vary as well.
+In this study, 44 highway projects that include similar road and bridge construction are considered homogenous and selected from two government agencies in Taiwan, the National Expressway Engineering Bureau NEEB and the Directorate General of Highways DGH. Data collected from the above sample projects are analyzed to verify the relationship between the strictness of construction management and the award price level please refer to Table 3, for the sample projects.
+Background of samples
+Number of samples
+Award price ranges
+Average number of competitors
+Background of Sample Projects
+Analysis of Strictness of Construction Management by NEEB and DGH
+Soundness of contract	For material	6.50	5.42	0.001
+For construction	6.42	5.08	0.001
+Tightness of construction	For material	6.67	5.25	0.000
+For construction	6.58	5.08	0.000
+Strictness of Construction Management
+To distinguish the strictness of construction management on projects by NEEB and DGH, 12 of 19 contractors who have participated in projects for both NEEB and DGH were interviewed four contractors have closed down and three contractors did not agreed to be interviewed.
+Every contractor interviewed graded NEEB and DGH based on previous experience from two aspects:
+soundness of contract provisions and tightness of construction supervision.
+The scores ranged from 1 to 7;
+1 means very loose and 7 means very strict.
+Results from the survey reveal that NEEB scores significantly higher than DGH in terms of the soundness of contract provisions and tightness of construction supervision see Table 4.
+Award Price Level
+It was found that the price levels of sample projects are correlated to the date of bid opening and number of competitors the Pearson correlation coefficients are 0.47 and 0.68, respectively.
+Therefore, to exclude the influences of these two factors on the price level and precisely compare the price level of two agencies, this paper applies multivariate regression to assess each variable’s impact on price level, as shown in
+P = 1T + 2N + 3Ga + 4Gb 14 where P represents award price level;
+Tdate of bid opening;
+Nnumber of competitors;
+and GbDGH. As Ga and Gb represent two categories, each is marked as a dummy variable:
+0 or 1 Hardy 1993.
+Statistics shows that, excluding the effects of bid-opening date and number of competitors on award price level, the 3 and 4 estimated are 0.624 and 0.585, respectively, this suggests that under similar market conditions, price levels for projects operated by NEEB will be higher than for those operated by DGH see
+Reliability is supported by the result that each variable has a significant influence on the price level of the sample projects t-value of each variable is less than 0.05 and all the variables are independent of each other condition index value of each variable Table 5.
+Parameter Estimation Figured by Multivariate Regression
+Condition index
+Number of competitors
+is less than 30.
+Therefore, this analysis substantially supports the idea that, when contractors participate in DGH projects, they expect higher BCR and tender lower prices;
+so the award price level is significantly lower than in the case of NEEB.
+Contractors’ pricing behaviors as well as the market price level are simultaneously influenced by many complex and interdependent factors.
+It is thus worthwhile to develop a holistic model which is capable of conducting scenario simulation in a laboratory setting, so as to increase our understanding of the dynamics of contractors’ pricing behaviors and the market price level.
+This work broadly adopted findings of previous studies and carefully simplified and assumed some variables and parameters to build a model for analyzing contractors’ opportunistic bidding behavior and its impacts on the market price level.
+It is found that the BCR is a crucial factor in the segmentation of the competition market by contractors.
+Results from both computer simulation and case study reveal a significant relationship between the market price level and BCR. It is inferred that, even under similar production conditions, construction projects let by owners of different degrees of strictness in construction management, from contractors’ point of view, are to be categorized into different market segments.
+In a fiercely competitive market, the phenomenon that contractors decide the price on the basis of BCR and perform opportunistic bidding can very possibly be regarded as a modern market pattern.
+Therefore, this paper suggests that studies on the market price in the construction industry or related market economy issues cannot overlook the BCR and contractors’ opportunistic bidding behavior in the construction market.
+Contractors’ opportunistic bidding behavior has long negatively affected quality of public projects.
+In the past, authorities concerned have invested immense efforts into the development of alternative bid awarding methods in an attempt to solve this problem.
+However, the research results have disclosed another problem area;
+the key motivation in contractors’ opportunistic bidding is the potential BCR in the current construction management system.
+Therefore, improvement in the construction management system is crucial to lower the possibility that contractors gain BCR and engage in opportunistic bidding behaviors, and to further enhance project quality.
+This study has limited its focus to the three major factors of cost, market competition, and BCR, while recognizing that factors such as technology transfer, market access, etc., can also affect the contractors’ pricing decisions.
+Further, the assumptions of contractor’s pricing behavior in response to changes of level of competition, previous award price, and contractor’s expectation for BCR are certainly limitations in this research.
+As the proposed model was developed for simulation purpose, future studies are suggested to modify the variables and assumptions or to extend the model’s boundaries from this pilot study, so as to address other important issues.
+The following symbols are used in this paper:
+ABCR  attempted beyond-contractual reward;
+AP  award price;
+ARC  attempted reward for contract;
+BP  bidding price;
+EBCR  earned beyond-contractual reward;
+ECP  effect of competition on price;
+EMP  expected market price;
+MBCR  maximum beyond-contractual reward;
+MP  market price;
+RBCR  reference beyond-contractual reward;
+PF  price feasibility;
+PNC  perceived number of competitors;
+RNC  reference number of competitors;
+and SECP  sensitivity of ECP.

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+Strategic-Operational Construction Management:
+A significant number of large-scale civil infrastructure projects experience cost overruns and schedule delays.
+To minimize these disastrous consequences, management actions need to be carefully examined at both the strategic and operational levels, as their effectiveness is mainly dependent on how well strategic perspectives and operational details of a project are balanced.
+However, current construction project management approaches have treated the strategic and operational issues separately, and consequently introduced a potential conflict between strategic and operational analyses.
+To address this issue, a hybrid simulation model is presented in this paper.
+This hybrid model combines system dynamics and discrete event simulation which have mainly been utilized to analyze the strategic and operational issues in isolation, respectively.
+As an application example, a nontypical repetitive earthmoving process is selected and simulated.
+The simulation results demonstrate that a systematic integration of strategic perspective and operational details is helpful to enhance the process performance by enabling construction managers to identify potential process improvement areas that traditional approaches may miss.
+Based on the simulation results, it is concluded that the proposed hybrid simulation model has great potential to support both the strategic and operational aspects of construction project management and to ultimately help increase project performance.
+CE Database subject headings:
+Hybrid methods;
+Simulation models;
+Cost control;
+Construction management;
+Discrete elements.
+Introduction
+Schedule delays and cost overruns have chronically persisted in construction projects despite advances in construction equipment and management techniques Park and Peña-Mora 2003.
+For construction cost performance, it was reported that 20 civil infrastructure projects in 17 states experienced significant cost increases ranging from around 40 to 400% GAO 2002.
+This trend is not limited to projects in the United States.
+According to Flyvbjerg et al. 2003, cost overruns are found in 90% of all megaprojects in 20 countries ranging from Europe to Asia and such cost escalation is not a new phenomenon but has persisted over the past 70 years.
+In order to minimize this situation, management actions taken during the execution stage need to be carefully examined as these
+Professor, Construction Management and Information Technology, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Univ. of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana-Champaign, IL 61801.
+feniosky@ uiuc.edu
+Ph.D. Candidate, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Univ. of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana-Champaign, IL 61801.
+Assistant Professor, Hole School of Construction Engineering, Dept.
+of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Univ. of Alberta, Edmonton AB, Canada T6G 2G7.
+[email protected]
+Associate Professor, Dept. of Architecture, Seoul National Univ., Seoul 151-742, Korea.
+[email protected]
+Note. Discussion open until February 1, 2009.
+Separate discussions must be submitted for individual papers.
+The manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and possible publication on June 8, 2006;
+approved on November 30, 2007.
+This paper is part of the Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, Vol. 134, No. 9, September 1, 2008. ©ASCE, ISSN 0733-9364/2008/9-701–710/$25.00.
+actions may significantly influence project performances Williams 2002.
+Depending on their effectiveness, such actions can be beneficial or detrimental to the project performance.
+Therefore, for successful project control, it is imperative to rigorously assess the impact that the actions will have.
+Especially in large-scale projects, a higher degree of project complexity can increase the difficulty of this analysis Lee et al. 2006.
+In order to take an effective management action, the action should be analyzed at both the strategic and operational levels as its effectiveness is mainly dependent on how well the strategic perspective and operational details of a project are balanced Schultz et al. 1987.
+For example, given the strategic perspective of the project without operational details, beneficial actions could be identified but not properly taken.
+Conversely, given operational details without strategic perspective, detrimental actions might be taken.
+Such a mismatch between strategic analysis and operational analysis is one of the main reasons for project failures Callahan and Brooks 2004.
+Thus, for successful construction project management, both strategic and operational approaches are simultaneously required Lee et al. 2006.
+To address this issue, this paper seeks a way of combining both strategic and operational analyses.
+For this, we first examine and identify the scope of “strategic” and “operational” analyses and how they have been treated in traditional construction project management approaches.
+Then, we identify limitations of the traditional approaches and propose an integrated model which can overcome these limitations.
+For a systematic integration, we develop a hybrid simulation modeling framework that can support both strategic and operational aspects of construction projects.
+Finally, we validate and simulate the model, analyze the simulation results, and demonstrate how the hybrid model can be helpful to enhance construction project performance.
+Strategic and Operational Issues in Traditional Approaches
+Construction project management can be divided into two major approaches in terms of the primary concentration on what to manage:
+strategic project management and operational project management Lee et al. 2006.
+Strategic project management SPM is mainly concerned with how to achieve desirable project results within the context of the company’s strategic objectives, while operational project management OPM focuses on the steps required to achieve the project objectives.
+It can also be said that SPM broadly considers long-term project behavior using a holistic view, whereas OPM zooms into a greater level of operational details focusing only on one portion of the project at a time in a more quantifiable way.
+Thus, the SPM can be defined as macrolevel management actions that establish the guidelines, directions, and policies that provide logically pervasive patterns to
+individual decisions for scheduling, budgeting, and resource allocation Rodrigues and Bowers 1996.
+On the other hand, the OPM can be defined as microlevel management actions that provide a detailed analysis for each individual decision.
+Traditional Construction Project Management Approaches
+In order to reduce complexity of a construction project, traditional construction management approaches have subdivided a construction project into smaller parts i.e., activities.
+This is attributed to a common belief that although each construction project is unique, its constituent activities are common so that project managers’ past experience can be easily applied.
+Thus, it was believed that the more details are incorporated, the more rigorous the management model could be developed.
+Together with such beliefs, most traditional approaches have focused on individual activities Ondash et al. 1988 and operational issues rather than strategic issues Rodrigues and Bowers 1996.
+Among the traditional construction management approaches, the most widely utilized formal scheduling technique is the critical path method CPM Senior and Halpin 1998.
+Tavakoli and Riachi 1990 and Kelleher 2004 surveyed ENR’s top 400 contractors and revealed 92.6 and 98% of respondents used the CPM to some extent, respectively.
+This clearly indicates the broad adoption of the CPM in the architect/engineer/contractor A/E/C industry and how it has continued to increase over the last 10 years.
+Despite this continuing popularity, its drawbacks have been continuously addressed by numerous research efforts.
+For example, Martinez and Ioannou 1997 claimed that it assumes all activities have fixed durations that are known at the beginning of the project.
+However, in practice, it is almost impossible to gather all required information at inception due to uncertainties inherent in construction projects.
+In order to address this issue, the PERT Program Evaluation and Review Technique is often accompanied CPM/PERT. Unlike the CPM, which considers only one fixed activity duration, the PERT uses three duration factors i.e., optimistic, pessimistic, and most likely in order to approximate an empirical distribution of an activity duration Moder et al. 1983.
+In this approach, it is expected that the project completion time is normally distributed because of the central limit theorem the sum of a large number of independent, identically distributed random variables will approximate a normally random variable.
+However, contrary to this assumption, activity durations are not identically distributed nor are they all independent.
+Further, in practice, project failures are more often observed than project
+Cost overruns of courthouse projects
+successes Morris and Hough 1987.
+For example, the General Accounting Office GAO 2005 reviewed 27 courthouse projects constructed from fiscal year 1998 to fiscal year 2005.
+The courthouse projects are all constructed in a quite similar manner because the U.S. Courts Design Guide sets courthouse construction standards.
+Because of this similarity, if the central limit theorem is applicable in these projects, we would observe the same probability of project success and failure.
+However, in Fig. 1, comparison between actual costs and estimated costs at the design stage of these projects indicates that project performance has a long tail higher probability of project failure.
+Thus, for more realistic project estimation, more rigorous statistical analysis needs to be incorporated into the project model.
+Another significant element ignored by CPM/PERT is managerial actions taken during execution.
+In practice, once deviations are met, project managers usually adapt their execution plan with corrective actions for the deviations rather than adhere to their initial plan Rodrigues and Bowers 1996.
+Suppose that foundation work in a construction project is due to finish at around 60 days Fig. 2.
+This work consists of three subactivities:
+Management actions in foundation work
+tion, pile installation, and footing placement.
+Further, suppose that the subactivity durations were initially expected to be 15, 20, and 25 days, respectively, but due to firmer ground than the manager’s initial expectation, excavation and pile installation took 18 and 24 days, respectively.
+Imagine that the construction manager is now about to execute the remaining activity, footing placement.
+Recognizing the schedule slippage, the project manager will try to take a management action i.e., assigning more workers and adopting an overtime policy in order to ensure finishing the foundation work near the scheduled completion date.
+Otherwise, the manager will need to pay a significant penalty for the late completion.
+As such, in practice, managers would not just overlook the schedule slippage Williams 2004, but take action in order to correct deviations or enhance their project performance.
+To address this issue, project managers have regularly and frequently but reactively updated their schedules with these corrective actions.
+As a result, a revised schedule accounts for previous deviations but is still vulnerable to future deviations.
+In this context, even though a CPM/PERT schedule is regularly and frequently revised, its reliability may not be yet fully guaranteed until project completion at which all deviations can be identified.
+In other words, CPM/PERT does not account for the intrinsic dynamics on a project schedule since it does not provide a mechanism to explicitly represent feedback between performance and management actions, which is a major source of the dynamics of a system Williams 2002.
+As a result, it is observed in nearly all construction projects that the final CPM/PERT schedules have been significantly changed from the initial schedules and incorporate additional time or costs which are completely unpredicted by the initial schedules.
+Thus, for getting more reliable project estimations, a project model needs to incorporate a mechanism to deal with management actions proactively.
+Simulation-Based Approaches
+As addressed in the previous section, traditional approaches have two principal limitations in terms of 1 lack of statistical analysis and 2 lack of management action.
+In order to overcome these limitations, simulation models have been extensively adopted in the construction management area.
+Simulation models in the construction management area can be divided into two major approaches:
+Discrete event simulation DES, which has occupied the mainstream of construction simulation and system dynamics SD, which has recently been introduced to the construction simulation area.
+With the ability to incorporate various kinds of statistical distributions in order to estimate activity durations, DES models can overcome the lack of statistical analysis, one limitation of traditional approaches.
+In addition, DES models directly replicate construction processes so construction managers can easily analyze their logistics.
+As DES models can provide detailed information for execution, they have been mainly utilized to analyze operational issues like earthmoving or pipe installation.
+However, due to their narrow focus, sometimes these provide unrealistic estimations because process performance is significantly affected by its project contexts i.e., schedule urgency which are determined by other concurrent processes.
+However, DES models, analyzing construction processes with an event-oriented view, lack the capability to incorporate feedback structures between process performance and its project contexts Martin and Raffo 2001.
+To address this issue, control theory-based SD models have been introduced to analyze project environments because of their very good representation of feedback effects.
+In addition, SD models are effective to incorporate management actions, which is another limitation of the traditional approaches.
+Unlike the focus on operational issues exhibited by DES models, SD models have mostly dealt with strategic issues Lyneis et al. 2001.
+Such differences make SD models represent construction processes in quite a different manner than DES models do.
+The difference between DES and SD models is examined in a construction context with an earthmoving example.
+In DES models, the earthmoving process is subdivided into manageable smaller subactivities i.e., Load, Haul, Dump, Return, and Back track and directly replicated to the model.
+In order to incorporate uncertainty that might exist in the subactivities, these models apply statistical distribution like Normal distribution or Triangular distribution to the subactivities after analyzing previous empirical data since it is believed that such subactivities are common so that project managers’ past experiences can be easily applied.
+Then, according to precedence relationships and process logistics, the whole earthmoving process is estimated in terms of cost performance, schedule performance, and resource profile.
+Finally, these models try to optimize the execution plan by varying input variables i.e., number of trucks.
+As these models still form discrete breakdown structures, these can provide each subactivity’s detailed information for the optimal execution.
+On the other hand, as will be shown later in more detail, SD models try to identify process feedback mechanisms of the earthmoving rather than reproduce the process itself.
+Through analyzing interactions among process variables, SD models capture overall process dynamics and estimate how these dynamics will affect process performance over time i.e., as process progresses, haul distance gets longer, thus lowering process performance.
+Then, based on the feedback analysis, existing problems occasional process interruption due to lack of trucks that the process involves are revealed and suggestions of how to overcome the discovered problems i.e., assigning more trucks are offered.
+As such, SD models more effectively provide a policy guideline to enhance process performance but have greater difficulties in providing information as detailed as that provided by the DES models.
+One main reason is that SD models do not generally form a breakdown structure of discrete subactivities, but analyze the process as a continuous stream of work.
+For this reason, SD models are inherently limited in their ability to generate operational details for project execution Williams 2002.
+Pictorial representation of the earthmoving process
+To summarize, DES models have mainly dealt with operational issues without aggressively considering project feedback structure and focused on the efficiency of process logistics in terms of time, cost, and resource usage.
+On the other hand, SD models have mainly addressed strategic issues by analyzing project feedback structures and examined the effectiveness of control policies against a continuously changing project environment.
+SD models and DES models, so to speak, have been successfully but separately applied to analyze strategic and operational issues respectively but each with their limitations.
+However, incorporation of management actions to a construction project model requires both project strategy and operational details.
+First, project strategy sets project objectives and drives management actions during the execution of the project in order to realize the project goals.
+Depending on the effectiveness of the project strategy, management actions can be beneficial or detrimental to project behavior and are judged by whether they are helpful in attaining project objectives.
+Thus, project strategy needs to be incorporated and evaluated for successful management actions.
+Also, operational details are required for actual implementation of management actions.
+If these are not supported, it would be difficult to detect the detailed information required for taking the management actions e.g., specific timing, responsibility, resource deployment, and so on.
+As such, for robust project management, both project strategy and operational details need to be integrated into a comprehensive modeling framework and it is expected that systematic integration of SD modeling and DES modeling can support both strategic and operational aspects of a construction project.
+Despite this potential benefit, only few attempts have been made to integrate strategic approaches and operational approaches in the construction management area.
+Lee et al. 2006 initiated the study of hybrid SD and DES models and provided a theoretical framework for integrated strategic and operational project management.
+Based on this framework, this study pursues the implementation of an integrated strategic-operational project management model by combining SD and DES modeling.
+To demonstrate implementation of the concept of integrated strategic-operational construction management, an earthmoving process is selected as an application example.
+In this research, the earthmoving process is defined as iterations of moving soil and dumping it to an off-site location as part of construction of a new highway.
+These iterations are repeated until the planned area is completely filled with soil.
+However, as the earthmoving process progresses, the iteration distance gets longer as does the time required for an iteration Fig. 3.
+This makes this process a nontypical repetitive process.
+According to Voster and Bafna 1992, repetitive processes can be divided into two main categories:
+typical and nontypical.
+Typical repetitive processes are characterized by having identical durations in all repetitions.
+On the other hand, nontypical repetitive processes do not have identical durations due to variations in the quantities of work and/or productivity Moselhi and El-Rayes 1993.
+Considering this categorization, the earthmoving process can be classified as a nontypical repetitive construction process as all repetitions of the process do not have identical durations due to the increase in distance as the iterations progress.
+The earthmoving process was selected for several reasons.
+First, the earthmoving process is a nontypical repetitive process which usually requires construction managers to take management action i.e., timely movement of resources to maintain work continuity El-Rayes and Moselhi 1998.
+Therefore, the earthmoving process could be a natural candidate to incorporate management actions to its modeling.
+In addition, the earthmoving process is one of the representative processes considered as indicators of the success or failure of many heavy construction projects as a whole Smith et al. 2000.
+Finally, based on this recognition, the earthmoving process has been used to determine the effectiveness of previous DES-based models, including Martinez et al. 1994, Smith et al. 1995, and AbouRizk and Mather 2000.
+Thus, the earthmoving process is very appropriate to highlight how this study is different from traditional approaches and this study’s contribution.
+Trade-Offs in the Earthmoving Process
+The most important thing we should notice in the earthmoving process is that travel distance gets longer as the process progresses.
+As will be discussed later, this is the main reason that optimization of process performance is difficult.
+The process performance hereafter called overall production rate can be determined by the lesser of the truck circulation rate the number of trucks divided by truck iteration time and the loader circulation rate similarly, the number of loaders divided by loader iteration time since the process simultaneously necessitates loaders and trucks.
+Table 1 shows how the overall production rate is calculated over time in the process.
+The example portrayed in Table 1 supposes two loaders and four trucks assigned for the process.
+When the truck iteration time is 1 min Earlier Phase, the truck circulation rate is 4 units/min and the loader circulation rate is 2 units/min.
+At this time, the overall production rate is governed by the loader circulation rate which is the lesser of both circulation rates.
+As time goes by, travel distance increases and consequently the truck iteration time also increases to 2 min Middle Phase.
+In this phase, although the truck circulation rate decreases to 2 units/min, the loader circulation rate remains at 2 units/min as the loaders travel a relatively constant distance.
+Finally, if travel distance increases further, truck iteration time increases to 4 min Later Phase and the truck circulation rate decreases to 1 unit/min.
+At this point, the truck circulation rate begins to restrict the overall production rate.
+As shown in this example, for cost-effective management, it is necessary to synchronize the truck circulation rate with the loader circulation rate.
+However, the difficulty lies in that the truck circulation rate continuously decreases, whereas the loader circulation rate is almost constant.
+Therefore, the key concern is to find a proper number of trucks that can maintain a balance between the truck circulation
+Overall Production Rate in Earthmoving Given Two Loaders and Four Trucks
+Loader iteration time min
+Truck iteration time min
+Loader circulation rate
+Overall production rate
+Earlier phase
+Later phase
+Dotted line represents loader cycle and solid line represents truck cycle.
+rate and the loader circulation rate since careful selection of equipment fleets for the process can yield substantial savings in both time and cost Farid and Koning 1994.
+If trucks are not sufficiently assigned, the cost performance might be improved through minimizing redundant trucks in the earlier stages.
+However, this would result in a process disruption due to a truck shortage at later stages and will delay the schedule
+performance and ultimately adversely affect the cost performance due to the extended duration.
+On the other hand, if trucks are redundantly assigned, the process disruption can be prevented and thus schedule performance could be enhanced, especially at later stages.
+However, at earlier stages, some trucks will be redundant, causing negative cost performance.
+Thus, there are certain tradeoffs between the schedule performance and cost performance when setting a number of trucks in the earthmoving process.
+To deal with these trade-offs, current DES-based models seek the
+area of R redundant trucks and D deficient trucks see Fig. 4.
+However, no matter how many trucks are assigned in current DES based models, the process cannot avoid a certain amount of lower cost performance or process disruption due to the trade-offs.
+Comparison of Deterministic Simulation Results Adapted from Martinez et al. 1994
+ther increasing the travel distance e – a.
+As a result, as more soil is moved, the production rate always decreases and the process would face occasional process disruptions f .
+In this situation, a construction manager, facing process disruptions, would not simply overlook it Williams 2004 but would take management action such as timely movement of resources to ensure work continuity El-Rayes and Moselhi 1998.
+Whether the construction manager takes management action ultimately depends on the manager’s strategic objectives.
+In this study, we assumed that the process can acquire additional trucks and that the manager’s strategic objective is to finish the project with minimum operation cost and time.
+Based on these assumptions, as the construction manager faces increasing chances of process disruption, the manager will try to acquire additional trucks to increase the production rate g .
+In addition, we assumed a certain amount of time is required for an additional truck to be assigned to the process once it is ordered h .
+By incorporating management actions g and h, the process forms another loop f – g– h– i– d and this loop will enhance the process performance by adjusting the number of trucks.
+In order to rigorously examine the impact of these management actions on schedule and cost performance, we developed a hybrid simulation model.
+The model is built using the Extend simulation environment Imaginethat, Inc. 2002 which is capable of supporting both SD modeling and DES modeling.
+As current DES based models do not incorporate management actions, they cannot be directly compared with the proposed hybrid model for examination of the impact of the management actions.
+Thus, for a clear comparison, we will first develop an intermediate model, which mimics current DES-based models in terms of omitting the management actions.
+Then, we will further develop a hybrid model by incorporating the management actions to the intermediate model.
+By developing the model in this manner, we can first fairly measure the impact of our management actions via comparing the intermediate model to current DES models and then to the hybrid model.
+This section discusses the model building process and validation of the intermediate model that has been developed based on the literature available for STROBOSCOPE Martinez et al. 1994.
+In the earthmoving process, each iteration consists of subtasks named Load, Haul, Dump, and Return.
+Using available trucks and loaders, a certain amount of soil is loaded into a truck Load and the truck travels to a planned dumping site Haul. Arriving at the site, the truck dumps the loaded soil Dump and returns to the loading site to be reloaded for the next iteration Return.
+Such iterations continue until the soil completely fills the planned area of the new load.
+As shown in Fig. 3, the planed length is 4,000 m and the cross section is 12.5 m2.
+The initial iteration distance is 1,000 m and the final distance is 5,000 m.
+For other simulation data and equations for this process, we adopted those utilized in Martinez et al. 1994.
+Before incorporating management action processes, we need to validate the intermediate model to remove any modeling bias between the current DES modeling and the intermediate model.
+For this, we compare the intermediate model simulation results with STROBOSCOPE results under both deterministic and stochastic contexts.
+For testing the intermediate model’s validity in a deterministic context, the simulation results under various loader–truck configurations are compared with STROBOSCOPE. As shown in Table 2, the simulation results are highly consistent with the STROBOSCOPE simulation results with a maximum deviation of only 0.07%.
+Therefore, it is suggested that the intermediate model is highly reliable in the deterministic context.
+Also, Table 2 indicates that when three loaders are allocated, the optimal number of trucks is eleven, giving rise to the lowest cost in both models $95,403 in STROBOSCOPE and $95,444 in the intermediate model, close results within 0.04%.
+Further, we examined the simulation results under the stochastic context as well because uncertainty is ubiquitous in executing a construction process such as earthmoving.
+It is assumed that the amount of soil to be loaded per truck as well as each subtask time incorporates randomness.
+Detailed descriptions for these stochastic features for this process can be found in Martinez et al. 1994.
+Table 3 shows summary statistics of simulation results of STROBOSCOPE and the intermediate model and that their simulation results are quite similar to each other.
+So far, we have examined the validity of the intermediate model under deterministic and stochastic contexts and showed its simulation results are highly consistent with the known simula-
+Summary Statistics of STROBOSCOPE and the Intermediate Model Adapted from Martinez et al. 1994
+tion results.
+These results suggest that the intermediate model is a valid model and could be used to simulate the effect of management actions.
+Hybrid Model with Management Action
+Based on the intermediate model validated in the previous section, this section will develop the hybrid model by incorporating management actions.
+In the section entitled “Trade-offs in the Earthmoving Process,” we argued that it is important to synchronize the truck circulation rate with the loader circulation rate for optimal cost effectiveness.
+We also explained that management actions can enhance cost effectiveness of the process in the section entitled “The Missing Link:
+Management Action.” For incorporation of these actions into the model, we first need to evaluate the process continuously in order to determine when such actions should be adopted.
+For this, the MatchFactor variable, initially proposed by Smith et al. 1995, is elaborated in this study and calculated as follows
+MatchFactor = CL/CT = NL/TL/NT/TT 1 where CLloader circulation rate;
+CTtruck circulation rate;
+NLnumber of loaders;
+TLloader cycle time;
+NTnumber of trucks;
+and TTtruck cycle time.
+Smith’s study regarded the MatchFactor as a static variable, which determines whether an appropriate number of trucks is initially allocated for maximum process efficiency.
+However, the study presented in this paper, extending Smith’s idea, considers this index a dynamic variable, which continuously changes through the entire process because the truck circulation rate continuously decreases as explained in the section entitled “Tradeoffs in the Earthmoving Process.” Similar to Smith’s study, in the study presented in this paper, when MatchFactor is one, the process is perfectly cost effective.
+In addition, MatchFactor greater than one indicates that the number of trucks is insufficient and less than one means truck redundancy.
+This index is continuously evaluated over the entire process in order to trigger management actions.
+Whenever this index reaches a certain threshold set by the construction manager, the simulation engine assigns an additional truck, with a certain amount of adjustment delay.
+Using this control mechanism, we simulate how such management actions impact the process performance.
+The hybrid model is developed from the intermediate model by incorporating management actions.
+Though the intermediate model is validated under various modeling contexts, since management actions are newly incorporated system elements into the hybrid model, these need to be further validated.
+From the modeling point of view, the main difference between the hybrid model and the intermediate model is that the former can provide information for taking management actions i.e., when and how many additional trucks should be ordered and when these will be actually assigned to the process by continuously evaluating MatchFactor, whereas the latter cannot.
+Therefore, if the information can be fed to the validated intermediate model and the model is simulated with this information, this can be used for validating the hybrid model.
+If the hybrid model is valid, its simulation results would correspond to the intermediate model results which are simulated with the information for taking management actions.
+In order to feed the information to the intermediate model, a “Program” block is embedded in the intermediate model, which can provide certain items Trucks in this case at user-defined times.
+This block is programmed to assign additional trucks using the information obtained from the hybrid model simulation results i.e., time and amount of newly ordered trucks.
+Taking advantage of the Program block, we simulated the intermediate model again with the information for taking management actions and compared the results with the hybrid model simulation results.
+Simulation results of both models are identical.
+This suggests that the hybrid model is valid and could be used to analyze the impact of management actions to the process performance.
+In this section, the hybrid model simulates the effect of the management action of truck adjustment that a construction manager may take in the earthmoving process.
+Simulating the hybrid model, we will assess the impact of the management action to the process performance and analyze how we can enhance the performance.
+Response surface for cost and schedule performance
+In terms of taking the management action, there could be two main decision factors:
+1 how many trucks should be initially allocated and 2 how quickly additional trucks can be assigned when required.
+To examine these factors, the process is simulated with:
+1 5–13 initial trucks and 2 zero ideal case to 24 working hours of adjustment delay.
+Response Surface Analysis
+In order to analyze the effects of the initial number of trucks and adjustment delay on cost and schedule performance, we utilized a response surface methodology Myers and Montgomery 2002.
+Fig. 6a shows the effect of two decision factors on schedule performance.
+As expected, the schedule performance gets better with a shorter adjustment delay and more initial trucks.
+Fig. 6a shows schedule performance is primarily dependent on initial truck numbers.
+Although adjustment delay also affects the schedule performance, its impact is not as significant as that initial truck number’s impact.
+Also, Fig. 6a shows the sensitivity of increasing initial trucks on the schedule performance.
+When the initial truck number is less than 8, its sensitivity is significant, but decreases when the initial truck number is greater than 8.
+Unlike the schedule performance, the cost performance produces a convex curve in terms of initial number of trucks Fig. 6b.
+When 8 trucks are initially assigned to the process, the cost performance is optimal in all cases of adjustment delay.
+This is because redundant trucks can cause idling cost and too few trucks can interrupt the process and consequently lower the cost performance.
+In addition, the cost performance produces a convex curve in terms of adjustment delay while its sensitivity is not as significant as the impact of initial truck numbers.
+Generally, it is believed that the shorter the adjustment delay, the better the cost performance that can be obtained because shorter adjustment delays can be helpful in minimizing process disruptions caused by the truck shortage.
+Contrary to this general perception, the simulation results show that there is a certain threshold that gives a maximum cost performance.
+For example, when 8 trucks are initially assigned, the lowest cost performance is found at 10 h of adjustment delay.
+This implies that the cost performance is not in proportion with managerial efforts to improve decision factors.
+In the traditional approaches, it is often assumed that the process performance could be linearly enhanced with managerial efforts and that there exist certain trade-offs between schedule performance and cost performance.
+As a result, construction managers take control actions with the belief that increasing resource levels will enhance schedule performance, but degrade cost performance.
+However, as shown in Fig. 6b, the simulation results demonstrate that if the impact of these actions is not carefully analyzed within a strategic and holistic view, the overall process performance may suffer because of our own best efforts e.g., excessive number of trucks and shortest possible delay.
+Thus, in order to take effective management actions, it is crucial to align our operational efforts consistently with our strategic directions.
+In this context, the hybrid simulation model, integrating strategic and operational aspects, can help construction managers take effective management actions and ultimately increase project performance.
+Table 4 details summary statistics of the simulation results of the intermediate model and the hybrid model.
+The intermediate model was simulated with three loaders and eleven trucks and the hybrid model was simulated with eight initial trucks and 10 h of adjustment delays.
+An examination of the results of the two simulations reveals important differences.
+Also, we further checked differences of the simulation results using statistical hypothesis tests H0:
+Intermediate=Hybrid and H1:
+IntermediateHybrid.
+The test results indicate that the null hypothesis is clearly rejected p=0.001, =0.01.
+In addition, the test results show that the management actions could result in time saving of 4.22–4.45% 95% confidence interval and cost saving of 4.02–4.25% 95% confidence interval over the optimal simulation results of the intermediate model.
+As the probability of Type I error i.e., rejecting H0 and accepting H1 even though H0 is true is denoted by  significance level of the test, the probability that these improvements might be within the range of statistical error is less than 0.01.
+Fig. 7 clearly represents how management actions brought these enhancements.
+When the management actions are omitted Fig. 7a, the simulation results reveal ineffectiveness in that some trucks are redundant at earlier phases potential cause for degraded cost performance and are insufficient at later phases potential cause for process disruption.
+However, when the management actions are implemented Fig. 7b, trucks are fully utilized during the whole process and loaders are utilized at around 98.5% during the same period.
+Although the management actions generate 1.5% of idling loaders, this plays a significant role as a buffer for hedging a process disruption due to truck shortage.
+Such simulation results provide a demonstration on how management actions can enhance process performance.
+Summary Statistics of the Intermediate Model and the Hybrid Model
+As project failures could be ascribed to a mismatch between strategic policy and operational efforts, both strategic and operational issues need to be considered simultaneously when taking management actions.
+To address this issue, this study developed a hybrid simulation model that can support both the strategic and the operational aspects of a construction project through the integration of SD and DES modeling.
+For a proof of concept purpose, we applied the model to a nontypical earthmoving process example and examined how management actions can impact the process performance.
+Through a series of response surface analyses, the simulation results indicated that the hybrid model can help construction managers find potential process improvement areas.
+Although DES models have been extensively applied to simulate the earthmoving process, these are limited to explicitly discover this
+improvement area.
+However, this study utilizing a hybrid approach could visibly discern the area through analyzing the process feedback structure as represented in Fig. 5.
+In practice, increasing project complexity makes it more difficult to take effective control actions.
+In this circumstance, this research would help construction managers successfully control their projects by simulating the impact of their actions in advance.
+For example, when construction managers face a lower progress rate than planned, their intuition would not always provide a systematic means of compensating for the delayed schedule.
+The reason is that performance enhancement does not always follow our general perception, as shown in the earthmoving case.
+In such a case, this research could provide a reliable mechanism of supporting project control.
+Although this research is a meaningful step toward integrated strategic-operational construction project management, additional considerations are still required to be fully utilized in real construction projects.
+This study does not extensively consider side effects or ripple effects caused by the management actions.
+These may make strategic decision processes more complex and less reliable.
+The writers believe that further exploration of these challenging issues is necessary to discover the complexities and dynamics of construction projects and ultimately increase project performance.
+The writers would like to acknowledge the financial support for this research received from the National Science Foundation CAREER and PECASE Award No. CMS-9875557, the National Science Foundation Award No. CMS-0324501, and the Korean Ministry of Construction and Transportation, Research Project No. 05 CIT D05-01.
+Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this paper are those of the writers and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation and the Korean Ministry of Construction and
+Transportation.

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+Competency-Based Model for Predicting Construction Project Managers’ Performance
+Andrew R. J. Dainty, M.ASCE1;
+Mei-I Cheng2;
+and David R. Moore3
+Using behavioral competencies to influence human resource management decisions is gaining popularity in business organizations.
+This study identifies the core competencies associated with the construction management role and, further, develops a predictive model to inform human resource selection and development decisions within large construction organizations.
+A range of construction managers took part in behavioral event interviews where staff were asked to recount critical management incidents, decisions, and actions from which their key competencies could be identified.
+By delineating the sample according to their levels of performance measured against a range of role-specific performance criteria, the competencies defining superior management performance could be determined.
+These were then used to construct a logistic regression model from which a project manager’s performance can be predicated.
+The validated results reveal that “self-control” and “team leadership” are the most predictive behaviors of effective project management performance within the framework of the model.
+The paper explores the potential role and application of the framework to underpin human resource management decision making with regards to recruitment, performance management, succession planning, and resource allocation.
+CE Database subject headings:
+Human factors;
+Professional development;
+Project management;
+Performance;
+Introduction
+Construction projects present some of the most challenging arenas within which to apply effective project management techniques.
+They tend to be characterized by crisis, uncertainty, and suspense, which combine to test the ability and performance of the manager in coordinating and controlling a diverse selection of functional specialists, over which he/she may have little direct authority (El-Sabaa 2001).
+Project success is therefore dependent upon the leadership qualities of project managers and their ability to bring the best out in their team.
+Construction project managers have to combine technical knowledge and expertise with behaviors that engender effective multiorganizational teamwork and communication if successful outcomes are to be achieved.
+These areas of expertise are known collectively as core competencies (Construction Industry Institute 1997).
+The identification, assessment, and maintenance of such competencies are arguably fundamental to the optimization of the productivity and performance of contemporary engineering organizations (Trejo et al. 2002).
+PhD, Lecturer, Dept. of Civil and Building Engineering, Loughborough Univ., Leicestershire, LE11 3TU, U.K. (corresponding author).
+[email protected]
+PhD, Research Associate, Dept. of Civil and Building Engineering,
+Loughborough	Univ.,	Leicestershire	LE11	3TU,	U.K.	E-mail:
+[email protected]
+PhD, Lecturer, Scott Sutherland School, The Robert Gordon Univ.,
+Note. Discussion open until June 1, 2005.
+Separate discussions must be submitted for individual papers.
+To extend the closing date by one month, a written request must be filed with the ASCE Managing Editor.
+The manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and possible publication on July 14, 2003;
+approved on May 24, 2004.
+This paper is part of the Journal of Management in Engineering, Vol. 21, No. 1, January 1, 2005. ©ASCE, ISSN 0742-597X/2005/1-2–9/$25.00.
+A key characteristic of construction project environments is their unpredictability relative to static production industries (Loosemore et al. 2003).
+For example, the construction project environment is characterized by groups of individuals working together for short periods of time before being disbanded and redeployed elsewhere within the organization (Atkins and Gilbert 2003).
+Projects also involve undertaking a range of work activities for a finite period with one or more defined objectives (Turner and Muller 2003).
+This short-term interaction presents one of the greatest challenges to the individuals managing performance within it (Turner and Muller 2003).
+Notably, it places demands upon managers to respond flexibly to rapidly changing circumstances in order that they can replan and refocus their strategies for meeting competing project objectives.
+Indeed, construction project managers rarely undertake methodical and repetitive activities, their role being characterized by brevity, variety, and fragmentation with a need to refocus their attention at regular intervals (Partridge 1989).
+This complex and dynamic environment renders the identification of core management behaviors particularly problematic.
+Despite the difficulties in identifying the management competencies leading to effective project performance, there has been a growing interest in doing so within the literature (Thompson et al. 1996).
+Competencies can embody an array of different characteristics, behaviors, and traits necessary for effective job performance (Abraham et al. 2001).
+Moreover, there is a demonstrable link between the competence of top team members and the overall performance of the organization (Kakabadase 1991).
+Used effectively, competency assessments can be used to inform many human resource management (HRM) processes, including the development of robust selection and succession planning models.
+They can help to predict project management performance against a range of key performance criteria based on measurable competencies and personality traits.
+This research constructs a predictive performance model through the identification of the behaviors leading to effective construction project management performance.
+The model has the potential to be applied to a range of HRM activities in order to inform recruitment, selection, performance management, and succession planning within large construction organizations.
+Need for a Predictive Model of Construction Project Managers’ Performance
+Over the last decade there has been a growing emphasis on the identification of the behaviors and traits necessary for effective job performance, particularly in terms of informing employee selection decisions.
+A competencies approach helps to identify which selection techniques or psychometrics are likely to result in useful evidence for the job role under consideration (Armstrong 2001, p. 389).
+Wood and Payne (1998) suggest that competencybased selection approaches circumvent many of the problems of traditional techniques, including the facilitation of person/job matching, and provide more accurate predictions about suitability.
+This minimizes the risk of making “snap” judgments by interview panels.
+The development of a predictive model for employee selection could therefore be of significant potential value in the context of informing the selection procedure.
+A number of studies have sought to identify job competencies and their relationship with individual and team accomplishment.
+For example, Carr et al. (2002) investigated the relationship between personality traits and job performance for those involved in design services.
+The study focused on understanding how the personalities of staff members correlate with known successful performance behaviors (critical project success factors).
+They found that those possessing a preference for “intuitive data collection” and “perceiving structure” outperformed those with preferences for “sensing” or “judging.” Carr et al. clearly demonstrate the possibility of predicting job performance based upon individual personality traits manifested in the natural preferences of behavior.
+The literature suggests that project management competencies are broad and multifarious.
+Meredith et al. (1995) categorized the skills required by project managers into six key skills areas, namely, communication, organizational, team building, leadership, coping, and technological skills.
+These categories embody a broad range of abilities linked to the inherent characteristics of the project management role, such as achieving unique outcomes and working under defined time and resource constraints.
+ElSabaa (2001) found that, of these competency areas, technical skills have the least influence on project managers’ performance.
+In contrast, he found that the role of the project manager demands a basic understanding of a broad range of functional roles and extensive cross-functional experience, layered over in-depth technical expertise.
+If the construction project manager is viewed as an overseer and coordinator of activities rather than as a functional specialist, this can be seen as a creative activity, within which softer qualities such as sensitivity and flexibility enhance an organization’s competitiveness (Jacobs 1989).
+Thus, the behavioral characteristics of construction project managers are likely to be more complex and diverse than most other industry professions.
+This research set out to identify the core behavioral competencies of the construction project management function and, further, to refine a model in order to predict the likely managerial effectiveness of prospective incumbents to the job role.
+Refining a more limited range of core competencies that can be used to predict the in-job performance of individual candidates against each other could inform and streamline the selection process.
+In essence, it would be more cost effective to employ someone already able to evidence the most predictive competencies of performance excellence, rather than someone without them.
+Such an individual would be expected to bring immediacy to a higher level of performance, thereby enabling the organization to mobilize its project resources more effectively.
+This research is founded on the notion that a distinction can be drawn between a superior and an average performer through the identification of behaviors unique to the superior performing managers.
+By exploring the influence of these behaviors in defining effectiveness within the project management role, the key behaviors with respect to predicting superior performance can be identified.
+Thus, the research set out to explore the following hypotheses:
+• Hypothesis 1:
+Superior-performing managers will evidence higher levels of specific key behaviors that underpin effective management performance than average-performing managers.
+• Hypothesis 2:
+The likelihood of an individual exhibiting superior construction management performance can be predicated against specific levels of competencies identified for the role.
+The methodology utilized in this study was the well-established McBer job competency assessment process, initially developed for industrial psychology by McCelland (1973).
+Over the last 30 years, a number of studies have demonstrated the effectiveness and validity of the McBer job competency assessment methodology, which comprises:
+(1) the identification of criteria defining effective performance;
+(2) the identification of a criterion sample group of superior performers and a comparison group of average employees;
+(3) data collection through behavioral event interviews;
+(4) the identification of competencies that distinguish superior from average performers;
+(5) the validation of the competency model;
+and (6) the application of the model to a range of HRM functions (Spencer and Spencer 1993).
+The data collected from the criterion sample group can then be used to develop a predictive model for establishing the likelihood of superior job performance.
+The research procedure is described in detail as follows.
+An important initial step (stage 1) in this research was to identify the criteria or measures that define superior or effective performance in the job role to be studied.
+A criticism could be leveled at some of the previous research into the identification of key dimensions of effective management behavior, in that there is a reliance on correlating performance with the out-turn performance of projects.
+These were typically projects using traditional critical project success factors (CPSFs) as the dependent variables against which performance was measured.
+CPSFs often comprise factors such as time, budget, specification, user expectations, quality of workmanship, and minimizing construction aggravation (Songer and Molenaar 1997).
+While such measures may be appropriate for appraising the success of the overall production effort, they fail to take account of the external factors that can deflect the efforts (positive or negative) of the construction project manager.
+Indeed, given the number of actors and the effect of other factors such as contractual and procurement routes, weather conditions, design constraints, and supply chain relationships, it would be difficult for poor project performance to be directly attributable to an individual manager (Dainty et al. 2003).
+Accordingly, this research began with the development of a set of defined criteria for performance excellence specific to the construction project management role.
+Three focus groups, each comprising a stratified sample of 20 managers (ranging from first line supervisors to senior head office based managers), were used to generate a range of performance excellence measures.
+These groups comprised an “expert panel” of people who depend, for their own effectiveness, on the outputs from the job-holders concerned (Williams 1998).
+The focus group members were encouraged to discuss openly their views of the criteria of performance excellence against which construction project managers should be evaluated.
+This generated a set of expectations and demands of the job role, which could be argued to represent those that construction project managers would expect their behaviors and performance to be benchmarked against.
+The full range of criteria was then listed and the original participants asked to rate the importance of each criterion against a seven-point Likert-type response scale.
+The criteria range was then subsequently reduced and refined using factor analysis.
+In this research, exploratory factor analysis was used as opposed to confirmatory factor analysis, because the research team was unable to draw upon a priori knowledge or construction-specific theory in defining the factor structure.
+The relationships between the variables were thus examined without determining the extent to which they fit a particular model (Bryman and Cramer 1997).
+In order to understand the underlying constructs of the variables, a principal components analysis was performed with varimax rotation for eigenvalues greater than unity.
+The eigenvalue is a mathematical property of a matrix used both as a criterion for determining the number of factors to extract and as a measure of variance accounted for by a given dimension (Kim and Mueller 1994).
+Under factor analysis, the criteria separated into nine performance factors (listed subsequently).
+These were then used to benchmark the performance of a group of superior managers together with a comparison group of average performers who were to form the sample group for the study (stage 2).
+The informants were drawn from two participating companies, both among the largest contracting organizations in the United Kingdom.
+An expert panel of HRM specialists, senior managers, and operations managers were asked to identify a sample of 24 superior performers and 16 average performers from across their respective organizations.
+These 40 managers were therefore not randomly selected, but were purposely chosen for their job role performance relative to others within their respective organization.
+The superior performers were to be used as the study’s focus for identifying the competency model, with the average group acting as a comparison group to enable the formulation of a predictive model.
+Under the guidance of the research team, the expert panel utilized multisource assessment techniques to assess each candidate against the criteria identified in stage 1 (Guinn 1996).
+In stage 3, a variety of data were collected from the managers selected in stage 2.
+Initially, they were asked to describe their job tasks and key responsibilities in order to identify competence requirements of their roles.
+Next, behavioral event interviews (BEIs) were used to assess the behaviors underlying effective performance in their role.
+Interviewees were asked to recount an occasion where they had to manage a complex or problematic situation or event.
+Each informant was asked to describe a range of critical situations they had encountered;
+the events that had led up to them;
+who was involved;
+what they thought, felt, or wanted to do in that situation;
+and, finally, what they actually did and what they believed the outcome was (Lee and Chan 1998).
+Using BEIs to discern competencies is a well-established approach utilized as part of the McBer job competency assessment process (Spencer and Spencer 1993).
+The BEIs were analyzed (stage 4) using the methodology devised as part of the McBer job competency assessment process (McCelland 1973).
+Initially, the interviews were transcribed verbatim and then coded in accordance with the McBer competency dictionary using the NVivo qualitative data analysis package.
+The McBer competency dictionary and codebook (Spencer and Spencer 1993) provides a convenient scoring system against which each behavioral response can be awarded a numerical value depending upon the level of competency emerging from the BEI. The codebook provided descriptors of differing competency levels under each behavior.
+By classifying the event descriptions against this codebook, the data could then be analyzed for interrater reliability, before applying one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) to examine whether the differences among the competencies of the two groups (superior versus average managers) were significant.
+Finally, forward stepwise logistic regression analysis was then performed to create the parsimonious model for predicting job performance for the construction management role.
+The model was validated (stage 5) by testing its predictive qualities for a second criterion sample also selected by the expert panel.
+Finally, the model was applied to support a number of practical HRM functions discussed later in the paper (stage 6).
+The focus group discussions resulted in a substantial list of criteria for performance excellence that were described by the participants as being associated with project success.
+The focus group members were encouraged to discuss openly their views of the criteria for performance excellence, with the researchers only steering the discussion where particular individuals became too dominant or where the discussions strayed from the focus area.
+The full range of criteria was then listed and the participants asked to rank the importance of each criterion on a seven-point Likert scale on an individual basis.
+Hauschildt et al. (2000) warn of the need to avoid selective elimination on the basis of theoretical bias when adopting this approach.
+Thus, all success criteria were included on this list, regardless of the level of empirical support that they received within the focus groups.
+The independence of the Likert responses ensured that any influence over subordinates from senior managers during the focus groups was minimized.
+Exploratory factor analysis was used as the data reduction tool to group the numerous success indicators to a manageable and meaningful number of criteria.
+Factor analysis enables the discovery of chief underlying dimensions of a set of variables, attributes, responses, or observations (Oppenheim 1992).
+As mentioned above, in order to understand the underlying constructs of the variables, a principal components analysis was performed with varimax rotation for eigenvalues greater than unity.
+The method used to exclude factors was a graphical “scree” test that indicated the cut-off point at which the eigenvalues leveled off (Cattell 1966).
+Due to the relatively small sample size, an interrater agreement was also employed to help interpret the data and refine the factors.
+The exploratory factor analysis resulted in 12 factors with eigenvalues greater than unity being extracted, but the scree test suggested that a nine-factor solution was most appropriate.
+Comparison of Competencies of Average Managers sn=16d and Superior Managers sn=24d
+Information seeking
+Focus on client’s needs
+Impact and influence
+Directiveness
+Teamwork and cooperation
+Team leadeship
+Analytical thinking
+Conceptual thinking
+with the interrater agreement, 43 performance criteria remained, and these were summarized by nine factors.
+Using a factor loading of 0.50 as the cut-off for inclusion within a factor, the variables separated into nine distinct factors quite cleanly.
+The factors were interpreted thus:
+the first factor was labeled “team building” and explained 22.36% of the variance;
+the second factor was concerned with “leadership” and explained 17.71% of the variance;
+and factors 3–9 were concerned with “decision making” (11.10% of the variance), “mutuality and approachability” (8.19%), “honesty and integrity” (7.03%), “communication” (5.32%), “understanding and application” (4.73%), “self-motivation” (4.10%), and “external relations” (3.93%).
+The nine factors extracted thus accounted for 84.45% of the variance in responses.
+For detailed findings of this stage of the research, see Dainty et al. (2003).
+The one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) statistical technique was conducted to identify the competencies that distinguish superior managers from those performing at an average level.
+This revealed 12 competencies that define performance excellence.
+These were:
+achievement orientation, initiative, information seeking, focus on client’s needs, impact and influence, directiveness, teamwork and cooperation, team leadership, analytical thinking, conceptual thinking, self-control, and flexibility (Table 1).
+Logistic regression analysis (forward stepwise) was conducted to determine the most predictive competencies among the 12 identified to generate a parsimonious model for job performance prediction.
+To determine a prediction model with the best possible fit to the job performance data (superior versus average managers), all 12 variables were regressed on the dependent variable of job performance.
+The 12 competencies were entered in a stepwise logistic regression analysis using forward selection (p to enter ,0.01) and backward elimination (p to move .0.10) based on likelihood ratio estimates.
+This revealed that two competencies made a significant contribution to the prediction of job performance.
+At the first step, self-control was entered.
+The correct class rate of the discrimination of average managers and superior managers was 92.50%, with a chi-square of 30.93 s1 dfd sp,0.0001d.
+At the second step, team leadership was entered.
+The correct class rate of this elaborated model was 95% with an increased chi-square (at p,0.0001 of 44.17 with 2 df).
+After that, none of the other competencies could be added.
+The classification table (Table 2) is presented herein to demonstrate how well the model fits the data.
+As the table shows, the classification results from the logistic regression revealed an impressive prediction success, an overall correct class rate of 95% for the total sample of 40 managers.
+The resulting parsimonious model accounted for 66.90% of the variance in job performance.
+The logistic parsimonious regression equation resulting from the analysis can therefore be expressed as
+Prossuperiord = 1/1 + e−s−9.08+2.40 self-control+1.79 team leadershipd
+The full competency model was validated on a second criterion sample.
+The t-test results show that superior managers were significantly higher than average managers on the 12 distinguishing competencies previously identified (see Table 3).
+For the parsimonious model, the scores of self-control and team leadership competencies were entered into the model to ascertain the probability of an individual being a superior performer.
+The results show that four of the 20 individuals were misclassified by the model, suggesting a predictive accuracy of 80% (see Table 4).
+Classification Table for Job Performance (Cut Value is 0.40)
+Initiative	0.75	0.71
+Information seeking	1.25	0.89
+Impact and influence	1.63	0.52
+Directiveness	1.75	0.71
+Teamwork and cooperation	1.88	1.13
+Team leadership	1.50	1.60
+Analytical thinking	0.75	0.46
+Conceptual thinking	1.00	0.53
+Flexibility	1.25	0.46
+Comparison of competencies off average managers sn=8dand superior managers sn=12d.
+c p,0.05 (one-tailed).
+Role-BasedCriteriaforPerformanceExcellence
+The 43 items derived from the focus groups provided a comprehensive set of performance criteria.
+The criteria are refined within nine factor groups as follows:
+• Team building:
+A key performance measure should be effectiveness in managing team sociodynamics to create an environment that encourages low staff turnover and stability.
+• Leadership:
+The broad range traits of leadership suggest that construction project teams value a clear, single-minded approach from their project managers.
+However, it should also be noted that flexibility was also grouped within this factor, emphasizing the need to be able to react to changing circumstances rather than rigidly adhering to particular management decisions.
+• Decision making encompassed several production-related indicators as well as more general management attributes, such as the need to recognize key issues, coordination skills, and problem-solving abilities.
+Interestingly, the achievement of production targets (i.e., the management of resources to achieve outturn performance standards) and health and safety management (traditional performance metrics) were both contained within this factor, along with risk management—an increasingly recognized management function within construction.
+This suggests that traditional performance metrics are regarded as simply a subset of those required for performance excellence.
+• Mutuality and approachability demonstrated the need for the
+Classification Table for Parsimonious Model
+project manager to engender individual trust and mutual respect between themselves and their subordinates in order to create an appropriate workplace culture.
+• Honesty and integrity is important, in terms of the management of internal team relations, and also externally to the client and other project stakeholders.
+Project managers putting project goals before their own and admitting their own weaknesses were also seen as positive indicators under this category.
+• Communication demonstrated the ability to transfer knowledge effectively both within the team and to external stakeholders.
+Seen as crucially important, and relevant to the following highlighted criteria for performance excellence.
+• Learning and understanding situations, and then applying their skills rapidly within the project environment.
+A clear emphasis here is on the need to learn from mistakes and to take a thorough approach towards their job role.
+Technical expertise and commercial awareness also appeared within this category.
+Thus, informants apparently believed that managers should be rated against not only their ability to adapt and learn, but also their levels of existing knowledge and competence.
+• Self-efficacy contained aspects related to self-motivation, enthusiasm, self-discipline, and ambition, along with time management and initiative.
+The manner in which the individual manager displays these traits was seen as being likely to influence the team’s application to their tasks.
+• External relations are related to the project manager’s interface with those outside of their immediate workgroup.
+It also included reference to the manager’s need to be able to see their project and responsibilities in relation to the wider organization, and the current emphasis within the industry on developing and maintaining long-term relationships with clients in order to mitigate some of the effects of turbulent markets.
+Summarizing the content of the analyzed categories, two major issues arise with implications for the ways in which managers’ performance has traditionally been determined.
+First, the traditional outturn performance measures of time, cost, and quality were not defined as key criteria as defined by the focus groups.
+They were not generally regarded as meaningful metrics in the context of the measurement of construction project managers’ performance.
+Meeting production targets only emerged as a single indicator within the third factor and as a subset of the decisionmaking criterion.
+A second significant trend concerned the clear emphasis on the importance of building and managing teams effectively.
+Factors 1–6 can all be seen to relate either directly or indirectly to the development and maintenance of effective project teams.
+This finding supports other studies showing that team building is a necessary prerequisite for project success (Bubshait and Gulam 1999).
+A frequent complaint regarding many reward management systems is that they reward only hard outputs rather than the soft processes that lead to these performance achievements.
+Utilizing these performance criteria effectively demands that they be incorporated within a competency/ competence-based performance management system that can overcome this problem (Lewis 2001).
+This demands multidimensional feedback from a range of people with whom the construction project manager interfaces, and so it demands a 360° performance management approach.
+The research revealed 12 core behavioral competencies underpinning effective project management performance, which together comprise a well-rounded set of behaviors underpinning the construction management role.
+Achievement orientation refers to the manager’s concern for working towards a standard based on an individual’s own past performance or goals allied to project and organizational objectives.
+A conceptually related behavioral trait is that of using initiative, demonstrated by taking proactive actions to avert problems in order to enhance job results and avoid problems.
+This may involve finding or creating new opportunities within and outside of the project environment.
+The need for flexibility in terms of being able to adapt and work effectively with a variety of situations was also seen as crucial for the construction management role.
+Information seeking refers to an underlying curiosity or desire to obtain more information on people or issues and not accepting situations at face value.
+This competency can be seen to underpin others, such as focusing on client needs, a self-explanatory competency relating to efforts to meet their client’s requirements.
+The role of the manager in coordinating, inspiring, and directing the team is captured within several of the framework’s competency statements.
+Impact and influence refers to the intention to persuade, convince, influence, or impress others, or the desire to have a specific impact or effect on others within the team.
+However, success in influencing the team can also be seen to be dependent upon the manager’s directiveness/assertiveness in terms of ensuring that subordinates comply with his/her wishes in the way that was intended.
+Similarly, teamwork and cooperation, the genuine intention to work cooperatively with others as opposed to separately or competitively, is a prerequisite for influencing the team to perform in a desirable manner.
+Team leadership is perhaps the most obvious managerial ability linked to working within the construction project environment.
+It is closely related to the other categories here in that it refers to the intention to take a role as leader of a team or other group.
+Although it implies a desire to lead others and so can be manifested in the form of formal authority and responsibility, effective team leadership also requires the leader to know when not to act authoritatively if they are to extract the best out of the team.
+Two competencies refer to the ability of the project manager to conceive, analyze, and reason in order to make appropriate management decisions.
+Analytical thinking refers to the need to develop understanding of a situation or problem by breaking it down into component parts, or by tracing the cause and implications of a situation in a systematic manner.
+Allied to this is a need for conceptual thinking in terms of developing an understanding of a situation or problem through the identification of patterns or connections between situations that are not obviously related.
+Together, these abilities can be seen to support reasoned and considered decision making, embodied within the behavior labeled selfcontrol.
+This refers to the ability to keep emotions appropriate to the particular environment or situation, no matter how stressful it becomes for the individual.
+Managerial jobs are by far the largest group studied using job competency assessment (JCA) methods (Spencer and Spencer 1993).
+These studies have shown that superior managers of all types and at all levels share a common profile of generic competencies (Boyatzis 1982).
+The studies by Spencer and Spencer (1993, p. 201) combined the profiles of 36 managerial models for managers from a number of sectors in order to derive a generic managerial competency profile.
+Despite a broadly similar pattern of underlying macro competencies, there are several significant differences between the competency profiles of the generic manager and those of the construction management role.
+For example, two competencies are absent from the construction project model, those of “developing others” and “self-confidence.” The absence of the latter category in particular is surprising, given the popular perception of the construction manager of needing to exude command and control of the management situation.
+Three competencies are included within the construction management model, which are excluded from the generic manager’s profile:
+selfcontrol, flexibility, and a focus on client’s needs.
+The inclusion of these additional behaviors is less surprising, given the inherent strains and requirements of the construction project environment.
+High levels of stress, continually changing personnel, and increasing demands on project performance can all be seen to have influenced the competencies displayed by the industry’s most proficient performers.
+Of the competencies included within both models, “impact and influence” and “team leadership” can also be seen as crucial for the construction project management role, in light of the relative autonomy with which many project managers operate.
+Given the team-oriented nature of construction projects, “team leadership” is also identified as crucial to the construction project management role.
+Of the 12 behaviors underpinning the construction project management role, “self-control” and “team leadership” were the most predictive of superior performance.
+Possession of these attributes suggests that an individual is likely either to be endowed with a significant degree of competency in the others, or to have the capacity to develop their behaviors in line with the requirements of their role.
+Although effective team leadership can be regarded as a cornerstone of securing positive project outcomes, the emergence of “self-control” as a predictive competency is significant, as it is not necessarily synonymous with the construction management role as traditionally defined.
+This questions the traditional stereotype of the construction project manager and suggests that to be able to restrain negative actions enables a person to maintain performance under stress and to respond constructively to the problem in hand.
+RecommendedPracticalApplicationsforCompetency Model
+The competency model developed as part of this study has many practical applications and could contribute significantly to improvements in both project and business performance.
+Applying the competency framework to key HRM activities has the potential to improve the ways in which construction companies manage, develop, and retain their key managerial resources.
+Competency-based approaches help to engender a more participative, developmental approach to the HRM function, thereby contributing to sustained performance improvements.
+While it is important to emphasize that the framework of 12 competencies as a whole defines the profile for a superior construction project manager (and hence should form the basis of performance management applications), the emergence of two predictive competencies provides the basis for streamlining selection, deployment, and development practices.
+Construction organizations have to make strategic decisions as to how they will build their workforce (Maloney 1997).
+However, it is far more cost effective (in terms of immediacy of performance) to hire someone exhibiting the two key predictive competencies, rather than attempt to train someone without them.
+The effective use of the model in the recruitment process demands that the characteristics of the various behaviors (and particularly the two predictive competencies) are clearly identifiable through personality profiling tests.
+Fortunately, both self-control and team leadership behaviors can be tested using standard psychometrics often used as part of standard recruitment and selection procedures.
+Another approach to matching candidates with the job role would be to identify the full competency range of the individual and then to match this against the competency requirements of the role.
+By identifying an individual manager’s competency profile and reconciling this against the profile for a particular role or position, the degree of fit can be easily established (Spencer and Spencer 1993, p. 254).
+This is particularly appropriate as an initial screening process when there are large numbers of candidates for a post.
+Another application for the competency framework is in enhancing the development of management expertise.
+Indeed, failure to link competencies to appraisal and reward seriously delimits their value in underpinning organizational growth and development.
+Thus, measuring individual achievement against the self-control and team leadership competencies should form a component of the performance management process.
+To this end, examples drawn from the BEIs of superior performers within the construction management role are being used as exemplars against which other employees’ performance can be benchmarked and measured.
+Once embedded within a performance management framework, this then opens up the possibility of using them to manage other HRM functions.
+For example, Trejo et al. (2002) discuss the practical utility of competency assessment to support the resource allocation process within construction engineering organizations.
+Competency assessments can be used to inform companies of optimal deployment decisions and to identify outsourcing requirements to increase competitiveness.
+Thus, superior performers (as measured against the competency model) can be deployed to the most complex and problematic projects in order to optimize the probability of a favorable outcome.
+Similarly, where project teams fail to function, an individual scoring highly against the model could provide a steadying influence in order to avoid further failure.
+Conversely, projects that are simple and problem-free will not require the presence of a superior performer, and an average manager can be directed to the management of such projects.
+Other potential applications for the predictive model are in career management/succession planning and performance management.
+In terms of succession planning, the competencies can be used to assess the managerial potential of young and inexperienced managers, as well as to identify deficiencies in experienced managers who, with further development, could be groomed for senior management positions.
+Identifying candidates for future senior management positions allows training and development activities to be tailored to their needs in order to improve organizational preparedness.
+This demands the creation of a robust reward management program based around a competencybased pay scheme that seeks to reward managers for developing their competencies in line with organizational requirements.
+Managerial competencies such as those derived from this study provide a sound basis for such a program (Pickett 1998).
+By empowering managers to take action to address deficiencies in their own competency profile, and by regularly monitoring their development via an appropriate performance management system, the aim is to reward those who make efforts to align their performance with that required by the organization.
+This demands that the organization rewards not just the outputs of behavior, but also inputs (Hendry et al. 2003).
+Perhaps the most obvious application for the competency framework developed as part of this research is, however, as a basis for performance management schemes.
+As was eluded to previously, the key advantage of assessing and rewarding construction project managers against the competencies derived from this study is that that managers can be rewarded for their input to the achievement of performance goals, rather than on the basis of the outturn performance of projects themselves.
+Traditional success criteria for construction projects center on the achievement of cost, program, and quality targets.
+These simple measures are too crude to be used for gauging managers’ performance in the context of today’s construction project environment, as many variables outside of the manager’s control can impact on outturn performance and the demands on project managers are far broader than in the past.
+For example, program and financial metrics are based on estimates made at a time when the least is known about the project, while quality is an emergent property of different peoples’ attitudes and beliefs, which can change over the project life cycle (Atkinson 1999).
+Projects may also suffer from poorly estimated costs, problematic clients, frequent design changes, or poorly selected project team members, over which the project manager has a limited influence.
+Thus, appraising managers against the competencies identified in this research and setting development goals against the achievement of higher levels of each competency offers a transparent and practicable performance management development tool.
+This research has identified a set of robust criteria for measuring the performance of construction project managers.
+The results show the practicability of predicting job performance based on managers’ behaviors.
+Specifically, the findings support the hypothesis that superior-performing managers will evidence higher levels of specific key behaviors that underpin effective management performance than average-performing managers.
+Moreover, it has been suggested that superior construction management performance can be predicted against a much-simplified model (in comparison to traditional models of performance) comprising two core competencies underpinning the functional role:
+team leadership and self-control.
+The emergence of these competencies is relatively unsurprising, given the demanding and important tasks incumbent upon all construction managers—namely, to build, develop, and maintain their project team and to convey a levelheaded and measured response to stressful situations within the construction project workplace.
+Nevertheless, their powerful quality to predict successful performance against the other competencies provides a practical basis for improving many aspects of the HRM function.
+The practical significance of the identification of a predictive model for superior performance in the construction project management function cannot be overstated.
+Developing more streamlined and effective ways of selecting, developing, deploying, and releasing key managerial resources is essential for improving the performance of construction organizations.
+The predictive model developed within this study has the potential to enable an organization to identify their construction managers’ skills, knowledge, and behavioral characteristics and to manage their future development in line with those required for the achievement of performance excellence.
+Indeed, a robust competency model arguably supports a range of HRM applications, including recruitment, deployment, training, promotion, reward management, and succession planning, all of which are crucial to project and organizational performance.
+The model has considerable potential for immediate implementation within large construction organizations.
+The framework and predictive model are already being utilized within the companies participating with this research in both recruitment and performance management, and a new industrial partner is participating in research comparing the model against the performance criteria of consultant project managers.
+Thus, the research findings have potentially far-reaching implications for the ways in which construction organizations measure and manage the performance of their key employees in the future.
+Acknowledgments
+The research on which this paper was based was funded by a grant from the U.K. Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC).
+The writers wish to acknowledge the assistance of the construction companies who took part in the development of the research on which this paper is based.

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+Management of Construction Firm Performance
+Mohammad S. El-Mashaleh1;
+R. Edward Minchin Jr.2;
+and William J. O’Brien3
+In today’s highly competitive construction industry, there is a critical need for managers to continuously improve their firm’s efficiency and effectiveness.
+More specifically, managers need to know which performance measures are most critical in determining their firm’s overall success.
+Benchmarking, when done properly, can accurately identify both successful companies and the underlying reasons for their success.
+However, rigorous benchmarking within the construction industry still remains an embryonic field.
+This paper analyzes and critiques both the performance measures and metrics used traditionally in the construction industry and the benchmarking models developed to date for the industry.
+Based on the results of this analysis, benchmarking models using data envelope analysis are proposed that offer significant improvements over current models.
+The proposed models measure construction firm performance on a company-wide basis, foster trade-off analyses among various performance metrics, and tie the resources expended by construction firms to how well those firms perform overall.
+The models also provide managers guidance in determining how specific company resources can be reallocated to improve overall company performance.
+10.1061/ASCE0742-597X200723:
+CE Database subject headings:
+Bench marks;
+Construction industry;
+Contractors;
+Performance characteristics;
+Introduction
+Leading a construction firm is a challenging task in today’s highly competitive industry environment.
+The industry is volatile and, until fairly recently, was not overly sophisticated in terms of leadership and management, nor was it aggressive in identifying industry-leading practices.
+In recent years, however, the industry has become more aware of its need to identify, implement, and sustain performance improvements more systematically.
+In one example of this recognition, benchmarking has become more commonly discussed as a tool that can be used to identify successful construction companies and the reasons for their success.
+Benchmarking aims at comparing the performance of firms relative to each other, allowing these firms to recognize their weaknesses and strengths compared to the industry.
+Benchmarking aids in the identification of industry leaders who exhibit superior performance as a result of using best industry practices.
+By finding examples of superior performance, firms can adjust their policies and practices to improve their own performance and become more similar to performance leaders in the industry.
+Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Hashemite Univ., Jordan, P.O. Box 150459 Zarqa 13115 Jordan.
+mashaleh@ hu.edu.jo
+Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil and Coastal Engineering, Univ. of Florida, 365 Weil Hall, P.O. Box 116580, Gainesville, FL 32611-6580.
+[email protected]
+Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Univ. of Texas at Austin, 1 University Station C-1752, Austin, TX 78712.
+[email protected]
+Note. Discussion open until June 1, 2007.
+Separate discussions must be submitted for individual papers.
+To extend the closing date by one month, a written request must be filed with the ASCE Managing Editor.
+The manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and possible publication on July 13, 2005;
+approved on May 1, 2006.
+This paper is part of the Journal of Management in Engineering, Vol. 23, No. 1, January 1, 2007. ©ASCE, ISSN 0742-597X/2007/1-10–17/$25.00.
+In the long term, success of both individual construction firms and the industry overall will depend on improving performance by continually acquiring and applying new knowledge.
+This will require a more comprehensive understanding of how existing practices can get better.
+Construction firms therefore need benchmarking tools that provide perspective on both their current practices and existing shortcomings versus industry leaders.
+Existing benchmarking models have limitations in their ability to guide the industry toward more efficient and effective performance.
+Thus the industry needs new benchmarking models that offer managers clear insights into both current practices and pathways toward improving future performance.
+This paper proposes such models.
+These models are robust and overcome the limitations of the models developed to date.
+The proposed models provide insight into overall firm performance and support trade-off analyses among multiple key performance metrics.
+Additionally, the proposed models allow for evaluating the resources expended by a firm against the overall level of success the firm achieves.
+The proposed benchmarking models were developed based on actual field data collected from 74 construction firms.
+These firms included general contractors, construction management companies, design/build firms, and subcontractors.
+The companies are involved in residential, commercial, industrial, and heavy/ highway construction.
+Fifty percent of the firms have revenues in excess of $50 million.
+Camp 1989 defined benchmarking as, “The continuous process of measuring products, services, and practices against the toughest competitors or those companies recognized as industry leaders.” The Construction Industry Institute CII has adopted the following definition of benchmarking:
+“A systematic process of measuring one’s performance against results from recognized leaders for the purpose of determining best practices that lead to superior performance when adapted and implemented” Hudson 1997.
+The literature review consisted both of identifying previously developed construction industry key performance measures and metrics and reviewing the main industry benchmarking models developed to date.
+Once the literature summaries of key industry metrics are reviewed below, the three most widely used construction industry benchmarking models—those developed by Fisher et al. 1995, Hudson 1997, and CII 2000, and the Construction Best Practice Program CBPP 1998 benchmarking model— are each reviewed and critiqued.
+Evolution of Construction Industry Performance Measures and Key Metrics
+Camp 1989 and Spendolini 1992 stated that identifying what is to be benchmarked, or the benchmarking metrics, is often one of the most difficult steps in the process.
+Hudson 1997 indicated that the CII adopted the following definition for a metric:
+“a quantifiable, simple, and understandable measure which can be used to optimize performance.” Hudson 1997 also indicated that the CII adheres to the following principles for metrics used in their benchmarking system:
+• A metric must focus on continuous improvement and establish an objective target;
+• A metric can be influenced by adoption of better practices.
+Additionally, Hudson 1997 recommends utilizing The Metrics Handbook for devising metrics.
+The Metrics Handbook is published by the United States Air Force 1995;
+it characterizes a good metric as one that conforms to the following attributes:
+• It is meaningful in terms of customer requirements;
+• It tells how well organizational goals and objectives are being met through processes and tasks;
+• It is simple, understandable, logical, and repeatable;
+• It shows a trend, i.e., measures over time;
+Camp 1989 stated that benchmarking metrics are determined from the basic mission of the organization or business unit.
+Spendolini 1992 supports Camp’s statement by linking what is to be benchmarked to the critical success factors CSF of a business.
+CSF are those factors that have the greatest impact on the performance of the organization.
+Watson 1992 defines CSF as “The limited number of areas in which results, if they are satisfactory, will ensure successful competitive performance for the organization.”
+Sanvido et al. 1992 adopt the Boynton and Zmund 1984 definition of CSF as, “Those few things that must go well to ensure success for a manager or organization, and therefore, they represent those managerial or enterprise areas that must be given special and continual attention to bring about high performance.
+Critical success factors include issues vital to an organization’s current operating activities and its future success.” In construction terms, Sanvido et al. 1992 defined CSF as, “Those factors predicting success on projects.”
+To guide the selection of the benchmarking metrics, Camp 1989 and Spendolini recommend posing Xerox’s ten questions:
+• What is the most critical factor to business success e.g., customer satisfaction, expense to revenue ratio, return on asset performance?
+• What factors are causing the most trouble e.g., not performing to expectations?
+• What products or services are provided to customers?
+• What factors account for customer satisfaction?
+• What specific problems operational have been identified in the organization?
+• Where	are	the	competitive	pressures	being	felt	in	the organization?
+• What	are	the	major	costs or	cost	“drivers” in	the organization?
+• Which functions represent the highest percentage of cost?
+• Which functions have the greatest room for improvement?
+• Which functions have the greatest effect or potential for differentiating the organization from competitors in the market place?
+McGeorge and Palmer 1997 address many of these questions for the construction industry.
+Key issues they identified for the construction industry include subcontractor management and meeting completion dates.
+They also identified some of the key factors responsible for customer satisfaction:
+completion on time;
+minimum and/or guaranteed cost;
+and health and safety.
+These findings confirm findings uncovered elsewhere during the extensive literature search, and helped establish a consensus on the most important performance metrics for the construction industry.
+The review confirmed that schedule adherence, cost performance, customer satisfaction, safety performance, and profit are the performance metrics most critical to overall success in the construction industry.
+Therefore, the research team decided to proceed with the development of the benchmarking models using these five metrics to measure the company-wide efficiency of a firm.
+The development of the models is detailed later in this paper.
+The following discussion presents three existing construction benchmarking models:
+• Fisher et al. 1995;
+•	Hudson 1997 and CII 2000;
+• CBPP 1998.
+The Fisher et al. 1995 benchmarking model was the first prominent benchmarking model applied to the construction industry.
+The Houston Business Roundtable HBR assembled a group of owners and contractors to solicit ideas and compile initial benchmark data for use by the construction industry.
+Fisher stated that the HBR was motivated by the fact that “there are currently no available benchmarked standards for the construction industry, nor is there a nonprofit organization established for the purpose of collecting data and information.”
+The study utilized a survey to collect data from 17 companies on 567 projects.
+Data were collected for actual versus authorized cost, actual versus target schedule, actual versus estimated construction labor, and change orders versus original authorized cost.
+Hudson and Construction Industry Institute
+Hudson 1997 performed his benchmarking study under the guidance of the Benchmarking and Metrics Committee BM&M of CII. In 2000, the BM&M committee published a report that
+Metrics Industry Norms All Types of Projects
+Project budget factor
+Actual total project cost/initial predicted project cost +approved changes
+Project schedule factor
+Actual total project duration/initial predicted project duration+approved changes
+total number of recordable cases  200,000/total site work hours
+Recordable cases:
+All work-related deaths and illnesses and those work related injuries which result in loss of consciousness, restriction of work or motion, transfer to another job, or require medical treatment beyond first aid Lost workday case incident rate
+total number of lost workday cases  200,000/total site work hours
+Lost workday cases:
+Cases which involve days away from work or days of restricted work activity or both
+Change cost factor
+Total cost of changes/actual total project cost
+Total field rework factor
+Total direct cost of field rework/actual construction phase cost
+showed the industry norms for some of the metrics developed by Hudson.
+The database for their report consists of 901 projects from 37 owner and 30 contractor companies.
+The report characterized projects based on the type of construction i.e., heavy industrial, light industrial, building, infrastructure, project size i.e., less than $15 million, between $15 and $50 million, between $50 and $100 million, over $100 million, project nature i.e., adds-on, grass roots, modernization, and project location i.e., global, domestic.
+The key performance measures and the associated metrics produced by this report are shown in Table 1.
+Construction Best Practice Program Benchmarking Model The CBPP benchmarking model is also known as the key performance indicators KPI model.
+The KPI model was developed and implemented in the U.K. construction industry and benchmarks a project or a company against the range of performance levels currently being achieved across the industry.
+It provides a framework to check how a construction company compares with the rest of the industry, and helps firms to focus on their main priority areas of improvement.
+The CBPP report 1998 stated that construction industry clients want their projects delivered on time, on budget, safely, efficiently, free from defects, and by profitable companies.
+The ten KPI used in the model reflect the aforementioned criteria, as seven of the indicators relate to project performance, while the rest relate to company performance.
+Further explanation of this model is available in the literature CBPP 1998.
+The benchmarking models proposed previously for the construction industry all have significant shortcomings if the goal is a company-wide analysis.
+El-Mashaleh 2003 critiqued these benchmarking models and argued that, if the goal was to measure company-wide performance, they all fall short in four respects:
+Existing benchmarking models are project specific.
+They report project-level industry norms of some performance metrics i.e., cost, schedule, safety, etc..
+This limited view communicates only a single metric performance for a specific project.
+No insight is provided into the overall performance of the firm;
+Current benchmarking models do not support an understanding of the trade-offs among the different variables that affect performance;
+The models provide no insight into the relationship between how resources are expended and the relative success of outcomes.
+Thus, there is no ability to determine the return on investment associated with specific firm actions;
+As a consequence of being project specific, existing benchmarking models do not allow for the measurement of the impact of certain technological and managerial factors on overall firm performance.
+This makes it difficult to identify practices that lead to superior overall firm performance over the long term.
+Measuring Project-Level Industry Norms of Some Performance Metrics
+Measuring project-level performance for only a few even wellchosen metrics does not translate into robust evaluation of an entire firm.
+Current models do not answer the question:
+Where does a certain firm stand compared to the other firms when considering overall performance i.e., all metrics simultaneously?
+An overall performance report card for each firm is needed.
+Rouse et al. 1997 declared that single measures of performance capture only a limited perspective of an organization’s activities.
+Several measures must be used in combination to gauge organizational performance.
+Overall firm performance evaluations take on particular importance when they can help prevent managers from improving one metric at the expense of hurting overall firm efficiency.
+Towill 2001 stressed that, “It is important to emphasize that improvement in one business performance metric say, cost must not be sought at the expense of another say, quality or safety.” This leads to the second shortcoming of existing models.
+Trade-Offs among Different Variables That Affect Performance
+The current benchmarking models do not support an understanding of the trade-offs among the different metrics or resource requirements associated with overall firm performance.
+For example, a firm’s cost performance may improve, but schedule performance declines.
+How can one determine whether this trade-off is truly desirable?
+Is the overall performance of the firm better or worse?
+McKim et al. 2000 mentioned this trade-off when they stated that “as various techniques are available to control the cost, schedule, and quality individually, these three indicators of performance are highly interrelated and affect one another...these indicators are highly interrelated and require some balance and trade-off among them to achieve efficient overall control over project performance.”
+Both Watkinson 1992a and Janssens 1992 list these tradeoffs among the metrics of performance.
+Watkinson 1992b casts some doubt, saying, “Any combination of these criteria time, cost, and quality can be achieved, but rarely all three.” Janssens 1992 agrees, saying, “There will always be a trade-off between time, cost, and quality as the client tries to balance these
+This trade-off analysis takes on particular importance when plotting overall firm performance over time.
+Under the current models, only increases or decreases in one metric at a time are calculated, so these models cannot guide managers as they seek to understand the key survival question:
+Is the firm getting better over time?
+Performance over time also helps managers isolate and detect explanatory reasons for good performance i.e., track the implications of certain managerial and technological implementations.
+Cost/Performance Relationships
+Current industry benchmarking models do not examine the relationship between resource allocation how and what types of resources are expended—either on a specific project or across an entire company and how effectively and productively those resources are actually deployed.
+Two firms that arrive at the same performance level for a specific metric for example, revenues are considered to be similarly efficient.
+This is clearly not the case if one firm is expending more resources i.e., money, personnel, etc. than the other firm.
+It is clear that the firm that commits fewer resources to arrive at a certain performance all other things being equal is a better performer.
+Yet, no current industry benchmarking models incorporate this logic.
+No Measurement of Impact of Technological and Managerial Attributes on Firm Performance
+As a consequence of being project specific, the existing benchmarking models do not allow measurement of certain technological and managerial attributes on overall firm performance.
+The writers pioneered a firm-level study in the area of information technology IT use and performance in construction ElMashaleh et al. 2006.
+This study addresses the difficulties in the measurement of certain technological and managerial attributes on overall firm performance and reports on the utility and challenges of advancing benchmarking capabilities in construction research.
+Those particularly interested in this aspect of firm performance can check the literature, as the focus of this paper will henceforth be on the other three areas of deficiency, described above.
+Given the clear shortcomings of existing benchmarking models, a new, more comprehensive model was called for.
+The following section describes such models.
+The models use the five metrics of performance determined to be the most critical indicators of industry success based on the consensus of the construction literature and incorporate data envelopment analysis DEA, a tool that has proven highly effective in other data analysis applications and is described more fully later in this section.
+Metrics Used in Proposed Benchmarking Models
+The proposed benchmarking models use both input metrics and output metrics to determine company performance.
+The two input metrics used are safety expenses and project management expenses.
+The metric for safety expenses is defined as the combined annual cost of safety programs and salaries of safety personnel as a percentage of total company sales.
+Firms that spend more on safety should be expected to have better safety performance.
+The metric for project management is defined as project management personnel salaries, as well as the annual costs of both project management training and project management software acquisitions and updates.
+Firms that spend more on project management should be expected to achieve better adherence to the other four metrics—schedules, cost control, customer satisfaction, and profit.
+Five output variables are also used in the benchmarking models developed.
+Schedule performance is measured by how often projects are delivered on/ahead of schedule.
+Cost performance is measured by how often projects are delivered on/under budget.
+For both these metrics, data are limited to projects closed in the last two fiscal years.
+Customer satisfaction is measured in terms of the percentage of repeat business customers.
+Net profit after tax as a percentage of total sales for the last fiscal year is used to measure the profitability of the firm.
+Safety performance is based on two indicators:
+experience modification rating EMR and occupational safety and health administration OSHA recordable incidence rate.
+These indicators were chosen based on an analysis done by the Business Roundtable 1982 that indicated that these metrics were “relatively objective measures of past safety performance.” EMR is a measure of workers’ compensation insurance premiums, while OSHA recordable injury and illness incidence rates are a widely used indicator of on-the-job safety.
+Levitt and Samelson 1987 and Jaselskis et al. 1996 have stated that both EMR and OSHA recordable incidence rates are useful in evaluating company safety performance over a number of years.
+The reciprocal of the EMR and the OSHA incidence rate are used in the proposed benchmarking models in order to convert these unfavorable measures to favorable ones the lower the values of EMR and OSHA incidence rate, the better the safety performance.
+Each of the five output variables described above is defined more completely as to their use in the model in Table 2.
+DEA was initiated by Charnes 1978, and Rhodes 1981 based on the work of Farrell.
+Farrell 1957 proposed the notion of the structural efficiency of an industry.
+Structural efficiency is essentially a measure of the extent to which an industry tracks the performance of its own most efficient firms.
+It enables firms to assess their relative efficiencies compared to other firms in the industry.
+DEA is concerned with evaluation of performance and it is especially concerned with evaluating the activities of organizations such as business firms, hospitals, government agencies, etc.
+In DEA, the organization under study is called a DMU decision making unit.
+A DMU is regarded as the entity responsible for converting inputs i.e., resources, personnel, money, etc. into outputs i.e., sales, profits, customer satisfaction, metrics of performance, etc..
+In this paper, the DMU of interest is the construction firm as an integrated entity.
+It is their performance that was evaluated.
+Metrics of Performance along with Their Measurement Method
+Schedule performance
+Percentage of projects are delivered on/ahead of schedule in the last two fiscal years i.e., how often are projects delivered on/ahead of schedule?
+Calculation of metric used in model for projects closed in the last two fiscal years:
+percentagenumber of projects delivered on/ahead of schedule/total number of projects  100%
+Cost performance
+Percentage of the time projects are delivered on/under budget in the last two fiscal years i.e., how often are projects delivered on/under budget?
+Calculation for projects closed in the last two fiscal years:
+percentagenumber of projects delivered on/under budget/ total number of projects  100%
+Safety performance
+Calculation of actual metric used in benchmarking model:
+reciprocal of last reported OSHA recordable incidence rate
+Experience modification rating EMR
+Calculation of actual metric used in benchmarking model:
+reciprocal of last reported EMR
+Percentage of repeat business customers
+Metric used in model:
+percentage of customers who come back for a repeat business with the firm
+Net profit after tax as a percentage of total sales for the last fiscal year
+Calculation of metric used in model for the last fiscal year:
+net profit after tax/total sales  100%
+DEA utilizes mathematical linear programming to determine which of the DMU under study form an envelopment surface.
+This envelopment surface is referred to as the efficient frontier.
+DEA provides a comprehensive analysis of relative efficiency for multiple input-multiple output situations by evaluating each DMU and measuring its performance relative to this envelopment surface.
+Units that lie on determine the surface are deemed efficient in DEA terminology.
+Units that do not lie on the surface are termed inefficient, and the analysis provides a measure of their relative inefficiency.
+The following example illustrates the basic idea behind DEA Cooper 2000.
+Table 3 lists the performance of nine firms, each with two inputs and one output.
+Input 1 is the number of employees;
+Input 2 is operating expenses.
+The output variable is revenues.
+Fig. 1 plots the data from Table 3.
+All other things being equal, it is natural to judge firms that use fewer inputs per unit output as more efficient.
+Thus, for this set of performance measures, the line connecting C, D, and E is defined as the “efficient frontier.” This frontier should touch at least one point and all points are therefore on or above in this case this line.
+All the data points can be “enveloped” within the region enclosed by the
+Number of employees x1
+frontier line the horizontal line passing through C, and the vertical line through E. Hence, the name data envelopment analysis.
+The relative inefficiency of firms not on the frontier can be quantified.
+For example, the inefficiency of Firm “A” is shown in Fig. 1.
+The line OA is drawn and crosses the efficient frontier line at P. Thus, by measuring lines OP and OA, the efficiency of Firm A can be calculated as:
+OP/OA=0.8571.
+Thus, Firm A is only 86% as efficient as the leading firms it is competing against.
+The analysis can be extended to identify improvements by comparing inefficient behaviors to the efficient frontier.
+The values needed for inefficient firms to become efficient can be calculated.
+In Fig. 1, for example, Firm A would move to the efficient frontier Point P if its employee/revenue ratio decreased to 3.4 while its expense/revenue ratio declined to 2.6.
+In the same sense all other things being equal, Firm B can move to the efficient frontier by movement to Point Q at 4.4,1.9.
+DEA owes its popularity to three inherent powerful features.
+First, it has the ability to incorporate multiple inputs and multiple outputs—particularly when it is used in conjunction with linear programming.
+Linear programming can handle large numbers of variables and relations constraints.
+Second, DEA has no a priori assumptions.
+There is no need to assign weights to the different inputs and outputs.
+The weights are derived directly from the data, freeing the user from arbitrary, subjective weightings.
+Third, the measurement units of the different inputs and outputs need not be congruent.
+Some may involve the number of persons, areas of floor space, money expended, etc.
+The various scaling adjustments required for graphical purposes do not affect the relationships among the variables themselves in any way.
+Data Collection, Analysis, and Model Output
+Data Collection
+The proposed benchmarking models were developed using data collected from currently active construction companies.
+The data for this research were collected through a survey questionnaire that was divided into three parts.
+The first part, respondent information, collected general information about the person completing the survey.
+The second part, firm general information, gathered data related to firm type i.e., general contractor, construction management firm, subcontractor, other, firm industry sector i.e., commercial, industrial, etc., and the approximate rev-
+Types of firms participating in survey
+enues of the firm.
+Part Three of the survey questionnaire, firm overall performance, collected information about the performance of the firm on a company-wide basis.
+Firms are asked to supply their schedule performance, cost performance, safety performance, customer satisfaction, profit, expenses on safety, and expenses on project management.
+Five hundred and forty-five managers were asked to fill out and submit the survey.
+Of the 545 managers that received surveys, the research team received 88 responses, a 16.15% response rate.
+The 88 respondents represented 74 firms some firms submitted multiple responses.
+Fig. 2 shows the types of participating firms i.e., general contractor, construction management firm, subcontractor, design/build.
+Fifty percent of the participating firms have annual revenues exceeding $50 million.
+Data Analysis and Model Output
+Table 4 provides summary performance statistics for the companies that responded to the survey.
+Although 74 different firms responded to the survey, not every company responding provided all the data requested.
+The table summarizes the data that were collected, and provides mean, standard deviation, minimum, maximum, 25th quartile, and 75th quartile metrics of performance.
+OHSA recordable incidence rate is not reported because only a few firms supplied it.
+These facts, along with the nonhomogeneous population due to the diverse nature of the 74 construction firms are a limitation of the research.
+As with any research project, more data would make the results more definitive.
+The discriminatory power of any DEA model depends on the number of DMU used in the model and since each model depends on a different set of inputs, the number of DMU available to each model is dependent on the number of firms that provided all of the information required for that particular model.
+Further, the
+Number of firms
+Schedule performance %
+Customer satisfaction %
+Metrics of Performance Descriptive Statistics
+Six Models’ Determination of Firm Efficiency
+Inputs+outputs
+inefficient firms
+literature indicates that the minimum number of DMU in any
+model should be three times the number of variables Charnes 1978;
+The data were processed through all seven models.
+Table 5 shows the number of variables inputs plus outputs, the number of firms providing the information required for that model, and the number of firms that the model deemed inefficient.
+Fig. 3 shows how the percentage of firms deemed inefficient rises as the model’s discriminatory power increases with more DMU and fewer variables.
+The trade-off is that the models with the fewest variables are rating the companies using the least amount of information.
+Hence, intuitively, the most accurate model would be the model with the greatest number of variables in this case, the FULL model, if a sufficient number of DMU could be obtained for the model.
+Unfortunately, the FULL model only had 21 firms that answered the questions required for model usage.
+Table 6 summarizes the DEA model with the highest number of variables as it was used to benchmark construction industry firm performance.
+This model is named FULL because it incorporates data for the 21 companies that provided sufficiently detailed data for all the metrics of output performance summarized in Table 2 and the input measures safety and project management expenses described earlier.
+Note that the FULL model, while utilizing the most information on each DMU of any model, barely has enough DMU to make the model work.
+As explained earlier, three times the number of variables are required for utilization 37 for FULL and exactly 21 companies answered enough questions to be used in the model.
+Table 7 shows the output for one company from the FULL model.
+Models’ discriminatory power as relates to number of DMU and variables
+Using the FULL model described in Table 5, the analysis identified efficient and less efficient firms.
+The benchmarking analysis scored each firm against a maximum score of 1.0.
+The most efficient firms achieved a score of 1.0, while less efficient firms scored less than 1.0.
+The analysis also calculated what specific performance metrics less efficient firms would achieve if their overall effectiveness was at leading practice levels.
+Thus, these calculations can serve to assist managers at less efficient firms by providing specific insight into how company performance can be improved.
+The proposed benchmarking models address the limitations that have been identified in other benchmarking models previously developed.
+The models use the industry-relevant metrics most frequently identified in the literature as critical measures of the overall efficiency of a construction company.
+The proposed models allow construction firms to be evaluated on a company-wide basis and identify specific areas of improvement for individual firms.
+The models produce and report the magnitude of the deficit that a company must overcome in each of several key areas measured in order to become as efficient as the most efficient firms in the industry.
+Thus, the models can be used to alert managers of inefficient firms to areas within the company that require imme-
+DEA Models to Benchmark Performance
+Number of firms
+• Scheduleperformance • Cost performance • Customer
+diate attention if the company is to achieve a high level of overall efficiency and succeed long term in a volatile and increasingly competitive industry environment.
+The proposed benchmarking models are developed using data collected from 74 firms, made up of general contractors, construction management firms, design/build firms, and subcontractors involved in residential, commercial, industrial, and heavy/highway construction.
+Fifty percent of the firms are of revenue size over $50 million.
+Additionally, research showed or accomplished the following:
+• DEA is applicable to benchmarking the company-wide efficiency of construction firms;
+• Though the models performed as expected, further analysis
+DMU	Survey	Calculated	Percent No.	input/output	responses	metrics	Difference	%
+Customer	65	82.5	17.5	26.92
+with more data is recommended for validation;
+• The discriminatory power of the models increase with the number of DMU used to generate the model;
+• Significant progress was made in the identification of the number of variables metrics and DMU participating firms needed for an applied study of this type;
+• The proper metrics to consider for the model were identified based on an exhaustive search and analysis of the literature and determining a consensus.
+Sufficient data would make a definitive list easily obtainable;
+• Existing models were thoroughly critiqued and found to be inadequate for company-wide analysis.
+Of course each model is important and made enormous contributions.
+Each of the four existing models critiqued is very effective in measuring what they were designed to measure;
+• As with nearly all research, more data will make the results more definitive, as well as making the model more accurate.
+Also, the diverse nature of the 74 construction firms results in a nonhomogeneous population for any statistical analysis.
+The impact of applying models such as these industry-wide will be dramatic.
+As each individual firm in the industry uses the models’ results to improve itself, the overall level of productivity across the entire industry will also increase dramatically over time.
+Firms will complete projects more quickly, more safely, and less expensively.
+Taxpayers, regulators, elected officials, and other key stakeholders will come to recognize the productivity advances in the industry, and will see that funds invested in construction maintenance and expansion projects are being spent efficiently and effectively.
+As a result, the industry as a whole will have increased credibility, and suggested projects will receive higher priorities in the battle for scarce public works and infrastructure funding.

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+Multi-Agent Framework for General-Purpose Situational Simulations in the Construction Management Domain
+Eddy M. Rojas1 and Amlan Mukherjee2
+The need for contextually rich education environments in construction management suggests the development of a generalpurpose situational simulation framework that can be used by independent developers to build effective training environments.
+Design and implementation of such a framework involves an understanding of the reasoning processes underlying the construction management domain.
+These reasoning processes can be isolated using a conceptual classification of problems in the construction management domain into constraint satisfaction and planning.
+Such a classification allows us to distribute the different reasoning processes to autonomous agents that comprise the foundations of a multi-agent framework for building general-purpose situational simulations.
+The Virtual Coach is an implementation of the proposed framework.
+Experimental results from preliminary studies have shown the efficacy of the Virtual Coach as an educational tool.
+CE Database subject headings:
+Simulation;
+Construction management;
+Artificial intelligence.
+Introduction
+In traditional construction education, the learner and the learning context are detached.
+Concepts are presented as fixed, wellstructured, independent entities and classroom activities are disconnected from authentic context, resulting in fragmentation and specialization of courses and educational experiences.
+McCabe et al. 2000 argue that current civil engineering coursework teaches only the theories of construction management CM and students encounter difficulties in applying theoretical principles when exposed to real-world situations upon employment.
+Sawhney et al. 2001 state that civil and construction engineering curricula do not allow the inclusion of issues of importance to construction or reflect the significance of hands-on experience and interaction with practitioners.
+Case studies, class projects that involve interaction with the industry, and even internships are useful for bridging such a gap.
+However, these approaches are limited, as they do not provide students the opportunity to explore the implications of management decisions.
+This understanding has led researchers to explore alternatives in construction education using gaming and simulation environments, such as Superbid AbouRizk 1993, STRATEGY McCabe et al. 2000, and VIRCON Jaafari et al. 2001.
+Some of these efforts have been inspired by earlier research undertakings in the
+Associate Professor, Dept. of Construction Management, Univ. of Washington, 116 Architecture Hall, Seattle, WA 98195-1610.
+Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Michigan Tech, 1400 Townsend Dr., Houghton, MI 49931-1295.
+[email protected]
+Note. Discussion open until October 1, 2006.
+Separate discussions must be submitted for individual papers.
+To extend the closing date by one month, a written request must be filed with the ASCE Managing Editor.
+The manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and possible publication on August 26, 2003;
+approved on July 15, 2005.
+This paper is part of the Journal of Computing in Civil Engineering, Vol. 20, No. 3, May 1, 2006. ©ASCE, ISSN 0887-3801/2006/3-165–176/$25.00.
+area, such as CONSTRUCTO Halpin and Woodhead 1970 and AROUSAL Ndekugri and Lansley 1992.
+Simphony Hajjar and AbouRizk 1999 and STROBOSCOPE Martinez and Ioannou 1999 have also developed simulations that deal with construction operations such as tunneling and earthmoving.
+Simulation languages such as STROBOSCOPE and CYCLONE have also provided a general and special purpose framework for simulating construction operations and CM processes.
+These efforts are a stepping stone toward creating participatory, contextually rich educational environments.
+However, their use has been limited to special purpose simulations of specific construction processes and general purpose frameworks for developing simulations of construction operations.
+All these implementations have limited or absent interactivity.
+We claim that general purpose interactive situational simulations of CM processes can be used to develop effective learning environments for construction managers.
+Such environments allow participants to understand the interdependencies between various constraints that govern the CM environment, while developing better decision-making skills.
+The first step toward creating such general purpose situational simulations is to develop a scalable framework that can be programmed to emulate a variety of CM processes.
+In this paper we introduce a multi-agent framework for developing such general purpose simulations.
+We have also developed an implementation of a situational simulation using the framework, for a hypothetical construction project, and tested its usefulness on a selected group of CM seniors.
+Situational Simulations as Educational Environments
+In their simplest form, simulations of construction processes use a set of initial conditions and parameters and a well-defined model to project outcomes regarding the simulated operation.
+For example, given information regarding the availability of trucks and loaders, their unit costs and the amount of earth to be moved, a simulation would be able to project the total time and cost for an excavation operation.
+Situational simulations are simulations that use temporally dynamic models, require user interaction, and use domain-specific knowledge to generate and reason about the context-sensitive scenarios.
+As the simulation proceeds, events are generated as a consequence of user interaction or to reflect real-life situational scenarios that might arise in the domain.
+How the simulation evolves in time is completely dependent on the model used, the way the events are generated, and user interaction.
+Hence, a situational simulation is part machine computer software/hardware and part human environment.
+The machine is responsible for simulating the CM environment using construction domain-specific knowledge while being sensitive to how human participants react to it.
+For example, given the knowledge that labor, when overworked, will tend to produce lower quality work, the machine would generate a “rework” event when the human participant tries to crash activities by making labor work overtime too often.
+It can also create a “bad weather” event that disturbs progress on outdoor activities based on statistical weather patterns of the participant’s locale.
+The human participant is expected to try to finish the simulated project within time and budget constraints as they would in real life.
+Thus, their responsibility is to constantly take challenging decisions regarding resource allocation and time cost tradeoffs.
+As the simulation proceeds, there are a large number of ways to complete the simulated project.
+The project completion depends on the reactions of the human participant and the reactions of the machine.
+The interactivity and the ability to adapt to context-specific scenarios make situational simulations useful learning environments.
+However, the interactivity and the ability to create context-specific events and scenarios require the simulation to be aware of construction management domain-specific structure and knowledge.
+This calls for the simulation to have autonomous reasoning capabilities and hence suggests the use of a multi-agent environment, where a group of autonomous agents collaborate to reason about and generate the simulation environment.
+The use of situational simulation environments for learning is also supported by theories in situated cognition Winn 2002.
+Such environments expose participants to clinical exercises that help them both explore future consequences of present decisions and the sensitivity of their contexts to such decisions and, over time, develop better decision-making skills.
+The Virtual Gorilla Project at the Atlanta Zoo Allison et al. 1997, as well as the Virtual Puget Sound Windschitl and Winn 2000 and the Surgical Simulator Oppenheimer and Weghorst
+1999 efforts at the Human Interface Technology Laboratory, University of Washington, are successful instances of such learning environments.
+Extensive use of situational simulations has also been seen in the politico-military arena Allen 1987;
+Goldhammer and Speier 1959 and in natural disaster relief management Ritchie 1985.
+A general purpose framework for situational simulations dealing with CM processes could be useful for developing a very wide variety of education environments for the construction engineering and management domain.
+Proposed General Purpose Multi-Agent Framework
+A general purpose framework GPF provides a protocol that allows us to develop many different special purpose simulations.
+A common protocol allows communities of developers to share, extend, and build customized simulations while fostering collaboration in CM education.
+The participants of such communities can belong to both academia and industry, with the common goal of educating construction managers.
+In this section we discuss the conceptual foundations of the proposed GPF, the components that make it up, and the framework itself.
+Conceptual Foundations of GPF
+In developing the foundations of the GPF, we studied the CM domain to classify the preconstruction and construction phase processes into specific classes of problems.
+This abstraction is the first step toward creating the GPF.
+During the preconstruction phase, the problem at hand is that of creating a resource-loaded activity schedule, also referred to as the “As-Planned” schedule.
+This can be classified as a constraint satisfaction problem CSP. Such problems can be solved using a search-based constraint solver.
+A number of research efforts support this claim.
+Sucur and Grobler 1996 suggested a CSP formulation for construction project planning.
+They developed a structure that can represent precedence constraints which they refer to as temporal constraints and implicit resource constraints, and they provided a solution to the CSP using forward-checking constraint propagation algorithms such as pruning and conflict resolution.
+Hammond et al. 2000 suggested the use of a partitioned dependency structure matrix to represent information about a schedule, which on closer analysis proves to be a CSP in which each matrix is a state representation of precedence and resource dependencies in a schedule.
+WorkPlan Choo et al. 1999 also used resource and precedence constraint satisfaction in the WorkPlan implementation.
+It is safe to claim that, given the appropriate constraints, the As-Planned schedule can be generated using search-based constraint solvers that return sequences of state transformations between an initial state representation of a schedule and a goal state representation a resource-loaded As-Planned schedule while assigning resources to all activities, in keeping with resource and precedence constraints.
+During the construction phase, managers aim to complete the project within constraints of budget and time as encoded in the As-Planned schedule.
+However, in reality, circumstances seldom permit the “As-Built” schedule to be identical to the AsPlanned schedule.
+Projects get derailed from the As-Planned implementation because of violations in resource and precedence constraints caused by unexpected events such as labor strikes, undelivered material, and bad weather.
+Construction managers face the challenge of completing the project while constantly making critical decisions that satisfy the constraints encoded in the As-Planned schedule by reallocating resources, rescheduling activities, and making time-cost trade-offs.
+Hence, the manager’s job during the construction phase is akin to a planning problem.
+Planning problems make use of domain structures to generate relevant plans.
+Unlike search-based problem solvers, which are dependent on a specific set of successor functions to affect the environment, planners have a greater degree of autonomy and can create plans that are sensitive to context-specific information.
+Specifically, during the construction phase, managers are responsible for maintaining constraint satisfaction by taking corrective measures and dynamically updating the plan based on contextspecific knowledge of the present and anticipated futures of the environment.
+A discrete state representation that is incapable of representing multiple dynamic relationships overlapping in time is not enough to describe such complex scenarios.
+Instead, a formal language is necessary to describe autonomous reasoning in such environments.
+The first step toward developing the GPF was to agree on a “language” that could be used to represent and reason about activities, actions, and events in the CM domain.
+The semantics of such a language would have to be based in a concept that applies generally across all scenarios in the CM domain.
+Such a language was developed using the semantics of interval temporal logic Mukherjee and Rojas 2003.
+The general concept is that an environment can be defined using a set of variables, each of which can take up values from specifically defined continuous or discrete ranges.
+Each such variable is also attached to an interval of time, which specifies the interval over which the value of the variable is valid.
+For example, the weather is represented by the variable weather, which can take values from the domain sunny, rainy, snowy, and the predicate weathersunny, t signifies that the weather in the environment will hold sunny over the time interval t.
+Combinations of changes in the validity intervals of one or more such variables representing the environment signify actions in the environment.
+Postconditions of such actions signify events.
+The preconditions of such actions need to be fulfilled for the events to be triggered by the actions.
+The preconditions and postconditions for any action-event combination can be used to encode constraint information.
+The action-event combination thus represents constraint violations and the effect of such on the simulated CM environment.
+From the preceding analysis, we can conclude that the CM domain can be abstracted to a planning problem during the project implementation phase and a constraint satisfaction problem during the preconstruction phase.
+It involves satisfaction of resource and precedence constraints and reasoning processes, which govern actions and events in the construction environment.
+The foundations of the GPF lie at the very heart of this general understanding.
+A language to represent and reason about CM constraints can provide the basis to simulate a diverse set of scenarios in the CM domain.
+We have created a GPF for situational simulations in construction using a multi-agent framework, based on the concepts discussed in this section.
+An agent is anything that can perceive its environment through sensors and can act through effectors Russell and Norvig 2002.
+In the context of this paper, all discussions about agents refer to software agents.
+Software agents are programs that can autonomously create changes in their environments based on a perception of the existing conditions.
+The semantics of the environment have been formally defined in Mukherjee and Rojas 2003.
+Agents reasoning logically and acting autonomously free of human control toward a goal can be attributed a notion of intelligence.
+They are aware of the repercussions of their actions on the environment and dynamically integrate their experiences into existing reasoning mechanisms.
+In the suggested multi-agent framework, each agent handles a specific reasoning process.
+Agents are responsible for simulating the real world.
+They can do so by generating current events as consequences of previous participant interactions, or by creating seed events using a random event generator.
+Secondly, agents can predict future consequences of present circumstances.
+Such predictions provide participants with guidelines for effectively planning future decisions.
+Finally, agents provide graphs and charts that visually capture the sensitivity of the simulated environment to critical participant decisions.
+For example, a graphical display of differences in the As-Built and the As-Planned trends over time allows participants to monitor progress and relate their decisions to delays and cost overruns.
+In order to accomplish the first two duties, agents need to be perceptive to changes in the simulation caused by participant decisions and react accordingly by effecting appropriate changes in it.
+Agents also need to have an awareness of the different contexts in which reason is required.
+The literature provides us with a rich variety of agent-based frameworks that have been used in distributed environments.
+The generalized partial global planning GPGP Lesser et al. 2002 framework and its associated TAEMS hierarchical task network representation were developed as a domain-independent framework for coordinating the real-time activities of small teams of cooperative agents working to achieve a set of high-level goals.
+Coordination between multiple agents running different algorithms has been exploited to develop efficient solutions to complex problems.
+In A-Team Talukdar et al. 1996, a scale-efficient network of distributed computer agents was used to solve nonlinear algebraic equations in a shorter time than through individual processes, using the Newton-Raphson and genetic algorithms as agents.
+The M-RAM Soibelman and Pena-Mora 2000, a multireasoning model, uses an agent-like approach to develop modules, each of which is specialized to perform particular tasks.
+The M-RAM model was used to support the conceptual phase of structural design and to study the applicability of agents to support the subprocesses of a divided structural design process.
+This paper focuses on the use of agent modules, each of which is specialized to perform a particular thread of reasoning pertinent to the implementation phase of a construction project.
+The autonomous reasoning and problem-solving capabilities of the agents allow us to efficiently design situational simulation environments for the construction domain.
+Agent architectures have also been used in synthetic and software environments.
+However, as Tambe et al. 1995 explain, though closely related, the concept of using agents for synthetic environments differs distinctly from both software Etzioni 1993 and robotic Brooks 1991 and test bed Hanks et al. 1993 environments.
+The most significant difference between software and synthetic environments is that the latter requires real-time behavior in dynamic, limited information worlds and therefore cannot be strongly dependent on traditional planning.
+Unlike robotic environments, synthetic environments do not need to deal with low-level motor control and perception.
+Test-bed environments differ from synthetic environments often because of the domain of problems they handle.
+Synthetic environments tend to handle real-life domains like construction, in this case, while test-bed environments tend to deal mostly with domains that often tend to have greater complexity than test-bed domains, where developers can “prestructure the environment, choose aspects of behavior, or instrument the domain for experimental purposes” Tambe et al. 1995.
+There has been a great deal of investigation in the use of agents in interactive simulations, which are very similar to situational simulations.
+The obvious benefit of using agents is that they can replace humans when a large number of entities are needed to populate a virtual world Tambe et al. 1995.
+Notably, Cremer et al. 1994 suggest the use of intelligent agents in traffic simulators, to simulate scenarios involving slowing and speeding of vehicles, pedestrians, traffic jams, and other complex traffic patterns.
+Tambe et al. 1995 explore the use of intelligent automated agents for battlefield simulation environments.
+Their environments are based on distributed interactive simulation DIS technology, in which large-scale interactive simulations are built from a set of independent simulators linked together by a network.
+They developed independent, intelligent automated pilots in the environment based on the underlying Soar integrated architecture for general intelligence Laird et al. 1987.
+Soar has an explicit symbolic representation of its tasks, which it manipulates by symbolic processes.
+Domain-specific knowledge is also symbolically coded and used as a guideline for behavior.
+Intentions are represented by a general scheme of goals and subgoals.
+Goal formulation is achieved by finding a desired state in a problem space, which is defined as a space with a set of operators that apply to a current state to yield a new state Laird et al. 1987.
+Thus, all goal formulation tasks can be completed using some heuristic search technique.
+If knowledge to immediately formulate a goal say, select an operator is insufficient, then a subgoal is created which in turn can further create subgoals.
+Hence, the behavior of Soar involves a tree of subgoals and problem spaces.
+The ability to recursively create subgoals allows Soar to learn continuously and automatically by storing the “results of its subgoals as productions.” For example, if at any point more than one operator can be chosen, a subgoal is created to break the tie, and the final result of problem solving within this subgoal creates a preference that resolves the tie.
+The operator sequence is stored as a production and is delivered as the preferred solution in a relevantly similar situation.
+In this way the architecture uses a production system for single memory organization of all longterm knowledge.
+Laird et al. 1987 illustrate the Soar architecture using the Eight Puzzle, among other problems.
+The reason why the Soar architecture is of great interest to us is that Tambe et al. 1995 successfully use it to create situational simulations for the air-combat domain.
+They created pilot agents that participate in battlefield simulations using ModSAF Calder et al. 1993, a distributed simulator that has been commercially developed for the military.
+Taking advantage of DIS technology, copies of ModSAF are used to simulate a number of different fighter aircrafts, across a network of workstations.
+The aircrafts can participate in simulated combat with or against each other.
+ModSAF runs the simulation by sequentially invoking each agent.
+The simulation model is affected by the action of all agents across the network and allows predictions regarding future states of the environment.
+Depending on the predictions and the actions of the agents, the simulation is updated at the end of each cycle.
+The states in the Soar architecture represent situations, and operators represent actions that can be in the form of simple primitive actions that modify internal states or arbitrarily complex ones.
+At this point, it is important to compare the Soar multi-agent architecture with the multi-agent architecture for situational simulations in construction presented in this paper.
+The Soar architecture represents situations as states and operators facilitate state transformations.
+This means that, in such an architecture, time is represented as a sequence of states.
+In addition, the operators, which represent actions in the real world, will tend to be instantaneous.
+Intervals can be defined as a sequence of states, but this would make representation of multiple overlapping events difficult.
+As in the case of the interactive simulation developed for the air-combat domain by Tambe et al. 1995, the simulation of multiple interacting simulated aircrafts is achieved using DIS technology, which involves running multiple copies of the simulation over a network and coordinating them in parallel.
+In the construction domain, this would entail running multiple copies of the simulation for each construction activity.
+However, in the absence of DIS technology, the agent framework introduced in this paper uses temporal reasoning based on an interval representation of time Allen and Ferguson 1994 to represent parallel activities within the construction domain.
+Our architecture ascribes operations to agents.
+However, the operations are not defined to create transitions between states.
+Instead, the agent operators change the attribute values of entities, which are logical aggregates of variables.
+Each variable defines some aspect of the environment.
+The time interval reasoning allows the description of an aspect of the environment as an assertion about a variable attribute over a time interval.
+Different entities are affected at different times by different agent operations, and at any time it is possible to have persistent states of variables or multiple operators acting on multiple entities, each specific to a particular context or activity.
+Tambe et al. 1995 argue that finite-state machine FSM languages are too restrictive to represent human-like intelligence.
+Similarly, situational calculus, an FSM language, is inadequate for representing information about the parallel nature of events in the construction domain.
+Even though the situational calculus approach was used in the air-combat domain, parallelism and simulation of multiple fighter planes could be achieved through DIS technology.
+By running multiple copies of ModSAF, they were also running multiple FSMs. The framework introduced in this paper runs multiple finite-state machines for each activity context within a single simulation model.
+This has been explained in detail by Mukherjee and Rojas 2003.
+Representation and Agent Reasoning
+The situational simulation environment modeled in this paper is based on the conceptual framework of a process model, a product model, and an information model.
+This framework is discussed in detail by Rojas and Mukherjee 2003.
+In general, the process model comprises accurate representations of the different processes being simulated.
+The product model represents the constructs, which make up the interface and the physical embodiment of the simulated environment.
+The information model encompasses information about the project that is being simulated.
+The information is coded into databases and knowledge bases.
+While the database has information about the As-Planned execution of the project, the knowledge base has knowledge about actions and events specific to the context of the construction project being simulated.
+The main threads of reasoning underlying the situational simulation system can be listed as reasoning about actions and events in the environment and reasoning about the dynamics of the simulated system.
+Relationships between different aspects of the construction environment are mathematically modeled in Rojas and Mukherjee 2003a.
+Reasoning about actions and events is based on axiomatic semantics as described in Mukherjee and Rojas 2003.
+The agent definitions are based on this functional distinction.
+The Mathematical Agent MA is guided by the mathematical model and the Logical Agent LA is guided by the logical model.
+Actions are triggers that create events and situations.
+Some examples of outcomes of actions include bad weather, material delivery delay, reallocation of resources, and labor strikes.
+In the simulation environment, actions occur instantaneously in time at the starting time point of the interval of the event they trigger.
+Events reflect the effects of real-life episodes on resource and precedence constraints within the construction domain.
+All events span over time intervals.
+Each event is associated with three sets of variables, the Precondition set, the Event Condition set, and the Consequence set, and is triggered by a unique action.
+Member variables of the event condition and precondition sets are identical.
+However, the variables in the two sets must have different attribute values.
+The change in attribute values is triggered by actions.
+The event is reflected by the event condition set of variables.
+Future effects of the event are captured in the consequence set, which is a set of assertions about values of variables in the future.
+The compound predicates PreCond(t), EventCond(t), and Consequence(t) are conjunctive clauses of simple predicates that assert attributes of the member variables over the time interval t, during which the conditions specified by the precondition, event condition, and consequence sets hold, respectively.
+They are also homogeneous over the time intervals in which they hold.
+Consequences of an event are assertions about the future that are direct outcomes of the event.
+The consequence set is a set of variables that assert attributes of entities in a future time interval, which is directly affected by the occurrence of the event.
+Information about actions and events is stored in a knowledge base and is based on the event and action definitions.
+Situations are events that result in constraint violations that demand immediate user intervention to continue with the simulation.
+All events may not create immediate constraint violations and hence may not create situations.
+Participants interact with the environment by changing values of the variables.
+However, participants can interact only with variables within their jurisdiction.
+By changing the contexts of resource variables, participants can reallocate resources between activities.
+Global variables are beyond their control e.g., the participant cannot change the weather.
+Access is limited to contextspecific variables, which describe the resource requirements of the activities.
+Agents have greater access to variables than participants.
+Agents can access all global and context-specific variables.
+However, in taking actions that affect the environment, agents are not allowed to change eternal truths about the environment e.g., the agent cannot change the attribute of an excavation activity from outdoor to indoor.
+All agent actions are essentially operators, which transform a set of preconditions to a set of event conditions.
+Because participant interactions are limited to resource reallocation and replacement within the environment, they cannot directly create events in the environment.
+However, reallocation of resources might result in resource constraint violations that, when perceived by the agent, will indirectly create events.
+Hence, participant interactions can only create the precondition set, but only agent actions can transform the precondition set to the postcondition set.
+Agents operate on entities of information in the simulation environment.
+Logical classification of simulation information is based on semantics specific to the construction domain.
+Entities are defined as the different classes of information in the simulation environment.
+The entities Independent and Dependent Variables have been discussed in Rojas and Mukherjee 2003b.
+The Event and Environment Variable, being classifications of variables defining the environment, are also entities.
+Every agent operation takes an information entity as an input and transforms it to another information entity.
+Entities can be atomic in nature.
+Atomic entities can be combined to create superentities when the superentity is a logical parent of the atomic entities.
+For instance, the entity that describes Events is a superentity of the different types of atomic events, namely, Activity Dependent and Global.
+Similarly, Activity Specific Variables and Global Variables are atomic entities that can be combined to form the compound entity Environment Variables.
+The set of entities in the simulation environment consist of:
+As-Planned Data, As-Built Data, Static Derived Data, Dynamic Derived Data, Activity Dependent Events, Global Events, Activity Specific Variables, Global Variables, and Independent Variables.
+Agents exhibit autonomous behavior.
+Autonomy gives an agent the ability to behave free of human intervention.
+Autonomous decisions cannot be taken by agents, which function by looking up matching facts from a set of built-in assumptions and knowledge, because that limits the agents’ ability to deal with undefined situations.
+Autonomy of an agent calls for an “intentional stance” Woodridge and Jennings 1995.
+To take an intentional stance is “to be the subject of beliefs, desires, etc.” Seel 1989, and intentional notions are abstraction rules that provide us with a convenient way of describing, explaining, and predicting behavior.
+For instance, some simple abstraction rules for the construction environment are “bad weather adversely affects productivity,” “productivity affects activity duration,” etc.
+These intentions are essentially attitudes that represent the agent and influence its behavior.
+The attitudes can be information attitudes or pro-attitudes.
+While information attitudes are related to the knowledge that an agent has about the world, pro-attitudes guide the agent’s behavior.
+The agent has to have access to both these attitudes in behaving autonomously and rationally within the environment.
+Attitudes are inherited by agents from knowledge bases KB, databases DB, and feedback from user interaction UL. These are collectively referred to as bases in this paper.
+The concepts of entities and bases developed here are akin to that of the Waffler architecture Anderson and Evans 1996, which adopts and applies intentions under resource and time constraints.
+The knowledge bases provide the inference rules, while the database containing As-Planned data provides information about resource and precedence constraints and constitutes the “long-term memory” or conceptual knowledge possessed by the agent specific to the domain and the project under implementation.
+The feedback from user interaction influences the stances taken by the agent and hence provides information, which is stored in the “working memory.” This is a set of variables in the environment that are stored and used in the reasoning as long as they are temporally valid.
+Rational agent behavior calls for an agent to be able to reason about its perceptions.
+This requires a formal representation of the environment and compatible agent reasoning mechanisms.
+Logical reasoning about causal relationships between actions and events during the project implementation phase is based on axiomatic semantics.
+Reasoning about functional relationships between independent and dependent variables in the environment is based on a system of equations.
+The reasoning mechanisms are represented as operators.
+The list of operators includes infers, generates, computes, and unites.
+Each agent has access to specific operators, which it uses to operate on entities.
+Situational simulation representation uses first-order logic syntax and semantics based on a deduction model of belief Konolige 1986.
+Konolige’s model works on the observation that a knowledge-based system functions on the two components of 1 a database of symbolically represented “beliefs” this could include rules, frames, semantic nets, or logical formulas;
+and 2 a logically incomplete inference mechanism.
+He defined this observation in terms of a deduction structure which can be expressed as d=, where base set of formulas in some logical language and set of inference rules representing the agent’s reasoning mechanism.
+Deductive closure of the agent’s base beliefs under its deduction rules is defined by the function close , which is given by
+where -- means that  can be proved from  using only the rules in .
+Our logical agent comes into play between every consecutive discrete time points in the simulation—in other words, between any two consecutive “days” during the simulation of a project.
+We call this process “overnight inference.” The agent infers after the time point T and before the time point T+1.
+Given the knowledge of the environment in terms of variables at the end of the T period and a set of assertions about the environment, the agent can identify the events that were triggered due to user interaction during T and predict the future outcomes of such present events.
+In addition, by identifying the existing conditions, the agent can suggest a list of actions to the event generator to appropriately create situations in the environment.
+In its inference mode, the agent has complete access to information encoded in terms of sets of variables.
+Information in the simulation environment is coded as a finite set S of variables.
+Subsets of S convey information about the environment in different contexts.
+For instance, the subset WT is a subset of S containing variables that define the environment across all activities at the time point T. Similarly, the subset Wi is a subset of S containing variables that define the environment across all time points spanned by the interval defined over the context i.
+The variables are expressed in the following predicate form
+where c=context over which the variable encodes information.
+Typically, the context is itself a time interval specific to the activity to which the variable pertains.
+Vaspect of the environment the variable specifies;
+and s belongs to the finite set of discrete states that V can assume. t indicates the time interval over which the aspect holds the state s.
+The time interval t will always be a subinterval of c or the same interval as c.
+The predicate itself takes up a truth-value to indicate the state of a variable over an interval of time.
+Such predicates can be used for logical reasoning.
+As variables cannot change value during the inference process, the agent’s inference environment is static.
+It is also discrete, because there are a finite number of possible values that each variable can take.
+Finally, from the agent’s point of view, the environment is nondeterministic, as it cannot predict all user interactions or event generator decisions in the immediate future.
+It may be noted here that, for every event, the set of event conditions may be referred to as the postcondition set for the action triggering the event.
+The precondition set of the action and event are identical.
+The following assumptions of closure can also be made:
+• Event closure:
+An occurrence of an event implies that an action occurred;
+• Attribute closure:
+This reflects a closure of the attributes and variables and expresses that any change in attributes of variables implies that an event has occurred.
+All agent inference and reasoning is done on the basis of assertions about actions and events in a knowledge base of facts.
+The inference mechanism is sound and complete within the definitions of actions and events defined in the knowledge base.
+Hence, if an action is defined in the knowledge base, then it will be predicted every time its precondition set is fulfilled.
+Also, an event defined in the knowledge base will always be inferred if it has occurred.
+However, if there is a combination of variable attributes that the participant can change but which are not documented in the knowledge base, they will simply go unnoticed.
+Therefore, an efficient implementation of this agent lies in developing an accurate knowledge base of facts and creating appropriate closures on participant interactions.
+The second function of the logical agent in the system is to generate events.
+The possible actions forecasted for a particular day provides the set from which the agent chooses some actions based on a stochastic model for the generation of events.
+The stochastic model is Bayesian in nature.
+Therefore, the probability of a particular event occurring is conditional to specific circumstances and to the frequency of its occurrence.
+The details of this model are beyond the scope of this paper.
+Unite and Compute
+The mathematical agent reasons about the sensitivities of the simulated environment to its component aspects.
+The component aspects of the environment are interrelated.
+Random events, which create constraint violations in the simulated environment, have the ability to deflect the progress of a project from its planned path.
+For instance, a delayed material delivery can postpone a particular activity and all dependent activities and, in turn, affect indirect and direct costs and the remaining duration of the project.
+The set of indicators Total Direct Cost (TDC), Total Indirect Cost (TIC), Remaining Duration (RD), and Production Rate (PR) traps the sensitivity of the system to the essential aspects of time and cost.
+By maintaining a direct quantitative comparison between the As-Planned and As-Built values of each of the preceding quantities during the execution phase of the project, an accurate picture can be created regarding the stability of the simulated system.
+Delays in the As-Planned schedule indicate that there have been constraint violations in the project implementation and are therefore a pointer to instability in the system.
+By taking corrective measures to satisfy constraints, the participant aims at maintaining stability in the system.
+Rojas and Mukherjee 2003a explain the mathematical model that defines the relationships between direct cost, indirect cost, remaining duration, and production rate during the construction process.
+The equations are time dependent.
+In the simulation, programs compute each of the equations.
+We can denote each program by a function.
+The most basic parameters taken by the functions are the independent variables defined over continuous domains, which describe the availability and quantities of materials at any point in time during the simulation.
+Given the unit costs of materials, the total direct cost at the time point T is given by
+TDCPT =  CiP,T	4
+TDCPT and TDCT=values of the total direct cost across all context intervals as calculated from the As-Planned database and the total direct cost across all context intervals as calculated from the independent variables generated from the simulation, respectively.
+Ci,T indicates the total cost of material, equipment, and labor used in the context interval activity i during the time point t.
+The superscripted cost CiP,T denotes the As-Planned cost.
+Based on the mathematical model, the relationships between Total Cost, TIC, RD, and PR the dependent/derived variables in the mathematical model can be functionally expressed.
+We used the following functional forms to express the interrelated operations
+where M belongs to i,T,i,T,o;
+and x belongs to f,F. x denotes a program which takes an independent p* and derived parameters and returns a value YM. Yderived variable;
+and M denotes the aspect of Y that the value describes;
+that is, Y can be described across contexts at a particular time point T or only specific to a time activity element i,T or across the interval of the activity i.
+M can take up a value of o only when it denotes a value that has been derived from static planned data.
+YM can, in turn, be fed to some other function as a derived parameter.
+In keeping with the preceding expression, the following equations can be written
+TICT = fITICT − I,RDT
+RDT = f2RDi,T
+RDi,T = f3PRi,T
+PRi,T = f4PR0,	where prod,i
+TDCPi=total planned direct cost for the context interval i.
+RDi,T gives the remaining duration for the activity represented by the context interval i.
+The function f2 represents a program that returns the remaining duration of the project at time t, RDT, given the remaining durations of the concurrent activities.
+This set of equations can also be used to calculate the same parameters for the As-Planned implementation of the project.
+In the preceding equations, the values that can be considered as “raw data” or the independent variables are the components of the cost variable, the resource requirement As-Planned, and the actual resource usage/availability As-Built data.
+This information can be read off from the simulation environment in the case of actual resource usage/availability and from the As-Planned database in the case of planned resource allotment/requirement.
+For example, the value of prod,i, the productivity of workers during the context i, is a discrete environment variable that is read from Wi. The raw data compute to C, which can be calculated across all contexts for a particular time point iCi,T or across a particular context from the As-Planned database CiP. The information from the As-Planned database is static and is used only as benchmark constants.
+PR0 is a constant.
+Therefore, we can reduce the whole system to where F denotes a program
+Ci,T = FIWT
+PRi,T = f4PR0, = f4F2Wi	absorbing the constants 15
+TCT = FIWT + TICT	16
+TCT = FIWT + fITICT − I,f2  f3  f4	17
++ fI„TCT − I − FIWT − 1,f2  f3  f4F2Wi… 18
+The symbol  denotes interconnections i.e., fg implies that the value returned by g is passed as a parameter to f.
+Eq. 18 is a systemic representation of the simulation.
+It provides a single relationship, which reflects the progress in the simulation system at any time t dependent on the state at T−1.
+Each of the quantities when calculated for both As-Planned and As-Built information will provide comparative trends, which can be used to detect instabilities in the system.
+The values for the latter will be constants across all simulations of the same project, while the variations in the values of the As-Built will show the expertise of the participant.
+The mathematical agent works within the vocabulary of the functions defined earlier.
+The functions denoted in the lower case f are collectively represented by the  operator.
+They are programs that compute within the mathematical model.
+The functions denoted in the upper case F are collectively represented by the  operation.
+They are programs that unite the appropriate values to the appropriate variables in the mathematical model.
+The need for this arises because the same programs compute the As-Planned derived variables as well as the As-Built derived variables.
+While the data for the As-Planned calculations come from the As-Planned database, the As-Built independent variables come from the simulation environment.
+General Purpose Multi-Agent Framework
+The GPF is a protocol that can be used by developers to put together different simulations using the conceptual foundation of constraint satisfaction, planning, and the semantics of interval temporal logic to represent and reason about the CM domain.
+It is akin to an application programming interface as a programming language that can be used to program situational simulations for the CM processes.
+Hence, the GPF components will belong to one of the following fixed classes:
+agents, entities, operators, and bases.
+Members of these classes can combine according to a welldefined grammar to form operations, which are the basic building blocks of any situational simulation programmed using the framework.
+In this section we define each of the four mentioned classes and discuss the grammar that governs the framework.
+Each agent has a finite set of operators associated with it.
+Operators are reasoning mechanisms attributed to each agent.
+Agents use operators to reason autonomously and make changes to the environment.
+Changing values of variables and/or variable collections, which are referred to as entities, makes changes to the environment.
+The nature of variables and their classification have been discussed in an earlier publication Mukherjee and Rojas 2003.
+Variables can be classified into discrete and continuous variables, depending on the nature of the values they take up.
+Each variable can also be classified as activity specific defines an aspect of a specific activity or global defines an aspect of the environment applying to all activities.
+Combinations of variables can also be classified into the following sets of disjoint entities:
+•	As-Planned Data, As-Built Data;
+and •	Activity Dependent Events, Global Events.
+Agents function by implementing operators to change the values of entities.
+Pro- and information attitudes Woodridge and Jennings 1995 inferred and factual information are inherited by agents from knowledge bases, databases, and feedback from user interaction.
+This allows the agent to reason autonomously.
+Knowledge bases contain event definitions, and databases contain As-Planned cost and schedule information about the project being simulated.
+The framework consists of utility functions, which are not operators but can allow any of the agents to access the bases or to do routine repetitive tasks such as calculating remaining durations of activities or updating the floats on the schedule.
+The basic unit of the GPF is an operation.
+In an operation, an agent inputs an information entity and outputs it to another information entity using a specific operator.
+Situational simulations built using the GPF can be expressed as a combination of operations, in series and/or parallel.
+This sets the grammar for creating simulations using the agent-operator-base-entity components of the framework, as illustrated in Fig. 1.
+In the parlance of the Java programming language, the GPF can be expressed as:
+public interface Operation1{ void 011 (Environment E);
+//Status of a variable:
+global or local
+public boolean globallocal;
+//List of Discrete variables
+public DiscreteV discretelist;
+//List of Continuous variables
+public ContinV continlist;
+public class Simulation ( ) implements
+//A typical operation
+An implementation of such a framework would have definitions of multiple Agents, each implementing a particular Operation interface.
+The current pilot implementation of the framework, called the Virtual Coach, has three agents:
+the LA, the MA, and the visualization agent VA. It also has the following events defined:
+bad weather, poor quality work, labor strike, no material delivery, and cost hike.
+Each of these events represents a resource constraint violation.
+The implementation also includes utility functions which read from the database and the knowledge base, run the scheduler, and calculate the remaining duration.
+In the next section we discuss the Virtual Coach implementation in greater detail.
+There are three interfaces to the developed framework.
+One is the programmer’s interface, the second is the developer’s interface, and the third is the user interface to the developed situational simulation.
+We discuss the third interface in the next section.
+The first two interfaces allow the framework to be extensible.
+The implementation of such a framework will require the developer to input the following to simulate a specific project of their choice:
+Resource allocation interface
+End-of-day report
+• As-Planned cost and schedule information;
+• Definitions of variables characterizing the simulation they can add to the defaults;
+• Definitions of anticipated events using pre- and postconditions for the associated constraint violations;
+• Realistic probabilities of defined events based on historical data to enable the simulation to generate reasonable scenarios.
+All this information is currently fed into a PostgreSQL database.
+The information can be fed into the database via Web forms and/or directly imported from MS Project using the XML format.
+The programmers have access to the source code and are free to add more operations to each of the existing agents and/or to add more agents to the framework with dedicated operators.
+Thus, the developer can either use the functionalities provided by the current implementation of the multi-agent framework to simulate projects of their choice or can add more functionality to extend the current framework.
+Virtual Coach Implementation
+The Virtual Coach is a particular implementation of the discussed general purpose multi-agent framework.
+It is a situational simulation that is run by three agents:
+the LA, the MA, and the VA.
+The MA operators are Unite and Compute, while the LA operators are Inference and Event Generation.
+Entities are defined as the different classes of information in the simulation environment.
+Every agent operation takes an information entity as an input and transforms it to another information entity Fig. 1.
+Atomic entities can be combined to create superentities when the superentity is a logical parent of the atomic entities.
+Systemic reasoning in the Virtual Coach is based on a mathematical model defined by Rojas and Mukherjee 2003a.
+It deals with reasoning about how events affect the net equilibrium of the system.
+If the project is executed As-Planned, then the system equilibrium is not affected.
+However, every time there is an event that results in a crisis, the equilibrium is disturbed.
+This allows the simulation to constantly give the participant feedback regarding progress as compared to the As-Planned implementation.
+These graphs can be seen in the lower left corner of the AsPlanned versus As-Built screen.
+The logical agent can create events and also infer events, which follow as a result of user interactions with the simulated environment.
+It can create events in the situational simulation by violating developer-defined constraints.
+It can also predict future constraint violations based on its ability to infer from facts in the knowledge base.
+A default knowledge base can be used, or developers can create their own knowledge bases.
+A detailed discussion of how the agent functions can be found in Mukherjee and Rojas 2003.
+In the current pilot implementation of the Virtual Coach, events can be generated as a result of the following constraint violations:
+• No work can be done unless necessary material and labor are available;
+• Outdoor activities cannot be productive during snowy weather;
+• Overworking a labor crew reduces productivity and increases the chances of rework;
+• Labor hired on an emergency basis costs more and is less productive;
+• Schedule constraints.
+In the Virtual Coach, information visualization and user interactivity are handled by the visualization agent.
+The function of the VA is to make sure that the information being displayed to the user is consistent with the information in the simulation.
+The VA is also responsible for encoding participant reactions and passing them onto the other system agents in a format that can be easily processed.
+The Virtual Coach pilot implementation currently runs a situational simulation for a twelve-activity hypothetical project with realistic constraint violations and event information.
+Figs. 2 and 3 provide screen shots of a preliminary deployment of the system.
+Fig. 2 is the resource allocation screen, which informs the participant of the total available resources in the environment and the total resource requirements specific to each ongoing activity in the simulation.
+Each activity panel also has a graph showing the As-Planned rate of work completion versus the As-Built one.
+The participant is allowed to assign more or less than the planned requirements, depending on availability, to accelerate or decelerate the project.
+In the absence of the necessary resources, the participant is also allowed to hire more labor and purchase more material at a premium price.
+This allows the participant to accelerate the project, at a higher cost, and is often an option to keep the project on schedule.
+While the direct costs go up, the participant does gain in terms of indirect costs by saving time.
+Finally, Fig. 3 illustrates the report about progress at the end of a week.
+Participants can view the current state of the schedule as compared to the As-Planned schedule.
+They can also keep track of direct costs, indirect costs, and space requirements by following the graphics at the lower left-hand corner of the viewer.
+The lower right-hand corner of the viewer allows the participant to monitor the values of the discrete and continuous environment variables and to keep track of the possibilities of events that may occur in the near future.
+They can also keep track of recent events that have just occurred.
+This is important in allowing them to make future resource allocations.
+The final goal of the participant is to steer the project through generated scenarios and complete it within budget and time constraints.
+The pilot implementation of the Virtual Coach situational simulation was administered to a sample of 19 senior-level construction management students, as part of a Project Management course at the University of Washington.
+Students were required to take a test before and after they ran the simulation.
+The pretest and posttest required students to rank on a scale of 1–10, in their opinion, the importance of a list of factors in developing a plan for a 12-week period of a construction scenario.
+They were provided with a list of constraints governing the scenario.
+The constraints included schedule considerations, budget limitations, and the possibilities of events such as bad weather, material delivery delays, and labor shortage.
+Four of the priority ratings assigned by the students, before and after using the simulation, were summed and compared using a paired-sample t-test.
+The ratings selected for analysis were those that related to the schedule and resource constraints and the need to anticipate delay on a project giving priority to critical activities in case of delay, attention to space restrictions on site, anticipating future material delivery delays, accelerating activities to create a buffer for anticipated delay.
+The difference between the ratings was significantly different:
+Mean21.26, standard deviation4.92;
+• Posttest:
+Mean25.31, standard deviation4.70;
+Based on qualitative feedback postsimulation survey from the students 16 of the 19 students thought that the Virtual Coach was a useful educational tool, the statistical significance of the post- and pretest results, and the high differential values of the confidence interval, we can conclude that an intervention using situational simulations could be useful in construction education.
+It is also encouraging that the students improved on issues related to the specific constraints that were programmed into the simulation.
+This reflects the constraint satisfaction philosophy that rules the underlying framework.
+It also indicates that curriculum developers could program simulations with constraints that are important for students to attend to.
+This study is preliminary, and the results are only indicative.
+They do, however, indicate the importance of exploring the use of situational simulations in construction management education.

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+Practices Are Slowly Changing
+Many design and construction companies are looking to add long-term strategic planning concepts to their traditional arsenal of short-term project planning tools.
+A study developed by the author at the School of Civil and Environmental Engineering at Georgia Tech in conjunction with AECStrategies, LLC, a management consulting firm, showed that the industry is struggling with the need to move from a project-based business that emphasizes the success of projects as the key to long-term success to a strategic business that emphasizes the customer and the enterprise as the key.
+The trend is toward building a business that is selective in its customers, innovative in its marketing plans, hungry for new markets, eager for diversity in the talents in its workforce, and ready to formulate a plan for long-term success.
+Charts illustrate how small and large companies are approaching such topics as core competencies, knowledge resources, lifelong learning, financial management, and competitive advantage analyses.
+re construction companies destined to .....	and strategic management.
+Although the refrain of “budget
+ride the waves of the economy like a .....	andschedule”isstillthekingoftheconstructionvocabulary,
+boat without an engine, growing in .....	terms such as “strategy,” “planning,” “competitive advan-
+large bursts when the economy grows .....	tage,” and “market analysis” are breaking through the
+anddecliningorfailingwhentheecon- .....	project-oriented halls of the construction office.
+Is this a sign
+omy contracts?
+Are construction com- .....	of change in the industry to a greater focus on management
+paniesgoingtofindthemotorthatprovidesthemomentum .....	issues?
+To put it differently, is this a signal that construction
+to drive through these waves and control their own future?
+....	companies are looking to add long-term strategic planning
+Withover10,000failuresayearintheconstructionindustry, .
+. itwouldseemthatthepictureofaboatwithoutamotorbest .
+. describes the businesses in this industry.
+However, some .
+. industry executives are beginning to challenge this assump- .
+The sounds of change are beginning to be heard from .
+. theofficesofcontractorsanddesignfirmsaroundthecountry. .
+Thesearenotthesoundsofcomputersandhigh-techdevices .
+. designed to make the industry the next convert of the .
+. dot.com age.
+Rather, these sounds are the words of business .
+concepts to their traditional arsenal of short-term project planning tools?
+The answer to these questions is a definite maybe.
+In the recently released AEC Strategic Management Practices Report, developed by the author in the School of Civil and Environmental Engineering at Georgia Tech in conjunction with AECStrategies, LLC, a management consulting firm, these questions were studied to determine the state of strategic management practices in the construction industry.
+results of the study illustrate how some in the industry are activelylookingforawaytocontroltheirfutures,whileothershaveacceptedtheirridethroughtheeconomicwavesand are philosophic about a possible crash at the bottom of a future fall.
+Aswithmostthingsintheconstructionindustry,companies are taking a conservative, cautious approach to this changeintheirmanagementpractices.Althoughcautionhas always been a trademark of the industry, the economy at the beginning of this decade is challenging this approach.
+Such factors as globalization, technology, integrated economies, and a changing workforce are leaving construction companies with a simple choice:
+innovate and adopt long-term planningconceptsorceasetobeanindustryleader.Asstated byClintMays,thevicepresidentofJ.A.JonesConstruction, “Withthechangingdynamicsofthemarketplace,including the Internet, multitiered ownership, and new competitors who are forcing margins down in traditional profit areas, a company that does not focus on strategic issues will find its doorsclosedinaveryshorttime.”Althoughthissoundslike a harsh judgment, the 21st century business environment movesatapacethatleaveslittleroomforhesitation.Asdemonstratedbytheincreasingnumberofcorporatemergersand takeovers,today’sindustryleadercanbetomorrow’sindustry casualty withlittle more than a press release and achange in business cards.
+THE STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT STUDY
+Focusing on the single question of whether AEC companies are adopting strategic management practices, the study providesasnapshotofthestrategicthinkingwithintheindustry asitenterstheglobalageofthe21stcentury.Developedover a two-year period, the study represents the practices of more than 500 companies from every sector, geographic region, and revenue category in the industry (including over a third
+Fortune 500 benchmark established in the study.
+As a benchmark, the Fortune 500 has set a significant bar for the construction industry to hurdle.
+Examples of this high level includetheareasoflong-termplanning,where74percentof the Fortune 500 firms have established vision statements;
+market evaluation, where 93 percent of the companies activelyevaluatecompetitorsandfocusonestablishinglongtermcompetitiveadvantages;
+andplanningfornewmarkets, where 98 percent of the companies have implemented plans for formally evaluating and entering new markets.
+In contrast, design and construction organizations are actively engaged in these activities at a rate that is 30 to 40 percent less than the Fortune 500 organizations (see figure 1).
+While it is true that the Fortune 500 companies haveset a high benchmark, numbers by themselves do not provide a picturethatwillmotivatetheconstructionindustrytoactor modify their practices.
+Rather, to convey this message, a graphicalsetofstrategicmanagementprofileswasdeveloped for this unique study.
+As pictured in the Fortune 500 profile in figure 2, the profiles capture three elements:
+the strategic managementfactors,thelevelofstrategicmanagementintegration as evaluated by the companies, and the average implementation achieved for each strategic management factor.
+To interpret the profile, the reader should focus on whether or not individual boxes in the profile are solid or blank.
+Ideally, an industry profile would consist of all solid boxes in either column 6 or 7.
+This profile would indicate that an organization is fully implementing or measuring every strategic management factor.
+Although the Fortune 500 profile does not quite reach the ideal condition, it fulfils the two most important criteria.
+First, the profiles indicate thatallcompaniesbelievetheyhaveatleastdevelopedformal
+Thedatacompiledfromthestrategicmanagementstudytell a story of an industry in transition, but with a long journey lefttotraveltoachievethelong-termplanningresultsofthe
+Percentage of Fortune 500, Top 400 ENR Construction Companies, and Small Construction Companies Focusing on the Implementation of Strategic Management Factors
+of the top 400 construction companies and top 500 design .
+. . firms named by Engineering News-Record).
+Representing the .
+. . thoughts of executives from million- to billion-dollar com- .
+. . panies, the study illustrates how one industry is struggling .
+. . with the need to move from a project-based business that .
+. . emphasizes the success of projects as the key to long-term .
+. . success to a strategic business that emphasizes the customer .
+. . and the enterprise as the key to long-term success.
+. . words, the trend is toward building a business that is selec- .
+. . tiveinitscustomers,innovativeinitsmarketingplans,hun- .
+. . gry for new markets, eager for diversity in the talents in its .
+. . workforce, and ready to formulate a plan for long-term .
+Strategic Management Profile for the Benchmark Fortune 500, Characterized By a Narrow, Mostly
+Solid Profile
+strategic plans, resulting in a profile that is graphically nar- .
+. . row in width.
+Second, the profile boxes are almost com- .
+. . pletely filled in, the exception being the lifelong learning .
+As an aside, even the values in these boxes narrowly .
+. . missed the implementation threshold. .
+As seen in the profile of the top 400 contractors in figure 3, .
+. . the top construction companies have some ground to make .
+. . up toachievethe resultsof thenation’slargest organizations. .
+Theprofilehighlightsthevariabilityinfocusareaswithinthe .
+. . industry.
+First, the profile is graphically very wide, with val- .
+. . uesineverycolumnexceptthefirst.Thisindicatesthatcom- .
+. . from awareness of the concept to full measurement.
+. . mity within the group is minimal, as organizations are all .
+. . over the implementation spectrum.
+Second, the profile indi- .
+. . catesveryselectiveattentionareasbytheindustry.Although .
+. . knowledgeresources,finance,andmarketsreceivesignificant .
+. . attention, the areas of core competencies, lifelong learning, .
+. . and competition receive equally little attention.
+Is this a .
+. . reflection of the industry’s traditional emphasis on financial .
+. . management of projects, or is it a reflection of the need for .
+. . greater attention to changing market conditions?
+In comparison with the top 400 contractors named by .
+ENR, figure 4 illustrates the strategic management profile forthesmallerconstructionorganizations(under$10million revenue).Althoughmanyobservationscanbemadeconcerning this profile, probably the best statement is that these organizations need to place some emphasis on obtaining a motor for their trips through the economic waves.
+As illustrated by the width of the profile, the organizations in this category assess their strategic management efforts at every pointontheintegrationscale.However,ofgreaterconcernis the lack of solid boxes in the profile.
+With no single area of strength,thesmallcontractorsaresettingthemselvesupfora difficult transition to the new business environment.
+With little attention to the long-term focus of strategic planning, these organizations are facing a reality of either living on project-to-projectbasisorpossiblyclosingtheirdoorsaspart of industry consolidation.
+The final profile of interest here is the profile of the top 500 design firms as defined by ENR. Do design firms have better management practices than construction companies?
+Do the traditional project management skills of the construction company provide an advantage over the design emphasis of engineering and architectural firms?
+Based on thecurrentstudy,theanswertothesequestionsisnoonboth accounts.
+The design firm profile is similarly wide and similarly variable when compared with the largest construction
+Strategic Management Profile for the Top 400 Construction Companies, Characterized by a Wide,
+Variably Focused Profile
+However, differences do exist in the focus areas.
+The design firms place greater emphasis on core competencies and competition and less on finance.
+However, as an overallprofile,neithergroupisthreateningtoraisethestrategic management bar set by the Fortune 500 organizations.
+Hundreds of companies have been studied and their responses compiled into numeric and graphical representations.
+What is the message that should be taken away by a construction industry executive?
+In short, it comprises balanceandaggressiveness.Abroadspectrumofstrategicissues must be addressed by today’s organization if it intends to be prepared for waves that come from every direction.
+Internal issues such as establishing a vision and preparing the workforce for change are essential for building a solid company foundationorpoweringthemotor.Aswithabuilding,even if those outside the organization admire the facade, the lack of a good foundation will ultimately result in failure.
+For an organization, this foundation has three critical components:
+vision, infrastructure, and preparation.
+The vision provides theroadmapanddirectionsfortheorganization’sjourneyin the business environment.
+The infrastructure, including both personnel and technology, provides the resources required to complete the journey.
+And finally, the preparation provided by an educated workforce provides the stability and continuity required to undertake an extended
+. journey by ensuring that employees are prepared to lead the
+. organization along its intended path.
+Such external issues as new markets and competitive
+. advantageprovidetheopportunityfororganizationstodrive
+. try, external issues represent the tough questions for an exec-
+. utive.Asstatedinthereport,manyexecutivesarehesitantto
+. examine the markets in which the organization is operating
+. or to carefully assess the competitive advantage that their
+. own organization has established over its competitors.
+. doesthishesitationexist?
+Theanswerisareluctancebyorga-
+. nizationstofacetherealitythattheirmarketsandcustomers
+. may have changed or moved in another direction.
+. fortofatraditionalmarketmaybethreatenedifanorganiza-
+. tion finds that it has to change to meet the needs of the new
+. economy.Unfortunately,thispositionoftenleadstoastateof
+. affairs where the organization has no warning or protection
+. against a change in the waves.
+The cost is a very tough fall
+. intothebottomofthewaveorintothestatisticscompiledon
+. failed businesses.
+Finally, the issue of aggressiveness provides a fitting con-
+. clusion to this article.
+Undertaking the moves required to
+. achieve strategic management progress may be painful for
+. some organizations, but this discomfort should be tempered
+. by the thought that the organization is setting in place an
+. aggressive road map for the future.
+As stated by Clint Mays,
+. “Strategy will provide the differentiator between companies
+Strategic Management Profile for the Small Construction Companies, Characterized by a Wide,
+Mostly Empty Profile
+that are viewed by owners as commodities and those that .
+. emerge as profitable industry leaders.” .
+ORGANIZATIONAL INSIGHTS	.
+If your organization is having difficulty determining where .
+. tices,yourorganizationisingoodcompany.Althoughmany .
+. of the more than 500 companies analyzed in the strategic .
+. management study have started down the road of strategic .
+. management, the number that have reached the implemen- .
+. more common is the stage where companies want to start .
+. the strategic management process but fail to pinpoint the .
+. strategic areas that require the greatest attention.
+Like a per- .
+. sonenteringanewcitywithoutamap,theorganizationthat .
+. begins the strategic management process without a particu- .
+. lardirectionisboundtoendupexpendingsignificantenergy .
+. before finally realizing that it is hopelessly lost. .
+Providing AEC organizations with this direction is the .
+. . focus of the on-line benchmarking system developed by .
+AECStrategies, LLC. Based on the data collected in the stra- .
+. tegic management study, the on-line benchmark incorpo- .
+. rates the questions and data used in the original study. .
+Through the Web site, organizations can fill out an on-line .
+. questionnaire at  that will instantly pro- .
+. vide an evaluation of their strategic management practices. .
+With options to generate benchmarks against an industry sector, the entire AEC industry, regional competition, revenue category competition, or the Fortune 500, the on-line benchmarking system provides organizations with on-line feedback regarding their strategic management strengths and weaknesses.
+Based on a 1:
+100 scale, the benchmark provides overall, internal, and external benchmarks against the selected groups.
+Additionally, a percentile rating provides organizationswithaninsightintowheretheystandversustheircompetition.Thisisimportantbecausewhileabenchmarkscore of 75 may seem like a good rating for an organization, if the competition is scoring in the 80s or above, the 75 no longer appears to be so strong.
+Of greater importance, these numbers provide a strong indicator to executives showing where theyneedtoplaceimmediateresourcestostrengthenparticularstrategicweaknesses.Thebenchmarkprovidesastarting road map to strategic management implementation.
+Although this focus on strategic management benchmarking is in its early stage, it is foreseeable that on-line benchmarking will become another dimension in the prequalification process or in the selection of subcontractors.
+For public-sector and private-sector owners alike, the strategic management benchmark will provide insights into the managementpracticesoftheorganizationstheypartnerwith to complete projects.
+Based on these insights, it is plausible to foresee an industry where organizations that are prepared
+for long-term success will develop strategic advantages over their tradition-bound, project-focused competition.
+Can an organization with century-old roots and traditions as a general contractor transform itself into a modern, strategically focused organization?
+Can this organization focus a groupofnationaloperatingdivisionsonasinglevisionstatement and set of goals?
+These are the questions that many individuals asked when J.A. Jones Construction embarked on a focused effort to establish strategic goals and transform itself into a strategically managed organization.
+A national construction company founded in the late 1800s in Charlotte, North Carolina, J.A. Jones has grown into a national organization with annual revenues exceeding $1.3 billion.
+However, like many construction companies, J.A. Jones facedtheproblemoftransformingitselffromacompanythat emphasized project management into one that emphasizes markets and customers.
+AssummarizedbyBobHambright,thepresidentofJ.A. Jones Construction, the key to success for today’s constructioncompanyistolearnfromotherindustries,focusonstrategic resources, and build better management processes.
+Reflecting on the industry, he says, “We must stop taking risksthatwedonotcontrolorcannotprice.Ifwearesuccessful at changing the way the construction community does business, then we will be providing our customers with
+. greater value and we can then insist on improved margins.”
+Given this as a guiding statement, Jones faced the prob-
+. lem of changing the idea of success into tangible reality.
+. achieve this reality, Jones turned to strategic planning and
+. management practices.
+Incorporating leading-edge concepts
+. suchasbalancedscorecardimplementation,strategicmarket
+. evaluation, customer analysis, and strategic finance analysis,
+. the Jones organization focused its national employee base on
+. a single set of vision statements.
+Through a yearlong effort,
+. this strategic focus is starting to show tangible results.
+An organization that was traditionally geographic in
+. focus and independent in the regions has transformed itself
+. intoanorganizationthatfocusesitseffortsonemergingmar-
+. kets and national centers of excellence that reflect strategic
+. andcompetitiveadvantages.Withafocusonincreasedprof-
+. itabilityandenhancedoperatingprocedures,Joneshassetits
+. sights on building sustainable competitive advantages and
+. differentiators over the next 100 years of operations.
+. transformationissummarizedbyClintMays,thecompany’s
+therefore we must demonstrate our commitment to
+. focusing on strategic issues as the basis for mutual success.”
+PaulS.Chinowsky,Ph.D.,isanassociateprofessorofcivil
+. and environmental engineering at the Georgia Institute of
+Technology, Atlanta.
+Leadership Manage.
+Eng., 2001, 1(2):
+Leadership Manage.
+Eng., 2001, 1(2):
+Leadership Manage.
+Eng., 2001, 1(2):

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+Overview of the Application of “Fuzzy Techniques” in Construction Management Research
+During the last decade, “fuzzy techniques” have been increasingly applied to the research area of construction management discipline.
+To date, however, no paper has attempted to summarize and present a critique of the existing “fuzzy” literature.
+This paper, therefore, aims to comprehensively review the fuzzy literature that has been published in eight selected top quality journals from 1996 to 2005, these being Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, ASCE;
+Journal of Management in Engineering, ASCE;
+Construction Management and Economics;
+Engineering, Construction and Architectural Management;
+International Journal of Project Management;
+Building Research and Information;
+Building and Environment;
+and Benchmarking:
+An International Journal.
+It has been found that fuzzy research, as applied in construction management discipline in the past decade, can be divided into two broad fields, encompassing:
+1 fuzzy set/fuzzy logic;
+and 2 hybrid fuzzy techniques, with the applications in four main categories, including:
+1 decision making;
+2 performance;
+3 evaluation/assessment;
+and 4 modeling.
+The comprehensive review provided in this paper offers new directions for fuzzy research and its application in construction management.
+Based on a comprehensive literature review on the applications of fuzzy set/fuzzy logic, and hybrid fuzzy techniques in construction management research, an increasing trend of applying these techniques in construction management research is observed.
+Therefore, it is suggested that future research studies related to fuzzy techniques can be continuously applied to these four major categories.
+Fuzzy membership functions and linguistic variables in particular can be used to suit applications to solving problems encountered in the construction industry based on the nature of construction, which are widely regarded as complicated, full of uncertainties, and contingent on changing environments.
+Moreover, hybrid fuzzy techniques, such as neurofuzzy and fuzzy neural networks, can be more widely applied because they can better tackle some problems in construction that fuzzy set/fuzzy logic alone may not best suit.
+For example, neural networks are strong in pattern recognition and automatic learning while fuzzy set and fuzzy logic are strong in modeling certain uncertainties.
+Their combination can assist in developing models with uncertainty under some forms of pattern.
+Finally, an increasing trend of applying fuzzy techniques in the building science and environmental disciplines is also observed;
+it is believed that the application of fuzzy techniques will go beyond the construction management area into these disciplines as well.
+CE Database subject headings:
+Fuzzy sets;
+Hybrid methods;
+Construction management;
+Introduction
+The application of “fuzzy techniques” has been gaining popularity to the research area of construction management over the past decade.
+Fuzzy techniques, as defined in this paper, refer to all fuzzy concepts, which include fuzzy set, fuzzy logic, and hybrid fuzzy techniques those that combining fuzzy set/fuzzy logic with other techniques, such as fuzzy neural network, neurofuzzy, fuzzy reasoning, fuzzy expert system, fuzzy analysis, and fuzzy
+Professor and Associate Head, Dept. of Building and Real Estate, Hong Kong Polytechnic Univ., Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China.
+Assistant Professor, Dept. of Building and Real Estate, Hong Kong Polytechnic Univ., Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China.
+Postdoctoral Fellow, Dept. of Building and Real Estate, Hong Kong Polytechnic Univ., Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China corresponding author.
+[email protected]
+Note. This manuscript was submitted on June 21, 2008;
+approved on May 21, 2009;
+published online on May 22, 2009.
+Discussion period open until April 1, 2010;
+separate discussions must be submitted for individual papers.
+This paper is part of the Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, Vol. 135, No. 11, November 1, 2009.
+clustering.
+To date, nevertheless, no paper has attempted to summarize and present a critique of the existing “fuzzy” literature.
+The aim of this paper is to provide an overview of the application of fuzzy techniques in construction management research that has been published in eight selected top quality journals Chau 1997.
+In fact, fuzzy is widely accepted as a branch of modern mathematics when compared with traditional mathematics although its history has just over 40 years Zimmermann 2001.
+Its origin can be tracked back when Zadeh 1965 wrote a seminal paper in 1965 in which he introduced fuzzy sets sets with unsharp boundaries.
+These sets are in general in better agreement with the human mind because they work with shades of gray but not just black or white.
+Fuzzy sets are typically able to represent linguistic terms, for instance, warm, hot, high, and low.
+Table 1 records the most important events of the historical development of fuzzy techniques from 1965 to 1994.
+After 1994, fuzzy techniques are continuously applied to the research area of construction management.
+The new millennium 2000 starts with over 30,000 publications in the area of “computational intelligence” or “soft computing” Zimmermann 2001.
+These are terms which have been coined during the first half of the 1990s, when fuzzy set, neural networks and evolutionary computing joined forces because they felt that there were strong synergies between these areas.
+Historical Development and Application of Fuzzy Theories from 1965 to 1994
+Prof. L.A. Zadeh of U.C. Berkeley first published a paper on fuzzy sets in the Information and Control Journal.
+He was the first academic who addressed the fuzzy concepts concretely and mathematically.
+Prof. L.A. Zadeh proposed fuzzy control theory and approximation reasoning.
+Prof. E.H. Mamdani of London University succeeded in applying Fuzzy Control Theory in steamed machine.
+He had successfullycompleted the first remote controller by using IF-THEN rule base and fuzzy theory, which was much better than the traditional PID remote controller.
+The Fuzzy Set and Its Applications Conference was jointly organized by Japan and the United States.
+This was the first time tointroduce the fuzzy theories to academics.
+Fuzzy theory was introduced in mainland China.
+The F.L. Smith Co. in Holland applied fuzzy theory to the automatic operation of cement making.
+This was the first commercialized product applying fuzzy theory.
+China established “China Fuzzy Mathematics and System Association.” The members were mainly mathematicians who werespecialized in conducting research in the fuzzy mathematics theories.
+By doing so, fuzzy theory was strengthened in the scope of mathematics.
+China published “Journal of Fuzzy Mathematics,” the second journal on fuzzy theory.
+In 1987, it was renamed to “Fuzzy System and Mathematics.” Since then, China took a leading role in fuzzy mathematics theories.
+Prof. C.L. Tang of Wah Chong Polytechnic proposed grey theory and grey hazy sets.
+He proved fuzzy set was a special instance of grey hazy sets.
+Since then, grey theory became vital and it was successfully applied to weather prediction, system modeling, decision making, and so on.
+The International Fuzzy Systems Association was set up and Prof. H.J. Zimmermann of Technical University of Berlin was elected to be the chairman.
+At the same time, four branches were set up in North America, Japan, Europe, and China.
+The first Fuzzy IFSA World Congress was held in Spain.
+There were a total of 290 researchers from 29 countries attending the congress.
+It is of interest to note that the conference papers were mainly related to theoretical foundations, but not practical applications.
+Japan set up “Japan Society of Fuzzy Theory and System SOFT.”
+Fuji electrical engineering, Fuji Facom and Tokyo Industry University had applied fuzzy control theory to manage the import of clearwater system and they had got a very good result.
+The second Fuzzy IFSA World Congress was held in Tokyo.
+There were a total of 380 researchers from 25 countries attending thecongress.
+There were a total of 250 conference papers and many of them were related to practical applications.
+Japan first applied Fuzzy Control to successfully accomplish automatic driving systems.
+The first Neural Networks and Fuzzy Logic Applied Technical Conference were held in NASA.
+The third Fuzzy IFSA World Congress was held in Seattle, and there were numerous conference papers on practical applications.
+The Laboratory for International Fuzzy Engineering Research was set up, which was mainly composed of industry practitioners,government officials, and academics.
+The “China’s Governmental Natural Science Funding Committee” funded 1,350 thousand RMB dollars to set up 35 tertiary schoolsand research organizations so as to investigate a research project entitled ‘Fuzzy Message Management and Mechanical Intelligence,’ which was led by Professor P.Z. Wang.
+The China Productivity Centre set up a Fuzzy Group to introduce fuzzy techniques and advocate the fuzzy theories.
+The fourth Fuzzy IFSA World Congress was held in Belgium.
+An academic journal entitled “IEEE Transaction on Fuzzy Systems” was first published.
+The fifth Fuzzy IFSA World Congress was held in South Korea.
+The themes of conference papers included control system, imageprocessing, machine video, medical diagnosis, share prediction, synthetic assessment, management technology, and system research.
+The First Asia Fuzzy Symposium was held in Singapore.
+The first Fuzzy Theory and its Applications Conference was jointly organized by Tsing Wah University and Jiao Tong University.
+The Republic of China Fuzzy Association was set up.
+The second Fuzzy Theory and its Applications Conference was held in Taiwan, which was jointly organized by Taiwan Universityand Taiwan Industrial Technical University.
+The sixth Fuzzy IFSA World Congress was held in the United States.
+4. “Fuzzy theories” were further developed prosperously.
+Translated from Lin and Pang 1994;
+permission has been obtained for both print and online use from the authors.
+2001 further stated that evolutionary computing has its strength in optimization while neural nets are particularly strong in pattern recognition and automatic learning.
+Fuzzy set/fuzzy logic has its strength in modeling, interfacing humans with computers and modeling certain uncertainties.
+The Unite States, Japan, and mainland China are probably the most important nations to de-
+velop fuzzy theories and fuzzy technology.
+Lin and Pang 1994 asserted that although fuzzy techniques were originated in the United States, their developments and applications are both less intensive and extensive than in Japan, where fuzzy control is widely recognized and applied.
+In many consumer products like washing machines and cameras, fuzzy controllers are used in order to obtain higher machine IQ and user-friendly products.
+Its use is also extended to other fields, including control of subway systems, image stabilization of video cameras, and autonomous control of helicopters.
+However, unlike Japan and the United States, fuzzy set and fuzzy logic are further developed by mathematicians in mainland China.
+The major achievements include the developments of:
+1 molecule lattice theory;
+2 fuzzy normed linear space;
+3 fuzzy topolopy;
+4 fuzzy measure and fuzzy integral;
+5 fuzzy sets and fallowing shadow of random sets theory;
+6 factor space theory;
+and 7 truth-valued-flows inference Lin and Pang 1994.
+Fuzzy means blurred, indistinct in shape or outline, frayed or fluffy Oxford University 1993.
+In modern mathematical society, fuzzy is defined as a branch of modern mathematics that was formulated by Zadeh 1965 to model vagueness intrinsic in human cognitive process and to solve ill-defined and complicated problems because of ambiguous, incomplete, vague, and imprecise information that characterize the real-world system.
+It is appropriate for uncertain or approximate reasoning that involves human intuitive thinking Zimmermann 2001 because much of our natural language is fuzzy in nature, for example, it was “very hot” yesterday;
+100 is “much larger” than 10;
+I “like” watching TV;
+you drive “too fast,” please keep it “slower;
+” and he is not
+It is generally accepted that two fundamental fuzzy concepts are:
+1 fuzzy set;
+and 2 fuzzy logic.
+Fuzzy set uses linguistic variables and membership functions with varying grades to model uncertainty inherent in natural language Zimmermann 2001.
+Fuzzy relation can be defined as more or less vague relationships between some fixed numbers of objects, and it can formally be treated like fuzzy sets Bandemer and Gottwald 1995.
+Fuzzy logic is a superset of Boolean conventional logic that has been expanded to handle the concept of partial truth and true values between “completely true” and “completely false” Zimmermann 2001.
+Fuzzy control can be defined as the application of fuzzy logic Lin and Pang 1994.
+In general, the design and setting of fuzzy controllers consist of defining three parameters, including:
+1 defining the domain for the input and output of linguistic variables for each fuzzy controller;
+2 defining the set and the type of membership function for each linguistic value-input of every fuzzy controller.
+The relations between inputs and outputs of linguistic values have to be provided in the form of fuzzy rules, which represent logical inference;
+and 3 defining the fuzzy logic operators for each IF-THEN sentence, as a base for final inference Lah et al. 2005.
+Two Fundamental “Fuzzy Concepts” Applications in Construction Management Research
+Two fundamental “fuzzy concepts,” including fuzzy set and fuzzy logic, are extensively applied in construction management research.
+It should be noted that fuzzy set is the basis of fuzzy logic and they are highly associated with each other in that fuzzy logic is a reasoning system that uses fuzzy sets.
+In fact, both fuzzy set and fuzzy logic are intended to deal with a different type of uncertainty than probability theory, that of vagueness and imprecision.
+Since these two concepts are increasingly applied to construction management discipline, they are described in the following subsections in greater detail, and their applications in construction management research will be further discussed after the section “Fuzzy Research in the Past.”
+As mentioned before, fuzzy set theory FST is a branch of modern mathematics that was formulated by Zadeh 1965 to model vagueness intrinsic in human cognitive process.
+Since then, it has been used to tackle ill-defined and complex problems due to incomplete and imprecise information that characterize the realworld systems Baloi and Price 2003.
+In fact, Zadeh stated that when the complexity of a system increases, the ability for human beings to make precise but significant statements about their behavior diminishes.
+This will continue to happen until a threshold is reached beyond which precision and significance becomes mutually exclusive—the principle of incompatibility.
+Therefore, it follows that modeling complex or ill-defined systems cannot be made precisely.
+However, FST was not intended to replace probability theory, but rather to provide solutions to problems that lack mathematical rigor inherent to probability theory Baloi and Price 2003.
+FST is an extension of the classical Boolean or binary logic.
+The main problem with binary approach is that it fails to convey information effectively, that is, the states between full and nonmembership are ignored but they are very vital.
+Meanwhile, most real-world systems are extremely complicated and ill defined.
+In contrast to binary or dual logic, the essence of fuzziness is that the transition from a membership to nonmembership state of an element of a set is gradual rather than abrupt Baloi and Price 2003.
+Thus, FST allows a generalization of the classical set concept to model complex and ill-defined systems.
+The main concepts associated with FST as applied to decision systems are:
+1 membership functions;
+2 linguistic variable;
+3 natural language computation;
+4 linguistic approximation;
+5 fuzzy set arithmetic operations;
+6 set operations;
+and 7 fuzzy weighted average Zimmermann 2001;
+Bandemer and Gottwald 1995;
+Baloi and Price 2003;
+Jamshidi 1997;
+Grima 2000;
+Piegat 2001;
+Ng et al. 2002;
+Seo et al. 2004;
+Zheng and Ng 2005.
+It is observed that linguistic variable and membership functions are much more widely applied in construction management discipline.
+And the membership functions applied are always triangular and trapezoidal shapes Fayek and Oduba 2005.
+Fuzzy logic is a superset of Boolean-conventional logic that has been extended to handle the concept of partial truth and truth values between completely true and “completed false” Zadeh 1965;
+Lin and Pang 1994;
+Lah et al. 2005.
+Fuzzy logic should be seen as a data analysis methodology to generalize any specific theory from “crisp” to “continuous.” Fuzzy modeling opens the possibility for straightforward translation of the statements in natural language—verbal formulation of the observed problem— into a fuzzy system.
+Its functioning is based on mathematical tools.
+The basic operations of the set theory are intersection, union, and complement extended for the purpose of fuzzy logic.
+The research method used for this paper was to launch a comprehensive review of the related literature from 1996 to 2005.
+Summary of Literature Review on the Applications of Fuzzy Set/Fuzzy Logic and Hybrid Fuzzy Techniques in Construction Management
+Research over the Last Decade
+Performance
+The selection of literature was mainly based on the top quality journals in construction management and other related fields, which include:
+1 Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, ASCE;
+2 Journal of Management in Engineering, ASCE;
+3 Construction Management and Economics;
+4 Engineering, Construction and Architectural Management;
+5 International Journal of Project Management;
+6 Building Research and Information;
+7 Building and Environment;
+and 8 Benchmarking:
+An International Journal.
+In fact, with reference to a research study on journal ranking in construction management conducted by Chau 1997, the first six journals were assessed by respondents to have very high rankings among 22 relevant journal assessed.
+And the last two journals are widely perceived by academics to be first tier journals in construction related areas.
+Keywords for “searching” were “fuzzy set,” “fuzzy logic,” “fuzzy control,” and other hybrid fuzzy techniques.
+These terms were well known of having been used in writing papers on fuzzy techniques.
+The procedures for retrieving the fuzzy papers are as follows:
+• The titles of the articles were scanned with the keywords.
+Altogether, there were 59 articles that contained one of the keywords in their articles’ titles, which are either “genuine fuzzy” papers or closely related papers.
+• Seven articles were taken out as they were not in the context of construction management.
+Metaanalysis is a statistical technique for combining the research findings from independent studies.
+The essential character of metaanalysis is that it is the statistical analysis of the summary findings of many empirical studies Glass et al. 1981.
+It can be understood as a form of survey research in which research reports, rather than people, are surveyed.
+A coding form is developed, a sample or population of research reports is gathered, and each research study is “interviewed” by a coder who reads it carefully and codes the suitable information about its characteristics and quantitative findings Lipsey and Wilson 2001.
+Since the aim of this research study is to summarize and present a critique of the existing fuzzy literature so as to investigate which major categories fuzzy techniques are strong to analyze and provide a path for future research studies on some areas, content analysis, instead of metaanalysis, was deployed in this research study because it was not aimed at conducting statistical analysis by combining the research findings from a number of independent empirical research studies.
+By using the content analysis method in this research study, four major categories of applications have been grouped under two broad fields.
+The two broad fields are:
+1 fuzzy set/fuzzy logic;
+and 2 hybrid fuzzy techniques.
+The four major categories are:
+1 decision making;
+2 performance;
+3 evaluation/ assessment;
+and 4 modeling.
+The four major classifications of the area of application is mainly based on analyzing the contents of paper with particular reference to paper title, abstract, and keywords using the content analysis technique.
+The results show that 15 papers can be classified under “decision making;
+” 14 papers under “performance;
+” 13 papers under “evaluation/ assessment;
+” and 10 papers under “modeling.” Content analysis is frequently adopted to determine the major facets of a set of data, by simply counting the number of times an activity happens, or a topic is depicted Fellows and Liu 2008.
+The first step to conduct content analysis is to identify the materials to be analyzed.
+The second step is to determine the form of content analysis to be used, which includes qualitative, quantitative, or structural.
+The choice is dependent on the nature of the research project.
+The choice of categories will also depend upon the issues to be addressed in the research if they are known.
+In qualitative content analysis, emphasis is on determining the meaning of the data i.e., grouping data into categories.
+Quantitative content analysis extends the approach of the qualitative form to generate numerical values of the categorized data frequencies, ratings, ranking, etc. which may be subjected to statistical analyses.
+Comparisons can be made and hierarchies of categories can be examined Fellows and Liu 2008.
+“Fuzzy” Research in the Past
+Table 2 shows that fuzzy research in construction management during the past decade can be divided into two broad fields, encompassing 1 Fuzzy set/fuzzy logic since most applications involve some form of the logic theory and 2 hybrid fuzzy techniques those that combine fuzzy logic with other techniques, such as fuzzy neural network, neurofuzzy, fuzzy reasoning, fuzzy expert systems, fuzzy analysis, and fuzzy clustering, with the applications in four main categories, including 1 decision making;
+2 performance;
+3 evaluation/assessment;
+and 4 modeling.
+“Fuzzy Set/Fuzzy Logic” Applications in Construction Management Research
+Table 3 shows that 31 journal papers have applied fuzzy set/fuzzy logic in construction management research and their areas of application.
+Grouping these applications into related headings, they can be classified into four categories, namely, 1 decision making;
+2 performance;
+3 evaluation/assessment;
+and 4 modeling.
+Fuzzy Set Applications in Decision-Making
+Singh and Tong 2005 stated that contractor selection in a multicriteria environment is largely dependent upon the uncertainty inherent in the nature of construction projects and subjective judgment of decision makers.
+For this reason, they used a systematic procedure, based on FST, to evaluate the capability of a con-
+Applications of Fuzzy Set/Fuzzy Logic in Construction Management Research
+Journal name
+Theory/concept
+Field/application
+Contractor selection
+Decision making;
+performance evaluation
+Environmental sustainable buildings
+Decision making;
+Competitive bidding strategy
+Decision making;
+Fuzzy sets theory
+Dynamic resource allocation
+Sustainable housing
+Wang, W., Hawwash, K.I.M., and Perry, J.G. 1996
+Contract type selector
+Lin, C.T., and Chen, Y.T. 2004
+Fuzzy sets theory
+Time and cost performance
+Bonnal, P., Gourc, D., and Lacoste, G. 2004
+Project scheduling
+Lorterapong, P., and Moselhi, O. 1996
+Fuzzy sets theory
+Time performance
+Cost performance
+Activity duration
+Baloi, D., and Price, A.D.F. 2003
+Performance
+Project management;
+activity delay analysis
+Time performance
+Cost performance;
+decision making
+Okoroh, M.I., and Torrance, V.B. 1999
+Selection of ERP system
+Fuzzy sets theory
+Leu, S.S., Chen, A.T., and Yang, C.H. 2001
+Construction time-cost trade-off
+Choi, H.H., Cho, H.N., and Seo, J.W. 2004
+Assessment of working capital requirement
+Contractor selection
+Zayed, T.M., and Halpin, D.W. 2004
+Productivity
+Construction technology
+Benchmarking/ assessment
+JCEMJournal of Construction Engineering and Management, ASCE;
+CMEConstruction Management and Economics;
+IJPMInternational Journal of Project Management;
+JMEJournal of Management in Engineering, ASCE;
+ECAMEngineering, Construction and Architectural Management;
+and BIJBenchmarking:
+An International Journal.
+tractor to deliver the project as per the owner’s requirements.
+The notion of Shapley value was used to determine the global value or relative importance of each criterion in accomplishing the overall objective of the decision-making process.
+Seo et al. 2004 attempted several alternatives to obtain the sustainable residential buildings based on the acceptable level of environmental impact and socioeconomic characteristics of residential building.
+However, these criteria are in conflict with each other.
+Therefore, it is very difficult to assess the sustainable residential buildings.
+To solve this problem, Seo et al. 2004 adopted a methodology, which is based on FST, to assess a residential building that is intended to assist the decision making for the building planners or industrial practitioners.
+Site layout planning can affect productivity and is crucial to project success Tam et al. 2002a.
+Nevertheless, since construction is heterogeneous in the nature of its organizations, project designs, and time constraints.
+Site layout planning for each project becomes unique Tam et al. 2002a.
+Therefore, site layout planning is a typical multiobjective problem because it is affected by many uncertainties and variations.
+In order to facilitate the decision-making process for these problems, Tam et al. 2002a proposed a nonstructural fuzzy decision support system NSFDSS, which was based on FST. This system integrates both expert’s judgment and computer decision modeling, thus making it suitable for the appraisal of complex construction problems.
+Fayek 1998 developed a competitive bidding strategy model by using FST to help a company achieve its objectives in bidding.
+He stated that the use of FST allows assessments to be made in qualitative and approximate terms, which suit the subjective nature of the margin-size decision.
+He concluded that the competitive bidding strategy model can improve the quality of the decisionmaking process used in setting a margin and can help contractors gain a competitive edge in bidding.
+Wang and Liang 2004 pointed out that project managers have to handle conflicting goals that govern the use of the resources within organizations in the real world.
+These conflicting goals are required to be optimized by the project managers in the framework of fuzzy aspiration levels.
+Wang and Liang 2004 then proposed the multiple fuzzy goals programming model based on fuzzy sets in order to help project managers minimize project total costs, total completion time, and total crashing costs.
+They believed that the proposed model can provide a systematic decision-making framework, thus enabling a decision maker to interactively modify the fuzzy data and model parameters until a satisfactory solution is generated.
+Timely resource allocation is vital to avoid unnecessary waiting time of resources and delay of activities for construction activities.
+Zhang and Tam 2003 opined that timely resource allocation is a dynamic decision-making process dependent on real-time information during a construction process.
+Having considered operational and stochastic characteristics of construction operations and the fuzziness of multiple-decision objectives for an appropriate allocation policy, Zhang and Tam 2003 developed a fuzzy dynamic resource allocation based on fuzzy set/ fuzzy logic and the fuzzy decision-making approach.
+They explained that this model can finally help improve construction productivity by making the best use of resource allocation.
+Li and Shen 2002 introduced a conceptual approach in developing a decision support tool for sustainable housing, and they illustrated an empirical decision support model for sustainable housing indicators using FST.
+Ng et al. 2002 pointed out that many procurement selection models fail to address the fuzziness of selection criteria used for procurement selection.
+To tackle this problem, they used a modified horizontal approach to establish the fuzzy membership function of procurement selection criteria through an empirical study conducted in Australia.
+Wang et al. 1996 investigated the possibility of developing a knowledge-based system to assist in choosing an appropriate contract strategy for a specific project.
+Fuzzy sets have been used for knowledge representation and manipulation and dBASE has been used to manage the database.
+Fuzzy Logic Applications in Decision Making
+Lin and Chen 2004 studied bid/no-bid decision making and stated that they were associated with uncertainty and complexity.
+They adopted a fuzzy logic approach because subjective considerations, such as nature, competition, value of the bid opportunity, resource capabilities, and the reputation of the company are relevant to the bid/no-bid decision.
+By using this approach, assessments were described subjectively in linguistic terms while screening criteria were weighted by their corresponding level of importance using fuzzy logic and fuzzy values.
+A practical example proved that this method could provide the analyst with more convincing and reliable results and cost saving for a company.
+Fuzzy Set Applications in Performance
+Zheng and Ng 2005 opined that the duration and cost of each construction activity could change dynamically as a result of many uncertain variables, such as productivity, resource availability, and weather.
+Project managers have to take these uncertainties into account so as to provide an optimal balance of time and cost, based on their own knowledge and experience.
+For this reason, FST was applied to model the managers’ behavior in predicting time and cost pertinent to a specific option within a construction activity.
+Zheng and Ng 2005 believed that by incorporating the concept of fuzzy sets, managers and planners can represent the range of possible time-cost values and their associated degree of belief.
+They claimed that this model can support decision makers in analyzing their time-cost optimization decision in a more flexible and realistic manner.
+Bonnal et al. 2004 pointed out that stochastic project-scheduling approaches are used by many project schedulers.
+However, the axiom associated with the theory of probabilities is always incompatible with decision-making situations.
+They analyzed that fuzzy project-scheduling approaches are most suited to fuzzy situations, and they proposed a framework, which was based on fuzzy sets, to address the resourceconstrained fuzzy project-scheduling problem.
+Lorterapong and Moselhi 1996 presented a new network scheduling method based on FST to estimate the durations of construction activities.
+The proposed method incorporated a number of new techniques that facilitate:
+1 the representation of imprecise activity durations;
+2 the calculation of scheduling parameters;
+and 3 the interpretation of the fuzzy results generated.
+Zhang et al. 2004 observed that it is always problematic to define uncertain information input for construction-oriented discrete-event simulation.
+Therefore, they proposed incorporating FST with discrete-event simulation to handle the vagueness, imprecision, and subjectivity in the estimation of activity duration, particularly when insufficient or no sample data are available.
+Based on an improved activity scanning simulation algorithm, a fuzzy distance ranking measure was used in fuzzy simulation time advancement and event selection for simulation experimentation.
+Baloi and Price 2003 discussed the core issues of global risk factors’ modeling, assessment, and management.
+Their preliminary indications showed that FST is a viable technology for modeling, assessing, and managing global risk factors that affect construction cost performance and therefore a fuzzy decision framework for risk management can be successfully developed.
+Kishk 2004 developed a practical procedure to handle statistically significant data and expert evaluations within the same whole-life costing model calculation.
+The proposed model was implemented into a computational algorithm using probability distribution function or fuzzy numbers in a manner consistent with the nature of the information in hand.
+Fuzzy Logic Applications in Performance
+Oliveros and Fayek 2005 developed a fuzzy logic model that integrates daily site reporting of activity progress and delays, with a schedule updating and forecasting system for construction project monitoring and control.
+This model can help with the analysis of the effects of delays on a project’s completion date because the use of fuzzy logic allows linguistic and subjective assessments to be made, and thereby suiting the actual practices commonly used in the construction industry.
+Knight and Fayek 2002 used fuzzy logic to predict potential cost overruns on engineering design projects.
+By doing so, it assists in assessing the amount of possible risk on a project and the likelihood of making a profit on the job.
+In particular, the research used fuzzy logic to model the relationships between the characteristics of a project and the potential risk events that may occur, and the associated cost overruns caused by combinations of the project characteristics and risk events.
+Choi et al. 2004 presented a risk assessment methodology for underground construction projects, in which they developed a formalized procedure and associated tools to evaluate and manage the risks involved in underground construction.
+The main tool of the proposed risk assessment methodology is the risk analysis software and this software is built upon an uncertainty model based on fuzzy set.
+In more detail, the fuzzy-based uncertainty model was designed to consider the uncertainty range that represented the degree of uncertainties involved in both probabilistic parameter estimates and subjective judgments.
+Holt 1998 pointed out that the need for judicious construction contractor selection is increasing.
+For this reason, he reviewed a number of contractor evaluation and selection modeling methods.
+The methods include:
+1 bespoke approaches;
+2 multiattribute analysis;
+3 multiattribute utility theory;
+4 cluster analysis;
+5 multiple regression;
+and 7 multivariate discriminant analysis.
+The merits and demerits as well as previous and future applications of each methodology were discussed.
+Kumar et al. 2000 asserted that the assessment of working capital requirement in construction projects was subjective and based on uncertainty.
+There is an inherent difficulty in the classical approach to assess the effect of qualitative factors for the evaluation of working capital requirement.
+Kumar et al. 2000 developed a methodology to incorporate linguistic variables into workable mathematical propositions for the assessment of working capital using FST after considering the uncertainty associated with many of the project resource variables.
+Sánchez et al. 2005 developed a fuzzy set-based approach for representing and synthesizing information about the various kinds of variables involved in the evaluation of a project’s value in the context of construction in civil engineering.
+This methodology for summarizing and normalizing values aims at contributing to decisionmaking analysis in the context of multiple-criteria evaluation and group decision making.
+Zayed and Halpin 2004 viewed that in the piling process, both qualitative and quantitative factors have to be considered so as to estimate productivity efficiently.
+To assess the effect of subjective factors on bored pile construction productivity, Zayed and Halpin 2004 developed a productivity index model mainly based on fuzzy logic to represent the subjective effect in refining productivity assessment using simulation and deterministic techniques.
+Chao and Skibniewski 1998 presented a fuzzy-logic-based, riskincorporating approach to evaluate new construction technology.
+Experimental results indicate that the approach can produce a consistent evaluation of the available options, based on a set of user-defined linguistic rules that state the priorities in a given project scenario.
+Tah and Carr 2000 used a hierarchical risk breakdown structure representation to develop a formal model for qualitative risk assessment.
+To do so, a common language for describing risks was first presented, which included terms for quantifying likelihoods and impacts in order to achieve consistent quantification.
+The relationships between risk factors, risks, and their consequences are represented on cause and effect diagrams through the application of fuzzy logic, and the concepts of fuzzy association and fuzzy composition.
+Shang et al. 2005 developed an innovative risk assessment approach for distributing project teams.
+The approach was based on a client and server architecture and used fuzzy logic and web-based technology.
+It was found that the use of a web-based risk assessment system for distributing project team members had major benefits in terms of use of linguistic terms to express risk assessment, ease of communication, ease of maintenance, and greater consistency.
+Ma et al. 2004 mentioned that when an enterprise intends to design its distribution chain, it first needs to assess all possible distributors, and then select the eligible ones to form the design model.
+In fact, this assessing process can be done by distributor benchmarking by the following three steps.
+The first step is to identify all factors needed for benchmarking a distributor by a systematic analysis.
+The second step is to develop an internetbased information acquisition module to get all needed information from possible distributors.
+The third step is to develop an inference module, based on the combination of fuzzy logic and array-based logic, to benchmark a distributor.
+Okoroh and Torrance 1999 developed a subcontractor selection and appointment model for analyzing the subcontractor’s risk elements in construction refurbishment projects.
+The model is based on the use of FST with the fuzzy set representing the overall weighted average rating of refurbishment contractors’ criterion for the selection of subcontractors.
+It was believed that the implementation of the model in linguistic terms enables the user to interact with the system in a very friendly manner using natural language expressions.
+Wei and Wang 2004 developed a comprehensive framework, which combined objective data obtained both from external professional report and subjective data derived from internal interviews with vendors, to select an appropriate Enterprise Resource Planning ERP project.
+By doing so, a hierarchical attribute structure was suggested to evaluate the ERP projects systematically.
+In addition, FST was adopted to aggregate the linguistic evaluation descriptions and weights.
+Tseng et al. 2004 defined “a multifunctional team” in the e-world as a group of people from various functional departments or different areas of work responsibility to work together and exchange information through networks.
+In fact, multifunctional teams are becoming more and more important because organizations often require group cooperation across functional lines and the members may not be in the same location.
+However, the literature did not provide any analytical solutions for forming multifunctional teams under uncertain information environment.
+In order to handle the underlying complexities of the multifunctional teams’ formation process, Tseng et al. 2004 developed a methodology based on FST and grey decision theory for the multifunctional team formation.
+FST was applied to deal with problems involving ambiguities, which were normally confronted in multifunctional teams’ formation practice and formed groups, when there was no clear boundary for relationship between customers’ requirements and project characteristics.
+Grey decision theory was used to select desired team members through abstract information.
+It was concluded that the application of the fuzzy and gray approaches demonstrated its capability of forming a good multifunctional team and it was promising to deal with insufficient information at the team forming stage Tseng et al. 2004.
+It is understandable that construction activity duration is uncertain due to variations in the outside environment, such as weather, site congestion and productivity level.
+Because of different resource utilization, construction activity duration might need to be adjusted and the project direct cost could also be changed accordingly.
+Leu et al. 2001 proposed a new optimal construction time-cost trade-off model in which the effects of both uncertain activity duration and time-cost trade-off were taken into consideration.
+FST was adopted to model the uncertainties of activity durations.
+A searching technique using genetic algorithm GA was used to search for the optimal construction project time-cost trade-off profiles under different risk levels.
+This method provided an insight into the optimal balance of time and cost under various risk levels as defined by decision makers.
+It should be emphasized that the proposed classification systems are by no means mutually exclusive.
+Some papers can be grouped in more than one category.
+For example, the Okoroh and Torrance 1999 paper could also be grouped under the decision making section.
+However, the writers opined that the focus of this paper is more on model development;
+therefore, it was put under the grouping of modeling.
+Table 4 shows that 21 journal papers have applied hybrid fuzzy techniques in construction management research.
+Their applications can be classified into the same four categories, namely, 1 decision making;
+2 performance;
+3 evaluation/assessment;
+and 4 modeling.
+Lam et al. 2005 conducted a study on construction site layout planning and discovered that the actual closeness of relationships between site facilities ultimately governed the site layout.
+They had applied two modern mathematical approaches, GA and fuzzy logic, to minimize the uncertainty and vagueness of the collected data and improve the quality of the information.
+Lam et al. 2001b developed a methodical system for construction project management decision making by using a combination of fuzzy multiple-objective decision-making theory and the fuzzy reasoning technique in order to solve most real-world decision-making problems that combine both qualitative and quantitative concepts.
+The model developed can be applied to construction project management problems by suggesting an optimal path of corporate cash flow that results in the minimum use of resources.
+Wong et al. 2000 explained that by incorporating fuzzy analysis into multiattribute utility theory, project selection problems can be dealt with when some project attributes are subject to random variations.
+The aggregate utility function for an individual project is derived as a fuzzy number or interval which, in turn, yields probabilistic information for stochastic dominance tests.
+A unique feature of the approach is that it dispenses with the task of selecting probability distributions for aggregate utility function.
+Boussabaine and Elhag 1999 stated that fuzzy models are particularly suited to making decisions involving new technologies where uncertainties inherent in the complex situations.
+Based on an assumption that cash flow at particular valuation stages of a project is ambiguous, they used an innovative fuzzy cash flow analysis to analyze the cash flow curve of projects at any progress period to make sure that it is reasonable.
+Lam and Runeson 1999 established a decision model for a contracting firm.
+The model provided a methodical system for construction financial decision making and a way of solving a financial decision problem under qualitative and fuzzy circumstances.
+The model can be applied to the management of corporate cash flow, thereby facilitating the minimal use of resources.
+The information provided by the model also allows the planner to eliminate excess use or idleness of resources during the scheduling of a project.
+Fayek and Oduba 2005 applied fuzzy logic and fuzzy expert systems to predict the labor productivity of two common industrial construction activities, that is, rigging pipe and welding pipe, given the realistic constraints of subjective assessments, multiple contributing factors, and limitations on data sets.
+Liu and Ling 2005 considered that it is difficult to estimate a contractor’s markup because the construction environment is changeable and uncertain.
+In a study, they constructed a fuzzy logic-based artificial neural network ANN model to assist contractors in making markup decision.
+By integrating the fuzzy logic inference system, this model provides users with a clear explanation to justify the rationality of the estimated markup output.
+Marzouk and Moselhi 2004 adopted a two-step fuzzy clustering method to estimate haulers’ travel time, and the method provided a generic tool that could be incorporated in models dedicated for estimating earthmoving production.
+The developed method used linear regression and fuzzy subtractive clustering in which seven factors affecting haulers’ travel time were first identified and their significance were then quantified using linear regression.
+Portas and AbouRizk 1997 developed an approach by using a three-layered network with a fuzzy output structure to estimate construction productivity for concrete formwork tasks.
+It was found that this structure provided the most suitable model since much of the input was subjective.
+Boussabaine 2001a,b developed an understanding of neurofuzzy concept modeling techniques and demonstrated the power and versatility of neurofuzzy methods when applied to the determination of construction project duration.
+Applications of Hybrid Fuzzy Techniques in Construction Management Research
+Journal name
+Theory/concept
+Field/application
+Lam, K.C., Tang, C.M., and Lee, W.C. 2005
+Project selection
+Boussabaine, A.H., and Elhag, T. 1999
+Cash flow analysis
+Construction labor productivity
+Productivity performance
+Contractor’s markup estimation
+Cost performance
+Estimation of construction productivity
+Productivity performance
+Time performance
+Lam, K.C., Hu, T., Ng, T., Skitmore, M., and Cheung, S.O. 2001a
+Project teaming strategies
+Cheng, M.Y., and Ko, C.H. 2003
+Fuzzy sets with GA
+Fuzzy analytic hierarchy process
+Planning and design tenders selection
+Contractors’ markup
+Quality function deployment
+JCEMJournal of Construction Engineering and Management, ASCE;
+CMEConstruction Management and Economics;
+ECAMEngineering, Construction and Architectural Management;
+IJPMInternational Journal of Project Management;
+B&EBuilding and Environment;
+BRIBuilding Research and Information;
+and BIJBenchmarking:
+An International Journal.
+Dzeng and Wen 2005 proposed an analytical model for the teaming strategies of owners on the inclusion of additional contractors.
+The proposed model was based on the resource-based theory and the fuzzy Delphi method.
+It allows the owner to identify critical resources required by the project, to assess the contractors’ capacities, and to identify the resource gaps.
+Tam et al. 2002a conducted a study to evaluate the safety management systems and prioritized a number of safety improvement measures with the consideration of different decision criteria.
+To do so, NSFDSS was applied to facilitate the decision-making process for these multiobjective problems.
+It was found that the modified FDSS is appropriate for the appraisal of complicated construction problem, which allows assessment based on a pair-wise comparison of alternatives using semantic operators, even under the condition that insufficient precise information is available.
+Lam et al. 2001a developed a fuzzy neural network FNN model, which amalgamated both the fuzzy set and neural network theories, to improve the objectiveness of contractor prequalification.
+Through the FNN model, the fuzzy rules as used by the prequalifiers could be identified and the corresponding membership functions could be transformed.
+Kuchta 2001 proposed a new approach to the criticality of an activity and of the whole project by using the fuzzy critical path method method.
+This approach considers both the decision maker attitude and the project network structure.
+The criticality measure obtained may serve as a measure of risk or of the supervision effort needed and can assist to make the decision on whether to accept or reject the project.
+Hsieh et al. 2004 adopted a fuzzy multicriteria analysis approach to select planning and design alternatives in public office buildings.
+The innovative fuzzy analytic hierarchy process method was used to determine the weightings for evaluation criteria among decision makers.
+On the other hand, the subjectivity and vagueness in the alternative selection process was dealt with by using fuzzy numbers for linguistic terms.
+By incorporating the decision makers’ attitude toward preference, a crisp overall performance value was obtained for each alternative based on the concept of fuzzy multiple criteria decision making.
+Multiskilled labor allocation within a defined time frame falls into the class of nonpolynomial hard problems, and solutions can only be derived through repeated trials and errors Tong and Tam 2003.
+A fuzzy GAs optimization model, which is based on fuzzy sets and GAs, was developed by Tong and Tam 2003 to provide an efficient method to arrive at a “near-optimal” solution.
+It is widely accepted that problems associated with the construction industry are complex, full of uncertainty, and vary with environment.
+Cheng and Ko 2003 stated that fuzzy logic, neural networks, and GAs have been successfully applied in construction management to solve different types of problems over the past decade.
+Having considered the characteristics and merits of each method, Cheng and Ko 2003 combined the three methods to develop the evolutionary fuzzy neural inference model.
+It was concluded that this model could be used as a multifarious intelligent decision support system for decision making to solve manifold construction management problems.
+Liu and Ling 2003 developed the FNN model to help contractors estimate markup percentage to be included in their tenders.
+This model provides users with a clear explanation to justify the rationality of the estimated markup output.
+By using this model, it is believed that the difficulties in markup estimation due to its heuristic nature can be overcome.
+Quality function deployment is a management tool that provides a visual connective process to help teams focus on the needs of the customers throughout the total development cycle of a product or process Bouchereau and Rowlands 2000.
+It provides a means for translating customer needs into appropriate technical requirements for each stage of a product/process-development life cycle.
+It helps develop more customer-oriented higher-quality products.
+Although there are numerous benefits of using quality function deployment, it is not a simple tool to use.
+Bouchereau and Rowlands 2000 analyzed that fuzzy logic, ANNs, and the Taguchi method can be combined with quality function deployment to resolve some of its weaknesses, and proposed a synergy between quality function deployment and the three methods and techniques reviewed.
+Li 1997 investigated vital issues and factors related to the success of a knowledge-based expert system KBES development.
+He used angular fuzzy sets to quantitatively determine values of the surrogate items and values less than one were regarded as weak items.
+Deployment of corrective action is then required to enhance the weak items.
+It was proposed that the identified factors and their surrogate items should bring the attention of KBES developers to a number of vital issues that are crucial to a successful KBES implementation.
+Implications for the Future Research Directions
+After conducting a comprehensive literature review on the applications of fuzzy set/fuzzy logic and hybrid fuzzy techniques in construction management research, some research areas have been identified for further study.
+First, it is recommended that fuzzy set/fuzzy logic can be incessantly adopted in the previously mentioned four major categories because they can assist in developing models to make decisions and to evaluate the performance in a wide range of areas when analyzing construction problems, which are often viewed as complicated, uncertain, and ill defined.
+Fuzzy membership functions and linguistic variables, two of the major concepts associated with fuzzy set/fuzzy logic others including natural language computation, linguistic approximation, fuzzy set arithmetic operations, set operations, and fuzzy weighted average Zimmermann 2001;
+Bandemer and Gottwald 1995;
+Baloi and Price 2003;
+Jamshidi 1997;
+Grima 2000;
+Piegat 2001;
+Ng et al. 2002;
+Seo et al. 2004;
+Zheng and Ng 2005 can be especially adopted to suit applications to solve construction problems with reference to the aforesaid nature of construction.
+In fact, fuzzy membership functions enable one to perform quantitative calculations in fuzzy decision making Bharathi-Devi and Sarma 1985 while the concept of linguistic variables serves the purpose of providing a means of approximate characterization of phenomena that are too complex or too ill defined to be amendable to description in conventional quantitative terms Cross and Sudkamp 2002;
+Niskanen 2004.
+In addition, it has been observed that hybrid fuzzy techniques, such as neurofuzzy and fuzzy neural networks Boussabaine 2001a,b;
+Lam et al. 2001a;
+Cheng and Ko 2003;
+Liu and Ling 2003, 2005, are increasingly applied in construction management research and they can be more widely adopted in this field because they can better solve some construction problems that fuzzy set/fuzzy logic alone may not best fit.
+For example, neural networks are strong in pattern recognition and automatic learning while fuzzy set and fuzzy logic are strong in modeling certain uncertainties.
+Their combination can help to develop models with uncertainty under some forms of pattern.
+For instance, neurofuzzy systems are able to represent qualitative, vague, and imprecise concepts and to combine the ability of knowledge representation with the learning power of neural networks Boussabaine 2001a.
+These attributes permit neurofuzzy models to be used in modeling complicated systems and decision processes when the pattern of indeterminacy is the result of inherent variability or vagueness rather than randomness.
+In fact, neurofuzzy models can assist in developing reliable construction decision support models with ambiguous and imprecise events or facts by representing them in linguistic terms Boussabaine 2001a.
+Besides, the fuzzy techniques can be applied more extensively to construction technology and information technology disciplines.
+Examples on areas of investigation included:
+1 building thermal dynamic response Skrjanc et al. 2001;
+2 sulfate expansion Inan et al. 2007;
+3 user acceptance and adaptation Guillemin and Molteni 2002;
+4 car-parking guidance Leephakpreeda 2007;
+5 thermal conductivity Singh et al. 2007;
+6 heating control Gouda et al. 2006;
+and 7 thermal and illumination control Lah et al. 2005.
+This paper has conducted a comprehensive literature review on the application of fuzzy techniques in construction management discipline.
+Although fuzzy techniques have been increasingly applied in the research area of construction management during the last decade, no paper has attempted to draw up a holistic commentary of the existing fuzzy literature.
+To fill up this research gap, this paper provides a comprehensive review on the fuzzy literature that has been published in eight selected top quality journals from 1996 to 2005.
+It has been found that fuzzy research, as adopted in the construction management discipline over the past decade, can be divided into two broad fields, encompassing:
+1 fuzzy set/fuzzy logic;
+and 2 hybrid fuzzy techniques, with their applications in four main categories, including:
+1 decision;
+2 performance;
+3 evaluation/assessment;
+and 4 modeling.
+The applications of fuzzy techniques on these categories are very effective and practical because they can help to develop models to make decisions and to evaluate the performance in a wide range of areas when analyzing problems encountered in the construction industry, which are widely regarded as complex, full of uncertainties, and contingent on changing environments.
+Having conducted a comprehensive overview on the applications of fuzzy techniques in construction management research, it puts forward new directions for fuzzy research and its application in construction management research.
+It is suggested that future research studies on fuzzy set/fuzzy logic can constantly be applied on the four major categories mentioned previously.
+Fuzzy membership functions and linguistic variables can be particularly employed to suit applications to tackling construction problems facing the aforesaid nature of construction.
+In addition, hybrid fuzzy techniques, such as neurofuzzy and fuzzy neural network, can be more broadly adopted because they can better solve some construction problems that fuzzy set/fuzzy logic alone may not best suit.
+For example, neural networks are strong in pattern recognition and automatic learning while fuzzy set and fuzzy logic are strong in modeling certain uncertainties.
+Their mixture can assist in developing models with uncertainty under some forms of pattern.
+For instance, neurofuzzy systems can represent qualitative, vague, and imprecise concepts and combine the ability of knowledge representation with the learning power of neural networks Boussabaine 2001a.
+These attributes enable neurofuzzy models to be used in modeling complex systems and decision processes when the pattern of indeterminacy is the result of inherent variability or vagueness rather than randomness.
+Finally, an increasing trend of applying fuzzy techniques in the building science and environmental disciplines is also observed Skrjanc et al. 2001;
+Guillemin and Molteni 2002;
+Lah et al. 2005;
+Gouda et al. 2006;
+Inan et al. 2007;
+Leephakpreeda 2007;
+Singh et al. 2007;
+it is believed that the application of fuzzy techniques will go beyond the construction management area into these disciplines as well.
+Acknowledgments
+The work described in this paper was fully supported by a grant from the Research Grants Council of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China RGC Project No. PolyU 5158/ 04E. Grateful acknowledgment is made to Dr. Linda C.N. Fan, Department of Building and Real Estate of The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, for her advice during the earlier draft of this paper.

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+Managerial Competencies of Female and Male Construction Managers
+Women hold relatively few project management positions in the construction industry.
+Most studies conclude that women’s exclusion from the industry is mostly due to the industry’s male-dominated culture, but no study ever attempted to find out whether women are excluded from project management positions in construction because they are deficient in managerial competencies.
+This study evaluates the managerial competencies of female project managers by administering a competency assessment test and comparing the results with the managerial competencies of male project managers.
+The management development questionnaire was used, where competency is defined by subjective comparison.
+All respondents occupied project management positions and were assessed in 20 different competencies.
+The study concluded that female project managers do not differ much from male project managers in terms of their managerial behaviors but perform better in “sensitivity,” “costumer focus,” and “authority and presence.”
+CE Database subject headings:
+Discrimination;
+Workplace diversity;
+Personnel management;
+Introduction
+Women are underrepresented in the construction industry Dainty et al. 2000;
+Commission on the Advancement of Women and Minorities in Science, Engineering and Technology Development 2001;
+Fielden et al. 2001;
+Galloway 2004;
+Yates 2001;
+Scott and Boles 1996;
+Byrne et al. 2005;
+Toohey and Whittaker 1993.
+According to the most recent research conducted by the U.S. Bureau of Statistics U.S. Department of Labor 2007, women constitute only 9.6% of the workforce in the construction industry, while the proportion of women in the overall national workforce is 46%.
+Among women who are part of the construction industry, few of them occupy project management positions.
+There are many reasons that prevent professional women from entering the industry even though some researchers e.g., Khazanet 1996 recognize the need for more female participation in the construction activity.
+Women are generally misled about the construction industry Dainty et al. 2000;
+Arslan and Kivrak 2004;
+Scott and Boles 1996, face an informal recruitment process that works to men’s advantage Kehinde and Okoli 2004;
+Dainty and Lingard 2006;
+Dainty et al. 2002, and are discriminated against in the heavily male-dominated industry Yates 2001;
+Dainty et al. 2000;
+Kehinde and Okoli 2004;
+Fielden et al. 2001;
+Lingard 2007.
+Much of the literature that investigates the reasons that prevent women from occupying construction management positions is based on studies conducted overseas and there is no
+Professor, Dept. of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, IL 60616.
+[email protected] 2
+Former Graduate Student, Dept. of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, IL 60616.
+[email protected]
+Note. This manuscript was submitted on November 4, 2008;
+approved on May 26, 2009;
+published online on May 29, 2009.
+Discussion period open until April 1, 2010;
+separate discussions must be submitted for individual papers.
+This technical note is part of the Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, Vol. 135, No. 11, November 1, 2009. ©ASCE, ISSN 0733-9364/2009/11-1275–1278/$25.00.
+evidence that the same reasons are valid in the United States too.
+But the literature demonstrates the universal nature of the problem.
+None of the research studies published so far investigated whether women were excluded from project management positions in construction because they are less competent than male project managers.
+Is the managerial competence of female project managers at par with male project managers?
+The study presented in this paper tries to answer this question by measuring and comparing the level of managerial competency of women and men in construction.
+The next section discusses the methodology of the study after which the findings of the survey are presented and discussed.
+The conclusion of the study is presented in the last section.
+The management development questionnaire MDQ is a personal assessment instrument that is used to identify the strengths of chief executive officers, owners, presidents, executives, and managers.
+It makes use of the concepts developed by Boyatzis 1982, Schroder 1989, and McClelland 1973.
+It was designed to assess the managerial behavior of a single individual relative to 20 different competencies across five broad domains, namely managing change, planning and organizing, interpersonal skills, result orientation, and leadership see Table 1.
+The competencies are self-explanatory.
+According to Cameron and The Test Agency 1997 MDQ’s reliability and validity are not in question.
+In this study, MDQ is used for the first time as a tool to collect information about the managerial behaviors of a group of people as opposed to a single individual.
+JOURNAL OF CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT © ASCE / NOVEMBER 2009 / 1275
+The contact information of the potential participants was collected from the Internet at random  The survey was emailed three times to the attention of 1,400 female and male project managers employed by private construction companies in the United States.
+As expected, the response rate was quite low, mainly because of the length of the questionnaire
+Analytical thinking
+Quality focus
+Relationships
+Learning orientation
+Authority and presence
+Motivating others
+Developing people
+Statistically significant at 0.05.
+that included 160 questions.
+A total of 63 questionnaires were returned and used in the analysis, including questionnaires from 32 men and 31 women, all occupying project management positions in their organization.
+Every competency was measured by eight statements rated across five possible responses:
+strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree, and strongly disagree.
+Respondents’ answers were converted to a five-point scale, where 1 represents strongly disagree and 5 strongly agree.
+The total score for a competency is the sum of eight scores obtained in response to the eight statements that define that competency.
+So, the score of a competency varies between 8 and 40.
+The next step is converting these scores to a Standard Ten STEN scale which is used to rate participants’ responses on a 1–10 range, based on a proprietary scale developed by HRD Press, Inc. for each and every competency.
+The STEN scores were calibrated by HRD Press, Inc. for each and every competency separately by considering all respondents in all industries.
+According to Cameron and The Test Agency 1997, the STEN scores are statistically reliable and valid.
+For all 63 participants and for all 20 competencies, STEN scores were calculated separately, i.e., a total of 1,260 STEN scores were found.
+Then their mean values were used in the analysis.
+Because the data are not normally distributed, the Mann-Whitney U test was conducted to determine whether the differences between female and male respondents’ STEN scores in each competency are statistically significant or not.
+The significance level of the analysis was set at a p-value of 0.05.
+Statistical Package for Social Sciences was used to conduct the analysis.
+As seen in Table 1, the differences are not significant in most competencies.
+However, women ranked higher in 17 competen-
+cies three of which are statistically significant at 0.05.
+Men ranked higher in only three competencies, namely resilience, achievement, and risk taking none statistically significant.
+The results of the Mann-Whitney U test also revealed that the performance of women and men do not significantly differ in the five global competencies, i.e., managing change, planning and organizing, interpersonal skills, result orientation, and leadership.
+The study of Powell 1990 study supports this finding.
+The only competency where men scored higher was “risk taking,” but no statistical difference was observed p-value=0.845.
+This finding is supported by the study of Johnson and Powell 1994 that explored risk propensity differences between genders who have undergone formal managerial education, and that found that both genders have the same level of tendency to risk.
+The differences in “flexibility and adaptability” p-value =0.159, “initiative” p-value=0.236, and “innovation” p-value=0.442 were not significant, even though women scored slightly higher in all three competencies.
+Although women ranked higher than men in all four competencies of “analytical thinking ,” “decision making,” “planning,” and “quality focus,” none of the differences were statistically significant.
+Johnson and Powell 1994 also found that women and men do not differ in decision making if they come from a managerial background.
+1276 / JOURNAL OF CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT © ASCE / NOVEMBER 2009
+Except for “sensitivity” p-value=0.019, there was no significant difference between the genders for this global competency p-value=0.486 or its other constituent competencies, i.e., “oral communication,” “relationships,” and “teamwork.”
+Sensitivity p-value=0.019 is defined as listening to other people, involve them in decisions, and being more democratic.
+The result is consistent with the nature of women, because they see others as equals, whereas men tend to be more autocratic Lawless 2001.
+As per Table 1, women and men do not differ in the “oral communication” competency, but the literature is not consistent in this matter.
+The study of Lawless 2001 states that women have developed verbal abilities from their early ages and have better communication skills compared to men.
+In contrast to Lawless 2001, Penley et al. 1991 measured communication skills for both female and male managers and observed that women tend to have poorer communication skills than men.
+Males who participated in the survey provided significantly lower costumer focus orientation than females p-value=0.015.
+Men’s costumer focus competency was also the lowest among all scores 3.23.
+This is a weakness of men that can be improved.
+On the other hand, men ranked higher than women in the “achievement” competency, but the difference was not significant.
+Women scored slightly higher than men differences not statistically significant in the STEN-scores for “business awareness.” It was not surprising that women are slightly more aware of the business aspects of the work because women are mostly directed to office-based positions while men experience site work.
+“Authority and presence” was found to be the most marked disparity between male and female project managers in the construction industry p-value=0.004.
+This finding contradicts most of the studies quoted in the literature.
+For example, the survey by Giritli and Topcu-Oraz 2004 of 43 participants in the Turkish construction industry states the opposite.
+Of the six leadership styles investigated in the study of Giritli and Topcu-Oraz 2004 study coercive, authoritative, affiliative, democratic, pacesetting, and coaching, the democratic style was more used by women than men, whereas both genders seemed to be using the remaining leadership styles equally.
+Lawless 2001 also states that women see others as equals whereas men emphasize order and obedience autocratic behavior.
+In contrast to the claims of Lawless 2001 and Giritli and Topcu-Oraz 2004, our results for authority and presence indicate that women perform better than men in this category.
+This can be explained by the fact that women have to be more autocratic in order to be accepted by men in the industry.
+In other words, because of the male-dominated culture in the industry, and because taking orders from women is not common, women start the race one step behind, and therefore have to compensate by being more self-confident, charismatic, and autocratic than usual.
+Indeed, according to the National Academy of Sciences 1994, women who succeed in engineering are selfconfident and have specific targets in addition to possessing other skills.
+“Resilience” is coping with stress effectively.
+The p-value was found to be 0.820 which represents equality between women and men.
+The study of Loosemore and Waters 2004 that investigated the stress levels of women and men in the construction industry, found equally that the differences were not significant.
+One of the greatest challenges facing female project managers is their acceptance to the construction industry by their male counterparts.
+The construction industry is one of the most maledominated industries.
+Women are underrepresented in the industry due to its ingrained culture, unique nature, working conditions, and project-based setup.
+The objective of this research was to find out if disparities exist between women and men in terms of managerial behaviors.
+Based on the survey results and the statistical analysis conducted, women and men appear to have the same level of strength in managerial competencies.
+Women are as competent as men for holding project management positions in construction companies.
+Furthermore, women scored significantly higher in three competencies:
+sensitivity, costumer focus, and authority and presence.
+In order to increase the number of women in the industry, one should improve the industry image, its working conditions, and working hours, rather than women’s managerial abilities.
+The results of this research are limited to the population surveyed.
+The study conducted encompasses a relatively small portion of the U.S. construction industry 63 participants.
+Further comprehensive research is required to take this study one step further by reaching more participants.
+Some control factors may be needed such as company type, company size, type of project undertaken, geographical location, and level of managerial position.
+It should also be stated that the MDQ measures self-reported opinions of one’s own behavior/competence, whereas the perceptions of their boss or coworkers may be equally important.
+The study might have benefited from additional ratings of the respondents by their bosses or coworkers.
+But the difficulties in collecting additional data of this kind are immense.
+While this avenue was not pursued in this study, it can be explored in future work.
+Acknowledgments
+The writers acknowledge the contribution of HRD Press Inc., the developers and owners of MDQ, to this study in terms of financial support, encouragement and cooperation.
+In particular, thanks are due to Mr. Randy Phillips of HRD Press.

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+Role of Simulation in Construction Engineering and Management
+Construction simulation is the science of developing and experimenting with computer-based representations of construction systems to understand their underlying behavior.
+This branch of operations research applications in construction management has experienced significant academic growth over the past two decades.
+In this paper, the author summarizes his views on this topic as per his Peurifoy address, given in October 2008.
+The paper provides an overview of advancements in construction simulation theory as reported in literature.
+It then summarizes the key factors that contribute to successful deployment of simulation in the construction industry, and the key attributes of problems that make them more amenable for simulation modeling as opposed to other tools.
+The paper then provides an overview of long-term simulation initiatives leading to the next generation of computer modeling systems for construction, where simulation plays an integral role in a futuristic vision of automated project planning and control.
+CE Database subject headings:
+Simulation;
+Construction management;
+Decision support systems;
+Automation;
+Author keywords:
+Simulation;
+Construction management;
+Decision support;
+Automation;
+Engineers involved in managing construction deal with the production aspects of realizing a facility e.g., construction of a petrochemical plant, a mine, or an interstate highway.
+In this context, engineers are involved in developing and efficiently designing productive methods and processes for excavations and embankments, land reclamation, pipe installation, tunnels, roads, and other civil works.
+When projects become large or complex, they become more difficult to manage using existing techniques.
+Computer simulation techniques are very effective in this domain at providing the tools required to design and analyze construction processes regardless of complexity or size.
+Using computer simulation tools, models can be built that represent the overall logic of various activities required to construct a facility, the resources involved in carrying out the work crews, equipment, management, etc., and the environment under which the project is being built e.g., weather, ground conditions, labor pools, market situation, etc..
+The models represent the process of building a facility as well as its environment, and as such can be used to develop better project plans, to optimize resource usage, to minimize costs or project duration, and to improve overall construction project management.
+In general, building a simulation model involves four phases:
+product abstraction phase specifying the product to be built;
+Professor, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Hole School of Construction Engineering and Management, Univ. of Alberta, 3-014 Markin/CNRL Natural Resources Engineering Facility, Edmonton, AB, Canada T6G 2W2 corresponding author.
+abourizk@ ualberta.ca
+Note. This manuscript was submitted on June 19, 2009;
+approved on March 22, 2010;
+published online on September 15, 2010.
+Discussion period open until March 1, 2011;
+separate discussions must be submitted for individual papers.
+This paper is part of the Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, Vol. 136, No. 10, October 1, 2010.
+process abstraction and modeling phase where processes, resources, environment, etc., required to build the product are abstracted and reduced to models;
+experimentation phase where the simulation is carried out and the models experimented with;
+and decision-making phase.
+The simulation phases will be explained in the context of a simple utility tunneling operation using a tunnel boring machine TBM.
+To prepare a simulation model for a utility tunnel, we first develop an abstraction of the facility we are building the tunnel.
+The tunnel can be divided into 1 a working shaft, which generally includes the vertical shaft, the undercut, and the tail tunnel or, as illustrated in our example, a large pit that replaces all three components;
+2 the tunnel itself, which can be composed of a number of sections based on ground conditions;
+and 3 the exit shaft.
+A typical abstraction/illustration of such a model is shown in Fig. 1.
+The “product” information relevant to the simulation in Fig. 1 includes the physical dimensions, ground conditions, and design requirements for the shaft, the undercut dimensions normally used to set up the TBM and facilitate material handling, the tunnel sections, and the removal shaft.
+Once the product is specified, we try to describe, using a combination of logic and mathematical formulations, the operations that take place to build the product and the resources used in the process.
+Whenever possible, we use symbolic modeling elements as a means to describe the production process.
+This allows for better model communication and simplifies the process associated with its composition.
+Most modern simulation tools also allow the user to supplement the symbolic elements with new elements they can create or with software code embedded directly into the model.
+There are a variety of methods that can be used to build simulation models.
+Fig. 2 shows a CYCLONE model of the tunnel excavation process while Fig. 3 shows a Simphony special purpose simulation model for the entire tunnel project shown in Fig. 1.
+The model includes the shaft construction process, the tunneling process the excavation carried out by the TBM, the material handling using muck cars and trains, the crane to lift cars to the surface and for material handling, the weather process and its impacts on the productivity of crews, the shifts and the breaks that the crews use, and their influence on production.
+The basic difference between the two models is that the first uses generic modeling elements tasks, queues, etc. to build the model while the second uses special purpose elements suitable for the tunneling domain shaft, train, etc..
+The elements encapsulate the discrete-event models and all information pertaining to the product it represents and resources required to produce it.
+In addition to the modeling phase, simulation involves experimentation with the computer model to study the underlying system behavior.
+This is achieved by processing the model using a
+combination of discrete-event simulation, continuous simulation, and other algorithms.
+The results are generally parameters useful for decision making, such as the time it will take to complete the project and each of the project’s components, costs, resource utilization, and any bottlenecks in the process.
+The significance of the simulation modeling approach is that it enables engineers to accurately experiment with various approaches for completing the project without having to set foot on site.
+Based on the author’s experience in the construction industry in Alberta, carrying out such analysis generally yields better understanding of the process, lower project costs, shorter durations, improved quality, and increased certainty in project delivery.
+The decision-making phase essentially uses the knowledge of the user and various scenario analyses using the simulation experiments to prepare recommendations that will ensure the project achieves its desired objectives.
+Perspective on Construction Simulation Systems
+The prevalent approach for simulating construction operations has traditionally been discrete-event process interaction simulation.
+Using this approach, a simulationist creates a model of a construction operation using specific modeling components, as demonstrated in Figs. 2 and 3.
+Construction researchers spent considerable effort since the 1970s to develop simple-to-use simulation tools so that they can be adopted by the industry.
+The proliferation of the resulting research and accompanying tools into the industry has not been widespread, however.
+In fact, most of the successes documented in literature especially in the ASCE Journal of Construction Engineering and Management have been academic in nature with only pockets of successful industrial applications.
+This section will first review the literature that summarizes the academic progress in construction simulation and concludes with the author’s observations on the progress achieved to date.
+Simphony user-inserted code to calculate the travel duration for a train in a tunnel
+model resources.
+Although one can visualize the train hauling dirt called Simphony capable of general-purpose modeling, as well as in Fig. 2, if the two trains used in the model have different prop- useful for creating special purpose simulation tools for the induserties, it would be difficult to distinguish them and hence manipu- try.
+What characterized this second stage of development is the late them in the model.
+An example would be for an older train emphasis on more modeling and simulation capability compared that needs more frequent maintenance or which experiences more to previous tools.
+To achieve this, the systems utilize various cafrequent breakdowns.
+To model such phenomena we need to ex- pabilities offered by modern programming languages to facilitate plicitly assign attributes to the entity representing the train in the more complex model development, to provide more flexible user model.
+Many of the enhancements of CYCONE overcame this interfaces, to offer explicit modeling of simulation entities and limitation and thus offered the modeler more flexibility e.g., UM- resources, to provide means for the users to extend the simulation
+CYCLONE.	language functionality through user written code, and to provide
+The second stage coincided with advancements in program- extensibility and hierarchy in model development. ming languages and, in particular, object-oriented programming.
+Although enhancements to CYCLONE provide explicit re-
+A number of simulation systems and simulation applications can source representations, more recent modeling systems such as
+be identified from the early 1990s until 2000.
+Liu and Ioannou
+Simphony or STROBOSCOPE provided many features to provide
+1992 developed construction object-oriented process simulation more modeling flexibility including, for example, the possibility
+system, a discrete-event simulator system, which used an objectof the user writing their own programming code to manipulate the oriented design.
+The simulator could track resources, construct model and its components for more accurate modeling.
+A simple models using a graphical interface, capture resources, define difexample can be inferred from Fig. 2, where the duration of the ferent resources, and link with other planning systems.
+Odeh et al.
+1992 developed CIPROS, an object-oriented system used for hauling task depends on the excavated tunnel i.e., as the tunnel developing discrete-event simulation networks.
+CIPROS enabled excavation progresses the hauling distance increases.
+Such a situusers to relate construction plans and specifications to a construc- ation cannot be easily modeled in CYCLONE and while one can tion plan.
+Shewchuk and Chang 1991 used object-oriented overcome this limitation using random sampling, there is a sigsimulation models for construction simulation.
+Oloufa 1993 nificant impact on productivity of the tunnel measured in linear using MODSIM showed that the use of the object-oriented ap- meters per hour based on how far the train needs to travel from proach leads to reduced coding and improved simulation model the tunnel face to unload and return.
+A Simphony model of the readability.
+Martinez and Ioannou 1994 introduced STROBO- same task is given in Fig. 4 where the user provides a simple SCOPE as a modeling and simulation language capable of mod- equation to compute the duration of the task based on Eq. 1, for eling a wide variety of systems with extensible features. example from which the duration can be determined prior to AbouRizk and Hajjar 1998 introduced a simulation language each travel task as follows:
+1,000 m/km speed of the train km/h
+The progress of simulation in academia, in the opinion of the author, occurred over three stages of construction simulation development.
+Those stages mirror, to a great extent, the advancements in programming languages.
+The first stage was led by Halpin 1977 with his introduction of CYCLONE. This was, perhaps, the starting point of modern construction simulation languages.
+A typical CYCLONE model of a tunneling process was shown in Fig. 2.
+CYCLONE models are generally composed of elements for modeling work tasks, their logical relationships, queuing situations, and implicit resources.
+Enhancements of CYCLONE included INSIGHT Paulson et al. 1987, RESQUE Chang and Carr 1987, UM-CYCLONE Ioannou 1989, MicroCYCLONE Halpin 1990, and recently ABC Shi 1999 and HKCONSIM Lu et al. 2003.
+CYCLONE’s strength was in its simplicity and its ability to model cyclic networks, which were beyond the critical path method CPM. Its simplicity, however, created limitations that its successor languages attempted to remedy.
+One key aspect was the inability of CYCLONE to explicitly Such modeling flexibility offers significant advantages when the modeler attempts to create a practical model for use in the industry.
+This feature is a simple example of the additional powers and flexibility afforded by modern simulation software.
+The reader can refer to cited literature for comprehensive capabilities of each of the systems.
+One should note, however, that at the time of preparing this paper, the only systems among those surveyed in this paper available for use are STROBOSCOPE and Simphony.
+The first is supported through the efforts of Martinez at Purdue University and the second through the efforts of the author at the University of Alberta.
+Simphony was recently licensed to DRAXWare Inc. and is available for commercial use through that company.
+The third stage saw a move toward integration of simulation with other tools especially visualization four-dimensional computer-aided design 4D CAD. Although many applications were developed over the 1990s, one can easily trace more activity on three-dimensional 3D models and their integration with simulation over the past 10 years.
+This area, perhaps, is one of the few areas where commercial vendors are making advancements and penetration in the industry.
+Tools such as Microstation, AutoCAD, and others offer 4D functionality by virtue of integrating a CPM network to drive the CAD components thus driving the visualization process.
+Researchers in construction used the same concepts except replacing CPM networks with process simulation models.
+Xu and AbouRizk 1999 demonstrated how AutoCAD models can be integrated with Simphony process models and subsequently visualized, for example.
+Kamat and Martinez 2003 introduced Vitascope, a discrete-event construction simulation system integrated with 3D visualization capabilities developed for simulation of construction applications as an integrated platform.
+Furthermore, researchers have begun to look at hybrid modeling, which incorporates more traditional discrete-event approaches with system dynamics, continuous simulation models, fuzzy logic, and artificial intelligence see, for example, Peña-Mora et al. 2008.
+What is noticeable from the aforementioned state of the art is the fact that while there have been advancements in the modeling tools, and their potential applications in the industry, there has been limited industrial support if any and certainly no widespread adoption by the industry.
+In fact, major software developers that service the construction and engineering communities e.g., CAD, scheduling, and estimating software developers or those specializing in offering simulation software for other industries have limited their inclusion of simulation functionality to “add-on” Monte Carlo simulation features to supplement standard scheduling and estimating tools or to visualization of 3D models driven by a CPM network.
+A critical observer will, therefore, conclude that there simply is no market for the researched and developed simulation products/solutions in our industry and/or that there is no appetite from practitioners for using such products.
+In other words, while most experienced researchers in simulation can see the benefits of using simulation as a decision support tool in construction, industry at large has remained unconvinced of the merits of such advanced tools.
+Efforts to simplify model development, those to provide more powerful tools, as well as efforts of integration with other systems did not seem to change the overall sentiment of the industry in this regard.
+In the following section, the author will summarize his experience in deploying simulation solutions and systems in the construction industry to demonstrate how the above dilemma can be resolved.
+Applying Simulation in Construction
+The author, along with his industrial collaborators, staff, and students, has applied simulation techniques in numerous settings for decision making on construction projects over the past 20 years including risk analysis, constructability reviews, and scenariobased planning.
+The research activity from its inception was based on the principle of collaborations between university, industry, and government.
+This three-way partnership provided key ingredients, which is perhaps responsible for the successful infiltration of simulation into construction management functions in Alberta.
+The key factors for this success can be summarized as follows.
+Industry’s Meaningful Input into the Research Program
+Long-term collaborations where the industry contributes monetary and in-kind support to the research activity were critical for successful deployment of simulation solutions by the author.
+Industry’s involvement has influenced the direction of the author’s simulation research program, which continually aimed to provide solutions that satisfy industry needs and requirements.
+To illustrate, the author’s first attempts at simulation were based on CYCLONE and other general-purpose simulation systems e.g., SLAM, GPSS, etc..
+The industrial involvement guided the author toward the development of a simulation system that can efficiently create very specific simulation tools for specific construction processes.
+This resulted in Simphony, which was created to facilitate the quick deployment of special purpose simulation tools that the industry was interested in.
+It has also materialized into adoption of the developed solutions by the same industrial partners.
+To demonstrate this influence, the author worked with PCL Constructors Edmonton, Alberta, Canada to find solutions for module yard assembly scheduling in a constraint site where CPMbased scheduling was not providing the required support for proper planning.
+The solution was a general-purpose simulation model developed in 2002 and described later by Mohamed et al. 2007.
+The second generation of the same solution consisted of a special purpose simulation system for module yard assembly scheduling developed in 2005 to overcome prior limitations Mohamed et al. 2007.
+The process of furthering the development continued on and paralleled the academic developments of Simphony.
+In 2008, a new generation of the product under the title of Simphony.NET 3.5 was released and with it a revised solution for PCL where the simulation processor and its models were embedded in an application that was actually created by the PCL staff Taghaddos et al. 2009.
+The application itself streamlined the scheduling process for the spool fabrication at the yard, enhanced the predictions of delivery dates to site, and freed one full-time position at the plant for more meaningful analysis compared to continually updating a CPM schedule that was never delivering what was needed.
+A similar application, which spanned more than 10 years, relates to the tunneling template shown in Fig. 2.
+The early applications of simulation were based on building general-purpose models for specific tunnel projects as they arise AbouRizk and Dozzi 1993.
+A special purpose tool was then deployed in 2000 when Simphony was fully developed for use by the DesignConstruction Branch of the City of Edmonton at their request and in an attempt to streamline planning activities associated with repetitive tunneling work in Er et al. 2000.
+The template shown in Fig. 2 is a third generation of the first template and was developed by Al-Battaineh 2009.
+Its unique features include modular elements, which contain discrete-event models of the processes, methods of construction, equipment, and crew configurations used by the contractor.
+The work was actually an adaptation of the high level architecture HLA concepts simplified and reduced in scope to facilitate implementation in Simphony so as to develop better understanding of the HLA requirements particularly as they relate to communications between different simulation components.
+Although the thesis work was academic, the resulting tool for the industrial partner was practical and useful.
+In fact, since its deployment, the template has been the main planning tool for tunnels by this contractor.
+Providing Simulation Tools Customized to the Construction Industry That Provide Modeling Flexibility and Power
+General Purpose Modeling Template
+Simphony template illustration
+Simphony models as displayed in Fig. 2 use metaelements that encapsulate the simulation model, product specifications, and other relevant information.
+The modeling elements are normally built by experienced Simphony developers using standard discrete-event structures and modern programming languages in an extendable environment.
+The user can build models using those elements from given templates developed by others.
+Fig. 5 demonstrates the general-purpose modeling template and its elements top, the special purpose modeling template and a tunnel model middle left, and a special purpose template and a model for an aggregate production process middle right.
+The uniqueness of Simphony extends to enabling the user if experienced with simulation modeling to modify the functionality of those elements for applications not envisioned by the original developer.
+The creation of the modeling elements and their subsequent modification can be done using one of the Visual Studio supported languages e.g., Visual Basic, as demonstrated in the bottom of Fig. 5.
+The reader can refer to Hajjar and AbouRizk 2002 for more details on Simphony’s approach to modeling.
+Providing Tangible Deliverables to Industry in Short Time Frames
+The delivery of a good, credible, and practical solution in a short period of time is paramount to the industry.
+There is no point in promising a solution that will take years to deploy e.g., after a Ph.D. student completes his/her thesis.
+The timelines for construction companies are mostly in weeks.
+An example of how deliverables to the industry can take place parallel to student’s research is the deployment of simulation-based solutions at Waiward Steel Fabricators a Canadian steel fabricator/constructor in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada by the author.
+The effort commenced in 1997 and has progressed since resulting in the training of four Ph.D. students and four MS students and the deployment of state of the art simulation-based technologies and solutions see, for example, Song 2004, Alvanchi et al. 2009, and Azimi et al. 2009.
+Song 2004 investigated the development of virtual shop models with an application to Waiward’s fabrication shop.
+The project helped Waiward assess the efficiency and utilization of different stations in their shop during the thesis development.
+The thesis itself focused on academic challenges that require resolution in order to facilitate solving an industrial problem.
+In essence the work completed by the student was delivered to Waiward along the way including solutions related to efficiency at various stations in the shop, process bottlenecks in detailing, inaccuracies in the drafting and their implications to production, and decision support to assist with the evaluation of new equipment and its impact on production.
+From an academic perspective, the thesis explored a process for creating definitions for steel pieces from drawings once they are produced in StruCad. A database for exchanging information was coupled with process models and heuristics to model the decision process of the shop superintendent in order to create a seamless simulation of the real world at a level of detail and accuracy not attempted before.
+The thesis also addressed a number of challenges such as the detailed representation of the product being simulated, the problem of modeling human decision-making processes, standardized integration with other applications, and dealing with a lack of historical data for certain processes.
+The approach is being replicated with other students in similar settings.
+Developing Long-Term Relationships and Trust with Industry
+The author’s experience indicates that most successful applications take place with companies where trust has developed over a long period of time in years.
+In most cases, simulation was not the main reason for collaboration for industrial partners, who in most cases were mostly interested in straightforward solutions to improve their bottom line or to enhance their bid presentations.
+The ongoing interactions created the right atmosphere to deploy simulation-based solutions, however.
+For example, when North American Construction Group Edmonton, Alberta, Canada was competing for a large-scale earthmoving project, where it had no prior experience, we developed advanced simulations with their team to help them develop a construction strategy and a cost estimate.
+Likewise, when KBR Edmonton, Alberta, Canada was evaluating a new cutting machine and major investment in material handling for its shop, we developed models to assist them in making a decision.
+Those interactions then materialized into longterm collaborations that involved many simulation tool deployment or ongoing studies:
+• Most tunneling projects in Edmonton are currently being planned using simulation methods mainly due to the author’s
+• Construction claims related to design errors AbouRizk et al. 1997, complexity AbouRizk and Dozzi 1993, and changed conditions for a pipeline project used simulation to resolve the claims North American Pipeline, Inc. NAPI 2008;
+• Many large projects, including light rail transit expansion, water treatment plants, and interchanges, used simulation to improve estimates and schedules during preliminary design and to enhance the risk analysis processes;
+• Design and sizing of equipment maintenance facilities for megaprojects were enhanced using simulation AbouRizk and Hajjar 1996;
+• Streamlining of processes using lean concepts through simulation modeling Ferrar 2002;
+Agbulos et al. 2006;
+• Fabrication shop simulation for many of the major constructors in Alberta see, for example, Song 2004 and Wang
+• Tower crane modeling for purpose of optimizing lifts, locating cranes, and scheduling works for PCL Constructors Appleton et al. 2002, Waiward, and others;
+• Module yard scheduling, site layout optimization, and space constraint scheduling for many projects;
+Sufficient and Uninterrupted Long-Term Funding for the Research Program
+The author receives regular uninterrupted funding since 1994 for his simulation research activity on 5-year cycles under the umbrella of the Industrial Research Chairs program of NSERC the federal granting agency in Canada  The funding is generally 50% from NSERC and 50% from private industry.
+The long-term funding provides stability for academics, the provision of full-time staff e.g., two full-time programmers, one for over 12 years working on the research team, ability to recruit top students, and building/upkeep of necessary research infrastructure.
+The funding grew from the first cycle of $250,000 annually to an average of $1M annually in the current cycle.
+Areas of Application Where Simulation Is Generally More Effective Than Other Tools
+The author’s own experience shows that simulation is most effective in the following situations:
+• When problems are characterized by uncertainty.
+Simulation models generally offer significant opportunities to model probabilistic phenomena that are often encountered in construction.
+Activity durations, random resource branching, breakdown of equipment, arrival processes e.g., weather, material delivery, work orders, and design drawings, availability of crews, and quality of work completed are only a few of the processes that can be probabilistically modeled.
+Other construction management techniques, although recently enhanced through Monte Carlo simulation, are not capable of offering the same degree of modeling uncertainty.
+When a problem is characterized by uncertainty as is the case in most construction operations, simulation is the most suitable analytical tool to model and analyze the problems at hand.
+A comprehensive study of uncertainty modeling in construction can be found in AbouRizk 1990.
+AutoCAD, Microstation,	change mdoel direction	reporting, aggregation	planning
+Comprehensive model of a construction project in COSYE
+• When problems are technically or methodically complex.
+For example, a change in condition claim for a pipeline project see North American Pipeline, Inc. NAPI 2008, for example requires the construction processes to be modeled along with the geographic features creeks, ponds, etc., the ground conditions as they change during the course of the project spring/ summer thaw versus winter freeze, the weather encountered, the resources assigned to the project, and how these resources shift from segment to segment.
+Such a project can be modeled using CPM, but the level of abstraction imposed will not allow the modeler to generate an accurate depiction of the impact of changes in the project’s progress and its subsequent cost and schedule.
+• When repetition is evident.
+Halpin 1977 demonstrated that cyclic networks and linear projects with repetitive tasks are ideal for simulation modeling.
+The body of literature on this subject shows the effectiveness of simulation in modeling repetitive or cyclic processes.
+For example, modeling a repetitive earthmoving operation can be accomplished using a handful of elements using CYCLONE. The same process can take numerous activities in CPM.
+• When flexibility in modeling logic and knowledge is required to formulate a model.
+Modern simulation languages offer significant advantages over CPM as well as prior simulation tools.
+Most languages are extensible, allowing the modeler to build sophisticated decision structures in the model to accurately represent the actual operation.
+For example, a lift e.g., of a module on an industrial construction site that can be accomplished by one or more cranes depending on various conditions e.g., preference, or availability of various resources can be easily modeled using simulation constructs see Moghani et al. 2009, for example.
+• When an integrated solution is required.
+Modern simulation tools offer a great medium for integrating multirepresentations and multiviews of a project including its product, its environment, its processes, its resources, etc.
+This enables users to quickly generate project schedules, costs, resource requirements, material procurement schedules, etc., thus facilitating effective scenario based planning during preconstruction studies.
+An example of this is in Al-Battaineh 2009.
+• When detail and accuracy matter.
+In many cases, simulation is used simply because it allows the modeler great levels of flexibility in representing the details of resource interactions, activity relationships, and various constraining logic.
+For example, modeling the effect of crew learning due to repetition, labor fatigue due to long shifts, or change in the penetration rate of a TBM due to operator skill or ground conditions can be accomplished in a simulation model with reasonable effort.
+The operations can then be studied and analyzed to great levels of detail and within acceptable levels of accuracy.
+Long-Term Vision for Simulation in Construction
+The author’s long-term vision is to achieve a fully integrated, the highly automated construction modeling and simulation environment deployable across the design and construction phases in the life cycle of a facility.
+Fig. 6 demonstrates an overarching model that gives a comprehensive representation of an entire construction project, with all of its components.
+The reader should note that the model shown in Fig. 6 goes well beyond the process interaction models described up until this point in this paper.
+Fig. 6 represents an integrated representation of the product model, the process model, the environment model, and all associated constraints.
+From an experimentation viewpoint, it offers visualization features, intelligence support, integration of multiworld-views of simulation algorithms e.g., integration of discrete event, continuous, and real time, and support for real-time control.
+The models and their simulations would span the entire life of the project with real-time input and feedback to facilitate project execution until it is handed over to operations.
+In essence, the intent is to provide a “virtual world” where a construction project is planned, executed, and controlled with minimum disruption to the actual project.
+This poses many challenges, which have been shown through a number of research projects Song 2004;
+El-Ghandour 2007;
+Shahin 2007;
+Van Tol 2005;
+Al-Battaineh 2009, which cannot be resolved without a major advancement in modeling and simulation in construction.
+The author is spearheading an initiative under the title “Construction Synthetic Environment Framework” CSE to produce such advancement.
+The implementation of the CSE framework in software is referred to as a construction synthetic environment COSYE. COSYE is based on the high level architecture IEEE 1516 standard for developing large-scale models IEEE 2001.
+The HLA architecture supports building complex virtual environments federations using distributed simulation technologies.
+In addition, it provides standards for building the individual components federates of such environments by different developers while maintaining interoperability between them.
+One may think of a part of a simulation that does a specific function as a federate.
+For a tunnel, for example, the shaft construction simulation component can be a separate federate.
+A summarized description of the CSE applications in construction can be found in AbouRizk 2009.
+To comply with HLA standards, simulation components must follow HLA rules, as defined by the IEEE. The second aspect of the HLA standards, interface specifications, defines the functional interaction between federates and the run-time infrastructure RTI. During run time, the framework provides the necessary communication, information exchange, and data-sharing protocols through the RTI to ensure an HLA-valid simulation through synchronization, coordination, and consistency between the different federates.
+Any software interfacing with the RTI can be considered an HLA-compliant federate;
+these are not limited to simulation models.
+The conceptual architecture of COSYE is described in AbouRizk and Hague 2009.
+Objects and interactions in a model allow for improved collaboration, reusability, and interoperability in modeling.
+Where multiple simulationists are involved in modeling specific simulation components, the OMT and HLA services allow the simulation to be scaled down to manageable levels.
+This process also suggests a means of standardizing simulation, through which a group of developers can generate and reuse individual simulation components for greater efficiency e.g., producing a library of common construction processes, such as models for weather generation and equipment breakdown, etc..
+Also, the HLA also contains elements of distributed simulation and parallel computing, integrates different simulation algorithms within a federation e.g., continuous and discrete event, provides for man-machine interactions, and other advanced simulation features.
+The HLA approach is suited for complex applications such as the ones addressed in construction.
+The HLA standards facilitate the reuse of the developed components as part of the new federations.
+A research team led by the author has recently built the RTI, the required core simulation services, and a modeling toolkit specifically suited for construction applications.
+These elements were implemented in COSYE for use in building desired CSEs AbouRizk and Hague 2009.
+The COSYE environment is a software application that runs on the Microsoft.NET platform and supports the development of CSEs in MS Visual Studio.
+The framework provides tools to define and build the FOM and compile it into .NET assemblies.
+Through COSYE, developers can customize the abstract generic base federate to produce particular simulation behaviors and capture unique systems.
+COSYE offers features that separate it from the current state of the art in construction simulation including the following:
+Detailed and comprehensive modeling.
+While current simulations in construction succeed at the process modeling level, most do not represent a comprehensive model of a project and all its components.
+The COSYE framework offers a comprehensive representation, which includes an overall integrated representation of the product models of the facility being built;
+process models for various construction operations and their interactions with material, resources, and management processes;
+models for business and management processes;
+and models for external influencing factors and constraints.
+Support for collaborative development.
+Construction projects generally constitute large-scale simulations involving a multitude of processes, resources, and facility components.
+When one tries to develop a model using Simphony or similar software, the scale of the models grows quickly to the point where they are difficult to manage.
+Furthermore, collaborative development is often not possible as the modeling environments do not lend themselves to collaboration different simulationists developing different components and then piecing them together to obtain one large model of the entire project.
+To remedy this, the COSYE framework was built to offer the following:
+Distributed modular components models can be developed on different machines and yet join one simulation;
+Simulations with common foundations so that the models can integrate into one unified model to represent the overall project;
+Prebuilt, standard, and reusable models for repeating and common simulations to make the development process efficient.
+Seamless integration between various world views of simulation.
+Construction simulations have traditionally taken Monte Carlo simulation/discrete-event process interaction approaches, with new approaches emerging from the areas of artificial intelligence, system dynamics, and continuous models.
+Within the COSYE framework, the simulation algorithms are deployed at the federate level individual simulation component and thus can vary from component to component.
+The simulations are regulated through the RTI and thus there is no limit on what simulation algorithm is being used.
+Integration between various world views is, therefore, seamless and efficient.
+Support for efficient integration between simulation models and other software and tools.
+In order to support various phases of a project, a framework needs to enable hooks for many of the traditional tools available to a construction project, such as CPM schedules, estimates, and control systems from various vendors.
+The COSYE framework was designed with this in mind and therefore offers the flexibility needed for this to take place.
+Implementing CSEs for Construction Projects
+In order to examine the possibilities afforded by the HLA and the usefulness of COSYE as a tool for next generation simulations, a number of large-scale simulation projects are being completed by the author and his research team in partnership with the industry in Alberta.
+In particular, CSE environments for 1 tunneling;
+2 industrial piping fabrication and construction;
+and 3 a bidding game are being implemented to test the feasibility of this approach and what it offers.
+The tunneling CSE is discussed in this paper to demonstrate the framework.
+This section will briefly describe the tunneling federation from a user���s point of view.
+The intent is to give the reader a feel for the advantages that can be accrued from using an HLA-based simulation compared to the current state of the art simulation systems.
+A summary description from the developer’s point of view can be found in AbouRizk and Hague 2009.
+The tunneling federation COSYE model of tunnel construction is depicted in Fig. 7.
+The federation is composed of the individual federates simulation components, the RTI the overarching simulation engine of the HLA, and external components site data capture, for example.
+The conceptual view shown in Fig. 7 is meant to broadly describe the contents of the federation during simulation.
+Each of the federates shown in Fig. 7 runs as a separate simulation as a separate program in its own window or on a separate computer in a network setting and is independent of the other federates.
+The simulation is executed when all federates that are essential for the federation “join” the simulation and “execute” their own simulations.
+The overall simulation is regulated by the RTI where each of the individual simulations schedules their events, advances their local time, and progresses by permission of the RTI. The RTI is a server-based utility that can run on any of the machines that house one or more of the federate simulations or on its own server.
+The shaft federate simulates using a discrete-event algorithm the construction process of the working shaft, the exit shaft, and any intermediate shafts.
+The basic activities modeled are preparation and start-up activities;
+piling if required;
+excavation by drilling, by small excavators, or by hand;
+support and liners’ installation;
+construction of the tunnel undercut in the working shaft if required;
+any tail tunnel if required;
+and installation of train switches.
+Although the shaft simulation federate is written in discrete-event code using Simphony.net 3.5 compiled within the federation, the simulation follows the same models detailed in Zhou et al. 2008.
+The federate interface top left corner of Fig. 7 reflects only the input required from the user and displays the output during the simulation.
+The simulation code that drives the federation can be built using discrete-event models using Simphony.NET 3.5, a user created event scheduling algorithm or other simulation algorithms.
+In this federation the discrete-event models that drive the various federates used Simphony.NET 3.5 and were encoded within each of the federate forms using C# or VB in MS Visual Studio.
+Events simulated in tunnel federate and dirt removal federate
+The tunnel federate is designed to simulate the construction process at the tunnel face.
+It includes the tasks shown in Fig. 8, which also displays the dirt removal federate activities.
+The tunnel federate uses a discrete-event algorithm to schedule all its events although we have implemented fuzzy logic for determining the time required to excavate one section one stroke or the productivity of the TBM as per Shaheen et al. 2009.
+The tunneling federate shown in Fig. 6 shows the input required at the time when simulation commences as well as displays production statistics during simulation.
+A demonstration of the flexibility offered through COSYE and the HLA is to consider how breakdowns of the TBM can be modeled, for example.
+We can simply create a new federate with a simple user interface e.g., a button on the form with discrete-event code at its execution, which when invoked by the user can force a breakdown of the TBM. This user interference with the simulation progress is not necessarily trivial if approached within a traditional simulation system such as Simphony.
+But by virtue of the HLA structure, the simulationist actually does not need to interfere with the other federates and their simulation.
+She/he only needs to develop the new federate and interface with the TBM resource, which will be preempted when the user invokes a breakdown.
+Likewise we can simply extend this to other forms of modeling breakdowns.
+In this federation, for example, we use a stochastic model to generate the breakdown events based on historical data.
+The breakdown process can be separately created and then added to the simulation to simply interface with the TBM. The federation shown here uses a Bayesian updating scheme to improve the predictability of the breakdown.
+The developer of this federate discussed later does not need to concern themselves with the other models of the tunneling process.
+She/he only needs to work off the same object models specified for the federation and needs to know how to interface with it.
+The advantage of the COSYE framework in this case is the independence between the federates where one is using a manual driven interface with the simulation, while the other can use a statistically driven process.
+In fact, such federates are reusable in other federations thus offering advantages during deployment.
+The dirt removal federate models the process of hauling dirt from the tunnel face to the working shaft using a train and carts, transporting carts to the ground level using a crane or hoist, loading carts with material as needed liners, etc., and returning to the tunnel face.
+All manipulation requires navigating switches that are embedded in the discrete-event models, which describe this process.
+The approach used for the tunnel and dirt removal is similar to the one described in Al-Battaineh 2009.
+The supplier federate models the supply of liners from a precast concrete supplier.
+It receives orders for liners based on a schedule provided by the procurement federate, produces the liners, and delivers them to the site.
+There can be various suppliers they can be instantiated from the same supplier federate for other materials in the model.
+The one described here is limited to the liner supply.
+The procurement federate plays the same role of procurement office for the tunneling contractor.
+It tracks how many liners are in the inventory and determines when the deliveries of new liners are required generally at a given threshold.
+The federate places its orders to the supplier federate.
+It should be noted that the supplier and procurement federates were added to the simulation by a simulationist who wanted to study the supply chain associated with tunnel activities and was not involved in the tunnel federation development.
+The use of the HLA-based COSYE made the addition of these two federates fairly independent of the overall tunnel simulation, which reduces costs of modeling and enhances reliability since the other parts have already been validated, for example.
+The scenario setup federate allows the user to configure different tunnel construction scenarios.
+The idea is to provide an all-in-one interface for the user to input initial general information for the simulation he/she desires.
+The tunnel federation employs Bayesian techniques for estimating variables including predicting machine breakdowns and unhindered TBM penetration rates.
+The simulation methods in this federate use Bayesian updating techniques described in Chung et al. 2006.
+What is significant and unique about this federate is the fact that it takes advantage of the HLA and COSYE distributed frameworks since the updating methods depend on a prior distribution that would have been defined earlier in the planning process.
+When simulations are rerun during project execution, actual data become available, which can be used to enhance the base assumptions of the prior distributions.
+This federate receives actual observations from the site using the data capture federate and makes use of those observations to redefine the updated distributions, which in turn enhances predictions.
+The fact that the input from the site is in real time and can be blended within the simulation without additional effort is significant and unique and is afforded by this framework.
+As tunnel construction progresses, more and more data can be fed into the federation to enhance its predictions.
+This federate records data from the site into a database associated with the federation.
+The data are then used by the Bayesian updating federate to enhance its prediction.
+This federate has no simulation algorithm.
+It is updated daily during actual construction.
+The product model federate is developed to obtain product information from the CAD drawings.
+The purpose is to use 3D CAD drawings and semiautomatically extract the geometries as well as materials information for different construction scenarios during the planning stage and then use them as inputs for the simulation model.
+For this purpose, 3D models are tagged with required attributes so the federate can extract the required information.
+An illustration of this federate, which is active prior to the actual simulation, is given in Fig. 9.
+The visualization federate simply shows a 3D visualization of the progress of the tunnel construction in real time during the simulation.
+This federate was developed using 3D models of TBM, train, working shaft, and precast sections using Autodesk 3ds Max 2010 and then converted to .x files to be readable by the visualization software, which is a 3D gaming engine.
+The federate gets initial information from the scenario setup federate and real-time information from the shaft and tunnel federates.
+The updated information includes current chainage and state of the objects used in tunnel and shaft construction.
+Other Federates to Demonstrate Expandability of the Federation
+Some of the key features demonstrated through this federate include collaboration between various simulationists to produce a large-scale model.
+For this application, the federation was actually developed by three different students and staff.
+The add-on procurement federate was developed by a fourth student well after the initial federate commenced.
+Likewise, a visiting student from a different university recently added a federate to estimate greenhouse gas emissions for a construction process.
+He applied the federate to the tunnel federation with relative independence from the others.
+To date, the CSE developed for tunneling has proved to be our most complete realization of the COSYE environment for simulation modeling in construction.
+However, a number of other synthetic environments are also in advanced stages of development, including CSEs for bidding, industrial construction, and steel fabrication.
+Bidding games, as one of many simulation applications in construction, try to depict a real bidding process to help users examine different bidding strategies.
+The working model has shown the viability and flexibility of the concepts and demonstrated the advantages of synthetic environments when accessed by multiple users.
+To expand on our work in industrial processes, an industrial construction federation is being developed to consider issues of resource allocation.
+This CSE is composed of a number of federates including shop fabrication, module yard scheduling, and graphical federates, which have already been developed in the COSYE environment.
+This federation is also linked to the spool fabrication shop federate.
+In the fabrication CSE, the focus is on investigating ways for incorporating existing data residing in integrated databases for populating the CSE with progress information and then enabling 4D visualization of project progress.
+The author’s experience with applying simulation tools in the construction industry paints a different picture than the prevailing state of the art, which predominantly shows that although simulation systems have evolved since their inception in the 1970s, the documented successes have been mostly in the academic and research domains rather than in the industry.
+The most significant reason for the success is a long-term collaborative research and development program, which the author has led over the past 15 years.
+The collaboration gives the industry part ownership of the research program, the ensuing tools, and their applications.
+It also provides input to the research activity thus resulting in practical tools and solutions, which can be adopted.
+Furthermore, the author’s views are to view simulation as an opportunistic tool that should be introduced in opportune applications and situations rather than a universal tool for all construction management applications.
+This was demonstrated through the trend of using special purpose simulation systems where possible rather than providing general-purpose tools with applications.
+Once early adopters become comfortable with such tools, they normally progress to more sophisticated applications.
+The future direction of the author’s research program is to explore the use of HLA-based integrated large-scale models in construction.
+If CSE deployment proves successful, they can offer industry significant modeling capabilities, which could play a role in the industry’s further adoption of simulation tools.
+Early successes of this approach in industrial construction and in tunneling showed promise.
+However, it should be noted as well that the proposed approach is based on the HLA, which requires greater levels of effort and resolution in preparing a model of a real system and requires more detailed modeling components to drive a simulation compared to discrete-event simulation.
+This poses a challenge:
+While we require the HLA services to facilitate collaborative, modular, real-time input, and integrated simulation developments, we cannot ask for more details in describing models that are already large and complex.
+In other words, the HLA realities of detailed model instructions may offset the benefits of model decomposition and parallel computing, which were attractive in handling the large-scale complex construction models.
+Further research to alleviate these challenges and hindrances is, therefore, required and is spearheaded by the author and his collaborators.
+Acknowledgments
+The writer wishes to express his gratitude to the Natural Science and Engineering Research Council of Canada NSERC, and the construction industry collaborators that jointly funded his research activity over the past 15 years.
+The work reported in this paper is the product of many students, staff, and colleagues of the writer at the University of Alberta.

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+Construction Engineering—Reinvigorating the Discipline
+Gregory A. Howell1;
+Glenn Ballard2;
+and Iris Tommelein, A.M.ASCE3
+Construction engineering is all about production, and producing something useful is the very reason for projects to exist.
+How then to explain why construction engineering has progressively fallen out of focus in construction project management education and research?
+For an answer, the development of the discipline of construction management since the 1950s must be understood, a development that yielded a non-production-oriented approach to project management, one that provides the currently accepted operating system for managing the work in projects.
+This paper first traces the history of the development of the traditional operating system and related commercial terms and organizational practices.
+It argues that traditional practices rest on an assumption that careful development of a project schedule, managing the critical path, and maximizing productivity within each activity will optimize project delivery in terms of cost and duration.
+Subsequently, an alternative operating system, developed and proposed by the Lean Construction community, is described.
+In contrast to the traditional approach, lean defers detailed planning until closer to the point of action, involves those who are to do the work in designing the production system and planning how to do it, aims to maximize project performance (not the pieces), and exploits breakdowns as opportunities for learning.
+The history of this development will be traced in broad strokes.
+10.1061/(ASCE)CO.1943-7862.0000276. © 2011 American Society of Civil Engineers.
+CE Database subject headings:
+Project management;
+Construction materials;
+Construction methods.
+Author keywords:
+Construction operations;
+Project management;
+Construction engineering;
+Lean construction.
+Introduction
+Professor Henry Parker at Stanford University completed a report for the Bureau of Yards and Docks of the US Navy in 1965.
+His observation in the third paragraph of the introduction is clear and bold (Parker 1965).
+“This study includes the observation and recordings of hundreds of jobs.
+It has reinforced an earlier conclusion that, in general, contractor organizations are abdicating their responsibilities to run their work efficiently.
+Procedures for doing the job are, too often, being controlled by semiskilled supervisors, craftspeople, and laborers.
+Management guidance is lacking at the level where many dollars are actually being wasted.”
+Now 45 years later, little has changed in relation to the way work is structured—who does what, when, where, and how.
+The authors attribute this lack of development to a combination of factors:
+• Dominance of the activity centered operating system (ACOS) of current project management,
+• Increased reliance on specialty contractors (this may itself be a function of the ACOS), and
+• Increased technical, organizational, and regulatory complexity of projects (complexity means both more complicated because
+ExecutiveDirector,Lean Construction Institute (correspondingauthor).
+[email protected]
+Director, Project Production Systems Laboratory, Civil and Environmental Engineering Dept., Univ. of California—Berkeley, Berkeley, CA. E-mail:
+[email protected]
+Director, Project Production Systems Laboratory;
+and Professor, Environmental Engineering Dept., Univ. of California Berkeley, Berkeley, CA. E-mail:
+[email protected]
+Note. This manuscript was submitted on June 24, 2010;
+approved on August 18, 2010;
+published online on August 1, 2010.
+Discussion period open until March 1, 2012;
+separate discussions must be submitted for individual papers.
+This paper is part of the Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, Vol. 137, No. 10, October 1, 2011. ©ASCE, ISSN 0733-9364/2011/10-740–744/$25.00.
+of lots of pieces and complex in the sense that the causeand-effect relationships between components or dimensions of performance are not understood in key areas).
+The paper will review the development of ACOS, its relationship with organizational practices and commercial terms as they developed in the context of the times, and efforts to improve project performance.
+It is proposed that the development of a lean operating system creates new research and practice opportunities for the discipline of construction engineering.
+Domains of Project Delivery
+The development of traditional project management and how practices evolved can be understood and explained in terms of three domains:
+operating system, organization, and commercial terms.
+These are also listed in Table 1.
+How Did the Current Approach to Project Management Develop?
+The roots of current project management lead at least back to Karol Adamiecki (1866–1933), who developed a “Theory of Work Harmonization” and a tool for graphical analysis similar to those of Gantt, the “harmonogram” (Marsh 1975).
+Peter Morris traces the development of the critical path method (CPM) back to Adamiecki and forward to the development of project management applied today (Morris 1994).
+Morris details the role of military planning and the Second World War and how this led to the development of CPM. There are two commonly understood sources for its application in construction:
+program evaluation and review technique (PERT), the probabilistic approach used by the U.S. Navy for contract control, and the deterministic approach developed by E. I. DuPont de Nemours and Sperry-Rand Corporation.
+The U.S. Navy’s Bureau of Yard and Docks contracted with Stanford in the late 1950s to report on “The Application of Operations Research and Other Cost Reduction Techniques to Construction” (Fondahl 1961).
+John Fondahl joined the Stanford faculty with significant experience managing large civil engineering projects.
+He wrote, “To develop any sort of detailed schedule, a project must first be broken down into the operations necessary for its completion.” (The occasion of the shift in language from operations to the more current “activities” is hard to trace.
+It may have occurred later when the requirement for CPM was established in contracts.) When the report was published, far more work was managed and done by the forces of a general contractor (GC) than is today.
+Fondahl expected the GC would provide the duration for operations and information on the time/cost trade-off within each operation.
+He believed duration for operations were more-or-less predictable and could be reduced by adding resources and increasing cost.
+Optimizing the duration and cost by the allocation of resources within activities was the key to optimizing a project.
+This approach brought a sense of order and logic to project management and improved performance, but there were problems in practice.
+In 1974, Shlomo Peer observed, “It should be recognized that none of the present network methods includes in its algorithm any calculations or considerations for solving the practical organizational problems of the production process on the site.
+Consequently, as experience has shown, the resulting schedule is of very limited use for site management, and the plans are quickly put aside before the work is really underway.
+The following updating is then a permanent adjustment of the plan to the real situation of the progress on site.” (Peer 1974).
+Despite these problems, CPM became the “kernel” of the operating system and an industry standard foundation for planning, organizing, and contracting for projects.
+A speculation on context:
+CPM provided a superior way to organize the management of work.
+It fit the culture, the common understanding of management, and the nature of projects and technology of the time.
+CPM came into the industry in a time of great confidence in the power and effectiveness of authoritarian management.
+The Whiz Kids of Secretary McNamara’s Department of Defense and William Whyte’s book in 1956, “The Organization Man,” typify that time and perspective.
+Centralized command and control made sense to those who had served in the military and believed cause and effect were understood.
+In these circumstances, a coherent decomposition approach to project management evolved with simple sequential cause and effect, centralized planning, commandand-control organization, and communication.
+The activity centered operating system of project management fit well with the traditional two-contract approach—one for design, “what” was to be built, and another for “how” it was to be built— with the construction contractor.
+These two transactional contracts each foresaw a single outcome—a complete design and a complete project.
+Lump-sum contracts made it easy for government agencies and boards of directors to demonstrate that they were paying a market price and reduced the possibility of collusion and fraud.
+The CPM-based operating system coupled with lump-sum contracting foreachtrade extendedthat protection.
+Marketcompetitionbetween specialty contractors surely gave incentives for each to innovate withintheir organizationstoreducecost oftheir work.
+Although this competition may have reduced the contracted price, conditions on projects rarely reflected the simple sequential interaction between trades as shown on the project schedule.
+Whether the lower costs created by market competition actually produced projects at the least cost is difficult to prove, particularly in light of the extent of claims and litigation.
+Market competition focused attention on improving productivity within each trade but reduced if not ignored opportunities for gains at the project level made possible by changing the structure of work.
+Opportunities of this sort became apparent as the principles and practice of lean construction developed.
+This will be discussed subsequently in this paper.
+Over time, the difficulty of maintaining the single outcome established by a transactional contract increased.
+As Fondahl had feared, CPM became the most powerful tool to analyze the impact of changes and created a way for contractors general and specialty to recover from changes and deficiencies (Fondahl 1961).
+Sharp contractors could bid lower with confidence they could recover when the need to make changes was discovered.
+A case can be made that this led to a downward spiral as designers took less responsibility for their work (Duffy 2010).
+In any case, the ability of CPM to demonstrate the impact of delays created a new way for contractors to increase their profit on fixed price contracts.
+CPM analysis revealed the consequence of design issues previously resolved by contractors covering the cost included in their contingency or by the parties jointly solving the problem quickly instead of arguing over responsibility and impact.
+As time passed, the industry and projects became more fragmented with less work managed directly by the GC. One report shows that the building general contractors’ share of the workforce has declined by about a third since 1967, from 35 to 24% in 1997, and about a third of those are project staff, not construction workers.
+By contrast, the share of labor employed by specialty trade contractors has risen from 48% in 1967 to 63% in 1997.
+It seems reasonable to believe that GCs learned to contract out portions of the work where they either lacked essential capability or lost money doing that work.
+It is also likely that the rapid development of technical specialization contributed to this fragmentation.
+“Construction management” (CM) became a distinct discipline from construction engineering with its own academic standing and industry associations during the 1970s and 1980s.
+The American Institute of Contractors (AIC) and the American Council for Construction Education (ACCE) were established in 1971.
+The program accredited by ACCE was at the University of Florida in 1975 (for a timeline of this history, see  .edu/dcp_prospective/history.shtml).
+The Construction Management Association of America (CMAA) was established in 1984.
+The design of project-based production systems and the structure of work are not addressed in CM beyond specifying trades.
+CM is taught in these programs and understood more broadly in the industry as the management of contracts organized by CPM.
+Work is managed on projects under this approach from the top down by establishing a schedule and enforcing the contract.
+Projects are understood as networks of activities where each contractor manages their work to maximize their interest, and the GC and/or construction manager serves as a more-or-less biased referee.
+Commercial contracts typically include clauses that give the GC the authority to direct when and where the specialty contractors shall do their work.
+Means and methods necessary were left to the specialty contractor, as Professor Parker noted.
+The situation created by this approach was summarized by Robert Fluor in 1983:
+“The bottom line of this adversarial dance is a constant state of confrontation” (Business Roundtable 1983).
+JOURNAL OF CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT © ASCE / OCTOBER 2011 / 741
+Command-and-control organizations were the logical outgrowth of the ACOS and commercial terms.
+Authority and communication protocols are clearly established to maintain the authority of the GC and focused on vertical communication.
+Likewise, quality and safety are managed by inspection and enforcement.
+These protocols were designed to organize the work, make certain that the source, nature, resolution, and impact of changes could be clearly documented, and to solve the problem at hand within the specific trade.
+It was usually difficult and often impossible to establish the cost and schedule impact of changes before work commenced.
+The GC, under the pressure of time, often directed the work to be done before agreement on impact was reached.
+Profit and loss, overruns, and project delays were risks faced by all parties.
+Cooperative solutions that might benefit the project team as a whole or increase value delivered to the client were difficult if not rare, as the management approach and communication protocols kept parties in their silos.
+Perhaps worse in the longer run, learning in projects, particularly at the management level, became more about how to win the game created by the rules than about how to manage or improve the way work was done.
+There is little wonder that reports by organizations such as the CMAA regularly reported projects run over budget 40–50% of the time. (Thomsen 2010)
+The authors know of no effort to measure the performance of the traditional approach to project planning or management.
+There is no shortage of data showing that projects cost more than expected and are frequently delivered late, with significant defects, all at a terrible cost to life and limb.
+Although there is significant data on the performance of projects, no reports were found that assess the performance of the current approach to managing them, perhaps because it has become “common sense.” Learning at the system level and process improvement at the workface is mostly missing.
+Attempts to Improve Traditional Practice
+The traditional operating system coupled with transactional contracts and the resulting command-and-control organizations created an approach that fit the culture, the times, and the technology of the late twentieth century.
+Problems encountered on traditionally managed projects were often blamed on individuals or contractors for failing to do their job because of lack of skill or motivation.
+Two attempts to improve project performance at the project level can be mapped on the matrix in Table 1:
+partnering and design/ build contracting.
+Both tried to shift the focus from narrow local optimization to maximizing project-level performance.
+Partnering in the United States was an organizational approach built on the premise that working collaboratively would benefit all.
+Partnering meetings were usually opened with a statement that commercial terms were not be changed.
+Partnering meetings were organized, usually with a neutral facilitator, to help the project team get know one another, to better understand concerns, and to establish decision-making and escalation protocols.
+The client often explained important aspects of the project beyond those contained in the contract.
+Project strategy and difficult issues were often discussed and resolved.
+The process maintained the contractually required communication protocols but opened other less formal channels.
+This produced solid results in many cases, but cynicism developed when follow-through was weak or response to issues was limited by the ability to move funds to resolve issues.
+People began to refer to the meetings as Kum-ba-yah sessions.
+Looking back, it appears that partnering was a partial solution that changed neither commercial terms nor the operating system.
+Design/build is a successful contracting approach that eliminated separate design and construction contracts.
+It rests on the reasonable belief that projects will be easier to manage and more effective if the owner has a single point of contact with an organization responsible for both what and how.
+The Design Build Institute of America (DBIA) now claims that 40% of nonresidential projects in the United States are delivered under this form of contract and 10% under “Construction Manager at Risk” (DBIA 2010).
+Advocates of design/build contracting and partnering can point to solid success, but neither approach changed the basic operating system of project management.
+Neither partnering, design build contracting, project management, nor construction management provide a mechanism to structure work beyond allocating by discipline or craft or to manage work itself.
+Rather, all rely on the critical path schedule to establish when work will take place and on enforcing the terms of the commercial contract to direct its execution.
+Traditional activity-centered management coupled with commandand-control organizations and transactional contracts now form a coherent approach supported by industry, trade and academic education, industry associations, and law.
+This approach forms the current common sense, a widely held understanding in the community.
+Work itself is managed by enforcing contracts with details of logistics left to purchasing and field production to craft level supervision.
+Although some civil engineering projects managed in this way do apply some principles and practices of production management, many do not.
+Building projects, offices, hotels, power and process plants, refineries, and the like are not designed and managed as production systems.
+Engaging in these projects is the opportunity for construction engineering.
+But which set of production principles should applied?
+The authors believe the choice is clear.
+Mass production with large batches may be useful for standard components, although even there, manufacturers are going lean to reduce cost and speed delivery.
+Principles and practices that fall under the lean umbrella have proven effect on projects once workflow can be made predictable.
+Given the unique one-off nature of some projects, the best approach must reduce uncertainty both in terms of what is to be built and how it is to be built to produce reliable and speedy workflow.
+Lean Construction:
+Seeing Something New
+Interest in applying lean approaches occurred in a number of construction organizations in the late 1980s and early 1990s.
+Glenn Ballard’s discovery of the extent and cause of unpredictable workflow in the 1980s and early 1990s (Ballard 1981, 1994) was a key turning point, as it revealed something experienced yet invisible on every project.
+Managing projects on a lean basis across the three domains of project delivery followed as practitioners came to grips with the opportunity created by changing planning practice.
+Domains of Project Delivery
+Commercial terms
+Traditional project management
+centered—CPM based
+Table 2 compares lean project delivery with traditional project management.
+Managers working in traditional and lean approaches agree on the project-level objectives of delivering value and minimizing waste.
+However, they have very different definitions and take different actions, because they see different sorts of waste and value.
+Those in traditional practice are unlikely to interpret contingency as waste or understand the concept of value and its creation from a lean perspective, that is, what the customer says it is.
+Less obvious,
+Domains of Project Delivery
+Commercial terms
+centered—CPM based
+and control
+Lean project delivery
+Flow—lean based
+but far more important, is the difference in the underlying strategy for achieving optimal project performance.
+Although optimal results are achieved in traditional practice by improving productivity within each activity and reducing activity duration, managers and subcontractors are caught in the dilemma.
+As Fondahl identified, reducing activity duration requires spending more for additional resources and people who may not work as efficiently.
+Lean construction’s strategy, framed succinctly in the Sutter Health initiative, is to optimize the project and not the piece.
+Reliable flow of work is understood as the necessary prerequisite that makes possible the design and management of the work itself as a production system.
+Improving workflow predictability makes it possible to reduce both duration and cost. (Howell et al. 2001)
+Lean Operating System
+Lean production requires predictable workflow.
+The kernel of the lean operating system is a planning system that produces predictable workflow.
+One such system, the Last Planner System (LPS) of production control was invented by Glenn Ballard and is the registered trademark of the Lean Construction Institute (LCI). (Information on the principles, practices and implementation of the LPS is freely available without restriction on the LCI website,  .leanconstrucition.org.
+The trademark was established to assure that those selling the service of implementing LPS were capable and approved by LCI. Any person or organization may implement this system without restriction;
+no organization or person may sell the service to train others without the permission of LCI. This action was taken to prevent organizations from presenting current practice planning practice as LPS.) The system is now widely used on projects ranging from social housing in remote areas of Africa to complex, uncertain, and quick projects, such as hospitals in the United States.
+The word “lean” brings with it images of manufacturing and the instinctive response that projects are different.
+There are obvious differences.
+The most important difference from a production management perspective is the mechanism that causes work to move from one specialist to the next.
+In manufacturing, work moves because of the way the line is designed.
+One person puts on the fender and the next, the headlight, as work moves down the line.
+There is no such line in projects.
+Work in projects moves from one specialist to the next because of the administrative act of making an assignment.
+A project cannot be under control, that is, produce predictable results, if the assignment system is not able to produce predictable workflow.
+With this key difference in hand, it becomes possible to design the project delivery system on the basis of the theories and fundamental practices of production management.
+This is a well-established discipline and includes the now dominant set of principles and tools applied as lean manufacturing.
+For the purposes of this paper, lean is neither the issue nor a magic cure.
+Rather, lean construction has revealed the opportunities open to construction engineering offered by shifting from an ACOS to a production-management-based operating system.
+Engineering practice in every discipline rests on scientifically tested theories that provide the foundations for practice and learning.
+No such principles or practices underpin the traditional approach project management (Koskela and Howell 2002).
+The Lean Construction Institute has endeavored from the first to establish such theories.
+Essential foundations include those from queuing theory that explain the combined effect of dependence and variation on system performance (Howell et al. 2001), Little’s Law and Goldratt’s Theory of Constraints in production system design (Hopp and Spearman 2001), the language action perspective (Flores 1982) in human coordination and organization, and relational contracting for commercial contracting (Macneil 1974).
+The lean construction community has begun to explore the possibilities and consequences of applying these concepts to production system design on projects.
+The results of applying new principles and practices are significant.
+Although raw results rarely persuade without significant context and careful explanation connecting results to principles and practices, cost and duration are often reduced more than 10%, overruns are extremely rare, accidents and injuries reduced by half, quality is improved with the time from occupancy to operation reduced, and no significant litigation has been reported.
+Adopting a new operating system for project management calls for a different kind of organization and is easier to implement and improve under an integrated form of agreement (IFOA).
+Improving performance of production systems is limited by the ability of the organization to move money across boundaries and to make investments here and now for savings there and then over the life of the projects.
+Many of these cross-trade-boundary opportunities can be discovered when work is structured early in design by cross-functional teams using computer-driven building information modeling (BIM) and virtual building.
+These teams are better able to structure workflow to be both predictable and fast.
+Additional opportunities for improvements will appear throughout the construction process.
+Taking advantage of them is possible when management’s view of project control balances controlling costs with investing wisely.
+It is little wonder, then, that a planning system designed to produce predictable workflow and rapid learning “crashes” frequently when installed in traditionally managed construction organizations.
+Key features and functions are compromised because the imperatives of existing planning and control systems focus on optimizing local productivity over predictable workflow.
+Likewise, centralized planning and control systems provide no transparent mechanism to assure work is ready when required.
+These differences reveal the consequences of choosing traditional planning practice over thosethatproducepredictableworkflow.Forexample,extendingthe make-ready period from two to six weeks will typically reduce the material stored on-site and reduce the risk of injuries attributable to double handling.
+Subordinating measurement of planning system performance to more traditional productivity measures will reduce the reliability of workflow.
+The earned value method can lead to a focus on local productivity and doing work out of sequence.
+This both reduces workflow predictability and creates a false impression of project status.
+JOURNAL OF CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT © ASCE / OCTOBER 2011 / 743
+However, improving the predictability of workflow on traditionally managed projects does improve performance, even as greater opportunities are lost.
+In the ACOS model, work is structured as Professor Parker said 45 years ago, by traditions of craft and contract.
+Opportunities for off-site or modular construction are mostly lost because traditional practice relies on central control “push” to time the arrival of materials and resources to match project readiness for installation. (There are two ways to advance the necessary wherewithal to site.
+Push advances it on the basis of a schedule.
+Pull advances materials and resources when the site is ready to use it.
+Pull can be understood as a request timed to assure that what is needed arrives at the right time.
+But how can one deliver things just in time if “what time it is” is unknown?
+) For a better understanding of the function and consequences of shifting from push to pull, see the study by Tommelein (1998).
+Commercial Terms
+Transactional contracts applied in traditional practice establish the rules and procedures for managing the project and allocating risk.
+The duration of the project is established with an agreed CPM schedule and cost is allocated to each activity at the project level with subcontracts or budget allocations to activities.
+The contract establishes which party bears the risk of overrun or reward for improved performance.
+Project controls in traditional practice are designed to assure the established cost is not exceeded and the party responsible for the overrun pays that bill.
+The estimating and bidding processes are assumed to allocate money in ways that maximize project performance.
+In a sense, bidding validates the project budget.
+Unexpected low prices at bid can be as disappointing as high prices.
+Low prices may mean the client cannot easily take advantage of available funds to increase the value received from the project.
+High prices may require the client to scale back the project, engineer out key features, shift money from other initiatives, or give up altogether.
+The allocation of money to activities under an IFOA is less rigid.
+Costs are paid and profits shared on a preestablished basis.
+Risks and rewards are shared by agreement among parties, the latter often from an incentive pool.
+This arrangement keeps people’s attention on the effective application of money.
+The motivational aspect of the incentive pool is likely less important than the ability to increase its size by moving money across boundaries to achieve better total performance.
+Risk itself is understood differently from traditional practice on projects managed on a lean basis.
+In traditional practice, risk is assumed to arise more from the outside the project or from mistakes people make.
+This approach misses the opportunity to reduce risk by planning that improves the predictability of workflow, collaborative design that reduces uncertainty, an organization where everyone stands to lose from any failure and to gain by careful investment, and where everyone is watching for mistakes and errors.
+Management on lean projects better conforms to Fernando Flores’ definition of management, “The design and activation of a network of commitments” (Flores 1982) than to the traditional project management’s ACOS command-and-control model driven by the CPM. Perhaps the biggest shift required in practice arises from this shift in the way management is understood.
+Crew-level assignments become more reliable when they are in response to a request—a “pull” signal—and result in a promise to the following crew.
+Under this approach, it is the responsibility of the supervisors to reject unsound assignments, to say “no” if they are not confident they can deliver on the request.
+Acknowledging the autonomy of the supervisor in this way contradicts the command-and-control nature of traditional project organizations.
+Call to Action
+Designing production systems for projects is at the leading edge of production management.
+Construction engineering can lead this development, extend its research agenda, and develop practitioners with capabilities long missing in the industry.
+The research agenda could begin with descriptive studies informed by distinctions from production system design (Hopp and Spearman 2001) and LCI. For example, how does planning actually work now, and what are the consequences and costs incurred by its inadequacy?
+Hollnagel’s efficiency-thoroughness trade-off (ETTO) principle offers a rich opportunity to understand how engineers make the decisions they do in the face of uncertainty (Hollnagel 2009).
+Likewise, the Last Planner System developed at LCI provides an example of new ways to manage planning and measure its effectiveness;
+e.g., how well is the project team and its network of suppliers making ready what should be done so it can be done?
+For instruction, the authors suggest faculty begin to balance emphasis on CPM scheduling and related project management issues with course work and field assignments that help students understand principles of production system design and management.
+Course work and research in safety can be enriched by Dekker’s focus on system design (Dekker 2005) and Weick’s on high reliability organizations (Weick 2007).

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+Workplace Stress Experienced by Construction
+Professionals in South Africa
+Occupational stress affects the health and wellbeing of people who work.
+Using an online survey, opinions were sought from architects, civil engineers, quantity surveyors, and project and construction managers in South Africa.
+The contribution of this work lies in its examination of the work stress experienced by construction professionals in a developing country characterized by economic hardship and social problems, such as inequality and crime.
+Most respondents experience high levels of stress at work.
+Architects, more than engineers, quantity surveyors, and project and construction managers;
+and female, more than male professionals feel stressed.
+The extent to which professionals are able to control their job situations does not appear to have a major influence on stress.
+Tight deadlines and long working hours probably play a bigger role.
+All the professions would appreciate having more time to do a better job.
+Survey respondents do not expect managers and colleagues to consistently make their work easier, but do believe that they can be relied on in times of difficulty.
+Appropriate stress management should be implemented within the construction industry, and further research undertaken to explore the relationships between stress and type of work undertaken, and the effectiveness of stress management procedures.
+10.1061/(ASCE)CO.19437862.0000625. © 2013 American Society of Civil Engineers.
+CE Database subject headings:
+Occupational health;
+Personnel management;
+Construction industry;
+South Africa.
+Author keywords:
+Occupational stress;
+Job demands;
+Job control;
+Professionals;
+Construction industry;
+South Africa.
+Introduction
+Construction is a high-risk industry for work-related stress (Lingard and Francis 2004;
+Pocock et al. 2007;
+Love et al. 2010).
+Construction professionals are responsible for the delivery of safe projects, on time and within budget.
+Project work is characterized by considerable dynamism and uncertainty, elevating its stressful nature (Asquin et al. 2010;
+Mohr and Wolfram 2010).
+Work hours in construction are long (Van Wanrooy and Wilson 2006) and the ability to meet project objectives is sometimes compromised by unexpected events (Lingard et al. 2010).
+The construction industry has also traditionally been characterized by interpersonal and interrole conflict and known work stressors (Loosemore and Galea 2008;
+Leung et al. 2007).
+Work-related stress is a major challenge to the health of working people [Health and Safety Executive (HSE) 2006].
+Houtman (2005) reports that, in the 2000 European Working Conditions Survey (EWCS), work-related stress was the second most common work-related health problem across 15 European Union countries.
+The European Working Conditions Survey indicates that work
+Professor, Dept. of Construction Economics and Management, Univ.
+of Cape Town, Private Bag, Rondebosch 7701, Cape Town, South Africa (corresponding author).
+[email protected]
+Associate Professor, School of Property, Project and Construction Management, RMIT Univ., GPO Box 2476, Melbourne, Victoria 3001,
+Professor, School of Property, Project and Construction Management, RMIT Univ., GPO Box 2476, Melbourne, Victoria 3001, Australia.
+[email protected]
+Note. This manuscript was submitted on November 9, 2011;
+approved on June 11, 2012;
+published online on July 25, 2012.
+Discussion period open until September 1, 2013;
+separate discussions must be submitted for individual papers.
+This paper is part of the Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, Vol. 139, No. 4, April 1, 2013. © ASCE, ISSN 0733-9364/2013/4-393-403/$25.00.
+intensity and quantitative demands in Europe have increased, particularly up to the mid-1990s and in the period 1996–2001, and that job autonomy has decreased (Gallie 2005).
+However, Houtman (2005) explains that patterns and trends differ between countries and labor markets.
+The increasing significance of work stress was recognized in the European Commission’s Strategy on Health and Safety at Work 2002–2006, which identified psychosocial issues as an emerging occupational health and safety priority risk area (Commission of European Communities 2002).
+The paper reports the findings of an investigation into the nature and extent of workplace stress experienced by professionals working in the construction industry in South Africa.
+The research aimed to compare and contrast the work stress experiences of occupants of different professional roles within the South African construction industry.
+Previous studies of work stress in construction have focused on the experiences of a single professional group and have largely been undertaken in more industrialized countries.
+The research presented in this paper thus addresses the work stress experienced in a developing country characterized by economic hardship and social problems, such as inequality and crime.
+The paper commences with a contextualizing background and a review of occupational stress, followed by a description of the survey design and administration.
+The comparative findings of the survey response data are presented and discussed.
+South African Context
+The apartheid legacy in South Africa provides a unique context to examine workplace stress among construction professionals, particularly gender- and race-based differences.
+Under pre-1994 apartheid legislation, people were racially classified as “white,” “black,” “coloured,” or “Asian.” The term “coloured” was used to describe South Africans of mixed race descent.
+The “Asian” classification included Indians (a large minority grouping in South Africa).
+For the purposes of enforcing apartheid, people were generally categorized as either “white” or “non-white.” “Non-white” was a term used for several groups of people who were formerly disadvantaged because of their ethnicity;
+it has been solely used in that capacity in this research because the distinct subgroups of respondents were mostly too small for reliable statistical analysis.
+Postapartheid South Africa saw the introduction of “positive discrimination” or affirmative action [Republic of South Africa (RSA) 1996] as a vehicle to assist previously disadvantaged individuals (PDIs:
+“nonwhites” and women).
+Black Economic Empowerment (BEE) and affirmative procurement policies are examples of mechanisms used to facilitate change.
+Within the context of the construction industry, affirmative action has, for example, taken the form of preferential procurement in the award of building contracts and the appointment of professional consultants.
+The latter point has relevance in this paper because anecdotal evidence suggests that some professional practices accelerate the advancement of PDI staff (“window dressing” or “fronting”) in order to gain an advantage in the award of public sector commissions, in terms of which the number of PDIs in the practice in general, and in managerial positions in particular, are important considerations.
+While official BEE procurement policies have only been enforceable for public sector projects, to some extent they have flowed on naturally into private sector construction work.
+The BEE, PDI, and HDI policies of the current government in South Africa do not target specific racial groups but are aimed at females and all groups other than “white.”
+South Africa, as a developing country with a unique history, presents a particularly interesting case with respect to understanding equality of opportunity in the industry.
+This is important because discrimination is a known risk factor for work-related stress (Dollard et al. 2007;
+De Haas et al. 2009;
+King 2005).
+Women, along with “black” people, have been deemed to be “historically disadvantaged individuals” (HDIs) for the purposes of affirmative action policies [see RSA (2000b), Department of Public Works (DPW) (2001), and Department of Transport and Public Works (DTPW) (2002)].
+While official statistics indicate that professional women account for 50% of economically active professionals in the economy (Department of Labour 2005), the percentages of professional women in construction are far lower.
+Statistics obtained from the registrars of South African built environment professions’ councils indicate that women represent only 20% of the architecture profession, 12% of quantity surveyors, 2% of civil engineers, 3% of construction project managers, and 0.6% of construction managers.
+Of particular relevance in the South African context are the ways in which discrimination rooted in gender and racial stereotypes intersect to create an even more stressful environment for professionals working in the sector.
+In South Africa, only people registered with their respective statutory councils are permitted to practice.
+For example, only an engineer registered with the Engineering Council of South Africa (ECSA), a statutory body in terms of the Engineering Profession Act (No. 46 of 2000) (RSA 2000a) and regulations promulgated in terms of the act, is permitted to use the term “professional engineer,” adopt the letters “Pr.Eng,” and perform work reserved for professional engineers.
+The requirements for engineering registration generally require candidates to hold a 4-year degree in engineering from an accredited institution, 3 year’s postgraduation practical experience (“articles”) under the mentorship of a professional engineer, and successful completion of an assessment of professional competence (APC).
+Other construction professions have similar requirements.
+Within the context of postapartheid South Africa and the aspirations of HDIs, it is not uncommon to hear the construction professions accused of elitism, exclusivity, and a reluctance to redress the legacy of apartheid.
+The need to maintain professional standards is the most powerful counterargument to these criticisms, but the professions (and the tertiary institutions that service them) are sensitive to exploring how the rate of entry by HDIs can be improved.
+The research extends the work of previous research by examining construction professionals’ experiences of stress in the unique context of postapartheid South Africa.
+In particular, the research examines the applicability of commonly utilized theories of stress (notably the job demands control and job demands control-support theories) in explaining work stress in the South African construction context.
+Workplace Stress
+It is suggested that the relationship between work and health can be explained by the combination of demands and control inherent in a job (Karasek 1979).
+Job demands are quantifiable features of work, including time pressures and workload, while control is defined by Karasek (1979, p. 290) as ‘‘the extent to which employees have the potential to control their tasks and conduct throughout the working day.’’ According to the job demand–control (JDC) model of workplace stress, work that is simultaneously high in demands and low in control produces the most stressful responses and is most damaging to health (Belkic et al. 2004;
+De Lange et al. 2004).
+There is considerable empirical support for the JDC model.
+In a large heterogeneous sample of Belgian workers, Schreurs et al. (2010) found that job control buffered the harmful effects of job insecurity, a widely reported work-related stressor.
+Van der Hulst et al. (2006) considered the need to work overtime as a job demand stressor.
+In a sample of Dutch workers, they report that when workers have little control over their work and also need to work frequent overtime, they suffer from higher levels of work stress and have a stronger need for rest and recovery away from work.
+The JDC model of work stress has also proved reliable in predicting workers’ psychological well-being, job-related well-being, and burnout (Hausser et al. 2010).
+Recent adaptations of Karasek’s (1979) JDC model of workplace stress have incorporated workplace support as a resource that, together with control, can mitigate the extent to which job demands induce harmful effects in workers (Schaufeli and Bakker 2004).
+Thus, Johnson et al. (1989) suggest that social support from one’s colleagues or supervisor serves to reduce the damaging impact of stressful work situations on workers’ health.
+Social support is defined as “instrumental aid, emotional concern, informational, and appraisal functions of others in the work domain that are intended to enhance the wellbeing of the recipient” (Michel et al. 2010, p. 92).
+According to the job demands–control–support (JDC-S) theory of workplace stress, jobs that are high in demands, low in control, and low in workplace social support are experienced as the most stressful and produce the most damaging health impacts.
+There is emerging evidence that the JDC-S model explains workers’ stress and health outcomes quite well.
+For example, Hausser et al. (2010) report that both social support and control contributed significantly to health and well-being outcomes in 60% of a total of 83 studies published between 1998 and 2007.
+Thus the JDC-S theory has received substantial support in empirical studies, but less than that for the JDC model.
+Organizational stressors can take the form of quantitative demands (e.g., time pressure or volume of work) or qualitative demands (e.g., cognitive or emotional role requirements).
+Work stressors may also be physical or environmental, for example, heavy, manual work in extreme temperatures, in awkward postures, or uncomfortable conditions.
+When employees perceive an imbalance between work demands and their personal or environmental resources, a range of stress responses can occur.
+These can include physiological, emotional, and behavioral responses that have a damaging impact on workers’ health, work performance, and relationships (Houtman 2005).
+Workplace Stress and the Construction Industry Professions
+The construction industry is a high-risk industry for work stress (Pocock et al. 2007).
+Sutherland and Davidson (1989) identify inadequacy of information flow, onerous paperwork, and excessive workload as the top three stressors among construction site managers.
+Leung et al. (2007) also report high levels of objective stress (i.e., stress associated with external demands such as deadlines, time constraints, and workload) in construction estimators, associated mainly with a perceived lack of autonomy and/or low levels of reward.
+In a study of Hong Kong construction industry employees, onerous bureaucracy, a lack of opportunity to learn new skills, and work–family conflict were ranked the three most difficult stressors to manage (Ng et al. 2005).
+Consistent with research conducted in other industries, the experience of work stress is associated with low levels of job performance in construction.
+For example, Djebarni (1996) reports a curvilinear relationship between stress and leadership performance among construction site managers.
+Djebarni’s model indicates that the performance of site managers is relatively poor under conditions of both very low and very high stress, and performance is at its highest when stress levels are moderate (i.e., Djebarni’s results suggest the stress–performance relationship resembles an inverted U-curve).
+In contrast to this model, Leung et al. (2008) provide no evidence for a curvilinear relationship between stress and performance.
+Indeed, they report that the task performance of construction project managers is inversely and linearly linked to stress.
+Leung et al. (2008) suggest that the stress levels of construction project managers in their sample may be higher than the threshold value at which the inverted U-curve effect would apply.
+Research has also linked work stress to the occurrence of workplace incidents and occupational injuries in the construction context [see, for example, Goldenhar et al. (2003) and Leung et al. (2010)].
+The link with occupational injuries suggests that many facets of work performance and effectiveness are impacted negatively by work stress.
+In Australia, Haynes and Love (2004) identified workload, long hours, and insufficient time with family as the three most significant stressors experienced by construction project managers.
+However, there is evidence that work stress is experienced to varying degrees depending on the nature of employment in the construction industry.
+Love et al. (2010) report that construction professionals working for construction contracting organizations experience higher levels of stress and lower levels of workplace support than construction professionals working for consulting organizations.
+Similarly, Lingard and Francis (2004) found that site-based construction professionals worked longer hours and experienced higher levels of burnout, a chronic outcome resulting from sustained exposure to stressful situations, than their counterparts working in the head or corporate offices of the same organizations.
+Some research suggests that female construction professionals experience higher levels of work stress than their male counterparts.
+In a comparative analysis of male and female architects, Sang et al. (2007) report that female architects experienced significantly higher levels of work–family conflict and reported lower levels of job satisfaction and higher turnover intention than their male counterparts.
+There is a growing recognition that work and nonwork environments interact in complex ways to shape the experiences of construction industry workers [see, for example, Leung et al. (2009)].
+In particular, social support both at work and in the family context can provide a protective buffer and help construction workers to better cope with stressful work conditions (Lingard and Francis 2006).
+Research Method and Questionnaire Design
+Questionnaire survey was chosen as a suitable method of collecting data for the initial stage of the research because it allows wide coverage of the relevant construction professions in South Africa and follows the approach used by earlier researchers.
+Surveys are probably the most convenient and effective way of obtaining a broad snapshot view of peoples’ perceptions and opinions regarding multiple issues pertaining to a particular topic (e.g., national opinion surveys).
+The inability to explore issues in great depth with questionnaires is conceded but, should the survey findings warrant it, more extensive case-based research is contemplated.
+Using an eight-part structure, the survey questionnaire sought demographic, cultural, and professional background information from respondents;
+determined current perceived levels of workplace stress;
+explored work situations in terms of job demands and job control;
+examined organizational stressors, such as job security, perceived support, and harassment and discrimination in the workplace;
+explored the effects of stress (psychological, physical, and on home life);
+and sought information on coping mechanisms, such as relaxation methods and substance use (or abuse).
+The catalogue of questions draws on the work of Sutherland and Davidson (1989), Haynes and Love (2004), Ng et al. (2005), Leung et al. (2007, 2008, 2009), and Love et al. (2010), and includes closed, dichotomous, declarative, rating, and multiple-choice questions.
+Five-point Likert scales [see Nunnally and Bernstein (1994)] are generally used for rating-type questions.
+Survey Instrument Administration
+The questionnaire survey was administered as an Internet webbased on-line instrument [see Fielding et al. (2008)] because this allowed easy and inexpensive coverage of four professional disciplines involved in the construction industry in South Africa.
+These professions comprise architects (Pr.Arch), civil engineers (Pr.Eng), quantity surveyors (Pr.QS), and project and construction managers (Pr.CPM and Pr.CM) whose members are registered with their relevant statutory councils.
+The governance and conduct of most professions in South Africa are regulated by statute, and registration is a requirement for professional practice.
+In addition, many professions have separate self-governing associations, with voluntary membership, which set codes of professional conduct and engage in promotional and professional development activities.
+Using a web-based distribution method encourages potential respondents to express their views in a simple and safe way, particularly when issues may be sensitive.
+Undertaking this through the auspices of respected statutory councils and professional institutions provides a valid way of targeting sample groups.
+Care is needed in generalizing the findings of such surveys because to a large extent the sample is self-selecting.
+A pilot (web-based) study was conducted with the cooperation of a branch office of a national firm of professional quantity surveyors to confirm the adequacy of the survey instrument and the feasibility of its administration.
+The full survey was launched in late September 2010 and remained accessible online until mid-November 2010.
+Registered professionals were emailed by their respective statutory bodies (assisted where necessary by the voluntary associations), provided with a URL where the questionnaire could be accessed online, and asked to participate.
+A total of 3,025 architects received the request to participate in the survey and 269 completed the questionnaire online (N¼3, 025;
+n¼269), yielding a response rate of 8.9%.
+Establishing the response rate of the civil engineers is problematic because Engineering Council of South Africa (ECSA) is unable to provide registration figures for the different engineer subgroups.
+The voluntary associations, namely, Consulting Engineers South Africa (CESA) and the South African Institute of Civil Engineers (SAICE), emailed their professional civil engineers (N¼1,842) and civil engineering practices (N¼457), respectively.
+The survey response of 168 civil engineers is therefore indicative but suitable for this stage of the research.
+It is estimated, however, that the response rate approximates 9.1% (N¼1,842;
+Disregarding notified email rejection messages (bounces), a response rate of 12.4% (n¼179) was achieved with respect to quantity surveyors (N¼1,449).
+Sixty project and construction managers participated out of a total of 3,359 (N¼3, 359;
+Disregarding email bounces, a response rate of 1.8% was achieved.
+In reality the latter response rate is likely to be higher because many professionals registered with the South African Council for the Project and Construction Management Professions (SACPCMP) are also likely to be practicing architects, engineers, and quantity surveyors.
+These response rates are not unusual for web-based surveys of this nature [see Fricker (2008)].
+Of the respondents to the survey, 29% of architects, 5% of engineers, 20% of quantity surveyors, and 0% of construction managers/project managers were female.
+In terms of sample bias with respect to gender, female architects, engineers, and quantity surveyors are slightly overrepresented compared with the registered population of professionals, while female project and construction managers are not represented at all.
+Cognizance needs to be taken of this bias in interpreting the results.
+With regard to the ethnicity of participants, 87% of respondents were “white” and 13% were “nonwhite.” Unfortunately, there are no published data indicating the ethnicity of construction professionals in South Africa so it is not possible to indicate whether these proportions are representative of the population.
+On the other hand, only the opinions of female construction/project managers are entirely missing, and the survey responses show broad correspondence with the demographics of the professions.
+Survey Respondent Profile
+The majority of the respondents are male (82%), “white” (87%), and older than 40 years (63%).
+Gender is significantly related to professional group (p < 0.001).
+Proportionately more females were found in the architectural profession compared with the other groups.
+The civil engineers and project and construction manager respondent groups reflect greater proportions of males than do their counterparts.
+Ethnicity and professional grouping are also significantly related, with proportionately more “non-white” (p¼0.011) and “black” (p¼0.050) respondents in the quantity surveying group.
+While nearly two-thirds of all respondents are at least 40 years old, 40% are older than 50 years.
+A significant relationship exists between responding professional group and age (p < 0.001), with proportionately more senior professionals (>40 years old) in the civil engineering (80%) and project and construction manager (71%) groups.
+Only 50% of respondent architects are 40 years and older.
+The biases of the sample in terms of gender, ethnicity, and age need to be to be acknowledged when drawing inferences from the data.
+Years of experience in the construction industry differ significantly (p < 0.001) between the four responding groups.
+More architects (37%) and quantity surveyors (25%) have less than 10 years of experience compared to engineers (9%) and project and construction managers (4%).
+Architect respondents have significantly less professional experience than respondents in all the other groups.
+The number of years respondents have spent with their present organization is also significantly different (p¼0.002) between the discipline groups.
+While a majority of all respondents have been with their present firm for 6 or more years, proportionately more architects (49%) have been in their current jobs for 5 or less years.
+Overall, the construction industry professionals who participated in the survey may generally be described as experienced practitioners in private practice, mostly “white,” male, Englishspeaking, and in a stable work environment.
+The response sample shows some bias toward the perspective of smaller firms for quantity surveyors and architects.
+These sample characteristics will be borne in mind in the following sections.
+The data have been analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS V18.0 for Mac) (SPSS 2010) software application.
+Unless otherwise stated, the percentages stated relate to the responses to individual questions.
+The same questionnaire was used for all four participating groups.
+Where appropriate, cross tabulation has been used to establish degrees of association between categorical variables, using the Pearson’s chi-square test (or the Fisher’s exact test where appropriate) at the 5% (p¼0.05) level of significance.
+Ethnic differences were analyzed by grouping the “non-white” categories (“black,” “Indian,” “coloured,” and “other”) together because of the smaller numbers of respondents in each of these four categories.
+Overall Levels of Workplace Stress
+Using a 10-point scale (1 = minimum stress;
+10 = maximum stress, with no defined intermediate scale intervals), survey respondents were asked to rate the level of stress that they perceive themselves to experience at work.
+The results are shown in Table 1.
+Significant differences exist between groups (p¼0.042).
+Architects appear to be the most highly stressed at work (64% reporting a stress level of 7 or above), followed by civil engineers, quantity surveyors, and project and construction managers.
+Fewer architects (18%) reported stress levels below 5 on the scale, compared with engineers (27%), quantity surveyors (29%), project and construction managers (35%), and the value for all groups (24%).
+Overall, more than half (55%) of all respondents report a stress level of 7 or above, and the mean stress level scale value reported (for all groups) exceeds 6.00, i.e., respondents perceive themselves as experiencing more stress than not.
+Stress level is not significantly related to ethnicity (p¼0.611), but is to gender (p¼0.001) and age (p < 0.001), with proportionately more women respondents than men reporting high levels of stress compared to their male counterparts, and younger respondents feeling more stressed than older colleagues.
+It can be inferred, therefore, that stress levels experienced by construction professionals in South Africa are relatively high, particularly for architects and among female and young professionals.
+Respondents were asked to rate the nature and effect of their workplace demands.
+Issues examined include working to tight
+Survey Respondents’ Self-Assessment of Workplace Stress
+Perceived levels of workplace stress
+Architects (n¼232)
+Pr.CPM and Pr.CM (n¼52) (%)
+Scale values:
+1 = minimum stress, 10 = maximum stress (no intermediate scale interval definitions).
+Pearson’s chi-square test p-value = 0.042 for between groups comparison.
+The values that are bold are statistically significant.
+deadlines, having to work long hours (at work and/or at home), inadequate time to balance work/family responsibilities, being kept busy and occupied, being given opportunities to improve one’s skills, and the need to work harder than others to prove oneself.
+The results are shown in Table 2.
+Significantly more project and construction managers report having to work to tight deadlines than respondents in the other professional groups (p¼0.014).
+When having to work long hours is considered, the differences between groups are also significant (p¼0.050), with proportionately more engineers working long hours.
+All groups report having to work long hours more often than not (in Table 2, mean group rating scores are all less than 2.5).
+These findings differ somewhat from the actual hours worked per week reported by the different groups (see Table 3).
+Proportionately more architects report working fewer hours per week that the other groups, followed by quantity surveyors, engineers, and project and construction managers.
+The differences between groups are significant (p < 0.001).
+For project and construction managers, 18% report working more than 60 hours per week.
+Overall, at least 18% of respondents in each professional group claim to work more than 55 hours per week.
+Survey Respondents’ Self-Assessment of Job Demands at Work
+Job demand factors
+mean rating valuePr.QS (n¼175)
+Pr.CPM and Pr.CM
+Work long hours
+Inadequate time to balance work/family responsibilities
+Kept busy and occupied
+Opportunities to improve skills Need to work harder than others to prove yourself
+Pearson chi-square test.
+The values that are bold are statistically significant.n¼655;
+Scale values:
+1 = most of the time, 2 = frequently, 3 = sometimes, 4 = seldom, 5 = very seldom.
+The p-values are from the
+Survey Respondents’ Reported Hours Worked per Week
+Architects (n¼260)	E
+Pr.CPM and Pr.CM (n¼56) (%)
+Pearson’s chi-square test p-value < 0.001 for between groups comparison.
+The values that are bold are statistically significant.
+When hours worked are considered in terms of gender and age, a significant relationship exists with gender (p < 0.001), but not with age (p¼0.066).
+More specifically, proportionately more
+respondent males claim to work longer hours than do the females.
+The factor cross tabulation is not shown in this paper.
+Lingard and Francis (2009), against a background of the changing nature of the workforce, changing family structures and dynamics, and the demands of organizations, emphasize the importance of work–life balance in the construction industry.
+In the current survey, the mean rating scores for all respondents (in Table 2, they are all less than 2.5) indicate that their inability to successfully balance work/family responsibilities occurs more often than not.
+Differences between professional groups are not significant (p¼0.205), nor are differences in terms of gender (p¼0.221), but in terms of age proportionately more younger respondents (p¼0.005) express concern about work–family life balance.
+While the majority of survey respondents claim to be kept busy and occupied at work most of the time, significant differences emerge between the professional groups (p¼0.021).
+Fewer architects consider themselves to be invariably kept busy compared with quantity surveyors, project and construction managers, and engineers.
+Notwithstanding this finding, proportionately more architects than the other groups perceive a need (self-imposed) to work harder than other colleagues in the same firm in order to prove themselves.
+Differences between groups are significant for this factor (p¼0.001).
+When opportunities at work to improve skills are considered, the mean rating scores for this factor (in Table 2, they are all greater than 2.5) suggest that the frequency of opportunities for skills improvement is not entirely satisfactory.
+Differences between groups are not significant nor are differences for gender and age.
+Survey participants were asked to rate their perceived degree of control over workplace tasks, their pace of work, and their work environment.
+The results are depicted in Table 4.
+Project and construction managers consistently appear to be able to exercise the most job control.
+There are significant differences between the professional groups, with architect respondents reporting less control over workplace tasks (p¼0.019), pace of work (p¼0.040), and work environment (p¼0.005) compared with the other groups.
+However, all groups report having at least some control over these factors.
+In general, the workplace environment is the factor over which participants claim to enjoy the least amount of control.
+Gender and age are significantly related to control over what work is done (p < 0.001, in both instances), the pace of work (p¼0.032 for gender and p < 0.001 for age, respectively), and the work environment (p¼0.023 and p < 0.001, respectively).
+Male and older respondents enjoy more control over all these factors compared with their female and younger counterparts.
+The factor cross tabulation is not shown in this paper.
+Job Support
+Using six-point Likert scales (1 = most of the time, 2 = frequently, 3 = sometimes, 4 = seldom, 5 = very seldom, 6 = not applicable) survey participants were asked about the extent of support received from line managers and colleagues at work.
+The results are given in Table 5.
+The option of not applicable was included to cater for instances such as one-person practices or branch offices.
+The analysis excludes those responses.
+Of all respondents to this question, only 20% report that their line managers most of the time or frequently make an effort to make their lives easier at work.
+Differences between groups are not significant (p¼0.772).
+When support from line managers in difficult situations at work is considered, however, nearly half (44%) of all respondents believe that such support is forthcoming most of the time or frequently.
+Differences between groups are not significant.
+Survey Respondents’ Self-Assessment of Degree of Job Control at Work
+Pr.CPM and Pr.CM
+Type of work assigned
+Pace of work
+Survey Respondents’ Self-Assessment of the Frequency of Support Experienced at Work
+values are from th
+Types of support received at work
+(most of the
+(most of the
+time/frequently)
+(most of the
+time/frequently)
+Pr.CPM and Pr.CM
+(most of the
+time/frequently)
+All (most of the time/
+frequently)
+Effort by line manager to make work life easier (n¼408) Assistance by line manager in difficult situations (n¼427) Efforts by colleagues to make work life easier (n¼544) Assistance by colleagues in difficult situations (n 568)
+The p-values are from the Pearson chi-square test.
+The statistics exclude not applicable responses.
+Identical questions were posed to participants with respect to support emanating from colleagues.
+While generally perceived as making more of an effort in making their lives easier at work, the overall situation is perceived as being much the same.
+Only 29% of all respondents think that their colleagues make their lives
+easier most of the time or frequently, while 46% think that colleagues assist with difficult situations frequently or most of the time.
+Differences between groups are not significant for either factor.
+When these same four issues of support received at work from line managers and colleagues are considered in terms of gender, differences between groups are not significant.
+However, when gender differences within groups are considered, a significant relationship exists between male and female quantity surveyors and reliance on colleagues to help with difficult situations (p¼0.044), with more males (51%) than females (31%) claiming to be able to rely on their colleagues for assistance.
+None of the other relationships within groups (in terms of gender) are significant.
+Similarly, when support at work from line managers and colleagues is considered in terms of ethnicity (see Table 6), differences between groups are not significant.
+However, within groups, proportionately more “white” (50%) quantity surveyors (p¼0.003) than their “non-white” counterparts (30%) report receiving support from line managers frequently or most of the time in difficult situations (p¼0.003).
+No other significant differences were found within responding groups.
+The factor cross tabulation (for gender and ethnicity) is not shown in this paper.
+Job Certainty and Opportunities
+Survey respondents reported their perceptions of job security, the existence of promotion opportunities within the industry, and alternative job opportunities.
+The results are given in Table 7.
+Mean rating scores (in Table 7, they are greater than 2.5) for all factors and all groups (except engineers and project and construction managers) indicate that the issues of job security and promotion and alternative employment opportunities are more negatively than positively perceived.
+Architect respondents are significantly more pessimistic than other groups about their existing job security (p < 0.001) and their ability to obtain another job reasonably quickly (p < 0.001).
+Gender is significantly related to feelings of job security (p¼0.003) and perceived ability to acquire a similar job without undue delay (p¼0.025).
+In both instances, proportionately more male respondents than females are optimistic.
+When age is considered, proportionately more younger respondents are optimistic regarding promotion possibilities (p¼0.047) and job security (p¼0.002).
+The factor cross tabulation is not shown in this paper.
+Survey participants were asked to comment on their work environment with respect to a variety of issues, namely, their freedom to speak freely and frankly about matters concerning them;
+whether the job possesses the requisite authority to match the responsibility;
+whether or not they argue frequently with line managers, colleagues, or clients;
+whether they feel that they could do a better job if more time was available;
+and whether or not they feel fairly compensated for the work done and hours devoted.
+The results are depicted in Table 8.
+Respondent architects are the least able (among the professional groups) to speak openly about matters of concern, followed by quantity surveyors and engineers.
+Project and construction managers are most able to do so.
+Differences between groups are significant (p¼0.008).
+Architect respondents, followed by the quantity surveyors, are the most inclined to claim that their work lacks the necessary authority to match the responsibility of the job.
+Proportionately fewer engineers and project and construction managers agree.
+Differences between groups are significant (p¼0.025).
+When arguments with line managers, clients, and colleagues are considered, only 16% to 19% of respondents among the groups agree that this occurs frequently.
+Significantly stronger agreement, that they could do a better job if given more time, is reported by the architect respondents (p¼0.001), but all groups report some measure of agreement
+Cross Tabulation of Types of Support at Work by Gender and Race
+Architects	Engineers	Pr.QS	Pr.CPM and Pr.CM	All
+Types of support at work
+Effort by line manager to make work life easier (n¼399;
+408) Assistance by line manager in difficult situations (n¼417;
+427) Efforts by colleagues to make work life easier (n¼530;
+542) Assistance by colleagues in difficult situations (n 556;
+The p-values are from the Pearson chi-square test.
+These statistics exclude not applicable responses.
+The values that are bold are statistically significant.
+Survey Respondents’ Self-Assessment of Their Agreement with the Existence of Job Certainty Issues
+Existence of job stability and prospects
+Pr.CPM and Pr.CM
+Job security
+Job promotion Ability to secure a similar level job reasonably quickly
+Scale values:
+1 = strongly agree, 2 = agree, 3 = neutral, 4 = disagree, 5 = strongly disagree.
+The p-values are from the Pearson chi-square test.
+The values that are bold are statistically significant.
+Survey Respondents’ Self-Assessment of Their Agreement with Work Environment Factors
+Work environment factors
+Architects mean rating value
+Pr.CPM and Pr.CM mean rating value
+Freedom to honestly say what I feel and get things off my chest (n¼658)
+Job lacks the requisite authority to match the responsibility (n¼662)
+Could do a much better job if there was more time (n¼653)
+Fairly compensated for the work I do and the hours I devote (n 654)
+Scale values:
+1 = strongly agree, 2 = agree, 3 = neutral, 4 = disagree, 5 = strongly disagree.
+The p-values are from the Pearson chi-square test.
+that are bold are statistically significant.
+(in Table 6, the mean rating scores for all groups is less than 3.0), with project and construction managers showing least agreement.
+With regard to fair remuneration in terms of work done, differences between groups are also significant (p < 0.001).
+In contrast to the other groups, architect respondents tend to disagree that they are fairly compensated for their work (in Table 6, the mean rating score for architects is greater than 3.0).
+Discussion of the survey findings proceeds with some consideration of the nature of professional work in the construction industry and how this might relate to stress.
+The focus then shifts to stressrelated issues such as job demands, job control, support at work, job opportunities, work–life balance, and the work environment.
+Where relevant, factors such as gender, age, and ethnicity are included.
+Nature of Professional Work in the Construction Industry
+Professional work in the construction industry is characterized by two features that are common to the professions of architecture, engineering, quantity surveying, and project and construction management.
+First, more often than not, the work involves multitasking on multiple projects.
+Few construction industry professionals enjoy the luxury of engaging in one task on one project only.
+In addition, high levels of task differentiation and interdependence are usually encountered, i.e., the multitasking involves a substantial number of different tasks (frequently across different projects).
+Many of those tasks have interrelated dependencies, thus rendering the professional work itself as complex as the projects on which it is performed (Williams 1999).
+Second, the work of professionals in the construction industry inevitably involves making professional judgments and decisions under conditions of uncertainty.
+The uncertainty may be associated with the search for solutions to problems relating to project design and construction and/or to the need to model or plan for situations and actions that may (or may not) occur in a future that is not known with certainty.
+Uncertainty is recognized as a substantial contributor to human stress (Miceli and Castelfranchi 2005).
+However, the research results suggest that the various professions within the construction industry have different experiences of work-related stress.
+For example, architects work fewer hours than other construction professions yet perceive that they have less control over their work than other professional groups and report higher levels of stress.
+It is possible to speculate about how environmental factors might impact the construction professions differently.
+For example, in terms of the critical parameters of every construction project, time, cost, quality, and safety, it can be argued that the professions will place different emphasis on each criterion and will be impacted by different uncertainties that arise in relation to project objectives, which sometimes conflict.
+Architects and engineers will largely be focused on project quality in terms of form, function, and integrity (e.g., structural), and are likely to place less emphasis on issues of time and cost.
+For designers, an infinite solution space may exist, which may be constrained by cost and schedule considerations.
+There will always be uncertainty as to whether or not the best solution has been chosen (or that a better alternative has been missed).
+Professional quantity surveyors are concerned with project cost (in terms of forecasting and financial administration) and uncertainty on this issue is similar to uncertainty associated with the macroeconomic systems of society.
+The overarching interest of project and construction managers is time in terms of planning and organizing construction activities in the face of technology and resource constraints.
+Considerable uncertainty may exist in terms of the estimation of task durations and/or the availability, acquisition, and use of multiple technologies and resources.
+Mutual exclusivity is not being argued here—each professional group will have overlapping interests in project time, cost, and quality—but each group will also tend to focus more on one parameter than another, and inevitably encounter uncertainties associated with professional decision making.
+The survey findings show that that high stress levels exist for professionals working in the South African construction industry (in Table 1, 55% of all respondents report levels greater than 7), confirming the Hong Kong findings of Leung et al. (2007).
+However, support is not found (in South Africa at least) for the contention of Love et al. (2010) that professionals in construction organizations (contractors) experience higher levels of stress than professionals working as consultants.
+In the current survey, architects (who are more likely to be working in consultancies) report significantly higher levels than other professional groups.
+The fact that architects reported higher levels of stress as well as indicating that they work fewer hours suggests that the relationship between time demands of work and the experience of stress may be complex and be moderated by other variables.
+The results suggest that it is not just the quantity of work but the quality of the work experience that determines perceived stress levels and there may be qualitative differences between professions.
+Architects reported significantly lower levels of job security than other professionals in the research.
+This is important because job insecurity has been shown to impact negatively on the job satisfaction of permanent workers, increase worker stress, and detrimentally affect work–life balance (Burke and Greenglass 2001;
+De Cuyper and de Witte 2007;
+Probst et al. 2007;
+Schreurs et al. 2010).
+The findings of this research are also consistent with previous research that has revealed that women working in the construction industry, and particularly those engaged as professional architects, experience higher levels of stress than males in similar employment [e.g., Goldenhar et al. (1998), Caven (2004), and Sang et al. (2007)].
+Similarly, previous research has reported higher levels of job stress and burnout among younger employees, which is consistent with the findings of the current research (Brewer and Shapard 2004;
+Soares et al. 2007).
+This warrants further investigation to examine the role played by family status, life stage, and the number of years of professional experience in determining stress levels and coping among construction professionals.
+Stress Factors
+The job demand/job control nexus with stress found in earlier research [e.g., Karasek (1979) and Houtman (2005)] is strongly supported.
+The higher stress levels reported by South African architects is matched by their significantly diminished control (compared with the other professional groups) over the type of work undertaken, the pace of that work, and the environment in which it is carried out (Table 4).
+The nexus strain is exacerbated for all professional groups by having to work long hours, meet tight deadlines, and by finding it difficult to balance work/family responsibilities successfully (Table 2).
+Of particular concern are the long working hours reported by project and construction managers (Table 3), with more than half of the respondents reporting working over 50 hours per week, and for nearly 20% of this group the reported hours exceed 60 per week.
+Fewer than 10% of all respondents report working a normal week of 40 hours or less.
+The long hours worked appear to be a particularly male condition, which would tend to aggravate work/family imbalances for male professionals.
+The long hours worked also match the general agreement among respondents that they could do a better job if given more time (Table 8), thus providing fertile grounds for job frustration.
+The high burnout rate associated with all these demand/control factors (Hausser et al. 2010) provides a clear warning signal to the construction professions that will be to their long-term detriment if it is ignored.
+However, the research findings do not fully support Sutherland and Davidson (1989), nor Leung et al. (2007), in their endorsement of excessive workload as a stress factor.
+Architect respondents in this survey report significantly higher levels of stress, but also report working fewer hours than other professional groups and having less frequent perceptions of being constantly busy.
+If anything, slight support is found for Djebarni’s (1996) curvilinear relationship between stress and performance, but the current research does not explore that specifically.
+It seems likely that the relationship is more subtle and complex than straightforwardly inverse.
+A future strand of the current research plans to use the survey response data set and multiple regression modeling to explore the relationships between the factors of the JDC and JDC-S models from a predictive perspective.
+Similar comments regarding the complexity of the job demand/ job control issue could be made with regard to internal and external factors, although neither the extant nor the current research has addressed these explicitly.
+For example, senior professionals (e.g., at partner level in a consultancy) may enjoy high intraorganizational control, but at the same time face high levels of job demand in terms of extraorganizational engagement (dealing with multiple clients, soliciting work, representing the organization) in which their level of control is far more limited.
+The high architect stress levels reported in the survey do not fully support onerous paperwork demand (Sutherland and Davidson 1989) and onerous bureaucracy (Ng et al. 2005) as inevitably critical stress factors because, of all the professional groups, architects are the least likely to encounter either condition on a frequent basis.
+That said, however, the legendary antipathy of architects to all forms of administrative paperwork and bureaucracy might be influencing their responses in the survey.
+The survey findings (Table 5) show that expectations of receiving support at work run along fairly predictable lines.
+Most respondents do not expect their line managers, supervisors, and colleagues to make constant efforts to make their work life easier.
+This suggests that a healthy acceptance of the need for selfmotivation exists among professionals in the South African construction industry.
+At the same time, under difficult circumstances, direct help from managers and colleagues is generally not found wanting.
+With regard to construction industry professionals’ ability to balance work/family life (Table 2), while no significant differences are found with respect to professional group, gender, or ethnicity, the finding that younger rather than older respondents report imbalances occurring more often is explained by the sample demographics.
+The younger respondents—generally less than 40 years old—are more likely to have small children, while older respondents are more likely to have mature families with adult children requiring less intensive attention.
+Nevertheless, the fact that respondents generally report negatively on their ability to maintain work/family life balances (to their satisfaction) should be a matter of concern for all the construction professions.
+A grumbling issue—rather than an acute stressor—might be the relative lack of opportunity to improve skills reported by all professional groups in the survey (Table 2).
+While clearly this is not felt to be an acute concern, it is the sort of frustration that could eventually become intolerable for professionals eager to advance their careers.
+Job security (Table 7) appears to be another grumbling issue for construction industry professionals in South Africa.
+No respondent group is overly optimistic about its chances of keeping a current job, achieving promotion, or quickly securing a new job.
+With the exception of architects, who are significantly more pessimistic about these concerns, survey respondents tend to hover on the negative side of neutrality over job security.
+It is perhaps more of a background uncertainty for most professionals, but felt more strongly by older workers and by female workers.
+The research addresses an important gap in work stress research in examining experiences across different construction disciplines, when most previous studies have focused on a particular group or discipline.
+The research also provides new knowledge in providing the first understanding of work stress among construction professionals in postapartheid South Africa.
+The majority of studies of work stress in construction have focused on workers’ experiences in industrialized countries of Western Europe, Australia, the United States, and East Asia. South Africa is substantially different to these countries.
+South Africa is characterized by poverty and economic hardship.
+Although the economy of South Africa is the largest in Africa, the unemployment rate is very high at over 25%, and the poor have limited access to economic opportunities and basic services [Organisztion for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) 2010].
+Social problems, including high rates of crime, have impacted investment and hindered economic development (C. Stone, Working Paper, Center for International Development, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts).
+While there are some unique features of South Africa, such as the legacy of apartheid, its social and economic problems are similar to those experienced in many developing countries.
+The findings of this study cannot be generalized to other countries;
+however, the findings indicate that explanatory models of work stress that apply to developing countries (such as the JDC model), have some applicability to workers in the developing world.
+While the findings from this survey take the research forward in many respects, explanations of the relative levels of stress experienced by different professions in the construction industry may require more profound forensic exploration of the questions of what architects, engineers, quantity surveyors, and project and construction managers actually do and how they go about doing it.
+Further qualitative research using a case-based approach [see Byrne (2009)] is intended to enhance the validity of the survey data by permitting triangulation (Mathison 1988).
+This research will follow the clue referred to at the start of this discussion and track the latent uncertainties associated with the decision making undertaken by each professional group.
+The survey and its findings perhaps raise more questions than they provide answers.
+Nevertheless, a clear starting point is provided for further investigation.
+The contribution of this work lies in its examination of the work stress experienced by construction professionals in a developing country characterized by economic hardship and social problems, such as inequality and crime.
+The stress levels experienced by construction industry professionals in South Africa are sufficiently high so as to cause concern, not only for the health of individual professionals but also for the continuing effectiveness of their contribution to the construction industry.
+The bodies responsible for guiding and promoting the work of the construction professions should take careful note of this and consider what measures of support are needed for their members.
+The negative ramifications of stress (including excessive use of alcohol, nicotine and other drugs, and increasing pressure on public and private health resources) have an inevitable ripple effect, spreading from individuals through families and extended families to communities and thus to society as a whole.
+The issues they represent are too important to ignore.
+More needs to be known about the nature of the work undertaken by each construction profession, which aspects are unique to each group and which are common, and what might make some tasks more stressful than others.
+Besides seeking more intraprofessional understanding, interprofessional issues should be explored as well.
+While uncertainty, in relation to decision making, cannot be entirely eliminated, it may be possible to mitigate it and manage it.
+Addressing the root causes of stress and developing measures to deal with them will almost certainly have to proceed on a broad front.
+Future regression modeling and case-based research will explore more fully some of the pressing issues raised in this paper.

cleaned_papers/cleaned_papers_without_ref/(ASCE)CO.1943-7862.0000765.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,408 @@
+Case Study
+Building Information Modeling Education for Construction
+Engineering and Management.
+Procedures and Implementation Case Study
+The construction industry needs graduate engineers with knowledge and skills in building information modeling (BIM).
+A detailed set of 39 topics required for BIM competence in construction management, together with specific targets for competency in each topic, was recently compiled on the basis of research into the needs of industry.
+However, only a handful of universities have introduced BIM topics into their curricula for construction engineering and management (CEM) students.
+A set of guidelines for the integration of BIM topics into CEM curricula has been developed and tested at the Technion-Israel Institute of Technology.
+The BIM education interventions in four out of seven courses were planned, implemented, and evaluated over three semesters.
+The experiments showed that BIM should be introduced not only as a topic in its own right, but more importantly, also as a tool for performing the engineering tasks taught within design, analysis, and management courses.
+Further, knowledge of the soft skills of information sharing and knowledge management, professional roles, commercial context, etc. are as important as the technology aspects.
+The work contributes a set of procedures that educators can use to identify their local requirements and build comprehensive BIM education into their CEM degree programs.
+10.1061/(ASCE)CO.1943-7862 .0000765. © 2013 American Society of Civil Engineers.
+Author keywords:
+Building information models;
+Construction engineering and management;
+Engineering education;
+Information technology;
+Three-dimensional models;
+Information technologies.
+Introduction
+The use of building information modeling (BIM) has become common worldwide (Eastman et al. 2011) and is continuing to grow.
+Many governmental, public, and private construction clients have established formal requirements for its use in their projects (Khemlani 2012).
+A recent industry report cites the proportion of heavy users among construction-industry design and management professionals (defined as those using BIM on 60% or more of their projects) to be 44% in Western Europe and 39% in North America (Lee et al. 2012).
+As a result, there is a growing demand for construction professionals with BIM knowledge and skills.
+However, without professional education and ongoing training, neither the continuous improvement nor the knowledge management necessary for realizing the value propositions of BIM can be achieved (Sacks et al. 2010).
+Several universities are developing BIM-integrated curriculums for students of construction engineering and management (CEM), but they represent only a handful of the large number of such
+Graduate Research Assistant, Virtual Construction Laboratory, Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 32000, Israel.
+E-mail [email protected]
+Associate Professor, Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 32000, Israel (corresponding author).
+[email protected]
+Associate Professor, Dept. of Education in Science and Technology, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 32000, Israel.
+E-mail [email protected]
+Note. This manuscript was submitted on November 27, 2012;
+approved on June 20, 2013;
+published online on August 1, 2013.
+Discussion period open until January 1, 2014;
+separate discussions must be submitted for individual papers.
+This paper is part of the Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, © ASCE, ISSN 0733-9364/05013002(13)/
+programs available worldwide (Barison and Santos 2010a, b;
+Becerik-Gerber et al. 2012), and in addition, there is significant diversity in their content.
+A BIM education framework for CEM programs is needed to aid educators in establishing coherent and comprehensive curricula, both within existing courses and by introducing new courses.
+Using the tables of the construction industry’s requirements for BIM education for graduate engineers specializing in CEM established in earlier work (Sacks and Pikas 2013), the authors have proposed, tested, and revised such a framework.
+The framework includes a set of 39 topics in three areas of expertise for BIM-competent construction managers, a set of learning goals for each topic at two levels of education (Bachelor’s degree level or Master’s degree or equivalent level of continuing education), and a set of courses and course module examples.
+The learning goals are intended to be used as a benchmark against which proposed curricula can be evaluated.
+The detailed courses were tested and evaluated at Technion over the course of this research.
+The set of procedures developed can serve as a guide for educators to integrate the framework topics within the specific contexts of their own programs.
+Although the scope of this research was limited to CEM programs, many of the topics are relevant to other disciplines within the architecture/engineering/construction professions.
+The set of topics and learning goals may serve as starting points for development of BIM curricula for a range of degree courses in architecture and civil engineering.
+BIM Education in CEM Programs
+Sacks and Pikas (2013) provide a thorough review of the literature covering the state-of-the-art in university-level BIM education for the broad architecture, engineering, and construction (AEC) sector, against the backdrop of university-level civil engineering education and the Civil Engineering Body of Knowledge (Russell 2013).
+The main findings were that (1) BIM was being adopted gradually, but that most schools were still struggling to understand what and how to teach, and (2) the majority of existing courses implement BIM on a basic level by teaching a specific tool (Barison and Santos 2010b).
+However, BIM can help students understand the complexity of construction projects from both the product and process perspectives (Boon and Prigg 2011).
+In the following text, the authors sharpen the focus on CEM. The BIM tool has been used as a vehicle to teach the means and methods of building construction (Deutsch 2011;
+Kymmell 2008).
+Nawari et al. (2011) found that using BIM can also deepen students’ understading of structures.
+Lu et al. (2013) concluded that using BIM for construction preparation, to virtually build the facility, affords better understanding of constructions tasks.
+Furthermore, using BIM can enhance students’ spatial perception (Glick et al. 2011).
+Another similar study that focused on BIM-based estimation concluded that linking building elements with databases reduces mistakes and time for compiling estimates.
+Given that university students lack experience in construction, teaching BIM methods for quantifying and costing major systems can yield better understanding among students (Sylvester and Dietrich 2010).
+Lee and Hollar (2013) conducted a brief survey of industry requirements and exisiting CEM programs.
+They rated five areas of competence, most of which concern BIM functionality [clash detection, four-dimensional (4D) modeling, etc.].
+They concluded that BIM education must be adopted broadly across multiple courses, to satisfy the growing need for BIM-educated engineers.
+To realize the promise of BIM education, construction engineers must be equipped not only with the skills of using technology, but also with skills to collaborate in multidiciplinary integrated projectdelivery systems.
+These aspects should be taught in the capstone courses (Solnosky et al. 2013).
+Molavi and Shapoorian (2012) proposed a framework for developing a BIM education that will bridge the gap between industry needs and university education.
+They emphasized that curricula development should also consider innovations such as green building and integrated project delivery.
+In a previous case study (Hyatt 2011), three different trends were integrated into a scheduling course, namely, lean construction, sustainability, and BIM. The Last Planner system (Ballard 2000) was used as a general outline for the course, which proved to be highly successful in engaging students in these important topics.
+Goedert et al. (2011) used BIM and other innovative technologies to develop a concept for educating CEM students/practitioners in a virtual environment, which simulated the decision-making process for optimizing the resourcing of projects.
+However, this application cannot be considered BIM education per se, but rather use of BIM as a supporting technology to develop an educational tool.
+Becerik-Gerber et al. (2011) mapped the current status of BIM, sustainability, collaboration, and virtual-learning applications within AEC education.
+They surveyed deans, department chairs, and program directors of 488 U.S. programs accredited by the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology, the National Architecture Accrediting Board, American Council for Construction Education, and the American Schools of Construction.
+They received 101 responses, of which 26% were construction management programs.
+The first part of the survey focused on the level of BIM integration for programs that already offered BIM courses.
+The results must be read with caution due to the small number of construction management programs responding and due to the fact that it is likely that those who had already developed BIM content were more likely to respond than those who had not.
+The findings show that 60% of construction management programs have some BIM component.
+Although the number seems high, most of these include a BIM topic in only one or two courses, and most courses with BIM components in construction management programs are elective.
+Construction management programs are the latest adopters, but have a rapid deployment rate.
+The teaching methods in construction management programs, with the approximate proportion of programs including each method, include introduction to BIM concepts (40%);
+BIM assignments merged into the project work in classes (67%);
+standalone BIM courses (67%);
+BIM immersed into existing courses and design projects (60%);
+and BIM merged into research projects (28%).
+The major reasons cited by those who have not yet incorporated BIM in their programs are that there is no one to teach BIM. Other significant constraints were insufficient resources, no room in the curriculum, and no accreditation requirement for BIM. As shown in Fig. 1, of approximately 27 construction management programs, approximately 65% teach BIM for constructability, 4D scheduling, and model-based estimating, followed by design (55%), visualization (50%), sustainability (40%), and cost control (35%).
+Case Study Procedure
+In preparation for the case study, the educational approach and the curricula for CEM BIM courses were developed through the following steps:
+• Analysis of the existing curricula of CEM track courses at Technion against the set of requirements established for industry, to determine which courses were suitable for experimentation and what BIM educational content should be added.
+This analysis was performed based on the results of gap analysis carried out in other courses from major universities (Stanford, University of Southern California, Georgia Tech) and reported previously (Sacks and Pikas 2013).
+• Selection of potential courses for BIM integration by carefully examining the existing CEM curricula.
+The logical sequence of courses was kept in mind to enable students’ knowledge and skills to mature through the years of their studies.
+• Running an introductory seminar to educate the educators in terms of the potential use of BIM in the selected courses.
+• Development and preparation of BIM course content for the set of courses selected for experimentation, based on the course syllabi, and abiding by the principle that the original course content should not be degraded.
+The expected level of outcome for each course was first established subjectively by authors based on the existing course content, and then discussed with the professors who taught each course to identify and correct any misunderstandings.
+Implementation of the proposed courses and contents during three consecutive semesters and assessment of students’ learning.
+The results of students’ achievements were monitored through test scores and interviews with educators and students.
+Students’ skills, knowledge, and confidence were assessed before and after each course using a questionnaire that included tables with the framework topics and achievement levels for each.
+Some students were also interviewed after completing the courses.
+• Evaluation of the results and refinement of the procedures to develop BIM-integrated curriculums.
+BIM topics taught by construction management programs (data from Becerik-Gerber et al. 2011)
+The cognitive domain of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational outcomes (Bloom et al. 1956), applied to each of the 39 topics defined for BIM competence for construction managers (Sacks and Pikas 2013), formed the basis for planning and assessing students’ levels of achievement.
+Six levels are defined as follows:
+2, Understand;
+4, Analyze;
+5, Synthesize;
+and 6, Evaluate.
+For full details of the BIM competence levels, readers are referred to Tables 1, 3, 4 and 5 in the companion paper (Sacks and Pikas 2013).
+Selection and Evaluation of Courses for Experimentation
+The CEM degree track at Technion is similar to that of most universities that offer CEM as a specialization within civil and environmental engineering.
+Students are required to complete 156 course credits.
+These include 40 credits of foundation subjects (mathematics, sciences, etc.), 46.5 credits of mandatory civil engineering subjects, 54 credits in the CEM track, two senior-year capstone projects (one in CEM and the other in a different branch of civil engineering), and 10 credits of elective courses (humanities and others).
+The seven courses detailed in Table 1 were selected from this program for experimentation.
+Their selection was based on the following two guidelines:
+(1) the courses should represent both design and management disciplines;
+and (2) they should cover
+Graphical Engineering Information
+Foundation:
+Mandatory civil engineering
+Planning and Control of Construction Projects
+Construction engineering and management track
+Construction Mechanization
+Senior-Year Project in Construction Management
+Advanced Building Information Modeling
+International Collaboration in Construction Management
+Technion Courses Selected for Experimentation
+the full range of courses from basic freshman year, through the end of the bachelor’s degree and extending to graduate studies.
+Of the seven courses selected (those listed in Table 1) only three (014008, 014617, and 018625) had any BIM content at the outset (019627—Advanced BIM—was a new course whose curriculum had not yet been determined).
+The depth and breadth of their content were evaluated according to the defined topics and achievement levels.
+The evaluation aimed to determine the collective gap that should be fulfilled either through additions to these courses or through a new course (019627—Advanced BIM).
+Table 2 provides the detailed analysis of the courses’ BIM content.
+Graphical Engineering Information (014008) is a freshman course that introduces engineering graphics, but whose main content is BIM. It was introduced in this form in 2005 (Sacks and Barak 2010).
+Although the analysis showed that it is achieving more than planned, for 17 of 21 topics it achieves only either the know or understand level.
+This indicates that students are introduced to many topics on a basic level but not to any of the following topics in depth.
+The table also reflects the focus on learning tools for modeling and producing drawings.
+Planning and Control of Construction Projects (014617) is an advanced course in which students are required to prepare quantity takeoffs, detailed cost estimates, location-based schedules, site layouts, and cash-flow analyses.
+At the time of assessment, only quantity takeoff was performed using BIM tools.
+Evaluation of the BIM Content of the Selected Courses before Experimental Intervention
+Knowledge area covered
+Overall construction design, management and contracting procedures
+Advantages and disadvantages of BIM for design and construction processes
+Information integrity
+Management of information flows
+Modeling with standard catalog elements
+Interoperability (file formats, standards, and structure for data sharing)
+Communication tools, media, channels, and feedback
+Choose right BIM technologies/processes/tools for specific purposes
+Structural analysis
+Automated quantity takeoff and cost estimation
+Clash detection
+Automated generation of drawings and documents
+4D visualization of construction schedules
+Numerical achievement level codes are defined in Table 1 of Sacks and Pikas (2013);
+requirements that are not addressed are not listed in the table.
+The International Collaboration in Construction Management course (018625) is a project-based course in which teams composed of students from multiple universities dispersed around the world prepare schedules, cost estimates, and risk analyses (Soibelman et al. 2011).
+The specifications for the buildings used for the term projects are provided as sets of building information models (architectural, structural, and mechanical, electrical and plumbing models).
+Students use a variety of BIM tools to collaborate on their projects.
+The models were used for preparing product breakdown structures, work breakdown structures, development and proposal of design changes, selection of construction methods, quantity takeoff, cost estimation, scheduling, and risk assessment.
+In general, most of the expected BIM objectives for this course were achieved, although for some, the level of achievement differed from the planned baseline.
+For example, the assessed level of achievement for interoperability (Topic 2.6) was understand instead of apply as was expected.
+The same applies to rapid generation of multiple design alternatives (Topic 3.2) and 4D visualization of construction schedules (Topic 3.15).
+This shows that the learning and consequent use of BIM for collaborative working was insufficient.
+Thus, the potential for introducing additional BIM topics, such as BIM standardization (Topic 1.15), cloud computing, networking, big-room equipment (Topic 2.8), selection of BIM technologies/processes/tools (Topic 2.9), and clash detection (Topic 3.8), was recognized.
+As can be seen in Table 2, the levels of achievement required were only met for a small number of the topics (1.1, 1.3, 2.1, 2.2, 3.5, and 3.9), all of which represent basic BIM skills.
+Review of the content over the three areas (work processes, BIM technology, and BIM functionality) revealed that the area of BIM work processes is covered less well than the others.
+The gap between what industry expects and what engineering students were being taught was clear.
+Overall, this result matched with the findings of the gap analysis of the state-of-the-art of BIM education internationally (Sacks and Pikas 2013).
+A small number of universities offer BIM content in just one to three courses, and most include only a limited number of topics.
+In light of the requirements for BIM skills expressed by the construction industry, this is clearly insufficient.
+BIM Education Interventions
+In the next step of the research, interventions in specific courses were planned, prepared, implemented, and evaluated to test ways in which the BIM requirements defined by industry could be integrated into the curriculum as a whole.
+Of the seven possible courses, four were selected for experimentation.
+Target achievement levels were set for each, as outlined in Table 3.
+The first challenge was to involve and educate the professors and teaching assistants (TAs) who had little or no background in BIM. A series of workshops were held in which the concepts were taught and tools were introduced.
+However, the primary task was to define appropriate ways to introduce new teaching methods that would enhance the teaching of the core subjects.
+Some professors expressed concern that introducing BIM might consume time that should be spent teaching the underlying engineering topics.
+This was a particular concern for a course such as Concrete Structures, the core purpose of which is to teach the basics of reinforced concrete design, and not information modeling.
+Direct involvement of the course faculty was perceived to be essential to achieving an appropriate balance, and this was one of the key issues monitored and evaluated through the experiments.
+Depending on the course content and needs, BIM-related study materials, tutorials, and lectures were developed.
+These were introduced to courses at different times and using different approaches, as was agreed with the professor of each course.
+In some cases, educators were trained to teach BIM content, whereas in other situations the authors participated in the lectures or tutorials to teach specific topics.
+Validation:
+Experiments, Case Studies, and Discussion
+This section summarizes the experiments conducted in the courses that were selected for investigation.
+It includes details of the contents planned, their implementation, monitoring of students’ progress and evaluation of the results.
+Achievement-Level Targets Set for Courses Included in the Experimentation Trials
+Knowledge area
+Planning and control
+Overall construction design, management, and contracting procedures
+Facility maintenance and management
+Advantages and disadvantages of BIM for design and construction processes
+Information integrity
+Constructability review and analysis
+Management of information flows
+Contractual and legal aspects of BIM implementation
+BIM standardization (in organizations and projects)
+Modeling with standard catalog elements
+Creating and modeling with custom elements
+Interoperability (file formats, standards, and structure for data sharing)
+Communication tools, media, channels, and feedback
+Ways to store and share information (cloud computing, networking, big-room equipment, etc.)
+Choose right BIM technologies/processes/tools for specific purposes
+Create renderings and representations for aesthetic evaluation
+Structural analysis
+Automated quantity takeoff and cost estimation
+Evaluation of conformance to program/client values
+Clash detection
+Automated generation of drawings and documents
+Multiuser editing of a single discipline model;
+multiuser viewing of merged or separate multidiscipline models
+Rapid generation and evaluation of construction-plan alternatives
+Automated generation of construction tasks
+4D visualization of construction schedules
+Process status monitoring and visualization
+Integration with project partner (supply chain) databases
+Numerical achievement level codes are defined in Table 1 of Sacks and Pikas (2013);
+data provided in brackets are the existing achievement levels,
+This is a typical design course, and as such BIM tools were introduced through several tutorials and individual consultation as an alternative way for students to prepare their final project drawings.
+Participation in the experiment was voluntary as the course policy was not to restrict students’ choice of tools, whether hand drafting or two-dimensional computer-aided design (2D CAD), or now, BIM. A competition with prizes was instituted as a motivating factor for developing BIM. The competition called for students to develop their project design, model the project, and produce drawings in Tekla Structures software.
+They were required to fill out an initial survey, to submit a progress-monitoring report once every week, and to deliver the project and publish the model to Tekla BIMSight.
+Four 2-h training sessions on the use of the software were provided and students were given the opportunity to consult when needed.
+The intervention in this course was tried over a single semester, using Tekla Structures.
+At the end of the semester, each of the students was interviewed.
+None of them had any prior experience with 2D CAD. They found that while the thinking behind the BIM tool was simple to understand, some aspects of using the tool for modeling were more complicated than they expected.
+They felt that these obstacles, related to ease of use of the tool, could have been mitigated if there were better self-learning materials, more handson experience on sample projects through tutorials, better alignment of course objectives, and if the teaching staff were more experienced with the tool and able to demonstrate more real-world examples.
+The students all stated that there was a relatively steep learning curve, and therefore, great commitment was required to study the tool.
+A significant benefit that they cited was that using a BIM application helped them understand the structure, and more particularly, how reinforcement should be placed in concrete elements.
+Despite the difficulties, all three students received very high grades relative to their classmates who used 2D CAD or manual drafting.
+High grades are given in the course not for the quality of engineering drawings but for ability in reinforced concrete engineering.
+That ability was presumably enhanced by the deeper understanding of the three-dimensional (3D) structure that they reported gaining from the authors of this study.
+They rated their level of achievement for use of tools as 3 (apply), meaning that they felt confident that they could use BIM in the future for reinforced concrete modeling.
+Tables 4–6 summarize students’ achievements in relation to what was planned with respect to all of the four courses.
+With respect to the Concrete Structures course, for three items in particular, whose targets were not met (1.1, 2.9, and 3.4), an evaluation showed that the targets set were unrealistic.
+For example, the target structural analysis (3.4) was not achieved, because there was no room in the course content for discussion of the possibilities of integrating structural analysis tools.
+Integrating analysis tools should be an objective of a subsequent course on concrete structures.
+Planning and Control of Construction Projects
+This is the penultimate course in the CEM track, preparing students for their capstone project.
+All aspects of management and methods are integrated and applied for solving problems and making decisions for delivering construction projects.
+As explained in the aforementioned analysis, BIM was already used within the course, but only for quantity takeoff.
+Intervention in this course consisted of introducing use of a comprehensive BIM-based software package for quantity takeoff, estimating, location-based scheduling, site layout, cash-flow analysis, work breakdown and cost analysis, and for process visualization (4D CAD) and construction control.
+This intervention was trialed over two consecutive semesters, with both local and international students.
+With the exception of two introductory homework still done using critical-path method software, all homework and the term project were now to be delivered using the BIM software.
+The experiments were implemented by training TAs to use the software, adapting the tutorial, homework, and project assignment definitions to reflect the new ways of working, and supporting the professor and TAs during the course with advice on training and procedure.
+The course staff were introduced to the software in three sessions, whose content was as follows:
+• Introduction, user interface, model management, model-based takeoff items and takeoff quantities, node concept, formula editor, and cost estimation with assemblies.
+• Location breakdown structure, location systems, creation of project task list, and mapping tasks to resources in cost estimation.
+• Scheduling environment, Gantt and flow-line schedules, program networking (schedule logic), types of task dependencies (location, organizational, and technological), assignment of resources to tasks, cash-flow analysis, and risk analysis.
+During the first trial, the TAs encountered technical difficulties associated with incompatible versions of BIM files, in which the BIM-authoring software was upgraded but the CEM package did not yet have the appropriate import routine available.
+This is typical of interoperability problems encountered in industry from time to time.
+The result was that the final homework reverted to use of the non-BIM software used previously.
+In the second trial, software was updated and students were able to finish their projects as planned, despite challenges imposed by aging hardware in computer classes.
+At the end of each semester, teaching staff and students were interviewed.
+The TAs of the first trial were frustrated by the need to divert their students’ attention to technical issues, but they nevertheless highlighted the potential advantages of the software in presenting the different practical CEM actions in a holistic manner, rather than as disparate parts.
+An important difference between the two semester groups that came to light was that the students in the second trial, those of the international engineering school, found the learning curve for operation of the BIM tools to be significantly less steep than the students of the first trial.
+The international students had studied the Graphic Engineering Information course just one semester before studying the Construction Planning course, whereas the students of the first trial had a gap of three semesters between the courses.
+This not only indicates the value of the first course in preparing students, but also highlights the fact that it may be offered too early in their degree program.
+Senior-Year CEM Project
+The senior-year project is a compulsory capstone project for CEM students.
+Students are expected to integrate all their knowledge and perform management functions including cost estimation, budgeting, proposing and choosing between technological alternatives, planning production and site layout, choosing proper machinery for construction, organizing work, choosing, and assigning necessary resources, etc.
+The intervention planned for this course was to offer students the possibility to deliver their project using BIM tools as an alternative to traditional methods.
+It was tried over two consecutive semesters.
+Students who selected BIM were given additional requirements, such as location-based scheduling using the model and preparation of 4D visualizations, and therefore, they were offered additional training in the use of the tools.
+Approximately onethird of the students elected the BIM option.
+Their motivation was clarified in a short survey distributed to the students in this and other courses.
+The 39 respondents rated the requirements of industry and potential advantage when seeking employment as the most significant motivating factors for studying BIM tools, with average scores of 4.23 and 4.17 on a scale of 1–5, respectively;
+the least motivating factors were an interest in technology (3.69) and the software supports learning in the coursework (3.46).
+One of the project mentors from industry and the volunteer students were given two refresher courses in Autodesk Revit, and three training sessions in Vico Office, structured in the same way as those described previously for the Planning and Control course.
+The students were also coached by a TA who specialized in the BIM-delivery track.
+Fig. 2 presents examples of the different CEM tasks that students completed.
+The initial modeling stage took a relatively long time (half of the semester), but students found that modeling helped them improve their understanding of the projects as they were actually virtually building them.
+This gave them a good basis for performing management functions subsequently, which underscores the value of requiring students to model their own projects, rather than providing them with preprepared design models.
+Some of the benefits students highlighted in their postcourse interviews are extraction of accurate quantities, visualization of alternatives for equipment selection and site layout, locationbased production planning, cash-flow analysis, and risk analysis (Monte-Carlo simulation), all based on the same database.
+Fig. 3 compares the workflow taught before the intervention with that implemented in the experiment, showing both iterations and additional steps that the latter process facilitated.
+Once the building model was compiled and the construction process was planned,
+Examples of students’ final project work, including (clockwise from top left to center):
+cash-flow analysis, floor plan, resource planning, quantity takeoff, location breakdown, site layout, location-based scheduling, and 4D process visualization
+students were able to perform the additional tasks (cash-flow analysis, risk analysis, and 4D visualization) with minimal effort.
+One of the most significant successes of the intervention was the judgment of the teaching staffs, as reflected in the final grades in both semesters, that the quality of the projects produced in the BIM process was, from a professional standpoint, significantly superior to that of the other students’ projects.
+One of the students’ review comments had particular insight:
+“These tools help you give a better understanding of the big picture but still make detailed information available.
+I think the more experienced people are in construction management, the more they can benefit from the BIM process as they have more real-life knowledge to apply within the models.” Many indicated that BIM would increase the importance of preplanning, as now the building can be built first virtually, before being built in reality, enabling a more holistic view of project delivery and identification of potential risks and action where necessary.
+One of the students added that BIM would change interpersonal communication:
+“I mean how the communication will take place between different parties involved.
+The new tools facilitate the processes with the platform;
+they provide a common language between all the parties.”
+The evaluation of the difference between the content of the course as planned and the actual level of achievement is detailed in Tables 4–6.
+In general, the BIM education objectives were met, with some exceptions, which are as follows:
+• Change management (1.7) was not initially planned, but was introduced in the tutorials to explain the impact of model change to management aspects.
+• BIM standard workflows (1.15) had to be introduced because of the dependence of the BIM application for CEM on appropriate modeling (in the model-authoring tool) of objects in a way suitable for cost and task classifications.
+• Issues of interoperability (2.6) were not dealt with because a custom direct one-way translator that used the application programming interface of the authoring tool was used to export the models to the CEM application.
+• Select BIM tools and processes (2.9) were not learned because students were given only one alternative process.
+Expectations that they could exercise judgment in this regard were premature.
+Alternative workflows for the capstone project, with and without comprehensive BIM tools
+Advanced Building Information Modeling was an entirely new course that was developed and prototyped during this research (to date, it has been offered two times).
+The objective was to teach students to apply theoretical knowledge of BIM in the development of a building project from conceptual design, through engineering and construction-engineering analysis, to detailed design and fabrication of models using rapid prototyping technologies.
+It uses formal lectures, tutorials, and a hands-on multidisciplinary group project.
+The course is a joint offering of the Faculties of Civil and Environmental Engineering (Structural Engineering and Construction Management Unit) and the Faculty of Architecture.
+In addition to advanced BIM concepts and technologies, the course also aims to provide understanding of how various but interdependent disciplines work and think, and how they can collaborate.
+The weekly content includes a 2-h lecture, 2 h of hands-on tutorial, and group and individual homework.
+The modules covered are the following:
+• Introduction to BIM
+• BIM in architectural design and manufacturing
+• BIM in structural engineering
+• BIM in CEM
+• BIM-supported design simulations and analysis
+• BIM-supported construction engineering simulations and analysis
+• Detailing and manufacturing
+• Production of 3D prototypes and use of computer numerical control machines
+The primary deliverable, and the vehicle for collaboration among student teams, is the course project.
+The project requires students to design, analyze, and detail a small structure, and to fabricate a scale model of it.
+The project brief called for a ticket sales kiosk at the entrance to a nature reserve.
+In addition to defining the buildings’ function and intent, specific process requirements were set, including, design the building parametrically, with nonrepetitive parts;
+coordinate the design among the different disciplines;
+present the whole building solution to the faculty using immersive virtual reality in the cave automatic virtual environment (CAVE);
+produce a small-scale model of the building using 3D printing.
+As a prototype, the course was limited to one group of graduates consisting of three CEM students (who each focused on different aspects), one structural engineering student, one architecture student, and one digital prototyping and manufacturing student.
+Students had individual learning assignments as well as the group project.
+After some introduction to BIM applications, tutorials were dedicated to the development of the term project.
+The team members developed a schematic design for their project through a number of iterations.
+In the design development phase, structural analysis was performed using Atir STRAP software.
+The architectural model was exported from McNeel Rhinoceros (Rhino) to STRAP using DXF file format.
+The project team then prepared the model for final reporting, including design of the interior (performed in Revit, exchanged through DWG), shell detailing for manufacturing (Grasshopper within Rhino), model coordination (Autodesk Navisworks), visualization in the CAVE (Autodesk 3DS Max and EON Studio), cost estimating and scheduling (Vico Office), and digital prototyping/3D printing (in AlphaCAM and ZCorp software).
+Fig. 4 illustrates the sequence of use of the software tools and the data exchanges made between them.
+In the staff members’ and students’ evaluations of the course, they highlighted the following lessons learned:
+• Various disciplines think and work in different ways;
+• The variety of BIM tools available for complex projects is limited;
+• Traditional BIM tools are inefficient for producing complex and free-form designs;
+• Interoperability and information-exchange management is a key aspect of BIM projects;
+• Model coordination for developing and sharing the right content at the right time is a major management challenge for BIM projects.
+The content of the course lectures appeared to be timely and well developed.
+However, students pointed out that some BIM topics they considered relevant were omitted, such as national BIM
+Digital project environment for delivering the multidisciplinary term project
+standards, model coordination management, and BIM standardization within organizations and projects.
+The biggest challenge during the course was the complexity of the term project.
+Whether because of the problem posed or poor choice of potential solution, the team spent relatively more time on designing the facility than on anything else, leaving less time to deal with other BIM aspects.
+From the perspective of collaboration between disciplines it was instructive, but from the perspective of using advanced BIM technologies for delivering projects, it was less successful.
+The recommendation was to assign a simpler project-design task to balance collaborative design and use of BIM technologies.
+In general, the use of BIM enhanced students’ learning of engineering topics.
+This was declared by students in the Concrete Structures, the Project Control, and the capstone project courses, who commented on the learning benefits afforded by clear visualization of product and process information using BIM.
+Tables 4–6 provide an overview of the state of BIM content across the seven courses selected at the end of the research period.
+For the courses in which experiments were conducted, it shows the planned versus the achieved levels.
+The values for the other courses reflect the assessments of their status at the same point in time.
+Although it appears that a significant portion of what was planned was achieved, some topics require more attention.
+In the area of BIM processes, teaching of the following topics must be improved:
+change management (1.7), data security (1.8), contractual and legal aspects of BIM implementation (1.14), and BIM standardization (1.15).
+The last three topics refer to the management of BIM models.
+They could be improved in the Advanced BIM course by introducing students to legal implications and standards of BIM adoption, and by requiring students to plan and monitor their project BIM process.
+In the area of BIM technologies, most of the expected competencies were achieved.
+This reflects the focus on technology in the existing courses.
+In the area of BIM applications and functionalities, planned levels were not achieved for structural analysis (3.4), process status monitoring and visualization (3.16), clash detection (3.8), and rapid generation and evaluation of plan alternatives (3.12).
+These are topics that should be integrated into bachelor’s degree courses, and must be taken into consideration for future improvement.
+Multiuser editing of a single discipline model (3.10) and multiuser viewing of merged or separate multidiscipline models (3.11) were not given enough attention, and should be incorporated in the Advanced BIM course.
+Refined Proposal of Procedures to Develop BIM-Integrated Curricula
+The overall approach for developing a BIM-integrated curriculum followed the plan–do–check–adjust (PDCA) cycle (Azhar et al. 2010;
+Calado et al. 2009).
+As laid out in the “Case Study Procedure” section, the overall process for integrating BIM was as follows:
+analysis of existing courses and curricula, selection of courses for BIM integration, involvement of educators, development of BIM content for selected courses and defining the expected levels of achievement, implementation and monitoring, and finally improvements.
+This methodology was applied through three consecutive semesters of studies, with three PDCA cycles.
+The refined procedure can therefore be stated as follows:
+• Review the industry requirements laid out in Tables 1, 3, 4, and 5 of the companion paper (Sacks and Pikas 2013) and adjust to local context if necessary.
+• Define the objectives of your school in relation to the industry requirements—determine for each item what level your school aims to achieve.
+• Assess existing curricula to identify the current state of BIM content and the gap between your goals and the existing content.
+Itemize the gap using a table such as Table 2.
+• In consultation with all the course educators, identify and select existing courses, and define new courses as required to fulfill the goals.
+• Monitor and measure achievements in each course implemented using Tables 4–6.
+• Review the courses and determine any changes that are needed in the curricula and/or the requirements.
+• Repeat the process for continuous improvement.
+Note that the first two steps should result in a set of requirements that is specific to the educational goals of each school or department.
+This will commonly require adjustment of levels of achievement, but it may also prove necessary to extend the range of topics.
+The procedure, and the requirements framework itself, by their nature cannot be considered prescriptive.
+They do not absolve educators of their responsibility to determine the goals and contents for BIM education according to the capabilities and needs of their students and the local industry conditions.
+In this section, several lessons learned from the analysis of the case studies described in this paper are suggested.
+The authors do not argue for any generalization, but do propose that the appropriateness of these guidelines should be examined when the introduction of BIM into a study program is considered:
+• BIM education should be continuous:
+This is reflected by the fact that those students who took part in the senior-year capstone project course had to invest a considerable amount of time to catch up with the tools and applications that they studied during their freshman year.
+The international students, who had only one semester gap between Engineering Graphics and Planning and Control of Construction Projects, did not experience the same difficulties.
+Students delivering senior-year capstone projects must focus on engineering rather than on studying new or remembering old applications.
+They must acquire the knowledge of proper tools and concepts before entering the final project.
+• BIM can enhance students’ learning of engineering topics:
+While there is a certain overhead for students to apply BIM tools within engineering courses if they have not previously learned the specific application required, this appears to be more than offset by the advantages gained in terms of their improved ability to grasp the engineering concepts themselves that modeling affords.
+The benefits appear to flow from the parametric modeling, intelligent object behavior, and clear visualizations provided by BIM tools.
+• TAs must have hands-on experience with BIM:
+Students stated that they could have benefited more if the instructors and TAs had been more experienced with the applications.
+It is recommended, therefore, to give the teaching staff the needed technical assistance or alternatively, to employ experienced professionals in the field to teach the said courses.
+• Integrate real project examples in the courses:
+Students said that more realistic examples from real projects could have helped them improve their understanding of the benefits of using BIM applications.
+Here too it is recommended to employ a professional with experience in the construction industry to be involved in the design and teaching of courses where appropriate.
+Such examples may increase students’ motivation when they feel that their learning is meaningful.
+• Obsolete hardware and improper software setup can harm students’ motivation:
+The entire study environment needs to support students’ learning commitment and experience.
+The support from faculty, teaching staff, working software, and hardware all must support the creation of a healthy study environment.
+• Encourage students to make use of the opportunity to selflearn operation of BIM software:
+BIM education includes principle and theoretical aspects, and these must be conveyed by the professor and the TAs. However, there are also technical and/or operational topics that students can study by themselves, especially because most of the software vendors have welldeveloped step-by-step tutorials for learning their software.
+The process of self-learning will prepare them also for future employment situations in which they will have to become familiar with new tools.
+In addition, teaching BIM may elevate students’ learning of teamwork and other soft skills.
+Therefore, the teaching of BIM should not be limited to technology, but should also cover the ways in which technology should be aligned with processes and people in organizations and projects.
+In courses that invite project-based learning, it is recommended to take advantage of the BIM tools as a vehicle for integrating other human aspects of CEM into the courses.
+In practice, two general scenarios for future improvements in BIM content for Technion’s CEM programs are proposed.
+First, integrate more BIM topics within a variety of courses to emphasize collaboration between interdisciplinary or multidisciplinary processes and integration.
+Second, add an elective course between the introductory BIM course (Graphical Engineering Information at Technion) and the junior or senior advanced CEM courses (Planning and Control of Construction Projects and Senior-Year Construction Management capstone at Technion).
+This course should deliver the message that BIM is a common language between project parties and emphasize how project/facility-related information is created, compiled, and shared to support decision making through complex construction-project processes.
+Such a course will reduce the time invested in the capstone project course on learning the software and enable students to focus on the actual construction-engineering analysis and use the tool as an environment that reinforces their learning and understanding of CEM processes.
+This research differs from other similar studies in that it focused on the entire construction-engineering and management curriculum rather than just on isolated courses.
+Most previous studies studied the use of BIM in the context of a single course.
+This work contributes tried and tested guidelines for universities to develop BIM-integrated curriculum by considering all the years of civil engineering studies.
+The main limitation of this study was the time and effort required to conduct experiments and aggregate results.
+The research was conducted over two academic years.
+To gain better understanding of the appropriateness of the procedures, a longer study—ideally following students’ progress through an entire degree program and on into industry—is recommended.
+Acknowledgments
+The authors are indebted to the professors, TAs, and students of the Faculty of Civil Engineering at Technion who took part in the experiments.

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+Case Study of BIM and Cloud–Enabled Real-Time
+RFID Indoor Localization for Construction
+Management Applications
+In the field of construction, indoor localization of mobile construction resources remains a universal challenge.
+Although discussions have focused on the tracking accuracy and affordability of indoor localization technologies, few efforts have focused on practical criteria such as ease of use, latency, and data visualization and remote sharing.
+To close this gap in knowledge, this study introduces a building information modeling (BIM) and cloud-enabled radio-frequency identification (RFID) localization system.
+The system consists of three main components:
+the passive RFID localization system, the BIM visualization system, and the cloud computing system.
+The proposed system is tested in a full-scale implementation on an actual construction site.
+The test was designed and conducted to evaluate the localization accuracy, data latency, and real-time data processing and visualization for remote monitoring.
+A comprehensive analysis is made of various practical issues based on the test results and panel discussion.
+The findings in this study indicate that the BIM and cloud-enable RFID indoor localization solution has a great potential in practical applications such as site security control, safety management, asset management, and productivity monitoring.
+10.1061/(ASCE)CO.1943-7862.0001125. © 2016 American Society of Civil Engineers.
+Author keywords:
+Indoor localization;
+Radio frequency identification;
+Building information modeling;
+Cloud computing;
+Remote monitoring;
+Information technologies.
+Introduction
+Location information is the basis of many applications such as navigation, transportation, manufacturing, and logistics.
+While global positioning systems (GPS) have been widely adopted for outdoor localization, no robust solution is ready yet for widespread implementation in indoor environments.
+In sharp contrast, many industries have shown growing demands for indoor localization (Lu et al. 2011).
+Recently, information technology has dramatically changed the way a construction project is executed.
+Various tasks in the phases of planning, designing, and execution heavily rely on a wide range of location data, such as worker and equipment location data for safety planning and management, and material location data for progress tracking.
+Since a majority of construction activities in building projects take place in indoor environment, indoor location data of workers, materials, and other construction resources have a significant impact on the quality, safety, and productivity of project execution.
+Various technologies have been investigated for indoor localization.
+Most popular technologies in this category include inertial
+Ph.D. Student, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 790 Atlanta Dr. N.W., Atlanta, GA
+Associate Professor, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 790 Atlanta Dr. N.W., Atlanta, GA 30332-
+0355 (corresponding author).
+[email protected]
+HES Research Engineer, Chevron ETC, 1200 Smith, St. Houston, TX 77002.
+[email protected]
+Workforce Safety Team Lead, Chevron ETC, 1200 Smith, St. Houston, TX 77002.
+[email protected]
+Note. This manuscript was submitted on August 16, 2015;
+approved on November 13, 2015;
+published online on January 21, 2016.
+Discussion period open until June 21, 2016;
+separate discussions must be submitted for individual papers.
+This paper is part of the Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, © ASCE, ISSN 0733-9364.
+navigation systems (INS), ultra-wide-band (UWB), wireless local area network (WLAN), Bluetooth, and radio frequency identification (RFID).
+INS-based solutions utilize inertial measurement sensors such as accelerometers and gyroscopes to estimate location.
+This method does not require any infrastructure besides a sensor unit carried by the tracked subject.
+Since the location estimations are obtained through a double integration from acceleration measurement, this technology suffers from its large and distanceproportional drifting error (Jiménez et al. 2009).
+UWB is a sensing technology for precise location tracking.
+Compared to RFID technology, it transmits data over a large bandwidth, which makes it less prone to signal interference and easier to pass through walls.
+Although UWB-based localization technology can theoretically achieve centimeter-level accuracy, many studies showed that the accuracy of a UWB system highly depends on a clear line-of-sight from readers to tracked subjects (Cho et al. 2010).
+Furthermore, the biggest disadvantage of implementing UWB for indoor localization is its expensive hardware investment of $140 per m2 (Li and Becerik-Gerber 2011).
+WLAN-based method takes advantage of existing WLAN infrastructure in the facility.
+This makes it one of the most cost-effective localization technologies (Behzadan et al. 2008).
+However, this technology is hard to implement on sites under construction where no WLAN infrastructure is available.
+For this reason, Cho et al. (2006, 2010) used a fully untethered selfpowered WLAN system that is mainly designed for construction sites or places that may not have communication infrastructure installed.
+RFID systems typically consist of a number of RFID readers, antennas, and tags.
+RFID readers are strategically placed around the sensing area and tags are placed on subjects that need to be localized.
+A RFID antenna reads data from tags, and a reader transmits the collected data to a host computer for further data processing and analyses.
+An active RFID tag has an on-board battery and periodically transmits its ID signal.
+A passive tag is cheaper and smaller and it uses the radio energy transmitted by the reader.
+Both active and passive tags have internal memory for
+Characteristics of Indoor Localization Technologies (Adapted from Li and Becerik-Gerber 2011)
+RFID (active)
+Accuracy data of active RFID is from (Liu et al. 2007).
+storing unique tag ID and other necessary information.
+Table 1 summarizes the characteristics of different indoor localization technologies based on the evaluation criteria proposed by Li and Becerik-Gerber (2011).
+Although RFID technology has shown great potential in applications such as supply chain management and site access control, several critical challenges hindered its further adoption for mobile resource tracking on construction sites.
+To enhance efficiency and effectiveness of construction resources tracking in indoor construction environment, this study introduces a building information modeling (BIM) and cloud-enabled RFID localization solution.
+To further illustrate this enhanced localization solution, this paper starts with a review of the challenges in current RFID localization systems and envisions the benefits of integrating BIM and cloud computing.
+It then introduces the design and components of the proposed system followed by a demonstration of a full-scale implementation of the proposed system in an ongoing construction project.
+The analysis and validation on localization accuracy, data latency, and real-time data processing and visualization is reported and the test results and the limitations of the proposed system are further discussed.
+Related Work
+Indoor Localization Technologies
+Compared to the other aforementioned indoor localization technologies, RFID technology draws more attention from researchers and practitioners in the construction field because of its technological maturity and comparatively cost-efficient infrastructure.
+As one of the early pioneers, Jaselskis et al. (1995) envisioned a wide range of applications for RFID technology in the construction industry.
+These applications include concrete processing and handling, cost coding for labor and equipment, and material control.
+Domdouzis et al. (2007) anticipated a wide influence of RFID technology in construction practices such as pipe spool tracking, onsite inspection, and localizing buried assets.
+Following these expectations, researchers have been exploring and expanding the applications of RFID technology to material management (Jaselskis and ElMisalami 2003), quality inspection and management (Wang 2008), facility management (Ergen et al. 2007), construction progress monitoring (Chin et al. 2008), and construction resource localization (Domdouzis et al. 2007).
+Among these applications of RFID technology, construction resources localization is the center of interest as it provides essential location data to various applications such as productivity analysis, inventory management, safety management (Lee et al. 2012), and first responder events (Guerrieri et al. 2006).
+Costin et al. (2012) attempted to use RFID for construction resources localization (i.e., personnel, equipment, material) in a high-rise building project.
+By placing RFID readers at the elevator gates and RFID tags on worker hardhats, materials, and equipment, they analyzed the efficiency of vertical transportation of construction resources.
+As being struck by construction equipment is one of the major causes of construction-worker fatalities, Chae and Yoshida (2010) developed a RFID system to prevent collision accidents with heavy equipment.
+This system collects the distance between equipment, surrounding objects, and workers to prevent accidents caused by insufficient awareness.
+Despite much effort on exploring the applications of RFID localization technology in resource tracking, integrating this technology in construction processes still faces many challenges.
+The four most prominent challenges are as follows:
+Poor System Scalability for Full-Scale Implementation on Arbitrary Sites
+System scalability is one of the most critical characteristics of any localization system (Li and Becerik-Gerber 2011).
+The scalability of a localization system can be affected by technology limitations such as limited sensing range, expensive infrastructure, or signal interference (Cho et al. 2010).
+In addition, system scalability can also be impaired by poor design from reader and antenna placement (Liu et al. 2007).
+Configuring hardware required for onsite data processing and visualization is another challenge as devices such as laptops and power supplies are not always available during construction.
+Additionally, as construction proceeds, system configurations need to be changed and updated according to new localization needs.
+When inadequately placed, furthermore, the data and power cables on floors can be hazardous.
+For existing localization systems, reconfiguration involves redesigning reader and antenna layout, and increasing or reducing the amount of devices, associated cables, and power supplies.
+Lack of Effective Strategy for Visualizing Location Information
+Another challenge is how to effectively visualize the location information of construction resources.
+First of all, the location information needs to be visualized in real-time with minimum delays.
+Secondly, the location information needs to be visualized in a way that is effective for support of timely decision making.
+Limited Capability for Sharing Location Data of Construction Resources across Remote Users
+The last challenge identified in existing localization systems is the limited capability of data sharing to decision-makers in a timely manner (Zhang and Amin 2013).
+Location information collected by the system is first processed by the onsite computer that crosschecks the worker database to translate tag ID to worker ID and associated authority information.
+This information is then reported to the management team through the site network or more likely in the form of paper reports.
+This linear transportation not only delays the timeliness of information, but also loses data integrity in the process (Wang 2008).
+Concept of Cloud Computing
+Cloud computing has been a trending topic in both research and practice for several decades (Armbrust et al. 2010).
+The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) defines cloud computing as “a model for enabling ubiquitous, convenient, on-demand network access to a shared pool of configurable computing resources (e.g., networks, servers, storage, applications, and services) that can be rapidly provisioned and released with minimal management effort or service provider interaction” (Mell and Grance 2011).
+Usually, a cloud model is composed of five essential characteristics (i.e., on-demand self-service, broad network access, resource pooling, rapid elasticity, and measured service), three service models (i.e., software as a service, platform as a service, and infrastructure as a service), and four deployment models (i.e., private cloud, community cloud, public cloud, and hybrid cloud (Mell and Grance 2011).
+Currently there are only a few implementations of a cloud computing framework in the construction industry.
+However, some researchers have attempted to build a software-as-a-service (SaaS)based framework for construction applications leveraging standard web services technologies (Kumar et al. 2010).
+Building Information Modeling (BIM)
+BIM use has rapidly gained popularity in both the academic research and field implementation across the architecture, engineering, construction, and facility management (AECFM) industry.
+Integrating information such as schedule and cost, BIM is able to assist decision-making during design, planning, construction, and operation phases.
+In the construction phase particularly, BIM provides essential information for analysis and monitoring processes such as clash resolution, construction progress monitoring, and construction resources tracking.
+It significantly improves the efficiency in communication and coordination between management team and field crews.
+To address the challenges in existing localization systems, this study investigated a BIM and cloud-enabled RFID indoor localization system.
+Fig. 1 shows a system framework consisting of three components:
+(1) RFID system for indoor localization, (2) BIMenabled system for system configuration and data visualization, and (3) cloud computing system for data processing and sharing.
+The design and functionalities of these three components will be introduced in the following section.
+RFID Localization System for Indoor Localization
+The RFID localization system is designed to collect worker location data in an indoor construction environment.
+According to the sensing range and characteristics of different antennas, the RFID system can be configured with different kind of antennas and readers in order to cover a site area of any specific geometry.
+The RFID localization system in this study is composed of the following five components.
+The system employs two types of commercially available readers, Astra-NA and Mercury 6 from ThingMagic (Woburn, Massachusetts).
+The Astra readers integrate an antenna in the unit so it can serve as both a reader and an antenna.
+Mercury 6 readers can connect up to four antennas of different ranges.
+Therefore, they are more suitable for covering an individual area with a large and irregular footprint.
+Three types of antenna are available in the system for configuring sensing areas of different characteristics.
+The MT 242 and MT 262 from Mti (Rosh-Ha'Ayin, Israel) can connect to the Mercury 6 reader and the oval sensing range makes it possible to cover a large sensing area by directionally placing the antennas.
+The built-in antenna in Astra reader/antennas has a circular sensing range that is shorter compared to Mti antennas.
+This feature enables the Astra reader/antennas to efficiently cover a small area or serve as a virtual gate.
+Passive RFID Tag
+The system uses passive RFID tags with the operating frequency of 860–960 MHz. Three tags were placed around each hard hat to ensure that at least one tag can be sensed by the antennas from any direction.
+Since the Mercury 6 and Astra readers transmit data wirelessly through WLAN, Wi-Fi routers can be used to establish an ad hoc local network for data transmission between local readers and a computer.
+At the same time, the location data collected by the RFID system need to be pushed to the cloud server through the internet for remote monitoring.
+Hence, a hotspot was used in this system to server as both a Wi-Fi router (NETGEAR, San Jose, California) and source of internet access.
+Local Computer with Monitoring and Alert Program
+Although all the location data will be pushed to the cloud server for processing, a local computer was used for configuring and calibrating the system in emergency cases.
+The developed RFID system consists of multiple types of RFID antennas, RFID readers, and RFID tags.
+Table 2 lists these devices’ model, manufacturer, cost, and individual characteristics.
+Worker location data obtained by the RFID localization system contains raw sensing data including tag number, entry time stamp, received signal strength indication (RSSI), antenna ID, etc.
+The RFID antennas emit radio waves continuously and collect tag information at a frequency of 10 Hz. The system streams the location data to the cloud computing system in real-time after each data entry.
+The proposed RFID system localizes tracked subjects based on their proximity to antennas.
+This method does not use the RSSI value to estimate the travel distance of the signal.
+Instead, it uses RSSI value to compare the nearness of the adjacent antennas to the tracked subjects.
+In another word, the proximity to a particular antenna will indicate which predefined zone in which the worker is located, and thus the location of the worker will be determined.
+Therefore, this method is less sensitive to problems such as wave propagation and diffused reflection.
+BIM-Enabled System for System Configuration and Data Visualization
+Containing geometry data of building components, BIM enables spatial reasoning for applications such as design code checking (Eastman et al. 2009), construction workspace identification
+Framework of the BIM and cloud-enabled RFID localization system
+Devices Adopted in the RFID Localization System
+ThingMagic $1,495 Up to 4 antennas
+ThingMagic	$495	Built-in antenna
+Wi-Fi router
+(Akinci et al. 2002), and safety analysis (Kim and Cho 2015;
+Zhang et al. 2013).
+Such spatial reasoning capability empowered by BIM makes it possible to automatically generate sensing zones and antenna layout plan for the RFID localization system given predefined sensing ranges of different types of antennas.
+Knowing the number and type of antennas that are most suitable for a particular site at planning phase leads to quick and more-prepared installation, and thus will minimize disturbance of the RFID system to normal construction activities.
+This BIM-enabled site zoning and system configuration also greatly improves the scalability of the RFID system.
+It is simple to change the zoning and system configurations as the construction proceeds by updating the BIM model according to actual schedule and reconfiguring the system in the updated BIM model.
+The workflow of planning the RFID system configuration is presented in Fig. 2.
+In addition to supporting system configuration in the planning phase, BIM serves as essential visualization component in the real-time monitoring application.
+Raw data collected by the RFID localization system does not contain any contextual information.
+It tells when (i.e., entry time stamp) a particular tag is sensed by which antenna (i.e., antenna ID), but without knowing where exactly these antennas are located on site, the raw information alone would not be of benefit to decision-makers.
+Integrating the three-dimensional (3D) BIM model in the visualization application in the cloud computing system offers situational awareness of worker’s location and thus provides valuable contextual knowledge to the users.
+Cloud Computing System for Data Processing and Sharing
+Flowchart of BIM-enabled automated planning of RFID localization system
+Handling location data locally at a construction site is computationally expensive and inconvenient for data sharing and collaboration.
+In order to minimize the burden and delay in data communication, the proposed system shifts the data processing and sharing tasks from a local computer to the cloud computing system.
+The cloud computing system is composed of a Wi-Fi hotspot, a cloud server, and client devices.
+The Wi-Fi hotspot receives location data from the RFID localization system and pushes the data to the cloud server through the internet.
+The cloud server provides service in the concept of software-as-a-service (SaaS).
+A dedicated program on the cloud server processes and links the location data with the project database.
+It also monitors the working status of the RFID localization system.
+The SaaS requires setting up the program and the database on the cloud server in advance.
+In addition to the database, floorplans generated from the BIM model are integrated in the cloud server to provide contextual location visualization.
+The cloud service is deployed as a community cloud where the visualized live worker location information can be accessed by simply launching a web browser on various kinds of client devices.
+For example, a safety manager can monitor the worker location from a laptop in the office or using a tablet when conducting a field inspection on the site.
+In addition to viewing worker location information in real-time, the system is capable of storing the historical location data on the server for further data analyses if necessary.
+Validation in Field Test
+To evaluate the performance of the proposed RFID localization system in a real construction environment, a building construction site was selected for a field test.
+The test site features a 5-floor cast-in-place concrete building [Fig. 3(a)].
+The test areas are located on the third and fourth floors, which are vertically connected by a temporary staircase [Fig. 3(b)].
+The test area on the third floor is 32×12 m and the test area on fourth floor is 21×20 m.
+At the time of the test, the main structure was complete and the MEP system installation was on-going on the third and fourth floors.
+The quantity of each device used in the RFID localization system was determined by analyzing the geometry of the test areas in the BIM model and the actual sensing range of RFID antennas.
+To cover the test area on the third and fourth floors, 10 Astra reader/ antennas, 4 MT 242 antennas, 4 MT 262 antennas, and 2 Mercury 6 readers were strategically deployed.
+A Wi-Fi router/hotspot was placed on the third floor to receive sensing data from the readers on the third and fourth floors.
+This configuration facilitated the data transmission to a local laptop and data push to the cloud server.
+The laptop placed on the third floor was used to configure the system at the beginning of the test.
+Prior to the field test, range tests for each antenna were conducted to determine the actual sensing range of each type of antenna.
+Construction site for field test:
+(a) overview;
+(b) test area on third and fourth floors (images by Esau Perez)
+RFID antenna and reader layout on site on the third and fourth floors
+Location and classification of sensing zone on site third and fourth floors
+Fig. 6. (a and b) RFID antenna installation for zone setup;
+(c) virtual room setup;
+(d) passive tags mounted on a hardhat (images by Yihai Fang)
+Test Scenario 1:
+System accuracy and coverage test
+Based on the test site geometry obtained from BIM model and the sensing range of each type of RFID antenna used in the test, an efficient antenna layout plan was designed as shown in Fig. 4.
+For instance, as the sensing zone of Astra reader/antennas feature a circular area, four Astra reader/antennas were used to construct a rectangle sensing zone by overlapping the sensing area of each antenna.
+In addition to optimizing the sensing range, another critical issue in the antenna placement is to minimize the feel of presence of the RFID system.
+It is important to ensure minimal interruption to the normal construction activities and ensure no additional hazards (e.g., tripping) are introduced.
+Given these considerations, 18 antennas and 7 readers were placed strategically on the third and fourth floors.
+On the third floor, one M6 reader connected two MT262 and two MT242 antennas.
+This setting created four sensing zones covering an area of 32×12 m on the third floor.
+On the fourth floor, another M6 reader connected two MT262 and two MT242 antennas, which created two larger sensing zones.
+This dual zone covers the two slab openings that are considered hazardous zones.
+Eight Astra reader/antennas created two sensing zones.
+These four zones covered an area of 21×20 m on the fourth floor.
+Another pair of
+Test Scenario 2:
+System scalability test the fourth floor.
+As shown on Fig. 5, this antenna and reader
+configuration created in total nine virtual zones on the two test floors.
+Among these nine virtual zones, four are normal zones (Zones 1 to 4), two are hazardous zones, two are high-accuracy zones (Zones 5 and 6), and the last one is a virtual room.
+System Installation
+During the construction phase, a construction site is usually very congested and limited space is available to configure the localization system.
+To create sensing zones on the test site, RFID antennas were mounted on a custom-designed pole and the pole was attached to a tripod at normal zones [Fig. 6(a)] or to the guardrail in hazard zones [Fig. 6(b)].
+Fig. 6(c) shows the installation of a RFID gate for the virtual room.
+Three RFID tags were mounted on different sides of each hard hat [Fig. 6(d)].
+The purpose of Scenario 1 was to test the positioning accuracy and coverage of the system.
+One subject followed a predefined path to traverse all virtual zones.
+As shown in Fig. 7, the path is indicated by a line while the rectangle is the start and the circle is the end.
+The focus of this test scenario was to test if multiple subjects could be positioned at the same time.
+Three subjects followed the designated path as shown in Fig. 8 with a start interval of 10 s.
+The purpose of Scenario 3 was to test the sensing latency of the developed system when positioning subjects.
+Two subjects followed zigzag paths by moving back and forth between Zone 2 and Zone 3 (Fig. 9).
+Test Results and Analysis
+Recognition Rates Evaluation
+The performance of the developed system was validated through a manual analysis of the video footage recorded during the experiment.
+The analysis of the worker location in the video served as ground truth (Fig. 10).
+Results from the video analysis and the real-time location data collected and visualized by the system were compared with each other to assess the accuracy, recall, and precision of the developed system as follows:
+• True positive (TP) cases are defined as those where both ground truth and system are positive, which means that the worker is in a particular zone and the system also shows that the worker is present there;
+• True negative (TN) cases are defined as those where both ground truth and system are negative, which means that the worker is not in a particular zone and the system also shows that the worker is not present there;
+Recognition rate evaluation by comparing localization results to video recording (images by Yihai Fang)
+Results of positioning accuracy and reliability analysis (duration in second)
+• False positive (FP) cases are defined as those where the ground truth is negative and the system is positive, which means that the worker is not in a particular zone but the system shows that the worker is present there;
+• False negative (FN) cases are defined as those where the ground truth is positive and the system is negative, which means that the worker is in a particular zone but the system shows that the worker is not present there.
+The comparison of the video and the system data is shown in Fig. 11.
+The figure shows nine confusion matrices (one per zone).
+These matrices present adequate validation of the comparison.
+The vertical direction of each confusion matrix describes the ground truth, which shows whether the worker is actually in the particular zone or not.
+The horizontal direction of the matrix shows the system outcome.
+The experimental results are as follows:
+• On average, the developed system performed accurate positioning of workers, with an average accuracy rate of 88.1%, an average precision of 84.7%, and an average recall of 89.6%;
+• It is observed that Zone 5, Zone 6, and the virtual room (92.5%) have higher accuracy than other zones (86.0%).
+This is mainly because at Zone 5, Zone 6, and the virtual room, Astra reader/ antennas were deployed.
+They have a faster refresh rate for receiving and transferring data than Mercury readers and Mti antennas;
+Cloud-enabled remote monitoring user interface
+• The virtual room (95.6%) has a higher accuracy compared to other zones (87.2%).
+In the virtual room, a RFID gate is assembled to detect both entering and exiting of the room.
+Two Astra-NA antennas were mounted on the top of the gate facing downward.
+This setup can detect RFID tags more effectively without the influence of obstruction and tag orientation;
+• The system accuracy in Zones 1, 2, 3, and 4 on the fourth floor are lower than the accuracy of other zones on the third floor.
+Since the router/hotspot that connected all the RFID readers was installed on the third floor, some delay and signal loss can be expected from the readers on the fourth floor.
+Overall, the results indicate that the tracking network was able to cover the designed areas on the construction site, and within the areas, the system was able to locate workers in various moving patterns.
+False positive and false negative cases were attributable to rapidly changing positions and the latency of the RFID localization system.
+The RFID readers have a maximum refresh rate for receiving data from antennas and sending the data to the server.
+The default maximum refresh rate is 10 Hz. The latency of the RFID localization system was observed to be 0.8 s, which is consistent throughout the experiment.
+The latency on the RFID localization system also contributes to the overall delay on the cloud-based visualization program.
+The delay on the cloud-based visualization program will be further discussed in the following section.
+Real-Time Remote Monitoring through a Cloud Server
+A hotspot using wireless data service was used for pushing location data to a cloud server established on a Georgia Tech domain.
+During the test, live location data pushed to the cloud server were processed by a program on the cloud server.
+Once the location data were processed by the program and linked to the predefined worker database, the worker location and other relevant information were ready to be accessed from client devices.
+During this test, a laptop and a tablet at remote locations (i.e., site office) were able to access the live visualization interface through a web browser.
+The worker location data visualized in the web browser have a minor delay of around 2 s compared to the actual worker location.
+This delay is caused by the cumulative delay in data transmission from the RFID localization system to the hotspot and from the hotspot to the cloud server.
+Fig. 12 shows the real-time cloud-enabled remote monitoring interface in a web browser.
+Different zones are indicated in 3D BIM model, and the real-time locations of workers are visualized by the arrows.
+This interactive user interface enables the users to change the view perspectives and toggle the display settings such as select the level they want to view, show or hide zones, and follow a particular worker.
+To test the performance of the developed system, the research team deployed the system at a building construction site featuring a total area of 804 m2 over two floors.
+The system was tested in three scenarios to test the positioning accuracy, sensing coverage, latency and overall system reliability.
+The test process and results were recorded in video clips and screen recordings of the user interface.
+The test results indicate the developed system was able to locate test subjects in the deployed areas in real time with high recognition rates (recall = 89.6%, precision = 84.7%, and accuracy = 88.1%).
+From the field test, system limitations were identified as follows:
+(1) coverage of the RFID network is subject to the range of individual antennas and their layout, (2) system latency depends on the refresh rate of the RFID readers and the location and signal strength of the router/hotspot, (3) RFID antennas should ideally be mounted on higher positions such as ceilings or top of columns to eliminate trip hazard and promote a less-constrained workspace.
+In addition, the research team did not use the up-to-date versions of RFID systems;
+thus it is highly likely that the newer RFID systems with faster refresh rates would provide better localization performance.
+Although it was not demonstrated in this field test, wireless speakers (Wi-Fi or Bluetooth) can be easily embedded in the proposed local network system to provide audible alerts to workers when they approach the safety hazard zones.
+In addition, light infrastructure and BIM-enabled system configuration update featured in the proposed RFID system makes it possible to quickly reconfigure zones as the site condition changes.
+As a major contribution in this research, the integration of localization system and cloud computing and sharing technology greatly expands the functionality and flexibility of traditional real-time location systems (RTLS).
+First, the computation burden of processing real-time sensor data on the local system can be shifted to a cloud server.
+Thus, the system requirement for local processing capability is minimized.
+Therefore, the initial cost for hardware and lifecycle maintenance efforts for the onsite system can be minimized.
+Second, the location data pushed to the cloud server are backed up automatically so that the risk of losing data is greatly reduced.
+Third, sharing data through the cloud server enables real-time remote monitoring and collaboration among different stakeholders.
+This study introduces the design, development, and performance test of a real-time indoor localization solution for construction site monitoring purposes.
+Taking advantage of building information modeling and cloud computing, the proposed RFID localization solution is able to localize construction workers and provide realtime visualization on various devices through a cloud server for remote monitoring.
+The system is designed and developed to maximize its accuracy, reliability, and scalability when applied in an indoor construction environment.
+By establishing an ad hoc local network for data transmission, the RFID localization system is able to cover multiple floors and areas of diverse geometry.
+A program on the cloud server processes the worker location data obtained from the RFID localization system and provides users with contextual knowledge about worker locations by interactively visualizing the location of construction workers on a BIM model.
+The cloud computing system allows users to access the location data in real-time on various remote platforms (e.g., laptop, tablet, or smartphone).
+The proposed system makes it possible to provide decision-makers with a timely warning if a worker is in proximity to hazardous areas or tagged construction materials are in the wrong place.
+The developed system was tested in a full-scale implementation on an actual building construction site.
+A comprehensive analysis was conducted on localization accuracy and latency.
+The system performance in cloud-based visualization was discussed based on the test results.
+Other practical issues such as ease of use, scalability, and current limitations were also discussed.
+The field test results and the discussion with site engineers and managers indicate that the proposed RFID indoor localization system has a great potential in practical applications such as site security control, safety management, and first responder rescue.
+Furthermore, the findings in this study expanded the application of localization technology in the cloud computing area for information visualization and data sharing.
+Acknowledgments
+This material is based upon work supported by the Chevron Energy Technology Company, A Division of Chevron U.S.A. Inc. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed on this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Chevron Energy Technology Company.

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+Relationship Conflict in Construction Management:
+Performance and Productivity Problem
+Performance and productivity in construction management are essential for schedule and profit considerations, but are often diminished by conflict.
+Task conflict provides incentive for decisions and innovative solutions, whereas interpersonal conflict, also referred to as relationship conflict, is detrimental to performance and productivity because it affects schedules, cognition and collaboration efforts, and the morale of the team.
+This qualitative study investigates how relationship conflict affects performance and productivity among construction management professionals.
+Interviews were conducted in 18 construction firms with 25 construction management professionals, including project executives, senior project managers, project managers, and superintendents.
+The goal is to understand the antecedents and consequences of relationship conflict within construction management, and discover methods used to mitigate these effects.
+Key antecedents producing relationship conflict are lack of communication, old-school attitude, and lump-sum contracts.
+The key individuals generating relationship conflict are the owner or owner’s representative, subcontractors, and superintendents.
+Consequences of relationship conflict include schedule delays, lowered morale and motivation, and reduced profit, whereas mitigating factors are good communication and trust building.
+10.1061/(ASCE)CO.1943-7862.0001478. © 2018 American Society of Civil Engineers.
+Introduction
+Within the construction industry, project stakeholders often maintain conflicting interests as they simultaneously work to design and construct today’s complex built environment.
+Key project stakeholders frequently approach a project from opposing viewpoints, which lends itself to conflicting goals (Gebken and Gibson 2006;
+Harmon 2003;
+Kassab et al. 2006;
+Ning and Ling 2013;
+Wu et al. 2017).
+These stakeholders typically initiate a project with the intent of producing a quality project, on time and for a profit, but often conflict surfaces, undermining these goals.
+An adversarial climate due to the increasing complexity of construction projects can cause many projects to experience conflict that can escalate and sometimes explode, leading to a breakdown in communication and resulting in mediation or litigation (Harmon 2003;
+Ng et al. 2007).
+Complexity in Construction
+The construction industry’s complexity, involving numerous independent stakeholders, unique site and building conditions, and diverse project management teams, can often lead to an adversarial environment, resulting in conflict (Haplin 2006;
+Harmon 2003;
+Kassab et al. 2006;
+Ning and Ling 2013).
+Task interdependency between stakeholders is typically high, which can often lead to conflict that escalates as the project progresses (Gardiner and Simmon
+Assistant Professor, Chair, Industrial Technology Dept., Univ. of Nebraska-Kearney, 2508 12th Ave., Kearney, NE 68849-2120 (corresponding author).
+Associate Professor, School of Design and Construction, Washington State Univ., 100 Dairy Rd., Pullman, WA 99164-2220.
+mkirk@ sdc.wsu.edu
+Note. This manuscript was submitted on February 21, 2017;
+approved on November 15, 2017;
+published online on March 21, 2018.
+Discussion period open until August 21, 2018;
+separate discussions must be submitted for individual papers.
+This paper is part of the Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, © ASCE, ISSN 0733-9364.
+This task interdependency becomes quite complex because the construction process is combined with each party looking out for their own interests, with the intent of completing a quality project on time and within budget.
+Baccarini (1996) argued that the most complex process of any industry is found in construction and identified differentiation and interdependency as the key components producing this complexity.
+Differentiation denotes the number of varied components in any given project, whereas interdependency refers to the interrelatedness of the stakeholders and process to complete a project.
+The size, duration, and uniqueness of a construction project will dictate the number of different components used, which can range from hundreds to thousands, resulting in substantial differentiation.
+Interdependency affects the various phases of a project on two levels.
+First, during the installation of components and construction of various phases by the different trades, when constant negotiation is required for the coordination and sequencing of work space with regards to access and timing.
+Second, at the project management level, where negotiation of contracts, construction document revisions, requests for information (RFIs), submittals, subcontractor crew sizes, and the timely procurement of materials are interrelated, producing an interdependency among stakeholders (J. Vaux, unpublished data, 2014).
+Conflict resulting from the complexity of a project can produce either productive or unproductive results.
+The former is referred to as task conflict and is tied to the achievement of specific tasks involving judgements, decisions, ideas, viewpoints, and opinions.
+Task conflict typically has low levels of emotional energy associated with it and results in an increase of productivity for teams, which has been marked by the achievement of goals, improved decision quality, and productive strategic planning. (Amason 1996;
+Costa et al. 2015;
+De Dreu and Weingart 2003;
+Jehn and Bendersky 2003).
+Within construction, task conflict can result in innovative solutions and enhanced decision making as stakeholders discuss and process through solutions that can improve performance and productivity.
+Conversely, relationship conflict includes friction, frustration and at times animosity, and interpersonal tensions with a focus on personal incompatibilities, and has proven to produce a prejudicial effect in teams (Amason 1996;
+Costa et al. 2015;
+De Dreu 2006;
+De Wit et al. 2013;
+Jehn and Bendersky 2003;
+Lau and Cobb 2010).
+Members of a management team and key stakeholders often experience relationship conflict during the life of a project that can alienate involved parties, diminish cognitive reasoning, lower motivation, and make a project extremely difficult at best.
+Because construction has this complexity, each project requires precise and timely coordination, clear communication, and cooperation for seamless execution.
+However, this does not always occur, because the high pace of interrelated activities combined with schedule pressure and the adversarial culture inherent in the construction industry often results in communication breakdowns and high levels of relationship conflict that can have a significant effect on performance and productivity (Wu et al. 2017;
+Zhang and Huo 2015) The goal of this study is to understand who typically initiates relationship conflict in a construction project, the effects, and what construction management (CM) professionals do to mitigate relationship conflict.
+Conflict Types
+Conflict was initially defined in general terms as an awareness that an individual’s goals or interests are being obstructed by another individual, whether perceived or real, and the intensity of conflict is governed by the individual’s commitment to their goal (Cosier et al. 1991;
+Deutsch 1969;
+Kolb and Putnam 1992;
+Thomas 1992;
+Wall and Callister 1995).
+All conflict was grouped together in one category by early theorists, who also recognized and defined conflict as possessing characteristics that were divergent from one another, ranging in their effects from beneficial to harmful in social, political, and organizational groups (Aubert 1963;
+Coser 1957;
+Mack and Synder 1957).
+As conflict research and theory progressed, conflict was divided into two types:
+beneficial and detrimental (Deutsch 1969;
+Jehn 1995).
+In subsequent literature, conflict has been divided into two distinct categories:
+task conflict, with a high potential for productive results, and relationship conflict, which is viewed as damaging in its effects.
+Task conflict refers to conflict associated with the accomplishment of a certain task involving decisions, judgments, viewpoints, ideas, and opinions.
+Task conflict commonly displays lower levels of emotional energy;
+is fundamentally cognitive, being focused on the task at hand;
+and is usually productive for teams because it enhances decision quality and understanding of the problem under consideration (Amason 1996;
+Chen et al. 2014;
+Costa et al. 2015;
+Simons and Peterson 2000;
+Wu et al. 2017).
+Task conflict is routinely encountered in construction management and serves a useful function.
+As the management team and stakeholders strive to maintain the schedule, budget, and quality, task conflict produces an increase in cognitive functioning, allowing management and stakeholders to make higher-quality decisions.
+If conflict remained solely in the task arena, there would be no further discussion—everything would be good.
+But all too often, task conflict increases in intensity and transfers into relationship conflict, leading to either strained communication or a breakdown in communication.
+Outcomes of Relationship Conflict
+Whereas task conflict provides increased cognitive functioning, allowing a focus on problem solving and goal achievement, relationship conflict focuses on personal incompatibilities and differences of opinions, with outcomes shown to be instrumental in lowering the performance of teams (Amason 1996;
+Brockman 2013;
+De Dreu 2006;
+De Wit et al. 2013;
+Lau and Cobb 2010;
+Simons and Peterson 2000;
+Wu et al. 2017).
+This loss of performance resulting from relationship conflict has three distinct outcomes, as seen in lowered decision quality resulting from diminished information sharing and reduced cognitive functioning, a lack of consensus among decision makers, and a reduced commitment to the group or team (Amason 1996;
+De Dreu and Weingart 2003;
+De Wit et al. 2013;
+Jehn and Mannix 2001;
+Lau and Cobb 2010;
+Simons and Peterson 2000).
+Decision quality is crucial for scheduling, sequencing of trades, material procurement and timely delivery, cost analysis, and project administration.
+However, stakeholders in relationship conflict experience lowered cognitive functioning as their focus turns to interpersonal conflicts, which restricts cognitive functions necessary for decision making and creative thinking.
+Instead, available cognitive resources are directed at overcoming the increase in anxiety resulting from interpersonal friction (Amason 1996;
+Costa et al. 2015;
+Jehn and Mannix 2001;
+Lau and Cobb 2010;
+Simons and Peterson 2000;
+Zhang and Huo 2015).
+As the tension increases, information sharing between participants necessary for quality decisions is reduced.
+The combination of lowered cognitive functioning and reduced information sharing has a significant impact on decision quality (Amason 1996;
+De Wit et al. 2013;
+Simons and Peterson 2000).
+As a result of increased tension and lowered information sharing, team members experience a lowered commitment to the group, resulting in less desire to actively participate in decisions and implementation of decisions.
+This distinction between the two conflict types is crucial to understanding conflict in construction.
+Without task conflict, decision quality is diminished, productivity is lowered, and the most advantageous means and methods may not be discovered.
+Conversely, relationship conflict involves interpersonal conflict, which lowers decision quality by limiting information sharing and cognitive functioning, reduces buy-in on decisions among stakeholders, and creates a barrier of dissatisfaction between project participants so that working together on the next project is less likely.
+These two distinct conflict types have significantly differing outcomes that must be understood in order to embrace the benefits of task conflict and mitigate the consequences of relationship conflict.
+Research into the effects of relationship conflict within construction is limited.
+Brockman (2013) studied the effects of interpersonal conflict with a focus on the labor force and the associated cost of the conflict.
+That study furthered the industry’s understanding of the effects and costs of conflict along with triggers of conflict, but did not differentiate between task and interpersonal conflict, which is necessary so that beneficial conflict is separated from detrimental conflict.
+Within China’s construction industry, Zhang and Huo (2015) identified negative emotions as a constraint to project performance resulting from the effects of relationship conflict.
+They maintained that political skill moderates negative emotions produced by relationship conflict.
+In research studying the effects of owner-contractor conflict on cost performance, Chen et al. (2014) maintained that relationship conflict has a predominantly negative impact on project performance related to cost.
+The research methodology for this study involved a qualitative approach using interviews in order to understand from the CM professional’s perspective the causes of relationship conflict, the effects, and how the professionals mitigated relationship conflict.
+Interviews with 25 CM professionals representing 18 different
+Positions held:
+Average age:
+Average Tenure:
+Tenure Range:
+5 to 41 years
+Average annual gross contract all firms:
+Type of construction:
+Multi-Family:
+construction firms were used as the data source for this study (Creswell 2007;
+Corbin and Strauss 2008).
+The participants’ job tenure ranged from 5 to 41 years, their ages ranged from 28 to 62 years, and they had a minimum of 5 years of CM experience.
+The participants were project executives, senior project managers, project managers, and superintendents.
+The participant pool included those CM professionals responsible for the execution and success of a project from a management perspective.
+Each had a role in the process and combined they make up the CM team.
+Foreman and labor force personnel were not included because they represent a different voice within the project.
+In the past, superintendents worked their way up through the ranks with little or no formal training and were not considered part of the CM management team, but were more closely related to jobsite personnel.
+Currently, an increasing number of superintendents have a CM degree.
+Today’s construction industry environment has seen an increase in project complexity combined with the advancement of technology, communication, and scheduling, which has changed the role of the superintendent to fit closer with the CM team.
+The mean job tenure for the participants was 20.4 years, and the mean age was 42 years (Fig. 1).
+The annual gross contracts of the participants’ firms were between $1 million and $4.5 billion, with mean gross contracts of $556 million and median gross contract of $90 million.
+Of the 18 firms, there were 13 commercial contractors;
+1 high-end custom home contractor;
+and 4 subcontractors in excavation, HVAC, drywall, and tunnels and underground utilities.
+Each interview lasted approximately 1 h and commenced with an explanation of relationship conflict and its distinction from task conflict.
+During the interviews, each participant was asked to recall a specific instance of relationship conflict in their CM experience, where it took place, and who was involved.
+In addition, the participants were then asked what effect the event of relationship conflict had on the project and for them personally. (Schwarz and Oyserman 2001).
+The interviews were then transcribed and entered into MAXQDA software for data analysis.
+During each interview, the researcher made an effort to keep the participant’s attention directed on remembering a relationship conflict episode.
+It became obvious during data analysis that some of their the relationship conflict stories were actually either task conflict or conflict in general.
+Some participants began recalling a relationship conflict scenario that was actually task conflict.
+However, as they continued to recall the event it was clear that the example had changed to relationship conflict as a result of the increase in the level of the conflict’s intensity.
+Simon and Person (2000) identified this process of task conflict changing to relationship conflict based on the intensity level of the conflict and maintained that there is a process of transferring or misattribution of task conflict into relationship conflict when the conflict becomes too intense or is extended over time.
+Within the construction industry, a transfer of task conflict to relationship conflict is cultural, as was revealed by the participants’ stories.
+Data analysis of the transcripts moved through a process of open coding to axial coding to selective coding.
+First, an open coding process examined the transcribed interviews line by line in the MAXQDA data analysis program and identified themes that were common, which were then named with a distinct identifier representing a theme or concept. (Corbin and Strauss 2008;
+Creswell 2007).
+These codes were names (such as communication, subcon-
+tractor conflict, trust, and old school, as discovered in the transcripts) used to identify concepts, ideas, themes, and phrases within the transcripts.
+Hierarchical patterns within the data were then formed throughout the open coding process as common themes were connected.
+Following open coding, axial coding then connected identified concepts into groups under core concepts within the data, which connected smaller pieces of data to broader concepts (Corbin and Strauss 2008).
+These core concepts, now categorized under an axial code, were then arranged into categories, with the predominant categories receiving an identifying name.
+The result was the emergence of five main categories that housed all of the previously coded data.
+Finally, selective coding was incorporated to explain the connection of the five higher-order categories to the data.
+These five higher-order categories were the basis for providing an explanation of the effects of relationship conflict on performance and productivity in construction management, as both antecedents and outcomes of relationship conflict (Fig. 2).
+The five main categories identified (Table 1) in the data were principal contributors to relationship conflict, primary players in relationship conflict, the effects of relationship conflict on performance and productivity, efforts used by CM professionals to mitigate relationship conflict, and effects of relationship conflict on construction management professionals personally.
+Participants were identified as follows:
+project executive (E), senior project manager (SP), project manager (P), and superintendent (S).
+Principal Contributors to Relationship Conflict in Construction Management
+Under the main category of principal contributors to relationship conflict, three significant subcategories were identified.
+These subcategories are given in a hierarchial order based on the participants’ frequency of responses combined with their job position and tenure.
+The principal contributors to relationship conflict as identified by the participants were lack of communication, old-school attitude, and lump-sum contracts with a focus on the bottom line.
+Lack of Communication
+Factors of relationship conflict in construction management
+Lack of communication was designated as the central issue contributing to relationship conflict because participants articulated strong opinions and reasons for identifying this as most important.
+A project executive stated his view of communication as a prominant factor in relationship conflict:
+“I think what I see for us, probably the biggest reason for relationship conflict, is bad communication to start with, as far as what the requirements [project scope] are” (E.2).
+Another participant stated, “without a doubt, communication is number one, that or lack of communication, I should say” (SP.1).
+This was found to be the case in both intramanagement team scenarios such as between a project manager and a superintendent, and interfirm situations such as a general contractor to a subcontractor or an architect.
+As communication broke down, both working relationships and the project were directly affected.
+A project executive described a long, protracted event concerning conflict between the owner, the architect, and his firm that resulted in a breakdown of communication.
+This breakdown eventually led to barriers being established that blocked communication attempts, “and, it just got to be, you know, we were arguing and writing letters.
+And, it just turned into a big, big mess.
+And, it was heading for where no one wants to go, which was some sort of litigation” (E.1).
+Categories and Sub Categories of Data Analysis
+Main finding
+Primary factor
+Secondary factor
+Tertiary factor
+Biggest contributors to relationship conflict
+Lack of communication
+“Old school” attitude
+Lump-sum contracts and a focus on the bottom line
+Primary players in relationship conflict
+Owner and owner’s
+Effects of relationship conflict on performance and productivity in construction management
+Efforts used by CM professionals to mitigate relationship conflict
+Effects of relationship conflict on construction management professionals personally
+As low communication produced conflict, often projects would experience even lower communication and an increase in conflict as the reciprocating process unfolded.
+Less communication led to increased conflict, which led to even less communication, and so forth.
+This cycle fed on itself and resulted in a negative impact on both the management team and the project.
+A project manager explained the effects on a project’s progress that resulted from this cycle of poor communication
+It was definitely affected.
+I mean, it was painful.
+That’s when we were kicking off a new project, you know, excavation, pilings.
+No one wanted to talk to each other.
+Nobody was communicating with each other, and you know that communication at that point in a project is huge (P.4).
+Collaboration was seen as a central component of communication by many of the participants.
+As relationship conflict increased, the communication needed for beneficial collaboration was drastically reduced because of diminished information sharing.
+A project executive recalled how collaboration among the stakeholders of a project had disappeared as a consequence of relationship conflict “that totally went out the door to where we just threw things over the fence.
+They threw things back over to us, and we mostly argued, because they were protecting themselves” (E.4).
+Old-School Attitude
+The old-school attitude was portrayed by participants as long standing and predominant in the construction industry.
+A project executive identified the old-school attitude as something that needed to change in their company’s culture, as he explained, “so, our company has shifted 180 degrees.
+And it’s not been easy because you’ve got old-school superintendents that are seeing fist-pounding, yellingand-screaming kind of guys.
+Well, that doesn’t get you anywhere anymore” (E.1).
+This old-school attitude has a disposition of “my way or the highway,” as portrayed by a participant:
+“The way they resolve it—my way or the highway—still a few of those guys” (S.1).
+The old-school attitude was explained by a senior project manager concerning one of his superintendents
+Like, if they are an older superintendent, and we have one of those right now.
+When you go to a meeting, he has to immediately, the way he talks to the other people, subcontractors, suppliers, even the owner or architect, it’s like he’s making sure everybody knows that he knows what he’s doing, and don’t question him, and don’t bring anything up because he’s got it.
+And, it’s just that kind of attitude, I guess, that causes a lot of conflict. (SP.1)
+This old-school attitude was described as that of someone who does not work as a team player and often pushes their own agenda without regard for the performance of the management team.
+This old-school attitude was not limited to older personnel, but was found even among younger project managers.
+Both a project executive and project manager admitted to starting out their careers with this attitude and ultimately changing because of the pain and financial loss encountered because of their attitudes.
+Lump-sum contracts, commonly know as design-bid-build or hard-bid, were seen as the third primary contributor to relationship conflict.
+A senior project manager whose firm’s contracts were a mixture of negotiated and lump-sum stated his view, which was voiced by each of the CM professionals:
+“When you’re dealing with a hard-bid scenario, you are going to have conflict, way more conflict than you ever want to have.
+It’s a different mentality” (SP.2).
+There are some common secarios that the participants described in their experiences with lump-sum contracts.
+In most cases, conflict surfaced through the process of charging for and explaining change orders and extras that were unnoticed by all stakeholders at the time of the bid.
+A typical example included details or areas of the drawings that were unclear until closer examination during the construction process.
+From the owner and architect’s perspectives these should be apart of the contractor’s bid.
+But from the contractor’s point of view, the drawings were unclear and the item in question was not in the orginal bid and should be considered an extra.
+A senior project manager gave this explanation
+Part of the thing that has always bothered me in our industry isthewaythatitissetup, andunfortunately,the lump-sum market is that way.
+I mean, it is ripe to set up for conflict and battle because,youknow,here’sasetofdrawings.Thisiswhatwebid on.
+We didn’t interpret it the way you thought it was, therefore we think this is extra.This isn’t something wewere supposed to do, and the gloves come on and you start fighting (SP.3).
+Some participants only pursued hard-bid work, but most, if given the choice, would not.
+The inherent conflict with the owner because of differing perspectives over bid documents and change orders led most participants to view hard-bid jobs as conflict-based:
+“We don’t always have that option if it’s a true hard-bid scenario.
+But again, at [company name], we try not to go after those jobs, because those are the projects that have conflict.
+They’re conflictbased” (SP.2).
+Primary Players in Relationship Conflict
+In the interviews, each participant was asked to recall their most challenging experience with relationship conflict.
+As the participants described a challenging experience, particular individuals were commonly identified around whom relationship conflict centered.
+These individuals were grouped into three main categories and identified as the primary players with whom CM professionals encountered relationship conflict.
+The primary players consisted of the owner or owner’s representative, subcontractors, and superintendents.
+A distant fourth was the architect, who has historically been at the top of the list with respect to conflict.
+The interviews revealed a change in attitude and working relationship among construction management professionals, who now see the architect as an ally and team player with whom they seek to work collaboratively.
+Owner or Owner’s Representative
+Central in relationship conflict between CM professionals and owners was the often wide gap in perspectives regarding the building project.
+The owner is keenly focused on abating changes to the contract, specifically changes that increase their costs, whereas the contractor is focused on being paid a fair price for any extra work beyond the contract.
+These two divergent perspectives can create an atmosphere that fosters conflict.
+A project executive recalled a 3-year project in which the two divergent perspectives carried a significant impact
+The culture of the developer was, get the most out of the contractor that we can.
+Get the most for the least price, and that obviously creates a contentious atmosphere.
+So, they’re trying to get the most out of us for the least amount of price, and we’re trying to cover our costs and make our fee, while still delivering a good product and hopefully maintaining a good relationship, but sometimes those two just don’t mix.
+So, there’s a cultural difference of [project executives’ firm] trying to please and build a good relationship, a good long-term relationship, and then there’s the developers’ culture of, beat the crap out of the contractor to get as much project as we can for the lowest cost. (E.7)
+This was a common theme expressed by each of the participants who identified the owner as the primary individual with whom relationship conflict developed.
+Owners varied in their degree of aggressiveness toward the CM professional, but there still remained an attitude of “get as much project as we can for the lowest cost.” This attitude promoted a contenous atmosphere and often developed into relationship conflict as the owner sought to “get as much project as we can for the lowest cost” and the contractor worked to produce a quality project for a fair price in the design-bid-build scenario.
+Chen et al. (2014) emphasized this same concept in their research on Chinese contractors and owners, because they discovered a negative impact on performance that equated to poor cooperation and coordination of work between parties when relationship conflict was present between the owner and contractor.
+Not all projects involved difficult subcontractors, but when the subcontractors were problematic and conflict oriented, an inordinate amount of management effort was required.
+In addition, there were times when this conflict affected the morale of the management team, or the whole project, or both.
+Subcontractors who fostered relationship conflict typically viewed themselves as independent and were unwilling to work as a team player.
+Others were labeled as old school in their attitude because of their contentiousness, and still others mostly just proceeded their own way on the jobsite without any consideration for those with or around whom they were working.
+A senior project manager described an experience with a subcontractor on a recent project as one of his most difficult experiences with conflict.
+The subcontractor maintained an attitude of noncollaboration which ended up affecting the entire project.
+The relationship conflict produced by the subcontractor’s attitude so affected one of the CM team members that the individual experienced burnout.
+In addition, the other subcontractors on the project viewed the CM team as lenient with the problem subcontractor, which caused friction, and the owner began to question the CM team’s ability to lead the project and control the subcontractor.
+The senior project manager summarized their conflict with the subcontractor:
+“We finally got through it, and it’s done, but that’s an example of this firm [the subcontractor] being such a cancer in the project that it really affected everything” (SP.3).
+Because of conflict scenarios such as those just mentioned, some of the participants used a more cooperative model in hopes of creating a team atmosphere with their subcontractors as a means of avoiding the harmful effects of relationship conflict.
+Whenever possible, CM professionals hired team-minded and collaborativeminded subcontractors who respected the contractor’s project management and leadership personnel.
+The superintendent was identified by participants as the individual on the CM team who most often was in the center of relationship conflict issues.
+Superintendents who were the primary player in relationship conflict were usually old-school senior superintendents.
+The superintendent was found to be in relationship conflict with either the senior project manager or the project manager, with most of the conflict being with the project manager.
+A project manager gave an example of a recent project with three project managers and several superintendents in which the conflict on the project team was centered around the senior project manager, “and the senior superintendent thrived around causing conflict in the office.
+His ultimate goal was to separate the office and the field, and everything that had to go out in the field had to go through him” (P.4).
+The project manager continued his description of the project, explaining that the office staff came to the point where they would not talk with the senior superintendent because of his negative attitude and an apparent enjoyment of causing conflict.
+The result was an atmosphere of negativity that centered on one individual and which reduced the productivity of the office.
+A project executive described a frequent scenario with one of his superintendents:
+“So, 90-plus percent of my time spent on those sorts of issues are with a small group of individuals that tend to repeatedly have relationship conflict issues.” He described one superintendent in particular:
+“We happen to have one that is probably at the very top of the list that I bet I spend most of my time dealing with.
+This person is probably not long for this world at [name of firm]” (E.2).
+Effect of Relationship Conflict on Performance and Productivity in Construction Management
+As participants experienced relationship conflict based on the effects of the principal contributors and primary players, performance and productivity were affected in the form of a protracted project schedule, and in some cases the budget was impacted, with lowered profit.
+Actual numbers associated with profit were given in general terms due to the proprietary nature of the information.
+The negative effects of relationship conflict on schedule were consistent among many of the participants.
+The typical scenario was a breakdown in communication that alienated stakeholders and impeded project progress.
+As participants encountered relationship conflict, the schedule became protracted, which in turn affected productivity.
+A superintendent described a project in which a subcontractor affected other subcontractors and the entire project because of his minimal cooperation and poor attitude.
+As the complexity of the project increased, communication weakened and a somewhat hostile environment developed as relationship conflict increased, with the result being that the schedule suffered.
+Relationship conflict stalled collaboration and communication between the subcontractor and superintendent, and this led to a lengthening of the schedule as the timeliness and accuracy of decisions were delayed.
+Quality and timely decisions needed for project execution were lost as relationship conflict increased and the schedule increased.
+The superintendent recalled how impactful this relationship conflict event was:
+“As far as productivity, we were ahead of schedule until we got to the complicated stuff.
+We burned up about a month of float, and finished about a month late.
+And then the rest of the subcontractors, their productivity suffered” (S.1).
+The subcontractor was problematic both to work with and in communicating with the superintendent, and aggressively tried to “screw the project over,” as the superintendent put it.
+Completing a project one month behind schedule does not automatically translate into a lack of productivity or a loss in profit.
+However, within the construction industry it is understood that a lengthened schedule without change of scope is descriptive of a performance and productivity decrease, and typically will have an impact on the budget in the form of additional overhead costs.
+In another example, a project executive described a 2-year hospital project in which conflict developed between the contractor, owner, and architect which moved into relationship conflict as interpersonal barriers went up and communication decreased.
+As a result of the communication breakdown and an increase in relationship conflict between the stakeholders, a consultant was hired to help bring resolution to the impasse.
+At this juncture, the project executive recognized that their 18-month construction schedule was not going to be met, “and, what ultimately turned out to be, I think it was an 18-month project, after we got partway into it, turned into a 24-month project” (E.1).
+The participant attributed this extension of the schedule to the relationship conflict between his firm, the owner, and the architect, and concluded that this caused a significant overhead increase to the project.
+In addition to an extension of the schedule as a result of relationship conflict, there was an impact on the budget.
+The impact on the budget resulted from nonpayment for change orders, schedule extension, poor coordination between general contractor and subcontractors, loss of cooperation reviewing constructability of phases, and more.
+In most cases, participants discussed in general terms how relationship conflict impacted the budget, not exact dollars lost, which is a limitation for this study.
+Some examples included exact dollar amounts connected with relationship conflict, but most examples provided a description of the impact of relationship conflict on their costs in general terms.
+A senior project manager captured this explanation of dollars lost in general terms:
+“Because, when you have conflict, it costs money.
+The two words go hand in hand.
+Conflict costs money.
+There’s just no doubt about it.
+And, it’s not a good working environment.
+It’s not fun to work with conflict” (SP.2).
+Specific dollar amounts associated with the cost of relationship conflict were provided in two examples by participants.
+The first example involved a project executive and one of their subcontractors concerning scheduling of work.
+The conflict became intense, which led to a breakdown in their communication efforts and an inefficiency in labor over a several week period, “and so, ultimately that relationship conflict lead to the erosion of, I don’t know, probably $40,000 in inefficient labor” (E.5).
+This was not verified from the firm’s project costs, but it is an example of how relationship conflict can effect the budget and consequently profit.
+The other example given by another project executive involved an extended relationship conflict with the owner’s representitive for the project.
+As conflict increased, communication diminished and became tense, which led to discussions on changes turning into protracted arguments, collaboration becoming nonexistent, and increased letter writing.
+At this point the participant tried to build a personal rapport with the other party as a means of common ground, but it resulted in the relationship conflict increasing so that each side operated by the contract only and letter writing became the only form communication.
+The result was a significant loss to the participant’s firm:
+“The only thing I have left is the contract side to protect our risk.
+I mean, we’re a medium-sized company, but $10 million hurts no matter who you are” (E.4).
+Again, the participant provided a dollar amount that was tied to relationship conflict.
+To accurately associate this loss with relationship conflict, the amount needs to be allocated to categories tied to the specific causes.
+A sharewould be attributed to relationship conflict, but other causes, such as inefficiencies of methods, problems with the drawings, estimating errors, and more, also need to be examined.
+Efforts Used by CM Professionals to Mitigate Relationship Conflict
+There were two primary means by which participants mitigated the effects of relationship conflict:
+communication and trust building.
+These two means were not always fruitful because there were times the other party did not want to communicate or there was no foundation for trust.
+But many of the participants succeeded in communicating well and developing trust, which were both useful for decreasing the effects of relationship conflict.
+Many of the participants learned the value of good communication and trust building through the distress of relationship conflict.
+These findings are consistent with the previous literature, which emphasizes the need for application of relationship conflict theory to construction management.
+Open communication combined with trust are vital factors in preventing the costly consequences of conflict (Anderson and Polkinghorn 2008;
+Harmon 2003;
+Kumaraswamy et al. 2005).
+Simons and Peterson (2000) maintained that communication involving open mindedness and collaboration about innovation or new ideas was seen as helpful in mitigating relationship conflict among teams at a high performance level.
+The CM professionals keenly emphasized communication as one of the keys to mitigating relationship conflict, as expressed by a project executive:
+“Communication is, the factor by ten, the biggest.
+I couldn’t even tell you, [researcher’s name], I can’t think of anything that doesn’t just go back to communication” (E.6).
+The participant continued to stress the importance of good communication when discussing means to mitigate relationship conflict.
+This position was shared by each of the CM positions, as voiced by a superintendent:
+“I think it all comes down to communication.
+You know, if the communication is poor, and the people are not on the same page, it instantly creates conflict:
+So, I think open and clear communication definitely mitigates conflict” (S.2).
+A project manager gave this response about the value of communication:
+“Just to help solve relationship conflict, it’s communication and getting people to talk to each other and understanding that everybody has a point that should be listened to, if it’s right or it’s wrong, but there should be discussion” (P.4).
+Finally, a senior project manager provided his view concerning mitigating relationship conflict:
+“So, from my perspective, the best way I can avoid conflict is to provide very clear communication on what my expectations are, to whoever it is I’m working with, whether it be my client, my staff, or subcontractors” (SP.1).
+Experiential descriptive explanations such as these from the participants accentuate the value of good communication as a major ingredient in mitigating relationship conflict in construction management.
+Each of the participants had experienced relationship conflict as a consequence of poor communication, and through this process now appreciated and valued good communication as a central component in mitigating relationship conflict.
+The means to nurture good communication varied between participants.
+Some had learned to actively listen and communicate effectively while engaged in business settings:
+“Be empathetic towards others.
+Understand what drives other people and what’s important to them, and who they are” (E.5).
+Others spent time with business colleagues outside the work environment as a means to build relationships and thereby improve communication.
+Next to communication in mitigating relationship conflict was trust building.
+Many of the participants had experienced difficult conflict situations that were emotionally draining, and consequently discovered the value of working within the boundaries of a business relationship based on trust.
+A project executive described a scenario of intense conflict during a project that resulted in a schedule extension and reduced profit for his firm.
+From this experience, the participant extended the lessons learned into his management style by choosing to be more collaborative with owners and architects and by not drawing attention to every error in the construction documents.
+This transferred into trust building among stakeholders of a project
+So, and all of that, to me, helps build the trust.
+I mean, that’s the baseline.
+If there’s a breakdown of trust on your team, you’ve got a long road in front of you to get to the end.
+And unfortunately, it doesn’t take much to violate trust. (E.1)
+Another project executive whose firm primarily negotiated projects with repeat clients explained that the value he placed on building trust was rooted in his lifestyle of building and maintaining relationships
+I think, for me, it’s having relationships already in place with clients.
+I think in order to avoid conflict on projects, there needs to be a high level of trust.
+The client needs to trust the contractor.
+The contractor needs to trust the client.
+And, that only comes with a relationship being in place. (E.7)
+A senior project manager recalled a project in which his firm experienced a high level of conflict with a particular subcontractor that resulted in a horrendous relationship conflict event throughout the project.
+This conflict was so intense over a prolonged period that some of his staff experienced high levels of stress and even burnout including a leave of absence.
+In hindsight, the participant recognized the need to build trust as a foundation to work from:
+“And the best way I can describe it is, and maybe this is the way they look at everybody, which I kind of think is so, but maybe especially with us, they just had zero trust, zero idea of collaboration” (SP.3).
+The result of his experience was choosing to work with subcontractors his firm knew and trusted, rather than just accepting the lowest bid.
+Trust as a key factor in mitigating conflict in construction has gained traction in recent research (Gad and Shane 2014).
+Previously developed trust between stakeholders has been shown to soften the effects of relationship conflict and aid in the transition through a difficult conflict situation (Chen et al. 2014;
+Korsgaard et al. 2002;
+Simons and Peterson 2000;
+Wu et al. 2017).
+Trust is a key factor in reducing conflict, and bonds of trust between stakeholders are not easily built.
+Construction management professionals must find ways to build these bonds of trusts and develop business relationships that can bridge the turmoil of relationship conflict.
+Effect of Relationship Conflict on Construction Management Professionals Personally
+In addition to lowered performance and a productivity loss for the firm, relationship conflict affected CM professionals in personal ways, which also affected their performance in their jobs.
+The personal consequences of relationship conflict included mental strain, stress, burnout, physical and emotional symptoms, and the toll it took on the family.
+A project managers’ description of a relationship conflict experience provides insight into the effects it has on CM professionals personally:
+“So, I’m sure it probably shaved a couple years off my life in stress because it’s just a stressful thing when you have that sort of conflict every single day, and you know it’s coming” (P.11).
+This conflict event over shadowed an 18-month project and even affected the participants’ family life to the point of ruining a 10-day family vacation from merely reading an email related to the project.
+A project executive explained how he dislikes driving past a particular project that was completed a few years earlier because of personal consequences from the relationship conflict and how it affected his family:
+“I still hate going to [location of project].
+You know, it impacts your family.
+I don’t want to go home and talk about it.
+My wife didn’t really know what was going on.
+Yeah, it’s just a crappy deal all around” (E.1).
+The impact of relationship conflict personally was described by another project executive:
+“It leaves a bad taste in your mouth, and there’s a major burnout factor, and it takes years to get over the broken relationships that can come out of a job like that” (E.4).
+This 2-year project involved intense relationship conflict with the owner’s representative that lasted through most of the project.
+As a result, the participant indicated his goal of avoiding this type of experience for the project managers he leads
+At the end of the day, you want to come to work in an environment that’s enjoyable and not full of conflict.
+And so, it’s really important for me to not have that stressor constantly around me, because it affects performance, it affects quality of life, it affects every aspect of what you’re doing, and so finding ways to be better at solving those types of issues is really important. (E.4)
+Work motivation and performance is affected as well as home life.
+A project manager discussed the effect of relationship conflict on performance while on a project:
+“Oh, it goes way down.
+And, the worst part about it is, my love for the job, it fades” (P.5).
+The participants’ responses described personal consequences when relationship conflict is encountered that affected both their work and family life.
+These consequences point to the detrimental effects of relationship conflict in the construction management field and in one’s personal life.
+Discussion and Implications for the Construction Industry
+The goal of this study was to understand the effects of relationship conflict on job performance and productivity among construction management professionals.
+Data from interviews identified specific antecedents and outcomes of relationship conflict that point to the detrimental effects associated with relationship conflict.
+Principal players in relationship conflict were the owner or owner’s agent, subcontractors, and superintendents with an old-school attitude.
+The principal players and contributing factors to relationship conflict impact the CM professional by reducing productive communication and promoting detrimental conflict, thereby negatively affecting performance and profit.
+Current relationship conflict literature identifies the detrimental effects caused by conflict, but a study within the construction industry among CM professionals to understand antecedents and outcomes has not been previously conducted.
+Brockman (2013) identified the antecedents and effects of interpersonal conflict among construction labor force personnel and subsequent associated cost for the conflict without any distinction made between task and interpersonal conflict.
+Zhang and Huo (2015) researched the moderating effects of political skill on interpersonal conflict and performance in construction projects in China.
+They maintained that political skill reduced the negative emotions caused by interpersonal conflict so that performance could be enhanced.
+This study broadens and enriches existing relationship conflict theory by recognizing antecedents and outcomes of relationship conflict among construction management professionals.
+The antecedents were identified as old-school attitude and key players as subcontractor and superintendent.
+Outcomes produced by relationship conflict were identified as lengthened schedules and increased costs.
+The construction literature has discussed the abrasive culture of the industry, but the old-school attitude with its related effects on relationship conflict was not previously identified.
+The old-school attitude is typically exhibited by older superintendents, but has also been found in younger project managers because its tenets tend to be promoted within the construction industry.
+The effects of the old-school attitude have been shown to divide teams, break down communication, and promote conflict.
+The main contributors to relationship conflict were identified along with its outcomes.
+Previous literature has identified the subcontractor as combative and conflict prone in contractual agreements with general contractors (Jin and Zhang 2013), but the subcontractors’ involvement in relationship conflict and its subsequent effects has not previously been identified.
+This study showed the subcontractor to be a key player in relationship conflict and demonstrated the effect on the schedule and budget.
+The participants were clear about the subcontractor not being dispute prone in connection to the contract, but instead as a result of the subcontractors’ combative and negative attitude, which had a negative impact on the project.
+Previous construction literature did not identify the superintendent as a key player in producing relationship conflict.
+Within the construction industry, superintendents are known for being involved in conflict, but their centrality in promoting relationship conflict was not previously studied and identified.
+This is a salient issue because of the central role occupied by the superintendent on a jobsite and within CM teams.
+Implications for the Construction Industry
+This study showed the detrimental effects of relationship conflict on performance and productivity in construction management.
+The key findings demonstrate the outcome of schedule prolongation and the consequential implications for budget and profit as a result of relationship conflict.
+Essentially, it takes more time to complete a project when relationship conflict is encountered, and the overhead costs continue to mount.
+Second, lack of communication was identified as leading to relationship conflict which then produced even less communication, with the end result being a higher level of relationship conflict.
+This progression of a breakdown in communication and increase in relationship conflict is prevalent in the construction industry and needs attention.
+Tensions can quickly build when conflict is present in construction, and sincere effort among CM professional is required to aggressively move toward raising the quality and level of communication and thereby reduce the intensity of the conflict.
+Good communication is crucial in order to reduce and avert the damaging effects of relationship conflict.
+Third, the primary players involved in relationship conflict have substantial influence in generating the outcomes of schedule protraction and budget deficiencies.
+Historically, the owner has been known as a central figure in conflict scenarios, but the subcontractor and superintendent were not previously identified.
+Attention needs to be given to the roles of these newly identified primary players in relationship conflict.
+Subcontractors who are unwilling to work collaboratively as team players and chose an adversarial attitude can impact a project in significant ways.
+The choice of a subcontractor can have a substantial bearing on preventing the effects of relationship conflict.
+Superintendents typically possess high levels of tacit knowledge of the means and methods of the construction process and are vital in the management of a project.
+But the old-school attitude displayed by many is damaging because it hampers the management process because of the relationship conflict it generates.
+There are three options with regards to this old-school attitude.
+The first is to disregard the issue and allow the old-school attitude of some superintendents to dominate management teams and continue to produce relationship conflict.
+The second is to replace those superintendents who have an old-school attitude, but doing so could significantly impact a firm because of these individuals’ high level of tacit knowledge and experience.
+Finally, some firms are providing training for superintendents with old-school attitudes in hopes of enacting change.
+This takes time and investment on the part of management and requires leadership to navigate through this process.
+Often the old-school attitude of a superintendent is tolerated by a project manager for the sake of the expertise the superintendent brings to the project, the difficulty of confronting the attitude, or both.
+Although change is difficult and uncomfortable, it may be needed.
+This is not a quick or easy process, but any change or progress toward reducing the impact of the old-school attitude will help to lessen the outcomes of relationship conflict connected to these superintendents.
+The old-school attitude was seen not only in older superintendents but was also evidenced in some of the young CM professionals as well.
+Considering this, it is often said that the industry will wait until these older superintendents retire and will replace them with younger ones.
+The problem is that the construction industry culture has a propensity to produce this attitude, and future research aimed at examining this phenomenon and providing solutions is needed.
+Limitations and Future Research
+This study extended relationship conflict theory to the construction management professionals’ work environment by identifying antecedents and consequences of relationship conflict and their effects on the CM professionals personally.
+At the same time, as with most research, there are limitations to this study.
+First, although there is a small percentage of women in construction management roles, their inclusion in the study would be beneficial in order to hear their perspective.
+Research indicates that women carry out their leadership roles in certain situations differently than men (Eagly and Johnson 1990).
+Relationship conflict research including women in construction management may reveal a perception different than the one shown through the male view.
+Second, the owner and owner’s representative were identified as key players in relationship conflict but there these stakeholders were not interviewed to understand their viewpoint.
+Their experience told in their own words would help clarify and balance the prominence of this group as a primary player in relationship conflict.
+Future research that included this group in the data pool would increase the understanding of relationship conflict in construction management.
+Third, loss of performance from relationship conflict was identified when the schedule lengthens and the budget increases.
+The dollar amounts lost due to relationship conflict were stated in general terms without specifics that tied them clearly to relationship conflict.
+Research aimed at identifying the actual dollars lost as a result of relationship conflict in construction management would serve to inform the industry of this problem.
+The data pool of construction management professionals included superintendents, project managers, senior project managers, and project executives.
+The management role of the superintendent has grown with the increase of technology, communication, scheduling, and owner contact.
+At the same time, future research would benefit from separate data collection in each of these management roles in order to identify differences in views based on role.
+A second recommendation for further research is to include a study of the effects of the old-school attitude which is prevalent in the construction industry.
+The old-school attitude has been identified as an antecedent to relationship conflict.
+Future research must explore this further to discover whether this attitude is produced by the industry based on its adversarial climate or if the attitude is slowly fading away with the retirement of the older generation.
+Younger project managers and project executives realized they had this oldschool attitude at the start of their careers and found it necessary to change in order to be successful in business.
+Research aimed at understanding how this attitude is propagated within the construction industry, how it can change, and whether it needs to change would create a greater understanding of the nature of relationship conflict in construction.
+The construction industry is known for its conflictive and abrasive nature.
+Competing interests among stakeholders combined with the complex interdependent process of construction and a historical adversarial climate become a framework for the detrimental effects of relationship conflict.
+This study showed that performance and productivity suffer under the effects of relationship conflict, whereas good communication and trust building mitigate the effects of relationship conflict.
+The construction management process requires significant information sharing and innovative thinking in order to schedule and complete a project on time and to find the most advantageous means and methods for the construction process.
+Relationship conflict hinders the cognitive functioning of these processes, lowering performance and productivity, and is therefore detrimental to the construction management process.
+To counter these negative effects of relationship conflict, construction management professionals should enhance their communication skills.
+Active listening, empathy, and taking a real interest in those with whom stakeholders interact in construction management roles is strongly encouraged to increase communication.
+Communication is a soft skill that can be learned, and the investment in the learning process is a small price considering the return.
+Trust building takes time and requires that a construction management professional can be trusted and can extend trust to others.
+Trust is a key factor in reducing conflict, and bonds of trust between stakeholders are not easily built.
+Construction management professionals must find ways to build these bonds of trusts and develop business relationships that can bridge the turmoil of relationship conflict.
+The harmful and costly effects of relationship conflict on performance and productivity can be turned around in construction, but it will require construction management professionals to actively and deliberately choose to pursue good communication efforts and trust building.
+Data generated or analyzed during the study are available from the corresponding author by request.
+Information about the Journal’s data sharing policy can be found here:
+.1061/%28ASCE%29CO.1943-7862.0001263

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+Designing a Benchmark Indicator for Managerial
+Competences in Construction at the Graduate Level
+The roles of construction project managers have evolved throughout the years.
+Current-day construction managers are faced with several challenges that require the acquisition of competencies in administration and management.
+Most employers in the construction industry seek professionals with a sound background in managerial skills.
+Nevertheless, most university curricula in architecture and civil engineering concentrate on conventional construction programs, leaving little room for appropriate courses in management.
+Accordingly, this paper proposes a tool for analyzing and comparing graduate programs related to management and administration in the construction sector.
+To achieve this, the study takes into consideration (1) a holistic model intended to map managerial competencies in construction, and (2) specific required subjects, revealed through market demands.
+This investigation compares the model versus university syllabuses, and subsequently proposes a benchmark indicator that measures the deviation of each program from the overall average.
+This study takes a significant step forward in determining whether the main topics reviewed cover specifications stated by the model and market demands for the professional construction manager.
+Further research is recommended to enhance the proposed methodology and seek the best way to cover current needs of professionals and employers in the construction industry.
+10.1061/(ASCE)EI.1943-5541.0000075.
+© 2012 American Society of Civil Engineers.
+CE Database subject headings:
+Construction management;
+Graduate study;
+Life cycles.
+Author keywords:
+Construction;
+Graduate degree;
+Life cycle;
+Management;
+Introduction
+The growing complexity of the construction industry forces professional engineers to evolve and adapt.
+The level of education for a manager has become much higher in the construction industry (Christodoulou 2004).
+In the past, managers were either craft persons without a college education or graduates of an engineering program and trained on the job (Arditi and Polat 2010).
+However, as the magnitude and complexity of construction projects have increased, so has the demand for more specialized expertise (Gann 2000).
+According to several writers (Edum-Fotwe and McCaffer 2000;
+Christodoulou 2004;
+Galloway 2007;
+Milosevic et al. 2007;
+Arditi and Polat 2010), managers currently working in the construction industry are faced with numerous issues regarding management and administrative activities, and they require extensive expertise to perform tasks in the areas of marketing, finance, accounting, human resources, contract law, economics, and environmental analyses, among others.
+Therefore, project managers are not only required to perform technical tasks but also to acquire managerial
+Associate	Professor,	School	of	Civil	Engineering,	Universidad
+(corresponding author).
+[email protected]
+Note. This manuscript was submitted on August 3, 2010;
+approved on February 1, 2011;
+published online on December 15, 2011.
+Discussion period open until June 1, 2012;
+separate discussions must be submitted for individual papers.
+This paper is part of the Journal of Professional Issues in Engineering Education & Practice, Vol. 138, No. 1, January 1, 2012.
+competencies for the entire construction life cycle (Russell and Yao 1996;
+Trejo et al. 2002).
+The performance of organizations that work in the construction industry depends mainly on them (Abbudayyeh et al. 2000;
+Chinowsky 2002).
+Moreover, most employers seekawell-managedprojectleadingtogrowthinproductivity and an increase in the quality of the services offered.
+For employees to fulfilltheiremployers’expectations and properlymanage a company, they require professional competencies that include a combination of both technical and managerial skills gained through experiences and studies (Tatum 1987;
+Milosevic et al. 2007).
+The apparent consensus on the need for management education for professionals justifies the pursuit of a program that encompasses the knowledge required for the construction sector (Chinowsky 2002).
+Some believe that managerial education can be acquired at the workplace or should be introduced and integrated as part of undergraduate programs, while others consider that it should be taught at the graduate level (Christodoulou 2004;
+Galloway 2007;
+Arditi and Polat 2010).
+Despite the long standing demand for continuous professional development in this area (Oglesby 1982;
+Arditi 1984;
+Tatum 1987), little attention is devoted to construction project management in academic courses.
+Current undergraduate courses in civil engineering and architectural degrees (B.Sc.) predominantly comprise a variety of design-oriented topics, leaving little opportunity for construction management subjects that are vital for successfully accomplishing construction projects (Lowe 1991;
+Russell and Yao 1996;
+Edum-Fotwe and McCaffer 2000;
+Russell et al. 2007;
+Galloway 2007;
+Arditi and Polat 2010).
+In many cases, university programs seeking accreditation are required to follow regulations from an external body such as the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology, Inc. (ABET) in the United States, through EC2000 criteria (ABET 2010), or Agencia Nacional de Evaluación de la Calidad y Acreditación (ANECA) in Spain (ANECA 2007) in compliance with the Bologna process (Reinalda and Kulesza 2005);
+both bodies have two main features:
+development of skills and competencies as core learning outcomes and implementation of quality assurance processes (Moon and Duran 2010).
+A singular case is the Associated Schools of Construction (ASC) that groups a particular kind of program specifically focused on construction management and that are interdisciplinary in nature (ASC 2010);
+they are accredited by the American Council for Construction Education (ACCE).
+These assertions are also confirmed by several projects financed by the European Union and developed jointly by a network of European professors from several countries (Ireland, Lithuania, Poland, Portugal, Spain, and the United Kingdom).
+These academicians have been working on the relationship between academic degrees and professional qualifications in construction management;
+their seminal work is summarized in Teixeira et al. (2006).
+The last two projects (Teixeira et al. 2006;
+Pellicer et al. 2008;
+Minasowicz et al. 2009) linked the aims of extensive survey of the situation, analysis of results, benchmarking among countries, focus on best practices per country, and design and development of minimum contents for teaching manuals.
+The cooperative research conducted through these projects revealed that minor consideration is given to management and administration in European higher education courses, despite the demand for continuous professional training in this area.
+According to this research, most of the academic programs are focused on traditional civil engineering or architectural courses that fail to efficiently address the most relevant needs in management and administration knowledge for professionals working in the construction industry.
+Summing up, current courses offered by universities do not comply with the managerial requirements of construction industry professionals.
+According to Russell et al. (2007), “too much focus has been applied to teaching engineers how to calculate and record versus how to think, read, and lead.” In view of this scenario, this paper puts forward the research question of whether or not it is possible to measure the gap among graduate programs in the field of construction management.
+The motive for pursuing this research is to have an unbiased tool and, with it, develop a methodology that will allow for designing or improving a program based on a series of selected requirements or market demands.
+The path to answer the research question follows these steps:
+(a) propose a theoretical framework that maps the field of management applied to the construction industry;
+(b) review and analyze current curricula offered by a number of relevant universities worldwide in the area of management for the construction sector;
+and (c) devise a benchmark indicator to compare, design, or restructure programs in construction management and administration to meet present and future demands.
+Thus, the purpose of this paper is to define an objective indicator for analyzing and comparing programs in the field of construction management;
+the focus is on university graduate programs (M.Sc. degree), considering that these programs are more flexible and easy to adapt to market needs.
+The first objective of the study is to design a model that covers the typical phases of both the life cycle and the organizational breakdown in management and administration for the construction industry.
+The perspectives of either life cycle or organizational breakdown are mentioned in isolation in the literature;
+however, the combination of these two dimensions can lead to a new approach toward managerial competencies in construction at the graduate level.
+This model is based on the following analyzed inputs:
+(a) previous experience of the writers in several European projects throughout the last decade (Teixeira et al. 2006;
+Pellicer et al. 2008;
+Minasowicz et al. 2009);
+(b) a technical report prepared by the Spanish Association of Civil Engineers (CICCP 2008);
+and (c) the design of a new master’s degree with a specialty of 30 credits in construction management (Pellicer et al. 2009) to be implemented in 2013 at the Universidad Politécnica de Valencia to comply with the new academic scenario according to the Bologna process (Reinalda and Kulesza 2005;
+Moon and Duran 2010).
+The accumulated experience and knowledge of the writers was vital to completing a proposal of the model that was initially introduced in its incomplete form in Pellicer et al. (2009) and that is developed further in this paper.
+The proposed model is named MAC2, standing for Management and Administration in Construction as a twodimensional matrix;
+it is depicted in Fig. 1.
+MAC2 model of management and administration in construction (developed from Pellicer et al. 2009)
+Because a holistic approach is pursued to design the model, the whole life cycle of the infrastructure is taken as a reference (Wideman 2004).
+This life cycle displays four typical phases (Stuckenbruck 1981):
+feasibility, design, construction, and operation.
+This model does not consider the divestment or disposal phase because of its uncommonness and its similarity in many aspects to the construction phase.
+The life cycle of the infrastructure is assigned as one of the dimensions of the model and is linked in time.
+The other dimension of the model is organizational level.
+Russell and Yao (1996) and later Milosevic et al. (2007) proposed two main categories at this level:
+project, and business management.
+In this paper, four facets are considered in increasing order of degree of disintegration:
+construction industry, company, team, and individual.
+The aforementioned report prepared by the Spanish Association of Civil Engineers (CICCP 2008) confirms that the main skills required by civil engineers are those related to these four categories.
+From an individual point of view, leadership (Farr et al. 1997;
+Bowman and Farr 2000;
+Riley et al. 2008) and human resources management (Edum-Fotwe and McCaffer 2000) are essential.
+This level considers the project manager as the main player that can be particularized as the designer (design phase) or the site manager (construction phase).
+Human resource issues are key, considering the importance of personnel in construction organizations.
+Leadership, as a combination of knowledge and skills, influences and motivates employees to carry out tasks.
+This level includes topics such as negotiation processes, conflict management, and team building.
+Project management is established at the team level (Cleland and King 1968;
+Russell and Yao 1996).
+Companies in the construction industry work and manage by projects (Gann and Salter 2000;
+Winch 2006).
+Thus, construction professionals will join one or several project teams to develop their job.
+For that reason, it is essential to ensure expertise in issues related to project management (Arditi and Polat 2010), which can be divided into six main parts (Romero and Pellicer 2008):
+time management, cost management, resources management, quality management, environmental management, and safety and health management.
+From the perspective of the life cycle, projects can undertake different designations:
+feasibility assessment (feasibility phase), project design (design phase), project construction (construction phase), and infrastructure or facility management (operation phase).
+The company level focuses on business management (Russell and Yao 1996;
+Milosevic et al. 2007).
+With the experience gained throughout the years, engineers and architects may rise to intermediate positions as managers, in whom the required managerial skills exceed those at the project management level.
+Business management in the construction industry embraces topics related to operational and strategic planning, financial management, total quality management, control, and marketing, among others.
+In addition, several types of firms come up through the process, such as public agencies and developers (feasibility phase), consulting engineering and architectural companies (feasibility and design phases), contractors and specialty subcontractors (construction phase), and maintenance contractors, service operators, and concessionaires (operation phase).
+Consulting engineering and architectural firms and contractors are the two most important firms with respect to the number of technicians involved (mainly civil engineers, quantity surveyors, and architects).
+Finally, construction engineering education has to focus on the entire life cycle of a facility.
+This level displays the different types of procurement from every point of view, as well as contract conditions (Arditi and Polat 2010).
+Approaches such as strategic partnering, lean project delivery (LPD), or private finance initiatives (PFI) should also be considered because they are becoming essential topics in the construction industry.
+The final objective of this research is to offer a methodology that allows for the design or restructuring of a M.Sc. program based on a series of selected requirements.
+This way, the graduate program can encompass the knowledge required for management throughout the entire construction cycle.
+These requirements that need to be fulfilled are proposed in the MAC2 model, displayed in Fig. 1.
+The program must also comply with and respond to a series of deficient aspects detected in engineering programs related to the construction industry.
+Nevertheless, this paper is focused only on the first phase of the overall research.
+The aim of this paper is to define a benchmark indicator for analyzing and comparing programs.
+This goal is achieved through the following series of steps that will be explained in more detail in subsequent sections:
+Determine the study sample.
+In this case, it is necessary to revise current curricula offered in distinguished universities and to select specific programs as units of the sample;
+Analyze the study sample with each dimension of the MAC2 model to reveal the areas in which each program concentrates its courses;
+Devise an indicator to compare programs;
+Compare each program using the deviation indicator, which isapplied to determine the program that distributes its courses more like the average, identifying clusters among the study samples.
+As stated, the initial step is to revise current curricula offered by universities to determine the sample of programs to analyze further and match with the MAC2 model.
+Thus, an in-depth analysis of several graduate degree programs at leading universities was pursued.
+Many M.Sc. programs related to construction management were taken into consideration.
+The exploratory analysis was developed exclusively through the internet.
+Because higher education institutions and programs can differ, a first approach was done using a set of well-known universities in the category of engineering and technology that offer an ongoing graduate program on management in construction.
+Additionally, to narrow the analysis, the methodology imposed additional requirements to select the programs;
+for example, each university must not only have access to its program through the internet, but its information must be understandable and offer a detailed description of the syllabus and its courses.
+Programs that did not have enough information on its syllabus and courses were discarded.
+Nevertheless, the chosen set of programs does not affect the design of the methodology.
+The proposed method used for comparison between programs would not change for another set of programs with other selection criteria.
+Table 1 shows the list of universities selected for the present analysis.
+For each university, a code and name of the graduate program (M.Sc. degree) were assigned.
+The geographical distribution of the universities was, 6, 6, 5, 3, 2, and 1 from Europe, Australia, the United States, Asia, Latin America, and Africa, respectively.
+Design of a Benchmark Indicator
+The categories chosen to evaluate each program correspond to those represented in the MAC2 model and include organizational levels and construction life cycle, each evaluated separately.
+The first categories analyzed correspond to the four aforementioned organizational levels of leadership and human resources, project management, business management, and stakeholders’ relationships and a developed environmental framework.
+The process of evaluation was to place each course, depending on its content, into
+M.Sc. Degree Programs
+The American University in Cairo
+Construction Engineering
+City University of Hong Kong
+Delft University of Technology
+Construction Management and Engineering
+The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology
+Civil Infrastructural Eng. and Management
+Loughborough University
+Nanyang Technological University
+International Construction Management
+Management in Construction
+Queensland University of Technology
+Queensland University of Technology
+University of Salford
+University of Salford
+Project Management in Construction
+Helsinki University of Technology
+Construction Economics and Management
+University of Michigan
+Construction Engineering and Management
+The University of Melbourne
+The University of Melbourne
+The University of Newcastle (Australia)
+The University of New Mexico
+Planning and Management in Civil Eng.
+University of Southern California
+Construction Engineering and Management
+The University of Sydney
+University of Wisconsin in Madison
+Engineering in Professional Practice
+Washington University in St. Louis
+each level.
+Each course was categorized in accordance with its relationship with any of the organizational levels.
+Any course could be directly involved with either one, two, three, or all of the levels.
+Therefore, the percentage of credits for each course was distributed according to the number of levels included in that specific course.
+Table 2 illustrates the importance of each organizational level according to its graduate program.
+Combining all 23 M.Sc. degree programs evaluated, the average percentage of courses related to each of these categories is:
+45% to project management, 32% to business management, 13% to leadership and human resources, and 11% specific to stakeholders’ relationships and a developed environmental framework.
+The next step was to analyze each program using the same process but from a facility life cycle perspective.
+The phases of the facility life cycle evaluated were:
+feasibility, design, construction, and operational.
+Table 2 also illustrates, in percentages, the outcomes of each program distribution regarding every phase.
+The results reveal that most of the programs concentrate 38% of their courses on the construction phase, followed by the design phase at 28%, and, finally, 18% and 16% for the operational and feasibility phases, respectively.
+Therefore, according to Table 2, no program covers every aspect reflected in MAC2 in a balanced way.
+The reason is because every level can have different weighting evaluation factors since each particular program varies depending upon local circumstances.
+A benchmark indicator allows comparing each of the programs using another one as a reference.
+The mean squared error (MSE) is applied to determine the program that distributes its courses closer to a reference set;
+it could be a hypothetical program or an existing one.
+In this paper, the average program is used as the reference.
+MSE is defined as the sum of the squares of the differences between the average (x) and the percentages (x) devoted to each level or phase of each program, as shown in Eq. (1).
+This mean squared error is called the deviation indicator from this point forward.
+From an organizational level analysis, the average value of MSE is 204.
+Ten out of the 23 programs analyzed (43%) exceed the average value of the MSE, as displayed in Fig. 2.
+The programs more similar to this average are those of the American University in Cairo, Delft University of Technology, and Universidad Politécnica de Valencia;
+the programs furthest from the average distribution are at the University of Newcastle, Helsinki University of Technology, and Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile.
+We note that the program at the Universidad Politécnica de Valencia that appears in Tables 1 and 2, and in Figs. 2 and 3 corresponds to the current program.
+The average value of the deviation indicator concerning the facility life cycle phases is 131.
+As displayed in Fig. 2, 10 out of 23 programs exceed the value of the indicator.
+The master’s degree programs studied at universities such as the University of Wisconsin in Madison, University of Salford, and Delft University of Technology were closest to the average results, whereas Universidad Nacional de Colombia, The American University in Cairo, and Loughborough University were furthest from the average distribution.
+As demonstrated, the deviation indicator for the life cycle (131) is less significant than that of the organizational level (204), which means that there is less disparity between programs from a life cycle perspective.
+The previous results reveal that the evaluated M.Sc. programs focus their content mainly on project management and the construction phase.
+As demonstrated by the deviation indicators, there is a more equal relationship in each program’s contents regarding
+Importance of Facility Life Cycle and Organizational Levels per Program
+Leadership and human resources
+Construction
+facility life cycle than concerning organizational levels.
+The values resulting from categorizing each course and, therefore, each program are just indications of how each course is distributed according to each dimension of the MAC2 model, and in no way does the average result determine the level of excellence of a specific program.
+The next step is to plot both indexes as variables in a scatter chart.
+This way, each university program is represented in a two-dimensional space of the chart regarding its deviation from life
+cycle or organizational level.
+An important step is to select a distance measurement or a benchmark indicator for this analysis because this determines the similarity between two elements.
+In this case, the Euclidean distance is chosen, in which the vector measures the distance from each program to the origin (average).
+Fig. 3 displays the scatter chart for both deviation indicators (life cycle and organizational level), placing each university in the Euclidean space.
+It also shows the programs ordered by distance to the average, where The University of Newcastle is the farthest and Delft University of Technology is the nearest.
+Fig. 3 also maps the programs using both dimensions and displays how universities can be grouped according to the content of their programs.
+As illustrated, each quadrant represents similar characteristics.
+Therefore, programs with a balanced curriculum, represented in Fig. 3 as quadrant “A,” form a cluster of universities with similar graduate programs and include the University of Salford, Delft University of Technology, University of Sidney, University of Melbourne, and University of Michigan, among others.
+Certain programs in universities such as Helsinki University of Technology, Loughborough University, and The University of Newcastle, among others, focus their courses in more specific areas and, consequently, form a specific quadrant “C” located further in the matrix.
+The other two quadrants represent universities that are balanced in either one of the facets of the matrix, for example, organizational levels, quadrant “B” (Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile or Queensland University of Technology one) or facility life cycle, quadrant “D” (Universidad Nacional de Colombia or Nanyang Technological University).
+Deviation of programs from the average
+The benchmark indicator (BI) allows comparisons between programs and can detect certain clusters.
+The BI does not determine which program is superior;
+this indicator allows a comparison between each program and the average.
+Another program could have been adopted as a reference using the previously explained method.
+Conclusions and Further Research
+Currently, professional engineers are required to have more than the technical education obtained from their traditional degree programs.
+Employers demanding that their companies are properly managed demand this requirement, thereby achieving increased levels of productivity and quality.
+Issues such as leadership, management, communication, team work, and critical thinking are a few of the skills now required for an effective professional engineer in a managerial position.
+Using the entire construction process as a reference, this paper proposes a holistic model for management and administration in the construction industry based on the previous experience of the writers.
+The model displays two dimensions:
+life cycle and organizational level.
+The former is linked to time through the four typical phases of the facility life cycle:
+feasibility, design, construction, and operation.
+The latter considers four levels of organization that could be found in the construction industry, ordered from lower to higher degree of disaggregation:
+life cycle, company, project (or team), and individual.
+This model intends to offer a framework for mapping the requirements that should be covered in graduate university programs oriented to improving the knowledge of management and administration in the construction industry.
+The analysis of the current programs offered by a set of prestigious universities shows that some of them are not balanced according to the average of the 23 selected programs.
+As an initial premise, these programs represent the current corpus of knowledge demanded by employers;
+further research is needed to challenge this premise.
+The MAC2 model was used to consider the needs from the organizational level to the facility life cycle perspective, both proposed to be covered by master’s degree programs regarding management in construction.
+The objective is to verify the adequacy of various examined graduate programs related to this area with a double comparative level.
+A thorough study of the courses offered in programs at top universities was completed and therefore allowed the determination of deviation indicators on both dimensions of the model:
+life cycle of construction and organizational level.
+This allows future master’s degree programs or a restructured existing one to strive and focus its program using the average results of these recognized prestigious programs as a benchmark reference.
+Nonetheless, the distribution of programs does not determine the superior program;
+it is only an indicator of how each program approaches the average.
+When a specific program is used as a benchmark reference, a proper review of the curriculum under analysis is possible.
+Furthermore, analysis of each program’s deviation from the average leads to the design of a benchmark indicator.
+The BI aims to measure the divergence of each program from the average by taking into account the two dimensions of the model.
+This benchmark indicator also allows for comparison among programs, allowing for the research question to be answered positively and the purpose of the paper to be accomplished.
+The proposed model serves as a bridge to study its relationship with the offered graduate courses and market needs.
+Accordingly, obtaining objective guidelines for designing or modifying a master’s degree program related to construction management is possible based on the needs of the market;
+such guidelines can cover all aspects of the organizational level as well as the entire life cycle of an infrastructure.
+This is the first phase in designing a methodology that allows for creating or restructuring a master’s program for professional managers in the construction industry.
+To comply with this goal, the following future works are recommended:
+Determine the extent to which current curricula offered by various universities cover the entire proposed model.
+To accomplish this, a relationship between the courses of the selected programs with the MAC2 model must be settled upon.
+Results could demonstrate how specialized a course is regarding the proposed model;
+Relate market demands with both offered courses and theMAC2 model.
+At first, the aspects that professional civil engineers lack will be matched with the representative topics from each program, resulting in determining the topics that have the best possibility of covering these needed aspects.
+A list of parameters could serve to evaluate and compare each program;
+Propose a theoretical program that best fills each facet of theproposed model and that covers market demands.
+At this time, our research team is developing a new master’s program at the Universidad Politécnica de Valencia for civil engineers that seek to work as professional managers in the construction industry to comply with the new academic scenario according to the Bologna process.
+One way to achieve this goal is to survey construction stakeholders to determine local conditions and market demands.
+Then, a relative weighting evaluation factor for each aspect involved in the model would be particularized.
+Thus, the benchmark indicator proposed in this paper can serve to evaluate and compare the distance between each tentative program and the theoretical program derived based on market needs.
+Similarly, any university could review any program attending to specific construction market demands.
+Acknowledgments
+The writers are grateful to Professors Joaquín Catalá, Josep R. Medina, and Fernando Romero for the insight provided.
+This research was funded by the Generalitat Valenciana (project GV/ 2010/086).

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+Employability of Graduate Students in Construction
+The economic crisis that currently affects some Western countries has reduced the employability of graduates in the construction industry.
+Nevertheless, many young professionals consider this situation as an opportunity to further their training, thus the higher enrollment in graduate programs in the construction industry.
+In light of this scenario, the authors of this paper sought to identify students’ perceptions of training gaps that affect their employability.
+The research was based on a case study, conducted in a Spanish graduate program (M.Sc.) in construction management during two consecutive academic years;
+a questionnaire survey was given to all of the enrolled students at the beginning of the first semester.
+The statistical analyses consisted of a principal-component analysis of the 21 variables listed as possible explanations for their graduates’ unemployment and an analysis of variance based on the previously noted principal components.
+Respondents recognized the intrinsic internal barriers that jeopardized their job opportunities, such as their unwillingness to move to another country, their lack of knowledge of a foreign language and communication skills, or their preferences for only well-paid and comfortable jobs.
+Other perceived problems were related to economic policy, training gaps, labor market structure, graduate surplus, and setbacks related to business management.
+10.1061/(ASCE)EI.1943-5541.0000139. © 2013 American Society of Civil Engineers.
+CE Database subject headings:
+Construction management;
+Employment;
+Graduate study;
+Case studies.
+Author keywords:
+Construction management;
+Employment;
+Graduate degree;
+Labor market.
+Introduction
+Higher education programs must provide adequate training and skills to ensure the employability and competitiveness of graduates, thus allowing them to enter the job market (Storen and Aamodt 2010).
+In this paper, the authors aim to analyze students’ perceptions of training gaps that affect their employability, using a Spanish graduate program (M.Sc.) in construction management as a case study.
+With this in mind, the authors briefly summarize the employability of young professionals in the construction industry.
+In Spain, the construction industry is characterized by its significant influence on the economy.
+Until 2007, the contribution of construction to gross domestic product (GDP) increased year after year.
+At the same time, the construction industry alone provided approximately 13% of the GDP and over 14% of the employment [Asociación de Empresas Constructoras de Ámbito Nacional (SEOPAN) 2012].
+Since 2008, the Spanish construction industry has undergone a significant economic crisis;
+in the period 2008–2011, the role of the sector fell to less than 10% of the
+Associate Professor, School of Civil Engineering, Univ. Politècnica de València, Cmo. de Vera sn, 46022 Valencia, Spain (corresponding author).
+[email protected]
+Note. This manuscript was submitted on June 1, 2012;
+approved on September 11, 2012;
+published online on September 14, 2012.
+Discussion period open until September 1, 2013;
+separate discussions must be submitted for individual papers.
+This paper is part of the Journal of Professional Issues in Engineering Education & Practice, Vol. 139, No. 2, April 1, 2013. © ASCE, ISSN 1052-3928/2013/2-163-170/$25.00.
+GDP. This reduction accounts for approximately 75% of job losses (SEOPAN 2012).
+The unemployment rate for civil engineers and architects in 2011 was 10% [Colegio de Ingenieros de Caminos, Canales y Puertos (CICCP) 2012] and 26% [Sindicato de Arquitectos (SARQ) 2012], respectively.
+Nearly 40% of unemployed civil engineers had graduated in the previous three years (CICCP 2012).
+These high rates of unemployment among new graduates (over 60% of the 2011 class of civil engineers) highlight the urgent need to adapt graduate construction programs to ensure that new professionals have the skills required by the labor market.
+A literature review reveals a number of studies published in recent years, many of which analyze the employability of graduates in construction from the point of view of employers in the United States (Farooqui and Ahmed 2009), the United Kingdom (Henley Management College 2006), Spain (Martín del Peso et al. 2013), and countries in the European Union (Teixeira et al. 2006).
+These studies are succinctly analyzed in the following paragraphs.
+Farooqui and Ahmed (2009) surveyed 36 members of the construction industry and 18 members of the education sector (with the majority in the south central and southeast regions of the United States).
+With their survey, they identified skills ranked highly by industry but given little attention by educators, such as interpreting on contract documents, listening skills, and contract negotiation, among others.
+The research conducted by Henley Management College (2006), commissioned by the Royal Academy of Engineering, consisted of two phases, an initial qualitative study based on 18 interviews with corporate executives in the engineering sector and a quantitative survey of 8,247 contacts of the Royal Academy of Engineering.
+This study differentiated between skills currently in demand and requirements based on the changes and challenges engineering companies will face in the future.
+Within the group of current requirements, the two skills most valued by the industry corresponded with technical skills (practical application and creativity and innovation), whereas the third most important skill (teamwork) was related to social skills.
+Regarding future needs, respondents highlighted the importance of problem solving, globalization, and sustainability, among others.
+Martín del Peso et al. (2013) conducted a survey of 564 employers who were asked to evaluate the primary gaps (knowledge and skills) detected in young professionals.
+The most fundamental gaps were found in the communication competence of employees (public speaking and presentations) and in the detection of new opportunities.
+Finally, Teixeira et al. (2006) described the results of a survey conducted with approximately 300 organizations in four European countries (Poland, Portugal, Spain, and Lithuania) and aimed to identify needs for professional training in construction management.
+This project was part of the Leonardo da Vinci program, financed by the European Union;
+it focused on lifelong learning and training for professionals.
+According to the results of this survey, the four most relevant management areas were planning and scheduling, cost estimation, quality management, and procurement and tendering procedures.
+These studies establish a number of shortcomings identified in recent years in graduate programs in construction.
+Moreover, recognized institutions, such as the ABET in the United States (ABET 2008) and the Agencia Nacional de Evaluación de la Calidad y Acreditación (ANECA) in Spain (ANECA 2007), are currently assessing the quality of higher education, and are focusing on the graduates’ employability.
+Nevertheless, the current economic crisis has seriously affected the employability of new professionals in construction, not only in Spain, but also in other western countries (Wu 2011;
+Ichniowski 2012).
+Regarding the relevance of employability in the decision of students about joining a program, the contribution of Wu (2011) is remarkable;
+this author states that a high unemployment rate drives undergraduates to select courses that increase their employability.
+This situation raises the question whether the gaps detected in the literature between construction programs and the labor market are still valid, or if the current economic crisis has changed the needs of the market or even resulted in new shortcomings in graduates’ training.
+Given that this problem is too broad to cover in detail, the specific purpose of this case study is to research students’ perception of training gaps that affect their employability.
+A subsequent objective is to establish areas for improvements in the case study program and its syllabi that enhance the students’ employability.
+The Master of Planning and Management in Civil Engineering (PMaCE) at the Universitat Politècnica de València started in 2008, supported by a group of professors in construction engineering and management at the School of Civil Engineering.
+Although there are approximately 10 M.Sc. degrees offered currently in Spain that are focused on the construction management field, PMaCE is the only one specialized in managerial issues applied to civil engineering.
+This program represents approximately 10% of the Spanish graduate students in construction management.
+There are also many programs around Europe (and worldwide) focused in construction management;
+some of them were analyzed by two of the authors of this paper in another contribution (Yepes et al. 2012a).
+The purpose of the PMaCE was to apply a holistic managerial approach to construction both from production and business standpoints (Jiménez et al. 2011).
+The PMaCE is composed of one year of coursework divided in two semesters, and an additional semester to prepare a M.Sc. thesis.
+It is structured around four mandatory subjects of similar importance (Jiménez et al. 2011), as follows:
+project assessment, construction site administration, innovation and quality, and business management.
+Finally, an elective subject completes the second semester, with courses on real estate, e-business, artificial neural networks, lean construction, managerial skills, and advanced construction technology, among others, being offered.
+Since the conception of the PMaCE, the School of Civil Engineering has attempted to improve the quality of the program, its syllabi, and the teaching methods.
+To do so, a study was developed on the motivation of the students accessing the master degree (Yepes et al. 2012b);
+44 students of the PMaCE (from the 2011–2012 academic year) were surveyed.
+Thirty-two of them (73% of the sample) acknowledged that, by enrolling the PMaCE, they were increasing their opportunities to find a (better) job.
+These results agree with the research of Wu (2011) who analyzed the influence of the current economic crisis on Taiwanese students’ choices.
+The School of Civil Engineering also analyzed current teaching methods, putting new methods into action.
+The first two classes of the PMaCE remarked that they had to deal with heavy workloads from every subject, primarily in the first semester, which was based on homework involving different case studies.
+In 2010, a common project was designed to solve the problem, acting as a homework reference for the courses taught in the first semester.
+The majority of students of that class had a good opinion of the single common project, and they agreed that it helped them to improve their teamwork skills (Jiménez et al. 2011).
+Despite the decline of the Spanish construction industry (SEOPAN 2012), the enrollment in the PMaCE has increased since its inception, doubling the number of students during its four academic years of existence, from 20 in 2008 to 44 in 2011.
+Materials and Methods
+To comply with the objectives stated in the Introduction, a survey was chosen as the research tool because of its suitability for collecting opinions or attitudes.
+The perception of the students in relation to each question provided useful information for the analysis.
+The population of the study was comprised by the third- and fourth-year classes of the PMaCE. At the beginning of each first semester (September 2010 and September 2011) a questionnaire was given to all of the students enrolled in the PMaCE (38 and 44 students, respectively).
+They were to complete their questionnaires and return them to the facilitator by hand.
+The complete questionnaire had two parts (see the Appendix).
+The first part contained questions about the respondents’ backgrounds, as follows:
+professional degree, gender, nationality, current working status, expected net salary in the next five years, age, work experience, primary area of professional experience, and organization in which they practice (or have practiced) their profession.
+In the second part, respondents were asked to give their opinions on the 21 variables collected in the questionnaire as possible reasons for the high unemployment rate among graduates in construction.
+These variables included personal issues (e.g., question 18), educational issues (e.g., question 17), macroeconomic issues (e.g., question 2), and issues specific to the construction industry (e.g., question 6).
+To determine the effect of each of the 21 variables, the students were asked to express agreement or disagreement with the statements, in accordance with the relative importance attributed, using a standard 5-point Likert scale, with 1 being completely disagree and 5 completely agree.
+Statistical Analysis
+Data were analyzed using IBM SPSS Statistics (version 16.0.1).
+The statistical analyses undertaken included a principal-component analysis (PCA) of the 21 variables presented as possible reasons for graduates’ unemployment, together with an analysis of variance (ANOVA) based on the principal components.
+The objective of the PCA was to reduce the original 21 variables to a smaller number, recognizing the structure of data (Jolliffe 2002;
+Hair et al. 2009);
+this same approach was used by Rothwell et al. (2008, 2009) to analyze the expectations and self-perceptions of the employability of university students.
+To check possible differences among respondents, an ANOVA analysis was used to compare perceptions of respondents’ subgroups stratified by nationality, gender, and so on. (Hair et al. 2009).
+To facilitate the interpretation of the respondents’ perceptions depending on their background, some of the categories included in the first part of the questionnaire (professional degree, nationality, current working status, and so on) were reduced in the analysis to a smaller number of options.
+Regarding current working status, for example, respondents were to choose one of four options, employed (full time), employed (part time), on scholarship, or unemployed.
+For the ANOVA analysis, this category was reduced to two possible values, employed (including full time, part time, and scholarship recipients) and unemployed.
+Similar response groupings were conducted for other categories (professional degree, nationality, expected net salary, age, professional experience, and type of organization).
+These simplifications allowed for a better interpretation of the data.
+Results and Discussion
+Statistical Characterization
+According to their questionnaire responses, the students can be profiled as follows:
+25 years old or younger (45%), male (72%), Spanish (72%), with an academic background in different areas of civil engineering (60%), with no more than three years of experience (70%) in a construction company (51%), and currently unemployed (51%).
+To facilitate the data analysis, the 21 variables were coded as indicated in Table 1.
+This table also offers a statistical description (mean and standard deviation) of the variables included in the questionnaire.
+The PCA is intended to reduce the dimensionality of the data space.
+The PCA finds a smaller number of dimensions and retain most of the information from the original space.
+The adequacy of the data set for a PCA is checked by Bartlett’s spherical test P¼0.000) and by the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure (KMO ¼0.689).
+These tests indicate if the input data set is suitable for a PCA. For this study, the PCA produced a solution of six components with eigenvalues greater than 1.000 (Fig. 1).
+As shown in Table 2, these six principal components explain 63% of the observed variability in the input data set.
+The factor grouping, based on varimax rotation (Table 3), shows the score for each of the 21 variables of the six principal components identified in the PCA. The variables having more weight in the principal factors are marked in bold in Table 3.
+The analysis of the factor loading matrix leads to a reduced number of components that can explain the graduates’ views on unemployment.
+These six principal components, obtained by grouping the 21 variables, are presented in Table 4.
+Statistical Description and Codes of the 21 Variables
+Globalization in the Spanish construction sector
+Government’s public infrastructure policy
+Lack of government funding for housing
+Lack of training of university graduates
+Unemployed graduates only seeking good jobs
+Lack of job search know-how
+Socially unbalanced job distribution
+No eagerness to work
+Many people with simultaneous jobs
+Unemployed professionals lack foreign language skills
+Unemployed professionals lack initiative to work in other countries
+Inadequate design of university programs
+Too many professionals for current market demands
+Too many universities offering similar undergraduate degrees
+Too many universities offering similar graduate degrees
+Screen plot of the PCA
+Principal components are based on the internal relationships between answers.
+They are underlying factors that collect the information present in the different survey questions (Jolliffe 2002), in some sense simplifying the structure of this information and giving visibility to students concerns about the present situation.
+Assuming that the order among the principal components reflects their relevance for the graduates answering the questionnaire (Jolliffe 2002), the first and second components should receive special attention.
+The authors therefore note the importance of PC1, which accounts for more than 22% of the variability of opinions (see Table 4).
+According to this principal component, the primary reason for the high unemployment rate among young professionals
+f the Factors in the Principal Components,
+PC = principal component.
+Variables with more weight in the principal factors are marked in bold font.
+is intrinsic, that is, they are not willing to move to other countries;
+they lack knowledge of foreign languages and communication skills, or they only want well-paid and comfortable jobs.
+Regarding the remaining factors, PC2 (economic policies) and PC4 (structure and characteristics of the labor market) are crucially related because both consider the current economic scenario and its impact on the labor market.
+These two principal components (PC2 and PC4) explain 21.7% of the observed variability in the input data set, and they highlight the importance of variables such as the government’s employment policy and the social distribution of work.
+Even if the current crisis were, a priori, the primary reason perceived by the students, their honesty is revealed when they attribute the problems they have to enter the labor market to their own shortcomings.
+The lack of training in foreign languages and the inertia of staying home and not traveling to other countries are key elements in the principal component PC1 (intrinsic reasons).
+One possible interpretation of this result is that students who have chosen to enroll in the PMaCE are not willing to go abroad to secure employment, at least until they finish their academic degrees.
+Analysis of Variance
+After examining the general opinion of the respondents, ANOVA was undertaken to determine if the students’ background produced different perceptions regarding unemployment.
+To this end, the students were characterized in the first part of the questionnaire.
+The items included in the questionnaire are the categories addressed in this ANOVA analysis, as follows:
+professional degree, nationality, current work status, expected net salary over the next five years, professional experience, gender, age, primary area of professional experience, and organization in which they practice (or have practiced) their profession.
+Table 5 summarizes the results obtained in the ANOVA analysis.
+This indicates the categories with statistically significant differences in the perception of the six principal components or the reasons for the high unemployment among Spanish young professionals in construction.
+These results are discussed in the following paragraphs.
+Professional Degree
+This category consists of two levels, 3- or 4-year degree and 5- or 6-year degree.
+Of the six components tested, there is a statistically significant difference with a confidence level of 95% between the average values for PC2 (economic policies) of one professional degree level and another P¼0.0309), as shown in Fig. 2.
+On average, graduates with a 3- or 4-year degree consider that the current economic situation affects unemployment to a greater extent than do graduates with a 5- or 6-year degree.
+This concern, expressed by respondents in relation to employability, is intensified in an inverse proportion to the number of years needed to complete their professional degree.
+This may explain why the students have decided to broaden their knowledge and training through the PMaCE.
+Nationality
+In this study, a respondent’s nationality was classified as either Spanish or non-Spanish.
+In this case, the mean value of these two components revealed a statistically significant difference with respect to PC1 (intrinsic reasons) and PC2 (economic policies) P¼ 0.0002 and P < 0.0000, respectively).
+Therefore, Fig. 3 shows that the perception of Spanish respondents regarding unemployment is different from that of the non-Spanish respondents.
+It also shows that Spanish respondents give more importance to intrinsic reasons than non-Spanish respondents.
+Regarding the assessment of current Spanish economic policy, the ANOVA analysis revealed a statistically significant difference between the opinions of Spanish and non-Spanish respondents.
+The former consider that this situation has a greater influence on unemployment than the latter, who probably do not envision a professional career in Spain.
+Current Working Status
+This subsection focuses on the different perceptions on graduates’ unemployment according to the respondents’ current working status.
+To this end, respondents were classified as either employed or unemployed.
+The ANOVA analysis showed that the two categories (employed and unemployed respondents) differed significantly in their perceptions of how the structure and characteristics of the labor market (PC4) affect graduate unemployment P¼0.0172).
+Fig. 4 shows that employed respondents consider this factor has more of an impact on unemployment than unemployed respondents.
+Grouping of Variables into Principal Components
+Lack of training of the university graduates
+Graduate intrinsic reasons
+Unemployed graduates only seeking good jobs
+Lack of job search know-how
+No eagerness to work
+Unemployed professionals lack initiative to work in other countries
+Globalization in the Spanish construction sector
+Current situation related to Spanish economic policy
+Government’s public infrastructure policy
+Lack of government funding for housing
+Inadequate design of university programs
+Structure and characteristics of the labor market
+Socially imbalanced job distribution
+Many people with simultaneous jobs
+Too many professionals for current market demands
+Too many universities offering similar undergraduate degrees
+Construction industry management problems
+Lack of training of university graduates
+Summary of ANOVA Results
+Nationality
+Expected net salary
+Professional experience Gender
+Main area professional experience
+ANOVA PC2, professional degree, 95% least significance	Fig. 3.
+ANOVA PC1 and PC2, nationality, 95% least significance
+ANOVA PC4, current working status, 95% least significance difference
+Expected Net Salary
+Respondents were classified depending on their expected salary (monthly net and annual gross) over the next five years, as follows:
+(1) less than 1;
+500 Euro=month (32;
+000 Euro=year), (2) between 1;
+500 Euro=month (32;
+000 Euro=year) and 2;
+500 Euro=month
+000 Euro=year), and (3) more than 2;
+500 Euro=month (55;
+000 Euro=year).
+Some additional information of the current context of the Spanish construction industry is needed to understand these figures.
+The minimum official gross wage is 9;
+000 Euro=year, whereas the gross wage in Spain for a construction site manager varies from 30;
+000 Euro=year (Michael Page 2012).
+Of the six components tested, only in the analysis of PC4 (structure and characteristics of the labor market) did the difference becomes statistically significant.
+Their perceptions of how the labor market affects graduates’ unemployment (P¼0.0105) depended on their expected net salary.
+Respondents expecting a net salary less than 1;
+500 Euro=month consider that the labor market has less impact on unemployment than these expecting a net salary greater than 1;
+500 Euro=month (Fig. 5).
+Respondent perceptions of construction graduates’ unemployment were analyzed considering the professional experience of the respondents.
+This category included three possibilities, as follows:
+none, 1–3 years, and more than 3 years of professional experience.
+ANOVA PC4, expected net salary, in Euros per month, 95%
+The ANOVA analysis revealed P¼0.0017) that respondents with no professional experience consider that the current economic crisis (PC2) has a greater impact on unemployment than respondents with some professional experience (Fig. 6).
+Other Factors
+This study also examined the perception of unemployment in accordance with the participants gender, age, primary area of professional experience, and organization in which he or she practices (or has practiced) his or her profession.
+Respondents were characterized as follows:
+gender (male or female), age (<26, 26–29, or >29 years old), primary area of professional experience (planning and feasibility analysis, design, construction site supervision, project management, operation and maintenance, and education and research), and organization in which he or she practices (or has practiced) the profession (private or public sector).
+An ANOVA analysis of the six principal components based on these categories was undertaken.
+This study concluded with a 95% confidence that there are no statistically significant differences in the perception of graduates’ unemployment.
+Conclusions and Limitations
+A good graduate education may not be the key to improve the employability of postgraduates, primarily in a context of economic crisis with very little employment opportunities.
+Nevertheless, the authors feel that the analysis of students’ perceptions regarding training gaps that affect their employability is a first and very important step for subsequent research.
+The problems perceived by students to obtain a job become their expectations regarding enrollment in a graduate program.
+This paper presents a case study;
+thus, the results cannot yet be extrapolated to the population of young Spanish professionals working in the construction industry.
+However, this analysis does offer interesting considerations for future research.
+Principal components are underlying factors that collect the information present in the different survey questions, simplifying its structure and imparting visibility to students concerns about the present situation.
+The first two components explain one-third of the total variability in students’ answers, remarking the relevance that students’ responses give to graduate intrinsic reasons (22% of the variance) and current situation related to Spanish economic policy (13% of the variance).
+The six principal components identified explain up to 63% of the variability.
+The primary reasons perceived by graduates as the cause for unemployment are intrinsic in nature.
+These intrinsic reasons involve attitude (e.g., unwillingness to move to other countries to look for work or to accept anything but comfortable or well-paid jobs).
+Other issues are related to their lack of training in foreign languages or poor communication skills (e.g., public speaking and presentations), their inexperience in looking for jobs, or their inadequate managerial skills.
+It can be concluded that although the current job outlook is complicated, respondents believe that the primary reason for the high rate of graduate unemployment is directly attributable to them.
+Therefore, respondents believe that an increase in employment opportunities depends fundamentally on their capabilities.
+Nevertheless, the importance of these intrinsic reasons varies depending on the nationality of the respondent;
+non-Spanish respondents are more critical than the Spanish when assessing how intrinsic factors affect a graduate’s employability in the construction sector.
+Surprisingly, the current situation of the Spanish economy is a secondary factor in this analysis.
+This factor explains 13% of the total variability and entails variables such as the government’s employment and public infrastructure policies, the lack of support for housing, and the high public debt.
+The ANOVA analysis performed in this study highlights characteristics that generate the respondents’ different perceptions of this factor.
+Three categories of respondents that perceived this principal component differently are professional degree, nationality, and professional experience.
+In the characterization of the respondents’ professional degree, statistically significant differences were detected.
+Respondents with 3- to 4-year degrees are more concerned about the economic crisis than are respondents with 5- to 6-year degrees.
+Respondents’ nationality is also a factor that shows a statistically significant difference in perception.
+The difference in perception between Spanish and non-Spanish respondents is that the former consider, on average, that the current economic situation has a greater effect on the graduate employability.
+Finally, it can be concluded that respondents with no professional experience consider that this factor influences graduates’ unemployment more than respondents with professional experience.
+The remaining factors derived from the 21 original variables included in the questionnaire explain an additional 28% of the total variability.
+These factors include training gaps, labor market, excess of graduates/qualifications, and the business structure.
+From the analysis of variance based on the categories included in the first part of the questionnaire, the authors conclude that the only factor that has significant differences with any of the categories is the structure of the labor market.
+The two categories that provide a different insight into how the labor market influences graduates’ employability are current working status of respondents and expected net salary.
+It can be assumed that unemployed respondents and respondents expecting a net salary below 1;
+500 Euro=month believe that issues related to the labor market contribute less to construction graduate unemployment than do those employed and expecting higher net salaries.
+Overall, the authors conclude that students are concerned about employability, especially young Spanish professionals, who completed a 3- to 4-year degree and have no professional experience.
+They perceive that, being better prepared, they will face their professional future with greater guarantees.
+Moreover, respondents recognize that overcoming internal barriers, such as their unwillingness to move abroad and their lack of foreign language skills, would significantly improve their chances for employment.
+Considering these training gaps, the PMaCE program could be improved by implementing transversal competencies in its different subjects and syllabi, establishing a strategy for differentiation.
+Primarily, the English language should be used in some (or every course) along with English language textbooks as course references, analyzing papers as a homework basis, or inviting native speakers to lecture.
+Communications skills can also be polished by requiring students to deliver oral presentations of their assignments as done in professional meetings, and by encouraging them to participate more actively in the classroom.
+Furthermore, student mobility and international exchange must be actively promoted, primarily for the third semester (M.Sc. thesis).
+The European Union, the Spanish government, and the university have all earmarked considerable funds for mobility and exchange in spite of the current economic crisis.
+Thus, the School of Civil Engineering must facilitate outgoing graduate student mobility, especially with respect to Europe and the United States.
+These improvements primarily result in the intensive development of leadership, and team development to a lesser extent.
+Focusing on a specific subject (such as project assessment), international projects and globalization in construction could be included into the syllabi of one or more courses, or a new course on this topic can be added to the curriculum.
+This subject should address the entire lifecycle of the infrastructure and present different angles, cultural and ethical in addition to legal and contractual.
+A major limitation of this research is that it is a case study focused on a graduate program in construction management.
+To extrapolate these results to the generality of young Spanish professionals working in the construction industry, they should be validated by further empirical investigations on a larger scale;
+the authors are already working in this line of research.
+Nonetheless, similar programs focused on construction management, not only in Spain but also in other countries currently affected by a similar difficult scenario, could also take into consideration most of the conclusions inferred in this paper and implement them into their program and syllabi.
+Another limitation is that students’ perception is not the same as reality.
+Future work should involve a larger study sample of construction professionals and analyze the changes in the respondents’ opinions on employability, in light of the economic situation.
+This information will be vital when adapting the contents and syllabi of a graduate program to the labor market needs.
+Civil engineer (5- to 6-year degree)
+Quantity surveyor/technical architect/similar
+Others (indicate)
+Nationality
+Employed (full time)
+Employed (part time)
+On scholarship
+Monthly expected net salary in 5 years’ time
+500 Euro=month
+500 Euro=month
+Age (years)
+Professional experience
+No experience or <1 year
+c. 3–5 years
+More than 10 years
+Main area of professional experience (in case of no professional experience, indicate area of main interest) a.
+Planning and feasibility analysis
+Operation and maintenance
+Education and research
+Other (specify)
+Organization in which you practice (or have practiced) yourprofession (in case of no professional experience, please indicate organization of main interest)
+Consulting engineering or architectural firm
+Company working in the operation phase (including main-
+Other type of company (specify)
+Public agency or administration
+University or research center
+Other (specify)
+Many university graduates in the construction industry are currently unemployed because of (Likert scale from 1 to 5) 10.
+Current economic crisis
+Globalization in the Spanish construction sector
+Government’s public infrastructure policy
+Lack of government funding for housing
+Lack of training of university graduates
+Unemployed graduates only seeking good jobs
+Lack of job search know-how
+Socially unbalanced job distribution
+No eagerness to work
+Many people with simultaneous jobs
+Unemployed professionals lack foreign language skills
+Unemployed professionals lack initiative to work in othercountries
+Inadequate design of university programs
+Too many universities offering similar undergraduate degrees
+Too many universities offering similar graduate degrees
+Acknowledgments
+The authors are grateful to the students of the third and fourth editions of the M.Sc. in planning and management in civil engineering at the Universitat Politècnica de València.
+The authors also thank Dr. Debra Westall for revising the manuscript and three anonymous reviewers for their valuable suggestions.

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+Process-Oriented Approach of Teaching Building
+Information Modeling in Construction Management
+It is widely accepted that the evolution of building information modeling (BIM) is increasingly affecting the roles of construction management professionals in the architecture, engineering, and construction (AEC) industry.
+Since the transition from 2D drafting to BIM is more of a process transformation, the use of BIM also affects how information is managed by and for construction management professionals.
+Teaching BIM in construction engineering and management (CEM) curriculum requires more emphasis on learning BIM as a process improvement methodology rather than only a technology.
+This paper describes the implementation of a graduate level course called “Building Information Modeling for Capital Projects” that was developed to educate next-generation construction managers to understand BIM and effectively use an existing BIM in plan execution for building construction projects.
+This is a project-based course where students gain knowledge on the implementation of BIM concepts throughout the life cycle of a building.
+A process-oriented teaching approach was applied in the course and is introduced in the paper.
+Findings and lessons learned to date from the teaching experience are documented.
+10.1061/(ASCE)EI.1943-5541.0000203. © 2014 American Society of Civil Engineers.
+Author keywords:
+Building information modeling (BIM);
+Process-oriented teaching;
+Construction management;
+Construction education.
+Introduction
+Building information modeling (BIM) was introduced to the architecture, engineering, and construction (AEC) industry nearly 10 years ago and is continuously evolving with time.
+BIM is regarded as an innovative approach and integrated process that supports efficient design, information storage and retrieval, modelbased data analysis, visual decision making, and communication among project stakeholders (Eastman et al. 2008;
+Krygiel and Nies 2008).
+Although the various definitions of BIM have been given with a different focus, most researchers and practitioners believe that BIM is not a product or technology;
+instead, it is a process that can facilitate project success when utilized throughout the project life cycle (Autodesk 2003).
+According to McGraw-Hill Construction’s Smart Market Report (2009), almost 50% of the AEC industry is using BIM and the biggest challenge to BIM adoption is the lack of adequate BIM training.
+As the importance of BIM is widely recognized in the AEC industry, it is essential for the new generation of construction management professionals to learn BIM while undertaking studies at universities.
+This paper describes the implementation and lessons learned from a graduate level course called “Building Information Modeling for Capital Projects” that was developed to educate nextgeneration AEC professionals to understand BIM and effectively use an existing BIM in plan execution for a building construction project.
+This course focuses on BIM as a collaborative process
+Ph.D. Candidate, Dept. of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering, Univ. of Texas at Austin, 1 University Station C1752, Austin,
+TX 78712 (corresponding author).
+[email protected]
+Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering, Univ. of Texas at Austin, 1 University Station C1700, Austin, TX 78712.
+[email protected]
+Note. This manuscript was submitted on February 1, 2013;
+approved on February 3, 2014;
+published online on March 11, 2014.
+Discussion period open until August 11, 2014;
+separate discussions must be submitted for individual papers.
+This paper is part of the Journal of Professional Issues in
+Engineering Education & Practice, © ASCE, ISSN 1052-3928/04014004
+rather than a design tool.
+There was no requirement for advance modeling since all models using in course work were provided.
+Students were asked to use existing models to perform tasks including model-based cost estimating, scheduling and 4D simulation, mechanical, electrical, and plumbing (MEP) design coordination, and energy modeling.
+A process-oriented teaching approach was applied to (1) emphasize the importance of understanding BIM as a process;
+and (2) provide students with active learning experiences by encouraging self-directed learning and critical thinking throughout the course.
+The process-oriented teaching approach for BIM education is introduced and lessons learned to date from the teaching experience are documented in the following sections.
+Background Research
+Approximately 30 years ago, computer-aided design (CAD) was introduced to the AEC industry.
+Designers and engineers experienced the cultural and technological shift from two-dimensional (2D) hand drawing to computer-aided design and drafting.
+Many undergraduate programs started to offer classes on designing and drafting with AutoCAD. Nowadays, as BIM is gaining wide acceptance and recognition, AEC professionals are facing a new transition from CAD to BIM. BIM represents a new generation of virtual models, which is based on parametric modeling and serves as an information-rich database that stores multidimensional features of a structure.
+In response to this promising technology and to industry needs for relevant skills, academic institutions are exploring strategies and approaches to incorporate BIM education in their undergraduate and graduate curricula.
+Researchers found that BIM is one of the most challenging and recent trends for construction management programs but BIM pedagogy is not yet consolidated (Johnson and Gunderson 2009;
+Casey 2008).
+In recent years, an increasing number of academic institutions have started to incorporate this new technology into their programs to respond to industry needs for these skills.
+Schools such as Penn State, Georgia Tech, University of Southern California, TechnionIsrael Institute of Technology, and University of Texas at Austin have successfully integrated BIM education in their programs (e.g., Becerik-Gerber et al. 2012;
+Barison and Santos 2010;
+Sacks and Barak 2010).
+A survey conducted by Becerik-Gerber et al. (2011) showed that among 101 U.S AEC programs, 60% of the construction management programs offer BIM courses, while the percentage is 81% for architecture programs and 44% for engineering programs.
+In architecture and engineering programs, BIM education mostly focuses on design and visualization, especially the transition from CAD to BIM (Berwald 2008;
+Denzer and Hedges 2008).
+Students are taught how to create, modify, or analyze the model and the final deliverables are mostly project designs (Berwald 2008;
+Taylor et al. 2008).
+It is important to teach BIM as a design tool in a Design Studio or modeling course;
+however, as BIM is recognized as “the process of creating and using digital models for design, construction, and/or operations of projects” (McGraw-Hill Construction 2009), it should be also taught in construction and facility management.
+The data-rich nature of BIM enables the model to not only be a digital representation of the design, but also to support quantity takeoff, model-based calculations, clash detection, energy efficiency analysis, and electronic documents.
+Therefore, in addition to teaching BIM in design education, it is equally important to teach students the potential of BIM application throughout the project life cycle as well as the knowledge and experience of how to manipulate, manage, and make good use of the model.
+BIM education in construction management is comparatively new.
+Some institutions integrated BIM into existing courses as a teaching tool (Kim 2012;
+Meadati and Irizarry 2011) or as a new module (Clevenger et al. 2010;
+Gier 2008).
+Only a few institutions offer BIM as a new standalone course (Bur 2009;
+Dupuis et al. 2008).
+A survey conducted by Sabongi (2009) reported that less than 1% of the responding institutions offer BIM as a standalone course.
+Teaching BIM in construction management is challenging for several reasons.
+First, it is critical to help students form a correct understanding of BIM. As noted by Kymmell (2008), the problem of misunderstanding BIM concepts is the most important hurdle to overcome in BIM education.
+BIM is not simply new software or a standalone tool that supports an individual discipline.
+Hence, understanding how BIM streamlines the collaboration process of a construction project is much more important than mastering software (Hietanen and Drogemuller 2008;
+Kymmell 2008).
+Second, considering the ever increasing evolution speed of information technology, it is very likely that the content taught in class especially the handson training on BIM applications will be outdated in the near future.
+Therefore, it is important for university educators to place more emphasis on students’ ability of self-directed learning by focusing on the learning process rather than strictly the content.
+Furthermore, as BIM is still emerging, critical thinking should be strongly encouraged throughout the teaching process.
+In response to these challenges, the authors developed the course “Building Information Modeling for Capital Projects” and applied a process-oriented teaching approach, which is presented in the following sections.
+Traditional teaching tends to focus on the content (knowledge and/or skills), while process-oriented instruction also deals explicitly with the process of acquiring this content (Bolhuis 2003).
+In learning theory, process-oriented instruction aims at fostering and facilitating self-directed lifelong learning among students.
+The teacher activates students to participate, practice on their own, learn from others, work productively as a group, and question the formal knowledge.
+Previous research demonstrates that students learn more by engaging them actively “to explore, to question, to experiment, and to formulate their own solutions” (Li and Liu 2004).
+Process-oriented teaching was first introduced in language learning.
+Because the content of a language is unlimited, only when grasping the process (learning methods/strategies) can a student achieve continuous learning.
+Learning evolving information technology is similar to process learning.
+Thus, traditional teachercentered teaching should be replaced by teacher-assisted learning.
+This is a graduate-level course for students interested in construction management and information technology in the AEC industry.
+This course focuses on the skills and information needed to effectively use an existing BIM in plan execution for a building construction project.
+This is a project-based course where students gain knowledge on the implementation of BIM concepts throughout the life cycle of a building, from planning and design, to construction and operations.
+Learning Objectives
+This course is designed to provide construction management students with core concepts of BIM, the knowledge of implementing BIM as a process and as a new way of thinking throughout the project life cycle, hands-on experience with BIM software and the opportunity to develop international team collaboration and critical thinking through group projects and individual assignments.
+By taking this class, students will be able to (1) define BIM, (2) describe workflow in using BIM in the building life cycle, (3) describe the process of model-based cost estimating, (4) perform 4D simulations, (5) apply BIM to reduce error and change orders in capital projects, (6) evaluate the use of 3D point clouds to support construction and asset management, (7) perform building energy performance simulations, and (8) evaluate and communicate ideas related to the use of BIM in the building life cycle.
+Course Organization and Instructional Approaches
+Instructional approaches include lecture (topic instruction and lab tutorials), team-based learning (time-for-questions workshop, hands-on exercise, case study, group presentation, and discussion) and individual learning (reading assignments and synthesis report).
+An innovation of this course compared to previous efforts is that the teaching approach and evaluation principle are process-oriented, which means the emphasis is placed on understanding BIM as a new construction management process as well as its impacts on project success.
+BIM is not only a technology but also a methodology.
+Especially with information technology booming, BIM products are also advancing rapidly;
+mastering one or more software should not be the focus in BIM education in universities.
+Process-oriented approach encourages students to grasp the role of BIM in different project phases so that they know why this tool is used, how it improves the project performance, and how it can be further improved.
+For example, the model-based cost estimating module is designed to familiarize the students with the recipesmethods-resources approach, which is the basis of model-based cost estimation.
+This module was first offered using Vico Constructor and Vico Estimator along with paperback RSMeans (Waier 2010) in Fall 2010 and Spring 2011.
+To enhance the ease of use, Assemble was later introduced as an alternative quantity takeoff software solution in Spring 2013.
+In Fall 2013, students used Assemble along with the online version of RSMeans, which enables direct import of cost data from RSMeans to an estimation software or spreadsheet.
+Although different software systems have been used in different offerings of the class, the basic concept of BIMenabled cost estimating remains the core of this module.
+The evaluation mechanism of lab-based assignments is also based on the students’ discussion on the process and the understanding of tasks based on practice, rather than the result itself.
+The assessment rubrics were developed by the instructor for each assignment.
+As an example, Table 1 shows the rubric for the scheduling and 4D simulation assignment.
+The course content is organized as learning modules covering various topics.
+Every module is composed of four sessions:
+Topic introduction:
+Introductory lecture supplemented byadditional reading assignments;
+Lab session I:
+Step by step hands-on tutorial lead by a teachingassistant (TA);
+Lab session II:
+Time for question workshop when studentsseek for help, ask questions, work in groups, and interact with other groups;
+Reflection	and	discussion-assignment	delivery	and presentation.
+These modules provide students with core BIM knowledge, hands-on practice with the state-of-art BIM solutions, and collaboration experience with students from different countries with various backgrounds.
+All lab-based assignments are done in groups.
+At the beginning of the class, students form groups of three to four.
+Students are encouraged to create teams with varied industry experience levels and background.
+Detailed explanations of each session in the learning modules are presented as follows.
+Topic Introduction—The goal of lectures is to introduce basic concepts of BIM to students, providing the necessary knowledge for them to effectively accomplish course requirements.
+Subjects such as model-based cost estimating, construction scheduling and 4D simulation, design coordination, construction progress monitoring with 3D point clouds and energy simulation are covered.
+Somewhat competent
+Logical and detailed schedule (activities considering who, what and where)
+Logical schedule but not all activities are detailed as to who, what and where
+Schedule not considering order of activities (e.g., columns before slab in same floor)
+Fast-track schedule with sculpture installation problem
+Logical and detailed schedule (activities considering who, what and where)
+Logical schedule but not all activities are detailed as to who, what and where
+Schedule not considering order of activities (e.g., columns before slab in same floor)
+All objects have a link to a specific activity in the schedule;
+objects were disaggregated in each floor to reflect the level of detail in the schedule
+All objects have a link to a specific activity in the schedule;
+no disaggregation of objects in a single floor
+Not all objects are linked to the schedule/several objects do not show up in the simulation
+Fast track with sculpture 4D
+All objects have a link to a specific activity in the schedule;
+objects were disaggregated in each floor to reflect the level of detail in the schedule
+All objects have a link to a specific activity in the schedule;
+no disaggregation of objects in a single floor
+Not all objects are linked to the schedule/several objects do not show up in the simulation
+Discussion regarding selection of level of detail of each activity, stating assumptions and information used from estimating assignment.
+Discussion on resource balancing for fast-track schedule.
+Limited or no discussion regarding selection of level of detail of each activity.
+Some assumptions discussed.
+Some discussion on resource balancing for fast-track schedule.
+No discussion regarding selection of level of detail of each activity.
+No assumptions discussed.
+No discussion on resource balancing for fast-track schedule.
+Discussion on possible ways of keeping track of an as-built schedule aligned with an as-planned schedule.
+Discussion on mapping process and limitation of the 4D system they used.
+Mention that it might be possible to keep track of an as-built schedule aligned with an as-planned schedule, but no discussion on how.
+Only discussed mapping process.
+No mention that it might be possible to keep track of an as-built schedule aligned with an as-planned schedule, but no discussion on how.
+Did not mention mapping process.
+Scheduling and 4D Simulation Rubric
+In order to support, broaden, and strengthen knowledge on specific subjects, book chapters, articles, journal papers, and other documents are provided to the students as supplementary learning material.
+Lectures are presented by the instructor, with group discussions on various topics related to the class materials or assigned readings.
+Lab Session I:
+Tutorial—In-class demonstrations of software tools are presented for all hands-on exercises.
+These step-by-step tutorials are intended to provide students with an introduction to the tools, not to fully train students on the use of tools.
+Students need to self-study in order to work effectively with the tools.
+This session not only provides student with hands-on experience with the stateof-art BIM solutions, but also trains them on self-directed learning.
+Lab Session II:
+Workshop—These sessions are held in the lab allowing students to work in groups, exchange ideas with other groups, and solve issues they have on the assignments by discussing with classmates or the instructor or TA. Through these workshops, students are able to develop social learning skills and communication skills.
+Frequently asked question (FAQ) files are developed by the TA during the process to provide sufficient guidance to the students.
+These files are also stored as references for future course development.
+The FAQ file was continuously updated, as new questions were posed to the instructor or TA, and the latest version of the FAQ file was posted on the course website.
+Some examples of the FAQs are “How can I attach the same activity to different elements at multiple times without losing the attachments that are previously made?
+“How do I check the recipe assignments” and “How do I save the model in Vico Constructor as an
+Reflection and Discussion—Each group is required to submit a report summarizing their work and discussing the problems they had, how they solved them and developing a wish list for future technology improvement.
+Each team chooses one assignment to present during the course.
+This session is critical for applying process-oriented instruction.
+Students are encouraged to share and discuss their experience with software manipulation, the process of accomplishing certain tasks, the benefits, and challenges of BIM implementation during the process, collaboration methods used among group members and suggestions for future improvements on the technology used.
+Some examples of the discussion points are “how to incorporate sculpture installation analysis in the 4D model,” “what are some characteristics of a project that would benefit the most from a 4D system?
+” “discuss a wish list containing five to 10 items that you would like to have in an ideal 4D system,” and “what should be taken into consideration when creating a BIM in order to obtain more accurate results in automatic clash
+Five modules are developed for this course.
+In additional to the learning modules, a case study is required for each group to help them enrich the knowledge with real world examples.
+Industry professionals were also invited to give guest lectures, providing practical applications of BIM in real-world projects.
+Moreover, a synthesis report due at the end of the course motivates innovative and critical thinking on specific BIM-related topics.
+Details of the modules, case study, and synthesis report are presented in the “Course Assignments” section.
+Table 2 shows a summary of course evaluation items, deliverables and weights for the course in Fall 2011, which include individual assignment (e.g., assemblies estimate and synthesis report), group assignments (e.g., lab-based assignments and case study), one quiz and class participation.
+Lab-Based Assignments and Learning Modules
+The learning modules developed for this course were model-based cost estimating, scheduling and 4D simulation, MEP design coordination, 3D point clouds and energy simulation.
+As introduced above, each learning module contains one lab-based assignment.
+All necessary software, drawings, specifications, models, and instructions are provided.
+For the model-based estimating module, Vico Constructor and Vico Estimator were used to conduct the computer-aided estimation tasks in Fall 2010 and Spring 2011;
+Assemble Systems and Autodesk Revit were used in Spring 2013 and Fall 2013.
+For scheduling, Microsoft Project was used, with Primavera as an optional choice.
+Autodesk Navisworks Manage was used for 4D simulation and MEP Design Coordination.
+Autodesk Photofly (now called Autodesk 123D Catch) and Autodesk AutoCAD were used for the 3D Point Clouds module.
+Autodesk Green Building Studio was used for the energy simulation module.
+Model-Based Cost Estimating:
+In this module, students are introduced to the concept of model-based cost estimating by automatically linking a quantity takeoff from a provided model to an existing cost database.
+Teams are responsible for estimating the cost of building columns, beams, slabs, walls, and windows for a section of a commercial building.
+Students start with an
+scheduling and 4D simulation
+Group presentation + report based on lab assignment
+Group presentation + report based on lab assignment
+Group presentation + report based on lab assignment
+energy simulation
+Group presentation + report based on lab assignment
+Group presentation + report
+Synthesis report
+Individual report in the format of a conference paper
+Class participation (instructor’s discretion)
+Evaluation Summary Table (Fall 2011)
+.ifc (buildingSMART 2013) file of the project and use blueprints as a reference for design specifications and generate an estimate for the given scope of a structure.
+For the practice of cost estimation, teams need to choose one element to prepare a full recipe by specifying construction methods, resources, and associated costs based on RSMeans (Waier 2010).
+In addition to an estimate, the groups are asked to discuss questions such as
+• “What are the benefits and limitations associated with using Vico Estimator for cost estimating purposes?
+• “How did this tool improve the estimating task?
+• “What features of the system need improvement?
+• “What are the considerations you must make while using Vico Estimator to estimate, as opposed to paper-based estimating?
+• “At what point in the design process would the current version of this tool be most useful (i.e., is this tool more useful for 90% complete design versus 30%)?
+• “What construction environments would benefit most from this tool?
+• “What do you see are the opportunities and challenges of file-exchange between multiple software packages in the AEC industry?
+Scheduling and 4D Simulation:
+Because of the data-rich nature of BIM, the model serves as a repository of information and provides easy and anytime access to insert, extract, update, or modify digital data.
+BIM fosters a four-dimensional (4D) simulation by facilitating integration of 3D model with time.
+The 4D modeling provides a virtual reality environment and improves the ability of students to comprehend and learn construction processes.
+In this module, students are asked to use MS Project for scheduling and Autodesk Navisworks Manage 2012 for 4D modeling.
+In this assignment, students learn how to link activities to model components to visualize and analyze construction processes.
+They are asked to develop two schedules for the construction of slabs, walls, columns, beams and windows of a section of a commercial building.
+The first schedule should be created assuming that there is not a major time-constraint on the job site.
+The second schedule should be an improved fast-track schedule that aims at completing the project in minimum time frame.
+The second schedule should also contain activities and sequences associated with the installation of a sculpture.
+The students are asked to bring both schedules to a 4D environment and analyze the construction processes generated to identify any possible constructability issues in their schedules and improvement opportunities to deliver the facility in a shorter duration.
+The advantages and challenges of using 4D simulation for scheduling and planning are discussed in the reports and also in class on the presentation day.
+MEP Design Coordination:
+MEP design coordination is the task in which BIM is currently most widely used in the AEC industry, usually lead by the general contractor (GC) and coordinated among the subcontractors.
+This assignment has students explore BIM-based clash detection using Autodesk Navisworks Manage.
+Through hands-on demonstration, the teaching module introduces how to use Navisworks to automatically detect clashes between trades, as well as analyze which of the automatically identified clashes are true positives.
+Students are quickly impressed by the instant check of clashes performed by the software;
+however, the objective of this module is to emphasize the truth that BIM as a tool is never perfect.
+The most challenging and timeconsuming work for clash detection is the identification of true positive clashes.
+Professionals and researchers agree that MEP coordination using BIM leads to less rework during installation compared to the traditional 2D design coordination process which is inefficient and error-prone.
+At the same time, it is also important to notice that automatic clash detection process using BIM provides a more complete identification of clashes, but with the cost of false positives (Leite et al. 2011).
+This module not only presents the fundamental effectiveness of automated clash detection, but also points out the presence of false clashes and forces students to think critically and not to blindly rely on technology.
+The precision and recall methodology of evaluating the performance of clash detection is introduced to the students (Leite et al. 2011).
+3D Point Clouds:
+This is a new module developed for the class in Fall 2011.
+This assignment has students explore Autodesk Photofly (now called Autodesk 123D Catch) software package to generate 3D models from 2D photographs.
+The students are asked to take photographs of two structures on campus using a handheld digital camera.
+The photographs are then imported into Autodesk Photoscene editor to generate a draft mesh.
+The students use the generated models to create the envelope of a specified element in the two structures, set the scale of the models, and then compare the dimensions that they get from the model with the actual dimensions of the element.
+This enables them to analyze the accuracy of the modeling process using photographs.
+Finally they import the models into AutoCAD and generate animations of the 3D models.
+While completing the models, the students are asked to describe the process of generating a 3D model using Autodesk Photofly highlighting the benefits and limitations of the modeling process, comment on the number of photos taken, compare the level of effort required to generate the two models and the camera setting used.
+They are also asked to compare the benefits and limitations of such a tool with that of a laser scanner, comment on the accuracy, give improvement suggestions for the system, and discuss what types of construction environments would benefit most from this tool.
+Energy Simulation:
+In this module, the teams are asked to perform building energy simulation and conduct energy consumption analysis using Autodesk’s Green Building Studio (GBS) on an existing building.
+Teams are responsible for exploring a design strategy to improve the energy efficiency of their assigned building and reduce the energy cost by at least 20% as compared to the base model.
+The students optimize the energy performance by changing the properties of roof, wall, or glazing, and evaluate which would be a better investment for the building owner in terms of energy savings.
+The evaluation of this assignment is not based on the final percentage of saving that the team achieve but the process of analysis and their learning from this energy simulation process described in the report.
+The case study provides students an opportunity to connect and communicate with industry professionals, learn from the practical experience and strengthen the knowledge learned in class with real world practices.
+Students are asked to directly contact, with the support of the course instructor, one company and develop one case study on a project that utilized BIM in any way.
+The questions they need to discuss include, but are not limited to:
+what challenges the project team faced which led to the use of BIM, what technologies were used, why were these technologies pertinent to the problem they were addressing, how was BIM implemented in the project and in which phase of project life cycle, how did these technologies facilitate project success, were there any measurable improvements, and what challenges were faced in BIM implementation.
+The groups address these questions by interviews, site visits, and project document analysis.
+Synthesis Report
+Students choose a topic discussed in class or any BIM-related topic of their choice, being it technical, managerial, case study related or a combination, to write a synthesis report in the format of a conference paper.
+It is an important opportunity to practice critical thinking, initiate their own ideas on BIM-related topics, and highlight their lessons-learned from this course.
+It also provides an opportunity for the students to conduct an in-depth and individual study on the topics they are interested in and develop academic writing skills.
+Students discuss their selected topics with the course instructor at the beginning of the semester and an outline and progress mid-semester.
+The final report is due at the end of the semester.
+This course was first offered in Fall 2010 and has been offered and fully evaluated for five semesters, in Fall 2010, Spring 2011, Fall 2011, Spring 2013 and Fall 2013.
+Enrollment has been offered on a limited basis (23 in Fall 2010, 12 in Spring 2011, 22 in Fall 2011, 21 in Spring 2013 and 23 in Fall 2013).
+Students are mostly Master’s students or Ph.D. students from the Construction Engineering and Project Management (CEPM) program, a graduate program in the Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering at the University of Texas at Austin.
+In order to keep a record of the student profiles and the learning outcomes of each semester, two surveys were conducted, one at the beginning of the semester and the other at the end of the course with a similar set of questions.
+The results of the survey are presented as follows.
+Area of Specialization
+Combining the results of five semesters, 72% of the students taking this course are from the CEPM program, 13% of students majored in Architectural Engineering, 7% are Civil Engineering undergraduates, 5% in Structural Engineering, and 3% in other majors such as Construction Materials or Mechanical Engineering.
+The main reason is that this is a graduate level course with a focus on using BIM to support decision making in construction management process.
+Including students with multidisciplinary background can add value to the course in terms of simulating real world situations and fostering students’ ability to collaborate in multidisciplinary teams.
+Industry Experience
+As shown in Fig. 1, more than 78% of the students have professional work experience, most of which were intern positions.
+Industry experience helps students better understand the role of BIM in specific tasks and the benefits and drawbacks of the systems.
+Previous BIM Experience
+56% of the students did not have any BIM experience before taking this course.
+Among those who had knowledge about BIM, some shared experiences include Revit modeling, 4D simulation, general introductory webinars and previous research or courses.
+The percentage of students without any BIM experience has dropped from 77% in Fall 2011 to 39% in Fall 2013.
+The instructor also observed that the level of knowledge of students changed throughout the years.
+More students are now familiar with BIM and understand BIM concepts at the start of the semester, as compared to the early offerings of this class.
+Learning Outcomes
+Over the course of a semester, students were able to (1) understand BIM as a process improvement rather than just a new software product;
+(2) describe workflow in using BIM in the building life cycle;
+(3) understand the process and gain practical experiences on performing tasks such as model-based cost estimating, 4D simulations, MEP design coordination, 3D point clouds generation with photographs and building energy performance simulations;
+(4) evaluate the use of BIM to support construction and asset management;
+and (5) evaluate and communicate ideas related to the use of BIM in the building life cycle.
+The students were asked to define BIM at the beginning of the course and refined it at the end of the course.
+Results were synthesized to compare the differences of the students’ understanding of BIM before and after taking the course.
+Based on the survey results, the majority of students were able to understand that BIM is a process or method rather than simply a modeling tool.
+Table 3 shows the result comparison from one semester (Fall 2010). 59% of the students were able to understand BIM as a process at the end of the course.
+Similar improvements were also observed in other semesters.
+Start of the semester
+End of the semester
+A model-based information management system
+An assembly of databases
+Integrate building information
+Cost estimating, MEP detection, scheduling, 3D visualization and planning
+Facility management, energy analysis and increase constructability
+Run simulation and clash detection
+Improve evaluation and decision making
+Cost and schedule control
+Others (intuitive decision making, data storage, faster response to RFI and more computing power)
+Facilitate preconstruction planning
+Result Comparison on BIM Definition by Students (Fall 2010)
+The major misconception is considering BIM as a set of computer programs or software systems or 3D modeling tool.
+As the recognition and accessibility of BIM is increasing in the AEC industry in recent year, this trend is also reflected in the class survey results throughout the five offerings of this course.
+For example, in Fall 2010, 77% of students considered BIM as only a modeling tool.
+However, the percentage has gradually decreased throughout the years (40% in Fall 2011, 37% in Spring 2011, 14% in Spring 2013 and 8% in Fall 2013).
+In Fall 2013, 52% of the students already understood BIM as a process before taking the course.
+More benefits of implementing BIM were recognized and fewer misunderstandings were found.
+Regarding each module, rubrics were used to assess student attainment of learning objectives.
+Table 1, shown previously, is the rubric used in the assessment of the scheduling and 4D simulation module.
+The most common limitations in student work for this module were related to (1) fast-track 4D with no disaggregation of the slab object;
+and (2) scheduling report section with limited discussion on level of detail of each activity.
+For course evaluation and improvement purposes, students are actively involved in the course development.
+They state their expectations for this course at the beginning of the semester.
+The most commonly cited expectations include (1) hands-on experience of BIM application;
+(2) better and in-depth understanding of BIM;
+and (3) knowledge of practical application of BIM in real projects.
+Based on the course assessment at the end of the semester and informal conversation between the instructor and students, those expectations were well addressed in the course.
+At the end of the semester, students are asked to provide suggestions for future course improvements.
+Their concerns and advice were taken into consideration of course modifications.
+In order to enhance the quality of the course, minor changes were made every semester based on the learning outcomes and the student feedback.
+Some examples are as follows.
+In order to reach a generally balanced work load for each lab-based assignment, the model-based cost estimating assignment was removed in Fall 2011 because students spent too much time navigating the software due to operational issues and software glitches.
+This module was offered again in Spring 2013 using another application (Assemble Systems).
+In addition, an energy simulation model was added to the syllabus upon students’ request in Spring 2011, a 3D point cloud module was added in Fall 2011 and a Revit modeling module was included in Fall 2013.
+The experience shows that the following software applications are most appropriate for this course in terms of usability and learning curve:
+Assemble Systems and Autodesk Revit for cost estimating, Microsoft Project for scheduling and Autodesk Navisworks Manage for 4D simulation and MEP Design Coordination.
+The case study requirements were also modified based on students’ suggestions.
+Groups are now asked to conduct one case study instead of two.
+The students should directly contact the company to obtain information on the project, which provides students a good chance to connect and communicate with industry professionals, and learn from real-world problems.
+Quiz on Reading Assignments
+Since most assignments are carried out in groups, a mid-term quiz was added to assess individual learning.
+According to the instructor’s observation, the quiz helps differentiate students’ performance on self-directed learning and facilitate group discussions in class on the reading assignments.
+By considering student feedback in the course development and refinement, progress was observed in the survey results.
+For example, in Fall 2011, nearly 50% of the students indicated that the course organization is well-structured and does not need any further improvement. discussed above, several students’ suggestions have been successfully adopted and other common suggestions include having more guest lectures, field trips, or other practical exposure to BIM use in live projects, or introducing more software applications and techniques in the class.
+Students’suggestions will be carefully considered and the course will be continuously improved to accommodate evolving needs.
+Industry Perspective
+While the emergence of BIM is stimulating a strategic and cultural shift in the AEC industry, AEC companies and owners are looking for employees who have considerable knowledge of BIM. University education provides great opportunities for students to gain basic knowledge of BIM before they enter the job market.
+A better understanding of the industry needs in terms of BIM education can help educators develop their BIM course in the direction that will benefit industry.
+Therefore, a survey was developed to elicit industrial expectations for Construction Engineering and Management (CEM) graduates in terms of BIM knowledge.
+The survey was sent to the Austin BIM Peer Group, guest lecturers of the BIM class, Engineers at the United States Army Corps of Engineers (USACE).
+A total of 33 responses were received.
+The respondents include owners (9%), design firms (31%), general contractors (27%), subcontractors (9%), and others (24%;
+e.g., the federal government).
+The average year of the companies’ history is approximately 78 years.
+Respondents include CAD/BIM managers, BIM directors, BIM coordinators, senior project managers, client executives and lead architects.
+In the survey, the respondents were asked to check all BIM knowledge requirements of their future employee as a BIM manager/engineer and a project manager.
+The results are shown in Fig. 2.
+Based on the survey results, a BIM manager/engineer is required to understand the general concept of BIM and how it changes the work process, with the ability to perform data analysis with existing BIMs and use BIM as a visualization and communication tool.
+The ability to create BIM and hands-on experience of specific BIM software are also considered as important prerequisites for a qualified BIM manager/engineer.
+Other requirements include
+• Improve interoperability and data exchange between different software and file types;
+laser scanning and surveying;
+• Ability to facilitate to sharing and leveraging of models and information they contain to further traditional construction activities;
+• Well-rounded knowledge of construction, understands the technical side of the business;
+• Basic understanding of the roles of all disciplines in the building design and construction industry.
+Three to five years of experience is preferred for a BIM manager/engineer.
+A few companies only require one to two years of experience for BIM engineers, while the position of BIM manager requires more experience and skills, approximately five to 10 years.
+A project manager (PM) may or may not directly use BIM but is also required to understand BIM and the working process involved or influenced by BIM. 91% of the respondents indicated that a project manager should understand BIM and how it changes the work process. 70% of the respondents indicated that a project manager should also have the ability to visualize BIM and use it for communication purposes. 45% of the respondents thought that it is necessary for a project manager to know how to perform data analysis with BIM. The skills of modeling and software navigation are not required for project managers in most companies.
+One respondent mentioned that “the PM of the future will be ‘BIM Enabled’, which means he/she should be able to leverage BIM to perform typical project management tasks;
+in other words, BIM has become the new and better ‘pencil’ for the construction manager.” Five to 10 years of experience is recommended for a project manager.
+Fig. 3 shows a summary of the BIM software packages used by the responding companies.
+Various Autodesk products (e.g., Revit, Navisworks, AutoCAD, and Civil 3D) are used in most companies, followed by Bentley products.
+Other BIM-related software systems mentioned include Vela, Tekla, Synchro, D-Profiler, Google SketchUp, Assemble, and Solibri.
+Results show that although the majority of AEC companies use Autodesk products, many companies also utilize other software systems.
+Future construction professionals need to grasp the fundamental ideas behind software systems in order to effectively communicate with various project participants.
+This way, regardless of the specific software solutions a company implements, the professional is able to adapt, since the fundamental knowledge from a project management perspective is independent of the software system.
+Concluding Remarks and Lessons Learned
+This paper documents the course design, instructional approaches, and learning outcomes of a graduate level course on BIM for Capital Projects.
+This course emphasizes learning BIM as an integral process which influences the overall project success from various aspects.
+Understanding the core value of BIM and its farreaching influences with specific training on innovative and critical thinking is much more important than mastering a piece of software.
+Reflecting on the course over five semesters, the main lessons learned include (1) process-oriented teaching and learning, (2) modular structure of the course design, and (3) constant tracking of learning outcomes.
+Process-oriented teaching emphasizes the importance of learning the process rather than the product, which provides students with active learning experiences by encouraging self-directed learning and critical thinking throughout the course.
+A combination of lectures, team-based learning and individual learning not only provides students with well-structured knowledge but also enables them to practice working and learning in a collaborative environment supplemented by self-reflections.
+For emerging technologies and trends as BIM, university education should put more emphasis on why and how in addition to what (e.g., Why is the BIM process better than the traditional process?
+Why is the software application good or not good?
+How can you improve it?
+Students would benefit more by knowing how to learn and think with a tool than simply knowing how to use it.
+The modular structure used in this course establishes a standard format for each learning module but also enables flexibility in terms of course content.
+Students get adequate training in each module through lectures, readings, lab tutorials, lab-based exercises and reflection and discussions, while the content of learning modules can be updated as required.
+Also, tracking learning outcomes was important, so as to assess the effectiveness of course design and teaching approaches.
+Adjustments can be made accordingly to improve the course.
+Several changes were successfully made over semesters based on course evaluation results.
+The instructor also observed that the level of knowledge of students changed throughout the years.
+More students are now familiar with BIM and understand BIM concepts at the start of the semester, as compared to the early offerings of this class.
+The course content may need to be updated as the technology evolves.
+Furthermore, familiarizing students with industry practice and expectations is also important.
+In addition to a well-directed course, case studies and guest lectures were also good ways for students to expand their vision and stimulate innovative ideas.
+With continuous modification and improvement over five semesters, the proposed process-oriented BIM teaching approach was successfully implemented and well received by the students.
+The end-of-semester course evaluation and students’ learning outcomes both demonstrate the benefits of this approach.
+In summary, this course can be considered a successful educational experience for teaching BIM in CEM programs.
+The process-oriented teaching approach, the modular structure of course design and lessons learned described in this paper can provide useful insights for educating next generation AEC professionals on emerging information technologies and innovations like BIM.

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+Need for Alternative Research Approaches in Construction Management:
+Case of Delay Studies
+Over the years, there have been many studies of delay in construction, and this type of study continues to be popular in construction management research.
+A synthesis and critical evaluation of delay studies in developing countries reveals that poor project management is cited as one of the main causes of delay.
+However, despite significant consensus, most published studies fall short of providing clear recommendations for the improvement of project management practice.
+Moreover, the majority of recommendations are general and not devoted to solving the difficulties associated with particular causes of delay.
+This paper aims to demonstrate that the root cause of this state of affairs is that typical research into delay tends to be descriptive and explanatory, making it inadequate for solving persistent managerial problems in construction.
+It is contended that many problems in construction could be mitigated through alternative research approaches, i.e., action and constructive research.
+Such prescriptive research methods can assist in the development and implementation of innovative tools tackling managerial problems of construction, including that of delay.
+In so doing, those methods will better connect research and practice, and thus strengthen the relevance of academic construction management.
+10.1061/(ASCE)ME.1943-5479.0000148.
+© 2013 American Society of Civil Engineers.
+CE Database subject headings:
+Delay time;
+Construction management;
+Case studies.
+Author keywords:
+Construction delay;
+Action research;
+Constructive research.
+Introduction
+Over many years, delay has been a popular topic in construction management research, and various delay studies have been carried out for different purposes.
+Their focus has varied from the identification of causes and responsible parties (Mezher and Tawil 1998;
+Odeh and Battaineh 2002;
+Fimpong and Oluwoye 2003;
+Long et al. 2004;
+Abdul-Rahman et al. 2006;
+Assaf and Al-Hejji 2006;
+Faridi and El-Sayegh 2006;
+Sweis et al. 2008;
+Al-Kharashi and Skitmore 2009) to the nature and effects of construction delays (Scott 1993), the delay analysis techniques that can be used by practitioners in the industry (Alkassi et al. 1996;
+Bubshait and Cunningham 1998;
+Arditi and Pattanakitchamroon 2006;
+Mohan and Al-Gahtani 2006), and claims and disputes (Semple et al. 1994;
+Yates and Epstein 2006;
+Iyer et al. 2008).
+However, most prior studies have sought mainly to identify causes of delay.
+The literature suggests that the major causes of project delay are related to poor management practice (Mansfield et al. 1994;
+Ogunlana and Promkuntong 1996;
+Mezher and Tawil 1998;
+Al-Momani 2000;
+Odeh and Battaineh 2002;
+AbdulRahman et al. 2006;
+Assaf and Al-Hejji 2006;
+Sweis et al. 2008;
+Civil Engineer, General Director of the Administration of Projects and Engineering Affairs, Ministry of Health, Medinah, P.O. Box 3891, Saudi
+Arabia (corresponding author).
+[email protected]
+Professor of Theory Based Lean Project and Production Management, School of the Built Environment, Univ. of Salford, Salford M5 4WT, UK.
+Senior Lecturer, School of the Built Environment, Univ. of Salford, Salford M5 4WT, UK. E-mail:
+[email protected]
+Note. This manuscript was submitted on December 6, 2011;
+approved on July 16, 2012;
+published online on July 24, 2012.
+Discussion period open until March 1, 2014;
+separate discussions must be submitted for individual papers.
+This paper is part of the Journal of Management in Engineering, Vol. 29, No. 4, October 1, 2013. © ASCE, ISSN 0742-597X/ 2013/4-407-413/$25.00.
+Alnuaimi et al. 2010).
+Most of these studies have identified ineffective planning and control as common factors, and other frequent causes related to project management have also been acknowledged.
+There is no doubt that existing delay studies have made valuable contributions by reporting the causes of delay in construction projects, because they have made practitioners aware of major problems.
+However, despite the evolution of construction project planning and control methods in recent decades and the great efforts that have been put into research for understanding the delay reasons, delay is still a very common feature of projects, as revealed by the literature.
+Thus, the question arises of what contribution the previous delay studies have made in identifying the causes of delay and practical steps to reduce delays.
+This paper has been prepared to serve three purposes.
+First, it explores and synthesises prior studies on the causes of construction delay in developing countries, examining what causes have been identified and what solutions have been proposed.
+Second, it critically evaluates these delay studies as to their contribution to solving the problems identified.
+Third, as this contribution is found to be modest, the possibilities to go beyond the prevailing approach of delay studies are explored.
+Synthesis of Delay Studies
+Many researchers have striven to identify the causes of delay in construction projects in various countries.
+Most of the available studies of construction delay in developing countries are listed in Table 1, whereas Table 2 lists the most frequently identified delay causes.
+It can be seen that many of these are management related.
+Ineffective planning and control is a factor identified in most studies (87%), with variation from one to another only in the degree of importance.
+Poor site management (56%) and problems of supply and procurement (69%) are also widely identified as
+List of Delay Studies in Developing Countries
+major causes of delay.
+Delays in the delivery of materials, damage to urgently needed materials, and late procurement, which are all related to poor project management, also occur widely.
+Taken together, these findings indicate that the fault lies either with those responsible for planning and management, or with the planning and management techniques themselves.
+In either case, it is apparent that the project planning and management system has an important role in the attempt to overcome delay.
+Another cluster of problems leading to delays covers labor shortage, problems in material supply, and financial difficulties, all related to the immaturity of the economy, financial institutions, and labor market in a developing country.
+These are external factors that have to be taken as a given in any project.
+It has to be stressed that identifying the causes of delay that have controllable effects and the extent to which these effects can be minimized is the main contribution of delay studies from a managerial viewpoint.
+Therefore, the focus here is on the internal causes of delay related to contractors’ management.
+External factors, such as environmental causes and those related to the supply chain, can be handled only at the level of the whole economy and in the long term.
+What can be changed in the shorter term and in individual projects are management and related factors.
+Critical Evaluation of Previous Delay Studies
+It is vital to indicate clearly that the delay studies being critically evaluated here are examples of the common approach of doing delay studies.
+It is this approach to research that is being criticized, Table 2.
+Occurrence of Delay Causes Identified in Previous Studies
+not delay studies in general, nor individual delay scholars and their work.
+The question considered here is as follows:
+What is the contribution of delay studies to practically minimizing the causes of delay?
+The practical relevance of delay studies and their contribution to solving problems are related to the recommendations that they make.
+Table 3 summarizes these recommendations as follows:
+31% of studies mention improving planning and control, whereas four of the 16 (25%) recommend improving site management.
+Improvements to human resource management are recommended by 37.5% of the studies examined.
+Among other recommendations, improving communication and collaboration between the parties, improving financial support, and minimizing design changes are suggested by 37.5, 37.5, and 19% of the studies, respectively.
+The following subsections criticize existing studies on three grounds.
+First, not all studies make practical recommendations.
+Second, planning and control are found to be ineffective by the majority of the studies, yet they typically do not recommend solutions to this problem.
+Third, while a few studies do recommend improvements, they do not identify the necessary tools to facilitate them.
+Table 3 shows that 25% of the studies fail to recommend ways to overcome the causes of delay identified.
+Different reasons may be given for this, such as that the aims of the study were limited to identifying causes, or that funding was limited.
+However, it can hardly be argued that a delay study would have other motivation than to facilitate the removal of causes of delay or at least to minimize their impact;
+from this perspective, the failure of the studies to discuss practical solutions is a clear shortcoming.
+Recommendations Do Not Match Findings
+In the majority of the studies, it appears that the recommendations provided do not match the findings.
+Fig. 1 shows the frequency of causes and corresponding recommendations in delay studies.
+Returning to Table 2, take ineffective planning and control as an example.
+It is interesting to note that 14 of the 16 studies (87%) mention this factor, which suggests that they should make recommendations to mitigate its impact, yet only five do so.
+Similarly, supply chain and procurement problems are mentioned in 69% of the studies, giving the impression that this is a particularly problematic area, whereas poor site management is cited in 56% of the studies, making it the third most often repeated cause of delay, yet few studies propose solutions addressing either of these factors.
+Delay causes
+Poor planning and control
+Labor shortage and productivity
+Material supply chain and procurement
+Poor communication and coordination
+Numbers between brackets refer to previous delay studies;
+see Table 1.
+Recommendations Are Not Practical
+Although a few studies do recommend improvements to management practice, they do not identify the tools to facilitate such improvements or indicate how the recommendations could be implemented.
+The following are some examples.
+Over a decade ago in Nigeria, Ogunlana and Promkuntong (1996) proposed that owner associations, designers, contractors, suppliers, finance houses, educational institutions, manufacturers, and the government should cooperate to provide the infrastructure necessary for efficient project management.
+However, the research fell short of determining the nature of such infrastructure or how to adopt it within the construction industry.
+Two years later in Lebanon, Mezher and Tawil (1998) urged the industry to adopt innovative management techniques, team building, and value engineering to increase efficiency and effectiveness.
+However, the researchers did not specify the innovative management techniques to be adopted, nor did they offer examples of techniques that could be used to improve team building.
+In a similar vein, in Jordan, Al-Momani (2000) argued that the findings presented in his study provided good guidance for managerial intervention, but did not specify what kind of intervention, in what area of project management, and how this intervention could be put into practice on a construction site.
+More recently, in Saudi Arabia, Assaf and Al-Hejji (2006) recommended that contractors should consider planning and control as continuing processes during construction, matching these with the resources and time required to develop the work and to avoid delay, cost overruns, and disputes.
+There is, however, need for clarification as to how this could be done and what kind of planning tools might be used in following this recommendation.
+In a study set in Hong Kong, Lo et al. (2006) recommended that comprehensive strategies be formulated to minimize variations, whether initiated by clients or consultants.
+A clear and thorough client brief is considered the most useful strategy for reducing variations, whereas contingency allowances may be incorporated for those variations that inevitably remain.
+The outstanding question here is as follows:
+What kind of methods could help to minimize such variations in a comprehensive manner?
+Most existing delay studies suffer from limitations regarding their contribution to solving the problems that they identify.
+Similar causes of delay emerge across the studies, but a great share of authors recommends no practical solutions or methods to improve the situation.
+Regarding the recommendations that have been made (see Table 3), it can be clearly stated that the majority do not contribute much to problem solving.
+For instance, they are specific neither to particular problems nor to particular causes.
+Moreover, these studies do not explore the factors behind the causes of delay.
+For example, a common cause of delay is ineffective planning and control, yet none of the studies examines the underlying reasons for this, to determine whether planning is ineffective because of inadequate planning tools and techniques, for example, and/or because untrained people have responsibility for formulating and realizing the plans.
+Reasons for the Relative Failure of Delay Studies
+The examination of delay studies shows that they tend to identify the same causes, but are inconsistent in their practical recommendations.
+The key issue here is that delay studies predominantly represent the descriptive and explanatory type of research, which is
+common in academic research into organizations and management (Van Aken 2005;
+Denyer et al. 2008;
+Holmström et al. 2009).
+There are at least four potential reasons for this relative failure of delay studies to produce managerially relevant knowledge.
+First, the knowledge produced by descriptive and explanatory research is not the type that is needed in management;
+descriptive knowledge is distinct from prescriptive knowledge, according to Denyer et al. (2008).
+Although it may be possible to translate descriptive knowledge into prescriptive knowledge, as these authors explain, this means that a separate translation process is needed.
+Second, the methods used in delay studies, such as surveys and questionnaires, are not necessarily suitable for finding the root causes of problems.
+The 5 Whys method (Razeghi 2008), as used in the Toyota Production System, provides a good illustration here of the contention that when seeking the root cause of a practical problem, it is often necessary to penetrate several layers of cause and effect.
+Another example is the Last Planner System (Ballard et al. 1996;
+Ballard and Howell 2003), in which the causes of noncompletion of planned assignments can be found through an in-depth and detailed record of the reasons for such noncompletion on site, associated to both medium and long-term planning and control.
+Analysis of reasons can help to avoid their occurrence in future tasks, and shows where attention should be for better results.
+In methods such as questionnaires, in which the questions to respondents are prepared in advance, it is not easy to uncover several layers in this way.
+The third explanation is that the descriptive and explanatory research discussed is limited by its sample to poor practice.
+In delay studies of construction in developing countries, the projects to be studied are rarely well managed, in the sense of best practice in project management or production management, as promoted by professional bodies.
+Thus, it is not possible to study and analyze the best practice for its possible shortcomings and counterproductive effects.
+Finally, as argued in analyses based on complexity theory, the assumption of stable cause and effect mechanisms in the phenomena studied, as routinely made in descriptive and explanatory research, may simply be inappropriate.
+Kurtz and Snowden (2003) argued that alternative approaches in such situations include probing for patterns, then acting on the system and sensing the reaction.
+One framework for this acting and sensing cycle is action research.
+This argument is supported by Easterby-Smith et al. (2002), who identified a need to rethink some of the traditional techniques and methods in management research.
+Thus, there are several problems associated with descriptive and explanatory research as applied to delay studies.
+The difficulties of the considered delay studies to propose practical recommendations are arguably attributable to the nature of the research methods employed, which focus on identifying and describing the current state of affairs, and do not adequately support the definition of tools or methods to address the problems in practice.
+Indeed, Denyer et al. (2008) contended that one of the reasons for the much discussed problem of relevance affecting the academic study of management is that it has been limited to the production of descriptive knowledge.
+In alignment with this, Koskela (2011) has identified the well-known 1959 reports (by Pierson and Gordon & Howell) on the future of business education in the United States as the root cause of the relevance problems of management research.
+Alternative Approaches
+In light of the aforementioned arguments, there is a clear need for alternative approaches to construction management research that would allow academics to influence practice.
+This is in alignment with what is argued by Holmström et al. (2009):
+that there is a need for an approach that facilitates discovery and problem solving in management research.
+The same authors ask pertinently whether researchers are merely observers and evaluators of practitioners’ problem-solving activity, or whether they should themselves become problem solvers.
+In response to this rhetorical question, they offer design science research as an example of a way to bridge the gap between theory and practice.
+They state that design science research is conducted under many different rubrics:
+action science, action research, action innovation research, participatory action research, participatory case study, and academe-industry partnerships.Similarviewshavebeen presented by other scholars, e.g., Van Aken(2005),Järvinen(2007),Koskela(2008),andVoordijk(2009).
+Two main forms of alternative research approaches, namely, action research and constructive (or design science) research, are briefly described as follows.
+In many disciplines, researcher-practitioner collaboration has been practiced under the umbrella label of action research (Clark 1972;
+Susman and Evered 1978;
+Argyris et al. 1985;
+Eden and Huxham 1996;
+Reason and Bradbury 2001).
+In this approach, a practical problem is analyzed through an iterative cycle of problem identification, diagnosis, planning action, taking action, and evaluation.
+A solution (taking action) is proposed through interactions between researchers and practitioners (Hult and Lennung 1980;
+Baskerville 1999;
+Naoum 2001;
+Herr and Anderson 2005).
+Action research enables the reflection and data collection process to focus on aspects that cannot easily be captured by descriptive research approaches (Eden and Huxham 1996).
+It can assist in responding to the practical concerns of people and providing solutions to existing practical problems (Järvinen 2007).
+To make academic research relevant, researchers should try out their theories with practitioners in real situations and real organizations (Avison et al. 1999), enabling organizations to directly benefit from advances in knowledge.
+Constructive research is characterized by the solution of problems of theoretical and practical relevance (Lukka 2003).
+It focuses on developing constructs (e.g., methods, models, and physical artifacts) that can be tested in practice, providing theoretical contributions (Van Aken 2005;
+Holmström et al. 2009;
+Voordijk 2009).
+Järvinen (2007) argued for the existence of two categories of constructive research, i.e., conceptual and technical development.
+Conceptual development refers to the development of different models or tools that do not describe an existing reality, but on the contrary, help to create a new reality.
+Technical development, in contrast, produces a physical device as a result (this may, for example, be a software).
+Thus, Järvinen (2007) described that conceptual development produces a description of a desired reality, whereas the technical development produces the performance (physical) of this reality.
+According to Kasanen et al. (1993), constructive research is composed of six steps:
+(1) identification of the problem with theoretical and practical relevance;
+(2) understanding of the issue to be researched, usually through literature review and empirical studies;
+(3) construction of the solution in the form of a physical device or model;
+(4) implementation and test of the proposed solution;
+(5) connections between the solution and theoretical developments;
+and (6) analysis of the scope of applicability of the solution.
+Thus, it is contended that novel management techniques could be developed and practically implemented through nontraditional research approaches such as constructive and action research.
+Consequently, contributions could be made to the practical concerns of people in the field and to the theory of the field.
+Application of the Alternative Approaches to Construction
+In construction management, there have been only a few attempts to examine the applicability of action research or constructive research (e.g., Hauck and Chen 1998;
+Cushman 2001;
+Barker et al. 2004;
+Rezgui 2007;
+Azhar et al. 2010;
+Oyegoke 2011).
+However, as illustrated through the case of delay studies, a critical insight is that the practical development and implementation of new management tools and techniques cannot be achieved by typical research such as surveys and questionnaires.
+Instead, there is a need for research approaches that allow researchers to participate actively and influence practice while creating new knowledge.
+Action and constructive research (Järvinen 2007) are also instrumental in overcoming the four reasons for the failure of delay studies, as discussed previously:
+• These	research	approaches	result	in	directly	practicable knowledge;
+• They provide room for root cause analysis;
+• The best practice prescriptions can be focused on;
+• Especially through action research, complex sociotechnological systems can be acted on and sensed, as appropriate for this kind of study objects.
+Illustrative examples of recent studies employing action and constructive research are offered as follows.
+Azhar et al. (2010) developed an action research study focusing on improving accessibility and availability of information to support senior managers in a construction owner organization.
+The action that was taken involved designing and implementing a data warehouse.
+The authors argue for an increase in the use of action research in construction management, and conclude it enables academia to more directly influence and improve industry practices.
+A recent study by Oyegoke (2011) highlighted the need for constructive research to support construction project management.
+The study argued that practical and innovative solutions, grounded by valid research instruments, can be developed and applied in practice through the approach.
+He illustrated this through a case in which a new procurement method was developed using constructive research.
+Finally, Rocha (2011) used constructive research to support industry to increase the value of affordable housing through the application of mass customization.
+The research resulted in a conceptual framework that can be adopted by organizations of the house building sector in defining customization strategies.
+The study highlighted that constructive research enabled the proposition of operational constructs, which supported the direct application of knowledge by helping companies to devise their own customization strategies.
+The studies mentioned previously demonstrate some of the benefits in developing research in close collaboration with industry partners, and evidence success in solving practical problems and generating new knowledge in the form of systems, models, or frameworks.
+They therefore provide examples of how prescriptive research facilitates the practical development or/and implementation of managerial techniques.
+This paper has offered a simple analysis and evaluation of the findings and recommendations of published studies of construction delay in developing countries.
+Their findings on the causes of delay cluster clearly around two issues, management and project environment, but their recommendations poorly match these findings and contribute in a rather limited way to problem solving.
+Indeed, the recommendations, where made, contain little practical advice.
+Moreover, very little research has been carried out into the underlying causes of delay.
+Thus, it can be argued that the utility of conducting more traditional studies on delay is limited, because their contribution to solving practical problems is modest at best.
+The reason for this relative failure of delay studies is argued to relate to the nature of the research methods employed, which have commonly been descriptive and explanatory.
+Such research tends to focus on analysis and explanation and on problems and their immediate causes, while paying little attention to discovering their root causes and thus to identifying possible solutions.
+In this context, this paper recommends that rather than solely explanatory studies, nontraditional research approaches such as constructive and action research should be utilized to generate practical managerial techniques or to test extant techniques in new environments.
+It is argued that the implementation of such techniques has the potential to enhance practical performance, to tackle some of the persistent managerial difficulties in construction, and to contribute to knowledge in construction management.

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+Factors Influencing Construction Labor Productivity in Egypt
+Khaled Mahmoud El-Gohary, M.Eng.1;
+and Remon Fayek Aziz, Ph.D.2
+Construction is a labor-intensive industry.
+Therefore, construction labor productivity is of critical importance to the profitability of most construction projects.
+Many construction industry sectors have been experiencing chronic problems such as poor management, inferior working conditions, and insufficient quality.
+Many researchers have identified these problems as factors that affect construction productivity and will affect a company’s performance and the overall economy of the country.
+This paper aims to identify, investigate, and rank factors perceived to affect construction labor productivity in the Egyptian construction context with respect to their relative importance.
+To achieve this objective, practitioners and experts comprising a statistically representative sample were invited to participate in a structured questionnaire survey.
+The questionnaire comprised 30 productivity factors that were classified under the following three primary categories:
+(1) human/labor, (2) industrial, and (3) management.
+The management category was ranked first, followed by the labor category and the industrial category.
+This study revealed that the following five factors, ranked in descending order, are the most significant in their effects on construction labor productivity in Egypt:
+(1) labor experience and skills;
+(2) incentive programs;
+(3) availability of the material and ease of handling;
+(4) leadership and competency of construction management;
+and (5) competency of labor supervision.
+Industry practitioners and researchers can use the primary outcomes of this study in developing systems to enhance and improve construction labor productivity in Egypt.
+Also, this paper can serve as a guide for contractors and construction managers for the effective management of construction labor forces and help to achieve a competitive level of quality and a cost-effective project.
+10.1061/(ASCE)ME .1943-5479.0000168. © 2014 American Society of Civil Engineers.
+Author keywords:
+Construction;
+Labor productivity;
+Management;
+Relative importance index;
+Improvement;
+Introduction
+In most countries, experience and literature have revealed that construction labor costs account for 30–60% of the total cost of a project (Gomar et al. 2002;
+Hanna et al. 2002).
+Therefore, construction labor productivity is of critical importance to the profitability of most construction projects.
+Many construction industry sectors have been experiencing chronic problems such as poor management, inferior working conditions, and insufficient quality.
+Many researchers have identified these problems as factors that affect the productivity of construction and will subsequently affect the performance of a company and the overall economy of the country.
+The performance of labor is affected by many factors and is usually linked to the performances of time, cost, and quality.
+The identification and evaluation of factors affecting construction labor productivity have been conducted in the last decade;
+however, a deeper understanding is still needed to improve labor productivity.
+To achieve the income expected from any construction project, it is important to have control of the productivity factors that contribute to the integrated composition of production, such as labor,
+Senior Civil Engineer, 30 El-Mamoon St., Moharem Bek, Alexandria 21522, Egypt (corresponding author).
+[email protected]
+Lecturer, Structural Engineering Dept., Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria Univ., Alexandria 21544, Egypt.
+Remon_fayek@ hotmail.com
+Note. This manuscript was submitted on April 4, 2012;
+approved on January 4, 2013;
+published online on January 7, 2013.
+Discussion period open until June 1, 2014;
+separate discussions must be submitted for individual papers.
+This paper is part of the Journal of Management in Engineering, Vol. 30, No. 1, January 1, 2014. © ASCE, ISSN 0742-597X/2014/ 1-1-9/$25.00.
+equipment, and cash flow.
+In Egypt, the literature has revealed that the second performance criterion out of 12 by which construction managers would like their performance to be evaluated is “the efficient utilization of resources” (Abdel-Razek 1997).
+Also, the literature has shown that young site engineers working in contracting organizations ranked the utilization of resources as the second out of 12 factors that affect the performance of construction organizations in Egypt (Abdel-Razek 2004).
+The proper management of resources in construction projects can yield substantial savings in time and cost.
+Therefore, the objective of this research is to identify and rank the relative importance of factors perceived by contractors, engineering firms, and clients to affect construction labor productivity in Egypt.
+The outcomes can be used by not only local but international industry practitioners, who may be further interested in venturing into potential megascale projects, but possess no prior practical knowledge of the construction industry in Egypt.
+The outcomes can help all practitioners to develop a wider and deeper perspective of the factors influencing the productivity of operatives and to provide guidance to project and construction managers for the efficient utilization of the labor force.
+The predominant traditional construction project delivery method practiced in Egypt is design/bid/build.
+The nature of this method allows the contractors to face predetermined decisions regarding the criteria for design and specifications on the one hand, and contractual conditions on the other.
+The contractor must implement this during the contract duration of the project;
+hence, as end user, the contractor is in a better position to provide an objective assessment of the effects of such products on the productivity of operatives.
+This method gives the chance to the clients and engineering firm consultants to address the productivity and factors affecting it in more precise detail, especially in cases of delay and loss of productivity claims.
+This provides the importance and
+the logic behind focusing on the perspectives of contractors, engineering firms, and clients in this study.
+Labor forces, whether directly employed or subcontracted, are under the management and supervision of the contractor.
+In this research, based on this fact, more concentration was focused on collecting data from contractors.
+The direct supervisor, who is under daily interaction with laborers, can afford to render a reasonably accurate judgment on the primary and relevant factors influencing their efficiency.
+The literature has identified several factors that were explored in this study.
+A lack of stable metrics makes it difficult to compare the results of studies that investigate factors affecting productivity.
+This paper investigates factors perceived to affect construction labor productivity in Egyptian construction sites with respect to identifying and ranking their relative importance.
+Building from the literature and with input from industry experts, this research develops a schematic model of factors affecting construction labor productivity in Egypt and explores them by using statistical methods.
+The following sections present literature review, research methodology, results and discussion, and conclusions and recommendations.
+Background and Literature Review
+Productivity can be defined and measured in many ways.
+In construction, productivity usually means labor productivity;
+that is, units of work placed or produced per staff-hour.
+The inverse of labor productivity, staff-hours per unit (unit rate), is also commonly used (Halligan et al. 1994).
+This is an activity-oriented model of productivity often referred to as partial or single factor productivity.
+The way in which productivity should be measured is profoundly influenced by the purpose for which the results will be used.
+A popular concept in the U.S., and increasingly in the U.K., is the concept of earned hours.
+This relies on the establishment of a set of standard outputs, or “norms,” for each unit operation.
+Thus, a number of earned hours is associated with each unit of work completed.
+Productivity may be defined as the ratio of earned to actual hours.
+The problem with this concept is in establishing reliable norms for setting standards.
+It also depends on the method used to measure productivity and on the extent to which all of the factors are accounted for that may affect productivity.
+Therefore, a statement like “construction productivity in the U.K. is 30% greater than that in Egypt” is meaningless.
+Its truth depends on the definition of productivity and how it is measured.
+If, for example, the construction of office blocks in Cairo and London is compared, an indicator may be used such as square meters of floor area completed per week.
+However, this may not account for differences in specification (quality), design (build ability), building regulations, construction technology, available resources, and climate (Horner and Talhouni 1998).
+Some agencies use the economic model in terms of dollars, because dollars are the only measure common to both inputs and outputs.
+Eq. (1) shows the total factor productivity (TFP), which represents this type of model:
+where TPF = ratio of dollars of output to dollars of input.
+A project-specific model is a more accurate definition that can be used for specific program planning and for conceptual estimates on individual projects.
+Eq. (2) shows this model:
+Productivity ¼	þ	þ	ð2Þ
+This measure is a ratio of, for example, square meters of output to dollars of input (Thomas et al. 1990).
+The complex nature of the construction process and the interaction of its activities make the single factor productivity measure a popular option because effective control systems separately monitor each input.
+It focuses on a selected factor, e.g., labor input, which makes the measurement process easy and controllable.
+Moreover, reliable and accurate data can be obtained.
+On the other hand, the TFP measure is difficult to accurately measure and to determine all of the input resources utilized to achieve the output.
+Therefore, the TFP measure is often impractical.
+Fig. 1 shows the open conversion system by Drewin (Thomas et al., 1990) that can be applied to most of construction operations.
+This open conversion system, which is closer to Eq. (1), models the construction process and the primary factors affecting its productivity.
+It provides examples of categorized factors that affect the overall construction productivity, including labor, and reflects the complex nature of the construction process as an open conversion system.
+Also, it shows the flow of feedback information that allows a continual improvement in construction productivity.
+This can help the practitioner to understand the role of factors affecting the construction process, and thus to control and improve its productivity.
+Table 1 shows a summary of previous studies in different countries on factors affecting construction labor productivity.
+It shows the total number of factors in the study and the most effective factors, ranked in descending order based on their importance.
+There is no consensus in the literature on the identification of factors that affect the construction times of buildings, i.e., the length of time between a building being started and being completed.
+One reason for this is that researchers have largely viewed the subject from diverse perspectives.
+The poor productivity of construction labor is agreed to be one of the factors that cause construction delay.
+Therefore, studying factors affecting construction labor productivity is crucial to improve productivity, and thus, to help manage construction to achieve a competitive level of quality and cost-effective projects in a timely manner.
+The classification of the factors that affect construction labor productivity into primary global groups or categories is helpful to better identify and manage such factors, and thus, to improve construction labor productivity and construction times of buildings.
+Alwi (2003) classified the key factors influencing construction
+Drewin’s open construction conversion system (Thomas et al.
+Literature Summary of the Factors Affecting Construction Labor Productivity
+Total number of studied factors
+Major factors ranked in descending order based on their RII
+Skill of labor;
+buildability;
+quality of supervision;
+method of working;
+incentive scheme;
+site layout;
+complexity of construction information;
+crew size and composition;
+length of working day;
+availability of power tools;
+absenteeism;
+total number of operatives on site;
+proportion of work subcontracted
+Difficulty in recruitment supervisors;
+difficulty in recruiting workers;
+high rate of labor turnover;
+absenteeism at work site;
+communication problems with foreign workers;
+inclement weather that requires work stoppage for one day or more
+Material shortage;
+weather and site conditions;
+equipment breakdown;
+drawing deficiencies/change orders;
+lack of proper tools and equipment
+Lack of materials;
+absenteeism of operatives;
+lack of suitable tools and equipment;
+crew interference
+Lack of material;
+incomplete drawings;
+incompetent supervisors;
+lack of tools and equipment;
+absenteeism;
+poor communication;
+instruction time;
+poor site layout;
+inspection delay;
+Material shortage at site;
+nonpayment to suppliers, causing the stoppage of material delivery to site;
+change orders by consultants;
+late issuance of construction drawings by consultants;
+incapability of the contractors’ site management to organize site activities
+Incompetent supervisors;
+lack of skills among the workers;
+lack of tools/ equipment;
+poor construction methods;
+poor communication;
+stoppages because of work being rejected by consultants;
+political insecurity;
+tools/equipment breakdown;
+harsh weather conditions
+Material shortage;
+lack of labor experience;
+lack of labor surveillance;
+misunderstanding between labor and superintendents;
+alteration of drawings and specifications during execution
+level of skill and experience of the workforce;
+adequacy of method of construction;
+buildability issues;
+inadequate supervision and coordination;
+statutory compliance;
+unforeseen events;
+wider external dynamics
+Clarity of technical specifications;
+extent of variation/change orders during execution;
+coordination level among various design disciplines;
+lack of labor supervision;
+proportion of work subcontracted
+productivity in Indonesia into the following three categories:
+(1) characteristics of contractors;
+(2) inadequate management strategy;
+and (3) the focus of the organization.
+The characteristics of contractors include ownership type, qualifications, accumulated experience, classifications, and the caliber of staff employed.
+Management strategy refers to the tools and managerial approaches adopted to minimize waste and unproductive activities, thus promoting lean, efficient, and cost-effective operations.
+The focus of the organization relates to the client objectives and motivation, project goal, and the active involvement of all construction personnel.
+Singh (2010) classified factors affecting the productivity of construction operations of infrastructures and buildings in the United Arab Emirates into four categories:
+industry level factors, labor factors, site management factors, and external factors.
+Singh studied the following overall 10 factors with respect to their categories to help improve the productivity:
+(1) priority of production in the industry;
+(2) production system design;
+(3) financial issues;
+(4) predictability of demand;
+(5) skill and experience issues;
+(6) work schedule and crew mix;
+(7) training policy;
+(8) coordination and supervision;
+(9) material and equipment quality;
+and (10) weather and statute.
+Therefore, the authors in this research proposed the following three primary categories for classifying the corresponding factors explored in this study:
+(1) human/labor related factors;
+(2) industry related factors;
+and (3) management related factors.
+This research is based on a survey designed to gather all necessary information in an effective way.
+The survey presents 30 productivity factors generated on the basis of related research works on construction productivity (Sanders and Thomas 1991;
+Lim and Alum 1995;
+Makulsawatudom et al. 2004;
+Abdul Kadir et al. 2005;
+Enshassi et al. 2007;
+Jarkas and Bitar 2012), with input, revision, and modifications by local experts.
+These factors were classified into the following three categories based on previous literature and advice by local experts:
+human/labor related factors, industry related factors, and management related factors.
+To consider the effect of the different levels of experiences of the participants, the results are grouped into three groups:
+Group 1 for respondents with up to 15 years of experience;
+Group 2 for respondents with experience from 16 to 25 years;
+Group 3 for respondents with more than 25 years of experience.
+Fig. 2 depicts these groups.
+Sizes and types of participating groups based on their
+The studied target population includes clients, consultants, and
+contractors.
+On the national level, one recognized way of categorizing construction companies is with the grade of the Egyptian Federation for Construction and Building Contractors (EFCBC).
+Therefore, contractors were selected from those who hold valid membership in the EFCBC. The primary criteria for grading are related to the company’s capital, the total highest value of the executed contracts within twelve months during the last five years, the value of the largest successfully executed project during the last five years, the value of the income related to the work done in the official budget, the duration of previous experience, and staffing (technical, financial, administrative, and lawful).
+The total number of contracting companies in Egypt who have valid membership under the available seven grades for the category of integrated building works is 19,779, as of March 1, 2012.
+For the purpose of this research, the targeted contractors are those who represent the top four grades.
+The first grade comprises 232 firms, the second grade comprises 157 firms, the third grade comprises 213 firms,
+and the fourth grade comprises 681 firms, with a total of 1,283 firms.
+A systematic random sample was selected to ensure a representative sample of all targeted contractors by using Eq. (3) (Hogg and Tanis 2009):
+where n, m, and N = sample sizes of the limited, unlimited, and available population, respectively.
+On the other hand, m is estimated by Eq. (4):
+where Z= statistical value for the confidence level used, i.e., 2.575, 1.96, and 1.645, for 99, 95, and 90% confidence levels, respectively;
+P = value of the proportion of the population being estimated;
+and ε = sampling error of the point estimate.
+Because the value of P is unknown, Sincich et al. (2002) suggested a conservative value of 0.50 to be used so that a sample size is obtained that is at least as large as required.
+Using a 95% confidence level, i.e., 5% significance level, the unlimited sample size of the population, m, is approximated as follows:
+Accordingly, the total number, N, of considered classified contractors under the first, second, third, and fourth grades equals 1,283.
+The sample size was statistically determined, as will be shown later.
+The results were achieved by continuous follow-up and close contact with all participants.
+The sample was selected randomly from a combination of the contractors under the top four contractors’ grades to cover the sample, representing the total population of 1,283 contracting companies.
+Because there are no accurate data regarding the number of consultants or clients, 18 consulting and client firms were selected randomly and added to the statistically determined sample size of contractors, as will be shown later.
+For analyzing data, the relative importance index (RII) technique was used.
+This index was computed for every factor for each specific year of the participants’ experience by using Eq. (5) (Lim and Alum 1995;
+Enshassi et al. 2007;
+Jarkas and Bitar 2012):
+where RIIð%Þk = yearly experience percentage of the RII of each factor, which is calculated separately for each corresponding year (k) of experience of categorized respondents;
+k= number that represents the years of experience of categorized respondents (from first year of experience, k ¼ 1, to last year of experience, k ¼ K);
+and n1, n2, n3, n4, n5, and n6 = numbers of respondents of the survey who selected “0” for no effect, “1” for very little effect, “2” for little effect, “3” for average effect, “4” for high effect, or “5” for very high effect.
+Therefore, Eq. (6) is used for computing the overall RII for each factor of all respondents, considering all years of experiences of the respondents, which is calculated as a weighted average of RIIk obtained from Eq. (5):
+where Overall RII (%) = total weighted average percentage of the RII of each factor, which is calculated based upon all of the years of experience of the respondents;
+k = years of experience of categorized respondents (from one year of experience, k ¼ 1, to last year of experience, k ¼ K);
+and RIIk = yearly experience percentage of the RII of each factor, which is calculated separately for the corresponding year (k) of experience of categorized respondents and calculated by Eq. (5).
+The category index was calculated by using the average of the RII of the factors in each category.
+The design philosophy of the questionnaire was that the questions had to be simple, clear, and understandable for the respondents, and able to be accurately interpreted by the researcher.
+The questionnaire has the definite advantages of requiring a smaller time to be responded and more accuracy in the final outcome.
+Factors affecting the productivity of construction labor were identified through the literature based on previous research, with input, revision, and modifications by local experts;
+a total of 30 factors were identified.
+The participants were required to rate the factors for the way they affect construction labor productivity, considering time, cost, and quality using their own experiences on building sites.
+The question-
+naire required the respondents to rank the factors affecting labor productivity on a scale with the rating of “0,” representing no effect;
+“1,” very little effect;
+“2,” little effect;
+“3,” average effect;
+“4,” high effect;
+and “5,” very high effect, according to the degree of importance on construction labor productivity.
+The numbers assigned to the agreement scale (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5) do not indicate that the intervals between the scales are equal, nor do they indicate absolute quantities.
+A pilot study was conducted to ensure the clarity and relevance of the questionnaire to participants.
+The questionnaire was shown to two researchers in the same field.
+Based on their feedback, amendments were made.
+The second phase of the pilot study was conducted on five building project managers among those who were not participating in the final survey.
+Based on the feedback, minor amendments were made to remove any ambiguities and discrepancies.
+This pilot study was conducted to validate and improve the questionnaire in terms of the wording of statements, the overall content, and the format and layout.
+The draft questionnaire was revised to include the suggestions of these participants.
+The questionnaire was validated through this process, which provided the authors with improvement opportunities before launching the primary survey.
+Determination and Selection of Samples
+The survey gathered data from practitioners of building contractors, consultants, and owners from as broad a geographic area within Egypt as possible.
+The target population of contractors was 1,283 companies, which were current members of EFCBC within first, second, third, and fourth grades during this study.
+The required representative sample size, n, of the target population of contracting
+companies was determined by using Eq. (3) as follows:
+On the basis of this equation, a total of 300 contracting companies in Egypt were surveyed as a sample representing the total population of 1,283 contracting companies.
+The surveyed companies were only within the top four grades of EFCBC. The sample was selected randomly from a combination of contractors under the top four contractors’ grades.
+Sometimes, more than one completed questionnaire was received from each surveyed company, representing different levels of experience, but including at least the input of one project manager.
+The total number of completed questionnaires obtained from the surveyed contracting companies was 430.
+The total number of completed questionnaires obtained from the surveyed consulting and client firms was 59, representing 18 consulting and client firms.
+The overall number of the completed questionnaires included in this study was 489, which comprises the statistical data sample size that represents contractors, consultants, and clients.
+The perceived effect of each of the 30 factors on construction labor productivity in Egypt is determined.
+The overall factors are classified under three major categories as follows:
+nine under the labor category;
+11 under the industry category;
+and 10 under the management category.
+The RIIs, ranks within the corresponding category, and the overall ranks of the factors under investigation are presented, discussed, and compared to previous related research findings.
+Furthermore, the category importance indices are quantified, and a comparison is conducted to determine their relevant importance.
+The results are grouped into three groups:
+Group 1 for respondents with up to 15 years of experience, Group 2 for respondents with experience from 15 to 25 years, and Group 3
+for respondents with more than 25 years of experience.
+The RIIs for the factors of each category in the three groups are calculated by using Eq. (6).
+The average is calculated for each category in the three groups.
+Fig. 3 shows the results.
+It is clear that the results of the three groups are almost consistent.
+The ranks of the three categories are the same in the three groups in which the categories are ranked from top to bottom as management, labor/human, and industry.
+Also, the ranks of the factors of each category are the same in the three groups, with slight differences in the value of the RII. This gives more confidence in the overall results obtained because there is consistency in the results, regardless the level of the experience of the participants.
+Nevertheless, the overall RII for all factors is calculated by using Eq. (6), which considers the level of experience.
+(RII) for Industry Related
+78.00%Factors
+76.22(RII) for Labor Related
+76.00%Factors
+Related Factors
+Group 1 (G1)	Group 2 (G2)	Group 3 (G3)
+RIIs relevant to the three categories of factors for the three participating groups
+The relative importance indices and ranks of the 10 factors classified under the management category are shown in Table 2.
+The surveyed contractors, consultants, and clients ranked “incentive programs” as the most important factor affecting labor productivity in this category, with a relative importance index of 91.87%.
+This top ranked factor is ranked second in its effect among all factors in the study, which indicates the significant impact of this factor on the efficiency of construction labor productivity in Egypt.
+Horner et al. (1989) ranked it fifth among 13 factors explored in the UK.
+This effect is related to the nature of construction labor available in Egypt, which, in its absolute majority, comprises laborers that can be found in rural areas and villages coming to work in cities where the majority of construction is conducted.
+They basically share a common goal:
+to make and save as much as possible, then go back home.
+Also, the majority of these laborers work for low wages on a daily basis without any kind of insurance umbrella.
+Thus, a monetary incentive scheme further promotes the objective for these operatives and creates a high level of motivation and satisfaction among them;
+as a result, higher efficiency is achieved on sites.
+The related influence of this factor agrees with the findings reported by Enshassi et al. (2007), in which the outcome of what the authors termed “lack of financial motivation system” was ranked second after “payment delay,” compared with six other factors classified under “motivation group.” Jarkas and Bitar (2012) found it to be the third factor in the management group and seventh compared to all 45 surveyed factors.
+The “availability of the materials and their ease of handling” factor, with RII of 90.34%, is ranked second within the management group and third among all 30 factors.
+This is the top ranked
+RII and Ranking of Factors in the Management Category Affecting Construction Labor Productivity in Egypt
+Incentive programs
+Availability of materials and their ease of handling
+Leadership and competency of construction management
+Competency of labor supervision
+Planning, work flow, and site congestion
+Clarity of instructions and information exchange
+Surrounding events (revolutions)
+Services offered to laborers (social insurance, medical care)
+Construction management type (individuals, firms)
+Management of subcontractors
+factor affecting construction labor productivity in Gaza Strip, Jordan, Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, and Singapore (Enshassi et al. 2007;
+Kaming et al. 1997;
+Makulsawatudom et al. 2004;
+Abdul Kadir et al. 2005;
+Lim and Alum 1995).
+The effect of this factor on the productivity of the construction industry in Egypt can probably be related to the following two reasons:
+(1) the financial problems of local contractors, and thus, liquidity problems or shortage of credit facilities, which is a common obstacle for material procurement;
+and (2) the delay in ordering the materials as a result of design/schedule changes or client delay of payment.
+The “leadership and competency of construction management” factor, with RII of 88.40%, is ranked third within the management category and fourth among all 30 explored factors.
+Leadership is defined as the capability of setting the direction of a project or activity and encouraging and guiding people towards that direction.
+Therefore, leadership is using one’s own power to win the hearts and minds of people to achieve a common purpose.
+This effect substantiates the results obtained by Abdul Kadir et al. (2005), whose research placed the “incapability of site management” factor in the fifth rank among 50 productivity factors recognized to affect labor productivity in Malaysia.
+Also, it substantiates the results obtained by Jarkas and Bitar (2012), in which this factor ranks fourth in the management group and eighth overall of the 45 surveyed factors.
+The “competency of labor supervision” factor, with RII of 87.43%, ranked fourth in the management category and fifth among all 30 explored factors, which confirms the significant impact of this factor on the productivity of construction labor.
+Supervision is about telling people what to do and how to do it, leaving precious little space for them to use their own initiative.
+Horner et al. (1989) ranked it third among 13 factors explored in the U.K. Jarkas and Bitar (2012) ranked it first in the management category and fourth among all 45 surveyed factors.
+This indicates that the continuous supervision of labor is necessary to maximize productivity.
+A lack of supervision may encourage operatives to engage in unproductive activities, take frequent unscheduled breaks, wait idly, or even leave job sites during working hours to attend to personal matters.
+Direct supervision of labor is required to avoid faulty work that does not conform to contractual specifications, and to minimize the expensive incidents of rework and the associated delays to construction activities.
+The “planning, work flow, and site congestion” factor, with RII of 84.54%, ranked fifth in the management category and eighth among all 30 factors.
+Abdul Kadir et al. (2005) ranked it 24th among all 50 surveyed factors.
+Alinaitwe et al. (2007) ranked it 30th among all 36 surveyed factors.
+Enshassi et al. (2007) ranked it second in the project category and 24th among all 45 surveyed factors.
+Jarkas and Bitar (2012) ranked it ninth in the management category and 25th among all 45 surveyed factors.
+Site congestion is usually attributed to inappropriate construction site arrangement and overcrowding of the workers in some workplaces, which can cause obstructions to the desired productivity and quality.
+The overcrowding of workers usually results from inappropriate general planning of construction site activities.
+Liu et al. (2011) concluded that labor productivity was positively correlated with percent plan complete (PPC), a measure of work flow variation.
+The relationship between productivity and the ratio of total task completion to planned tasks, weekly workload, weekly work output, and weekly work hours was also studied, and no significant correlation was found.
+The results suggest that productivity is not improved by completing as many tasks as possible regardless of the plan, nor from increasing workload, work output, or the number of work hours expended.
+In contrast, productivity does improve when workflow is made more predictable.
+The application of modern concepts and systems such as the last planner system (LPS) can help to control and drive the management factors that affect construction labor productivity.
+These findings can help project/construction managers to focus on actual drivers of productivity.
+It can also help consulting companies to pinpoint the responsibility for productivity losses in claims.
+With RIIs of 80.73, 80.09, 77.74, 71.98, and 69.08%, the factors of “clarity of instructions and information exchange,” “surrounding events (revolutions),” “services offered to laborers (social insurance, medical care),” “construction management type (individuals, firms),” and “management of subcontractors” ranked sixth, seventh, eighth, ninth and 10th, respectively, within the management category.
+Furthermore, among all 30 investigated factors, they ranked 10th, 11th, 15th, 27th, and 29th, respectively.
+Although the category of management factors ranked higher than the categories of industry and labor factors, most of the management factors cannot be predicted in advance, specifically at the bidding phase.
+Therefore, they cannot be used in developing forecasts and can only be controlled during the construction phase, based on the quality and efficiency of the project and construction management during the time of execution.
+The RIIs and ranks of the nine classified factors under the labor/ human category are shown in Table 3.
+The “laborer experience and skill” factor ranked first in the management category and first among all 30 surveyed factors, with RII of 93.29%.
+Jarkas and Bitar (2012) ranked it second within the labor/human category and 20th among the 45 explored factors.
+The findings substantiate the results obtained by Horner et al. (1989), ranking the factor of skill of labor first in its importance to labor productivity among 13 factors explored in the U.K. This outcome is further supported by Lim and Alum (1995), Alinaitwe et al. (2007), and Enshassi et al. (2007), whose works identified the skill and experience of operatives among the most significant factors impacting the efficiency of construction labor productivity.
+Poorly trained and unskilled operatives are commonly characterized by low and faulty outputs coupled with unjustifiably high inputs.
+In addition, their outputs are almost always rejected by the inspection engineer, either in whole or in part, resulting in extensive and expensive rework, rectifications, or repairs.
+On the contrary, experienced operatives possess sound intellectual abilities, practical solutions to obstacles, and high technical and motor skills.
+All of these lead to higher productivity, lower cost of labor, and better quality of finished outputs.
+Only one major contracting company in Egypt, Arab Contractors Company, has its own system for training skilled laborers.
+The other contracting companies rely on the governmental technical
+RII and Ranking of Factors in the Labor/Human Category Affecting Construction Labor Productivity in Egypt
+Labor operating system (daily wage, lump sum)
+Effect of labor availability—work capacity (shortage)
+Effect of labor availability—work capacity (excess)
+Degree of laborer education
+Rest time(s) during the workday
+Overtime (more than 4 h after 8 h=day)
+education, which is poor and inadequate.
+Thus, the field of construction in Egypt regards “lack of skill and experience of labor” as a major hurdle toward improving construction labor productivity and quality of the work.
+The “labor operating system (daily wage, lump sum)” factor ranked second in this group and seventh overall, with RII of 86.16%.
+The majority of laborers in Egypt work on the complete day system.
+The quota system (lump sum) and extended day system are applied much less frequently.
+In general, the quota system can be considered as a cost control system.
+Also, it can be considered to be a system for improving productivity and minimizing cost when data for productivity are available.
+Quota or lump sum operating systems are used in the Egyptian context to determine the maximum labor productivity for any activity in construction projects.
+The laborers are asked to perform a certain task and leave the site whenever they finish the task.
+This acts as an incentive for the laborers to finish and leave sites early, thus demonstrating the maximum productivity they could.
+Therefore, supervisors can determine the maximum productivity of the laborers.
+This information can help to determine the duration of the next activity.
+For nontraditional jobs, a supervisor applies the quota system at the beginning of work to ascertain the rate of productivity.
+Next, they evaluate the first lump sum to assist in determining the next lump sums.
+The quota system improves worker ability because workers will attempt to upgrade their skill to reduce the effort needed to achieve the same level of performance.
+Also, it develops a competitive spirit among crews, which will result in an improvement in productivity.
+The “laborer age” factor ranked third within this group and 13 overall, with RII of 78.12%.
+Enshassi et al. (2007) ranked it sixth in the laborer category and 30 among all 45 surveyed factors.
+Discussions with the respondents revealed that there is unanimous agreement among respondents that higher age negatively impacts construction labor productivity.
+They attributed this to the fact that with higher age, the cognitive and mental abilities, agility, and strength decrease.
+This is supported by Enshassi et al. (2007), who stated, “The increase of laborer age is negatively affect labor productivity as labor speed, agility, and strength decline over time and contribute to a reduced productivity.” Nevertheless, the decreased cognitive abilities, agility, and strength of older workers can lead to lower productivity, unless their longer experience and higher levels of job knowledge outweigh these declines.
+This should be understood within the context of workers.
+The respondents stated that the relative importance of this factor has a considerable effect on construction labor productivity.
+This is based on the experience and mental model of the respondents to verify the significance of the productivity difference as a result of the difference in ages of construction laborers in the Egyptian context.
+With RIIs of 77.19, 74.85, 73.63, 72.52, 72.23, and 71.95%, the “effect of labor availability—work capacity (shortage),” “overtime (up to 4 h after 8 h=day),” “effect of labor availability—work capacity (excess),” “degree of laborer education,” “rest time(s) during the work day,” and “overtime (more than 4 h after 8 h=day)” factors ranked fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth, and ninth, respectively, within the labor/human category.
+Furthermore, among all 30 investigated factors, they ranked 16th, 18th, 22nd, 24th, 25th, and 28th, respectively.
+The fact remains that if the availability of labor greatly exceeds the demand for labor, an individual worker has the tendency to give maximum effort to retain their job.
+Also, a lack of labor supply makes the supervisor unable to organize the levels of workers in the crew.
+This leads to using skilled workers for tasks in which their skills are not effectively utilized.
+It also may lead to using unskilled laborers in place of skilled ones;
+both situations lead to lowering craft productivity and increasing the labor unit cost for accomplished units.
+The labor productivity during overtime assignments is influenced by the purpose and type of workers who work 4 h overtime after a normal 8-h day.
+These additional hours may be 100% effective if they are assigned to an operation that is well planned.
+The experience suggests that a work week of six days, 10 h=day will approach the optimum.
+Industry Category
+The relative importance indices and ranks of the 11 classified factors under the industry category are shown in Table 4.
+The “construction technology (construction method and material)” factor ranked first in the industry category and sixth among all 30 surveyed factors, with RII of 86.64%.
+Enshassi et al. (2007) ranked it first within the quality category (defined as efficiency of equipment) and 16th among all 45 explored factors.
+Durdyev and Mbachu (2011) found that the most significant factor related to construction technology affecting the productivity of construction labor is the adequacy of the method of construction.
+This paper studied construction technology from the point of view of construction method and material.
+Continual changes and improvements are occurring in traditional materials and construction techniques.
+Bricklaying provides a good example of such changes.
+Although the literal placing of brick on brick has not changed, masonry technology has changed a great deal.
+Motorized wheelbarrows and mortar mixers, sophisticated scaffolding systems, and forklift trucks now assist the bricklayer.
+New epoxy mortars provide stronger adhesion between bricks.
+Mortar additives and cold-weather protection eliminate winter shutdowns.
+The “constructability (integrated design and construction)” factor ranked second in the industry category and ninth among all 30 surveyed factors, with RII of 82.01%.
+Horner et al. (1989) ranked it second in importance to labor productivity among 13 factors explored in the U.K.
+Constructability is commonly referred to as “buildability” in Europe.
+It is defined by the Construction Industry Institute (CII) as “the optimum use of construction knowledge and experience in planning, design, procurement, and field operations to achieve overall project objectives” (CII 1986).
+Also, it is defined by the Construction Industry Research and Information Association (CIRIA) as “the extent to which the design of a building facilitates ease of construction, subject to the overall requirements for the completed building” (CIRIA 1986).
+RII and Ranking of Factors in the Industry Category Affecting Construction Labor Productivity in Egypt
+Construction technology (construction method and material)
+Constructability (integrated design and construction)
+Weather effect (temperature, humidity)
+Distance between site and cities
+Project specifications
+Available quantity of daily work (workload)
+Work at heights
+Total project duration (total work hours)
+Type of project (industrial, residential)
+Overall Average of RII and Ranks of Construction Labor Productivity Categories in Egypt
+The significant impact of this factor on labor productivity may be attributed, in whole or in part, to the followings:
+(1) lack of implementing a value engineering system from the designers to develop and review design alternatives, related details, specifications, and to tender documents;
+(2) possible negligence of local designers in providing quality work and efficient professional services.
+The importance of applying the constructability concept to the productivity of the construction process is confirmed by Horner et al. (1989), Zakeri et al. (1996), Kaming et al. (1997), Makulsawatudom et al. (2004), Abdul Kadir et al. (2005), and Alinaitwe et al. (2007).
+With RIIs of 79.73, 77.89, 76.63, 74.67, 74.54, 74.29, 73.60, 72.14, and 60.01%, the factors of “weather effects (temperature, humidity),” “distance between the site and cities,” “project specifications,” “project scale,” “available quantity of the daily work (workload),” “work interruptions (design changes),” “work at heights,” “total project duration (total work hours),” and “type of the project (industrial, residential)” ranked third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth, ninth, 10th, and 11th, respectively, within the industry category.
+Furthermore, among all 30 investigated factors,
+Overall RII and Ranking of Factors Affecting Construction Labor Productivity in Egypt
+Availability of materials and their ease of handling
+Leadership and competency of construction management
+Competency of labor supervision
+Construction technology (construction method and material)
+Labor operating system (daily wage, lump sum)
+Planning, work flow, and site congestion
+Constructability (integrated design and construction)
+Clarity of instructions and information exchange
+Surrounding events (revolutions)
+Weather effect (temperature, humidity)
+Services offered to laborers (social insurance, medical care)
+Effect of labor availability—work capacity (shortage)
+Project specifications
+Over time (up to 4 h after 8 h=day)
+Available quantity of the daily work (workload)
+Effect of labor availability—work capacity (excess)
+Work at heights
+Degree of laborer education
+Rest time(s) during the work day
+Total project duration (total work hours)
+Construction management type (individuals, firms)
+Over time (more than 4 h after 8 h=day)
+Management of subcontractors
+Type of the project (industrial, residential)
+they ranked 12th, 14th, 17th, 19th, 20th, 21st, 23rd, 26th, and 30, respectively.
+Table 5 shows the average RIIs and ranks of the three surveyed categories;
+Table 6 shows the overall RIIs and ranks of the 30 surveyed factors.
+Conclusions and Recommendations
+To improve construction labor productivity, one must identify and recognize the influence of the primary factors affecting productivity.
+This research has identified, and, based on the quantified RIIs, determined the influence ranks of 30 factors affecting construction labor productivity in Egypt.
+These factors were classified under the following three primary classifications:
+(1) human/labor related factors;
+(2) industry related factors;
+and (3) management related factors.
+To study the effect of the participants’ experience on the results, the results were grouped under three additional groups based on the experience of the participants, i.e., up to 15 years, 15 to 25 years, and over 25 years.
+In this regard, the results were consistent.
+This study reveals the importance of management factors on construction labor productivity over the other two categories, labor/human and industry.
+Despite the importance of management factors, they are almost unpredictable, especially during the bidding phase.
+The “incentive programs” factor is the most important factor in the management group.
+Its importance is because the majority of construction workers come from rural areas to cities and work for low wages on a daily basis without any kind of insurance umbrella.
+Thus, a monetary incentive scheme further promotes the objective of operatives and creates a high level of motivation and satisfaction among these workers;
+as a result, higher efficiency is achieved on sites.
+In the light of these findings, it is recommended that incentive programs should be a part of Egyptian contractors’ policies and practices.
+Also, the findings revealed the importance of the “availability of the materials and their ease of handling” factor.
+This requires the designer/engineer to prepare painstaking project documentation and the contractor to prepare a careful delivery plan for the required materials.
+Also, it reflects the need for proper and efficient selection of the location of material storage.
+It is recommended that the Egyptian government enhance and encourage the accessibility to construction materials, either through local availability or by direct imports.
+This would improve competitiveness among material suppliers, thus helping local contractors to overcome their financial and liquidity problems.
+The most predictable and significant factor identified by the results is “constructability (integrated design and construction),” which needs much more effort and consideration in the Egyptian construction industry.
+This confirms the significance of applying this concept to the construction industry and asserting the pivotal role of the relationship between designers/engineers and contractors in the process.
+The findings, nevertheless, reveal a serious lack of cohesion between the two parties and their inability to see the whole construction process through each other’s eyes.
+The constructability practices among the various designers operating in Egypt reveal a lack of awareness on their part about the importance of this concept to the productivity of the operation.
+In fact, more opportunities exist to significantly lower total project costs by focusing more attention on the design than on the construction phase.
+Although the designer’s fee typically ranges between 2 and 5% of the project’s construction cost, decisions made during the design phase of a project not only have a maximum impact on its construction cost, but also dictate its viability, future expenditures, and durations.
+Furthermore, from the designer’s perspective, it would justify the “cutting corners” approach typically used in such circumstances to both quality and design time, to rationalize the cost/benefit ratio of the contract.
+Improving the constructability level of designs is certainly the first step in the right direction.
+This can be accomplished by increasing the designers’ awareness of the significant impact of this concept on the productivity of the construction process.
+Additionally, this may be augmented by encouraging procurement methods that allow the involvement of contractors during the design stage of projects, such as design/build (DB), design/build/operate/transfer (DBOT), or turnkey/engineering, procurement, and construction (EPC), and thus facilitate the incorporation of the construction experience at the early stage of the project development process so that the desired benefits can be achieved during the construction phase.
+Perhaps, in view of the results, policy makers would consider stipulating a formal value engineering assessment before granting construction permits, in which minimum requirements of constructability must be satisfied before a permit may be obtained.
+The result of the “laborer experience and skill” factor agrees with the fact that the Egyptian construction industry suffers from the lack of trained and skilled workers.
+The investment in people is very valuable, especially in a country like Egypt with a relatively high population and an abundance of labor.
+The outcome of this research reveals the importance of developing construction labor skills and experience, which can enhance the construction industry and the overall economy.
+In this regard, the governmental policy should encourage and pay more attention to formal secondary technical education and apprentice programs.
+Also, contractors should provide strong assistance and support regarding the continual training of their craftsmen.
+It is a common interest among contractors, consultants, employers, and policymakers in Egypt to improve the productivity level of the construction sector.
+The outcomes of this study can assist in achieving this goal by focusing and acting upon the most significant factors perceived to affect the efficiency of construction labor productivity.
+The results will become worthwhile in determining the major steps to improve labor productivity in the Egyptian construction industry, and thus, to improve the overall performance of project completion time.
+Researchers and industry practitioners can use the outcome RIIs for the factors in this research as part of further research in modeling the productivity of construction labor by using any valid techniques, i.e., the artificial neural network (ANN) technique.
+By using such techniques, researchers and industry practitioners may use the outcome importance indices to quantify the weights of affecting factors to obtain and predict relevant labor productivity rates.
+Also, the results can be used as a part of further research modeling the interaction relationship between the key factors affecting productivity to improve construction labor productivity in the Egyptian construction industry.

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+Case Study
+Exploratory Study of Potential Applications of Unmanned Aerial Systems for Construction Management Tasks
+Javier Irizarry, Ph.D., M.ASCE1;
+and Dayana Bastos Costa, Ph.D.2
+Despite studies exploring potential applications of unmanned aerial systems (UASs), the particular use and value of visual assets (photographs or video) collected with UASs for construction management tasks is not well understood.
+This paper presents an exploratory case study to identify potential applications of visual assets obtained from UASs for construction management tasks.
+The case study involved the development of a visual assets database from UAS-based images and videos collected during UAS flights at jobsites in the United States and Brazil as well as semi-structured interviews with construction project personnel.
+The results revealed potential applications of UASs mainly for project progress monitoring, job site logistics, evaluating safety conditions, and quality inspections among other secondary management tasks.
+In addition, an analysis of costs related to the use of UASs was performed.
+The main contribution of this case study is a better understanding of the use of UASs for construction management tasks and their regulatory and cost implications.
+10.1061/(ASCE)ME .1943-5479.0000422. © 2016 American Society of Civil Engineers.
+Authorkeywords:
+Unmanned aerial systems (UASs);
+Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV);
+Visual assets;
+Construction management.
+Introduction
+Unmanned aerial systems (UASs) are an emerging technology known for their role in military applications (Nisser and Westin 2006).
+More recently, the potential use of UASs as tools in civilian environments has gained significant attention in domains such as agriculture, forestry, archaeology, architecture, and construction.
+In addition, federal and state agencies in the United States have been operating or considering operating small UASs for law enforcement or surveillance purposes.
+According to a report by the Association for Unmanned Vehicle Systems International (AUVSI), the market for UASs is estimated at $11.3 billion, and potential spending in these systems will grow to over $140 billion in the next 10 years in the United States alone (Jenkins 2013).
+These systems are unmanned aerial hardware platforms that can be equipped to perform data collection and processing, and they operate with or without direct human intervention.
+Commonly known as a drone, a UAS can be defined as “a powered aerial vehicle that does not carry a human operator, uses aerodynamic forces to provide vehicle lift, can fly autonomously or be piloted remotely” (Newcome 2004).
+The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), the national aviation authority of the United States, has adopted the term UAS (unmanned aircraft system) instead
+Associate Professor, School of Building Construction, College of Architecture, Georgia Institute of Technology, 280 Ferst Dr., Atlanta, GA 30332-0680 (corresponding author).
+javier.irizarry@coa .gatech.edu 2
+Visiting Scholar, School of Building Construction, College of Architecture, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332;
+Assistant Professor, School of Engineering, Dept. of Structural and Construction Engineering, Masters Program in Environmental and Urban Engineering, Federal Univ. of Bahia-Brazil, Aristides Novis, 02, Federacao, Salvador, 40210-630 Bahia, Brazil.
+[email protected]
+Note. This manuscript was submitted on March 9, 2015;
+approved on October 20, 2015;
+published online on January 5, 2016.
+Discussion period open until June 5, 2016;
+separate discussions must be submitted for individual papers.
+This paper is part of the Journal of Management in Engineering, © ASCE, ISSN 0742-597X.
+of UAV (unmanned aerial vehicle) because the concept of an unmanned system has to include a ground control station, vehicles, and other elements for safe operation.
+UASs normally include a portable control station for the human operator and one or more unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs).
+The utilized UAVs can be equipped with various sensors, such as video or still cameras;
+far and near infrared, radar or laser-based range finders;
+and specialized communication devices.
+Most UASs are capable of real-time data transfer between the UAV(s) and the control station;
+some have additional onboard data storage capabilities for enhanced data collection.
+UASs can perform tasks similar to those that can be done by manned vehicles but often faster, safer, and at a lower cost (Puri 2005).
+UAS applications that could potentially support the construction industry have been covered by the media despite the lack of quantitative data on the effective benefits achieved.
+Conversely, studies found in academic literature suggest uses of UAS-based visual assets in the civil engineering, construction, and transportation fields for collecting terrestrial images, creating 3D models, bridge inspection, crack detection in buildings, highway traffic monitoring and simulation, construction education, Department of Transportation operations, and construction safety (Puri et al. 2007;
+Metni and Hamel 2007;
+Eisenbeiß 2009;
+Rathinam et al. 2008;
+Hudzietz and Saripalli 2011;
+Barazzetti et al. 2010;
+Huang et al. 2010;
+Eschmann et al. 2012;
+Zhang and Elaksher 2012;
+Barfuss et al. 2012;
+Irizarry et al. 2012;
+Opfer 2014;
+Irizarry and Johnson 2014;
+Karan et al. 2014).
+However, the particular use and value of visual assets collected with UASs for construction management tasks are not well understood.
+In addition, recent studies have analyzed the benefits of use and integration of technology for field monitoring.
+Solis et al. (2015) studied field managers’ time management, production of work documents, and technology skills using a cognitive approach.
+Jaseleskis et al. (2015) explored the use of telepresence for realtime monitoring of construction operations, highlighting its implementation costs, benefits, and limitations.
+According to Solis et al. (2015), field managers will be quick to reject tools that obstruct the completion of their goals and responsibilities but will adjust their work for technologies that provide adequate information in specific instances.
+Moreover, the 15-year review of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) applications by Lu et al. (2015) identified important factors that influence ICT implementation, which could also influence the adoption of UASs in construction.
+The identified factors included organizational characteristics, technology characteristics, user’s knowledge and skills, training and technical support, user’s acceptance and participation, top management support, information security, external environment, and project characteristics.
+This paper presents an exploratory case study to identify potential applications of visual assets obtained from UASs for construction management tasks, and to identify tasks that deserve further investigation.
+For this purpose, UAS test flights were conducted in three construction projects in the United States and one project in Brazil to collect the visual assets, followed by interviews with project personnel to assess their perception of the benefits and usefulness of the visual assets.
+In addition, an analysis of the possible costs associated with UAS use in construction environments was performed and the results are discussed.
+This section provides an overview of UAS applications in the construction environment and the regulatory environment in the United States and Brazil, where the test flights took place.
+This information will help the reader understand the regulatory requirements applicable to UASs in construction sites.
+Applications of UASs in Construction
+The ability to use various sensors and the potential to hover for extended periods makes rotor-based UASs (e.g., quadcopters, multicopters, and traditional helicopters) well suited as experimental platforms for investigating the application of such systems in construction environments.
+For instance, aerial video collected by visible or infrared cameras deployed on UAS platforms is rapidly emerging as a low cost and widely used source of imagery for time-critical disaster response to applications (Wu and Zhou 2006), or for the purpose of wildfire surveillance (Wu et al. 2007).
+Several studies have been performed with UASs in construction environments.
+One group of studies focused on UAS-based photogrammetry for 3D model creation.
+For example, Eisenbeiß (2009) used a circular flight path to collect terrestrial and high resolution UAS-based images and developed a 3D model of a castle.
+Hudzietz and Saripalli (2011) employed the structure from motion (SFM) technique to collect two-dimensional images of terrain using a UAS-mounted camera and then converted the images of the terrain into a 3D model.
+They found that this method could be implemented in both a cost effective and time efficient manner and was useful for creating large-scale models.
+However, they found that the GPS system of a UAS might not record exact locations, thereby introducing errors.
+Barazzetti et al. (2010) presented a method for automatically processing close-range images to create a 3D model.
+Jizhou et al. (2004) developed and evaluated a method for capturing geometric and surface texture data to create 3D models based on a single image and a 2D Geographic Information System (GIS) database.
+Considerable research has also been devoted to potential applications of UASs in the monitoring and maintenance of linear structures such as highways, canals, and bridges.
+Metni and Hamel (2007) considered UASs for bridge inspections.
+Rathinam et al. (2008) proposed a fast learning algorithm capable of detecting and locating various linear structures creating boundary candidates and a cross-sectional profile of a structure from a captured image.
+Such a learning algorithm could minimize the need for human supervision of UAS operations, resulting in lower cost and labor requirements.
+UASs have been considered for various traffic management, transportation engineering, and construction applications related to Departments of Transportation (DOTs) operations, including traffic surveillance (Coifman et al. 2004;
+Srinivasan et al. 2004), traffic simulation (Puri et al. 2007;
+Coifman et al. 2006), monitoring of structures (Rathinam et al. 2008;
+Frew et al. 2004), avalanche control (McCormack and Trepanier 2008), aerial assessment of road surface condition (Zhang and Elaksher 2012), bridge inspection (Metni and Hamel 2007;
+Morgenthal and Hallermann 2014), and safety inspection on jobsites (Irizarry et al. 2012).
+States such as Virginia (Carroll and Rathbone 2002), Florida, Ohio and Washington (Coifman et al. 2004), Utah (Barfuss et al. 2012), and Georgia (Irizarry and Johnson 2014;
+Karan et al. 2014) are leading UAS application and implementation within their DOTs.
+Some studies have considered UASs for inspection of buildings and bridges during their construction or maintenance.
+Eschmann et al. (2012) developed an algorithm for window inspection and crack detection via digital image processing, and Huang et al. (2010) proposed an algorithm that detected the number and the location of cracks on masonry surfaces from images captured by UASs. Irizarry et al. (2012) studied the initial application of UAS technology in the construction industry, specifically for safety-related inspections.
+Opfer (2014) discussed the use of UASs in construction education.
+For researchers, UASs can provide a low-cost solution for exploring aerial photography-based construction inspection techniques, such as in roofing and building façade activities, and for other applications that otherwise would be impractical or unsafe.
+UAS Regulatory Environment in the United States and
+The Federal Aviation Administration is the entity charged by the United States Congress to define the rules for the use of UASs in the U.S. National Airspace System (FAA 2012).
+The use of UASs is allowed only by special authorization from the FAA through a certificate of authorization (COA) (FAA 2015a).
+None of the COAs that were approved between 2006 and 2012 were for commercial use of UASs. However, several COAs were issued by the FAA during the months of December 2014 and January 2015, allowing the commercial use of UASs for cinematography, real estate, construction safety monitoring, precision surveying, and mapping.
+These COAs were possible through exceptions from the airworthiness requirements under Section 333 of the FAA Modernization and Reform Act of 2012 (FAA 2012).
+COAs are location specific, meaning that the approval only applies to locations included in the COA application.
+Because construction is a sitespecific activity, the COAs would apply only to the specific job site(s) included in the application.
+The following sections present a summary of COAs and their relation to the present pilot study.
+Based on an analysis of FAA’s released data, 791 out of 897 COA applications were approved between 2006 and 2012.
+In many cases, it took up to two years for a COA to be issued.
+The longest time required to obtain a COA for applications between 2006 and 2012 was 650 days.
+However, during the same period, there were some applications that took as little as one day for approval.
+The FAA defines two types of UAS operations in the United States:
+(1) public operations, and (2) civilian operations.
+Public operations include government or government-related aircraft operations performing public services such as military defense, law enforcement, and research and development by government agencies, labs, or public universities.
+Any public operation with a UAS requires an FAA-issued COA. Civilian operations include any operation that cannot meet the required criteria for a public operation.
+The FAA provides two options to request authorization for civilian operations:
+Section 333 exemptions and Airworthiness Certificates.
+A total of 28 type 333 exemptions have been issued as of February 10, 2015 (FAA 2015a), the first of which was issued in September 2014.
+However, the regulatory environment for the use of UASs will change in the near future.
+On February 23, 2014, the FAA published a Notice of Proposed Rule Making (NPRM) providing details about the regulations that would cover the use of small UASs. It will take between 18 and 24 months for the rules to become active by most estimates.
+This means that for now, any commercial operation in the United States, including research, would require a COA.
+In Brazil, commercial aviation activities and infrastructure are regulated and monitored by the National Agency for Civil Aviation, or the Agência Nacional de Aviação Civil (ANAC), which was created in 2005 by the Brazilian Government through Law 11.182/ 2005 (ANAC 2005).
+According to ANAC (2013), UAVs (unmanned aerial vehicles) are defined as remotely piloted aircraft systems (RPAS).
+According to the ANAC’s Regulatory Agenda 2014, Topic 6—Regulation regarding the certification and regular monitoring of UAVoperators, defined by the document 2.852 from October 30, 2013, specific regulation for RPAS in Brazil for commercial operations is pending (ANAC 2013).
+In addition, this agenda indicates that regulation is expected in 2015.
+However, experimental operation in Brazil using UAVs, including research and development, market surveys and pilot training, requires authorization from the ANAC. This authorization is regulated by the Additional Instruction N. 21-002, Revision 1 (Instrução Suplementar IS N. 21-002, Revisão A 2012) (ANAC 2012), which aims to guide the process for Authorization Certificates for Experimental Flights (CAVE) based on Brazilian Regulation of Commercial Aviation N. 21 (RBAC) for UAVs. Therefore, because the operation of an UAV for commercial purposes is not characterized as an experimental flight, this requires a specific request for ANAC, highlighting the characteristics of the operation and its purpose.
+It should demonstrate that safety levels of the project applied are in accordance with the risks associated with the operation, such as risks concerning other aircrafts as well as people and property on the ground.
+For recreational operation, the UAV can be considered as an aero-model or a toy.
+In this case, Regulation N. 207 from April 7, 1999 (ANAC 1999), which establishes rules for the operation of aero-models in Brazil, is applied.
+As presented in this section, the regulations for the use of UAS in the United States and Brazil are somewhat similar.
+However, regulations in Brazil are clearer in terms of requirements for experimental or noncommercial flights.
+Research Method
+The exploratory case study of the application of visual assets for construction management tasks was developed according to stages and activities described in Fig. 1.
+The following sections describe the steps of the study in more detail.
+UAS Flight on Construction Jobsites
+The four projects used in this exploratory case study included three projects in the city of Atlanta, Georgia in the United States and one project in the city of Salvador, Bahia in Brazil.
+Fig. 2 presents a summary of the characteristics of the projects included in the exploratory case study.
+The mix of project locations allowed the inclusion of an international perspective where the regulations for the use of UASs are different from those in the United States.
+The projects selected were building construction projects of various sizes, including an academic office building, a research building, a school building, and a residential high-rise building.
+Development of the Visual Asset Database and Visual Asset Subset for Interviews
+The Visual Asset Database was developed through field visits to the selected test site projects.
+Visits for obtaining visual assets ranged between one and five visits per project between the months of May and November 2014.
+Each visit lasted between 30 min and 1 hour.
+During this time, project personnel accompanied UAS operators and ensured that construction operations would not be disrupted by the presence of the UAS. This required informing appropriate
+Identification of tasks for further investigation
+Research work plan
+Project and Location
+office building, Atlanta,
+Scope of work includes demolition of exterior façade, building interior, and systems, complete reconstruction of exterior and interiors and systems of a two-story building.
+Academic research building,
+Scope of work includes construction of a five-story academic and research building.
+High school
+Scope of work includes the construction of a performing arts center and a gymnasium.
+Residential apartment buildings,
+Scope of work includes the construction of eight apartment buildings and related amenities.
+Test site project characteristics (images by Javier Irizarry)
+personnel and maintaining the UAS operators at a safe distance from construction operations.
+Additionally, during the flights project personnel accompanied the research team and explicitly indicated what areas, activities, objects etc. they wanted to view through the UAS live view as well as the images and videos captured.
+A DJI Phantom 2Vision þ UAS was used for the collection of visual assets (Fig. 3).
+This UAS has a 14-megapixel camera with a resolution of 4384×3288 and 1080p30 and 720p resolution video recording capability, and was selected for its ease of use and low cost.
+It is envisioned that similar UASs would be suitable for construction jobsite use.
+A total of 200 visual assets were collected during the sevenmonth period.
+Table 1 shows the distribution of the visual assets collected on each project by asset type.
+The visual assets collected form the database from which assets were selected for use in the interviews with project personnel.
+The authors reviewed all of the assets and selected the ones that were representative of each project.
+Initially, a random selection approach was attempted, but the resulting selection concentrated on a particular project or format, so it was decided that this approach would not provide the insight that was required for an exploratory case study.
+The selection of assets resulted in an acceptable mix of asset types.
+In addition, assets were
+Collected Visual Assets by Project and Type
+Subset of Visual Assets Selec
+ted for the Interviews
+divided into two categories related to the projects.
+The first was assets from a respondent’s project and the second was assets that were not from a respondent’s project.
+In this way, bias related to project familiarity could be reduced.
+A subset of 15 assets was selected for use in the interviews, including eight videos and seven pictures, as shown in Table 2.
+The questionnaire was divided into four sections.
+The first section included demographic information questions.
+The second section required participants to describe what they saw in the visual assets in terms of job site logistics, safety conditions, project progress, quality inspection, general managerial issues, and technical issues.
+This section also required participants to identify managerial or technical problems by inspecting the visual asset.
+Participants were requested to indicate what they could not see in the visual asset presented and which type of views they would have liked to see that were not presented to them (closer view, internal view, higher elevation, specific angle, worker performing tasks etc.).
+The last question in this section asked participants to indicate the type of managerial or technical actions that could be taken to address the issues observed in the visual asset.
+The third section of the questionnaire asked participants to indicate their level of agreement with statements related to the usefulness of visual assets in various areas.
+A seven-point Likert scale was used to rate participant’s agreement level ranging from strongly agree (1) to strongly disagree (7).
+Areas for consideration included project progress, job site logistics, safety conditions, quality inspection, productivity improvements, managerial issues, and technical issues.
+The last section of the questionnaire compared current methods for obtaining visual assets such as aerial photography services and ground-based still photography and determined how frequently these methods are used.
+The questionnaire was reviewed by the Institutional Review Board and approved for use with human subjects.
+Interviews with Project Personnel
+Interviews with project personnel involved displaying the visual assets on a laptop computer screen and going through the questions included in the questionnaire.
+The interviews lasted approximately one hour and were conducted between the months of September and November of 2014.
+Table 3 presents information regarding the interviewee role in the project, experience, and education.
+Subject 3 (S3) had no assets from his project in the database;
+however, after the interview, this subject requested a flight in his project to collect specific visual assets.
+During the test flight, this project manager accompanied the research team and provided input regarding what areas, object, activities etc. to view, photograph, and video record at his jobsite.
+Project personnel were asked to provide their perception of various aspects related to the visual assets collected.
+The 15 selected assets were presented in several combinations that resulted in a total of 48 perception assessments by project personnel.
+From this sample, 11 perception assessments were from the perspective of the project personnel’s own project’s visual assets and the other 37 perception assessments were from the perspective of another project personnel’s projects (Table 4).
+User Perception of Visual Asset Value
+Table 5 presents the main findings from the interviews with project personnel regarding their perceptions about the following aspects:
+(1) usefulness for evaluation of items such as job site logistics, safety conditions, and project progress;
+managing quality control;
+addressing general managerial issues (marketing, worker and subcontractors education);
+and addressing technical issues;
+(2) identification of managerial or technical problems and potential solutions stemming from the observed visual asset;
+and (3) preferences and requirements, such as closer views, interior views, higher elevation views, specific view angles, views of workers performing tasks, and picture or video preferences.
+The following sections discuss the findings by the project from which the assets were obtained.
+Assets 01, 02, 03, 04, and 06 from Project 4
+These visual assets were collected on one visit, and Subject 1 (S1) was the field engineer at Project 4 (Table 5).
+For Asset 01, the four interviewees mentioned jobsite logistics, general view of safety conditions, and project progress as the main uses of the asset.
+They also mentioned the use of the asset as a tool for worker and subcontractor safety management and site safety training.
+The main problem identified by all of the interviewees was with the traffic flow of equipment on the site affecting work progress.
+In addition, they were concerned with material storage at the top level of structures, concrete placement work at ground level, and the number of workers involved.
+Interviewees indicated that closer views of the roof and façade as well as the concreting tasks were needed for work inspection and that views of the other side of the project were needed for safety inspection.
+This last point is important because the use of the UAS on a construction site is restricted to visual line of sight (VLOS) operation according to current FAA regulations.
+When presented with Asset 2, all of the interviewees mentioned that the still image had better definition than the video (A1).
+Some questions raised after viewing A1 could be answered through this image, because the project personnel observed the construction
+Another project
+Perception Assessments of Assets by Project Personnel
+work in more detail through the image.
+Various problems were identified by the interviewees, such as S1, who was a field engineer at the project and mentioned that the traffic route was not according to plan.
+Other problems such as materials and workers on the roof, damaged safety netting trays and debris nets, and doubts about the lift capacity of the crane were mentioned.
+Interviewees S1 and S3 required a big picture view of the site, considering surrounding areas, neighborhood access, areas outside of the property, and the backside of the roof, which was not visible in the visual assets presented.
+With these requirements, it is important to consider the restrictions of VLOS operation for UAS.
+All of the interviewees mentioned that Asset 03 (A3), which was a video, provided more information such as closer views, ground level progress, and equipment movements than the other two assets.
+This video provided a better view of the site and more details of safety conditions, while the other assets provided a better view of the building structures.
+Interviewee S1 highlighted two important aspects about his own project:
+(1) the possibility of making a general quality inspection of the topography related to drainage, confirming that it was according to the design, and (2) damage to safety nets from a broad viewpoint.
+This second aspect highlights potential issues with not being able to notice this hazard during a routine safety inspection.
+The main technical problems noticed were related to safety and stabilization of jobsite roads, and S3 required additional visual information about types and numbers of equipment and progress of each apartment building.
+According to interviewees, Asset 04 and 06 did not provide new information compared with the previous visual assets viewed, but these allowed safety issues to be observed, such as missing safety guardrails on some windows and a damaged safety net.
+Interviewee S3 mentioned the potential use of this video by the owner of the project for marketing purposes.
+Assets 05, 07, and 08 from Project 2
+These visual assets were collected on one visit, and Project 2’s project manager was Subject 2 (S2) (Table 5).
+For interviewees, the view provided by Asset 05 was mainly concerned with safety conditions and job site logistics, such as site organization, material storage, and conflicts with equipment.
+Interviewees S1 and S3 observed some general project progress and structural concrete work.
+The main problem noticed by all of the project personnel was material leftovers and debris on the ground level and some quality problems, such as standing water.
+Interviewee S2 asked for another photo from the same angle but at higher elevation to confirm safety measures on the top level, and Subject 4 (S4) asked for a closer view of the interior of the concrete frame structure.
+For the three project personnel, Asset 07 (video) was better for viewing the project in terms of safety, roof work progress, and interior concrete framework progress.
+This video answered some questions in terms of safety conditions, site protection, and logistics raised by interviewee S2 when viewing Asset 05.
+The main concern of S2 was the standing water, clearly showed in this video.
+Interviewees S1 and S2 requested a broader view of the project, meaning interior and exterior, higher elevation, the other side of the building, and inside the lower level at a corner of the structure.
+Main Findings from Interviews
+Subset of 15 assets
+Summary of main findings
+• Jobsite logistics
+• Traffic issues
+Need closer view for work inspection
+• Safety conditions
+• Roof material storage
+• Safety conditions
+Need big pictures:
+Surroundings areas,
+• Quality inspection
+• Roof material storage
+neighborhood access, and backside
+• Safety conditions
+• Crane’s lift capacity
+• Safety conditions
+• Safety conditions
+• Route logistics
+Progress of each building structure
+• Safety conditions
+Need closer view and higher elevation
+• Safety conditions
+• Inspection
+• Quality issues
+• Safety conditions
+S1, S2, and S4
+• Safety condition
+• Safety conditions
+Need other side view for safety inspection
+• Quality issues
+S1, S2, and S3
+• Jobsite logistics
+• Quality issues
+Need Vertical Conveyor View
+• Safety conditions
+• Jobsite logistics
+• Jobsite logistics
+• Safety conditions
+• Safety conditions
+• Material tracking
+• Safety conditions
+• Safety education
+• Safety conditions
+S2, S3, and S4
+• Logistics
+• General inspection
+• Vibration on site
+Need other side view for safety inspection
+• General inspection
+• Safety conditions
+• Jobsite logistics
+• Inventory problem
+Asset 08 allowed the three interviewees to make new observations about the project such as the congestion in the material storage area.
+Interviewee S3 was able to notice the issues with standing water from this asset.
+Interviewee S2 mentioned that an action to be taken on the project was the decongestion of this area for better material logistics and management.
+Interviewee S1 also stated that whereas a vertical conveyor system could not be seen, that did not mean that such a system was not present.
+Assets 09, 10, 11, and 12 from Project 1
+These visual assets were collected during four visits to Project 1
+Using Asset 09, all of the interviewees identified several major safety and site organization problems, such as demolition debris to be removed, many missing barricade boards along the external perimeter of the roof level, material leftovers that could blow away from the roof, and stairs without fall protection.
+The interviewees also raised a concern with the proximity of the construction site to pedestrians and other buildings.
+Interviewee S1 asked for an interior view, and S2 requested closer images.
+In Asset 10, which was taken at a different date than Asset 09, the interviewees observed improvements in terms of safety and site organization, but they still observed major problems, such as workers on the edge of a roof without appropriate fall protection.
+In Asset 11, taken at a different time, the interviewees saw the movement of perimeter fences and material loading and unloading.
+Interviewee S1 could better understand the unsafe situation observed on the roof from this visual asset, and interviewee S3 noted the progress and pedestrian traffic management for the site.
+Interviewees S2, S3, and S4 were concerned about various issues, such as material unloading, multiple workers in a reduced space, and open pedestrian access control fences.
+Subject 4 (S4) highlighted the use of the video to discuss safety and hazardous conditions with workers.
+In Asset 12, the interviewees could observe the elevator pit excavation and material storage inside the building.
+The interviewees identified issues with safety, pedestrian access conflicts, and limited work area.
+Assets 13, 14, and 15 from Project 3
+These visual assets were collected on three site visits, and interviewee S4 was the superintendent of Project 3 (Table 5).
+In Asset 13, the interviewees could see the excavation process, the use of some equipment and site logistics.
+Interviewee S4 mentioned that this image could be used as documentation or jobsite history.
+Interviewee S2 mentioned that some different logistic strategies could be used to improve the site, and interviewee S4 observed that smaller equipment could reduce vibrations on this jobsite.
+In terms of preference, interviewee S2 required information on the amount of excavation and productivity and different view angles for safety inspections.
+In Asset 14, interviewee S2 mentioned that the video provided information for general inspection in areas with limited access.
+Interviewee S4 expressed concerns with safety conditions for trucks, which were working close to the site perimeter and power lines.
+Interviewee S4 mentioned that the video helped to see potential problems and could also be used for educational
+Usefulness of Visual Assets
+Use of visual assets	S1	S2	S3	S4	Average
+Job site logistics
+Productivity improvement
+Safety conditions
+Quality inspection
+Technical aspects
+Assets Useful for Co
+Related Problem Identification
+Construction management task Usefulness for task
+Project and work progress
+Jobsite logistics
+Safety conditions
+Work quality inspection
+In Asset 15, the interviewees could see equipment and obtain a better and in-depth perspective of the site and a general overview of the site.
+Project personnel were also asked about their perceptions of the usefulness of the visual assets for construction management tasks.
+A seven-point Likert scale where 1 means strongly agree and 7 means strongly disagreed was used.
+Table 6 presents the main findings.
+For the four project personnel, the assets are highly useful for project progress monitoring (average 2.00), jobsite logistics (average 2.25), and management issues in general (average 2.75).
+These findings can be confirmed and compared to the qualitative data from the 48 perception assessments of assets analyzed in this case study, as shown in Table 5.
+Project progress or work progress monitoring usefulness was indicated by the interviewees in 10 out of 15 assets, and jobsite logistics was indicated in 8 assets and was mentioned as a task-related problem identifiable in 11 assets (Table 7).
+Conversely, despite safety conditions having an average rating of 3.25 in the quantitative survey, the interview data indicated that usefulness for this management task was indicated in 7 assets, and in 13 assets it was mentioned as useful for identifying problems.
+This indicates that the visual assets had the
+Estimate of Costs Associated with UAS Use on Construction Sites
+potential to assist project personnel in the identification of safety issues on site.
+User Perception of Visual Asset Value from Their Own Project versus Other User’s Projects
+As expected, project personnel were able to identify more issues from assets related to their own project than those from projects they did not have as much knowledge of.
+In addition, Subjects 1 and 4 directly participated in the data collection process, so they seemed to be even more interested in the visual assets that were obtained.
+However, during the interviews, the researchers noticed some reluctance from project personnel to note issues with their own projects, which can be expected.
+Most interviewees agreed that the usefulness of the assets from projects that were not their own was for training purposes.
+Because first-hand knowledge of a project could desensitize personnel to problems that may be present, unfamiliar projects could be better for training.
+User Perception of Visual Assets Value by Field Personnel versus Project Managers
+It was clear from the interviewees’ responses that their role in the project influenced the perceived usefulness of the visual assets.
+Field personnel found the assets to be more useful for identifying logistics issues and problems at the operational level, whereas project management personnel found the assets more useful for more of a big picture view of the project.
+They focused more on overall logistics and project progress, project documentation, and owner marketing purposes than on details.
+Costs Related to UAS Use
+An aspect of UAS application on construction sites that is still not clearly defined is the costs associated with their use.
+There are several items that could contribute to these costs such as obtaining the required authorization for use, the UAS itself, the training for personnel who would operate the UAS or paying a service to operate the UAS, and insurance costs.
+Because the use of UASs is not widespread and can greatly vary from project to project, a detailed estimate of the costs that would apply to all projects may not be possible at this time.
+However, based on the exploratory case study performed, an estimate of these costs is presented in Table 8.
+Certificate of
+Authorization (COA)
+This cost can vary depending on the location of the project, the area to cover, and the UAS to be used.
+The cost is per certificate, and depending on location a COA could apply to multiple sites.
+These costs are applicable to the sites used in this study
+DJI Phantom vision 2þ
+These premium example estimates are for third party liability (J. Gadbury, personal
+$1 million insured:
+$2 million insured:
+$5 million insured:
+$10 million insured:
+These are estimated costs and were not actually incurred because the operator was part of the research team
+Some of the estimated costs presented in Table 8 would apply under current FAA regulations.
+However, once the final version of the regulations is in place in approximately 2017, these costs could change and some would likely decrease.
+For example, the process of obtaining authorization for the use of UAS would be simpler under the proposed regulations, and the associated cost for the
+operator would decrease.
+It is expected that operators would have to take only a written exam, which would be a fraction of the cost of obtaining a pilot’s license as is now required.
+As shown in Table 8, some of the costs related to the use of UAS may seem high compared with the aerial photography services used on all of the projects surveyed.
+The average cost of aerial photographs was $100 per month for the American projects and approximately $300 for the Brazilian project.
+The cost of aerial photography is low because of economy of scale.
+Many projects can be photographed on one flight, which results in costs being spread among multiple projects.
+The use of UAS would provide benefits to projects such as reduced time for aerial photos to be delivered to site, no limitations on the number of photos other than flight time and memory card capacity, no limitations on view angles and elevation of photos except for the FAA-imposed elevation limits, and availability of videos from the same perspective and elevation as aerial photos.
+These benefits would need to be financially quantified for a more direct comparison to aerial photography services to be possible.
+In addition, a UAS unit can be used on many projects, thus spreading out its cost in a manner similar to the surveying equipment currently being used.
+This is an indication that there can be significant cost benefits to the use of UAS in the construction environment.
+In addition, UASs can provide a flexibility that photography services may not be able to provide in terms of service timing.
+With a site-based UAS, project personnel can have real-time access to images and videos of the site from preferred angles.
+As UASs are more broadly used in the construction industry, more cost data would become available to allow a detailed cost-benefit analysis to be performed.
+It would also be necessary to determine the value of current imaging methods in financial terms to make a direct comparison to the emerging use of UASs.
+The aim of this exploratory case study was to identify potential applications of visual assets obtained from UASs for construction tasks and to identify other construction-related tasks that deserve further study.
+To accomplish the goals of the study, a database of 200 visual assets (photos and videos) was assembled from test flights performed at three active construction sites in the United States and one in Brazil.
+An off-the-shelf UAS platform (DJI Phantom 2 Vision+) was used to collect the visual assets.
+This UAS was selected because similarly easy to use and low-cost solutions would be suitable for construction jobsite use and are likely to be similar to what construction practitioners would use.
+The benefits and usefulness of the visual assets were assessed through interviews with project personnel from the test sites using a subset of the visual assets collected.
+The main contributions of this paper are to improve the use of UAS-based visual assets for construction management tasks and to identify relevant opportunities to explore this emerging technology on jobsites.
+The findings of the exploratory case study indicate that there are several potential applications of UAS-based visual assets for construction management applications including the monitoring of project progress, evaluation of job site logistics plans, monitoring of safety conditions, and quality inspections of work performed among other secondary management tasks.
+The UAS flights conducted in the four projects studied revealed important issues with their use on jobsites.
+First, workers were curious about the flights and some stopped working to see the UAS in action.
+This highlights the importance of training and communication with project personnel regarding the use of UAS on site before flights to educate personnel about the technology, its utility and purpose on the jobsite.
+This approach would avoid unsafe conditions or work distraction during flights, which was one of the main concerns of the project personnel interviewed.
+Second, flight safety and potential hazards, which could be caused by the UAS, are key issues to be addressed.
+Therefore, further investigation on a systematic and standardized approach to the use of UASs on jobsites is required.
+This would address issues such as UAS mission planning and safe flight conditions.
+The authors are currently investigating these issues in an ongoing research project.
+The process of assessing the perception of project personnel raised additional applications, problems, and opportunities for UAS use on jobsites.
+For example, project personnel highlighted the use of the visual assets for training, project documentation, and marketing, which initially were not considered important.
+It was clear that the interest of project personnel in the potential use of UASs was on the value of the visual assets for providing different perspectives and information about their jobsite, equipment, building process, and the neighboring area.
+In addition, the visual assets could give project personnel more control over what they wanted visually documented compared to standard aerial photography.
+From the analysis of the available cost information related to UAS use on jobsites, it was determined that additional data are needed to perform a more detailed analysis and comparison to current methods for imaging jobsites.
+Costs such as obtaining authorization to be able to fly and to meet regulatory requirements are the greatest expenditures involved with the use of UAS on jobsites.
+However, these costs are expected to decrease when permanent regulation is in place by 2017.
+There are many benefits provided by the use of UAS for project management tasks that will need to be quantified to more clearly understand their impact on construction sites.
+As UAS use becomes more widespread, additional data will be available to study their financial implications.
+At this time, and with the data available, the authors can conclude that for many companies UASs could be a good investment given that they could be acquired for one project and used on several other projects at no significant cost.
+Future research should evaluate the financial implications in detail to determine what project characteristics could affect financial feasibility of UAS use.
+Some issues that will need to be researched further include the impact of the regulatory environment on the use of UASs, the impact of the learning curve in the use of UAS technology by construction personnel, privacy concerns, and safety issues that may be related to the use of UAS technology on jobsites.
+Future research should focus on assessing the performance of UAS for the tasks highlighted by this exploratory case study and other tasks that may be considered feasible with UAS technology.
+Acknowledgments
+The authors of the study would like to acknowledge Odebrecht Construction, the McCarthy Building Companies, J.E. Dunn Construction, and Croft and Associates Architecture for their participation in the study.
+The support of the Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnolo´gico—CNPq of the Government of Brazil is also acknowledged.

cleaned_papers/cleaned_papers_without_ref/(ASCE)ME.1943-5479.0000641.txt

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+Role of Management Strategies in Improving Labor
+Productivity in General Construction Projects in New
+Managerial Perspective
+This study aimed to quantify the effectiveness of a set of implemented management strategies including incentive programs, labor management, training, communication, supervision, planning, resource scheduling, use of advanced construction methods, and management of construction in improving labor productivity.
+These management strategies are widely implemented because they are believed to improve labor productivity in general construction projects.
+However, their effectiveness and relationship with labor productivity have not been systematically studied.
+Data were collected from 111 general construction projects.
+The statistical tests confirmed that labor productivity is significantly higher in construction projects with a high-level implementation of the management strategies compared with low-level implementation.
+The results showed that management strategies such as communication and incentive programs have a strong positive relationship with labor productivity.
+This paper’s major contribution to the overall body of knowledge is that it proves and quantifies the effectiveness of and the relationship of these management strategies with labor productivity through more comprehensive statistical methods than previous studies.
+It also introduces a tool to assist construction managers in benchmarking the implementation level of the management strategies against similar projects to reveal the areas that require further improvement to achieve higher labor productivity.
+10.1061/(ASCE) ME.1943-5479.0000641. © 2018 American Society of Civil Engineers.
+Introduction
+The construction industry is a significant driver of thenational economy (Alaghbari et al. 2017;
+Naoum 2016).
+In New Zealand, the industry contributed 5.2% of the gross domestic product (GDP) in 2013 (Statistics New Zealand 2015), and in Australia, it accounted for 7.7% of the GDP in 2015 (Department of Industry, Innovation and Science 2015).
+These figures indicate that the performance of the industry plays a significant role in the growth of the economy nationally (Naoum 2016).
+Thus, the construction industry must improve its productivity by efficient use of laborers and other resources (Hughes and Thorpe 2014).
+The industry has achieved substantial improvements by implementing advanced technologies, materials, and heavy equipment (Caldas et al. 2015;
+Goodrum et al. 2009;
+Grau et al. 2009).
+Despite improvements, labor productivity is still problematic;
+for years, the construction industry has been
+Ph.D. Candidate, Faculty of Engineering, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Univ. of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland 1142, New Zealand (corresponding author).
+ngho228@ aucklanduni.ac.nz
+Senior Lecturer, Faculty of Engineering, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Univ. of Auckland, Private Bag 92019,
+Auckland 1142, New Zealand.
+[email protected]
+3 Professor, Faculty of Engineering, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Univ. of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland 1142, New
+Innovation Strategy Analyst, Fletcher Building, Private Bag 92114, Auckland 1142, New Zealand.
+[email protected]
+Note. This manuscript was submitted on September 8, 2017;
+approved on March 13, 2018;
+published online on July 27, 2018.
+Discussion period open until December 27, 2018;
+separate discussions must be submitted for individual papers.
+This paper is part of the Journal of Management in Engineering, © ASCE, ISSN 0742-597X.
+struggling to improve labor productivity (Heravi and Eslamdoost 2015).
+The cost of labor is the main motivation for this improvement since it accounts for 30–50% of total construction costs (Heravi and Eslamdoost 2015;
+Nasir et al. 2015;
+Shan et al. 2015).
+In addition, construction laborers spend 50–75% of their productive time on non-value-added activities that do not affect the overall performance of the project (Diekmann et al. 2004).
+Labor productivity has a substantial impact on the final cost of projects (Liu et al. 2011).
+Improving labor productivity is a key factor in executing successful construction projects that lead to significant profits for the industry and its clients.
+It will also assist the industry to enhance overall performance and, in so doing, improve the contribution to the growth of the national economy.
+Improving labor productivity is a management case (Nasir et al. 2015).
+Construction managers apply a wide range of management strategies at the project level to improve labor productivity and achieve project objectives (Dai and Goodrum 2012;
+Dai et al. 2009;
+Shan et al. 2011, 2015).
+These strategies are based on the experience and knowledge of the managers.
+Quite often, construction managers fail to apply effective strategies that enhance labor productivity in construction projects because their actual impact on labor productivity is not evident (Caldas et al. 2015).
+In order to improve labor productivity, it is necessary for construction managers to know the extent to which the implemented management strategies affect labor productivity.
+Because of the shortage of skilled laborers in the construction industry (Brandenburg et al. 2006;
+Dai and Goodrum 2012), identifying the strategies and practices that can improve the effectiveness of the workforce becomes a major priority (Tsehayae and Robinson Fayek 2014).
+However, the main challenge for construction management teams is to identify the overall impact of their strategies on labor productivity.
+Shan et al. (2015) urged researchers to investigate the relationship between management strategies and labor productivity to determine the most effective management strategies that can be applied by construction managers to improve labor productivity.
+Understanding the relationship between these two variables is critical for construction management teams, especially if resources are limited and they have to prioritize the allocation of the resources (Nasirzadeh and Nojedehi 2013).
+Although there is a significant amount of literature on factors that affect labor productivity in different locationsand project types, few studies have attempted to provide a method to investigate and quantify the impacts of management strategies on labor productivity.
+The impacts of the management strategies on labor productivity need to be quantified through a systematic and comprehensive approach.
+This is crucial in decision making for planning and scheduling current and future projects (Heravi and Eslamdoost 2015;
+Song and AbouRizk 2008).
+This study fills this gap by identifying the impacts of management strategies on labor productivity through statistical methods.
+The outcomes of the study can assist practitioners to develop a wider perspective regarding the management strategies that improve labor productivity and to achieve an efficient utilization of the workforce.
+To complete general construction projects more productively, practitioners can allocate resources and focus on the management strategies with high impacts on labor productivity.
+In this study, management practices refer to individual practices that are performed by a construction management team in order to improve labor productivity.
+Management strategies comprise several management practices with similar concepts that affect certain areas.
+Construction Productivity Definitions
+The concept of productivity sounds simple and clear.
+Productivity can be defined as the ratio of output divided by input.
+However, it is hard to define and measure, particularly in the construction industry (Nasir 2013).
+According to Park et al. (2005), there are no standard definitions and tools that can be used to collect productivity data in the US construction industry.
+The lack of sufficient and reliable data is the main barrier in measuring productivity in construction projects.
+Nevertheless, there are terms that are generally used in the industry to measure productivity, although they vary across different projects or construction firms.
+These terms are briefly presented here;
+for more information, see Thomas et al. (1990).
+Total factor productivity (TFP) takes into account multiple factors for producing an output.
+It is a ratio of total output divided by all inputs.
+It is given by the equation
+This term is a useful macro-level productivity measure that is mostly applied in economic studies and strategic decision making.
+TFP is not applicable in construction projects or sites because there are significant problems tracking all the required inputs (Park et al. 2005;
+Thomas et al. 1990).
+Factor productivity (FP) or the project-specific model (Shehata and El-Gohary 2011) was introduced by Thomas et al. (1990) as a suitable term for project-specific purposes.
+It is a more accurate definition than TFP and is useful for specific program planning and estimating on individual projects (El-Gohary and Aziz 2014;
+Nasir 2013).
+FP is a ratio of an output (units) to dollars of input (Thomas et al. 1990)
+¼ Physicaloutput unitð	Þ
+Construction companies prefer to measure productivity through a more specific term in which the units of outputs are specific and can be measured accurately (Shehata and El-Gohary 2011).
+Single factor productivity (SFP) is a narrowly defined version of FP. Because labor productivity has a substantial impact on the cost of projects, contractors are mostly interested in labor productivity.
+Labor productivity is categorized under SFP because a single factor (labor cost or work hours) is considered the only input to calculate productivity (Thomas et al. 1990).
+Labor productivity can be calculated in one of the following ways:
+Labor productivity ¼	ð Þ
+Labor productivity ¼
+Construction companies use different terms to calculate labor productivity since there is no standard definition of productivity in the industry (Nasir 2013;
+Park et al. 2005).
+In theabsence of a standard definition and data collection tool, benchmarking labor productivity among different construction projects is a problematic case in the construction management domain (Park et al. 2005;
+Shehata and El-Gohary 2011).
+Factors Affecting Labor Productivity
+Rojas and Aramvareekul (2003) found that the fact that labor productivity can be managed and controlled indicates a massive opportunity for labor productivity improvements in the construction industry.
+Consequently, identifying factors that affect labor productivity in the construction industry has received significant attention from both academia and practitioners.
+Numerous studies have attempted to ascertain the most dominant factors in labor productivity (Table 1).
+Because of space limitations, only the top 10 factors of each study have been entered into the table.
+These factors can be categorized in three main areas (management, human, and external).
+A quick review of Table 1 shows that the proportion of management-related factors in top 10 factors is higher than human and external factors.
+Although other factors are categorized under human andexternal areas, some of them can be influencedby different management strategies and practices such as human resource management.
+This highlights the crucial role of construction managers and their strategies in labor productivity improvement (ElGohary and Aziz 2014).
+In addition, it also supports the notion that labor productivity is manageable and can be improved by applying effective management practices (Liberda et al. 2003).
+Although many studies in the construction industry have aimed at establishing a generalized list of factors with substantial impacts on labor productivity, there is no agreement among researchers on such a list (Panas and Pantouvakis 2010).
+Furthermore, there is no general method to assess the accuracy of the impact of the identified factors on labor productivity (Caldas et al. 2015;
+Yi and Chan 2014).
+Such a method would be very beneficial for construction practitioners to improve labor productivity by identifying and applying the most effective factors.
+It would also help them to
+Factors affecting labor productivity in the construction industry

cleaned_papers/cleaned_papers_without_ref/1-s2.0-S0022437504000209-main.txt

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+	Journal of Safety Research 35 (2004) 159–170
+Web-based safety and health monitoring system for construction management
+City University of Hong Kong, Department of Building and Construction, 83 Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong, China
+Received 4 November 2002;
+received in revised form 30 September 2003;
+accepted 19 November 2003 Available online 7 May 2004
+Introduction:
+This paper describes a web-based system for monitoring and assessing construction safety and health performance, entitled the Construction Safety and Health Monitoring (CSHM) system.
+The design and development of CSHM is an integration of internet and database systems, with the intent to create a total automated safety and health management tool.
+A list of safety and health performance parameters was devised for the management of safety and health in construction.
+A conceptual framework of the four key components of CSHM is presented:
+(a) Web-based Interface (templates);
+(b) Knowledge Base;
+(c) Output Data;
+and (d) Benchmark Group.
+The combined effect of these components results in a system that enables speedy performance assessment of safety and health activities on construction sites.
+With the CSHM’s built-in functions, important management decisions can theoretically be made and corrective actions can be taken before potential hazards turn into fatal or injurious occupational accidents.
+Impact on Industry:
+As such, the CSHM system will accelerate the monitoring and assessing of performance safety and health management tasks.
+D 2004 National Safety Council and Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
+Safety and Health Management;
+Performance Parameters;
+Performance Assessment;
+Database and Knowledge-based Systems
+Introduction
+Safety and health issues at construction sites have gained industry-wide attention, with an increasing number of centers and commissions in different parts of the world promoting construction safety and health.
+These organizations include the National Occupational Health and Safety Commission in Australia, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration in the United States, the Health and Safety Commission in the United Kingdom, and the Occupational Safety and Health Council in Hong Kong. Many of these organizations are governmental bodies, serving to promote occupational safety and health at work.
+Their functions include:
+promoting safety and health in the community;
+education and training;
+consultancy services;
+research and strategies development;
+and information dissemination (Health and Safety Commission [HSC], 2002;
+Occupational Safety and Health Administration [OSHA], 2002;
+Occupational Safety and Health Council [OSHC], 2002).
+They strive to ensure safe and healthy construction sites, and their efforts have brought about a change of culture among management and front-line workers:
+from the traditional ‘‘not-my-business’’ attitude to that of ‘‘everybody’s business’’ (Levitt & Samelson, 1993).
+Meanwhile, academics and professionals are extensively researching occupational safety and health problem areas in the construction industry.
+These studies can be categorized under three main topics:
+(a) workers’ behaviors and attitudes (Cox & Cox, 1996;
+Lingard & Rowlinson, 1997);
+(b) training and workshops (Glendon & McKenna, 1995;
+Goldenhar, Moran, & Colligan, 2001;
+Hammer, 1989);
+and (c) effective management and performance measurement evaluation (Raouf & Dhillon, 1994).
+* Corresponding author.
++852-2788-7603;
++852-2788-7612.
+E-mail address:
+[email protected] (S.O. Cheung).
+motivational technique to set out the safety goals of the organization and points out the responsibilities of various
+0022-4375/$ - see front matter D 2004 National Safety Council and Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
+With respect to workers’ behaviors and attitudes, the Behavior-Based Safety model (BBS) developed by DePasquale and Geller (1999) has been widely adopted by the industry as the basis for design of safety and health workshops, induction talks, charters, and other safety endeavors.
+In essence, the model advocates the use of ‘‘goal-setting’’ as a parties accordingly.
+In addition to bringing about a change of safety culture, previous studies suggested that the BBS model can facilitate interpersonal trust, management support, and active employee participation (Bandura, 1997).
+While industry training andworkshops are useful tokick-start asafetyand health campaign, its success, to a large degree, depends on a well-planned site safety and health management system (Elbeltagi & Hegazy, 2002).
+A typical management system generally consists of three limbs:
+(b) Process;
+and (c) Evaluation.
+It is at the initial stage when the team sets out ‘goals’ as to the project policy in relation to safety and health.
+The team manager then arranges and sets out details of the policy.
+Throughout the course of construction, regular meetings are held to evaluate performance results, making sure that the standards are met and performance results are consistent with the overall safety and health policy.
+If the results show the contrary, immediate corrective actions are taken.
+Such a management arrangement is instrumental in preventing improper behaviors (e.g., insufficient safety precautions, improper working methods, lack of protective gear) that may lead to serious accidents.
+For this reason, the importance of a safety and health management system, in particular the measurement and evaluation of performance, cannot be over-emphasized.
+Despite the vast volumes of work on safety and health management, most are concerned with the first two limbs:
+(a) Goal (how to set up project goals) and (b) Process (how to implement a management system).
+A lot of work has been done on the value and culture of safety management systems (Krause, 1993;
+Smallwood, 2002).
+Others turn to the actual implementation of safety and health management systems, such as the opportunities/benefits provided (Ray & Rinzler, 1993) and the barriers encountered (Hinze, 1997;
+Levitt & Samelson, 1993).
+There is relatively little work done in relation to the third limb Evaluation;
+that is, the systematic measurement and assessment of performance (safety and health efforts and results;
+Geller, 1998).
+McAfee and Winn (1989) and Cooper, Philips, Sutherland, and Makin (1994) recommended the use of incentives and performance assessment to enhance workplace safety.
+In their studies, empirical results suggested that systematic measurement and assessment of performance is a useful device to improve safety conditions and reduce accidents.
+Several possible methods to measure whether the efforts made were effective and whether the performance results have been met to satisfy the safety objectives, include checklists, inspections, attitude surveys, walk-throughs, and document and record analysis (Haupt, 2002).
+This paper demonstrates that the process of taking performance measurement can be streamlined through integration with database, web, and expert systems.
+The paper focuses on the design and development of a prototype of a web-based safety and health monitoring system.
+In fact, there have been successful applications of web and database technologies in other areas of construction management;
+for instance, the use of QUALICON in construction quality management (Battikha, 2002), the Partnering Temperature Index in measuring both ‘‘soft’’ and ‘‘hard’’ management issues (Cheung, Suen, & Cheung, submitted for publication), the Risk Register Database in managing project risks (Patterson & Neailey, 2002), and the measuring of cost and quality (Construction Industry Institute [CII], 1989).
+Aims and Objectives
+This paper describes the design and development of a prototype web-based safety and health monitoring system for construction projects—Construction Safety and Health Monitoring (CSHM).
+CSHM can be used as a detector of potential risks and hazards and, more importantly, a warning sign to areas of construction activities that require immediate corrective action.
+The ability to identify safety and health hazards as early as possible is vital to a project of any size and scale because ‘‘prevention is always better than cure’’ (Nikander & Eloranta, 1997).
+It is anticipated that CSHM can facilitate speedy safety and health management.
+However, CSHM is not intended, in any way, to replace the current practice of safety and health management.
+Instead, it adopted the Safety and Heath Management Model (OSHC, 2002) as the basis for its system design.
+To make good use of the advent of IT and database technologies, all of the functions of CSHM were designed to be web-based, thus enabling remote access, speedy data collection, retrieval, and documentation.
+Furthermore, a Knowledge Base was included in the design to enable online expert advice and instructions.
+In achieving this, the major objectives are as follows:
+Developing a Web-based Interface for management and assessment of data related to safety and health performance.
+The interface should enable automated collection, measurement, assessment, storage, and presentation of data;
+Developing an exclusive Knowledge Base for Safety and Health Management.
+That is, rules, guidelines, best practices, and so forth, for the prevention and resolution of hazards and unconfirmed practices.
+These are derived from the practical experience of experts and professionals in the field;
+Developing a portal to handle key Output Data in a systematic manner.
+For instance, key and operational data are separated automatically through preset functions such that only data of great importance (i.e., total fatal incidents per month) to senior management are summarized into the executive summary report.
+Data of less importance, such as those related to operation activities, are stored in the project report;
+Setting up a framework for the design of Benchmark Groups.
+Organizations or parties interested in knowing more about the industry ‘‘benchmarks’’ or ‘‘standards’’ in
+a particular area of safety and health management can form a benchmark group.
+The main purpose is to share and compare the performance results.
+Benchmarks can be derived from the data collected.
+The overall conceptual framework for the development of web-based safety and health monitoring system is illustrated in Fig. 1.
+In Fig. 1, the four key components of CSHM, including web-based interface, knowledge base, output data, and benchmark group are displayed.
+It is through their combined effect that enables speedy online performance assessment and management of safety and health activities.
+The following sections describe the four key components of CSHM:
+Web-based Interface
+Conceptual Framework of CSHM.
+The interface is the gateway to access the vast data contained in the CSHM, which is accessed via the internet domain address.
+It is also the point where project data are
+Computing Components of CSHM.
+input, sorted, and stored automatically in accordance to the preset conditions.
+The interface consists of the Account Login and Data-Entry templates.
+These are designed to enable speedy and systematic data collection and assessment.
+Account Login
+By entering the correct username and password, the user can access to the various built-in functions:
+and Help. These serve to enable the user total control of the data (from reporting to saving, to comparing and assessing the data).
+Developing Data-Entry Templates
+A sound safety and health management depends on a sound monitoring system, which in turn is subject to the
+following questions:
+What data can be used to reflect the current performance?
+and How is this data collected and interpreted?
+These questions are answered by a list of safety and health performance parameters and a systematic approach of handling data.
+Indeed, developing ‘‘parameters’’ for the measurement and assessment of project performance has been the core subject of effective management.
+There is a wide range of tools to assist management in measuring and assessing various aspects of project performance, for instance, in financial performance (Sanger, 1998;
+Ghalayini & Noble, 1996), in partnering relationship (C21, 1999;
+DERT, 2000), in quality assurance (CII, 1989;
+Battikha, 2002), and in environmental impact (Environmental Protection Department [EPD], 2002).
+However, in safety and health management a coherent approach is lacking (as raised in the preceding section).
+Existing measurement tools tend to rely heavily on ‘‘manual’’ data collection and interpretation;
+such an approach is losing place in modern society with the wide application of internet and database technologies.
+An automated and internet-based monitoring system can remove geographic barriers and reduce time in transferring data;
+in addition, it can enable exchange of massive volumes of information at high speed and at relatively low cost (Deng, Li, Tam, Shen, & Love, 2001).
+For this reason, CSHM, by making use of the templates (computer-aided data entry forms), is capable of ascertaining current performance figures in an automated manner.
+The ability to conduct online data collection and transfer saves time and expense.
+Fig. 2 shows the various computing components of CSHM.
+Design of Template
+Relevant data (those related to safety and health performance) are input into the template by the project administrator.
+The content and design of templates depend on the number of performance parameters, which in turn depends on a number of factors, such as the size and scale of projects, the current law and regulations, and the market situations.
+Hence, like any project performance
+Summary of Key Parameters
+–Number of Accidents reported (nonfatalities)
+–Number of man-days lost
+Monitoring and Compliance
+–Safe Work Practices
+–Tools and Machinery
+–Fire Protection
+–Chinese Bamboo Scaffolding*
+Education, Training, and Campaign
+–Number of Meetings Held
+–Number of Toolbox Talk
+–Number of Participants
+–Number of Introduction Course
+–Number of Participants
+–Promotional Activities
+Inspection and Audit
+–Number of In-House Inspections
+–Number of Audits Conducted
+–Number of Government Inspection/Visit by LD, EPD, FSD, etc.
+Complaints and Prosecutions
+–Number of Complaints received from the Staff
+–Average Time Taken to Close out the complaint (days)
+–Number of Prosecutions issued by the Government
+–Average Time Taken to close out the case (days)
+* Should be included for projects carried out in Hong Kong and China.
+Data-Entry Template on Screen.
+measurement tool, the set of performance parameters adopted is unique.
+In theory, there is no strict rule as to the total number.
+However, to avoid ‘‘over-measure,’’ prioritization of parameters is needed.
+In this study, the parameters adopted are mainly derived from two sources:
+(a) an intensive literature review, followed by (b) interviews with experts in the field.
+The safety management guide developed by OSHC (1999) provides a starting point.
+The guide introduces the basic principle and methodology in the development, implementation, assessment, and maintenance of a safety management system.
+Under its assessment sections, typical performance parameters to measure effectiveness of safety and health management are provided.
+In essence, the parameters can be divided into two main themes:
+statistical and functional.
+The former is mainly a collection of statistics, such as the number of accidents reported, the number of man-days lost, and so forth.
+The latter covers reports of evidence of certain non-conformance activities, including reports on safe work practices, tools and machinery, personal protective equipment, and bamboo scaffolding.
+A total of 10 key parameters were selected by the researchers, and they formed a basis for discussion in the interviews with experts and professionals in the field.
+In the interviews (10 professionals, including project directors, senior managers, contract administrators, and safety officers), experts were asked to assess the relevance of these 10 parameters to the industry.
+The 10 parameters include:
+Number of accidents reported;
+Number of man days lost;
+Safe work practices;
+Electrical safety;
+First aid facilities
+Bamboo Scaffolding
+It is worthwhile to mention that the use of bamboo scaffolding is a unique feature in Chinese construction.
+Because of its wide application in construction projects in Hong Kong and China, particularly in residential projects, it is included as one of the key parameters.
+The comments received were mainly positive;
+however, suggestions were made to include measurements of training, inspection, complaints, and so forth.
+For education and training, it was suggested that parameters such as number of meetings held, number of tool talks, and number of participants should be included.
+For inspection, parameters should include number of in-house inspections, number of government inspections, and so forth.
+For complaints and prosecutions, parameters such as number of complaints received from staff and average time to close out complaints should be recorded.
+The addition of human-relation-related parameters can be supported by the Behavior-Based Safety model (DePasquale & Geller, 1999), which highlighted the importance of workers’ attitudes and relationships among parties.
+Therefore, for ease of categorization, the above parameters were divided into two main headings:
+Operation (include both statistical and functional parameters) and Relation (those parameters that relate to human-relationships, such as those parameters suggested by the interviews).
+Table 1 summarizes the key parameters for measurement of safety and health performance.
+These parameters form the basis for the design and development of the Data-Entry template, as shown in Fig. 3.
+As parameters can be quantitative or qualitative in nature, methods of measurement vary.
+For qualitative parameters, measurements are taken by the user giving a ‘‘score’’ for each parameter (qualitative).
+Further explanation of the scoring method is given in the Data-Entry Process section.
+Knowledge Base
+The Knowledge Base contains a summary of expert advice and guidelines that are vital for safety and health management.
+It plays a supporting role to complement the automated assessment system by providing practical advice to problem areas identified.
+Upon completion of data entry via the template, the built-in program will automatically highlight those parameters that are underperformed (see scoring system in later section).
+Expert advice will be given automatically to the underperformed parameters from the Knowledge Base. For instance, data provided in relation to the parameter ‘‘personal protective equipment’’ indicates that workers are not wearing safety belts at work, a warning sign will be displayed right next to that parameter, and by clicking on the warning sign, practical suggestions will be given on the screen (see Fig. 6).
+The practical suggestions are in fact collected from and based on expert experience and professional practices in the field.
+In order to develop the Knowledge Base, the research team conducted one-onone interviews with 10 well-recognized experts in the area, with an aim to derive a set of safety and health practices that are useful to resolve common problems.
+Data-Entry Process
+Before explaining the Data Output component of CSHM, a brief account on how CSHM works in practice is necessary.
+As mentioned previously, CSHM is operated through a web-based interface.
+After successfully entering the contract details, the user can begin the data-entry process.
+The user can give a ‘‘score’’ by selecting the box within the Rating Box (for parameters under the Operation category, except for those under the Statistics sub-section), under which a Likert Scale of 1 to 10 is available (1-not achieved, 10highly achieved).
+Further, the user can highlight those areas
+Graphical Presentation Function—Parameter.
+Graphical Presentation Function—Compare.
+in need of special attention by dragging the ‘‘need attention’’ boxes provided.
+For other parameters (such as those under the Relation category and under the Statistics subsection), the user simply inputs the score for each parameter into the space provided.
+By simply clicking on the ‘‘Submit’’ button at the bottom of the template, the completed data-entry will automatically transform into data and stored in the MySQL database.
+Data stored in the MySQL Database is partitioned according to the project details (i.e., project reference number, month and year, etc.;
+see Computing Components).
+The Data-Entry template in an on-line environment can be found in Fig. 3.
+The Output Data contains key project data in the form of tables, graphs, and figures.
+These are the basis for management decision-making and are extremely useful for meeting discussions and presentations.
+Dissemination of Collated Data-Graphical
+CSHM allows the user to monitor the project performance over a certain period through analysis of the scores given to each parameter.
+Key data can be transformed into charts, curves, and tables within seconds by the MySQL database.
+In sum, there are three options available for data dissemination:
+(a) Trend/Movement;
+(b) Comparing between Projects;
+and (c) Executive Report.
+Very often, particularly when making important decisions, simply studying performance over a month’s time is not good enough.
+Before any solid observation can be made, it is necessary to study the performance over a period of three months or more to really understand the movement pattern/trend.
+Hence, CSHM allows the user to choose the movement/trend of the key parameters (See Fig. 4), including the following:
+Total number of accidents reported, including fatalities;
+Total number of fatal accidents;
+and  Total number of complaints received.
+Fig. 4 also shows the trend in the total number of complaints received in a hypothetical project over a period of one year.
+In addition to the above function, CSHM also allows the user to compare key parameters between projects (see Fig. 5).
+In Fig. 5, the comparison function is illustrated in the default screen.
+By studying and comparing the movements of the two curves, management can better understand the differences/similarities in safety and health performance between two projects.
+As such, management and workers can identify ways for future improvement.
+The Executive Report is indeed a summary report of the data input, with warning signs attached to the underperforming parameters.
+An Executive Report template is displayed in Fig. 6.
+It is worth noting that figures shown in brackets are in fact the ‘‘previous’’ month’s figures.
+This arrangement helps to facilitate comparison of current and last month’s data.
+Different from the Data-Entry template, the Executive Report contains a section of Key Parameters (i.e., the total number of fatal accidents), which are the most important figures/data from senior management point of view.
+Potential Use of the CSHM:
+Benchmarking
+Project data can also be used to set up benchmarks for the industry by using the Compare graphical function mentioned previously.
+Interested groups and organizations can form Benchmark Groups, which are comprised of professionals in the same field.
+Each Benchmark Group should have its set of goals and objectives in order to devise a set of exclusive ‘‘benchmarks’’ or ‘‘standards’’ by comparing the key output data of different projects.
+In doing so, both strengths and weaknesses can be identified and ‘‘best practices’’ can be developed to improve the industry standard.
+Like any organization, a systematic and well-structured framework is needed for the successful implementation of a Benchmark Group.
+The following are the key ingredients for successful benchmarking:
+Planning – set out goals;
+Organizing – break into distinct groups if necessary;
+Comparing – share and compare data from different projects;
+Reporting – draw up benchmarks;
+Testing – benchmarks are tested in real-life situations
+Computing Components
+The advancement in web and database technologies makes the concept of ‘‘online monitoring’’ a reality.
+Webbased CSHM automates the monitoring process.
+In addition, the web-based feature of CSHM removes geographic barriers and reduces time between data input and report generation.
+Furthermore, CSHM enables exchange of massive volumes of information at high speed and at relatively low cost (Deng, Tam, Shen, & Love, 2001).
+CSHM also reduces human and mathematical errors as data are now directly entered by the user and data collection and calculation is now performed by the computer.
+In these contexts, CSHM is a total automated monitoring system and its various computing components are explained in this section.
+The key computing components of CSHM, including PHP Programming Languages, MYSQL Database Backend, computing specification, and technical support requirements are discussed in the following sections.
+To design the Automation suite, the very first task is to select the programming languages.
+Various programming languages are available, including ASP, C++, PERL, Python and PHP (PHP Hypertext Preprocessor).
+The Automation suite must provide database support, a userfriendly interface, a security system, and a stable internet connection.
+PHP, an advanced programming language that facilitates interactive interface and supports powerful database (thus requiring relatively less resources;
+PHP, 2000), is adopted as the programming language for the Automation suite.
+To support the PHP in constructing a database for data collection and retrieval, an open source database known as ‘‘MySQL’’ is used.
+It is one of the most popular open source databases designed for speed, power, and precision in mission critical, heavy load use (MySQL, 2002).
+Its advantages are fast search and short processing time, and can handle a vast volume of data with robust reliability.
+Hardware and Software Specifications for Server
+The hardware specification for the server to support CSHM functions depends on a number of factors, such as the size of database, the number of construction projects involved, the number of users’ access in a specific time frame, and so forth.
+Table 2 summarizes the hardware requirements for the set-up of server.
+As an example, for a construction project with a 2-year contract period and a total of 30 end-users involved, the size of database should be no less than 2MB. The minimum hardware requirements as listed in Table 2 are capable of handling data of about 1,000 construction contracts.
+The suggested hardware requirement is designed to handle complex and large-scale construction projects with an extremely large amount of project data.
+Since the Automation suite relies on the PHP programming (PHP, 2000) and the MySQL database backend (MySQL, 2002), the web server was designed to be compatible with the PHP and MySQL functions.
+The software package ‘‘phpMyAdmin’’ (phpMyAdmin, 2002) was used to support the web server as it enables effective management of database (See Table 2).
+Initial and Running Costs of the Server
+The initial costs vary, depending on the memory capacity of the server required.
+In fact, all the software requirements mentioned in Table 2 can be obtained from the internet or in
+Summary of Computing requirements
+For the Server
+Recommended for Complex
+Construction Projects
+Generic main board with on-board display card and sound card
+Generic main board with on-board display card and sound card
+Generic 10/100 PCI LAN Card connected to the Internet
+. 3Com 10/100 PCI LAN Card connected to the Internet
+Generic keyboard and mouse
+Generic keyboard and mouse
+Optional uninterrupted power supply (UPS) system
+Optional uninterrupted power supply (UPS) system
+Software Requirements
+Operation System Red Hat
+Web Server Apache 1.3.23 or above
+Database Server MySQL
+3.23.52 or above
+FTP Server ProFTP 1.2.6 or above
+Dynamic Image Creation
+Package GD-Library 1.8.4
+Secure Socket
+Layer OpenSSL 0.9.6b or above
+Secure Telnet Service OpenSSH 3.1 or above
+For the End Users
+Database management tool for system Administrator— phpMyAdmin 2.3.1 or above
+Hardware Specifications
+Software Specification
+ME, XP or above
+or above/Netscape 4.0 or
+Generic 10/100 PCI LAN Card or
+Generic keyboard and mouse
+above/AOL Browser 5.0 or above
+the Red Hat Linux 7.3 package without charge (Red Hat Linux, 2002).
+Hence, with the minimum hardware requirements as stated in Table 2, the initial costs for setting up the server should not exceed US$2,000.
+However, this does not include the set-up charge of the internet connection service.
+Long-term running costs depend on the number of technical support staff hired and the speed of the internet connection (as a general rule, the faster the speed the higher the connection costs).
+Generally speaking, the running costs for internet connection should not exceed US$100.
+Hardware and Software Specifications for End-user
+There is no specific hardware requirement for end-users;
+a generic personal computer (PC) with internet connection can be used to access the server.
+Table 2 provides a summary of the hardware and software specification details for end users.
+Training for Technical Support Staff
+Since the PTI Automation Suite is built on the Linux Server, it is recommended that technical staff should have sound knowledge of the internet, as well as skills in server administration, networking, and system security.
+Online training on Linux System is available in the Red Hat Homepage (RedHat.com, 2002) and the Red Hat Certified Engineer Program (Red Hat Certified Engineer [RHCE], 2002).
+The administration tasks of PTI Administration Suite are rather simple and can be managed by people with general computing and internet knowledge.
+To maintain the Automation suite, it is suggested that the database should be backed up regularly for security purposes.
+In addition, technical support staff should be prepared to answer questions or problems raised by the end-users.
+Perceived Benefits of CSHM
+CSHM is a powerful monitoring and assessment tool.
+It is capable of reducing a significant amount of time for datacollection and dissemination of collated data.
+It helps project managers and administrators assess safety and health performance in a timely manner.
+Performance parameters can be added or reduced to reflect the current industry environment.
+Such flexibility is essential to cope with the increasing complex and fast-changing social, legal, and political environments.
+CSHM facilitates automatic, online instant graphical presentation of the performance data of construction enterprises, hence making it possible for construction enterprises to make important decisions (i.e., to take immediate corrective actions in areas that are under-performing) anytime, anywhere.
+A follow-up evaluation exercise to confirm that the abovementioned benefits continue would be instrumental.
+This follow-up is now being planned and will be implemented when experience of its use accumulates.
+Concluding Remarks
+The developed CSHM streamlines the safety and health performance measurement and assessment process through its web-based interface, database, and expert systems.
+The web-based interface enables speedy collection of safety and health performance data through the internet, and the collected data are stored in the database and then assessed by the expert system.
+The final product in this process is the Executive Report, which contains instructions, advice, and graphical presentations of important data all in one sheet.
+The primary purpose of CSHM is to reduce occupational accidents by directly observing and instantaneously assessing the data submitted in order to take fast and educated preventive and corrective measures.
+However, CSHM is not intended to replace management involvement in making decisions, particularly those involving human factors.
+Rather, the web-based monitoring process is to improve efficiency and accuracy and serves as a complement to managerial and leadership competence.
+The proposed CSHM enables construction management to examine safety and health performance and compare their findings with others within the field through Benchmark Group.
+Only by comparing performance, weaknesses, and strengths can corrective measures be identified and implemented to improve the overall industry standard.
+With the well-structured IT networks in most international cities, the proposed CSHM will be a valuable asset to safety and health management in construction.

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+a Faculty of Construction Management and Real Estate, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400045, China b Department of Construction and Real Estate, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
+c International Research Center for Sustainable Built Environment, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400045, China
+Construction professional services
+Knowledge structure
+Construction education
+As a vital component of construction professional services (CPS), construction management consultancy is in nature knowledge-intensive and client-tailored.
+Although recent studies have acknowledged the increasing role of this subsector of CPS in the attainment of sustainable construction, little attention has been given to the education and training of its main body, namely construction management consultants (CMCs).
+This study investigated the competence and knowledge structure of CMCs by taking China as an example.
+Using the methods of interview and questionnaire survey, three key competences of CMCs and the underpinned knowledge structure were identified.
+The identified competences are personnel quality, onsite practical skills, and continuing professional learning.
+Underpinned these competences are the knowledge structure composed of a number of disciplines including construction cost planning and control, civil engineering and construction, engineering contract and law, and construction project management.
+The research findings lay a solid foundation for future studies to probe into the role of construction management consultants in the area of sustainable construction.
+2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
+Introduction
+The construction industry has become both a vehicle for improving the quality of life and an entity that can determine the environmental and social sustainability of development efforts (Plessis, 2007).
+Such dual roles spell out the significant contribution of the industry to sustainable development. “Sustainable construction”, which means creating and managing a built environment based on resource efficient and ecological principles (Kibert, 1994;
+Manoliadis, Tsolas, & Nakou, 2006), outlines the sphere that the construction industry can reach sustainability.
+After a long evolution in ontology, the seed of “sustainable construction” has matured into a discipline comprising various practical and scientific issues (Hill & Bowen, 1997).
+One of the critical issues in the discipline is to determine a proper approach to keep sustainable construction informed in accordance with the hierarchical definitions of construction.
+In effect, the definition of construction ranges from site activity, project lifecycle, everything related to construction
+* Corresponding author.
+Faculty of Construction Management and Real Estate, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400045, China.
+0197-3975/$ e see front matter  2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
+business to the broader process of human settlement creation (Irurah, 2001).
+Construction activities are executed for constructing physical facilities (i.e., buildings and infrastructures), which will normally last for decades.
+The sustainability performance of a physical facility is triggered to a large extent from its construction process, suggesting that sustainable construction is fundamentally activity-specific.
+The activity-based nature of sustainable construction calls for adopting creativity, skills, know-how, and modern technologies as many as possible to implement cleaner production (Berggren, 1999).
+In this sense, sustainable practices make it necessary to improve interdisciplinary collaboration and multi-stakeholder partnerships on construction sites.
+Construction activities in general involve three primary stakeholders e clients, contractors and consultants.
+The former two stakeholders have attracted much consideration under the heading of sustainable construction, while the subject of consultants has not (Frattari, Dalprא, & Salvaterra, 2012;
+Riley, Pexton, & Drilling, 2003).
+As a result, there are two questions that have not been explored explicitly, namely what kind of consultants should be and how to educate and to train them effectively with the pace of sustainable development.
+Consultants provide a wide array of professional services to clients and on behalf of them monitor construction process and interact with contractors.
+They can exert immense influence on sustainability of to-be-built facilities by providing practical solutions to construction activities, varying from the use of cleaner, more efficient technologies to end-of-pipe management approaches.
+Furthermore, a full capacity of competitive consultants underscores a sustainable growth of construction industry.
+For instance, construction-related consultants in Hong Kong have built up a reputation outside the territory, and they have become an imperative factor of the industry’s competitiveness (Wong, Ng, & Chan, 2010).
+It is widely acknowledged that developing countries have met great challenges of finding a holistic approach to guarantee sustainability in the construction industries (Plessis, 2007;
+Ye, Shen, & Zuo, 2013).
+As one of the largest developing countries in the world, China appears to be a huge construction site (Chen & Chambers, 1999;
+Lu, Ye, Flanagan, & Jewell, 2013).
+The challenge of the Chinese construction sector is not only to produce sufficient housing and infrastructures to the society, but also to do it in a socially and ecologically responsible way.
+There is an urgent need to address the aforementioned two questions in China’s construction industry wherein sustainability challenges have been aware of.
+Recent years have witnessed special academic attention given to the evaluation of engineering consultants’ capabilities (Ng & Chow, 2004), the performance of engineering consultants (Chow & Ng, 2007), and sustainable competitive advantages of project management consultants (Betts, 1994).
+Nonetheless, research works devoted to the competence of construction management consultants (CMCs) are very limited, and they have not pinpointed the ways to manage the competitiveness of CMCs properly in responding to social appeal for sustainable construction.
+In view of the intricacy of the subject, this paper presents takes an early step to investigate the key competence of CMCs and its underpinned knowledge by taking China as an example.
+By doing so, the research outcomes can lay a useful foundation for future studies to examine the contribution of CMCs to sustainable construction.
+Characteristics of construction management consultancy
+Construction management consultancy is an integral part of construction professional services (CPS) that are created by a set of knowledgeable consultants including architects, engineers, engineer-contractors, architect-engineers, engineer-architects, environmental, planners, and geotechnical engineers, landscape architects (Lu, Ye, Flanagan, & Jewell, 2013).
+In the CPS sector, CMCs refer in a different way to those professional organizations and/or individuals that offer a combination of skills as well as strategic and tactical solutions to the construction process.
+The services of CMCs are characterized by a framework of appropriate disciplines and ethics, and decision-making on construction activities in independent, scientific, and impartial manners (Bowen, Pearl, & Akintoye, 2007).
+The wide span of consulting business requires CMCs to own multi-disciplinary knowledge and experience such as civil engineering, construction technology, financial management, law, and regulation.
+The services of construction-related consulting spread out along some established management procedures, which are usually set forth and can be tailored to satisfy different demands of clients.
+Alongside this strand, the study by Ezeldin and Abu-Ghazala (2007) unveiled three main steps of a quality management system for design consultants to operate, namely awareness, benchmarking of existing practice, and verifying the validation of consulting model.
+Previous studies have demonstrated that an efficient consulting procedure enhances the value chain of construction projects by interweaving clients with consultants tightly (Kometa, Olomolaiye, & Harris,1996).
+This gives the suggestion that value engineering is a useful tool for clients to appraise the performance of CMCs, and clients have a profound effect on the performance of construction consulting firms.
+The effect in the view of Kometa et al. (1994) mirrors the main attributes of clients including financial stability, quality of management, organizational quality of client, past performance, client characteristics, client’s duty, and past experience.
+There are two approaches for measuring the extent to which consultants are able to provide quality services.
+One is using a number of firm factors, such as the background of firms, past performance, and the capacity to accomplish the work and project approach (Cheung, Kuen, & Skitmore, 2002).
+The other is using some project-related factors, such as design submission number, clarity and comprehensiveness of drawings and documents, quality of design solution, and recommendations for reducing project risks (Chow & Ng, 2009).
+However, previous studies have pinpointed that the competitiveness of construction consulting business lies in technical accuracy and overall quality of people (Cheng, Proverbs, & Oduoza, 2006), and embraces a well-qualified team, a well-defined project approach, and effective communication (Avila, 1997).
+As pointed out by Cheung et al. (2001), charismatic and participative leadership dominates the satisfaction of consulting team and eventually affect the performance of consultants.
+Soft skills such as conscientiousness, initiative, social skills, controllability and commitment have equivalent importance to construction consultants (Ling, Ofori, & Low, 2000).
+In a broader angle, the study by Ng and Chow (2004) suggested that consultants have technical capabilities, management capabilities, financial capabilities, and quality assurance and control.
+Construction management consultancy in China
+Construction professional services (CPS) in China have undergone gradual changes after the successful development of some mega projects, such as Three Gorge Project and Qinhai-Tibet Railway Project (Lu, Ye, Flanagan, & Jewell, 2013).
+The current industrial landscape of CPS in China reflects an accumulative effect of longtime national reform and open-door policies on the construction sector (Lu, Ye, Flanagan, & Jewell, 2013).
+There are two major parts of CPS, namely, engineering architecture/design and construction management consultancy.
+The latter one includes construction supervision, project bidding agency and quantity surveying.
+As a typical subsector of CPS, CMCs originated from China’s construction supervision system introduced to assist clients in improving construction process (Liu, Shen, Li, & Shen, 2004).
+In this system, construction consulting services are provided by construction supervision firms which employ engineers to supervise contractors’ onsite activities.
+In effect, the growth of China’s construction industry has been fueled by an unfailing inflow of capital investment, advanced technologies and managerial approaches from either advanced countries or developed regions (Ling, Ibbs, & Cuervo, 2005).
+The participation of foreign production elements has advanced the traditional construction business paradigm to an internationally competitive one.
+With the increasingly diverse requirements and expectation of clients, construction supervision has maintained evolution to embrace CMCs.
+Meanwhile, the sizeable urbanization as well as the emergence of numerous construction projects characterized by complicated technologies and management challenges has yielded tremendous opportunities for CMCs to prosper.
+According to the Report of New Urbanization in China (Niu, 2012), the urbanization rate of China will sustain an annual growth of 1% until the year of 2020.
+This means that the Chinese construction industry would be facing a larger demand of housing development.
+Overwhelming housing demand could stir a rapid growth of construction consulting services.
+For instance, the subsector of construction cost consultancy has seen the increase of firms’ income to RMB 80.685 billion and
+A preliminary list of CMCs’ competence.

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+Department of Building and Real Estate, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong
+Article history:
+Research review
+Prefabricated construction
+Research trend
+As a sustainable construction method, prefabricated construction is increasingly being adopted worldwide to enhance productivity and to alleviate the adverse environmental and social effects as a result of conventional construction activities.
+In addressing management issues of prefabricated construction, an impressive number of studies have been published by internationally renowned journals related to construction management over the past decades.
+However, it seems that a systematic summary on the research development in the management of prefabricated construction (MPC) discipline is lacking.
+Therefore, this paper examines the latest research trend in this discipline by analyzing published construction management research in 10 leading journals during the period from 2000 to 2013 (as of end of June) in terms of the annual number of MPC papers, contributions of institutions, adopted data collection and processing methods, and research interest.
+The analysis reveals that prefabrication is becoming increasingly important to the entire construction industry.
+Researchers from developed countries, including the US, the UK, Hong Kong, Sweden, and Australia, have made significant contributions to the development of the prefabrication domain, while those from developing countries, including China, Turkey, and Israel where construction remains as their main economic activity, have shown increasing interest in promoting prefabrication-related research.
+Major research topics in MPC include “industry prospect”, “development and application”, “performance evaluation”, “environment for technology application”, and “design, production, transportation and assembly strategies”.
+Moreover, some innovative technologies, such as Global Position System (GPS), and Radio Frequency Identification (RFID), have been effectively applied in this field and are considered as strong vehicles in improving the performance of future prefabricated construction practices.
+This study is of value in helping scholars gain an in-depth understanding of the state-of-the-art of MPC research and allows them to continue from the findings of previous studies.
+2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
+b School of Management, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China
+Introduction
+The increasing recognition of the importance of prefabrication technology for productivity improvement and environmental conservation has resulted in an impressive number of studies on management of prefabricated construction (MPC) in academic journals worldwide.
+Based on the literature review, the academic interests toward this domain are increasing, but the content analysis of existing literature appears insufficient, preventing
+* Corresponding author.
+þ852 2766 5817;
+þ852 2764 2572.
+researchers from capturing an overall picture of the research evolution of the field.
+A systematic classification and integration of previous publications on prefabricated construction can significantly contribute to a comprehensive understanding on the topic and inspired the examination of MPC by subsequent researchers (Tang, Shen, & Cheng, 2010;
+Yang, Shen, & Ho, 2009).
+The research community, particularly new researchers, widely regards literature review as a key methodology in examining the development of research on a specific discipline.
+For example, Xue, Shen, and Ren (2010) carried out a content analysis of publications in selected journals collaborating with construction projects and found the lack of systematic theoretical framework in measuring the performance of these collaborations.
+Ortiz, Castells, and Sonnemann (2009) examined sustainability development in the construction industry by compiling and studying the key milestones in life cycle assessment and stated that further research should focus on the development of sustainability indicators in design, construction, operations, and dismantling to target global environmental and energy concerns.
+Hong, Chan, Chan, and Yeung (2011) conducted a critical analysis on the collaborative research trend in construction journals and suggested the expansion of the analysis to cover the entire construction supply chain as a key research interest.
+Tsai and Lydia Wen (2005) and Flanagan, Lu, Shen, and Jewell (2007) stated that these systematic research reviews do not only assist researchers in gaining in-depth insights on the-advancement of a chosen research field, averting the duplication of research efforts, but also help them explore new and valuable research topics for further research.
+Despite the significance of a research review, no such work has been undertaken in the field of MPC. Therefore, this paper conducts a series of content analysis of academic articles published from 2000 to 2013 (as of end of June), including examination on the current status and prediction on future research trends.
+The objectives of this study are:
+(1) to determine the coverage of MPCrelated academic articles published in 10 top-tier journals;
+(2) to identify which countries and institutions were the primary contributors to MPC research;
+(3) to examine the primary methods for data collection and processing employed in MPC research;
+and (4) to analyze the evolution of research theme evolve and explore the future research direction of this topic.
+Background of MPC
+Prefabrication is a manufacturing process that takes place in a specialized facility where various materials are joined together to form a component of the final installation procedure (Sparksman, Groak, Gibb, & Neale, 1999).
+In the construction field, prefabrication is regarded as the first level of industrialization, which is followed by mechanization, automation, robotics, and reproduction (Richard, 2005).
+Previous studies had used various terms and acronyms that are associated with prefabricated construction, including off-site prefabrication, precast concrete building (Kale & Arditi, 2006), off-site construction (Pan, Gibb, & Dainty, 2008), industrialized building (Jonsson & Rudberg, 2013;
+Meiling, Sandberg, & Johnsson, 2013), and modern methods of construction (Goodier & Gibb, 2007), to name a few.
+Prefabricated construction can generally be categorized into the following four levels based on the degree of prefabrication implemented on the product:
+(1) component manufacturing and sub-assembly that are always done in a factory and not considered for on-site production, (2) non-volumetric pre-assembly that refers to pre-assembled units not enclosing usable space such as timber roof trusses, (3) volumetric pre-assembly that refers to pre-assembled units enclosing usable space and usually being manufactured inside factories but do not form a part of the building’s structure such as the toilet and bathroom, and (4) whole buildings that refer to pre-assembled volumetric units forming the actual structure and fabric of the building such as motel rooms (Gibb, 1999;
+Goodier & Gibb, 2007).
+Prefabricated construction, as a modern construction technology replacing conventional cast-in-situ concrete construction, has attracted immense attention from many countries over the past two decades.
+This widespread interest can be largely explained by the inherent superiority of the technology, including, but not limited to, construction waste reduction (Baldwin, Poon, Shen, Austin, & Wong, 2009;
+Tam, Tam, Chan, & Ng, 2006;
+Tam, Tam, Zeng, & Ng, 2007), improved quality control (Jaillon & Poon, 2008), noise and dust reduction (Pons & Wadel, 2011), higher standards for health and safety (Lopez-Mesa, Pitarch, Tomas, & Gallego, 2009;
+Pons & Wadel, 2011), time and cost savings (Chiang, Hon-Wan Chan, & Ka-Leung Lok, 2006;
+Gibb & Isack, 2003), reduced labor demand (Nadim & Goulding, 2010), and low resource depletion (Aye, Ngo, Crawford, Gammampila, & Mendis, 2012;
+Won, Na, Kim, & Kim, 2013).
+Despite the inherent superiority of prefabrication, the implementation of MPC has produced many problems, from the precast design and component production to product stockyard layout, transportation, and assembly.
+Jaillon and Poon (2010) revealed that only a few studies had been conducted on the design concept to promote the reuse of prefabricated buildings at the end of their life cycle.
+Marasini, Dawood, and Hobbs (2001) stated that due to insufficient stockyard space management by stockyard managers and ineffective technologies in selecting suitable locations for product stocks and in tracing them for dispatch, prefabricated elements are often exposed on the yard.
+Li et al. (2011) indicated that safety should be emphasized during the assembly of prefabricated elements because many of these elements are bulky and heavy and can potentially harm the assembly.
+The defects and obstacles in applying the prefabricated construction method have also been sufficiently addressed in previous research.
+Vertical transportation has been identified as an issue because the prefabricated modules are generally heavy and bulky.
+Tam (2003) interpreted in his study that the concreting of floors will likely extend from four days to six days if the prefabricated elements are used because the vertical transportation of prefabricated components from one floor to another is more time-consuming than that in conventional construction.
+Labor retraining is also identified as another issue because the in-situ and cast concrete construction are by nature different from prefabrication, which requires machine-oriented skills both on-site and in the manufacturing process (Chiang et al., 2006).
+Other studies identified the relatively high construction cost of precast technologies as a main hindrance to the promotion of prefabricated construction (Blismas & Wakefield, 2007;
+Pan, Gibb, & Sellars, 2008;
+Pan & Sidwell, 2011).
+Problems have emerged from prefabrication application, necessitating a systematical review analysis of existing literature within the research scope.
+This review can largely help researchers by providing details on the current problem and by identifying future research directions for this discipline.
+Selecting target academic journals
+The review methods of previous research (Ke, Wang, Chan, & Cheung, 2009;
+Tang et al., 2010;
+Xue et al., 2010) offer valuable guidance in the selection of target academic journals in the MPC research domain.
+Ke et al. (2009) stated that a research team might contribute their research achievements to a renowned journal from their specific field or that which has a similar research topic.
+Accordingly, the authors of this study used the Scopus search engine to identify the journals that have published the most research on MPC from 2000 to 2013.
+The most-searched keywords in this search engine included prefabrication, prefabricated construction/ building, precast concrete, off-site construction, modular construction/building and industrialized building/housing.
+Articles containing these terms in the title/abstract/keywords were considered for review in this research.
+The search is further narrowed based on the subject fields of engineering, decision sciences, social sciences, management, and environment, and based on the document type of the article or review.
+However, a certain number of unwanted articles still show in the search results despite the rigorous search criteria.
+The authors of this research subsequently scanned each article from the search results to filter and retrieve MPC-related papers.
+It is found that nine journals, namely, Construction Management and Economics (CME), Automation in Construction (AIC), Journal of Construction Engineering and Management (JCEM), Journal of Architectural Engineering (JAE), Construction Innovation (CI), Building Research and Information (BRI), Habitat International (HI), Energy and Building (EB), and Building and Environment (BE) have published at least four MPC-related articles from 2000 to 2013.
+Besides, Engineering, Construction, and Architectural Management (ECAM), one of top 10 journals ranked by Chau (1997), was considered after consulting peer reviewers in the research community.
+Therefore, a total of 10 academic journals were used in the review analysis of MPC literature.
+The selection of journals was based on two criteria, namely, (1) the journals should be mainstream journals (with a certain number of publications according to the Scopus database search results) in the area of prefabrication and (2) the journals should either be ranked by Chau (1997) as one of the top 10 journals in the construction management field or acknowledged as a first-tier journal by peer reviewers who specialize in prefabrication.
+Assessing the contribution
+To gain an in-depth understanding of the main research stream in this domain, the contribution of each researcher, country, or institution is quantitatively assessed and analyzed by adopting the approach of Al-Sharif and Kaka (2004), in which the published articles of each researcher during a specific period and within a specific research field are counted.
+This method identifies the top contributors to a particular research field, which enables researchers to trace the achievements of previous contributors and assists them in advancing the study from its findings.
+The quantitative evaluation of an author’s contribution in a multi-authored article is a conventional research topic that has attracted a large amount of interest from various research domains.
+At the beginning of a collaborative research, the contributions of each author are assumed to be even, which means that each author is regarded as an owner of a research regardless of how many authors have collaborated in a multi-authored article.
+This method has been improved by Howard et al., who suggested the discriminative assessment of an author’s contribution by assuming that the former author has made a bigger contribution than succeeding authors (Howard, Cole, & Maxwell,1987).
+This assumption has been accepted in many studies that examine the research productivity of authors.
+Howard et al. (1987) also presented the following formula to explain their method in detail:
+where n is the total number of authors of the article and i is the ordinal position of the author of the article.
+Each paper is assumed to have a score of one point.
+A detailed score matrix that is obtained based on the formula is displayed in Table 1.
+Based on the matrix, in a paper with two authors, the first author is given a score of 0.60, while the second author is given 0.40.
+However, the ordinal position of the author may not invariably reflect the actual contribution difference because in exceptional circumstances, the chief author leaves the first ordinal position to the other authors.
+Therefore, to ensure the reliability of the evaluation, this research adopted another method that calculated the total number of citations in a particular article.
+This method is based on the assumption that the more citations a paper receives from other researchers, the higher contribution the authors provide to the research community.
+The results of both methods are discussed in the succeeding chapter.
+Result analyses and discussions
+Number of MPC-related papers
+Table 2 presents the number of MPC-related articles that were published from 2000 to 2013.
+A total number of 12,653 articles were published in 10 selected journals within the specified period, among which 100 were found to address MPC-related issues.
+Although the MPC-related articles only comprised 0.79% of the total published articles, they demonstrated an increasing trend, from 1 to a maximum of 13 in 2012.
+This trend indicated the increasing amount of attention that the MPC discipline receives from researchers.
+Table 2 shows that AC, CME, JCEM, and JAE journals published the highest number of MPC-related articles during the study period.
+AC published 21 MPC-related articles, followed by CME (19 articles), ACEM (14 articles), and JAE (12 articles).
+AC and CME have a higher ratio of published MPC articles than that of the other journals, indicating that these two journals have the most significant contribution to the MPC discipline.
+Moreover, the statistical data reveal that the average ratio of MPC-related publications is 0.79%, while their percentage in EB, BRI, and BE journals are 0.23%, 0.2%, and 0.1%, respectively, which are lower than the average level.
+This numerical difference may reflect, to some extent, the current research trend in which relatively fewer efforts are being exerted in exploring the roles of energy and environment in prefabrication, as EB, BRI, and BE journals mainly published articles on construction management issues from energy and environment perspectives.
+Contribution of institutions and regions to the MPC publications
+Table 3 shows an increasing trend in the number of authors from different regions, who exhibited interest in MPC research.
+The statistical data show that a total of 12 researchers had contributed at least three MPC-related articles, and 10 research centers were involved in the publication of more than three articles from 2000 to 2013.
+The Loughborough University in the UK contributed the most number of MPC-related publications (14 papers), followed by the Hong Kong Polytechnic University (11 papers), the Georgia Institute of Technology (7 papers), and the Luleå University of Technology (6 papers).
+The research origins of the MPC publications, as presented in
+Score matrix for multi-author papers.
+Table 4, are further examined along with the number of institutions, researchers, involved articles, and contribution scores for each country.
+Table 4 shows that the US is the biggest contributor to MPC research, involving up to 28 institutions and 43 researchers and achieving a total contribution score of 18.9 for the publication of 26 articles during the studied period.
+This finding is logical because the US is one of the first countries to suggest the development and implementation of industrialized construction.
+Five developed countries or regions, namely, the US, the UK, Hong Kong, Sweden, and Australia are responsible for 78% of the total selected publications.
+These nations are evidently the biggest contributors
+MPC related articles published during the period from 2000 to 2013 (as of end of June).
+to MPC research, which, to a large extent, indicates a limitation in the MPC domain, with existing publications not having a sufficient coverage of the perspectives from developing countries.
+Meanwhile, developing countries, such as China, Turkey, and Israel, have a comparatively low performance in promoting MPC research in terms of their construction industry scale, each with only five MPCrelated articles contributed during the given period.
+Thus, China, Turkey, and Israel received relatively low contribution scores of 4.67, 2.52, and 1.93, respectively.
+This lag in the development of MPC research may be attributed to the fact that the adoption of prefabrication is still not being prioritized in these countries because of the relatively high cost and the complexity of the application, which is not yet fully understood.
+The authors are suggested to refer to their sources when the unoriginal perspective is indicated, and a reasonable reference is viewed as an evidence for supporting their findings.
+Therefore, the citation index analysis, as an effective method for the evaluation of
+Research centers contributing to more than four papers.
+Loughborough University
+Hong Kong Polytechnic University
+Georgia Institute of Technology
+Luleå University of Technology
+University of Teesside
+Technion-Israel Institute of
+University of Plymouth
+National University of Singapore
+Istanbul Technical University
+The Pennsylvania State University
+the contribution of a specific paper, is conducted in this study.
+Tables 5 and 6 display the most frequently cited articles and journals.
+Given the limitations of Scopus in its coverage of MPC-related publications, Google Scholar is used to extract the citation information of selected articles to ensure consistency and reliability of
+Research origin of MPC papers published.
+Most frequently cited papers.
+Tracking and locating components in a precast storage yard utilizing radio frequency identification technology and GPS (Ergen et al., 2007)
+Parametric 3D modeling in building construction with examples from precast concrete (Sacks, Eastman, & Lee, 2004b)
+Just-in-Time management of precast concrete components (Low & Chen, 2001)
+Perspectives of UK housebuilders on the use of offsite modern methods of construction (Pan et al., 2007)
+Toward adoption of prefabrication in construction (Tam, Tam, Zeng, et al., 2007)
+Future opportunities for offsite in the UK (Goodier & Gibb, 2007)
+Process model perspectives on management and engineering procedures in the precast/prestressed concrete industry (Sacks et al., 2004a)
+Benchmark tests for BIM data exchanges of precast concrete (Jeong, Eastman, et al., 2009)
+Differentiation of rural development driven by industrialization and urbanization in eastern coastal China (Long, Zou, & Liu, 2009)
+Developing a precast production management system using RFID technology (Yin et al., 2009)
+Learning to see work flow:
+an application of lean concepts to precast concrete fabrication (Ballard et al., 2003)
+Leading UK housebuilders’ utilization of offsite construction methods (Pan, Gibb, et al., 2008)
+Sustainable performance criteria for construction method selection in concrete buildings (Chen, Okudan, & Riley, 2010)
+Constraint programming approach to precast production scheduling (Chan & Hu, 2002)
+the sources (Hong et al., 2011).
+The article by Ergen, Akinci, and Sacks (2007) from the Istanbul Technical University was identified as the most frequently cited paper, with citations of up to 111 times, followed by Sacks, Eastman, and Lee (2004a), Low and Chen (2001), Pan, Gibb, and Dainty (2007), and Tam, Tam, Zeng, et al. (2007) of 103, 64, 53 and 53 times, respectively.
+AC was the most frequently referred journal, reaching a maximum of 532 times, followed by CME (255 referrals) and JCEM (238 referrals).
+Regarding article citations, the articles in AC were the most cited (25.33 times per article), while those in JCEM, CME, and ECAM had been cited 13.42 to 18.14 times.
+State of the art and future research trend in MPC discipline
+To gain a comprehensive understanding of MPC, the selected academic articles were examined and further classified by performing two steps.
+First, the articles were sorted based on their data collection and analysis methods.
+Second, the number of MPCrelated papers on different topics that were published each year within the studied period was determined.
+The results from this classification can also determine future research directions for this discipline.
+Data collection and analysis methods
+The classification results demonstrated that previous MPCrelated studies significantly varied in terms of their data collection methods.
+Researchers usually collected their data in four ways, namely, (1) literature review, which is usually conducted to extract
+Most frequently cited journals.
+Automation in Construction
+Journal of Construction Engineering and
+Construction Management and Economics
+Engineering, Construction and Architectural
+Building and Environment
+Energy and Buildings
+Journal of Architectural Engineering
+Building Research & Information
+Construction Innovation:
+Information,
+valuable data or conclusion from previous research, (2) survey, one of the main data collection methods in construction management, which is generally carried out via face-to-face interviews involving industry practitioners with or without the use of questionnaires, (3) case study in which the researcher describes a particular case in high detail by gaining firsthand understanding of one or more building projects, and (4) experiments, which are primarily adopted to conveniently and precisely control and manipulate variables (in this case, the physical properties of a prefabricated element).
+Table 7 shows the number of articles based on their data collection methods.
+Case studies and surveys are shown to be the primary methods in gathering data (accounting for 75% of the articles) in prefabrication research.
+This finding can be attributed to the nature of MPC as being immediately related to the specified context of the construction industry practice, which requires researchers to conduct in-depth investigations of the industry practice before forwarding valuable measures and recommendations.
+After the data collection, the authors adopted three data processing methods for information analysis, namely, (1) statistical analysis, (2) descriptive analysis, and (3) simulation/modeling.
+Table 7 shows the classification results of the data processing methods.
+Half of the selected articles adopted the simulation data analysis method.
+Twenty-seven papers used statistical analysis, and 25 papers used descriptive analysis.
+It is revealed from the classification results that, at the beginning of the studied period, researchers tend to adopt relatively ordinary methods, such as statistical and scenario analyses, to process information.
+Complex methods, such as Georgia Tech Process (Lee, Sacks, & Eastman, 2007), Radio Frequency Identification Technology and GPS (Ergen et al., 2007;
+Yin, Tserng, Wang, & Tsai, 2009), Building Information Modeling (Jeong, Eastman, Sacks, & Kaner, 2009;
+Sacks, Kaner, Eastman, & Jeong, 2010), and Dynamic Simulation (Pan, Chiu, & Chen, 2008), are gradually having increasing important roles in data processing in the MPC domain.
+The employment of these innovative systematic information technologies is expected to ease the complexities and dynamics of MPC simulation to reflect actual industry practice.
+Research topics and future research directions
+MPC-related journals have witnessed a sustainable growth over the previous decades.
+The MPC research domain is characterized for its diverse themes, from industry analysis to assembly strategy research.
+A content analysis tool named NVivo is adopted to derive the major research topics of this domain.
+All collected papers, called “sources”, are imported into NVivo. The sources are then analyzed
+Data collection and analysis methods in publications.
+Data collection method
+Number of papers
+Number of papers
+Statistical analysis
+by the “Node” function in the software.
+The references with similar theme are categorized into the corresponding node, which is called “coding”.
+Take a paper regarding the economic evaluation of the use of prefabrication as an example, we can generate a node structure with two levels in which the first level is “performance evaluation”, and the second level is “economic performance”, such that the paper can be linked to the “economic performance” node.
+Notice that initial codes might be iteratively revised and refined throughout the coding process.
+By this way, this paper identifies five categories of research interests in MPC-related articles, namely, (1) industry prospect, (2) development and application, (3) performance evaluation, (4) environment for technology application, and (5) design, production, transport, and assembly strategies.
+Fig. 1 presents the structure of the research topics in the MPC discipline.
+As shown in Table 8, significant research efforts have been devoted to design, production, transport and assembly strategies (28%), development and application (27%), and industry prospect (26%), while relatively less attention has been paid to performance evaluation (9%) and environment for technology application (10%).
+In examining the five identified research topics (each category has a series of sub-topics as shown under the specific topic), future research directions can be further derived based on what has been done and what remains to be done in the MPC domain, as presented in Fig. 2.
+Industry prospect:
+(1) benefits and incentives of prefabrication adoption (Tam, Tam, Zeng, et al., 2007), (2) defects and barriers in the application of the precast technology (Blismas & Wakefield, 2007;
+Polat, 2008), and (3) future opportunities for
+The framework of research interests in the MPC discipline.
+Literature on the first topic, “industry prospect”, mainly focuses on factors that facilitate or inhibit the adoption of prefabrication technologies.
+Through an industry-wide survey, Tam, Tam, Zeng, et al. (2007) found that “better supervision”, “reduced overall construction costs”, and “shortened construction time” were the most essential advantages in adopting prefabrication.
+Through interviews and workshops, Blismas and Wakefield (2007) identified “a low level of knowledge”, “negative sentiments from past failures”, and “immense changes to existing processes” as major constraints to the success of an off-site manufacturing process.
+By analyzing the selected papers, many research efforts in MPC have been found to focus on developed economies such as the US
+(Ballard, Harper, & Zabelle, 2003), Australia (Blismas, Wakefield, & Hauser, 2010), Hong Kong (Poon, Ann, & Ng, 2003), and the UK (Arif & Egbu, 2010).
+These efforts significantly contributed to the increased performance of the entire construction industry in developed countries.
+In the 1950s and the 1960s, for example, after World War II, a number of prefabricated building systems, such as prefabricated beams, slabs, facade units, and vertical structural components, were extensively developed in Eastern and Western Europe to satisfy the massive demand for housing reconstruction (Warszawski, 2004).
+In Denmark, the highest precast level of 40% was recorded in 1996, after the implementation of the law on precast standardization, which aims to promote the adoption of prefabricated components (Jaillon & Poon, 2009).
+In the mid-1980s, Hong Kong began to introduce prefabrication along with standard modular designs in public housing projects (Mak, 1998).
+By 2002, prefabricated components accounted for approximately 17% of the volume of concrete products adopted in housing projects (Chiang et al., 2006).
+However, it is found that the similar SWOT
+(strengths, weakness, opportunities, and threats)-related analyses of the adoption of MPC lag behind those in some developing countries, such as China, India and Brazil, where there is a high demand for sustainable buildings as a result of rapid urbanization.
+Development and application:
+(1) case experiences analysis (Meiling et al., 2013;
+Tam, Tam, & Ng, 2007;
+Wang, Liu, Hsiang, & Leming, 2011) and (2) evolution of prefabricated building systems (Jaillon & Poon, 2009;
+Nahmens & Bindroo, 2011).
+Regarding the second topic, “development and application”, existing prefabricated construction practices were found to be mainly confined to the public sector, whereas private enterprises still heavily rely on cast-in-situ conventional construction methods, which involves the use of scaffolding, large amount of wet trades, timber formwork and in-situ concreting (Jaillon, Poon, & Chiang, 2009).
+Maas and van Eekelen (2004) differentiated a prefabricated government office building, which was constructed and transported over water, from a conventional building.
+By employing a dynamic simulation software program, N.-H. Pan, Chiu, et al. (2008) examined a high-speed railway project based on the overall production procedures in the planning of the precast yard, equipment capacity, production, transportation, and launching.
+Jaillon and Poon (2009) emphasized the limited availability of a comprehensive database on high-rise buildings, verifying the lack of data on the application of prefabrication in private enterprises.
+Studies by Girmscheid and Rinas (2012) were the only literature to examine the adoption of volumetric and modular prefabricated components in a conceptual residential building, which was never built.
+All these findings indicate a lack of research on the adoption of precast technologies in private enterprises and residential buildings.
+Future research should therefore be conducted to bridge
+Number of papers on different research topics.
+industry prospect (26%)
+Benefits and incentives of prefabrication adoption
+Defects and barriers in the application of the precast technology
+Future opportunities for the precast industry
+development and application (27%)
+Evolution of prefabricated building systems
+environment for technology application (10%)
+Public perspectives
+design, production, transport and assembly strategies (28%)
+Transportation and stockyard layout planning
+Precast assembly technologies
+Construction information flow processing
+this research gap and to understand the evolution and application of prefabrication technology in residential buildings in private enterprises.
+Performance evaluation:
+(1) environmental performance (Aye et al., 2012;
+Lu & Yuan, 2013;
+Pons & Wadel, 2011), (2) economic performance (Pan, Dainty, & Gibb, 2012;
+Pan, Gibb, et al., 2008), and (3) social performance (Eastman & Sacks, 2008;
+Johnson, 2007).
+Future research directions in the MPC discipline.
+The various benefits of the use of prefabrication comparing with traditional cast in-situ construction technologies have been identified by many researchers, including:
+(i) shorten construction period;
+(ii) less labor demand;
+(iii) better quality supervision on the construction progress;
+(iv) a greater potential for automation and intelligent management systems;
+(vi) better safety environment for workers on site;
+(vii) reduce overall construction cost and the time of return on investment.
+As stated by Tam, Tam, Zeng, et al. (2007), the promotion of the adoption of precast technologies will be only successful when various stakeholders earn their actual benefits.
+Nevertheless, it would appear that recent studies on “performance evaluation” have moved from “a conventional focus on costebenefit analysis” to “a more extensive perspective of sustainability”, which not only covers economic benefit, but also
+environmental and social effectiveness.
+For example, to determine the extent of quality improvement and reduction of environmental effect contributed by precast technologies, Pons and Wadel (2011) conducted a life cycle analysis to compare three main industrialized technologies that have been extensively applied in building school centers in Catalonia with a non-prefabricated one, from a technical and environmental point of view.
+López-Mesa et al. (2009) performed a contrastive analysis of residential buildings in Spain to verify if the environmental effect of a precast concrete floor is weaker than that of an in-situ cast floor.
+Aye et al. (2012) examined a multi-residential building to assess the potential environmental and social benefits of precast technologies in terms of reusability of materials, reducing the required space for landfill and the need for additional resource requirements.
+The review of the identified literature reveals that although the separate evaluation of the environmental and social effects of prefabrication is recently being conducted by research in this domain, existing literature should be further extended to establish a more holistic indicator system, which covers all economic, social, and environmental perspectives in assessing the effectiveness of prefabricated construction.
+Environment for technology application:
+(1) guideline and policy (Kale & Arditi, 2006), (2) attitude of various stakeholders (Pan et al., 2007), (3) public perspectives (Engström & Hedgren, 2012), and (4) stakeholder relationships (Jeong, Hastak, & Syal, 2009)
+Regarding the third topic, “environment for technology application”, following the report by Egan (1998), many studies had attempted to investigate the attitudes of stakeholders toward the application of prefabricated construction.
+The attitudes of developers, architects, contractors/producers, maintenance and operational staff may influence the application of innovative modern construction technologies in the development process because of the significant role they play in the decision-making process (Palmer, Jones, Coffey, & Blundell, 2003;
+Pan et al., 2007).
+A study by Edge et al. (2002) revealed that, owing to the strong negative influence of the post-war “precast”, house purchasers will reject any innovations in the housing industry that will likely influence the structure of a conventional house.
+These obstacles that directly or indirectly result in the historical failure of prefabrication practices also exist among other stakeholders (Pan, Dainty, & Gibb, 2004).
+A few government-backed studies have explored the drivers and the obstacles of prefabrication application from a more extensive range of stakeholders’ attitudes.
+A Housing Forum in the UK examined the obstacles in innovative construction methods that developers, architects, contractors, consultants and clients encounter on a daily basis in their organizations (Brown, 2002).
+These studies provide recommendations on the culture and the regulatory environment, in design and construction and encourage actions from the entire supply chain of prefabricated construction.
+However, although the contributions of previous studies had been acknowledged, the interrelationships among the different attitudes of stakeholders, as well as how the attitudes of industry practitioners influence the usage of precast technologies, have been slightly explored.
+Therefore, future research should develop approaches that can quantify the effect of stakeholders’ attitudes toward prefabrication adoption.
+Regarding the fifth topic, “design, production, transport and assembly strategies”, the monitoring and control of prefabricated construction processes, as well as their variables, are widely considered to have a strategic importance in responding to the dynamics of the building industry.
+Many monitoring processes focus on controlling time and cost, and the overall performance is evaluated through a standard set of key performance indicators (Fang & Ng, 2011;
+Shamsai, Whitlatch, & Sezen, 2007;
+Vukovic & Trivunic, 1994).
+These passive approaches do not consider a holistic/system view.
+Therefore, the interrelationships among various external and internal variables that affect a construction process are ignored (Marasini & Dawood, 2006).
+The entire management process of prefabricated construction is highly complex, in which its interrelated activities should be systematically analyzed and organized.
+Without considering the underlying interrelationships of these activities, this complexity cannot be better understood (Yuan & Shen, 2011).
+A number of researchers who had been aware of this significant feature had conducted relevant studies from a systematic point of view.
+By adopting the SIMPROCESS dynamic simulation software, N.-H. Pan, Chiu, et al. (2008) investigated the overall production procedures involved in the planning of precast yard, equipment capacity, production, transportation, and launching.
+To create the optimal or near-optimal combination of interactional production sequences, resource utilization, and minimum makespan, Leu and Hwang (2002) employed a genetic algorithmbased searching technique, while considering the resource constraints and the systematic mixed precast production.
+Despite the contributions of these studies, further research on the similar path should be conducted.
+Prefabricated construction is becoming increasingly popular in the construction industry because of its potential in sustainable building.
+Along with the advancement of off-site construction, researchers across the world are actively reviewing the precast construction practice and suggest various measures for improvement.
+To gain an in-depth understanding on the research trend in this domain, this study conducts a systematic review of MPC-related articles that were published from 2000 to 2013 in nine academic journals, namely, CME, AIC, JCEM, JAE, ECAM, CI, BRI, HI, EB, and BE. A total of 100 MPC-related articles were analyzed in this study.
+The annual number of published articles reflects the increasing trend in MPC research.
+Developed economies, such as the US, the UK, Hong Kong, Sweden, and Australia, are found to be main contributors in MPC research, with their publication of the most number of MPC-related studies.
+Developing countries, such as Turkey and China, are expected to increase their efforts in promoting MPC research, given the continuing prevalence of construction practices.
+Regarding academic communities, the Loughborough University, the Hong Kong Polytechnic University, and the Georgia Institute of Technology were identified as the three most productive institutions in MPC research.
+Case study and survey were found to be the primary methods for data collection, whereas simulation/modeling was identified as the most popular method for data processing in the MPC field.
+More complex techniques, such as the Georgia Tech Process, Radio Frequency Identification Technology, and Building Information Modeling, are increasingly being implemented for data collection and processing.
+Five categories had been identified as major research interests of MPC publications, which include (1) industry prospect, (2) development and application, (3) performance evaluation, (4) environment for technology application, and (5) design, production, transport, and assembly strategies. “Design, production, transport and assembly strategies” and “industry prospect” have been identified as the most dominant among these topics.
+Future research directions are identified based on the analysis of the current research status of MPC.
+This study provides a critical overview of the MPC research development, which provides a valuable reference for both scholars and industry practitioners.
+This study helps scholars gain an indepth understanding of the state-of-the-art of MPC research and allows them to continue from the findings of previous studies.
+This study can also benefit industry practitioners by providing them with effective methods in prefabricated construction practice.
+Furthermore, it should be noted that although the selected articles can reflect the overall trend of the MPC discipline, not all relevant studies are considered in this study.
+Some issues in the prefabricated construction practice are also not discussed because the objective of this research is to offer useful information on the current status and future directions of MPC research based on the information provided in previous literature.
+Acknowledgment
+The authors wish to express their sincere gratitude to the Research Grants Council of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China (PolyU 5294/09E) and the Hong Kong Polytechnic University for the funding support to the research project (5-ZJD7) on which this paper is based, and to Dr. Paul Fox for his kind help in the proofreading of an early version of the manuscript.
+This research was also supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) (Grant No. 71271065 and No. 71390522), the Program for New Century Excellent Talents in University (NCET-11-0811), and the National “12th Five-Year” Science & Technology Program, China (No. 2011BAJ10B06, No. 2012BAJ19B04, and No. 2014BAL05B06).

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+International Journal of Project Management 24 (2006) 13–23
+The extent of team integration within construction projects
+B.K. Baiden *, A.D.F. Price, A.R.J. Dainty
+Department of Civil and Building Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, Leicestershire LE11 3TU, UK
+Received 5 January 2005;
+received in revised form 11 March 2005;
+accepted 6 May 2005
+This paper investigates the extent of integration achieved by construction project teams managed by award-winning construction managers within successfully completed projects.
+The research findings reveal that construction project teams exist as individual competent units within their organisationally defined boundaries.
+They exhibit varying degrees of integration, which are determined by the team practices adopted and their congruence with the procurement approach.
+The findings of this research do not, however, support the argument espoused by many construction industry authorities, that seamless operation is a fundamental requirement of integrated team performance.
+It is concluded that either fully integrated teams are not necessary for effective project delivery within the industry, or that the sector must overcome existing organisational and behavioural barriers if further improvements in project performance are to be fully realised in the future.
+2005 Elsevier Ltd and IPMA. All rights reserved.
+Fragmentation;
+Integration;
+Performance;
+Procurement
+Introduction
+The construction industry has been widely criticised for its fragmented approach to project delivery and its failure to form effective teams.
+This has resulted in reduced project delivery efficiency [1–3].
+Poor performance has been attributed to the continued use of procurement practices that do not encourage integration of the parties involved [4].
+However, over the past decade the industry has sought to improve the performance of its delivered products by introducing various improvement tools and techniques.
+Previous reports by Latham [5], Bourn [6] and Egan [1,2] have all challenged the industry to move away from its traditional modus operandi towards more collaborative and integrated approaches.
+The most recent of these, Accelerating Change [2], challenged the UK construction industry to create a fully
+Corresponding author.
++44 1509 223782;
++44 1509 223495.
+0263-7863/$30.00  2005 Elsevier Ltd and IPMA. All rights reserved.
+integrated service capable of delivering predictable results to clients.
+The report suggested process and team integration as a key driver of change necessary for the industry to become more successful [2].
+Following on from the report, an Integration Toolkit was developed to engender an integrated approach by replacing the prevailing fragmented and contractual relations with collaborative forms of working [7].
+Attempts at team integration in the construction industry have been largely focused on improving project procurement and product delivery processes [8].
+Design and construct strategies and partnering arrangements aimed at encouraging team formation, collaborative working and retention of workforce have been used to attempt to integrate the construction project delivery team [4,9].
+Integrated forms of procurement, such as design andbuild,thatbringtogetherthedesignandconstruction phases of projects, have also been introduced [6,10].
+However, although well intentioned, many of these attempts have not fully achieved the expected success, probably because they are frequently superimposed onto environments where adversarial cultures and attitudes stillexist[11,12].Tangibleexamplesofwheretrueintegration has been achieved in the industry are limited [13,14].
+This paper investigates the extent to which awardwinning building and construction managers were able to integrate project delivery teams.
+It explores the practices within teams that lead to full integration, partial integration, or fragmented working.
+These practices are viewed within the context of the individual procurement systems used, which themselves have a bearing on team practices.
+The aim is to identify the effective practices of such managers in integrating their teams and moreover, to identify whether integrated working, as espoused by the industrys improvement forums, has been fully realised within the industrys best performing projects.
+The changes and improvements required to achieve fully integrated teams are also discussed.
+Fragmentation within the construction industry
+The Rethinking Construction report [1] and the Accelerating Change report [2] both highlighted that the performance of product delivery by the construction industry is variable.
+Time and cost overruns are commonplace and far too many resources are used to rectify defects.
+This poor performance has been partially attributed to the inability of project participants to work together effectively [3].
+The design phase has traditionally been treated as a separate activity to the construction phase [9], consequently, many of the teams involved work towards individually defined objectives that are often in conflict with one another.
+Success is often defined in terms of the achievement of individual organisational metrics rather than the collective project outcomes [15].
+Thus, the construction industry has not fully benefited from the increased productivity and product quality that can result from teamwork [16–18].
+A typical construction project is a collaborative venture that involves a number of different organisations brought together to form ‘‘the construction project team’’.
+This team is responsible for the design and construction of the project [19].
+Consequently, the construction industry is organised around specific trades and functions, with the project team members being selected on the basis of the technical and financial soundness of design and the competitiveness of the tender sum [15].
+Selection processes have thus focussed on organisations individual professional capability rather than their collective ability to integrate and work together effectively.
+This has resulted in the fragmentation of the different participants in the construction project and consequently the separation of design and construction data.
+Excessive design changes and unnecessary liability claims have thus increased making true project life-cycle analysis difficult to achieve. [20–22].
+This fragmented approach to project procurement and product delivery processes frequently lead to project teams being characterised by adversarial relationships, a lack of transparency and mistrust.
+This, in turn, often results in a blame culture whereby the various team members seek to minimise their level of exposure to poor performance, rather than working together in a spirit of trust, cooperation and collaboration.
+As most construction project teams comprise participants from different organisations that come together to form temporary organisations aimed at achieving the common objective of delivering a project [23], the process of integrating pre-existing company based individual workgroups is critical if the various teams in a construction project are to work together effectively.
+Any strategy or system that brings together the various project parties, drawing upon the collective strength of all the teams, has the potential to contribute to the success of the product that the team delivers [21,24,25].
+Integration of construction teams
+Integration can be considered as the merging of different disciplines or organisations with different goals, needs and cultures into a cohesive and mutually supporting unit [26,27].
+Integrated approaches demand that individuals from various organisations work together to achieve common attainable project goals through the sharing of information.
+This means that different company processes and organisational cultures have to be aligned in a collaborative manner.
+Integration is often recognised as a continuous process with the objective of improving team culture and professional attitudes [24,28].
+In construction, integration is used to describe the introduction of working practices, methods and behaviours that create a culture of efficient and effective collaboration by individuals and organisations [7,14,29].
+It promotes a working environment where information is freely exchanged between the different participants.
+The term ‘‘integrated construction project team’’ has been used in this paper to characterise a highly effective and efficient collaborative team responsible for the design and construction of a project.
+The team brings together various skills and knowledge, and removes the traditional barriers between those with responsibility for design and construction in a way which improves the effective and efficient delivery of the project
+The delivery team in a construction project can be described as fully integrated when it:
+has a single focus and objectives for the project
+operates without boundaries among the various organization members [7,14,31,32];
+B.K. Baiden et al. / International Journal of Project Management 24 (2006) 13–23	15
+works towards mutually beneficial outcomes by ensuring that all the members support each other and achievements are shared throughout the team
+is able to predict more accurately, time and cost estimates by fully utilising the collective skills and expertise of all parties [3,8,9,15];
+shares information freely among its members such that access is not restricted to specific professions and organisational units within the team
+has a flexible member composition and therefore able to respond to change over the duration of the project
+has a new identity and is co-located, usually in a given common space [7,31];
+offers its members equal opportunities to contribute to the delivery process [4,8,12,31];
+operates in an atmosphere where relationships are equitable and members are respected [12,14,28];
+and  has a ‘‘no blame’’ culture [3,7,14,28,31].
+These dimensions of team integration, as drawn from key research studies, have been summarised in Table 1.
+By reconciling team operations against the features contained within the table, the extent to which a team can be described as integrated can be ascertained.
+Practices within a team can be assessed in line with the dimensions to give an overall picture of the degree of integration or fragmentation that exist.
+This paper attempts to explore if construction teams that were managed to the industrys highest standards, actually work in an integrated manner.
+This will enable further discussions and recommendations on how the industry can move towards the realisation of integration, which has been suggested as a means of improving project team performance.
+The definition of a successful project continues to generate considerable debate and controversy.
+Traditionally, practitioners have tended to associate project success with time, cost and quality outcomes [27].
+There are, however, many variables outside the control of the project team that impact directly on their overall performance.
+Consequently, traditional success criteria have been argued as being too simplistic in the context of todays complex construction project environment [33].
+For this reason, it was decided to explore the team integration processes used by managers who have been acknowledged to have excelled in the management of project teams measured against a wide range of assessment criteria.
+The Construction Manager of the Year Awards (formerly Building Manager of the Awards) provided an objective way of identifying excellent construction project managers.
+The award is for managers with overall responsibility for delivery of construction projects.
+Between 2000 and 2003, eleven individuals have received awards in the ‘‘large projects’’ category (currently those over £45 million) for their key roles in the management of completed projects.
+Nine of the eleven Project Managers responsible for these projects agreed to take part in the research, details of which have been summarised in Table 2.
+The projects covered in the interviews included new works and refurbishment projects with contract sums up to £200m.
+Though the projects were executed in the UK, the companies involved have worldwide construction and professional expertise and experience.
+Projects 1–5 were managed by a professional construction and project management company that works predominantly in the property and construction sectors with a turnover of £180million (in 2004) and 1500 employees.
+Projects 6 and 7 were managed by a multinational project and construction management company with over 7500 employees and a turnover of £1.6 billion (in 2004).
+Projects 8 and 9 were managed by an international construction group with a turnover of £3.2 billion (in 2004) and over 16,000 employees worldwide, including 9000 within the UK.
+In-depth interviews were conducted with the awardwinning managers, transcribed verbatim and analysed using an adapted form of ‘‘framework analysis’’.
+This is an inductive matrix-based method of qualitative data analysis used for ordering and synthesising data under conceptual headings emerging from the field of enquiry [34].
+The method helps to define concepts, create typologies, find associations, and seek explanations for the emerging phenomena.
+It also allows the sifting, charting and sorting of data into key issues and themes and enables rapid comparison of research findings across the cases investigated [35].
+As alluded to above, previous research was used to identify ten key dimensions necessary for team integration, which were then mapped against practices identified from the interviews.
+This enabled the extent of team integration to be determined (see column 1 of Table 3).
+This method allowed for both in-case and cross-case assessments of the dimensions necessary for integration, as well as providing an overview of whether the project teams were fragmented, partially or fully integrated.
+The results are presented below under headings derived from the analysis.
+Research findings
+Practices that indicated full, partial or absence of integration are presented in Table 3 to illustrate the
+Evidence of integration practices
+Dimensions of integration
+Single team focus and
+All members have the same focus and work together towards team
+Members pursue individual objectives but in line with the overall project objectives
+Individually pursued objectives by members without regard or in isolation to others and project objectives.
+Seamless operation with no organisational defined boundaries
+Members form a new single project team with no individual member identity or boundaries
+Members operate as individuals but make efforts to collaborate with others on the project
+Continued alignment and affiliation to individual organisations that make up the project team
+Pursuance and attainment of project goals that benefits all members
+Attainment of project goals in conjunction with other members whose involvement are necessary
+Individually defined project objectives without compromise or consideration to others needs
+Increased time and cost
+Openly accessible design and construction cost information gathering and management
+Systematic follow up of design and construction cost information
+Disjointed design and construction costs information gathering and application
+Unrestricted cross-sharing of information
+Availability and access to all project information to all parties involved in the project
+Access to project information by a section or sections of the project team
+Project information only available to members with responsibility for the section of work
+Team flexibility and responsiveness to change
+Requisite personnel join and leave the project team as their skills are no longer required or are needed
+Retention of members no longer required and trained to adopt new requirements
+Use of the same project team members even when they had
+outlived their effectiveness
+Creation of single and colocated team
+A single project team with all members located together in a common office
+Individually operated sub-teams but co-located within a single office environment
+Individually located and operated teams
+Equal opportunity for project inputs
+Consultation of members for contribution at all phases of project before decisions are made
+Contributions are welcomed but not explicitly invited from members in making decision on
+the project
+Little attempt to consult members in key project decisionmaking processes
+Equitable team relationships and respect for all
+All members are treated as having equal and significant professional capability needed on the project
+Recognition of professional competence, but mainly in their respective field of expertise
+Team members contribution restricted to their functional project role
+Collective identification and resolution of problems.
+Collective responsibility for all project outcomes
+Cooperation of team members in resolving problems, but with ultimate responsibility resting with a single party
+Individual members are singled out for problems that occur on the project and for undertaking corrective measures
+practical manifestation of how they aligned with key dimensions of team integration as identified from past research (see Table 1).
+A summary of the interview results has been presented in Table 4 which presents the practices, which appeared to facilitate team integration, and uncovers the challenges inherent to improving collaborative working.
+The practices within the team highlight issues such as professional alignment, attitudes and relationships, all of which were highlighted by Evbuomwan and Anumba [3] and Moore and Dainty [12] as those that contribute to the successful integration of teams.
+The discussion of the results focuses on how practices within the construction project team helped to integrate the activities of the various participants.
+These practices took place within the context of the procurement approach used for the projects.
+The influences of these approaches on practices towards integration are also discussed.
+Table 4 reveals that all of the teams achieved a degree of flexibility that enabled them to respond well to changes in personnel requirements on the project.
+According to the managers interviewed, they were able to bring in more members as the project progressed.
+Members whose roles and functions had been completed were relocated and new members brought in to maintain both efficiency and progress.
+This conformed to the organisational structure requirements outlined by Evbuomwan and Anumba [3] and Anumba et al. [9], who all argued that for an integrated team to fully utilise the diverse expertise that is available, its composition should be such that new members with requisite knowledge can be brought in and redundant ones leave (see Table 3).
+The flexibility characteristic is also consistent with the general drive within the construction industry to improve team effectiveness through planned and efficient use of human resources (see Accelerating Change report [2]).
+All the project teams were unable to operate seamlessly due to the continued operation of their members within their boundaries of organisational identity or affiliation (see Table 4).
+The only attempts at seamless project team operations were in Projects 5 and 7.
+In these two projects, the various teams made significant efforts at collaborating with each other.
+This is indicative of the industry struggling to overcome cultural attitudes even when they are negatively impacting on its performance.
+Vyse [14] and the Strategic Forum [7] both pointed out that for effective integration to be fully realised, individual team identities must give way to a new single ‘‘integrated’’ team in which defined organisational boundaries do not exist.
+However, given that all of the projects were deemed to be successful, the extent to which seamless operation is a necessary condition for project success appears questionable.
+All of the interviewed construction managers expressed their ambitions towards developing more continuity of work and long-term relationships with key clients in order to maintain a competitive advantage.
+This supports the key principles of the ‘‘Integration Toolkit’’ [7], which is to sustain long-term working relationships within the industry.
+Six out of the nine project teams were formed very early and focused on continued work with the client that contributed significantly to the equal respect for all the teams involved in the projects.
+The organisational structures were flat as recommended by Anumba et al. [9] and allowed direct lines of communication across organisational boundaries.
+Inputs from the various professions were easily recognised because they were not issued through a long chain of command.
+This helped to improve the level of professional recognition for all teams.
+The resulting impact was that the teams looked for solutions to problems rather than trying to blame one another (see Table 4).
+Adversarial relationships were subsequently replaced with co-operation and early detection, avoidance or joint resolution of problems.
+This approach reflects the principles of ‘‘Fusion’’, a collaborative working tool [14].
+With the exception of project 7, all the Project teams were not able to form a new single team although they operated within a single office location.
+They remained as individual sub-teams within their confined work spaces but co-located with others.
+Most of the project teams (six out of nine) also struggled to achieve an agreed single focus and set of objectives, an espoused requirement for team integration [4,7,8,11,14,15,31].
+Though the need for consensus was acknowledge in the six projects, the members often felt constrained by their own professional and organisational expectations.
+This is consistent with the findings of Moore and Dainty [12] on the need to develop a homogeneous project culture to overcome professional segregation.
+For teams to be effectively integrated, project information should be available and accessible to all parties to allow informed decision-making [3,11,14,15,31].
+In Projects 1, 5, 7 and 8 for example, design drawings were made available to the construction team for comments on buildability.
+These comments were then taken into account by the commercial team during deliberations in relation to cost issues.
+Other specialist teams were also given the opportunity to provide advice at the early stage of the project, but very rarely were all specialist functions brought together to consider issues concurrently with each other.
+In Projects 2, 5 and 7, the managers operated an open and transparent system with easy access to information.
+The project teams consequently had an improved ability
+Table 4 Project team practices
+Selected project
+Public institution
+Local authority
+Public institution
+Local authority
+Dimensions of integration
+Single team focus and objectives
+Seamless operation with no
+organisational defined boundaries Mutually beneficial outcomes Increased time and cost
+predictability Unrestricted cross-sharing of information Team flexibility and responsiveness to change Creation of single and colocated team Equal opportunity for project inputs Equitable team relationships and respect for
+, fully achieved;
+O, partially achieved;
+X, not achieved (absent).
+to predict time and cost estimates more accurately (see Table 4).
+The clients were more certain of time and cost expectations, resulting in increased trust in the project teams ability to deliver.
+Cost increases and time extensions were therefore not disputed or unduly contested by the clients.
+The projects were subsequently completed within the expected time and cost limits, which is consistent with previous findings [3,8,9,15].
+These levels of satisfaction were expressed in feedback obtained from the clients and their representatives.
+To summarise, the project teams surveyed:
+were flexible and possessed the necessary dynamics for the successful executions of the projects;
+did not operate seamlessly and members continued to work disjointedly within their individual organisations;
+were not able to form a new single team that was colocated;
+had equitable relationships and no blame cultures and thus tended to work towards the joint resolution of problems;
+formed good relationships at the early stages of the project, which led to high levels of trust and removal of adversarial attitudes;
+created a project culture where all participants worked towards a common project goal.
+The results show that none of the project teams were totally fragmented or integrated.
+The various members of the project team were not able to operate seamlessly as a single team.
+They all showed varying levels of partial integration.
+Teams on Projects 7 and 5 exhibited the highest degree of integration in relations to the dimensions explored.
+A moderate level was found in Project 2.
+The remainder of the project teams exhibited practices that indicated they were partially integrated.
+These findings do not necessarily undermine the importance of integrated teams, but indicate that even the very best examples in the industry still fall short of the integration expectations set out in the ‘‘Accelerating Change’’ report
+The influence of procurement approach
+As shown in Table 4, the results of the interviews confirm that the team in Project 7, which was procured through the Design and Build approach, had the highest level of integration.
+The team did not, however, provide totally seamless project delivery operations with a complete absence of professional and organisational boundaries.
+Additional effort would have been required to fully break down professional and organisational barriers.
+A lack of integration was also evident in the teams inability to deliver mutual benefits to all members.
+This was demonstrated by the focus of individual teams on the goals of their parent organisations.
+Common project goals and objectives were still resolutely viewed from organisational perspectives, rather than from collective mutually beneficial standpoints.
+Combining expertise from different companies to form a new organisation remained a challenge on the project because traditional attitudes and professional procedures prevailed, as highlighted by Jefferies, Chen and Mead [23].
+Thus, the results confirm earlier findings by Moore and Dainty [12], that the achievement of expected results by Design and Build project teams can hide the actual attainment of integration and the performance of a project team.
+The team in Project 5, procured through Construction Management, displayed many characteristics of integration.
+This was attributed to the method of procurement, which enabled the Construction Manager to become the focal point of construction activities.
+This brought together the Design and the Construction Teams in the product delivery process and the Client Team in the management of the product, which according to Alshawi and Faraj [19] is a primary benefit of integration.
+The complicated nature of Project 5 was such that lack of cooperation from any of the project team members would have had a profound negative impact on the success of the endeavour.
+There were, therefore, consultations, crosschecking and the provision of advice on buildability and cost on every aspect of the construction work.
+This encouraged the project team together to work in an integrated manner as possible.
+The design and construction teams on the project were co-located, which increased collaboration through an improved information flow.
+The teams, however, maintained their organisational identities and boundaries.
+This was due to the fact that the procurement approach did not necessarily call for the creation of a single co-located team although collective working was encouraged on the project (see Table 3).
+The teams in Projects 8 and 9 had both been procured through the traditional procurement route, which has traditionally led to fragmentation of the parties involved.
+They were not fully fragmented but showed some low level of integration (see Evbuomwan and Anumba [3], Vyse [14] and Anumba et al. [9]).
+Project 8, for example, had elements of the works designed and built by the Contractor thus providing an avenue for integrated team efforts.
+In Project 9, the Construction Team was involved in the initial planning of the works and had the opportunity to contribute to certain elements of the design process.
+The access to the Client and Design Team was crucial to bringing all the teams together.
+The complicated nature and the numerous components of Project 8 encouraged the parties to work in a collaborative and constructive way.
+Analysis of the influence of procurement route on integration practices demonstrated that Design and Build arrangements provide the best opportunities and more conducive environments for project teams to work together effectively.
+More emphasis is placed on the formation of a single team with the dual responsibilities for design and construction.
+On the projects adopting Construction Management approach, the project delivery teams were able to work together better because the pivotal role of the Construction Management contractor was fully exploited.
+Integration was also enhanced where the various parties were involved at an early stage of the project.
+In traditional procurement arrangements, teamwork was better achieved through repeated work.
+Modifications, such as contractor-designed portions helped to improve the level of teamwork among the client, design and construction teams.
+Thus using the contractor as a professional advisor rather than the party that merely takes instructions from the design team also contributed to improve project team relationships and led to better teamwork.
+Discussion:
+challenges in achieving team integration
+Construction project teams attempting to integrate face considerable challenges.
+An attempt has been made in this paper to highlight the sources and nature of these challenges.
+Although overcoming them does not automatically deliver the desired results, it may go some way to helping teams work in a more integrated manner.
+The team integration challenges faced by the case study project teams are explored below.
+Traditional drivers for project success
+The traditional project success criteria are cost, time and quality, which are rather crude and overly simplistic measures of performance [33], however, the construction industry has continued to dwell on these outturn measures, even though the industry that draws on the contribution of a range of professionals coming together to complement each others efforts and skills.
+In order for the industry to fully benefit from the diverse expertise present in project teams, such traditional drivers must be replaced with other measures of performance.
+The behaviour of people needs to be changed in order to create an appropriate project culture for successful project delivery.
+A key challenge, therefore, is to replace traditional project drivers with outcomes related to behavioural and cultural improvement.
+In this way, the behavioural changes required to generate more suitable project cultures will help project teams to meet a projects quality requirements at the right cost and on time.
+The relatively short duration of most construction projects and the temporary nature of many project teams form significant barriers to the realisation of such a suitable project culture.
+Another key factor that compounds this issue is the changing composition of project teams over the project life.
+Partnering therefore offers a climate where the appropriate culture can be nurtured over a number of projects.
+Results from the interviews (project 2, Integration Dimension ‘‘j’’ in Table 4) show that if some time is allowed before the commencement of the project to enable the participants to work together on the initial design phase of the project, individuals will have the opportunity to get to know each other and form mutually agreed goals before work actually begins on site.
+Behavioural change
+Behaviour is the term given to things that people do that can directly be observed by others [35].
+Thus, behavioural change must be recognisable by others.
+Moore and Dainty [12] suggest that professionals need to see themselves as a member of a project team rather than as members of their individual disciplines.
+Accordingly, the various parties that come together to deliver a project need to reorient themselves by treating each member as an equal stakeholder and an important player in the project team.
+These are significant ways in which individual contributions both at the personal and organisational level can be exploited.
+Measurement of integration
+If continuous improvement in project delivery is to be achieved through the use of teams in the construction, then there needs to be a system or means of measuring how well integrated a team is and importantly, how this changes over time.
+The challenge for the construction project team is to establish a measurement system that provides a reliable assessment of how well team members are working together.
+By continually measuring team integration against such a tool, performance can then be managed in a proactive way, rather than having to rectify poor performance after it has occurred.
+Conclusion and future research
+The UK construction industry has been widely criticised for its fragmented product delivery processes.
+Team integration has been suggested as a way of addressing this inefficiency by breaking down barriers to effective collaborative working.
+This research has investigated the level of integration achieved in nine projects teams managed by award wining project managers.
+It has revealed that the level of integration is affected by the team practices adopted, set within the context of the procurement approach.
+Most of the teams operated as individually competent workgroups within their organisationally defined boundaries, but had the aspiration to work collaboratively with other teams operating within the project environments.
+None of the project teams were completely fragmented (which would have been surprising given their awardwinning status), neither did any of them exhibit the full range of criteria espoused as signifying truly integrated operation.
+This infers either that fully integrated teams are not necessary for effective team operations within the industry, or that the sector must overcome significant organisational and behavioural barriers if the benefits of integration are to be fully realised in the future.
+It is recommended that future research explores further projects procured under the design and build system to ascertain how effectively teams can be integrated where structural organisational barriers to collaborative working are mitigated.
+Such studies would help to isolate the key issues that must be put in place for the various teams to work effectively together.
+A further study should also be conducted to explore integrated working from the perspective of other members of the project delivery team.
+This would reveal other factors which can impact on team integration and could show the influence of the clients team on the efficacy of collaborative work practices.

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+Available online at
+International Journal of Project Management 27 (2009) 833–839
+Key knowledge factors in Thai construction practice
+Faculty of Engineering, Kasetsart University, Phaholyothin Road, Bangkok, Thailand
+Received 13 May 2008;
+received in revised form 18 January 2009;
+accepted 19 February 2009
+This research has mainly focused on the practice of knowledge management in Thai construction projects at the on-site work level.
+The main objective was to identify whether or not knowledge factors influence on-site execution of works.
+A combination of qualitative and quantitative approaches was employed.
+The focus group interview with 16 construction managers was conducted to gather in-depth information related to practice of project knowledge management.
+This data was used to develop the questionnaire to explore key knowledge factors.
+The questionnaire was sent to 103 participants in 70 construction projects in Thailand.
+The survey data were analyzed by factor analytic techniques to identify key knowledge factors influencing on-site construction works.
+The findings showed that there were six key knowledge factors:
+(1) visionary leadership, (2) reward or incentive, (3) collaboration, (4) trust, (5) information technology, and (6) individual competency or skills.
+2009 Elsevier Ltd and IPMA. All rights reserved.
+Knowledge management;
+Knowledge factor;
+Thai construction practice;
+Construction manager;
+Construction project
+Introduction
+The construction industry, which is where the highest capital investment is made, is an intensely competitive business with a high risk and a low profit margin.
+It still encounters the issues of construction delays, cost overruns and delivery failures [2,4,16].
+In Thailand and other developing countries, construction projects have inadequate and ineffective control strategies for project management problems.
+The operational modes of contractors are mainly based on sole ownership, headed by entrepreneurs lacking efficient expertise in construction management [4,17].
+An individual’s knowledge and experiences from preceding construction projects are important resources for subsequent projects because they facilitating innovative and interdisciplinary tasks [6,17].
+At the end of any project,
+Corresponding author.
++66 2 664 1000x2030.
+E-mail addresses:
+[email protected] (W. Teerajetgul), chot@ ait.ac.th (C. Chareonngam), [email protected] (P. Wethyavivorn).
+0263-7863/$36.00  2009 Elsevier Ltd and IPMA. All rights reserved.
+competencies and skills built up by the members of the project team should remain within the executing organizations and should be available for future projects.
+In current practice, when a project is completed, its project team members withdraw and disperse, meaning that existing knowledge can no longer be accessed.
+Project team members keep their knowledge and experience as individual knowledge, which they can use in future.
+Evidently, the most important factor inhibiting the successful completion of a construction project is the scarcity of skilled personnel at all levels especially supervisors [4,17].
+However, most owners do not want to incur the expenditures of employing qualified professionals to compliment and enhance management competency.
+Edum-Fotwe and McCaffer [9] reported that project managers in today’s construction industry are facing a situation whereby the fundamental roles and functions they perform have witnessed a gradual shift in focus.
+To develop or maintain their professional competency and adapt to changing industrial environments, having adequate knowledge and skills are required and inevitable for practicing project managers during of the course of their training and experience [6,9].
+The ability to manage and use the knowledge of the project team is becoming highly valuable.
+The use of knowledge in organizations has been increasingly seen as a basis for enhancing a competitive advantage [3,10,12].
+Challenges therefore lie in the means of managing knowledge resources and capabilities, contributing to project success and sustained organizational competitiveness.
+Various studies show the value of knowledge management in improving both construction organization and project performance.
+Previous research has found that organizational creativity is critical for improving organizational performance [10,13].
+However, in the construction field, there is limited evidence showed that knowledge management improves either organizational performance or project performance.
+The study of knowledge management in construction projects is still in its infancy, particularly in Thailand.
+No Thai studies have investigated how construction companies use knowledge to improve their organizational performance or project team performance.
+What is lacking in the Thai construction industry therefore is a comprehensive understanding of important knowledge factors such as individual and organizational factors.
+This study objective is to identify key knowledge factors influencing on-site construction.
+Knowledge management in construction project
+Knowledge is one of the most important resources for both managerial decision-making and the competitive advantage of any organization.
+Knowledge is information, which has been used and becomes a part of an individual’s experience base and behavioral patterns [2,7,8].
+Individuals however have a differing knowledge-based capacities and experiences thus leading to different problem solving processes and decision-makings.
+The emergence of information and communication technology has set in motion a new wave of knowledge management for industrial organizations, technology management, strategic management, and organizational theory.
+Knowledge has a number of dimensions, including explicit, implicit, and tacit [12].
+Tacit knowledge is associated with terms such as ‘‘skill,” ‘‘know-how,” ‘‘working knowledge,” and ‘‘expertise” that are used to describe knowledge of the ability necessary to perform work.
+Learning that takes place through apprenticeships draws heavily on tacit knowledge.
+It has been connected with informal learning and organization learning.
+There are conceptual differences in tacit knowledge.
+Tacit knowledge is an important element in work and workplace learning.
+Existing empirical research on tacit knowledge has been technologically driven;
+there is a need to explore the people dimension [21].
+Recently, tacit knowledge has been recognized as an important phenomenon and its role in knowledge management has been explored.
+There are conceptual dichotomies of tacit knowledge.
+Polanyi (1966) explained tacit knowledge as ‘‘we know more than we can express.” [21].
+Polanyi’s theory of tacit knowledge constitutes the starting point for much of the KM literature [15].
+Polanyi’s thinking was the belief that the only way really to know anything is through personal experience.
+The fundamental basis of truth is always faith or belief, and that true knowledge is never based on reason.
+Truth can be discovered by a responsible investigator who uses his creative imagination to find and reveal a hidden reality [11].
+Polanyi’s original conception of tacit knowledge was that tacit knowledge was not a separate category of knowledge but rather an integral part of all knowing.
+Tacit knowledge is not explicit knowledge internalized.
+It is inseparable from explicit knowledge since tacit knowledge is the necessary component of all knowledge [24].
+In contrast to Polanyi’s view, Nonaka and Takeuchi [19] classified human knowledge into two kinds.
+One, referred to as explicit knowledge, can be articulated in formal language including grammatical statements, mathematical expressions, specifications, manuals, and so forth.
+This kind of knowledge can thus be transmitted across individuals formally and easily.
+The other, which is a more important kind of knowledge, is tacit knowledge, which is hard to articulate with formal language.
+This more or less refers to personal knowledge embedded in individuals and involves intangible factors such as personal belief, perspective, and values.
+Nonaka and Takeuchi [19] suggest that tacit knowledge is increasing being ‘‘recognized as playing a key role in form growth and economic competitiveness” [14].
+Although, there are different conceptual definitions of tacit knowledge, there is agreement on the difficulty of sharing tacit knowledge among groups and individuals.
+Experience is identified as being a main source of tacit knowledge creation [19,21].
+At work, on-the-job training and informal learning are important means of knowledge acquisition [14].
+Argyris [1] notes the contradictory duality of tacit knowledge suggesting it is both the basis of successful management, and of defensive routine.
+In the construction area, tacit knowledge or competency is the implicit knowledge used by team members to perform their work through adaptation into their specific environments and scenarios [6,16,19].
+It is knowledge that is encoded and difficult to diffuse.
+It is also hard to verbalize since it is expressed in action-based skills and thus, cannot be reduced to rules and recipes.
+Tacit knowledge is learned through extended periods of experience and repetitive performance of tasks, during which the individual develops the capacity to make intuitive judgments about the successful execution of construction project such as tasks.
+Tacit knowledge is vital to construction projects which can only learn and innovate by leveraging on the implicit knowledge of its members.
+Despite being encoded, tacit knowledge can be and is regularly taught and shared.
+Nonaka and Takeuchi [19] stated that organizational knowledge creation is a process that amplifies the knowledge created by individuals and crystallizes it as a part of a knowledge network.
+There are two sets of dynamics that drive the process of knowledge amplification:
+(1) converting between tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge and (2) moving knowledge among individuals, groups and also, at an organization level.
+Nonaka and Takeuchi [19] explained that the knowledge creation process is composed of four modes which are created through the interaction and conversion between tacit and explicit knowledge.
+The four modes are socialization, externalization, combination, and internalization (SECI model).
+Project management skills consist of technical skills and personal skills.
+A technical skill is considered as the ability to use tools, techniques, and specialized knowledge to execute a method, process, or procedure.
+On the other hand, personal skills encompass attributes of leadership, negotiation, communication, and problem solving.
+In this context, leadership covers three main areas:
+project, technical, and team leadership.
+Many dimensions for communication by the project manager often require the skills of writing, speech, and listening.
+Finally, problem solving skills encompass a combination of problem definition and decisionmaking related to problems that have already occurred [9]. 3.
+Research method
+The research methodological framework follows five steps, which are:
+(1) pre-survey to identify of knowledge factors;
+(2) questionnaire design;
+(3) data collection;
+(4) data analysis;
+and (5) conclusion and discussion.
+The purpose of the pre-survey was to gather input from construction experts to design the questionnaire in the second step.
+The pre-survey was conducted at construction sites in Bangkok and suburban areas by interviewing study participants and by site observations.
+The inclusion criterion for experts was a minimum of 20 years of working experience in the construction area.
+There were 20 senior construction managers qualified and selected to share their experiences.
+After briefing and discussion of the details of this study, of these experts, 16 senior construction managers voluntarily participated in the nominal technique of a focus group series of sessions [22].
+They had extensive and eminent experience.
+The others opted to participate later in the personal interviews as they could not fully commit to the proposed schedules due to their own time constraints.
+The authors used the open-ended questionnaire for interviewing 16 construction experts during the first and second visits.
+Detailed descriptions were as follow.
+The 16 experts responded to the open-ended questions almost similarly.
+Collected data were categorized.
+Five emerging themes determined through the use of interviews were collaboration, centralization, formalization, learning, and trustworthiness.
+Second visit
+All themes generated from the first interview were summarized and re-administered to the construction managers for confirmation and field notes were taken during this process.
+For the second visit, the researcher questioned the construction experts on activities that had an impact on knowledge factors in their respective construction projects.
+Thereafter, the researcher confirmed these responses by making direct field observations.
+The observation process involved actual observation of items that needed to be examined and recorded for better understanding of the construction context, and it also included noting of the environment around the observed areas.
+All the ideas generated by the experts were summarized into 52 brief statements which were further used to design the questionnaire.
+Measurement was considered a crucial element in this step.
+Considering that only a few measures of knowledge management were readily available and adaptable to the Thai construction industry, the researcher had to develop an appropriate instrument or modify an existing one.
+For the purpose of this research, the questionnaire was designed to measure key knowledge factors used by a construction management team.
+The questionnaire was in a self-report format and used a five-point Likert scale for each item.
+The scale ranged from ‘‘1 = very low” to ‘‘5 = very high”.
+The questionnaire consisted of two parts as follows:
+this included questions related to demographic data of the respondents and characteristics of the construction firms.
+this included a total of 52 items under four subscales which inquired on current practices and adaptation of knowledge factors in construction projects.
+The researcher validated the questionnaire’s content by using content experts.
+The four subscales were:
+Measurement of organizational structure (18 items):
+the respondents were asked to indicate the extent to which they perceived their visionary leadership, organizations’ structure, roles, functions, etc.
+Measurement of corporate culture (24 items):
+corporate culture, which is considered as one of the most important factors for successful of knowledge management, defines not only the value of knowledge but also places emphasis on its retention within an organization for sustainable innovations.
+The right culture facilitates the sharing of knowledge.
+The 24 items of culture factors measured communication, incentives or rewards, learning, knowledge networks, collaboration, and trust.
+Measurement of information andcommunication technology (ICT) infrastructure (5 items):
+the infrastructure of ICT supports knowledge management and as such, respondents were requested to express their perception
+of the extent to which the available and existing technology benefits team members on the construction site.
+Such benefits are with respect to the use of retrieved information and knowledge for decision-making and the ability to share the same with other team members.
+Measurement of individual (5 items):
+the human factor is considered as one of the most influential factors that can impact project team creativity.
+Personal competence is vital to creating organizational knowledge during the execution of tasks.
+Technical and cognitive skills were the two dimensions of tacit knowledge perceived in construction team members.
+Where the technical dimension is defined as informal personal skills or know-how, the cognitive dimension consists of beliefs, ideas, values, schemata, and mental model.
+The investigator obtained the roster of potential respondents who are members of the Thai Contractors Association under the H.M. The King’s Patronage Directory 2004 and professional networks.
+Based on data analysis using factor analysis, no fewer than 100 individual per analysis were proposed [20].
+Ratings as low as three subjects per variable are sometimes acceptable and another prospective 100 to 200 subjects are sufficient [20].
+The research study emphasized on the knowledge and experience utilized by construction engineers and therefore, to ensure the selection of a qualified sample, the total of 150 construction companies were invited to participate.
+Of this total, only 46 companies agreed to be involved in the study.
+The researcher asked these 46 construction companies to propose their construction projects as a case in point, to identify knowledge management practices.
+Some companies proposed one project and others proposed two.
+As a result, a total of 71 construction projects were selected to identify knowledge management practices.
+These 71 projects consisted of the following types of constructions:
+infrastructure – 57.7% (41), office – 15.5% (11), residential – 15.5% (11), and factory – 11.3% (8).
+Project managers and project engineers from these construction projects were given a brief description of the research study and its aims.
+The researcher then explained about the questionnaires prior to handing them over for a response.
+A total of 45 project managers and 58 project engineers completed this questionnaire.
+Table 1 summarizes the descriptive data of the characteristics of all 103 participants.
+They generally represented a cross-section of the country in terms of age, gender, education, engineering discipline, and years of experience.
+The age of the construction engineers ranged from 31 years to
+Demographics data of the study participants (n = 103).
+Age (in years)
+Years in current company
+Years in experiences
+M = mean, SD = standard deviation, excluding education, position, and primary discipline present in (%).
+63 years with a mean age of 40.46 years (SD = 6.96).
+Most participants were male (n = 101, 98.1%).
+Years of experience in engineering ranged from 10 to 40 years (M = 17.16, SD = 6.66).
+The majority of the sample had a bachelor’s degree (n = 77, 74.8%).
+Finally, civil works represented the most common discipline (n = 66, 64.1%).
+The SPSS 11.5 program was used to analyze the data and testing for the psychometric properties of the questionnaire.
+Pett et al. [20], recommended that the researcher examine the correlation matrix closely for item consistency and also to identify items that are either too highly correlated (r P 0.80) or not correlated sufficiently (r 6 0.30) with one another.
+If items were too highly correlated, they had a problem with multicolinearity and the researcher may consider dropping one or more of the highly correlated items from the analysis.
+If the item was not correlated strongly enough, there will not be much shared common variance thus potentially yielding too few items.
+Correlation matrix and multicollinearity testing were carried out.
+There were a total 47 items remaining under four subscales.
+Exploratory factor analysis with item analysis was used to examine the construct’s validity and the reliability of the questionnaire.
+The Cronbach’s alpha of each item and of all items were computed to examine the reliability of the instrument.
+A higher cutoff of 0.7 was used because the instrument was newly developed.
+All constructs had reliability higher than the 0.7 cutoff alpha values, ranging from 0.7 to 0.9.
+As suggested by the cutoff, the questionnaire demonstrated an acceptable reliability for each subscale, supporting the use of this questionnaire in a Thai construction project.
+The performance of the questionnaire at the group level was done by item analysis technique, including the examination of item-to-total correlations.
+Seven items for knowledge factors relating to item-to-total correlation less than 0.4 were dropped [13,20].
+Factor analysis with Varimax was performed to identify key knowledge factors and check the unidimensionality among items.
+Each variable was measured by multi-item constructs.
+One approach for determining the numbers of initial factors is to select only those factors with eigenvalues >1.00.
+This means that these factors would account for more than their share of the total variance in the items [20].
+Items with factor loading value <0.5 were deleted [13,20].
+There were 4 items with factor loadings <0.5 for the knowledge factors.
+Naming the key knowledge factors
+Table 2 presents the rotation of six knowledge factors under four subscales:
+visionary leadership, corporate culture (reward or incentive, collaboration, trust), information communication technology, and individual competency.
+The first factor, visionary leadership, emphasized on clear and/or written policies, as these are considered crucial to guide the construction team members to promote a culture of learning and knowledge sharing.
+The second factor, reward or incentive, was characterized by a higher weighting on monetary incentives.
+The third factor, collaboration, indicates the degree of willingness to collaborate.
+The fourth factor, trust as reciprocal faith in other members was perceived to be significant among team members.
+The fifth factor, information and communication technology (ICT) was regarded as a facilitative tool to capture and access knowledge in the real time.
+IT facilitates accomplishing the benefits of increasing information technology development in response to shorter product cycles and also helps to speed up decision-making in a project team.
+It is also a well known fact that information technology strongly supports improved communication.
+The sixth factor, individual competency or skills, includes the set of skills necessary to perform construction work effectively.
+Visionary leadership
+The first factor, visionary leadership emphasizes clear and/or written policies with the highest factor loading of 0.680.
+Leadership skills are crucial in guiding construction team members towards promoting a culture of learning and knowledge sharing vision or policies which are accepted by all levels of team members and require much inspiration for its realization.
+A common vision is important for the construction team to surpass limitations of existing capabilities and to gain a competitive advantage by aiming for new markets.
+The project manager as a leader of a construction project must take the initiative in nurturing the knowledge management culture for knowl-
+Varimax rotated component matrix of knowledge factors (n = 103).
+Visionary Leadership
+Clear or written policies
+Culture to promote knowledge sharing
+Program to improve workers
+Formal training programs
+Attending seminars, symposia
+Incentive or
+Admire the team
+Monetary incentives
+Non-monetary incentive promotion
+Collaboration
+Degree of collaboration
+Supportive team members
+Willingness to collaboration
+Voluntary suggestions about others’ tasks
+Encouraged to ask external experts
+Willingness to accept mistakes
+Trustworthiness
+Reciprocal faith in other members
+Reciprocal faith in others’ ability
+Reciprocal faith in others’ behaviors to work toward organizational goals
+Reciprocal faith in others’ and towards the organization than individual
+Relationship based on reciprocal faith
+Information Technology
+IT support for communication
+IT support for searching and accessing
+IT support for simulation and intuition
+IT support for systematic storing
+Competency or
+Using criteria for assessing performance
+Formal contacts or planning
+Applying the rules with flexible and adaptable capability
+Understanding others’ tasks
+Communicating well with their groups
+Specialists on their own parts
+the above-listed factors will be elaborated in detail below in order to comprehend the concept behind each.
+edge sharing and creation.
+This can be realized if leaders clearly articulate the value of knowledge management initiatives or the knowledge management program.
+Management of a construction project in the knowledge age is about managing tacit knowledge to increase the speed of innovation.
+The keyword associated with leadership which emerged in this study is ‘‘vision”.
+The ability to inspire the team was required for high-level leadership skills.
+Project managers and project engineers should have leadership skills because their positions demand the need for decision-making concerning project performance, particularly financial control and budgeting.
+Group leaders were basically selected based on the subcontractors.
+A good leader is required to be aware of the qualifications of their workers and their performances as well.
+Visionary leaderships established strategic alliance and can be generally categorized under two themes:
+(1) a network of experts working in the same field but in different firms, such as subcontractors and friends.
+It was frequently noted that this group shared tacit knowledge to improve their work:
+(2) networks of experts from diverse backgrounds.
+These networks included random contact sources called on to identify potential collaborations.
+Networks and partnerships can support new products’ development or new construction methods.
+For instance, by sharing of information between suppliers, subcontractors and the main contractor, a new technology for diaphragm wall construction could be shared and learned.
+Networks still provides a means of building trust and understanding, as well as spreading knowledge and intelligence.
+The second factor, reward or incentive, was characterized by a higher weighting on the monetary incentives (0.722).
+Organizations currently compensate employees based on the value and knowledge they add to the organization.
+Other employees get paid for skills, special skills, exceptional performance, and competencies.
+Almost every organization tends to ‘buy’ knowledge.
+They achieve this through two means:
+(1) hiring employees, putting the right man on the right job, and giving them wages based on the company’s salary scale, and (2) employees are rewarded with higher salary based on the company’s needs of their construction knowledge and special skills.
+Fostering linkages among the construction team members is one of the most important elements of developing any synergetic working team [23].
+This simply brings about unity in diversity and involves practices and actions fostering collaboration and joint working.
+It also involves developing team working formats or supporting and encouraging cultures, in taking other cultures forward.
+Personnel in construction teams help one another during the course of work (supportive team members weigh 0.641).
+Collaborations among them lead to positive knowledge exchange, loss of fear, and increased openness towards one another.
+It also helps members to developing a shared understanding at on-site projects.
+With project managers creating a sense of trust and belonging among the team, there is a tendency and willingness to collaborate.
+Such collaboration with team members is an essential element as it leads to the willingness to share knowledge, information and ideas.
+It is easier said than done to connect tacit knowledge to explicit knowledge and to easily transfer the same among the members.
+Particular skills and experience involved in such a process do not present themselves in codified documentations.
+Thus, a simple form of communication is not effective.
+The instinctive resistance to change and the need for trust are considered important.
+Trust is one of the most valuable and vulnerable assets of any construction team.
+When team members trust one another, they can work through disagreements or conflicts, either in a personal or professional context.
+With trust, construction managers and team members work with a single purpose towards achieving positive construction performance.
+The trust in team members was seen to be defined as the reciprocal faith in one another to complete the task in the area of expertise (0.829), either by themselves or by assigning an appropriate person.
+Over a longer term, trust may be the most significant determinant of a construction team’s success.
+Information and communication technology
+A broad array of IT solutions exists for archiving and retrieving information, supporting collaborations, and searching web-based engines for information.
+The results showed that cell phone systems were clearly an equally important enabler of communication (0.828), especially for the purpose of effective engineering management within different regions, between the construction site and the site office, and between on-site construction engineers and experts.
+Information technology facilitated the capture and access to knowledge in real time.
+The benefits of improving the information technology development are being equipped for shorter production cycles and to speeding up decision-making within the project team.
+Competency is the set of skills that a construction manager can exploit to carry out a given task.
+Concentrating on individual knowledge (learning or utilizing), is the foundation of construction project success [5,6].
+Items such as understanding each other’s tasks were given the highest loading factor of 0.820.
+Such skills depend on the capability of individual specialists to sustain a meaningful and synergistic conversation with each other.
+These capabilities go beyond the mere social skills of tolerance of different perspectives to specific cognitive skills.
+Rather, knowledge management in construction projects recognizes the ability of individuals to utilize knowledge.
+Teams could utilize this knowledge (such as engineering and technical skills) even more than the specialists would on their own.
+A project management team requires an expertise body of knowledge.
+Project team management skills are critical factors, which influence a product team’s ability to acquire and utilize such knowledge in improving their probability of success.
+Davenport [7,8] argued that successful management of the human factors are the key to achieving dramatic gains in knowledge development.
+Similarly, Dainty et al., [6] suggested that effective knowledge transfer depends upon high skill and competence.
+This research established that construction managers use key knowledge factors to improve project performance by construction managers.
+Thai construction managers are seen to emphasize individual competency or tacit knowledge.
+Their flexible thoughts and engineering techniques were elements of tacit knowledge fundamental to fostering knowledge management and creativity.
+The strength of knowledge management rests on the vision and aspiration of construction managers in applying creativity in on-site knowledge practices [18].
+By having appropriate and attractive incentives, competent project teams were brought in to utilize and generate new knowledge in the form of problem solving.
+Making knowledge visible requires, the competency in using ICT to convert conceptual ideas and packaged knowledge into obvious activities must be inherent.
+ICT is seen to facilitate the knowledge creation process by capturing knowledge in real time and thereafter making it accessible for future use.
+ICT greatly benefits construction projects in that it speeds up the project team’s decision-making process and thus shortens the product life cycle.
+The knowledge creation process is seen to facilitate the improvement of project performance.
+In conclusion, successful execution of construction projects requires project managers to consider the three important factors mentioned above.

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+	International Journal of Project Management 29 (2011) 900–910
+Stakeholder management in construction:
+An empirical study to address research gaps in previous studies
+aDept. of Building and Real Estate, The Hong Kong Polytechnic Univ., Hong Kong
+bDepartment of Construction and Real Estate, School of Management, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, China cSchool of Architecture and Building, Deakin University, Australia
+Received 12 April 2010;
+received in revised form 13 July 2010;
+accepted 29 July 2010
+This paper concentrates on identifying gaps in the scope of previous studies on stakeholder management, and starting to address those gaps by conducting an empirical study.
+To complete these research objectives, literature review, interviews, questionnaire survey, and a case study were used in this study.
+Four gaps regarding critical success factors, stakeholder management process, methods for stakeholder management and stakeholder relationship management were identified.
+Based on an empirical study, a framework for effective stakeholder management is proposed, and the application of a Social Network Analysis technique, as a means of determining the influence of stakeholders on decision making, is illustrated and validated by a case study.
+These findings can serve as initial references towards a more systematic approach for stakeholder management.
+Since the empirical study was conducted only in Hong Kong and Australia, further studies should be conducted in other regions to validate and compare with the finding in this paper. © 2010 Elsevier Ltd. and IPMA. All rights reserved.
+Stakeholder management;
+Construction;
+Critical success factors;
+Social Network Analysis
+Introduction
+According to PMI (2004), a project is:
+“a temporary endeavour undertaken to create a unique product, service,or result”.
+Basedon this definition, projects are temporary and unique.
+Olander (2006) points out that a project is a unique process, consisting of “a set ofcoordinatedactivitieswithastartandafinishdate,undertakento achieveanobjectiveconformingtospecificrequirement,including constrainsontime,costandresources”.IbrahimandNissen(2003) also state “there is no such thing as a typical facility development project.
+No two projects are ever the same”.
+The uniquenessnature and limited duration of projects require additional efforts to build effective project teams and generate trust, both within the team and between the team and the project stakeholders (Grabher,
+The team members must learn quickly how to work together as a coherent unit (Ibrahim and Nissen, 2003).
+Project managers need to be attuned to the cultural, organisational and social environments surrounding projects (Wideman, 1990).
+Youker (1992) defines the notion of “project environment” according to the Random House dictionary, which is “the aggregate of surrounding things, conditions or influences”.
+Burton and Obel (2003) also use contingency factors to describe the project environment as one of having high complexity, high uncertainty, and high equivocality, such factors make stakeholder management difficult.
+Youker (1992) clarifies that uncertainty becomes a problem for the project manager because of the dependency relationship between the project and the uncontrolled elements in its environment.
+Managing stakeholders needs to balance competing claims on resources between different parts of
+⁎ Corresponding author.
+E-mail addresses:
+[email protected] (J. Yang), [email protected] (G.Q. Shen), [email protected] (M. Ho), [email protected] (D.S. Drew), [email protected] (X. Xue).
+the project, between the project and other projects and between the project and the organisation (Bourne, 2005), but an environment of uncertainty and complexity makes “achieving this balance more difficult” (Turner and Muller, 2003).
+0263-7863/$ - see front matter © 2010 Elsevier Ltd. and IPMA. All rights reserved.
+Scholars studying the construction sector (e.g.
+Bosher et al., 2007;
+Cole, 2005;
+El-Gohary et al., 2006;
+Newcombe, 2003;
+Olander and Landin, 2005) have realized that stakeholder involvement is important to project outcomes, and recognition of the concept of stakeholder management has grown in recent years.
+A consequence of the growth of interest in stakeholder management has been a simultaneous expansion of different perspectives of stakeholder research (Friedman and Miles, 2006).
+In recent years, some researchers have attempted to classify these research perspectives.
+Jones (1995) identified three major approaches to classify stakeholder theory:
+descriptive, instrumental, and normative.
+Kolk and Pinkse (2006) considered the recent research to focus on three core themes:
+(1) identifying the nature of stakeholders, (2) examining under which circumstances and how stakeholders influence organisational decisions and operations, and (3) identifying different strategies to deal with stakeholders.
+Bourne and Walker (2006) classified the stakeholder theory to “social science stakeholder theory, instrumental stakeholder theory, and convergent stakeholder theory”.
+However, according to Freeman and McVea (2001) and Atkin and Skitmore (2008), the adoption of these defined approaches has possibly tended to prevent more fruitful explorations of the issues arising from recognition of the stakeholder concept.
+They suggest that stakeholder research should also include application of the insights of stakeholder theory to real world problems, in contrast to that pure research which focuses solely on the development of stakeholder theory.
+Nevertheless, according to Achterkamp and Vos's (2008) study, lack of attention has been paid to “conceptualising the stakeholder notion in the context of projects as well as to make the notion operational for this context”.
+This paper, therefore, is not concerned with the description of stakeholder management theory as such, but concentrates on identifying the gaps in the scope of previous studies on stakeholder management, and starting to address those gaps by conducting an empirical study.
+The intention is to add to knowledgeand theprovision ofanimprovedunderstanding ofthe stakeholder management issues.
+These issues result from recognition of the fact that there are multiple stakeholders whose expectations and influences must be encompassed in the project management process.
+Section 2 describes the research process adopted for this study.
+Section 3 consists of the literature review and the identification of gaps in the scope of previous research to date.
+Section 4 describes an empirical study made by us, towards addressing these identified gaps.
+These studies have led to a proposed framework for effective stakeholder management and an examination of the effectiveness of the Social Network Analysis technique.
+The research process
+In order to identify gaps in the stakeholder management research field in construction, a literature review was undertaken.
+Well regarded construction research journals were searched.
+Journals selected were those with high scores for quality on the combined ABDC (Australian Business Deans Council) Journal List. See Table 1 for the full list.
+The search scope was expanded to include common search engines such as Google Scholar, ABI database, EI CompendexWeb, ISI web of knowledge and several bookstores on the web.
+Some references from many articles initially found, were also followed up.
+The aim was to access as much research produced information as possible on the subject of stakeholder management in construction.
+Publications were searched using the keywords “stakeholder”, “project participants”, and “project environment”.
+The terms “project participants” and “project environment” were used because some scholars (Kaatz et al., 2005;
+Leung et al., 2004;
+Patela et al., 2007;
+Wideman, 1990;
+Youker, 1992) never use the word “stakeholder” in their papers, and yet they did in fact analyse both the participation of stakeholders in project environments and various stakeholder perspectives.
+The search process was guided by a study by Olander (2006).
+The first selection was based on available abstracts, and the second selection after reading paper contents.
+At the conclusion of the search process, 68 items had been identified for further analysis, as the ones deemed most appropriate for the analysis of past stakeholder management research in construction.
+Table 1 lists the 68 items, consisting of journal papers, internationalconferencepapers,theses,booklets,reports,andsome chapters in eight books.
+The journals, Construction Management
+An overview of the publications.
+Source of the literature
+related papers
+International Journal of Project
+Building Research & Information
+Engineering Construction and
+Architectural Management
+Journal of Architectural Engineering
+AACE International Transactions
+AEW Services
+Architectural Science Review
+Automation in Construction
+Baltic Journal of Management
+Civil Engineering and Environmental
+European Journal of Industrial
+Journal of Engineering and Applied
+Journal of Financial Management
+International symposium or conference
+and Economics and International Journal of Project Management, have published the greatest number of papers on stakeholder management.
+In particular, Volume 26, Issue 6 of Construction Management and Economics is a collection of eleven papers on stakeholder management, bringing together contributions reflecting contemporary and emerging themes in stakeholder management (Atkin and Skitmore, 2008).
+The study is conducted with three steps:
+⦁ Firstly, Cleland and Ireland (2002) consider it important that the project team knows whether it is successfully “managing” the project stakeholders or not, and the review, therefore, initially focused on identifying stakeholder management Critical Success Factors (CSFs).
+In terms of stakeholder management, CSFs can be viewed as those activities and practices that should be addressed in order to balance stakeholders' interests and further ensure that projects are moved forward.
+Our two initial findings (IF1 and IF2) were made.
+Finding IF1 is that the identification of CSFs, which improve the performance of stakeholder management, first requires an understanding of the stakeholder management process.
+Finding IF2 is that management of stakeholder relationships is important.
+• Then, asa result ofIF1,those papers discussingthe stakeholder management process were further reviewed.
+Two further findings were made, FF1 and FF2.
+Finding FF1 states that a stakeholder management model in construction has not yet been fully developed, and FF2 is that a range of practical approaches that can be used for stakeholder management has yet to be consolidated.
+As a result of IF2, papers discussing the management of stakeholder relationships were reviewed, and a further finding (FF3) is that most of these studies focus only on thepromotion ofthe relationships,however,few focusesonthe impact on the project which results from such networks of stakeholder relationships.
+• Finally, the research then proceeded through empirical investigations, intended to make some progress towards repairing the FF1, FF2 and FF3 weaknesses identified.
+To learn from the experiences of practitioners, six interviews were held, a questionnaire survey was administered and a case study was conducted.
+These studies had two objectives:
+(1) derivation of a proposed systematic framework for stakeholder management;
+(2) validation of the effectiveness of a specific Social Network Analysis technique for analyzing the influence of stakeholders.
+This empirical work is described below in Section 4.
+Critical success factors for stakeholder management in construction
+During the review of the 68 papers, it became apparent that only two papers (Jergeas et al., 2000;
+Olander and Landin, 2008) related mainly to factors affecting stakeholder management.
+Jergeas et al. (2000) used interviews to identify “communication with stakeholders and setting of common goals, objectives and project priorities” as two aspects bringing improvements to the managementofstakeholders.Usingacomparativestudy,Olander and Landin (2008) identified five factors within the stakeholder management process that could bring about different project outcomes.
+These factors are:
+“analysis of stakeholder concerns and needs;
+communication of benefits and negative impacts;
+evaluations of alternative solutions;
+project organization;
+and media relations”.
+Their studies make a significant contribution to the promotion of successful stakeholder management on construction projects, but because the projects were limited to only two industry sections and the sizes of the samples were small, it is not possible to generalize their findings.
+The first study was limited to only five project managers working on oil and gas industry construction sites, and the second was based on only two railway development projects in Sweden.
+Some other factors affecting stakeholder management were also identified by the review.
+Landin (2000) considers that “the long-term performance of any construction project and its ability to satisfy stakeholders” depends on the decisions made and the care taken by the decision makers in fostering stakeholder communication.Bakensetal.(2005)andYoung(2006)alsopoint out that the key to good stakeholder management is effective communication.
+Aaltonen et al. (2008) state that the key issue in project stakeholder management is management of the relationships between the project team and its stakeholders.
+These factors were cited as critical success factors for stakeholder management, but verification is needed through further quantitative and qualitative studies.
+Therefore, based on literature review, it seems that previous studies regarding critical success factors for stakeholder management are either limited to small sample size, or just assumptions without further verification.
+A complete list of the factors which contribute to the success of stakeholder management has not yet been undeveloped.
+Other studies, Bakens et al. (2005), Jergeas et al. (2000), Karlsen (2008), Olander and Landin (2008), and Young (2006), confirm that “communication” is an important CSF and they also show that the relationship between the project team and stakeholders is important.
+As further support, Rowlinson and Cheung (2008) consider that the success of stakeholder relationship management is contingent upon a well-defined communication strategy, supported by structured facilitation of relationship activities.
+Karlsen (2008) confirms that 5 factors are important to the formation of relationships between the project team and the stakeholders;
+and Karlsen et al. (2008) identify 14 factors as most important for building trust between a project team and its stakeholders.
+Since the management of stakeholder relationships is inherently of importance to stakeholder management, investigation seems necessary.
+Stakeholder management processes in construction and methods used in the processes
+Several scholars have proposed stakeholder management process models, which are summarized in Table 2.
+However, it seems that there is no consensus on the best model.
+Stakeholder management requires a formal structured approach (Cleland and
+Stakeholder management process models in construction projects.
+Identification of stakeholders;
+analysing the characteristics of stakeholders;
+communicating and sharing information with stakeholders;
+developing strategies, following up.
+Developing a stakeholder map of the project;
+preparing a chart of specific stakeholders;
+identifying the stakes of stakeholders;
+preparing a power versus stake grid;
+conducting a process level stakeholder analysis;
+conducting a transactional level stakeholder analysis;
+determining the stakeholder management capability of the R&D projects;
+analysing the dynamics of stakeholder interactions.
+Identifying stakeholders;
+gathering information about stakeholders;
+analysing the influence of stakeholders.
+Olander (2006) adopted Identification of stakeholders;
+Gathering information
+Walker et al. (2008) Identifying stakeholder;
+Prioritizing stakeholders;
+Visualizing stakeholders;
+Engaging stakeholders;
+Monitoring effectiveness of communication.
+Jepsen and Eskerod	Identification of the (important) stakeholders;
+(2009)	characterization of the stakeholders pointing out their
+(a) needed contributions, (b) expectations concerning rewards for contributions, (c) power in relation to the project;
+decision about which strategy to use to influence each stakeholder.
+Ireland, 2002), but such a formal approach has not yet been fully developed (Chinyio and Akintoye, 2008).
+Karlsen (2002) points out that no formal and systematic project stakeholder management process exists in real projects and that the management of stakeholders is a random affair, since there are no routine functioning strategies, plans, methods or processes.
+Cleland and Ireland (2002) go on to propose some basic guidelines for the development of a project stakeholder management process.
+They believe a formalapproachisrequired, because projectsare subject to so many changes that informal methods are inadequate.
+They also point out that successful project stakeholder management should provide project teams with decision-making intelligence.
+Although the scholars cited in Table 2 have proposed several stakeholder management process models, it appears that these modelsarenotcoherentanddetailedenoughtobeofpracticaluse.
+For example, Karlsen (2002) considers “identification of stakeholders” and “analysing the stakeholders” to be the first two stages required for stakeholder management, but ignores the preceding stage of “gathering information about stakeholders”, which is considered important by Young (2006).
+Considering all of the above, it seems clear that a formal stakeholder management process model needs to be synthesized and developed.
+Besides the process for stakeholder management, as Chinyio and Akintoye (2008) stated, to achieve project objectives, it is also essential to identify effective approaches for stakeholder management.
+Although several scholars (Newcombe, 2003;
+Bourne, 2005;
+Young, 2006) have proposed the different approaches for stakeholder analysis, few have attempted to consolidate practical approaches that can be used for stakeholder management (Reed et al., 2009), except Chinyio and Akintoye (2008), and Reed et al. (2009).
+Chinyio and Akintoye (2008) focused on stakeholder engagement approaches in construction in the United Kingdom, and Reed et al. (2009) discussed the approaches for stakeholder analysis used within natural resource management research activities.
+These studies identified and proposed a range of approaches that have helped the practitioners to manage stakeholders.
+However, their limited scope means that they do not represent the complete picture.
+It is thus necessary to expand Chinyio, Akintoye and Reed et al.'s work to consolidate a range of practical approaches that can be used for stakeholder management.
+Stakeholder relationship management in construction
+Many scholars consider stakeholder relationship management to be important.
+Cleland (1986) and Jergeas et al. (2000) consider that “efficient management of the relationships between the project and its stakeholders is an important key to project success”.
+Hartman (2002) believes that successful project relationships are vital for successful delivery of projects and meeting stakeholder expectations.
+Olander (2006) treats stakeholder management in construction projects as a system, and believes that the different parts of the system must be studied, together with the relationships between these parts (Arbnor and Bjerke, 1997).
+Unlike the focus of traditional project management, on the stakeholders themselves, large numbers of researchers in recent years have taken stakeholder relationships into account (Cova and Salle, 2006).
+Table 3 summarises the literature on relationship management in construction into two categories.
+The first category relates to the promotion of the relationships between different project participants and the analysis of the importance of relationship management.
+The booklet “Stakeholder Measures (72 questions)” was produced by Construction Pathfinder (Devitt, 2001) to stimulate debate on stakeholder relations and how to improve them.
+It places the spotlight on stakeholder relationships in a manner which encourages companies to learn from each other.
+By studying stakeholder empowerment, Rowlinson and Cheung (2008) point out that relationship management is useful for enhancing project performance and client satisfaction.
+PMI (2004) defines project stakeholder management as “the systematic identification, analysis and planning of actions to communicate with and influence stakeholders”.
+Based on this definition, Aaltonen et al. (2008) consider the key to effective project stakeholder management is management of the relationships between the project and its stakeholders.
+These studies have contributed to successful relationship management in construction projects, and relationship management research is well developed from this particular perspective.
+The literature on relationship management.
+Category 1:
+Promoting relationships between different project participants;
+analysing the importance of relationship management.
+Category 2:
+Analysing the impact of stakeholders arising from the existence of ‘the network of relationships’.
+Newcombe (2003);
+Bourne (2005);
+Bourne and Walker (2005);
+Bourne and Walker (2006);
+Cova and Salle (2006);
+Olander (2006);
+Cova and Salle (2006), Olander and Landin (2008)
+The second category focuses on analysis of the impact made by stakeholders through informal ‘instrument’, ‘the network of relationships’.
+Bourne and Walker (2006), Newcombe (2003), and Pryke (2006) used the term “network of relationships” in their studies, because they believe a construction project takes place in a non-linear, complex, iterative and interactive environment, in which the impact of stakeholders cannot be easily identified.
+Pryke (2006) considers traditional analysis is a dyadic-discussion about contract and intra-coalition relationships, which has traditionally made the assumption that relationships essentially involve only two parties.
+The project environment is much more complicated (Bourne, 2005), as evidenced by the “milieu” map of an example project drawn up by Cova and Salle (2006).
+To make use of “network of relationships” in analysing stakeholder impact, the notion of hidden/invisible stakeholders is important.
+They may have little apparent influence, but the hidden influences make the innocuous power more substantial (Bourne and Walker, 2006).
+Newcombe (2003) emphasizes that project managers should not look down on those stakeholders who have little obvious power and consider them as weak, because these stakeholders may have a strong influence on the attitudes of the more powerful stakeholders.
+Bourne and Walker (2006) consider that hidden/invisible stakeholders could cause major disruption to a project's development through unseen power and influential links.
+Similarly, Olander and Landin (2008) find that the public often has no formal power to affect the decisionmaking process for a project, but it has an informal power that can press powerful stakeholders to change their positions.
+All of these studies show that analysis of the impact of stakeholders acting through “network of relationships” is important, especially as it can highlight the importance of different stakeholders.
+Although relationship management research from this second category has been confirmed as important (e.g.
+Bourne and Walker, 2006;
+Newcombe, 2003;
+Olander and Landin, 2008), few studies exist on how to analyse the impact resulting from stakeholder relationship networks (Aaltonen and Sivonen, 2009).
+The only available tool is the Stakeholder Circle Tool developed by Bourne (2005), which can be used to identify and prioritize the influences of the project stakeholders.
+The software calculates the importance of each stakeholder based on the assessment, which is made by project team, of each stakeholder's attributes (power, proximity, and urgency).
+Although the project team (usually including the sponsor) may have investigated the impact of every stakeholder, use of such software cannot overcome the cognitive limitations of the project team.
+There is no real departure from the traditional dyadic analysis (Pryke, 2006), and the accuracy of the results is likely to decrease as the complexity of the project increases.
+Though Stakeholder Circle Methodology may have a useful place in stakeholder relationship management, it needs back up validation by identifying the underlying structure of the relationships between stakeholders.
+Social Network Analysis (SNA) is considered potentially to be such a tool (Bourne and Walker, 2006;
+Rowley, 1997).
+This technique was first proposed by Rowley (1997) in the field of stakeholder research and some scholars of stakeholder management in construction consider SNA to be useful (e.g.
+Cova and Salle, 2006;
+Bourne and Walker, 2006).
+Those researchers, however, do not appear to have yet made any empirical studies using this method.
+The SNA method is further explained and its utility examined using a trial case study in Section 4.2, below. 3.4.
+Summary of the research gaps in previous studies
+In the literature review, four gaps in the scope of the existing research on stakeholder management in construction are identified:
+• a comprehensive list of the factors affecting the success of stakeholder management has yet to be fully developed;
+• a systematic framework for stakeholder management needs to be further developed;
+• a range of practical approaches that can be used for stakeholder management has yet to be consolidated;
+• most studies focus only on issues of promotion of the relationships themselves, but few focus on analysing the impact on the project resulting from those stakeholder relationship networks.
+An empirical study was conducted in Hong Kong and
+Australia to address the identified research gaps.
+Findings are described in Sections 4.1 to 4.4 respectively corresponding to the four gaps.
+An empirical study to address the research gaps 4.1.
+A list of CSFs
+Based on the 68 papers literature review, 15 factors contributing to the success of stakeholder management in construction projects have been identified.
+Six interviews were conducted in Hong Kong to verify the selected CSFs, and to gather views on what are effective practical methods and tools for use in the stakeholder management process.
+These experts were selected because they all had more than 10 years' overall experience on stakeholder management in construction projects, and they have different roles in projects and on different levels of position.
+The interviews were conducted in the interviewees' office, and lasted for 0.5 to 1 h, depending on the interviewees' available time slots and how many comments they gave.
+All interviewees agreed the appropriateness of the 15 CSFs. They also provided valuable comments clarifying the CSF definitions.
+For example, the first factor was changed from “Undertaking social responsibilities” to the more detailed description “managing stakeholders with social responsibilities (economic, legal, environmental, and ethical)”.
+To analyse the ranking of the 15 CSFs, a full-scale survey was conducted in Hong Kong in August 2008.
+Prior to sending out the questionnaires, a pilot study was conducted with two project managers.
+The respondents were project managers from different aspects of the construction industry They were selected from internet information, newspapers, magazines, membership lists of two institutes (i.e. the Association for Project Management Hong Kong, and the Hong Kong Construction Association), and registered lists (including the Authorized Architects' register, the Authorized Engineers' register, the Authorized Surveyors' register, and the General Building Contractors' register) published by the Buildings Department of Hong Kong (Yang et al., 2009).
+A total of 654 copies of the questionnaire were delivered to the potential respondents.
+Most copies were sent by mail, and for those potential respondents whose mailing address was unknown, copies were sent by email.
+About three weeks were given for the respondents to complete and return the questionnaire.
+The ways for returning the questionnaire comprised mail, email and fax.
+A total of 183 completed questionnaires was received representing a response rate of 28%, which is consistent with “the norm of 20–30% which pertains to most questionnaire surveys in the construction industry” (Akintoye, 2000).
+The raw data were analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) computer software.
+Table 4 ranks CSFs in order of descending mean score.
+The mean scores range from 3.80 to 4.43, which indicate that all respondents consider these 15 factors critical.
+The highest ranking CSF is “managing stakeholders with social responsibilities (economic, legal, environmental and ethical)” (mean=4.43) which is therefore seen as the factor most influential to the success of stakeholder management. “Exploring stakeholder needs” and “communicating with and engaging stakeholders properly and frequently” (mean=4.26) were both ranked equal second.
+The fourth ranked factor was “understanding area of stakeholder interests” (mean=4.22), the fifth, “identifying stakeholders properly” (mean value=4.21), and the sixth, “keeping and promoting a good relationship” (mean value=4.17).
+These six factors are the top six stakeholder management CSFs. In order to examine how greatly the individual respondents differed in their rankings, the Kendall Coefficient of Concordance was calculated.
+The Kendall Coefficient of Concordance for ranking the 15 CSFs in Table 4 was 0.122, which is statistically significant at the 1% level.
+This suggests that there was general agreement among the 183 respondents on the CSF rankings (Yang et al., 2009).
+Table 4 Ranking of the 15 CSFs.
+Managing stakeholders with social responsibilities
+Communicating with and engaging stakeholders properly and frequently
+Keeping and promoting a good relationship
+Analyzing conflicts and coalitions among stakeholders
+Accurately predicting the influence of stakeholders
+Formulating appropriate strategies for the management of stakeholders
+Assessing attributes (power, urgency, and proximity) of stakeholders
+Effectively resolving conflicts between stakeholders
+Formulating a clear statement of project mission
+Predicting stakeholder reactions to implementation of the	3.83 strategies
+Analyzing the changes in stakeholder influences and	3.83 relationships
+Kendall's Coefficient of Concordance=0.122.
+Level of significance:
+For ‘Mean scores’:
+1=least important and 5=most important.
+Based on the questionnaire survey data, factor analysis was used to determine groupings among the 15 CSFs. A fourcomponent solution was produced based on Varimax rotation of principal component analysis.
+These four factor groupings, with Eigenvalues greater than 1.000 explain 61.532% of the variance.
+A CSF belongs to a particular group if the factor loading value exceeds 0.50 (Aksorn and Hadikusumo, 2008;
+Li et al., 2005;
+Norusis,1992).ItwasfoundthatC1“managingstakeholderswith social responsibilities (economic, legal, environmental and ethical)” belonged to none of the factor groupings.
+The remaining 14 CSFs can be grouped into four principal components (Yang et al., 2009), entitled:
+(1) stakeholder estimation, (2) information inputs, (3) decision making, and (4) sustainable support.
+The four components are ranked in order of importance.
+The CSF, C1 “Managing stakeholders with social responsibilities (economic, legal, environmental and ethical)”, however, scored highest among the 15 CSFs. This means that project managers consider this factor to be the most important for the success of stakeholder management, a finding in line with statements of several researchers (e.g.
+Carroll, 1991;
+Donaldson and Preston, 1995;
+Wood and Gray, 1991).
+According to Carroll, (1979) definition, economic responsibility is the obligation to produce goods and services, sell them at fair prices and make a profit;
+legal responsibility is the obligation to obey the law;
+and ethical responsibility covers those issues not embodied in law but expected by society.
+Recently environmental expectation has also been given much attention by many scholars (e.g.
+AlWaer et al., 2008;
+Prager and Freese, 2009) because of sustainable development expectations.
+Environmental considerations involve air, flora/fauna, dust, water, and noise.
+The purpose is to protect the environment and to provide healthy living conditions.
+Because this most significant CSF, i.e.
+C1, was not included in any of the four components, we consider this factor a “precondition factor” for successful stakeholder management.
+With this precondition, and recognizing the fourcomponents extracted by factor analysis, a guidance framework for successful stakeholder management in construction projects is proposed, and defined by Fig. 1 (Yang et al., 2009).
+The six interviewees as indicated in Section 4.1 were also asked to propose effective methods for successful stakeholder management.
+As shown in Table 5, the proposed methods are classified corresponding to the basic stakeholder management process (Cleland, 1999).
+They can be used for identifying stakeholders, gathering information, analyzing stakeholders, making decisions, and implementing decisions.
+To verify the effectiveness of the proposed methods, a questionnaire survey was designed, the administration of which has been described in Section 4.1.
+The effectiveness of each method was judged on the basis of its mean score.
+The higher the mean score, the higher the effectiveness will be.
+It shows that personal past experience was ranked as the most effective method for identifying stakeholders.
+This indicates that the experience of project managers is important to this management activity.
+Asking the obvious/ identified stakeholders to identify others of importance, “snowball sampling” (Patton, 1990), is also considered very effective.
+For the action “gathering information about stakeholders”, focus group meetings rank high.
+Focus groups aim to reveal the key concerns of those selected (Dawson et al., 1993).
+Focus group meetings may also reveal preliminary issues that are of concern to a group or community (Department of Sustainability and Environment, 2005), and, again, “personal past experience” is also important for gathering information about stakeholders and analyzing it.
+This finding can be said to be in line with the study conducted by Chinyio and Akintoye
+The efficiency of methods used in the process of stakeholder engagement.
+Purposes	Methods	Mean Kendall's
+A framework for successful stakeholder management in construction (Yang et al., 2009).
+Identifying Personal past experience stakeholders Asking the obvious/identified stakeholders to identify others
+Guidelines from governments or one's own organization
+Professional services
+Being directed by a superior
+Gathering information Focus group meetings from stakeholder	Personal past experience
+Public engagement approaches
+Negotiations
+Appealing to Executive Council
+Negotiations
+Public engagement approaches
+Several kinds of meetings and workshops were regarded as the most common ways of implementing decisions.
+Negotiations can also be categorised as communication with stakeholders, especially when settling disputes and problems.
+Based on similar studies in the UK, Chinyio and Akintoye (2008) also emphasized the importance of workshops, meetings and negotiations.
+In order to examine whether the respondents ranked the methods in similar order to each other, Kendall Coefficients of Concordance were calculated.
+These are statistically significant at the 1% level, which indicates that there is a general agreement among the 183 respondents on the rankings.
+However, the right hand column of Table 5 contains coefficients which are all relatively small.
+This might reflect the context-specific feature of stakeholder management and imply that though the respondents consider all the methods are important, the order of importance may vary with different situations.
+This finding is in line with Reed et al.'s (2009) findings, as they stated that “choice of approaches will depend on the purpose of the stakeholder analysis,theskillsand resourcesofthe investigating team,and the level of engagement”.
+Application of Social Network Analysis (SNA) for analyzing stakeholders' influence
+Although many scholars (e.g.
+Bourne and Walker, 2006;
+Newcombe, 2003;
+Olander and Landin, 2008) consider ‘the network of relationships’ to be important, few studies focus on analyzing the impact of stakeholders resulting from the fact of the existenceofthenetwork.Asaninitialsteptowardsaddressingthis research gap, a ‘Social Network Analysis’ can be made as one way of studying stakeholder relationships.
+In order to test the effectiveness of Social Network Analysis, a case study was conducted in Australia in 2009, on the construction of new classrooms and facilities for a theological school.
+An interview was conducted with the project management team to identify the stakeholders.
+Fifteen individuals/groups were identifiedasinvolvedintheconstructionstage.Theteamwasthen asked to prioritize the influence exerted by stakeholders based on its experience.
+The Stakeholder Circle technique was adopted (Bourne, 2005).
+The results are shown in the first column in Table 6.
+A survey question was developed to enable construction of the stakeholder social network.
+The question was as follows:
+“Please nominate groups or individuals, or choose those from the following list (the list in Table 6) who changed or influenced your activities related to the project in the construction stage and to what extent?
+1=To some extent;
+2=To a considerable extent”.
+The questions were sent out by the project management team via email.
+One additional stakeholder, i.e. “College Board Members”, not identified during the meeting, was nominated by the warden.
+It should be noted that not all of the sixteen stakeholders (which included subcontractors, consultants and suppliers), were contacted due to limited time and resources.
+Stakeholder priority lists in the T College project.
+Priority list at the construction	Priority list at construction stage stage (using Stakeholder Circle)	(using Social Network Analysis)
+Director of Finance &
+Administration
+Director of Finance &
+Director of the T College
+Director of the Theological
+Architectural firm
+City Council
+City Council
+Family and representatives of the ashes in the landscape
+Family and representatives of the ashes in the landscape
+project isa design-buildcase, however,and itcan beassumed that the project management team had a good understanding of the relationships which existed between those stakeholders who receiveda questionnaire and those who did not.The datagathered from the survey was analysed by a Social Network Analysis tool, NetMiner (Cyram, 2009).
+Fig. 2 is the map of the influence network.
+One additional stakeholder, i.e.
+Board Members, not identified during the meeting was nominated by the Warden.
+To estimate the degree of prominence of stakeholders, the status centrality concept was used, as this takes every connection in to account (even up to infinite length connections) between each node (Cyram, 2009).
+Out-status centrality indicates the extent to which a stakeholder affects others.
+The influence of a stakeholder is reflected by the out-status centrality.
+The higher the out-status centrality value, the more important the stakeholder is.
+As shown in Table 6, the project manager (project management team) had the highest influence in the construction stage.
+In view of the project management team's role in the construction stage, it is not surprising that the team is at the centre of the map. ‘Warden’, ‘director of finance and administration’, and ‘director of the theological school’ have a high level of influence because they all directly communicate with the project team, and supervise the process of construction.
+The stakeholder interactions network.
+In order to compare the stakeholder ranking results from the Stakeholder Circle with those from the Social Network Analysis, Spearman's rank correlation test was used to show whether or not the similarities are significant (Singh and Tiong, 2006).
+The results of this test are interpreted by correlation coefficients (r), whereby high coefficients indicate strong correlations between variables.
+If r is significant at the 5% level, this is taken to mean that the two variables have a strong correlation.
+A correlation coefficient of 0.871 between the Stakeholder Circle and the Social Network Analysis results is significant at the 5% level.
+This statistical result indicates both techniques give generally similar stakeholder rankings.
+These findings were presented to the project management team, who agreed that the Social Network Analysis (SNA) technique is an effective one.
+Based on the results of SNA, the team reprioritized the stakeholders.
+This casestudy shows that SocialNetwork Analysis can playa valuable role in evaluating the pattern of ‘whole-of system’ stakeholder relationships.
+Putting theory into practice is always a challenge and in this case study there were also limitations.
+Firstly, it was difficult to ask all of the stakeholders to respond to the survey, sothis may have causedboundary limitations and bias in the results.
+Secondly, there are various methods for analyzing social network survey data, especially the conducting of a centrality analysis.
+It is an open question for practitioners and researchers as to which method is more effective.
+This case study, nevertheless, helps to strengthen our confidence in the usefulness of the types of results that the study has produced, hence contributing to the development of theory and methods in stakeholder management.
+This paper adopts an integrated process for identifying gaps in the scope of previous studies on stakeholder management, and trying to address those gaps by conducting an empirical study.
+As a result, four research gaps were identified:
+(1) a comprehensive listofthe factorsaffecting the successofstakeholdermanagement has yet to be fully developed;
+(2) a systematic framework for stakeholder management needs to be further developed;
+(3) a range of practical approaches that can be used for stakeholder management has yet to be consolidated;
+and (4) most studies focus only onissuesofpromotion ofthe relationships themselves, but few focus on analysing the impact on the project resulting from those stakeholder relationship networks.
+By conducting an empirical study in Hong Kong and Australia, fifteen CSFs were identified and ranked.
+A framework for structuring effective stakeholder management and methods for effectively conducting stakeholder management has been synthesised.
+The use of Social Network Analysis for analysing the impact made by different stakeholdersisillustratedandvalidatedusingacollegebuildingin Australia, and the usefulness of the application of SNA to stakeholder management in construction has been confirmed.
+The findings of our study provide empirical evidence on the context-specific feature of stakeholder management.
+Particularly, the selection of approaches should be suitable for a particular situation and depend on resources of the project, the nature of the project and objectives of the engagement;
+and there is no single, most effective approach, and usually a number of alternative approaches are combined to analyse and engage stakeholders.
+These findings help to take this research field one small step along the pathway towards good understanding of the stakeholder management process.
+This study has its limitations.
+The empirical study was conducted in Hong Kong and Australia, so the findings may mainly reflect the stakeholder management environments in these two regions.
+In future, similar studies should be conducted in other regions to validate and compare with the finding in this paper.
+Furthermore, during the case study, when collecting and reporting data for applying the SNA method, many practical and ethical challenges were evident.
+For instance, the secure promise of the required number of participating stakeholders is necessary, as missing data, obviously, make Sociograms give a less accurate portrayal of communities.
+Problems of data limitation may arise because of project managers' reluctance to intrude upon key stakeholders' time, or stakeholders reluctant to provide data because the anonyminity of the data collected cannot be assured.
+Therefore, more research is necessary to enable analysis of the interrelations among stakeholders, especially as regards the application of SNA.
+Acknowledgements
+The work described in this paper was supported by the Hong Kong Polytechnic University and the Research Grants Council of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China (PolyU 52644/06E).
+This research was also funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No.
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+902	J. Yang et al. / International Journal of Project Management 29 (2011) 900–910
+J. Yang et al. / International Journal of Project Management 29 (2011) 900–910	901

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+Available online at
+International Journal of Project Management 35 (2017) 1639–1654
+Impact of integration management on construction project	management performance
+a Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, CA, 94720, United States b Department of Civil Engineering, Bogazici University, Bebek, 34342 Istanbul, Turkey
+Received 2 January 2017;
+received in revised form 13 September 2017;
+accepted 17 September 2017
+Available online 9 October 2017
+Construction project performance relies on different dimensions of project management.
+Among those, integration management is of paramount importance since effective project management starts with the integration of processes and people within a construction project.
+This study investigates the influence of various components of integration management on construction project management performance and quantifies the relationship between those components and integration management.
+The proposed components of integration management are the development of a project charter, knowledge integration, process integration, staff integration, supply chain integration, and integration of changes;
+whereas the dimensions of project management performance are time, cost, quality, safety, and client satisfaction.
+A questionnaire was designed and administered to construction professionals and data from 121 projects was analyzed using structural equation modeling.
+The data was analyzed by using software, called SPSS AMOS. The findings of the research indicate that integration management has a strong impact on project management performance.
+The study contributes to the project management body of knowledge in that it develops a conceptual framework consisting of specific components for integration management, reveals the impact of integration management on performance, and proposes several tools and strategies for enabling effective integration along the project life cycle.
+Industry practitioners may benefit from the framework developed by considering the components proposed and following strategies recommended for construction phases. © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. APM and IPMA. All rights reserved.
+Integration management;
+Project management performance;
+Construction projects
+Introduction
+Integration refers to coordination among processes.
+Integration management is one of the most important elements of project management, which encompasses all aspects of a project.
+Project integration management ensures the successful coordination among project activities.
+Asif et al. (2010) mention integration as a deliberate process of developing a governance structure, which makes the management of key stakeholder requirements more systematic.
+Eisner et al. (1993) define integration management as the major elementof systems engineering.
+They propose a concept, called “integration engineering”, where they list requirements,
+⁎ Corresponding author.
+0263-7863/00/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. APM and IPMA. All rights reserved.
+interfaces, interoperability, impacts, testing, software verification and validation, and architecture development as the main elements.
+Moreover, they refer to integration management, where they define the main elements as scheduling, budgeting and costing, configuration management, and documentation.
+These components build the basis for systems engineering.
+Project integration ensures the proper coordination among project activities.
+Therefore, the impact of integration management on project success should be well understood so that project managers might benefit from the positive aspects of properly coordinated project activities.
+A major portion of existing research studies (Tatum, 1990;
+Halfawy and Froese, 2007;
+Ozorhon et al., 2014;
+Berteaux and Javernick-Will, 2015;
+Ospina-Alvarado et al., 2016) has previously demonstrated the critical role of effective integration in project management research.
+The Project Management Body of Knowledge Guide (PMBoK) lists the ten main knowledge areas essential to project management and four additional areas in its Construction Extension.
+Among those, project integration management is listed as the first knowledge area, which involves combination, unification, and coordination processes of project management (PMI, 2013).
+Because of the essential function of integration in project management, this study develops a comprehensive framework which aims at illustrating the strong link between integration and project management performance, which was not previously investigated.
+Within this perspective, the study proposes construction-specific components for integration management and measures project management performance by means of different project success indicators.
+Moreover, a questionnaire was designed based on the developed framework and administered to construction professionals in Turkey.
+The research investigatesthe hypothesizedrelationship between integration management and project management performance and aims at measuring project management performance according to the proposed indicators.
+To analyze the validity and the reliability of the proposed measures for the framework, structural equation modeling (SEM) was used.
+The main contribution of this study is to guide construction practitioners to adopt proposed measures for integration and benefit from the strategies for integration in order to experience higher success rates.
+Research background
+PMI defined a total of 14 areas:
+the project integration, scope, time, cost, quality, human resource, communications, risk, procurement, stakeholder, safety, environmental, financial, and claim management.
+A portion of studies measured performance by these knowledge areas or revealed the impact of individual knowledge areas on performance.
+The knowledge areas proposed by PMI have been used in numerous research studies.
+Various studies have focused on enhancing risk (Hwang et al., 2014), innovation (Toole et al., 2010), and technology and integration management (O'Connor and Young, 2004) capabilities of construction firms.
+Chou et al. (2013) conducted research on the project management knowledge of construction professionals.
+In Chou's study, a model was proposed where the effects of project scope, time, quality, human resource, communication, risk, and procurement management on the project success and interrelations among the knowledge areas were investigated.
+Fageha and Aibinu (2013) indicated that effective scope management has a direct impact on project outcome.
+The impact of effective time management on enhanced project performance was highlighted in several studies (Gayatri and Saurabh, 2013;
+Ngacho and Das, 2014).
+In Salazar-Aramayo et al.’s (2013) study, cost was listed among the most important attributes of the project management model that they have developed.
+Ali et al. (2013) emphasized that quality of work done is among the mostimportant attributes of project performance measurement.
+Popaitoon and Siengthai (2014) mentioned that project performance and knowledge absorptive capacity of project teams are highly affected by project human resource management practices.
+Badir et al. (2012) stated that communication is one of the key components of improved performance.
+Hwang et al. (2014) revealed that effective risk management leads to improved project performance.
+Eriksson and Westerberg (2011) indicated that collaborative procurement practices have a positive influence on construction project performance.
+Stakeholder benefits and satisfaction were demonstrated to be crucial for project success (Takim and Akintoye, 2002;
+Bassioni et al., 2004) Moreover, Kagioglou et al. (2001) emphasized that stakeholder satisfaction is directly associated with performance management in construction.
+Cheng et al. (2012) investigated the effect of safety management practices on project performance in the construction industry.
+Montabon et al.'s (2007) study revealed that there is a strong link between the effectiveness of project environmental management and business performance.
+Akanni et al. (2015) stated that financial attributes are highly effective on project performance.
+Vidogah and Ndekugri (1997) demonstrated that effectiveness of claim management is essential in terms of successful completion of project, which in turn leads to enhanced project performance.
+Jastaniah (1997) also indicated thatsuccessful handling ofclaims is one of the most important components of enhanced performance.
+Tatum (1990) described potential competitive advantages of integrated facility engineering such as offering new products in new markets, developing distinctive competence, reducing project schedule, and decreasing life-cycle cost.
+He emphasized the critical role of integration in competing against forces for change and concluded that success is achieved when addressing forces for change through successful integration of processes.
+Halfawy and Froese (2007) presented a multitier component-based framework aiming to facilitate the implementation of modular and distributed integrated project systems for supporting multidisciplinary project processes through the project cycle.
+The main focus of the research was to emphasize the required functionality and approach to developed integrated project systems.
+Within this context, a framework was developed to define methods that have potential to improve the availability, consistency, and integration of project information and processes.
+Ozorhon et al. (2014) focused on the components of the innovation process.
+They defined the barriers of innovation including resistance to change, inexperience, and unavailability of advanced products and they proposed integration of project participants and effective leadership as one of the solutions to enhance the rate of innovation adoption.
+However, the paper references one case study selected from the United Kingdom, so the conclusions made could lead to diverse statements with different case studies.
+Berteaux and Javernick-Will (2015) indicated that project based organizations in the architecture, engineering, and construction (AEC) industry must integrate knowledge and processes adapting to local environments.
+They investigated the challenges of local adaptation and organizational integration processes by relating to project performance.
+They concluded that projects having high integration result in richer information exchange than projects having low integration.
+However, the research has a small sample size and organizational performance was not included in the study, which is one of the limitations of the research.
+Ospina-Alvarado et al. (2016) developed a framework for construction project integration by defining several attributes depending on their critical importance.
+They proposed the framework as a useful tool for construction practitioners to wisely use their resources for achieving a more integrated project.
+Despite the attributes mentioned in this study such as coordination, collaboration, leadership, knowledge sharing, and trust, the paper stilllacksa completeunderstanding ofintegrationattributes such as integration of changes and uncertainty management in integration.
+These studies reported that projects experience higher success rates and improved performance with the adoption of an integrative approach.
+However, these studies rather focused on software integration, relational integration or contractual integration despite the fact that integration must be evaluated as a core element encompassing different dimensions and impacting several other variables in a project network.
+The construction industry still suffers from poor project performance because of its nature where the work is fragmented between different stakeholders and different sub-processes (Rahman and Kumaraswamy, 2004;
+Ospina-Alvarado and Castro-Lacouture, 2010;
+Harper, 2014).
+Moreover, previous studies lack a complete understating of the relationship between integration and performance, which is essential to successfully manage construction projects.
+However, the impact of integration management on project management performance was not explicitly investigated in these studies;
+instead they assess some of the core components of integration on performance.
+There is no other study in the literature that proposes construction specific components for integration management and analyzes the relationship between integration and project management performance.
+Revealing this relationship may help construction professionals to evaluate their projects with the essential parameters and understand the logic behind project integration in the cases where it is hard to manage complex projects.
+It is essential for construction practitioners to understand, quantify, visualize and simulate the components that affect construction work.
+Hence, the need for conceptual framework arises to best reflect variables which influence construction business.
+Construction is more challenging than other businesses in terms of its dynamic, fragmented and complex nature since it requires involvement of different parties and successful management of processes.
+This requires the development of well-set strategies and practices to compete against uncertainties and risks.
+Cost and schedule variances might create undesired consequences, which lead to low customer satisfaction.
+Therefore, it is crucial to determine underlying parameters that need to be addressed when project success is of utmost importance.
+Several studies have been conducted to investigate performance and itsrelationtodifferent projectmanagementconstructs.Vickery et al. (2003) mentioned the effects of integrative supply chain on financial performance.
+Similarly, Kim (2006) investigated the linkage between supply chain integration and firm performance.
+Mitchell (2006) rather considered the relationship between knowledge integration and information technology performance.
+As reported, only a limited number of studies the number reveal an explicit linkage between integration management and project management performance.
+Crawford (2005) states that program or project directors, who use a high level of integration and scope practices are more likely to be top performers.
+Huang and Newell (2003) also indicated that knowledge integration is determined by three important components:
+the efficiency of integration, scope of integration, and the flexibility of integration.
+Heising (2012) underlined the critical role of integration in terms of project portfolio management.
+In addition, Mitropoulos and Tatum (2000) also indicated that degree of project integration affects project performance.
+Previous research highlighted the essential function of integration or its attributes on achieving a higher level of performance, success or innovation.
+For example, Aronson et al. (2013) mentioned the impact of leader building activities and project spirit's role on project success.
+Similarly, Ozorhon et al. (2014) listed integration and leadership as enablers in construction innovation.
+Moreover, Crawford (2005) mentioned that project or program directors using high level of integration and scope practices are more likely to be top performers in companies.
+Saraf et al. (2007) implied that information integration with customers and business partners leads to better knowledge sharing, which also results in business performance improvements.
+Berteaux and Javernick-Will (2015) highlighted the organizational integration of knowledge, process, and strategy, informing that organizational integration improves project performance through the capabilities developed on previous projects and innovations across the organization, which helps the organization remain competitive.
+It is also mentioned that integration of knowledge and processes improves project and organizational performance.
+Since conceptualization and effective planning of projects are crucial, integration appears as a critical component in the proper coordination of projects.
+As previously shown on above studies, integration is strongly linked to the core elements and areas of project management.
+Hence, one might conclude that integration has a clear and direct impact on project performance.
+Therefore, this study aims to fill this gap by developing a framework picturing the core elements of integration and performance.
+The framework is intended to reflect the relation between integration management and project management performance based on the perceptions of construction companies.
+Fig. 1 shows the components of the integration management derived in this study and its direct link to project management performance.
+Research framework
+The framework proposed in this study involves the components for integration management and project management performance.
+In the initial step, based on a comprehensive literature review that focused on studies regarding the integration management and performance, several components are derived.
+Integration management and project management are factors and 17 components are derived for these two factors.
+After conducting pilot studies with three university professors and two industry practitioners, some of the components were either combined or removed to best reflect their corresponding factors.
+Finally, a total of 11 components are obtained.
+The underlying components of each factor are identified and explained below.
+The components of integration management are determined as ‘development of project charter’, ‘knowledge integration’, ‘process integration’, ‘staff integration’, ‘supply chain integration’, ‘integration of changes’.
+• Development of Project Charter:
+Development of the document, which authorizes the start of a project and defines project manager's authorization over the project.
+The approval of the project charter officially announces the authorization of the project.
+The project charter also authorizes the project manager to assign the organizational resources to the project activities (PMI, 2013).
+• Knowledge Integration:
+Knowledge integration refers to the exchange of knowledge among all stakeholders, project parties and sharing of previous and current knowledge, and input of all data into the current knowledge transfer system.
+The integration of knowledge and ideation in project portfolio management is indicated as the key element of sustainable success (Heising, 2012).
+Mitropoulos and Tatum (2000) revealed that integration brings the need for exchange of information of knowledge between the interdependent subsystems and they indicated that knowledge is one of the crucial elements of successful integration.
+Tatum (1989) also indicated that construction knowledge is a necessity for integrating construction methods and design approaches.
+Knowledge integration for successful projects, organizations, and process groups has also been stated as the core element of project integration management and project management performance (Nonaka, 1994;
+Grant, 1996;
+Tether, 2002;
+Carlile and Rebentisch, 2003;
+Newell et al., 2004;
+Soderlund, 2004;
+Kellogg et al., 2006;
+Schmickl and Kieser, 2008;
+Ritala and Hurmelinna-Laukkanen, 2009;
+Song and Song, 2010;
+Un et al., 2010;
+Brettel et al., 2011;
+Enberg, 2012;
+Too, 2012).
+• Process Integration:
+Process integration simply refers to the organized sequence of all activities in an appropriate manner and well-developed logical relationships among processes.
+In Birkinshaw et al.’s (2000) study, it is indicated that integrated process in terms of human integration and task integration may foster value creation.
+Tatum's (1989) study revealed that concurrently designing a product and processing its production lead to increased quality and lowered cost.
+Mitropoulos and Tatum (2000) stated that there has been an increased emphasis in integrating design of new products or processes with the cost, time, and quality efficiency.
+Yanwei et al. (2012) listed process integration asone ofthe dimensions of project integration management.
+A great portion of the research studies have also investigated process integration and underlined the importance of process integration in project management performance (Wheelwright and Clark, 1992;
+Enberg, 2012;
+Kleinschmidt et al., 2007).
+• Staff Integration:
+Staff integration refers to the integration of project staff into the current project processes.
+Staff integration also includes staff's support for integration and managementdriven integration for the tools and techniques needed for the successfulexecutionofprojects.Mitropoulosand Tatum(2000) stated that organizational integration is one of the integration mechanisms including the components such as partnering, cross-functionalteams,and trainingin-groupskillsattheproject level.
+In addition, Egan (2002) indicated that teamwork effectiveness is increased by the integration.
+The study also underlined that integration is desirable for effectively working teams.
+Staff or team integration is highly investigated in project management research (Carmeli and Schaubroeck, 2006;
+Dammer, 2008;
+Carmeli and Meyrav, 2009;
+Zajac, 2009;
+Jonas, 2010;
+Enberg, 2012;
+Tiller, 2012).
+• Supply Chain Integration:
+Supply Chain Integration defines the integration of customers and suppliers into the whole processes and development of knowledge sharing mechanisms among customers, suppliers and project teams.
+Therefore, supply chain integration is heavily investigated in previous studies conducted on project management area (Wheelwright and Clark, 1992;
+Gemunden et al., 1996;
+• Integration of Changes:
+Integration of changes refers to the review and evaluation of all change requests in the project, making modifications, updates in project management plan and project documents, and integration of all changes into project deliverables.
+Mitropoulos and Tatum (2000) indicated that changes might occur severe consequences for project budget and schedule.
+They also stated that lack of integration in project planning might cause to uncertainty in scope, unclear priorities, and unidentified needs and constraints, which might lead to changes, rework, and delays.
+Tatum (1989) also indicated that integration of construction methods and design approaches is very effective in managing projects with the successful handling of changes.
+• Previous literatures also prove that effective change management and leadership are strongly associated with successful implementation of organizational initiatives (Gilley et al., 2008;
+Jones et al., 2005;
+Turner and Muller, 2005).
+Moran and Brightman (2001) also indicated that change management is the capability of an organization towards handling changes in accordance with customer needs.
+Therefore, it constitutes special emphasis in the project integration management since effective integration of changes into the current project deliverables is critical.
+Previous studies also prove the importance of the integration of changes into the current project conditions in terms of successful project management (Kolodny, 2004;
+Leybourne, 2007;
+Hassner-Nahmias and Crawford, 2008;
+Cummings and Worley, 2009;
+Soderlund, 2010;
+Hwang and Low, 2012;
+Yanwei et al., 2012;
+Hornstein, 2015).
+Project management performance
+This study measures project management performance by means of project success as suggested in other studies (Lim and Mohamed, 1999;
+Wang et al., 2010;
+Mir and Pinnington, 2014).
+In terms of project success, majority of the research studies focus on timely completion (Egan, 1998;
+Lim and Mohamed, 1999;
+Chan et al., 2002;
+Cooke-Davies, 2002;
+Rad, 2003), under budget completion (Bassioni et al., 2004;
+Nudurupati et al., 2007;
+Papke-Shields et al., 2010;
+Berssaneti and Carvalho, 2015), meeting quality criteria (Rad, 2003;
+Tam et al., 2011;
+Chang et al., 2013;
+Chou et al., 2013), safely completed work (Lim and Mohamed,1999;
+Boweretal., 2002;
+Almahmoudetal.,2012),and client satisfaction (Lim and Mohamed, 1999;
+Gayatri and Saurabh, 2013;
+Cserhati and Szabo, 2014;
+Liu et al., 2014;
+Nassar and Abourizk, 2014).
+In the light of previous studies, this study also utilizes those mostly cited indicators to measure construction project success.
+Despite the studies investigating the relationship between integration and performance, a better understanding of integration attributes and its impact on project performance still appears as a challenge in the architecture-construction-engineering (AEC) industry.Hence,this paperaimsat defining those specific attributes specific to construction industry and visualizes the relationship between integration and performance by quantifying the effects.
+The conceptual framework also includes control variables such as project type and project size.
+Kog and Loh (2012) indicated that project manager authority, pioneering status, project size, site limitation and location, client top management support, contractor key personnel capability, and contractor team competency are the critical success factors for different components of construction projects.
+The following hypothesis is developed based on the strong evidence provided by the literature considering the impact of integration management on project management performance.
+Effectiveness of “integration management” has a direct and positive effect on “project management performance” when controlling for project type and project size.
+Fig. 2 presents the conceptual framework for this study along the valid indicators developed.
+Conceptual framework.
+An online questionnaire was designed and administered to construction professionals in Turkish construction firms based on the proposed framework (See Appendix A).
+The questionnaires were addressed to large-scale Engineering, Construction, and Architecture firms.
+The targeted respondents were selected among the members of Turkish Contractors Association (TCA), Association of Turkish Consulting Engineers and Architects (ATCEA), The Turkish Employers' Association of Construction Industries (TEACI), and Architectural Archive of Turkey (ARKIV).
+From the 508 questionnaires sent, 121 were returned, where 22 were face-to-face interviews, resulting in a response rate of 24%.
+Face-to-face interviews were conducted with 22 professionals to increase the response rate.
+Respondents were requested to fill in the questionnaires considering the project managementpracticesoftheircompletedprojectsbasedonfourteen knowledge areas.
+The collected data include information regarding 121 different construction projects, which were undertaken by 82 different firms where some of the firms provided multiple data.
+The questionnaire consists of two main parts:
+(i) general information about the company, respondent and the project;
+and (ii) variables related to the project management performance.
+The respondents were asked to evaluate their project management practices based on the listed variables using a 1–5 point Likert scale (1:
+very low, 2:
+very high).
+All respondents are upper-level managers of large-scale firms.
+Based on the questionnaire results, the average firm age is found to be 33 years and the average turnover is 612 million USD. The respondent profile consists of the contractors (64%) while small portion consists of structural designers (16%) and architectural designers (7%);
+subcontractors (6%), owners (5%) and others project executors (2%).
+The collected data involves building projects (31%);
+transportation (20%);
+infrastructure (18%);
+industrial construction (18%);
+water structures (10%), and other projects (3%).
+The questionnaire also gathered information regarding the project ownership.
+According to this information, it is assessed that the majority of the firms (75%) are solely responsible for the project, and for the remainder of the firms, project ownership belongs to joint ventures (24%) and consortiums (5%).
+Further information provided that the average project duration is 2.9 years and the average contractual duration is 2.4 years, which shows that some projects were completed with delays.
+Analysis of Moment Structures (AMOS), a SEM tool, was used as the software package for analyzing the data collected from 121 questionnaires.
+SEM is a multivariate statistical methodology, which adopts confirmatory approach to analyze a structural theory based on a phenomenon.
+SEM also tests hypotheses among observed and latent variables (Bollen and Long, 1993;
+Hoyle, 1995;
+Kline, 1998;
+Byrne, 2012).
+SEM is also known as causal modeling, causal analysis, simultaneous equation modeling, analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) structures, path analysis, dependence analysis, or confirmatory factor analysis (CFA).
+The reason why SEM was selected for this study is that it offers several advantages in terms of validity, reliability, and complexity.
+SEM allows use of several indicator variables for a construct simultaneously providing valid conclusions on the construct level.
+Moreover, SEM takes measurement error into account corresponding to the measurement error portions of observed variables, which in turnlead to unbiasedconclusions.Finally, SEMprovidesseveral benefits to model and text complex patterns of relationships allowing the analysis of multitude of hypotheses simultaneously as a whole (Werner and Schermelleh-Engel, 2009).
+SEM typically consists of two parts, which are the measurement and the structural model (Kline, 1998).
+The measurement model presents the measurement of hypothetical constructs in terms of observed variables.
+The structural model specifies the causal relationships among the latent variables (Byrne, 2012).
+A structural model is composed by the definition of the relationships among the latent variables and by the specification of the measurement method of latent variables.
+SEM also necessitates testing of the validity of the hypothesized constructs.
+Validity is simply defined as the extent to which the construct is measured by its instruments.
+In a structural equation model, there are two types of validity that must be achieved.
+Construct validity refers to the “degree of agreement of indicators hypothesized to measure a construct and the distinction between those indicators and indicators of a different construct” (Chen and Fong, 2012).
+The achievement of construction validity is essential for the reliable model testing.
+Content validity refers to the degree to which the construct is represented by its indicators in its domain (Dunn et al., 1994).
+Content validity must be also achieved for reliable model testing.
+The questionnaire collected data regarding the level of success achieved for each component.
+Fig. 3 presents the ratings for each component of integration management.
+Abbreviations were used for each component (I1 = Development of Project Charter, I2 =Knowledge Integration, I3 = Process Integration, I4 = Staff Integration, I5 = Supply Chain Integration, I6 = Integration of Changes) and ratings are presented accordingly.
+According to Fig. 3, it can be seen that all components are rated around 3.5 and Cronbach's alpha value is calculated as 0.896, which proves the reliability of the components in terms of explaining its construct.
+Fig. 4 presents the ratings for each component of project management performance.
+Abbreviations were used for each component (P1 = Time, P2 = Cost, P3 = Quality, P4 = Safety, P5 = Client Satisfaction) and ratings are presented accordingly.
+According to Fig. 4, it is seen that firms are more successful in achieving “quality” in their projects.
+It is also shown that firms satisfy “safety” objectives as well as “time”.
+Since there is no formal statistical test for content validity, researcher judgment and insight is applied in this study (Garver and Mentzer, 1999).
+An in-depth literature review was conducted to derive the indicators of each construct.
+With the contribution of two industry practitioners (one board member, one project manager) and three university professors, who took
+Ratings for components of project integration management.
+Distribution of components of project management performance.
+part in the pilot studies for establishing the content validity of the constructs, the indicators were revised.
+The components omitted for the project integration management construct were:
+information integration, scope integration, customer integration, and integration of project updates.
+After having in-depth interviews with industry experts, university professors and based on subjective judgment, some of the components were embedded in the other components since they were thought to be repetitive for deciding on the core components.
+For example, information integration is evaluated part of the knowledge integration by considering knowledge integration as a core component of integration management.
+Similarly, scope integration and integration of project updates are evaluated part of integration of changes since those represent the plan updates and changes in scope.
+Customer integration is addressed in the context supply chain integration having a dominant role in supply chain processes.
+Risk and scope were also selected as performance indicators in the first components matrix but these two components were omitted since performance more relies on meeting cost, schedule, quality, and safety objectives along with customer satisfaction.
+These two components were omitted after taking expert opinions and in-depth literature review.
+Construct validity involves convergent validity, discriminant validity, and reliability.
+Convergent validity tests whether the items measuring a latent variable form a single latent variable.
+Convergent validity is assessed by the examination of factor loadings and goodness of fit indices.
+Discriminant validity investigates whether two measures differ statistically in terms of indicating a construct as opposed to the convergent validity.
+Discriminant validity is assessed by the evaluation of intercorrelations between the measures of a construct (Byrne, 2012).
+Examination of factor loadings is essential in confirmatory factor analysis for deleting the statistically insignificant indicators from the model.
+This operation helps to improve the internal reliability and fit indices as well.
+Table1presentsthefactorloadingsforthelatentandconstituent variables of the model.
+Factor loadings for each factor prove that the all factors are well represented by their variables.
+Slight differences were observed for the two factors' variables depending on their placements on factors.
+For instance, client satisfaction (factor loading:
+0.983) had stronger association with project management performance than cost (0.729) and safety
+Latent and constituent variables of the model.
+Factor loadings
+Knowledge integration
+Process integration
+Supply chain integration
+Integration of changes
+Project management performance
+(0.755), which were also found as valid indicators.
+A similar evaluation criterion was applied for both two factors and it was concluded that the variables for each factor were all found as valid indicators although they have slightly different placements on their representing factors.
+This leads to the conclusion that components selected for each construct were valid indicators and best represent their construct.
+This may be interpreted as a solid model involving valid indicators.
+Table 2 represents the reliability values and fit indices for the constructs of the framework.
+Reliability is traditionally defined as the internal consistency of the constructs.
+Reliability refers to the magnitude of direct relations with the measure for which the reliability is assessed excluding the error terms in a structural model(Bollen,1989).Thereliabilitytestis assessedby Cronbach's ‘α’ coefficient in this study.
+Constructs' reliability is satisfied when Cronbach's ‘α’ coefficient exceeds 0.7 for all the constructs (Nunnally, 1978).
+Given the results of reliability analysis, it is concluded that constructs of integration management and project management performance are consistent.
+Chi-square test was performed to test goodness of fit.
+In SEM, Chi-square (χ2) is used to detect any significant difference between the actual and predicted matrices.
+The smaller the χ2 value, the better fit is observed.
+In AMOS, a ratio of χ2/df (degree of freedom) is proposed as a fit measure.
+Although there is no agreed consensus on χ2/df value, a ratio lower than 5.0 is an acceptable range (Marsh and Hocevar, 1985).
+In the analysis of the model, a ratio of χ2/df was achieved as 2.808 and 2.901 for integration management and project management performance constructs, respectively.
+This concludes that the data shows a good fit to the model.
+Reliability and fit indices for the constructs of the model.
+Project management performance framework with path coefficients.
+Relative fit index (RFI) (Bollen, 1986), Comparative fit index (CFI) (Bentler, 1990), and Tucker-Lewis index (TLI) (Tucker and Lewis, 1973) are measures for comparing the proposed model to the null or independence model.
+The values of those indices lie between 0 and 1.0 where values approaching 1.0 indicate good fit.
+The root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) (Steiger and Lind, 1980) is a parsimony-adjusted index, which includes a built-in correction for model complexity.
+A threshold value of RMSEA was previously proposed by the researchers indicating that the values b0.10 show acceptable fit (Kline, 1998).
+Table 2 proves that the reliability of all constructs meets Nunnally's (1978) recommendation since all Cronbach's ‘α’ values are above 0.7.
+It is shown that all fit indices are the acceptable ranges indicating that the measurement model shows a good fit to the data.
+Finally, it is demonstrated that all values for RMSEA of all constructs are below the threshold value proving acceptable fit for the data to the model.
+SEM tests the hypotheses between the validated constructs.
+In this respect, the relationship between integration and performance was investigated.
+Fig. 5 presents the hypothesized relationships with path coefficients.
+In Fig. 5, project integration management and project management performance are exogenous variables where project charter, knowledge integration, supply chain integration are endogenous variables.
+In addition, project size and project type are control variables in the system.
+The arrows represent the direction of influence between the parameters of the framework where the numbers on the arrows show the path coefficients.
+Path coefficients are the equivalents of regression weights except that there is no intercept term in SEM.
+An interpretation guideline adopted from Murari (2015) is used for evaluating the strength of association between variables where the path coefficient ranging from 0.1 to 0.3 shows weak association;
+0.3 to 0.5 (moderate), and 0.5 to 1.0
+The findings of the study reveal the strong effect of integration management on project management performance (0.638).
+Moreover, the effect of project type on integration and performance was found to be very weak, respectively (0.03;
+0.02) Similarly, weak effect of project type on integration and performance was observed, respectively (0.06;
+Table 3 presents the reliability values and fit indices for the model.
+Although there has not been a consensus on the threshold values of fit indices and some authors adopted a threshold value of 0.95 for most of the indices in SEM (Schreiber et al., 2006;
+Lei and Wu, 2007), the authors adopted the threshold values recommended by the pioneers of SEM.
+Cronbach's ‘α’ values were found higher than 0.7 as recommended by Nunnally (1978).
+RFI, CFI, and TLI values were also found around 0.9, which indicates good fit of the model to the data.
+Furthermore, RMSEA values were found to be below the threshold value as recommended by (Kline, 1998).
+In the initial step, 131 responses were collected.
+However, responses having missing data or outliers were excluded from the analysis resulting in a response number of 121.
+Normality check was also assessed and the data was found to be normally distributed.
+Finally, the correlation matrices were calculated for all constructs and the intercorrelations were all found below 0.90, which indicated that there is no multicollinearity (Hair et al., 1998) (See Appendix A).
+Reliability and fit indices.
+0 (no fit) to 1 (perfect fit)
+0 (no fit) to 1 (perfect fit)
+0 (no fit) to 1 (perfect fit)
+This evidences that the fit between the initial and final models and the data is quite satisfactory.
+The hypothesis regarding the relation between integration and performance was validated.
+This reveals the strong interaction between integration and performance.
+Integration is one of the most important components of successful project execution.
+Hence, the construction industry is still in great need of well-set practices and strategies.
+This study enlightens the critical role of integration management and poses its clear link with project management performance.
+Based on the clear link between integration management and project management performance, it is worth discussing the impact of individual components of integration management on project management performance.
+• Development of Project Charter:
+Project charter is the document that authorizes the start of a project.
+Therefore, it is critical to have the approval of the project charter on a timely manner.
+Provided with a high factor loading (0.737), project charter is undoubtedly one of the most important components of integration management affecting project success.
+PMI (2013) also implies the functionality of project charter in terms of describing project manager's authority.
+Considering the role of project managers in project management performance, one might conclude that projects managers are likely to achieve highersuccessinmanagingprojectswhereasolidprojectcharter exists including clear and proper description of authorities.
+• Knowledge Integration:
+Knowledge exchange among stakeholders and project parties is crucial in terms of project success.
+Heising (2012) also emphasizes that knowledge integration and ideation is essential in sustainable success.
+Several research studies mentioned the essential role of knowledge integration in project management performance (Schmickl and Kieser, 2008;
+Ritala and Hurmelinna-Laukkanen, 2009;
+Song and Song, 2010;
+Un et al., 2010;
+Brettel et al., 2011;
+Enberg, 2012;
+Too, 2012).
+Provided with a high factor loading (0.813), knowledge integration is concluded as a strong indicator of integration management.
+This leads to conclude that firms achieving success in knowledge integration have potential to perform better in their projects.
+• Process Integration:
+Organized sequence of project activities and logical relationships within processes frame process integration.
+Process integration may foster value creation when synthesized with human and task integration (Birkinshaw et al., 2000).
+The role of process integration in project management performance was also highlighted by several studies (Wheelwright and Clark, 1992;
+Enberg, 2012;
+Kleinschmidt et al., 2007).
+Provided with a high factor loading (0.851), process integration is dominant in terms of explaining integration management.
+It is undeniable that firms implementing effective process integration activities are likely to achieve better performance in their projects.
+One might not discard the essential role of process integration in increased success.
+• Staff Integration:
+Project staff constitutes an important place in project management success.
+Therefore, integration of project staff, collaboration and coordination among them affect project management activities.
+It is reported that integration increases team work effectiveness (Egan, 2002).
+Therefore, composition of effectively working teams has a positive impact on project management performance.
+Reported with a high factor loading (0.686), staff integration should be addressed properly in terms experiencing higher levels of success.
+The necessity of staff integration as part of project management is underlined in several studies (Carmeli and Meyrav, 2009;
+Zajac, 2009;
+Jonas, 2010;
+Enberg, 2012;
+Tiller, 2012).
+• SupplyChainIntegration:
+Supply chain isin the critical chain of construction activities in terms of successful execution of projects.
+Its impact on project management is revealed in several studies (Griffin and Hauser, 1996;
+Gruner and Homburg, 2000;
+Henard and Szymanski, 2001).
+Provided with a high factor loading (0.708), supply chain integration is one of the core elements of integration management.
+The revealed link between integration and performance makes supply chain integration as one of the most important components to be addressed when firms desire to achieve higher rates of success.
+• Integration of Changes:
+Changes might create uncertainties in project management.
+Thus, timely handling of changes is essential to the success of a project.
+Integration of changes covers activities such as review and evaluation of change requests, modifications, and updates in project management plan.
+Research studies underlined that integration of changes is of utmost importance to experience better performance in managing projects (Hassner-Nahmias and Crawford, 2008;
+Cummings and Worley, 2009;
+Soderlund, 2010).
+Reported with a high factor loading (0.763), integration of changes becomes essential in integration management.
+This might be interpreted as firms should carefully address integration of changes when higher rates of success is desired.
+According to data presented in this study, majority of the responding firms indicated that they perform very well in “staff integration” in their projects.
+Secondly, firms reported that they successfully handle with the “integration of changes” to perform well in project integration management.
+The high ratings for “supply chain integration”, “knowledge integration”, “process integration” and “development of project charter” prove that firms perform well in the achievement of those components for the project success.
+Previous studies also reported that high performance in the realization of integration management functions such as process integration, knowledge integration, and supply chain integration are keys to achieve project success (Ernst et al., 2010;
+Heising, 2012;
+Kleinschmidt et al., 2007).
+Several research studies also prove that safely completed work and on time completion are the most important project success indicators (Khosravi and Afshari, 2011;
+Chan et al., 2002).
+Firms provided that they mostly achieve “client satisfaction” and “cost” objectives in their projects.
+The importance of satisfying the client and completing the project under budget in terms of projectsuccess was previously shown in several studies (Shields et al., 2003;
+Nassar and Abourizk, 2014).
+The importance of the components made strategies to follow even more important when managing construction project.
+Based on the findings of this study, it is clear that integration management has a positive and strong impact on project management performance.
+The questionnaire results also indicated that responding firms that are successful in operating integration management activities experienced higher levels of success.
+To operationalize the components of integration and to provide solutions for better managing projects in terms of stages of construction, Table 4 proposes several tools/strategies for each phaseina constructionproject.The toolsandstrategiesproposedin the table are expected to explain the roadmap for achieving higher rates of success in relation with integration components.
+• Change and Issue Management:
+Changes in projects might have both direct and indirect and impact on cost, scheduling and duration of the projects (Ibbs et al., 2001).
+Hence, dealing with changes in a construction project is critical to achieve higher success.
+Bronn and Bronn (2002) indicate that issue management is critical to have a solid foundation in strategic management.
+They mention that issue management concentrates on identifying and understanding the forces in a firm's environment.
+Therefore, issue management is also recommended as a strategy to experience improved performance.
+• Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP):
+ERP systems are the software tools for managing the enterprise's data and serve as information providing tools when needed (Ragowsky and Somers, 2002).
+ERP systems also provide support for key business processes (Kurbel, 2010).
+Thus, those systems are effective in the integration activities in business processes ensuring that the information is delivered to the people when they need it.
+Companies are advised to use such systems to experience improved performance.
+• Building Information Modeling (BIM):
+BIM is a “set of a set of interacting policies, processes and technologies generating a methodology to manage the essential building design and project data in digital format throughout the building's life-cycle” (Penttila, 2006).
+Kimmance (2002) implies that there is a considerable need for a BIM framework to serve as an integration of product and process modeling tool.
+Azhar (2011) states that BIM help to integrate the roles of stakeholders on a project.
+Several researchers also imply the integrative feature of BIM between graphical and non-graphical data for different
+Construction
+∙Implementation of Last
+∙Adopting lean principles
+∙Project based knowledge management systems
+∙Use of project based knowledge management systems ∙Change management
+Strategies/tools for construction phases.
+construction business functions (Jung and Gibson, 1999;
+Sanvido and Medeiros, 1990;
+Teicholz and Fischer, 1994).
+• Lean Project Delivery (LPD):
+LPD system is developed as “a set of interdependent functions (the systems level), rules for decision making, procedures for execution of functions, and as implementation aids and tools, including software when appropriate”.
+LPD system proposes that project delivery team provides what the customer wants but more importantly guides the customer decide what they want. (Ballard, 2008).
+It is ascertained that project organization is one of the core components of project delivery systems, and fragmented traditional project organizations experience waste, increased cost and time (CMAA, 2010).
+Hence, research studies suggest that the construction industry need to adopt more collaborative and integrated approaches to overcome those problems (Egan, 1998;
+Mitropoulos and Tatum, 2000;
+Fairclough, 2002).
+LPDS serves as a well-structured strategy to deliver more value to the customer while minimizing waste.
+The term just-in-time hence constitutes a critical role ensuring the supply of materials at the right time and in the right amount (Tommelein and Li, 1999).
+Last Planner System (LPS) is also developed to provide cost and schedule benefits and enables morestabilizedprojectbasedproductionsystems.Alarcon(2001) indicated that implementing LPS on a construction project provided considerable budget and productivity improvements.
+• Integrated Project Delivery (IPD):
+IPD system aims at improving project outcomes by adopting a collaborative approach, which aligns the incentives and goals of the project team through shared risk and reward and early involvement of all parties.
+Well-defined contractual relationships, early definition of project goals and early team formation are indicated to be the most important factors in IPD success in addition to the clearly defined work scope, roles, relationships, and responsibilities (Kent and Becerik-Gerber, 2010).
+Thus, IPD is aligned with the elements of successful integration processes.
+• Agile management:
+Agility is defined as “market knowledge and a virtual corporation to exploit the profitable opportunities in a volatile marketplace” (Naylor et al., 1999).
+Christopher (2000) listed a set of characteristics, which makes a supply chain truly agile.
+Those characteristics include market sensitivity, creating virtual supply chains, and process integration and networks.
+Weber and Wild (2005) indicated that the integration of workflow management and conversational case-based reasoning are crucial to achieve agility in workflow management systems.
+Hence, agility brings up the need for effectively integrated systems and approaches.
+During the conception phase, companies are recommended to use change and issue management as a strategy to handle changes in a project and make ready processes for change control.
+Since construction projects are fragmented, several issues might arise with project parties.
+Thus, issue management is critical to handle potential problems with suppliers, material shortages, technical failures and staff.
+The planning phase is one of the most critical phases of construction projects (Laufer and Tucker, 1987;
+Chua et al., 1999;
+Frimpong et al., 2003).
+Construction companies mostly struggle with on-time and under-budget completion.
+Therefore, it is recommended that companies implement the Last Planner System, which ensures the delivery of projects more safely, faster or at reduced cost.
+Within this context, adopting lean principles are worth being mentioned since they aim at minimizing waste while maximizing value to the customer.
+Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) systems are also effective in planning and design phase since they make the workflow tracking easier across various departments.
+They also enable better and faster collaboration among all departments.
+Jarrar et al. (2000) presented several case studies regarding the implementation of ERP by different companies.
+According to the results provided in the study, ERP implementation resulted in annual savings, productivity improvement, cost reduction, and achieved integration between processes, which in turn lead to improved project performance.
+During the construction phase, companies are advised to use building information modeling (BIM) tools to visualize the construction and resolving conflicts by improving communication.
+The impact of BIM on project success has already been assessed in different projects.
+For example, Howell and Batcheler (2005) have provided evidence for benefits of using BIM in The Bart's and The London Hospital project.
+They mentioned that project team's success was apparent in adopting a model-based design process and generating coordinated documents using a BIM approach during construction, which led to enhanced project performance.
+On the other hand, development of project-based systems is another important approach since construction projects are unique in nature.
+Evaluation of construction projects in terms of their specific attributes provides a more effective system of workflow and control.
+Moreover, the use of agile concepts in construction execution deserves special emphasis since it allows customer collaboration, contractors' rapid response to changes at job sites and improves overall project responsiveness to change.
+Just-in-Time (JIT) delivery isproposedasastrategytoincreaseefficiencyandtodecreasewaste.
+During the operation and maintenance phase, use of BIM tools and project-based knowledge management systems provide advantages to better coordinate operation and maintenance activities.
+In close-out phase, companies are advised to adopt change management principles to reduce the impact of severe changes.
+Following the strategies provided in this study and evidence from the real cases, it is apparent that firms may enhance their performance in integration management with the adoption of proper strategies.
+However, one should note that these strategies proposed are conceptual and require further research to deepen their theoretical and empirical foundation.
+Therefore, future work is encouraged with cases from construction projects, where the strategies proposed are applied to best reflect their impact on project success rates.
+This study investigates the relation between integration management and project management performance.
+In this perspective, a set of construction-specific components were proposed for integration and performance constructs.
+Data was collected from 121 projects through a questionnaire survey.
+SEM was used to validate the framework and test the hypothesis of a possible relation between integration and performance in addition to the potential impact of better integration management on improved project management performance.
+Findings of the study reveal that integration management has a considerable impact on project management performance, and it is suggested that this link is of considerable strength.
+When past studies are examined for the exposition of this link, it is indicated that there is a gap in the literature and the impact of integration management needs special emphasis.
+Hence, this study demonstrates the core component of integration management with its construction specific components and clearly visualizes the strong tie between integration and performance.
+Based on the findings of this study, several activities, tools, and strategies are listed based on the construction projects' phases.
+With respect to the strong influence of integration management on the project management performance, it is essential that project managers effectively coordinate the processes and relevant parties.
+Some of the dominating strategies during construction phase are listed as use of IPDS, BIM tools, LPD, JIT delivery, and ERP and agile management.
+The proposed project management performance framework could be used by project managers in the construction industry to devise and implement effective strategies.
+It could be used to ensure project success prior to the start of a project, as well as a post project evaluation tool upon the completion of a project.
+The main limitations of this study are that the data was collected from Turkish companies and it reflects their experiences and opinions, and the proposed strategies are recommended based on their needs.
+In this respect, data from different projects undertaken by different companies might result in varying findings.
+In addition, the research also has some limitations in that some of the performance measures are subjective measures, which were identified based on an extensive literature review and expert opinions.
+Different measures might affect the results of the study.
+Information regarding procurement methods of the project was not gathered in the questionnaire.
+Therefore, this appears as another limitation of the study since different procurement methods might affect integration management and in turn project management activities.
+However, considering the high volume of Turkish contractors in domestic and overseas projects and the fact that the data collected belongs to high scale projects around the world, one might conclude that the results are generalizable and proposed strategies might be adopted by international contractors as well.
+The proposed framework could easily be used in other studies dealing with the construction sector and the findings may be used for comparison.
+Similar frameworks having different components could also be developed for other project-based industries.
+Moreover, new frameworks that analyze integration at the company and portfolio level would be very effective to compare the results of this study.
+One may comment on the results without
+Appendix A. Descriptive statistics
+bias in case more frameworks are available including different components to assess integration management.
+This paper is produced based on a research project funded by Bogazici University Research Fund (BAP) under the grant number 9180.
+General information about the company, respondent and the project
+Project management performance framework
+Very high 5
+Effectiveness of knowledge ıntegration
+Efficiency of process ıntegration
+Effectiveness of staff ıntegration
+Effectiveness of supply chain ıntegration
+Effectiveness of ıncorporation of changes
+Performance indicators of Turkish construction companies
+Extent ıt ıs realızed by the company
+Low 2	Medium 3
+Very high 5
+Project management performance	Complete the project within schedule
+Complete the project within budget
+Achieve required safety
+Satisfy the client
+Correlations
+Pearson correlation	1
+Pearson correlation	0.706⁎⁎
+Pearson correlation	0.652⁎⁎
+Pearson correlation	0.465⁎⁎
+Sig. (2-tailed)	0.000
+Pearson correlation	0.448⁎⁎
+Pearson correlation	0.553⁎⁎
+Correlations
+Performance1
+Performance2
+Performance3
+Performance4
+Performance5
+Performance1
+Pearson correlation
+Performance2
+Pearson correlation
+Performance3
+Pearson correlation
+Performance4
+Pearson correlation
+Correlations
+Performance1
+Performance2
+Performance3
+Performance4
+Performance5
+Performance5
+Pearson correlation
+⁎⁎ Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

cleaned_papers/cleaned_papers_without_ref/1-s2.0-S026378639800060X-main.txt

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+	International Journal of Project Management 18 (2000) 51±59
+Avoiding construction claims and disputes requires an understanding of the contractual terms and causes of claims.
+The dual underlying theme of this paper is to investigate the causes of delays on 130 public projects in Jordan and to aid construction managers in establishing adequate evaluation prior to the contract award using quantitative data.
+Projects investigated in this study included residential, oce and administration buildings, school buildings, medical centers and communication facilities.
+Results of this study indicates the main causes of delay in construction of public projects relate to designers, user changes, weather, site conditions, late deliveries, economic conditions and increase in quantity.
+The presence of these factors have an impact on the successful completion of the projects at the time contractually speci®ed.
+The ®ndings suggest that special attention to factors identi®ed in this study will help industry practitioners in minimising the risk of contract disputes. # 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd and IPMA. All rights reserved.
+Construction management;
+Project planning;
+Construction delay;
+Introduction
+A vital section speci®ed in the construction contract is the performance period or time of project execution, which is established prior to bidding.
+The successful execution of construction projects and keeping them within estimated cost and the prescribed schedules depend on a methodology that requires sound engineering judgment.[1] The construction sector is one of the vital sectors in the development process of Jordan.
+The government contributes to the development of the construction industry in several ways.
+However, there are limitations and even draw backs to these e€orts.
+The time required to complete construction of public projects is frequently greater than the time speci®ed in the contract.
+These `overruns' or time extensions are granted for many reasons, such as designer changes or errors, user changes, weather and late deliveries.
+Current construction projects are complex e€orts requiring the support of the design and construction profession.
+Therefore, a realistic time for project execution will decrease the possibility of disputes between state agency and the contractors.
+Previous work
+A great deal of information concerned with project delay and overruns may be found in the literature.
+The increased interest in construction overruns is due, in part, to e€orts by the government to reduce construction delays.
+There has been a considerable and continued interest in the e€ect of construction delays.
+The information available is diverse and widespread.
+Many construction management books[2±6] have minimum coverage on construction delays.
+Al-Momani[7] describe the various elements of cost upon individual public projects but does not deal speci®cally with construction delays.
+Assaf and Al-khalil[8] outline the main causes of delay in large building projects and their relative importance.
+They found that 56 causes of delay exist in Saudi construction projects.
+According to the contractors surveyed the most important delay factors were preparation and approval of shop drawings, delays in contractor's progress, payment by owners and design changes.
+The architects and engineers view were cash problems during construction, the relationship between subcontractors and the slow decision making process
+0263-7863/99/$20.00 # 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd and IPMA. All rights reserved.
+Summary of project information
+Classi®cation Poor Change Weather Site Late Economic Increase in design orders condition delivery condition quantity
+of the owner.
+The owners agree that the design errors, labor shortages and inadequate labor skills are important delay factors.
+Hancher and Rowings,[1] for example, provide a concise summary of the methodologies used by transportation agencies to establish the contract duration used for highway construction projects, and also provides a schedule guide for ®eld engineers during construction.
+Similarly, Chalabi and Camp[10] conducted a review on project delays in developing countries during planning and construction stages.
+In their study they found that the delay and cost overruns of construction projects are dependent entirely on the very early stages of the project.
+Fereig and Qaddumi[11] in their study on the construction experience of the Arabian Gulf demonstrate the various components of the planning, controlling and productivity on construction delay.
+Their primary purpose is to alert the reader to the deviation from the project plans.
+Wilson[9] examined the role of the owner and architect/engineer's roles in the prevention and resolution of construction claims.
+Wilson also summarised the causes of construction claims which include:
+extra work, project delays and acceleration, lack of management, limited site access and change in work schedule.
+Despite the necessity for such research, little work has been described in the literature concerning public projects, specially in Jordan.
+The previously proposed factors contributing to construction delay were frequently observed in public projects.
+The actual frequency and magnitude of these factors is not known, which has proven to be a serious and very expensive problem to Jordan's construction industry.
+Research design and objectives
+The objective of this study is to determine the causes and the level of time extension of public projects and to aid construction managers in establishing adequate evaluation prior to the contract award using quantitative data.
+The key task is to design research so that the information obtained permits the assessment of their impact.
+Therefore, the best approach to assessing these potentials is to adopt randomly selected samples.
+The sampling population was established by selecting 130 public projects constructed in di€erent regions of Jordan during the period of 1990±97.
+The data was found in contract ®les of several state agencies.
+Data collected were of 5 kinds of public projects:
+residential houses of public ®gures, oce and administrative buildings, school buildings, medical centers and communication facilities.
+The performance and construction of these projects were recognised as being unsatisfactory to many ocials, and assented to the study in order to have hard evidence as to the nature of the problems.
+This study will summarise the results of this research based on actual construction times experienced by public projects.
+The data collection was to investigate the reasons related to construction delay and overruns:
+Planned duration of contract;
+Descriptive statistics of the public projects
+Number of Duration
+Planned	Actual
+Oce and administrative buildings 34
+School buildings
+Communication facilities
+Scatter plot of actual time Y versus planned time X for general model of public projects.
+Noti®cation of extra work;
+Date of notice to proceed;
+Delay encountered during construction;
+Con¯ict of the drawings and speci®cations;
+The data were entered into Excel 5 where all analysis and diagrams were developed.
+The ®rst step was to explore the parameters as to causes of delay.
+To this e€ect, parameters were de®ned and constructed in Table 1 for public projects.
+These restrictions create a sample with 130 projects.
+The table provide frequencies for each parameter in ®ve di€erent construction categories.
+Many projects were delayed for many reasons.
+All extensions to the planned schedule were considered as delays.
+The major causes identi®ed were:
+poor design, change orders, weather, site conditions, late delivery, economic conditions and increase in quantity.
+A breakdown of the projects by these parameters is graphically illustrated in Fig. 1.
+The overall delays were in 106 out of 130 (81.5%) projects.
+The main causes for delays were poor design in 32 projects (24.6%), while the second cause was the change orders in 20 projects (15.4%).
+The site conditions and the economic conditions were the least cause of delay and were found in 8 projects.
+Planned and actual duration
+Scatter plot of actual time versus planned time of the housing model.
+The mean actual duration for all public projects was 426.6 days, and a standard deviation of 137 days.
+While the planned duration for the same projects was 343.1 days in mean, with a standard deviation of 137.4 days.
+The mean, maximum, minimum and standard deviation for the planned and actual time were computed as shown in Table 2 for ®ve project classi®cations.
+It can be noticed that the actual time for each type of project vary considerably.
+This is illustrated by large di€erences between the means of the planned and actual times and the high values of standard deviation.
+For instance, the mean planned time for school buildings varied from 395.4 days to an actual of 467.5 days, while the oce and adminstrative buildings varied from 354.6 planned days to 442.2 actual days.
+The implication is therefore, that on average during the sample period, the planned and actual duration was upward sloping.
+Standard deviation are reported which suggest that the variance of the actual time is considerably greater than that of the planned time, with the variance of the actual time being approximately 29 444.67 days and the variance of the planned time being approximately 18 894 days.
+A mathematical structure was studied by di€erent functions that ®ts the data, which indicated that the simple linear regression appears to be appropriate for this type of problem.
+The speci®cation of our model is determined by one independent variable which signi®cantly explained variations in the response variable.
+Correlation coecients were used for screening the variables.
+Several statistical tests were conducted.
+Each of these was performed at 99% con®dence level.
+It was assumed that both the actual and planned times distributions were normal and independently distributed.
+Tests and results
+Simple linear regression develops an equation that describes the relationship between two variables.
+In this case the equation takes the form of:
+In this model Y is the dependent variable, the parameters, b0 and b1 are the coecients which are unknown and are to be estimated.
+X is the independent variable, and e is a random error which is the amount of variation in Y not accounted for by the linear relationship.
+The theoretical models are derived and explained in the following.
+For a comparison of the actual and planned time distribution, the equation developed for overall public projects is:
+Scatter plot of actual time versus planned time of the oce building model.
+The correlation coecient for this relationship is 0.80 indicating that the distribution of planned time mirrors the actual time with a high degree of accuracy.
+The calculated F is 231.25, the higher absolute value of the F-statistics reported may re¯ect the observation that are powerful predictors of the measured data.
+Therefore, true linearity exists in the developed model.
+Comparing sample means to test the agreement between the two distribution was employed.
+In this case the t-statistic is 9.28 which is much larger than tvalue of 1.97, giving further proof of the agreement between the two distributions.
+The general model is valuable in that it provides a universal model of phenomena and would primarily be of interest to construction ocials.
+The predictive equation has been developed as an aggregate model for actual construction time of a public projects.
+In this setting, more speci®c models such as Eqs. (2)±(6) were developed, which exhibited a reasonable ®t to the data.
+Figures 2±7 give a graphical view of how well the charts relate the actual time by project type to the planned time.
+Speci®c models are preferable and would be of particular interest to construction managers and practitioners rather than selection of the general model.
+The ®tted equations are as follows:
+Oce and administration building
+School projects
+Scatter plot of actual time versus planned time of the school buildings model.
+The regression coecients are all signi®cantly di€erent from zero and the expected sign and relationship between the variables is linear.
+Each of the tests conducted proved that, the developed equations are statistically signi®cant at the 99% level as indicated by the t-values and appear to explain a high per cent of the variability and able to predict changes in the actual time.
+Other relevant regression statistics are shown below the estimates.
+Overall, the explanatory power ofthe estimated equations are reasonable, given that the R2 for Eq. (1) through Eq. (6) are of a acceptable value and the corresponding F-ratios indicate very good model identi®cations and satisfy the diagnostic criteria.
+These equations can be used by engineers, planners and construction managers working in governmental agencies to estimate the actual time for construction before awarding contract.
+Limitation and suggestion for further research
+Scatter plot of actual time versus planned time of the medical centers model.
+While this study is among the ®rst to provide a full test of cause and determinants of construction delay, it is not without limitations.
+Several shortcomings in the data can be identi®ed such as the actual cost of construction and construction experience of the contractors.
+The inclusion of the construction experience of the contractors as a predictor within the model underlines the importance of this extension of the analysis into the internal information of the ®rms.
+But this factor can be introduced only when the focus of study is moved from the construction industry to the construction ®rms.
+Such change of focus is not without diculties.
+The collection of the company speci®c data is costly compared with that of publicly available data.
+However, the quality of future studies concerning company speci®c data and managerial perceptions are largely dependent on the nature of the data that is available for analysis.
+The future emphasis should be placed on the collection of the appropriate information and this will be the subject of an additional paper.
+Projectsinvestigated in this study exhibit a delay.
+In practice, this phenomena is expected to continue unless management actions are taken to control these causes within the planned element of the design and construction works.
+Thus good practice in planning, coordination, and the change of the control procedures of the public institutions needs to be recognised and the implications understood.
+The model still appears tenable, then it may be applied broadly for guidance and for planning further work and will prove bene®cial in future projects.
+Construction delay and overrun is a critical function in construction of public projects.
+It has been of great interest to construction researchers but has not been well understood in the case of public building projects.
+A survey of 130 projects indicated that poor design and negligence of the owner, change orders, weather condition, site condition, late delivery, economic conditions, and increase in quantities are the main causes of delay.
+In line with the reviewed research, the present investigation provides con®rmation of the e€ect of de®ned parameters on construction delays.
+Scatter plot of actual time versus planned time of the communication facilities model.
+Practically oriented research is vital for proper management of construction projects.
+Reliable prediction of construction duration, and then controlling cost within budget is widely used in decision making and is an essential part of successful management.
+To test this hypothesis, a simple linear model was used to estimate the relationship between the actual and planned time.
+The major implication of the foregoing have important rami®cations for understanding the actual time of public projects.
+This has been repeatedly stated to the outstanding need of construction in Jordan.
+The relations obtained have the advantage of relying upon the statistical treatment of real data and could without doubt be improved by considering a larger sample of projects.
+The researcher believes that the arguments and ®ndings presented in this study provide a good guidance for managerial intervention, and provide some guidelines and actionable information that managers can utilize to manage their projects.

cleaned_papers/cleaned_papers_without_ref/1-s2.0-S0301479709003338-main.txt

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+Factors affecting the implementation of green specifications in construction
+a Department of Building & Real Estate, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong b Department of Civil & Structural Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong c Department of Building Services Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong
+Article history:
+Received 29 January 2009
+Received in revised form
+Accepted 21 September 2009 Available online 22 October 2009
+Specifications
+Green specifications constitute one of the important elements in green construction.
+New sustainability requirements and changing priorities in construction management have spurred the emerging green specifications to a faster pace of development.
+A cross-sectional survey has been conducted in Hong Kong in 2007 to identify principal factors leading to the success of preparing green specifications.
+Based on extensive construction management literature, 20 variables concerning sustainable construction were summarized.
+Using the Mann–Whitney U-test, the subtle differences between stakeholders in specifying construction work have been detected even with the high consistency of the responses among the groups.
+Moreover, five independent factors for successful specification of green construction have been categorized by factor analysis.
+They are related to (1) green technology and techniques, (2) reliability and quality of specification, (3) leadership and responsibility, (4) stakeholder involvement, and (5) guide and benchmarking systems.
+Whilst the first and fourth factors are generally more important, different stakeholder groups have different emphases.
+The results of the survey have been validated against established principles.
+2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
+Introduction
+The building industry consumes one-half of the world’s physical resources (RCA website).
+According to data published by the United Nations Environment Programme, the building sector accounts for 30–40% of global energy use (UNEP, 2007).
+Yet, the lucrative investment returns brought about by property development prompt developers to build in anticipation of demands as a global business.
+Spurred by the ever-rising needs for infrastructure and leisure, construction activities are changing land forms quickly.
+Natural resources are being depleted at a rate faster than their replenishment, hence giving rise to an outcry for sustainable development.
+Many governments are taking a regulatory stance in trying to curb direct environmental pollution, but non-statutory means can be an effective supplement to achieve sustainable construction since most organizations prefer to have room for flexibility in their business operation.
+Increasingly, designers produce building designs which are environmentally friendly and voluntary assessment schemes (such as BREEAM and LEED) are deployed to verify that their claims are well made.
+At the contract
+* Corresponding author.
+þ852 27665799;
+þ852 27645131.
+E-mail address:
+[email protected] (P.T.I. Lam).
+0301-4797/$ – see front matter  2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
+level, apart from drawn information, client requirements used to be made explicit through specifications, both in the public and private sectors.
+The prescriptive approach of specifying has enabled the client and his consultants to stipulate materials and workmanship in accordance with environmentally friendly practice.
+The uprising trend of performance specifying as an alternative (e.g., for curtain walling) has also provided opportunities for contractors to innovate (Lam et al., 2003), but then specifiers should incorporate ‘‘green’’ requirements to achieve sustainability of construction resources.
+Yet, specifiers adopt different approaches in specifying green elements, with a varying level of competence (Lam et al., 2008).
+For example, in a survey of UK architects by the Designing for Sustainability Group in 2002, only 46% reported on having experience of specifying recycled materials (Chick and Micklethwaite, 2002).
+Apart from the variability in technical competence, the problems with existing specification practice are associated with the unclear delineation of responsibilities amongst stakeholders and the infrequent use of reliable templates (Lam et al., 2007).
+These problems have caused disputes and inconsistency of work quality in the construction process.
+When stakeholders wish to achieve sustainable construction through the use of green specifications,
+these problems must be mitigated and a lucid understanding of the factors involved in successful implementation of green specifications is essential.
+The objectives of this paper are therefore to identify the mentioned factors for better development of green specifications.
+Following a literature review on sustainable construction principles and green specifications, the results of a survey on green specification implementation factors carried out in Hong Kong are reported.
+The factors resulting from statistical analysis have been validated against established principles.
+This approach resembles that of the Grounded Theory, in that the empirical survey findings (i.e., the five factors affecting the implementation of green specifications) help to build up a green specification framework, which is a further step to be taken in the research study.
+Literature on sustainable construction and greenspecifications
+Through a comprehensive literature review, a list of twenty features (adopting the word of ‘‘attributes’’ as in social science) has been compiled as the possible factors leading to the successful implementation of green specifications.
+In accordance with the established principles of managing sustainable development (e.g., BS8900, 2006), the twenty attributes in respect of the preparation of green specifications were provisionally classified under four headings for the purpose of a subsequent questionnaire survey:
+(1) stakeholder involvement, (2) leadership and responsibility, (3) principles and techniques, as well as (4) feedback and building public confidence.
+The rationale of the classification is discussed below and the twenty attributes under four categories are shown in Appendix A.
+Following the increasing popularity of quality management systems in the construction industry in the mid-90s, a systembased approach to sustainability was proposed by Holmberg (1998), Robert (2000), Eccleston and Smythe (2002) as well as
+MacDonald (2005).
+Protocols published by the British Standards Institution emphasize the importance of identifying the roles and concerns of the stakeholders.
+Fenn et al. (1997) pointed out that incompatibility of interests amongst stakeholders caused conflicts and disputes in construction.
+Notwithstanding, Berke (2002) advocated the holistic inclusion of different interests from stakeholders and involving the public in planning.
+Incorporating the various interests of stakeholders should be extremely important for the preparation of green specifications.
+To enable stakeholder involvement, the preparation of green specifications should be carried out with top management’s directives and participation by stakeholders.
+Examples of such participation include the publication of green product directories (e.g.,  and web-based sharing of commentaries (e.g.,
+Leadership and responsibility
+The leadership and responsibility of industry stakeholders should play significant roles in the success of green specifications, in that common objectives (such as reducing energy consumption and pollution arising from construction activities) can be engendered through a decision-making process well managed by business leaders, who act as champions.
+Under social principles, Robert et al. (2002) listed standards and legislation as two of the tools for achieving sustainability.
+However, in a country as big as China, there may be a lack of practical understanding of sustainability, which prohibited the development and enforcement of legislation for sustainable construction (Sha et al., 2000).
+Using green specifications as a contractual means to address the strict requirements in evolving green standards and requirements appears to make more business sense due to the inherent flexibility of the contract mechanism to cater for individual cases.
+Swift (1999) believed that professionalism should hold paramount the welfare of the public, and avoiding conflicts of interest is an important part of professionals’ efforts to gain the trust of the public.
+Prevention of bias towards particular products or processes should be vital for specification preparation.
+Liability and uncertainty are two barriers for environmental initiatives in green specifications.
+Pollution is one of the common exclusions in professional liability insurance as listed by Rubin (1994).
+Potential liability on the detrimental effects of unconventional products as a result of specifying would affect the premium of professional liability insurance and hence the decision of specifiers on green initiatives.
+Uncertainty and risk associated with new green technology is common.
+Flanagan et al. (1987) admitted that risk is common in life cycle costing.
+Pearce and Vanegas (2002) identified that risk associated with reliability and effectiveness of a new product prevents many professionals from specifying green or sustainable building materials.
+Risk adversity is also common among clients.
+In the Barbour Report 2003, although one-third of the client respondents expected sustainability and life cycle costs to become more important, only 4% of all clients frequently specified innovative products.
+The low enthusiasm towards green specifying may be attributable to clients’ risk adversity (Barbour Index, 2004).
+Hence, reducing anxiety towards the risk associated with green specifications through a fair allocation of responsibilities should increase their use.
+Traditionally, the construction industry mainly focuses on the use of techniques for reducing pollution or increasing efficiency to meet the regulatory requirements or reduce cost.
+Mora (2007) noticed that sustainable construction can refer either to the building process or to the built object.
+Green specifications set out the building processes or the requirements of the materials resulting in the final built object serving its occupants’ needs in a sustainable manner.
+In the survey design that follows, seven attributes concerning energy saving, mitigation of environmental impacts and the use of available technologies for the successful preparation of green specifications are summarized under the heading of green technology and techniques.
+In accordance with high level directives such as those promulgated in the European Union (e.g., for Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control) or China (e.g., the eleventh Five Year Plan), a willingness to specify available advance green technology for construction purpose should be an important attribute for green specification preparation.
+Life cycle assessment with considerations of environmental impacts, energy and material flow is the main principle of most published guides for green specifications, e.g., the BRE Green Guide to specifications (Anderson and Shiers, 2002), the Guideline Specifications by GreenBuilding (2007) and the Federal Green Construction Guide for Specifiers (WBDG, 2007).
+Customized tools such as the Building for Environmental and Economic Sustainability (BEES) approach as developed by Lippiatt (1999) in the US or the Life Cycle Energy Analysis software as developed by the Electrical and Mechanical Services Department, Government of the Hong Kong Special Administration Region (EMSD, 2008) are available for construction stakeholders.
+The results of life cycle assessment may be used for costing, benchmarking and option selection.
+Considerations and knowledge on life cycle should be important fundamentals for green specifications.
+Citherlet and Defaux (2007) highlighted the importance of evaluating a building project on the total emission during construction, and they also stated that material manufacture, transport, replacement and elimination at the end of the building lifetime should be important consideration for energy consumption in its life cycle.
+The material cycle should be as vital as energy flow in green construction.
+Therefore, an understanding of the roles of energy, material selection, environmental impacts and green practices in construction should be crucial for the successful preparation of green specifications.
+Although green building performance assessment and green specifications are two different tools to promote sustainable construction, green specifications have a strong bonding to green building assessment (e.g., LEED).
+In the design stage for a new construction,theevaluationofitsspecificationsisusuallyasignificant step for many green building assessment methods, for example, CASBEE (2007) in Japan and the sustainability rating system in the Code for Sustainable Homes in the UK (DCLG, 2006).
+Following the introduction of various green building assessments in different regions based on local characteristics, many organizations providing specification service already published or are planning to develop green specifications for these green building assessments.
+For instance, the Building Research Establishment (BRE) in the UK is updating its Green Guide to Specification continuously to align with industry initiatives and building regulation changes (BRE, 2007).
+BSD SpecLinkbyBuildingSystemsDesignInc.isanautomatedprogramfor LEED submittals (Bertram, 2005), whilst the Construction SpecificationsInstitute(CSI)introducedtheGreenFormatintheUS(McCaffrey, 2006).
+Therefore, during the preparation of green specifications, the green building assessment in the region and the available model clauses for green specifications should be used as references.
+Feedback and building public confidence
+The quality of writing of specifications is directly related to the occurrence of disputes and claims in construction projects (Kululanga and Price, 2005).
+During preparation of green specifications, issues of quality and reliability of green specifications should not be ignored.
+Underwood et al. (2000) found that an enhanced building database can help the specification process as a result of closer link between suppliers and the design process.
+Vrijhoef and Koskela (2000) noted the significance of relationship between suppliers and other stakeholders in the total supply chain.
+The availability of reliable green product information and feedback from stakeholders should affect the quality of green specifications.
+Furthermore, different interpretations of specification among different stakeholders precipitate disagreements, disputes and litigation, and ambiguous words or phrases are often the focal point of disputes (Thomas et al., 1994).
+Clearly defined green characteristics for prescriptive specifications (e.g., by stating the maximum allowable content of contaminants in recycle aggregates) and verifiable green performance criteria for performance-based specifications (e.g., by stating the energy efficiency requirements of lighting installations) should be important ingredients for the preparation of green specifications.
+It is only when quality is built in and dispute minimized that public confidence will be placed on the use of green specifications.
+Survey on factors affecting the implementation of greenspecifications
+Further to the literature review informing the survey content, 652 questionnaires concerning green specifications were sent to various stakeholders in mid-February 2007 to study the attitude of the construction stakeholders in Hong Kong towards sustainable construction and green specifications.
+The distributed questionnaires were based on the results of a pilot study between December 2006 and January 2007.
+Relevant sections of the questionnaire are shown in Appendix A. The respondents were asked to indicate basic data (including their work sectors and organization nature) and rate the relative importance of 20 attributes leading to successful implementation of green specifications using the five-point Likert scales.
+By the end of May 2007, 100 questionnaires were collected, reflecting a response rate of 15%.
+The Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS 12.0 for window) was employed to analyze the information from the survey.
+The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was used to assess the reliability of the Likert scale in the survey by investigating the internal consistency of the responses among 20 attributes (refer to Appendix A for details) concerning the successful implementation of green specifications.
+The mean scores were used to establish the relative importance among attributes as perceived by the stakeholders along with the Kendall’s coefficient of concordance, which was calculated to assess the extent of agreement of ratings amongst the respondents.
+The analytical tools employed are similar to those of an empirical study on the safety management of construction workplace in China (Fang et al., 2004), which solicited the views from personnel in construction companies.
+In addition, the non-parametric Mann– Whitney U-test was used to identify the differences among various stakeholders on the attributes for the successful preparation of green specifications when the sample size for each group of stakeholders is around 20 and hence t-tests may not be applicable.
+Further to the analysis on the mean values of individual attributes, factor analysis was preformed to identify common threads linking the 20 attributes for successful implementation of green specifications.
+Kim and Mueller (1978) demonstrated that factor analysis is a suitable statistical tool for estimating the underlying factor pattern for a number of attributes which have been consolidated into a manageable set for analysis.
+Principal component analysis was used as the factor extraction method and Varimax with Kaiser Normalization was used as the rotation method.
+Before factor analysis, the Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) test was used to evaluate the sampling adequacy.
+Analysis of survey results
+In the 100 filled questionnaires, more than 75% of the respondents identified themselves with over 10-year working experience.
+Around 20% of the respondents were consultants, and around 20% of the respondents were electrical and mechanical (E&M) subcontractors.
+Both clients and contractors made up one-quarter of the respondents, and other stakeholders including building subcontractors and suppliers constituted the remaining 10% of the respondents.
+Moreover, less than 10% of the respondents claimed that more than 30% of their projects had green considerations, whilst over 50% of the respondents revealed that less than 10% of their projects had ‘‘green’’ elements.
+The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient is 0.912 (F statistic ¼ 11.781, p < 0.001) for the attributes related to the successful implementation of green specifications, showing that the five-point scale measurement should be reliable for the purpose of this study.
+Upon Mann–Whitney test, four attributes were identified as having significant differences among stakeholders and they are summarized in Table 1.
+Mean ranks and Mann–Whitney U-test results.
+Mann–Whitney U-test
+Only significant results of Mann–Whitney U-test are shown.
+Please refer to Appendix A for the detail wording of B1–B20.
+According to the mean score, attribute (B1) concerning top management’s directive for environmental protection is deemed to be the most important for the successful implementation of green specifications by the stakeholders in Hong Kong. The second and third crucial attribute are concerning the reduction of energy consumption and environmental impacts.
+Ball (2002) recognised that there would be limited power to effect the shift towards sustainability from the low hierarchy of organizations if the top management is uncommitted to environmental issues.
+In Hong Kong, Tam et al. (2006) noticed that the top management can improve the overall performance of companies and the outcomes of their projects.
+Clear directions by top management together with the adoption of technology to minimize pollution and maximize energy efficiency should be the core attributes for good specifications.
+Besides investigating the relative importance of attributes based on the mean scores, the differences in attitude among stakeholders towards the attributes were studied.
+According to the results of the Mann–Whitney U-tests as shown in Table 1, Clients and E&M subcontractors in Hong Kong attached different importance to surpassing environmental regulations by contractual means and avoiding conflicts of interest in specifications.
+Being specialists in their fields, E&M subcontractors would like to demonstrate that they are capable of producing works of a higher standard contractually than the statutory minimum as laid down in regulations.
+Similarly, main contractors and E&M contractors had different attitudes to some attributes.
+E&M contractors would put more considerations on environmental regulations, energy consumption and benchmarking of building performance than the main contractors.
+The difference should be understandable due to the different interests of the two groups of stakeholders and government incentives.
+In the case of Hong Kong, the Electrical and Mechanical Services Department operates the Energy Efficiency Labelling Scheme (for products such as air-conditioning equipment and light fittings) and the Energy Efficient Building Registration Scheme (EMSD, 2008).
+Citherlet and Defaux (2007) also stated that those selecting electrical equipment with higher efficiency aim at reducing energy demand, and the Barbour Index (2004) reported that E&M contractors were usually responsible for repairs during the warranty periods of their equipment.
+Therefore, it should be obvious that the E&M contractors should show higher concern on energy aspects than general contractors owing to the differences as mentioned.
+Another significant result of the Mann–Whitney U-test is that consultants attached higher importance on green performance assessment system than contractors.
+This can be attributed to the design responsibilities of consultants, which normally include environmental compatibility.
+Despite the differences as mentioned on some particular attributes, the overall responses from different stakeholders were reasonably homogenous.
+Factor analysis
+The KMO value of 0.852 means that the degree of common variance among the 20 attributes is ‘‘meritorious’’ according to Kaiser (1974).
+Five factors accounting for 67% of the variance were extracted by factor analysis with Varimax rotation.
+Based on the cross-factor loadings in the rotated component matrix (Table 2), the interpretation of the foremost five factors is summarized as follows.
+Seven attributes (including mitigating environmental impacts;
+selecting materials based on low risk to the environment;
+selecting materials based on their renewability/recyclability;
+reducing energy consumption;
+adopting green practices or procedures;
+life cycle considerations and using available advanced green construction technology) should be grouped into this underlying factor for the successful implementation of green specifications owing to the strong correlations among themselves.
+This factor should be the most important one in term of the percentage of covariance among the variables.
+Component matrix with factor loadings.
+extraction method ¼ principal component analysis;
+rotation method ¼ Varimax with Kaiser Normalization.
+Please refer to Appendix A for the detail wording of B1–B20.
+This factor is self-evident since different green principles and tools have been proposed in various green guides and studies including life cycle assessment, mitigations for environmental impacts and various green practices or procedures (Anderson and Shiers, 2002;
+WBDG, 2007 and GreenBuilding, 2007).
+reliability and quality of specification
+Based on the inter-correlation, four attributes related to the reliability of the source of information and the clarity of written clauses affecting the quality of green specifications should be consolidated into an underlying factor.
+The unattainable, vague and disputable clause in specifications undermining the quality of specification would provoke claims for time extension and conflicts among stakeholders (Chan, 1996;
+Kumaraswamy, 1997).
+Underwood et al. (2000) observed that a closer link between suppliers and specifiers may eliminate the duplication of specification information by improving accuracy.
+Indisputably, the attributes affecting the quality and reliability of clauses written by green specifiers are fundamental facets upon which clients and ultimately the public put their confidence.
+leadership and responsibility
+Managing the legal responsibility, risk, liability and conflict related to green specifications were grouped under the abovenamed factor based on the analysis.
+The attributes in common in this factor should be the responsibility and integrity of the specifying organization to the society.
+Therefore, during preparation of green specifications, the corporate social responsibility for advancing social, business and environmental objectives simultaneously should be observed (Myers, 2005).
+An example is the stipulation against casual dumping of construction waste, which would become a social hazard if left out in an allegedly ‘‘green’’ specification.
+The effective management of risk falling on specifiers should be the duty of project leaders who need to remove the implicit hurdles in the promotion of green practice.
+Spiegel and Meadows (1999) included the building owner, the contractor and his subcontractors, the design consultants, the product manufacturer, the fabricator, the building official and the building occupants as the stakeholders for any construction project, whether or not green considerations prevail.
+Through Factor Analysis based on the respondents’ ratings, the concerns of stakeholders, the directions from top management and the will to surpass environmental regulations via the contractual framework were grouped together in a factor depicting the stakeholders’ roles and their contribution.
+Similar to environmental management system as defined in ISO 14001 (2004) about effective management, the concerns of stakeholders should be addressed by the management in order to facilitate the successful implementation of green specifications.
+For example, the testing of green materials (e.g., recycled aggregates) should be carried out by an accredited laboratory to assure clients and design team as to their suitability for the projects, in addition to other mandatory requirements.
+Through the stakeholders’ involvement, green specifications form an essential element of the contractual framework for environmental considerations to be put into real practice.
+The attributes about model green specification clauses and cross-referencing to environmental performance assessment of buildings should constitute the fifth principal factor.
+Cole (1999) delineated three functions for environmental assessment of buildings:
+(1) promoting better green performance of building;
+(2) providing information to decision markers during design and (3) giving objective measurements of impacts on the environment from buildings.
+Owing to their high correlation in the factor analysis, the attributes about green performance assessment and model clauses are consolidated as the Guide and Benchmarking factor.
+When sufficient data has been amassed on the performance of buildings using green specifications, benchmarking can be effected through the publication of specification guides, which would enable specifiers to choose between parameters leading to a range of known performance.
+Hierarchy of the five factors
+Based on all samples, when the mean rankings of the attributes comprising each factor are added up and divided by its number of attributes, the average ranking of that Factor can be obtained, indicating its relative significance.
+As shown in Fig. 1, Factor 1 (green technology and techniques) is equally significant as Factor 4 (stakeholder involvement), followed by Factor 2 (Reliability and Quality), Factor 3 (leadership and responsibility) and Factor 5 (Guide and Benchmarking) in descending order of their average ranking values.
+Average Ranking of Importance
+Guide and Benchmarking System
+Leadership and Responsibility
+Reliability and Quality of Specification
+Green Technology and Techniques
+Mean rankings of the five factors.
+When the respondents’ ratings were further analyzed by their roles in groups, consultants and E&M subcontractors regarded Factor 1 (green technology and techniques) as the most important, whereas clients and main contractors put Factor 4 (stakeholder involvement) first.
+Building trade subcontractors and suppliers took a different view by ranking Factor 3 (leadership and
+Mean rankings of different stakeholder groups on the five factors.
+responsibility) with the greatest importance (Table 3).
+Knowing these differences, it would assist in ‘‘marketing’’ green specifications to the various stakeholder groups.
+Correlations of the five factors with established sustainability principles
+As research on the preparation of green specifications is limited, validation of the identified factors is based on studies concerning environmental management and sustainable construction as well as a set of guidelines for managing sustainable development.
+Compared with the four principles identified by Hill and Bowen (1997) in respect of sustainability, the five factors for implementation of green specifications should address most of the sustainable construction aspects despite small difference in delineations between the coverage of the principles, as shown in Table 4.
+Tam et al. (2006) identified seven critical factors for environment performance assessment (EPA) in the Hong Kong construction industry.
+Although the EPA is for establishing policies, objectives and targets, the factors identified by Tam et al. (2006) for EPA should provide a good reference for assessing environmental issues pertaining to construction projects in Hong Kong. To reap the potential benefits, green specifications should be written with the scope of EPA in mind, although getting a good assessment result should not be regarded as an end in itself.
+The five factors identified in this study are akin to the seven factors by Tam et al. (2006), as shown in Table 4.
+Comparison of the five factors with established principles.
+Hill and Bowen (1997)
+Factor 3 (leadership and responsibility) and Factor 4 (stakeholder involvement)
+Factor 1 (green technology and techniques), Factor 2 (reliability and quality) and Factor 5 (guide and benchmarking system)
+Technical and economic sustainability principles
+Factor 1 (green technology and techniques) and Factor 2
+(reliability and quality)
+‘‘Air and noise’’, ‘‘waste and water’’, ‘‘cost saving on resources’’, ‘‘energy’’ and ‘‘auditing’’
+Factor 3 (leadership and responsibility) and Factor 4 (stakeholder Involvement)
+(guide and benchmarking system) – related to green specification
+Not mentioned
+Stewardship
+Factor 2 (reliability and quality)
+Factor 3 (leadership and responsibility)
+Inclusivity
+Factor 5 (guide and benchmarking system)
+Not covered
+The convergence with established principles shows that the five factors for implementation of green specifications should help to promote sustainable construction.
+Apart from examining the factors for EPA and sustainable construction, the five extracted factors are compared with the principles in BS8900.
+The results of the factor analysis for preparation of green specifications reflect the principles for sustainable development.
+In other words, the five identified factors are in line with the four principles (i.e., Inclusivity, Integrity, Stewardship and Transparency) as proposed in BS8900 (2006), which can be used by organizations to set out the main criteria or practice for the assessment of maturity of sustainable development, as shown in Table 4.
+From the above evaluation of factor analysis results based on a study concerning EPA and BS8900 (2006), the five factors extracted statistically should reaffirm the principles developed in the front part of this paper from the comprehensive literature review.
+The factors should therefore provide good reference for assessing the environment issues and managing sustainable development using green specifications.
+The five factors which are identified in this study in Hong Kong should be adopted as a matter of general policy on green specifications irrespective of geo-political differences.
+However, guidelines, standards and material database for green specifications should be further developed in other jurisdictions to facilitate the specification process flow in different regimes and procurement options.
+The principles for implementing green specifications have been discussed based on literature related to sustainable construction.
+In parallel with green technology and techniques, the study has identified that involvement by the stakeholders should be the most important factor for the preparation of green specifications.
+From the factor analysis, four other factors also emerge as important success factors, including ‘‘Reliability and Quality’’, ‘‘Leadership and Responsibility’’, as well as ‘‘Guide and Benchmarking System’’.These factors auger well the problems mentioned in the introduction section in respect of delineation of responsibilities and infrequent use of good specification templates.
+Knowing the differences in emphasis of the stakeholder groups, the findings should point us in the right directions in the search of a suitable green specification framework which mitigates the associated problems.
+Further research is being pursued by the authors on such a framework.
+Whilst the procurement system being adopted for a construction project affects the contractual relationship between the stakeholders (such as the positions of specialist contractors), the specifications usually form part of the construction contracts (whether they are main contracts, sub-contracts or work packages), thus making it an important management tool to enhance sustainability of construction resources.
+With contribution from different stakeholders in setting up local material or information database, the success of green specifications relies not only on the specified contents, but the effectiveness of the supply chain and monitoring mechanism for their sustainable adoption on an industry-wide basis.
+Acknowledgements
+The work described in this paper was fully supported by a grant from the Intra-Faculty Competitive Allocation of the Hong Kong Polytechnic University (Project No. G-YF07).
+The suggestions made by anonymous reviewers of an earlier manuscript are gratefully acknowledged.
+Appendix A. Questionnaire on the sustainable adoption of green specifications.

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+	Building and Environment 43 (2008) 458–468
+Development of a customer satisfaction evaluation model for construction project management
+Institute of Construction Management, Chung Hua University, No. 707, Sec. 2, Wu-Fu Rd., Hsinchu 300, Taiwan
+Received 11 May 2006;
+accepted 20 July 2006
+Construction project management (CPM) is a technical-oriented service for construction project clients.
+Evaluating the performance of service providers is beneficial both to purchasers, enabling them to appraise the services received, and to providers, helping them to improve their services.
+However, no appraisal system for such services exists.
+This study developed a novel customer satisfaction evaluation model for CPM services that was developed using a questionnaire-based survey and statistical analysis.
+Test results show that the developed model is a feasible system.
+Research using this model reveals that CPM services in Taiwan are satisfactory with acceptable performance for clients.
+The developed model is a good reference for evaluating and assessing CPM performance. r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
+Construction management;
+Project management;
+Professional services;
+Performance evaluation;
+Introduction
+With the ISO 9000 standard gaining popularity worldwide, total quality management (TQM) has become a strategic and survival approach for most firms in every industry.
+TQM is a complete management philosophy that emphasizes overall satisfaction through the continuous improvements to products and processes.
+Notably, TQM is concerned with customer satisfaction and is not merely a slogan [1].
+Since 1988, TQM has been codified in a national award (the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award) in the United States, ‘‘customer satisfaction,’’ once the most criteria in TQM evaluation, has been transformed into ‘‘customer relationships and satisfaction’’ in the category of customer and market focus [2].
+Obviously, customer satisfaction is a key factor in achieving quality improvement.
+The construction industry has many characteristics common to manufacturing and service industries.
+In the construction industry, customer satisfaction demands on contractor’s performance are in accordance with contractual duties, obligations and responsibilities.
+Total customer
+Corresponding author.
++88635186684;
++88635370517.
+E-mail address:
+[email protected] (J.-B. Yang).
+0360-1323/$-see front matter r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
+satisfaction has never been a goal for designers, construction managers, subcontractors and material suppliers [3].
+It is hard to achieve higher satisfaction level by any single project participant.
+However, there is no doubt that making customer (client) as satisfied as possible is an essential task for any firm in the construction industry regardless of the construction-related products or services they provide.
+The application of professional construction management (PCM) has increased rapidly since it was first introduction and promoted in the early 1960s [4–7].
+In a narrow sense, PCM forms a three-party team, including the owner, the architect/engineer (A/E) and the project manager, to accomplish the owner’s authorized tasks [5].
+On the contrary, from a broad perspective, PCM is an effective means of satisfying an owner’s construction needs [4].
+Functional PCM tasks consist of the following phases of construction projects:
+conceptual planning;
+conceptual design;
+detailed design;
+construction;
+and, startup.
+PCM is now regarded as a professional team for serving all owner needs in a construction project.
+In Taiwan, the Government Procurement Law (GPL),
+promulgated on May 27, 1998, allows several innovative concepts and regulations, including the PCM (the official
+Trend of new project delivery methods in Taiwan.
+term in GPL is project management, therefore, construction project management (CPM) is used hereinafter replacing the PCM term) approach and the most advantageous tendering approach [8] for construction projects and procurement entities.
+As stated in Article 39 of GPL—‘‘In conducting a procurement, an entity may entrust a supplier, according to this Act, with the project management related to planning, design, supply, or contract performance’’, a construction project can have a CPM contract to serve the consultative and administrative needs [9].
+After the GPL of Taiwan went into effect, the number of construction projects with CPM contracts issued has been increasing (see Fig. 1).
+With CPM stepping into its flourishing phase in Taiwan, it is necessary to appraise the performance of CPM services.
+This study focuses on developing a customer satisfaction evaluation model for evaluating CPM services and examines its applicability in Taiwan.
+Customer satisfaction
+There has been a quite obvious increase in the emphasis on a firm’s ability to produce high-quality products and/or provide high-quality services.
+Identification of high-quality products or services can be achieved by measuring customer satisfaction with these products or services.
+The concept of customer satisfaction transforms all industries from production centralized to customer based.
+Several evaluation models or indices exist for assessing customer satisfaction in various industries.
+To achieve a highly reliable and stable index of satisfaction, the American Customer Satisfaction Index (ACSI) [10] defines the satisfaction as a weighted average of three survey ratings:
+perceived quality, perceived value, and customer expectations.
+The ACSI index has been used to measure the satisfaction in the manufacturing/nondurables, manufacturing/durables, transportation, communications and utilities, retails, finance and insurance, services, public administration, and government.
+Although the ACSI index has an accepted satisfaction evaluation methodology, it is not designed for the construction industry.
+Generally, the evaluation result for customer satisfaction is highest for competitive products, lower for competitive services and retailers, and lowest for government and public agencies [11].
+The ACSI system criteria cannot be adapted to the construction industry, a new evaluation model must be developed not only for the construction industry, but also for CPM services.
+Related research
+Construction projects involve numerous stakeholders that are closely related and interacted during a given project.
+The level of a stakeholder satisfaction directly influences the current project and subsequent projects and the level of satisfaction experienced by other stakeholders.
+For contractors, completing a project in accordance with the plans and specifications within budget and on time satisfies owner needs and generates profit.
+Ahmed and Kangari [12] used six client-satisfaction factors, including time, cost, quality, client orientation, communication skills and response to complaints, to conduct a survey for analyzing the client-satisfaction factors in the construction industry.
+They concluded that these six factors are equally important when evaluating client satisfaction.
+Maloney argued that the physical product and service delivery must be considered when assessing customer satisfaction in the construction industry.
+For electrical construction projects, Maloney proposed a dual-influence model using five dimensions—contractor/customer relationship, project management, safety, prepared/skilled workforce and cost—to evaluate customer satisfaction and for contractor selection decisions [13].
+Furthermore, Maloney claimed that labor-management activities at levels of contractor– workforce, contractor–local union and contractor association–local union influence customer satisfaction [14].
+Contractors need to establish partnerships with labors to enhance customer satisfaction.
+To measure home-buyer satisfaction, Torbica and Stroh [15–17] developed a model, called HOMBSAT, with three distinct dimensions of house design, house and services.
+The indicators of house design and house are used to rate the product quality of a transaction, whereas indicator of services is used to rate the service quality.
+The HOMBSAT can provide a total home-buyer satisfaction across three dimensions to the home builders to track the overall quality of their services.
+Moreover, Torbica and Stroh also confirmed that a home builder can increase home-buyer satisfaction by implementing TQM [18].
+In 2002 and 2003, J.D. Power and Associates reported that the quality of workmanship/materials and customer services account for 50% of overall customer satisfaction among buyers of new homes, and the levels of customer satisfaction increased significantly in the highly competitive homebuilder industry [19].
+Liu, who surveyed residential satisfaction of housing estates in Hong Kong, utilized questionnaires comprising nine categories with a total of 51 questions [20].
+That study developed a well-structured post-occupancy evaluation method for measuring customer satisfaction.
+Tang et al. [21] investigated the client satisfaction of engineering consulting firms in Hong Kong using a questionnaire-based survey.
+Their study used the following eight factors (expressed in 29 indicators) to evaluate overall client satisfaction:
+professionalism of service;
+competitiveness of service;
+timeliness of service;
+quality of design;
+degree of innovation;
+completeness of other considerations;
+availability of support for client;
+and, supervision at implementation.
+Tang et al. concluded that the quality of engineering consulting services in Hong Kong was slightly higher (mean score is 3.122) than neutral (default score is 3) [21].
+Leung et al. [22] measured participant satisfaction in the construction management process.
+Through 15 established and verified hypotheses, the study showed that management mechanisms (e.g., communication, participation and commitment) rather than particular project goals (e.g., time, cost and quality) influence directly participant satisfaction.
+Research approach
+This study developed a customer satisfaction evaluation model for CPM services through the following processes. (1) Set an evaluation framework and related factors.
+This study used eight practical cases, Taiwan’s GPL regulations and several studies to identify the evaluation hierarchy and associated factors. (2) Develop a usable questionnaire.
+Each question was based on each factor generated by the preceding process.
+A pilot survey was conducted to validate the questionnaire.
+After the pretest, the questionnaire was refined. (3) Collect field data.
+This study conducted an official survey to obtain raw research data for further analysis.
+The questionnaire was sent to 57 project clients;
+of the 24 replies, 22 were valid for analysis. (4) Analyze collected data.
+All responses were analyzed by the methods of descriptive statistics and inferential statistics to improve survey reliability. (5) Develop a formal evaluation model.
+The proposed evaluation model was developed according to antecedent statistical results and tested using several practical CPM cases in Taiwan.
+The five steps can be classified into three stages, i.e., questionnaire survey, model evaluation and formal model development, as discussed in Sections 5, 6 and 7, respectively.
+Owing to the nature of data outsourcing of questionnaire-based survey, the development of a questionnaire plays the key role in customer satisfaction research.
+A wellstructured questionnaire magnifies desired achievements of a research.
+Hayes [23] suggested a three-stage model for developing a practical questionnaire for customer satisfaction evaluation, namely determine customer requirements, develop and evaluate the questionnaire, and finally, apply the questionnaire.
+This study transformed Hayes’ model into a comprehensive model with five stages
+that are as follows.
+Fig. 2 shows the questionnaire development process.
+Defining customer satisfaction
+In addition to construction products, a contractor also provides a set of construction services that range from meeting periodically with owner representatives to a product of services that is provided by subcontractor or other material vendors.
+For CPM services, a client must find a service provider to do all construction-related works.
+However, clients with CPM service usually are nonprofessionals in the construction industry.
+As such, they are unfamiliar with construction-related works, which is why they require professional services.
+Thus, customer satisfaction in CPM services is defined as the degree to which client requirements are satisfied in construction-related works.
+Determining customer requirements
+The Procurement and Public Construction Commission of Taiwan has promulgated several procurement regulations.
+One regulation regarding how to select a supplier and the formulas for calculating service fees of technical services has an article stipulating the kinds of construction works that an entity can entrust to suppliers.
+An entity who entrusts any CPM service should comply with these regulations.
+Fig. 3 shows the working areas of CPM service provided in Taiwan.
+Detailed legal services are listed on the web / To identify the customer requirements for CPM services, this study collected work items from eight real CPM cases and compared these items with regulations to extract general customer requirements.
+Unique items added to the contract of any real case are pruned off.
+In summary, there are 82 work items utilized in the proposed model.
+Performance of CPM services was evaluated using a hybrid approach that monitors ongoing and completed services.
+This evaluation approach consists of two stages:
+financial analysis formulation of the preliminary budget,shcedule
+feasibility study report ·others
+in-service and post-service stages.
+To ensure the integrity of this CPM service evaluation, knowledge areas in the Project Management Institute’s publication, A Guide to Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK) [24], was utilized to establish the evaluation dimension.
+Although nine knowledge areas exist in PMBOK, not all are suitable for this study.
+Discussion with several domain experts concluded that the appropriate dimensions for the in-service stage are cost, quality, time, communication and technique/tool;
+whereas those for the post-service stage are cost, quality, time and scope.
+Fig. 4 presents a detailed evaluation framework.
+There are 51 and 31 questions in the in-service and post-service stages, respectively.
+In the evaluation framework, all identified work items are classified according to the previous dimensions.
+To form a questionnaire, all evaluation items are re-written into the question type as shown in Fig. 5.
+The formal questionnaire is in Chinese.
+of the progress
+of the design tendering strategy ·others
+interface of
+schedule and quality control change order ·others
+transfer of the project others
+The questionnaire consists of four sections.
+In the first and second sections, respondents were asked to choose one of five choices (very unimportant, unimportant, neutral, important and very important for the importance issues, and very dissatisfied, dissatisfied, neutral, satisfied and very satisfied for the satisfaction issues) for all questions in the in-service and post-service stages, respectively.
+The third section probed respondent general impressions of services in the dimensions and asked respondents to grade overall satisfaction on a scale (very dissatisfied, dissatisfied, neutral, satisfied and very satisfied).
+The grades obtained were then used to calculate the value of total satisfaction for project management (TSPM).
+The fourth section collected basic information, such as the scale of a project in money, of involved CPM cases.
+A pretest was conducted to assess a draft of the questionnaire.
+Five employees of CPM clients were invited to examine the questionnaire.
+The main concerns raised were as follows:
+(1) the meaning of some questions is unclear;
+(2) the default options for some questions are unsuitable;
+and, (3) some questions are hard to answer because the questions (the work items) are not applicable to respondent experience.
+All concerns were addressed and the questionnaire was modified according to the following principles:
+(1) questions are rewritten to improve clarity for respondents and default options are also adjusted;
+(2) the answer ‘‘not applicable’’ is added to each question.
+Satisfaction
+analysis and recommendation on the sources of finance
+VU forvery unimportant;
+U for unimportant;
+N for neutral;
+I for important;
+andVI for very important.VD for very dissatisfied;
+D for dissatisfied;
+N for neutral;
+S for satisfied;
+andVS for very satisfied.
+When analyzing the status of CPM services in Taiwan, the entities who issued CPM projects between January 31, 2000 and December 31, 2002 were considered.
+The original data is extracted from the Electronic Procurement System of Taiwan Government / In this period, 115 CPM projects were launched:
+47 central government projects;
+62 local government projects and 6 school projects.
+Among them, 28 projects whose anticipated procurement budgets were below 1 million New Taiwan dollars (NT dollars) were excluded.
+Only 31 entities were contacted by the research team.
+Of the 57 questionnaires sent, 24 replies were received, 22 of which were valid.
+Figs. 6 and 7 present the distribution of questionnaires sent and responses received from service clients and providers, respectively.
+In general, the responses received cover all client and provider types.
+Thus, the analysis result will be representative of CPM services in Taiwan.
+Descriptive statistics test—reliability and validity test
+This study used descriptive statistical method to analyze important characteristics and summarize survey results.
+Reliability is a prerequisite for measuring validity.
+Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was used as an index to test survey reliability.
+In general, the closer the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient is to 1.0, the more reliable the test is.
+As stated in the literature [25], an alpha equal to or greater than 0.70 is considered satisfactory.
+Reliability estimates below 0.60 are usually regarded as unacceptably low.
+Table 1 listed the detailed values of Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for each dimension.
+In summary, the reliabilities of each dimension are acceptable (greater than 0.60).
+Test validity is difficult to establish since no accepted standard exists for comparison.
+Nevertheless, attempts can be made to establish validity using respondent subjective
+Reliability analysis results for original evaluation framework
+Satisfaction
+Mean scores of res
+Satisfaction
+Post-service
+for the importance issue, average value:
+7.50, variance:
+0.087, stand deviation:
+judgments based on experience and empirical indicators.
+To be valid, a test must be reliable;
+but reliability does not guarantee validity, i.e., it is possible a meaningless (invalid) test can have a higher reliability.
+In general, the questionnaire used in this study is based on literature reviews, domain expert interviews and a pretest;
+thus questionnaire validity can be acceptable when reliability is acceptable.
+Descriptive statistics test—mean valve analysis
+All questions have default options with corresponding scores (2 for very unimportant;
+4 for unimportant;
+6 for neutral;
+8 for important;
+and, 10 for very important) for subsequent analysis.
+This study used the threshold of one sigma (one standard deviation) of respondent scores for the importance issue to erase unimportant questions.
+Table 2 shows detailed values of variation in the importance issue.
+With a threshold value of 7.205 for the importance score, 12 and 10 questions were erased from the in-service and post-service stages, respectively.
+Notably, the importance score for questions in the scope dimension is below the threshold;
+therefore, the dimension of scope is erased.
+Finally, there are 39 and 21 questions in the in-service and post-service stages, respectively.
+Inferential statistics—importance-satisfaction matrix analysis
+Importance-satisfaction matrix analysis [26], which is a means of combining satisfaction and importance measures to obtain a clear indication of which areas should be addressed and which should be maintained, is a standard method of analyzing customer satisfaction.
+The method forms a quadrant matrix that has four different meanings for interpretation and adoption.
+The top left-hand quadrant of the matrix shows items that are ‘‘high’’ in importance and ‘‘low’’ in satisfaction, and therefore they have been labeled as ‘‘more work needed to improve performance.’’ The lower left-hand corner contains items that have been rated ‘‘low’’ in both importance and satisfaction.
+Items in this quadrant have been labeled as ‘‘second priority for improvement’’.
+The top right-hand corner of the figure contains items that are rated ‘‘high’’ in both importance and satisfaction and the items here have been labeled as ‘‘works are excellent and should be maintained’’.
+Finally, the lower right-hand corner shows items that are ‘‘high’’ in satisfaction and ‘‘low’’ in importance.
+These items have been labeled as ‘‘second priority to maintain’’.
+Results of evaluating customer satisfaction in the matrix can be a clear indication of the level of satisfaction and the strategy to be adopted for improving satisfaction.
+As designated in the questionnaire, each question has a five-point scale to indicate relative importance and satisfaction.
+The importance scores are rated on the following scale:
+2, very unimportant;
+4, unimportant;
+6, neutral;
+8, important;
+and, 10, very important.
+Similarly, the satisfaction scores are rated on the following scale:
+2, very dissatisfied;
+4, dissatisfied;
+6, neutral;
+8, satisfied;
+and, 10, very satisfied.
+Mean scores (see Table 2) for the dimensions of importance and satisfaction were used to plot the matrix.
+Figs. 8 and 9 show the quadrant matrix of the two stages where the mean importance is plotted against the vertical axis and the mean satisfaction against the horizontal axis.
+The average values of all responses for in-service and post-service are in the high importance and satisfied quadrant, meaning that the works are excellent
+Mean Satisfaction
+Importance–performance relationship of in-service stage.
+and should be maintained.
+In these CPM cases, the analysis results are not located in the very importance and very satisfied areas, the shadow areas in Figs. 8 and 9 that are the optimum areas.
+It implies that service performance still has some room for improvement.
+In summary, the CPM services in Taiwan are in general satisfactory.
+Algorithm for measuring TSPM
+In order to differentiate the performance of satisfaction for CPM, this study developed a novel model of TSPM to measure a service provider’s performance status that can be an index for performance improvement.
+TSPM considers all dimensions in two stages and accumulates the scores according to a normalized scale.
+The TSPM is calculated by Eq. (1), in which, Si, the mean satisfaction score for dimension i, is calculated by Eq. (2);
+Wi, the relevant weight for dimension i, is calculated by Eq. (3);
+Smax is the maximum value for the satisfaction score—10 in this case;
+n is the number of dimensions in this study—8 in this case.
+In Eq. (2), Sj is the satisfaction score in j question;
+m is the number of dimensions in dimension i.
+In Eq. (3), Ii is the mean importance score in dimension i and is calculated by Eq. (4), in which Ij is the importance score of j question;
+and m is the number of dimensions in dimension i.
+In the TSPM scale, a score above 8 is in the interval of very satisfied area and a score between 6 and 8 is in the satisfied area.
+Table 3 presents the values for calculating the TSPM index in the studied cases.
+According to the developed TSPM index, the TSPM value in Taiwan is 6.99.
+The CPM service in Taiwan falls in the interval of satisfied.
+This is in accordance with the results obtained by the importance-performance matrix that uses the respondent overall impressions as scores.
+These analytical results indicate that service providers must provide more effective and efficient services to earn client
+Mean Satisfaction
+Importance–performance relationship of post-service stage.
+Mean satisfaction score Si
+Weighted dimension satisfaction score
+Calculation information for TSPM
+trust and satisfaction.
+Factor analysis
+To construct the formal evaluation model for CPM services, this study employed factor analysis technique to identify essential factors.
+This analysis is made by using the results of mean value analysis depicted above.
+Factor analysis technique attempts to reduce the number of variables and to detect the structure from the relationships between variables;
+that is, factor analysis is applied as a means of data reduction or structure detection.
+Factor analysis can be either exploratory or confirmatory in nature.
+The objective of exploratory factor analysis is to distinguish the common factors from specific factors and to explain their relationships according to the observed data [27].
+As the employed process of questionnaire development is a forward thinking process and the correlations between questions are unclear, this study used the factor analysis technique to identify the structure of the satisfaction evaluation model.
+The processes of factor analysis include factor extracting, factor loading, factor rotating and factor labeling.
+Factor extracting
+To extract common factors reflecting raw data, this study used the method of principal components factoring
+Factor analysis results for the in-service stage
+to calculate the eigenvalues, communality and factorloading coefficient of factors for further analysis.
+The calculation was run in SPSSs software.
+Kaiser’s Rule [28], which recommends retaining only principal components with eigenvalues exceeding unity, was used to remove some insignificant factors, 39 factors in the in-service stage and 19 factors in the post-service stage were utilized for factor analysis.
+No. of	Variance question	accounted
+AD3, the third question in forth dimension of first stage.
+Tables 4 and 5 are the factor-loading matrices for the inservice and post-service stages, respectively.
+The values in
+the columns of factor name are the correlations between original variables and common factors.
+Using the results of factor loading, the communality (the proportion of variation in each test accounted for by the factors) can be calculated subsequently.
+The community in each new dimension is greater than 0.70, which is an acceptable level.
+Factor rotating
+In factor analysis, the common factor model has an infinite number of solutions;
+therefore, rotating the factor solution plays a key role in finding a more meaningful solution.
+Kaiser’s Varimax Rotation [29] was applied for factor rotation to achieve a simple structure by focusing on the columns of factor-loading matrix.
+After numerous scenarios of factor analysis by SPSSss software, the analytical results reached a stable status (all eigenvalues are meaningfully different from zero [27]).
+Factor labeling
+Because the accumulated accounting variance is greater than 75%, the numbers of retained factors (new dimension) in the two stages are 6 and 3, respectively.
+This study relabeled the factors as follows:
+(1) ability for change management (accounting for 42.27% of the variance), (2) ability for schedule management (accounting for 8.98% of the variance), (3) ability for resource management (accounting for 7.33% of the variance), (4) ability for data inspection (accounting for 6.31% of the variance), (5) team performance (accounting for 5.15% of the variance) and (6) ability for other activities (accounting for 4.76% of the variance) in the in-service stage;
+and (1) achievement of in-
+Factor analysis results for the post-service stage
+service activities (accounting for 55.53% of the variance), (2) achievement of construction payment and inspection (accounting for 13.06% of the variance) and (3) achievement of construction tendering (accounting for 8.76% of the variance) in the post-service stage.
+After extracting the essential factors, the model framework was constructed.
+Fig. 10 shows the proposed model structure with the evaluation items.
+The in-service stage has 6 dimensions with 39 evaluation items and the post-service stage has 3 dimensions with 19 items.
+Conclusions and suggestions
+Success of a consulting firm depends on its ability to satisfy customers.
+Firms must redefine their bottom lines by using client satisfaction, high-quality standards, and profits as their top priorities in today’s extremely competitive markets.
+For clients and service providers, developing an appraisal system for achieving their needs in service transaction is the most effective means of achieving project success.
+This study presented a customer satisfaction evaluation model that should benefit both clients and service providers in developing their own appraisal systems and serves as a framework for further research in CPM performance evaluation.
+Although the model is just validated for Taiwan’s CPM environment, the development process and framework offer a valuable reference for
+ability for change 	· Regular consultant meeting
+· Interfaces coordination and integration
+· Review and recommendation of change orders
+· Involvement of service provider to client
+· Handling of construction warrant interfaces
+· Control of project schedule
+· Forecast of project schedule
+· Management and coordination of schedules in different phases
+· Coordination and management of design schedule
+· Examination and supervision of construction schedule
+· Examination of construction feasibility study
+· Works of acceptance and transfer of project
+· Financial analysis and recommendation on the sources of finance
+· Evaluation on the source of required resources
+· Formulation of preliminary budget
+· Examination of construction budget
+· Assistance in signing contracts
+· Recommendation on the selection of providers for professional      services and technical service and formulation of related      documents
+· Development and control of service quality assurance system · Development of the chart of duty and authority of various providers      for professional services and technical service · Examination of environmental impact assessment reports
+· Examination of design, specifications, drawings
+· Examination of the payment of providers for professional services     and technical service
+· Reasonable analysis of resources prices
+· Examination of budgets of construction project and equipments
+· Audit of information on payment settlement
+· Schedule planning of project
+· Examination of interfaces of design and construction
+· Computerization of document management and construction 	     management
+· Evaluation of contract disputes and claims
+· Service attitude of project team members
+· Abilities of project team members in alternative study and      evaluation
+· Collaboration of project team members
+· Service quality management system and achievement of quality     guarantee
+· Quality of value engineering reports
+· Achievement of examining construction plan
+· Schedule achievement of examining construction plan
+· Quality of schedule reports
+· Schedule achievement of schedule reports
+· Achievement of executing project meetings
+· Integrality of project minutes
+· Achievement of managing construction documents and contracts
+· Accuracy of payment
+· Integrality of payment certificate
+· Schedule achievement of submitting acceptance reports
+· Schedule achievement of submitting as-built drawings and documents
+· Schedule achievement of project completion
+· Preparation of tender documents
+· Schedule control of tendering
+· Schedule control of signing contracts
+Evaluation framework for TSPM.
+evaluation and assessment of CPM performance in other contexts.
+Different countries or economic entities may have different project delivery systems.
+Furthermore, the scope of CPM in each country or economic entity may be totally different in contents.
+Thus the developed model may not be appropriate for other countries or economic entities.
+To establish a universal appraisal system for CPM is impracticable.
+However, the PMBOK developed by PMI has recently been taken as a standard for project management.
+For the construction industry, the ‘‘construction extension to a guide to the project management body of knowledge’’ [30] can be regarded as a common basis for construction project management.
+To develop an appraisal system for the CPM service in accordance with the knowledge areas of PMBOK’s construction extension would benefit service buyers or providers in the future.

cleaned_papers/cleaned_papers_without_ref/1-s2.0-S0360132319301003-main.txt

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+Characterizing perceived aspects of adverse impact of noise on construction managers on construction sites
+a Department of Architecture and Plant, Youngsan University, Gyeongnam, 50510, South Korea b Division of Research and Development, HYUNDAI Engineering and Construction, Gyeonggi, 16891, South Korea c School of Electrical & Electronic Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 639798, Singapore
+A R T I C L E I N F O	A B S T R A C T
+Construction machine
+Adverse impact of noise
+Construction manager
+This study aims to assess various perceived adverse effects of noise on construction sites according to the different stages and machinery used in the stages, and to examine whether or not personal-situational factors affect the judgment of managers regarding the adverse impact of noise at work through a self-reported survey method.
+Four primary construction stages and twenty-four types of construction machines were evaluated.
+The effects of personal (noise sensitivity) and situational (types of jobs, and years of working) factors on the adverse impacts of noise on annoyance, work performance, work safety, and speech interference at work were examined.
+The results show significant differences in perceived noise annoyance in the various construction stages.
+The demolition stage is the most annoying, followed by the foundation, earthwork, and concrete framing stages.
+In addition, the annoying equipment differs for each construction stage.
+A breaker, pile driver, and hammer compactor are rated as the most annoying construction machines in the demolition, foundation, and earthwork stages, respectively.
+Individual noise sensitivity appears to have the most significant influence on the adverse impacts of noise on annoyance, work performance, work safety, and speech interference.
+A high noise sensitivity group tends to judge construction noise to be more adverse than the rest.
+In addition, different interrelationships between the adverse items of noise are found across their types of jobs:
+building construction, civil construction, and safety management.
+The findings of this study will provide further knowledge to facilitate better noise management planning on construction sites.
+Introduction
+Construction activities generate high levels of noise.
+Workers on construction sites are exposed to potentially hazardous noise levels [1–3].
+It has been reported that noise levels at construction sites range from 80 to 120 dBA depending on the type of construction activities [2,4].
+As noise generated by construction activities can easily exceed the occupational safety and health administration limit of 90 dBA, construction industry workers suffer more from the adverse effects of noise than other trades [5].
+However, compared to other types of environmental noises such as road, traffic, airplane, and train noises, relatively few studies have been conducted on the adverse impacts of construction noise [1–7] because construction noise is usually difficult to predict owing to constant changes in location, various sizes of construction sites, and the transience of the work force [2,3,8].
+Construction noise typically has various acoustic characteristics such as steady noise, fluctuating noise, intermittent noise, quasi-steady impulsive noise, and isolated bursts of sound energy that depend primarily on the types of construction machines in use [7].
+In particular, the tasks at construction sites are constantly changing during the construction stages [6,8], and each task uses different equipment [3,7].
+In addition, as tasks often overlap, construction noise is composed of complex combinations of noise sources, resulting in a high variability in the noise [7].
+Some have reported that different combined construction noises result in varying annoyance levels [7,9].
+All of the above indicate that construction noise is not only as hazardous as any other type of noisy environment, but far more difficult to control.
+∗ Corresponding author.
+Digital Signal Processing Lab, School of Electrical & Electronic Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 639798, Singapore.
+E-mail address:
+[email protected] (J.Y. Hong).
+Received 22 June 2018;
+Received in revised form 4 February 2019;
+Accepted 4 February 2019 Available online 06 February 2019
+In this context, a number studies have focused on construction taskbased approaches to collect noise exposure data [1,3,5,10].
+The approach based on the physical measurement of noise levels is useful for describing the noise exposures of construction workers, however, it provides limited information on how the construction workers perceptually understand the construction noises [11,12].
+It has been reported that noise levels often do not provide a clear picture of how a construction worker perceives construction noises [7].
+This demonstrates that it is important to assess the subjective adverse impacts of noise on workers at construction sites in terms of various construction tasks and machines.
+In general, subjective adverse effects of noise, which include annoyance, disturbance, and speech interference, have been investigated in previous studies [13–16].
+Noise annoyance is a key descriptor of environmental noise, which is acknowledged as a multifaceted concept associated with acoustic and non-acoustic factors [17].
+Some studies have also indicated that noise affects work safety in workspaces, which results in an increase in the number of errors at work [18,19].
+Additionally, noise critically affects speech comprehension.
+Noise interference with speech comprehension results in problems with concentration, decreased working capacity, and stress reactions at work [20,21].
+Many respondents have reported that noise exposure worsens work performance [22–24].
+These subjective adverse effects of noise are influenced by both acoustic and non-acoustic factors [17].
+There are various non-acoustic factors influencing subjective responses to noise.
+Numerous studies have proven that personal and situational factors affect responses to noise [13,17,25].
+Personal factors affecting noise evaluation include information such as age, gender, education level, and noise sensitivity [13].
+Situational factors such as the length of residency, previous experience with the area, or the type of area also affect reaction to noise [17,25].
+There are various types of workers in the construction field (e.g., construction managers, carpenters, laborers, and roofers);
+each worker is characterized by unique personal factors.
+Hence, it is necessary to investigate the effects of these personal factors, in addition to situational factors, on the adverse impact of noise [13,26].
+According to most of the previous studies on personal factors of noise evaluation, the effects of gender, age, and education level on noise annoyance are not significant [13,16].
+However, the noise sensitivity of individuals has been reported as one of the critical individual factors in the determination of reaction to noise [13,27–29].
+This implies that self-reported noise sensitivity can also be an important personal factor for construction managers.
+In terms of work environment, task characteristics, type of work, and working experience have been considered as situational factors in previous studies [10,30,31].
+In the context of construction industry, years of working and major jobs in a construction site can be considered as situational factors of construction workers that affect the judgment of adverse effects of construction noises on sites.
+For instance, the degree of adverse impact of noise might differ according to primary jobs at construction sites, and years of working for construction managers might affect the perception of noise due to adaptation to noise.
+According to the Korean Standard Classification of Occupations [32], workers at construction sites can typically be classified into three groups:
+unskilled workers, equipment operators/skilled workers, and managers.
+Unskilled workers are general site labor with little or no construction qualifications, and construction equipment operators or skilled workers typically perform the actual construction work with extensive knowledge and experience in their craft or profession [10].
+The roles of construction managers include developing a work schedule and strategy to complete the project and ensuring that the construction site will pass safety inspections [33].
+Construction managers communicate with a range of people including clients, subcontractors, suppliers, the public, and the workforce on site.
+Construction noise studies have mainly focused on the noise exposure of equipment operators and construction workers such as carpenters, laborers, ironworkers, roofers, and operating engineers [2,3,5,10,34] but only a few studies on construction managers on site have been conducted [35,36].
+The construction equipment operators and workers are typically self-employed so once they are done with their specific tasks, they leave the construction sites.
+However, as construction managers are coordinating and managing all on-site construction activities in accordance with the construction project schedule, they could provide more precise and comprehensive information perceptions of construction noise and the adverse impacts of noise at work.
+In this sense, the present study focuses on noise perception of construction managers.
+This study aims to assess annoyance of noise at construction sites according to the different construction stages and machinery used in the stages, and to investigate personal (individual noise sensitivity) and situational (type of job and years of working) factors of construction managers that significantly contribute to the subjective adverse impacts of noises at construction sites.
+Specifically, four hypotheses were formulated:
+(1) Perception of noise annoyance will differ in terms of different construction stages and machine types.
+(2) Individual noise sensitivity of a construction manager will affect subjective adverse impacts of noise.
+(3) Type of job of a construction manager will affect subjective adverse impacts of noise.
+(4) Years of working in a construction industry will affect subjective adverse impacts of noise.
+To examine these hypotheses, a social survey was conducted for construction managers who currently work at construction sites.
+Based on the survey results, this study discusses noise control measures considering construction tasks and the personal/situational factors of the construction managers.
+The survey was performed at a Korean construction company, the fourth largest construction company in Korea, conducting various civil, building, plant, and housing projects in the domestic and overseas markets.
+According to the annual report of the company [37], the construction company employed 5,846 full-time employees.
+Out of them, 3,148 construction managers are currently working in the company.
+The survey was conducted in the annual training session held in the training institute of the company;
+1,122 out of 3148 construction managers were randomly selected to participate in the annual training.
+The survey participants were randomly selected from the construction managers who attended the annual training sessions for construction managers in the company.
+The survey was given to 500 out of 1,122 managers;
+461 respondents finished their questionnaire.
+In addition, 92.2% respondents completed their survey, and this value is 14.6% of total construction managers in the company.
+The study was approved by the local research ethics committee and informed written consent was obtained from all respondents after fully explaining to them the nature, purpose, and procedures used for the study.
+Table 1 summarizes the survey response data with respect to years of experience, gender, age, and primary tasks of the respondents.
+Because of the occupational characteristics of the construction managers, 98.5% of the respondents were male and 1.5% were females.
+In terms of year of experience, 65.1% of the respondents had less than 10 years working experience, and the balance of the respondents more than 10 years.
+Regarding the primary tasks at construction sites, the bulk of the respondents worked in civil (50.8%) and building engineering (31.2%), followed by safety management (14.5%).
+The survey questionnaire comprised items related to 1) personal and situational factors of participants, 2) adverse impacts of construction noise including construction stages and machines, and 3) self-reported adverse impact of construction noise at work.
+Descriptive statistics of the survey participants.
+Numbers in years of experience, gender, and type of job indicate the number of respondents and percentage of respondents in each category of the column.
+Numbers in age indicate mean age and standard deviation in each category of column.
+Type of job
+Others, N (%)
+Personal and situational factors
+Similar to previous studies [38–42], the self-reported noise sensitivity of participants was assessed using a single response to the following question:
+‘‘How would you rate your sensitivity to noise on an 11point scale?
+not at all sensitive and 10:
+extremely sensitive).
+As situational factors of the respondents, years of experience and major jobs in a construction company were also collected during the survey.
+According to a previous study [43], years of experience in a construction industry was assessed with the following response alternatives:
+1) less than 5 y, 2) 5–10 y, 3) 10–15 y, and 4) more than 15 y.
+The participants were asked to list their primary jobs at a construction site from four categories:
+1) building construction, 2) civil construction, 3) safety management, and 4) others (e.g., administration work).
+Adverse impacts of construction stages and machines
+Type of construction stages.
+In this study, construction work was categorized into five stages:
+demolition, foundation, earthwork, concrete framing, and others (pavement, interior, or exterior finishes).
+In the demolition stage, the primary tasks are the tearing down of buildings and other man-made structures before constructing new buildings or civil structures.
+Foundation work includes the design of foundation elements of structures.
+Earthworks are engineering works using quantities of soil or unformed rocks, and includes the excavation, transport, placement, and compaction of fill materials during construction.
+Concreting work comprises a variety of tasks, including the building of columns, beams, slabs, floors, and other reinforced concrete structures.
+The participants were asked to choose one construction stage that was the most annoying stage among the five construction stages based on their working experience at construction sites with the following question:
+“Please choose a stage that produces the most annoying noise among the following five construction stages.” According to ISO/TS 15666 [44], noise-induced annoyance was defined as “one person's individual adverse reaction to noise in various ways including dissatisfaction, bother, annoyance and disturbance” to the survey respondents.
+Types of construction machines.
+Various types of equipment are operated for building and civil construction, and these machines have different noise characteristics.
+As shown in Fig. 1, a total of 24 construction machines were listed in the questionnaire.
+Table 2 presents the measured noise levels of 24 construction machines, adapted from previous studies, as well as the classification of the temporal variability of each machine's noise.
+According to ISO 2204 [45], the temporal characteristics of noise can generally be divided into steady and non-steady noise.
+Steady noise is noise that exhibits relatively low temporal variation (e.g., air compressor and asphalt finisher).
+Non-steady noise can be subdivided into fluctuating noise (e.g., concrete plant and concrete mixer), intermittent noise (e.g., gangform demolition and demolition machines), and impulse noise, of which the latter may refer to either discrete impulse noise (e.g., hammer machine and pistol) or quasi-steady impulse noise (e.g., breaker and jack hammer).
+The participants were asked to select the machines that they felt were the most annoying during each of the five construction stages with the following question:
+“In the listed 24 construction machines, choose machines at each construction stage that produce the most annoying noise.” The participants were allowed to choose multiple construction machines in each construction stage.
+Subjective assessment of adverse impacts of construction noise at work
+In this study, four adverse impacts of noise (annoyance, work performance, work safety, and speech interference) that are associated with subjective effects in the workplace were selected to assess the perceived adverse effects of noises at construction sites.
+Noise annoyance was assessed with the following question:
+“Thinking about the last (12 months or so), evaluate the noise annoyance when you are working at a construction site.” The adverse effect of noise on work performance was evaluated using the following question:
+“Thinking about the last (12 months or so), evaluate the adverse effect of noise on work performance when you are working at a construction site.” The effect of noise on work safety was assessed using the following question:
+“Thinking about the last (12 months or so), evaluate the adverse effect of noise on your work safety when you are working at a construction site.” The speech interference was evaluated with the following question:
+“Thinking about the last (12 months or so), evaluate the adverse effect of noise on speech communication with your coworkers when you are working at a construction site.” According to the ISO/TS 15666 [44], the participants were asked to evaluate the degree of the adverse impacts of noise of the four items listed above based on their working experiences at construction sites by using an 11-point numerical rating scale (0:
+not at all and 10 extremely).
+Twenty-four construction machines.
+All statistical analyses were performed using a statistical software package, SPSS (version 23.0, IBM, USA).
+The percentage of the responses to adverse construction stages and machines were calculated.
+Analysis of variance (ANOVA) tests were conducted to examine the differences in subjective assessments according to the personal and situational factors of the respondents.
+In all ANOVA tests, post-hoc comparisons were conducted using the Tukey's Honest Significant Difference (HSD) test for multiple comparisons.
+Spearman's rank correlation coefficient among the adverse impacts of noise for each independent group (noise sensitivity, main jobs, and years of working) was calculated to explore relationships between the adverse impacts of noise and to compare the coefficients regarding independent groups.
+The correlation coefficients retrieved from different groups were tested against each other using Fisher's z transformation [50,51].
+Lastly, multiple regression analyses with all independent variables (noise sensitivity, type of job, and years of working) based on dummy variables were conducted to estimate their effects on the subjective adverse impacts of noise at construction sites.
+Annoying construction stages and machines in terms of noise
+This section discusses the adverse effects of construction noise in terms of construction stages and machines.
+The construction stage rated the most annoying is first evaluated and construction machines that contributed to the annoyance are examined.
+Annoying construction stages
+Respondents selected the construction stage they considered to be the most annoying.
+The results showed that the demolition stage was rated as the most annoying stage with 60.7% of the total responses, followed by the foundation stage with 23.6% of the total responses, earthworks (8.7%), and concrete works (6.1%).
+Less than 1% of the participants selected the other construction stages (e.g., construction finishing or pavement stage) as the annoying construction stage.
+Annoying construction machines
+The percentage for each construction machine that the participants selected as the most annoying construction machine at each construction stage was calculated.
+Fig. 2 shows the percentages of the most annoying of the 24 construction machines in the four construction stages (demolition, foundation, earthwork, and concrete construction).
+It was found that the primary noise sources differ across the four construction stages as the primary tasks of each stage differ.
+In the demolition stage, the bulk of the respondents identified the breaker as the most annoying machine (61.3%), followed by the demolition machine (9.3%) and gang-form demolition (9.0%).
+During foundation work, construction managers rated the pile driver as the most annoying piece of construction equipment with 42.2% of the total responses.
+Participants selected the hammer compactor (20.5%) and excavator (15.4%) as the primary noise sources during the earthwork stage.
+In the concreting stage, the concrete pump car was rated as the most annoying noise source (35.7%).
+Effects of personal factors on noise impact at work
+In this section, the self-reported adverse impacts of construction noise on annoyance, work performance, work safety, and speech interference for construction managers are analyzed.
+In particular, the
+Construction equipment noise level measured 15 m away from the source and classification of noise in terms of temporal variability (steady, fluctuating, intermittent, discrete impulse, or quasi-steady impulse noise) according to ISO 2204.
+Name of machine
+Classification of noise
+(b) Asphalt finisher
+(c) Asphalt plant
+(f) Compactor
+(h) Concrete plant
+(q) Gang-form demolition
+(s) Hammer compactor
+(w) Pile extractor
+differences in the self-reported adverse impacts in terms of personal (noise sensitivity) and situational (types of jobs and years of working in the construction industry) are examined based on the survey responses.
+Similar to previous studies [16,27], the participants were divided into three groups based on their standardized noise sensitivity rating score and cumulative probability:
+0–32%, 33–66%, and 67–100% corresponding to high-sensitivity (HS), medium-sensitivity (MS), and lowsensitivity (LS) groups, respectively.
+This approach is useful for dividing the groups with a relative indicator for noise sensitivity within the participants.
+Additionally, regarding an absolute indicator for noise sensitivity, all participants grouped into “MS” (n = 100) had a self-reported noise sensitivity of “5,” which indicates “moderate noise sensitivity” level on the 11-point numerical rating scale.
+The mean sensitivity rating scores of “LS” (n = 181) and “HS” (n = 165) were 3.1 (SD = 1.0) and 7.2 (SD = 1.0).
+In addition, there were significant mean differences among the three noise sensitivity groups (F2, 458 = 956.84, p < 0.001), demonstrating that the participants were ideally divided into three noise sensitivity groups with respect to both relative and absolute indicators of noise sensitivity.
+The mean rating scores for the self-reported adverse impacts of construction noise in terms of the three noise sensitivity groups are plotted in Fig. 3.
+It was found that there are significant differences in the adverse impacts of noise according to the noise sensitivity groups.
+Overall, the mean rating scores of the HS group for four adverse impacts of noise were the highest, followed the MS and LS groups.
+One-way ANOVAs were conducted for four adverse impacts of construction noises in terms of the noise sensitivity groups.
+The ANOVA results show that the main effect of noise sensitivity was statistically significant across the four adverse impacts of noise:
+annoyance (F2, 452 = 11.47, p < 0.001) work performance (F2, 452 = 33.76, p < 0.001), work safety (F2, 452 = 26.78, p < 0.001), and speech interference (F2, 452 = 27.75, p < 0.001).
+Tukey HSD post-hoc tests revealed that participants grouped into HS reported construction noises to be more adverse than those in the MS and LS groups at 0.01 significance level.
+In addition, the LS group exhibited significantly lower scores with regard to adverse impacts on work performance (p = 0.003), work safety (p = 0.004), and speech interference (p < 0.001) compared with the MS group.
+There was no significant difference between the LS and MS groups with regard to noise annoyance (p = 0.90).
+These results
+Percentage of each construction machine selected as the most annoying machine at each construction stage.
+Mean rating scores of self-reported adverse impacts of noise on noise annoyance, work performance, work safety, and speech interference in construction sites according to noise sensitivity groups (LS, MS, and HS).
+Error bars indicate 95% confidence intervals, and asterisks indicate statistically significant differences in mean rating scores between groups according to Tukey's HSD post-hoc test (*p < 0.05).
+indicate that noise sensitivity of construction managers could be a critical personal factor influencing the adverse impact of noise at construction sites.
+To explore the differences in relationships between the adverse impacts of noise regarding noise sensitivity groups, Spearman's correlation coefficients were calculated.
+Table 3 presents the correlation coefficients among the adverse items affected by construction noise (annoyance, work performance, work safety, and speech interference) in terms of the three noise sensitivity groups.
+Although all adverse items are significantly correlated, the strength of correlations are different across the three noise sensitivity groups.
+The correlation coefficients among the four adverse impacts of noise were compared across the three noise sensitivity groups based on Fisher's z transformation.
+The results showed that the correlation coefficient between work performance and work safety for the LS group was significantly smaller than those for MS (p = 0.006) and HS (p = 0.001) groups.
+In addition, relatively stronger correlations between work performance and speech interference were found in the HS group than in the LS group (p = 0.008).
+These findings indicate that the correlation between work performance and other adverse items of noises strengthens as individual noise sensitivity increases.
+Effect of types of jobs and years of working in a construction industry
+To investigate the effects of the primary jobs of participants at construction sites, the mean rating scores of adverse items of noise are plotted for three primary jobs (building construction, civil construction,
+Spearman's rank correlation coefficients among adverse impacts of noises with three noise sensitivity groups.
+Low sensitivity (LS):
+n = 181, Medium sensitivity (MS):
+n = 100, and High sensitivity (HS):
+Work performance
+Work performance
+and safety management), as shown in Fig. 4.
+Other types of jobs, such as administration, were not considered as only 16 participants (3.5%) were categorized into other types of jobs as presented in Table 1.
+A oneway ANOVA was performed to examine the statistical mean differences in the adverse impacts among types of jobs at a construction site.
+The ANOVA results showed that the effects of types of main job were not statistically significant in annoyance (F2, 436 = 0.57, p = 0.57), work performance (F2, 436 = 1.57, p = 0.21), work safety (F2, 436 = 1.98, p = 1.39), or speech interference (F2, 436 = 1.65, p = 0.19).
+This indicates that types of jobs of construction managers do not affect the mean values of self-reported adverse impacts of noise on construction sites.
+However, it was found that there were differences in correlations between the four adverse impacts of noise regarding the types of primary jobs as listed in Table 4.
+Overall, the respondents in civil construction and safety management exhibited relatively higher correlations between the four adverse impacts of noise than those for building construction.
+The correlation coefficients among the four adverse impacts of noise were compared in terms of three different types of job using Fisher's z transformation.
+The results revealed that correlations between noise annoyance and the other adverse items (work performance, work safety, and speech interference) for the building construction group were significantly lower than for the civil construction and safety management groups at a 0.01 significance level.
+In addition, it was found that civil construction managers exhibited significantly greater correlations between the adverse impacts of noise on work safety and work performance (ρ = 0.80) than building construction managers (ρ = 0.64) at a 0.01 significance level.
+These results for comparing correlation coefficients also showed that construction managers in the safety management group exhibited a significantly greater correlation between work safety and speech interference (ρ = 0.88) compared to those in building (ρ = 0.68) and civil construction (ρ = 0.81) at 0.01 and 0.05 significance levels, respectively.
+The comparisons of the correlation coefficients between the groups demonstrate that the interrelationships between the adverse impacts of noise can be influenced by the primary jobs and tasks of construction managers.
+Although no significant differences were found in the mean rating scores for each adverse item regarding various jobs from the ANOVA tests.
+Fig. 5 shows the mean rating scores of adverse impacts of noise on four items in terms of years of working in a construction company.
+The ANOVA results showed that the effect of the working years of the participants is not statistically significant for annoyance (F3, 451 = 0.39,
+Mean rating scores of self-reported adverse impacts of noise on noise annoyance, work performance, work safety, and speech interference on construction sites according to primary jobs (building construction, civil construction, and safety management).
+Error bars indicate 95% confidence intervals.
+Spearman's rank correlation coefficients among adverse impacts of noises with three main jobs (Building construction:
+n = 144, Civil construction:
+n = 234, and Safety management:
+Work performance
+Work performance
+p = 0.76), work performance (F3, 451 = 1.31, p = 0.27), work safety
+(F3, 451 = 0.36, p = 0.78), and speech interference (F3, 451 = 0.16, p = 0.93).
+Furthermore, as presented in Table 5, no trends of correlations between the four adverse impacts were observed across the years of working.
+Comparisons of the correlation confidents using Fisher's z
+Spearman's rank correlation coefficients among adverse impacts of noises with years of working (< 5 y:
+n = 120, 5–10 y:
+n = 180, 10–15 y:
+n = 91. and 15 y < :
+Years of working
+Work performance
+Work performance
+Mean rating scores of self-reported adverse impacts of noise on noise annoyance, work performance, work safety, and speech interference on construction sites according to years of working in a construction company.
+Error bars indicate 95% confidence intervals.
+transformation showed that there were no significant differences overall in the correlation coefficients among years of working.
+This indicates that the number of years of working at a construction Table 6
+Regression models for four adverse impacts of noise with dummy variables (noise sensitivity, type of job, and years of working).
+D1–D3 indicates dummy variables;
+noise sensitivity and type of job, which have three levels, produced two dummy variables (D1 and D2), while years of working, which has four levels, created three dummy variables (D1–D3). “β” indicates standardized regression coefficients.
+Caret “ˆ” indicates baseline level.
+Fit of model
+Type of job:
+Type of job D1:
+Type of job D2:
+Years of working:
+Years of working
+Years of working
+Work performance
+Fit of model
+Type of job:
+Type of job D1:
+Type of job D2:
+Years of working
+Years of working
+Years of working D3:
+Fit of model
+Type of job:
+Type of job D2:
+Years of working:
+Years of working
+Years of working
+Years of working D3:
+Fit of model
+Type of job:
+Type of job D1:
+Type of job D2:
+Years of working:
+Years of working
+Years of working D3:
+company is not a critical factor influencing the assessment of adverse impacts of construction noise for construction managers.
+Estimation of adverse impact of noise
+Multivariate linear regression analyses were performed with all independent variables (noise sensitivity, type of job, and years of working) to explain the adverse impacts of noise (noise annoyance, work performance, work safety, and speech interference).
+The self-reported noise sensitivity rating score was used as an input variable.
+Dummy variables with possible values of “0” and “1” were used for the type of job and years of working.
+The type of job was described by two dummy variables (D1 and D2) for each adverse effect of noise.
+Three dummy variables were used for years of working for each adverse effect of noise (D1–D3).
+Table 6 summarizes the results of the regression analyses.
+All regression models indicated statistically significant results for noise annoyance (F6, 432 = 4.52, p < 0.001), work performance (F6, 432 = 13.78, p < 0.001), work safety (F6, 432 = 12.73, p < 0.001), and speech interference (F6, 432 = 11.32, p < 0.001).
+Similar to the results of the aforementioned ANOVAs, only the self-reported noise sensitivity had significant positive influences on the adverse effects of noise (p < 0.001), whereas the effects of job type and years of working were not significant.
+The regression models clearly demonstrated that the subjective adverse impacts of noise increased as the individual noise sensitivity increased.
+Regarding the goodness-of-fit for the regression models, the regression model for noise annoyance had a lower R2 value (0.06) than R2 values for work performance (0.16), work safety (0.15), and speech interference (0.14).
+This implies that the noise sensitivity score might be a better predictor for adverse impacts on work performance, work safety, and speech interference than those on noise annoyance.
+Construction tasks-based noise control on construction sites
+The acoustic characteristics of construction noises vary with both time and tasks throughout the construction process [6].
+In this context, these survey results provide a subjective evaluation of construction managers on the degree of adverse impacts of noise across the construction stages.
+This information can be useful to identify tasks generating high noise annoyance and to effectively control the overall risk of adverse impact of noise at sites with respect to construction stages and machines.
+According to the survey results, approximately 93.1% of the participants choose the early stages of construction (i.e., demolition (60.7%), foundation (23.6%), and earthwork (8.7%)) to be the most annoying.
+In other words, concreting and finishing work generate relatively less annoying noise than the early stages of construction.
+These results are supported by the findings of previous studies.
+Neitzel et al. [3] reported that not only mean noise exposure levels but also mean noise exposure time in site preparation and structural work stages were greater than those in the finishing work stage.
+Ballesteros et al. [1] also showed that the mean noise level measured in the excavation stage was approximately 73.5 dBA, which was higher than those in other stages such as framework, brickwork, and roof work.
+The survey results also identified specific construction machines as the primary sources of annoying noise across the different stages of construction, as each stage consists of different activities and tasks and requires different types of machines.
+For instance, a breaker machine, a pile driver, and a concrete pump car were identified as the primary construction equipment at demolition, foundation, and concreting stages, respectively.
+In addition, since the construction machines exhibit various acoustic characteristics with regard to power and temporal aspects [7,10], not only noise levels but also temporal characteristics of a machine may affect the perception of an annoying construction machine at each stage.
+In the demolition stage, the participants identified three main annoying construction noise sources;
+breaker, demolition machine, and gang-form demolition, whose measured noise levels were 88.7, 65.9, and 105.0 dBA, respectively.
+Although breaker noise is lower than the noise level of gang-form demolition, breaker was selected as the most annoying construction machine.
+This result can be explained by the acoustic characteristics of breaker noise and gangform demolition.
+The temporal structure of breaker noise can be characterized as quasi-steady impulse noise consisting of continuous burst sounds with a duration of less than 1 s.
+Meanwhile, noise from gang-form demolition is intermittent noise.
+A pile driver that emits higher noise level at 89.2 dBA with a high temporal variation of sounds [7] was perceived as more annoying compared to the other identified construction machines (pile extractor, earth auger, etc.) in the foundation stage.
+These findings correspond well with those of previous studies, according to which rapid impulse noise is more annoying than stationary or intermittent noise [7,52,53].
+These findings demonstrate the importance of establishing relevant noise control and mitigation strategies with more attention to the acoustic characteristics of the primary machinery used in the various construction stages [1].
+Personal and situational factors-based noise control on construction
+As a personal factor, individual sensitivity to noise was found to be a critical factor significantly affecting the self-reported adverse impacts of noise at construction sites, which is in agreement with the findings of previous studies [16,27,29,54].
+In addition, interestingly enough, significantly different correlation coefficients among the adverse items of noise were observed regarding the types of jobs at construction sites.
+This indicates that the interrelationships between the adverse effects of noise could differ depending on the primary roles and working areas for specific types of construction jobs.
+This supports the findings of previous studies [30,55,56] in that the influence of occupational noise exposure on determining subjective responses to noise is contingent upon the types of tasks in the workplace.
+Interrelationships between the adverse effects of noise at construction sites may reflect a variety of environmental and job characteristics of construction managers.
+For building construction managers, perceived annoyance caused by construction noises is less related to other adverse impacts on work performance, safety, and speech interference, whereas more significant correlations were found between the adverse impacts of noise with regard to the four items for the civil construction and safety management groups.
+The primary tasks for construction managers in the building construction group are typically performed indoors after the building structure (e.g., building frames and floors) is completed, while tasks for the civil construction and safety management groups are conducted outdoors at construction sites.
+Therefore, noise annoyance for the building construction group is less related to work performance, safety, and speech interference than for the civil construction and safety management groups.
+For civil construction managers, the correlation between work safety and work performance was significantly stronger than that for building construction managers.
+One possible explanation for this is that civil construction managers typically work in open construction sites where construction machines such as breakers, pile drivers, and excavators operate and generate high noise levels, thereby resulting in greater correlation between the impacts of noise on work performance and work safety than for the other groups.
+The primary role of safety managers is to implement risk assessment processes to reduce the likelihood and severity of accidents at construction sites.
+For safety managers, communication with construction workers is one of the critical factors that enhance safety measures and a safety culture at construction sites [57].
+In this sense, safety managers can perceive that communication interference from noise could adversely contribute to accidents at construction sites, resulting in high correlations between speech interference and work safety.
+The findings in this study also demonstrate that specific noise control measures should be established by taking job characteristics (e.g., main tasks and working environment) into account.
+For instance, although typically construction workers rely on hearing protection devices (HPDs) as a means of reducing noise exposure without considering the roles of jobs in construction sites, safety managers might be reluctant to use HPDs in construction because of concerns about the ability to communicate and issue warnings.
+The results of this survey prove that they are sensitive to noise in terms of work safety and speech interference.
+In this case, special HPDs that include communication headsets could be used for workers who depend primarily on communication on construction sites [2,34,58].
+Limitations and future work
+This study has several inherent limitations.
+There are two approaches to measure individual noise sensitivity:
+single-item question and multiple-item scales.
+Weinstein's Noise Sensitivity (WNS) scale [59] or Griefahn's Noise-Sensitivity Questionnaire (NoiSeQ) [60] are multiple-item scales that measure noise sensitivity.
+Even though many researchers have used a single item to evaluate individual noise sensitivity [38–42], some reported that individual noise sensitivity measured by multiple-item scales exhibited more reliable results than the singleitem scale [27,61].
+Therefore, it is necessary to apply multiple questions to assess workers' noise sensitivities in the future to enhance the reliability of the results.
+The job characteristics can also be defined by multiple questions on various factors such as skill variety, autonomy, task identity, and feedback from the job itself [62].
+However, the multiple questionnaire items to characterize the main jobs at construction sites were not included in this study.
+Therefore, future research is necessary to identify specific job characteristics of construction managers using multiple questions, which might affect the adverse impact of noise.
+In addition, it should be noted that this study is based on survey responses from a single construction company.
+Even though the company was large enough and there were enough participants, in the future, the survey should be expanded to other construction companies to obtain more generalized conclusions because different construction companies might have different management policies and cultures.
+Additionally, note that Fisher's z-transformation to test the differences between the groups in terms of personal and situational factors is only applicable to correlation coefficients in some cases.
+This is limited to provide a generalized model to explain the adverse impacts of noise with independent variables.
+Last, this study is based on a survey that does not provide physical construction noise data such as the measured noise levels of construction stages and machinery and the operating times of tasks [6].
+In the future, construction noise monitoring should be conducted to collect actual noise level data throughout the entire construction process.
+The subjective adverse effects of construction noise were investigated for construction managers through a survey, and it was found that annoyance of noise differs across different construction stages and machines.
+Of the construction stages, the demolition and foundation stages were found to be more annoying than the other construction stages due to the acoustic characteristics of machinery used in these stages.
+The machines used in these stages produce higher noise emission levels with high temporal variability than those of other construction machines used in the other stages.
+The noises generated from the breaker (quasi-steady impulsive noise) and pile driver (discrete impulse noise) were rated as the most annoying construction machines in the demolition and foundation stages, respectively.
+Regarding the personal and situational factors of construction managers, noise sensitivity of construction managers significantly affected the assessment of adverse impacts of noise on annoyance, work performance, work safety, and speech interference.
+Meanwhile, the effect of years of working on the assessment of the self-rated adverse impacts of construction noise was not significant.
+The effect of job type was also not statistically significant on the self-rated adverse impacts of construction noise.
+However, significantly different interrelationships among the adverse impacts of noise were observed in case of the types of construction jobs.
+The findings of this study will provide comprehensive knowledge for both occupational health specialists and construction workers to ensure better noise management planning for decreasing exposure to high-noise in construction.
+Acknowledgment
+This work was supported by a 2017-Research Grant from Youngsan University (2018000288), Republic of Korea.

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+A system dynamics model for assessing the impacts of design errors in construction projects
+a Department of Architectural Engineering, University of Seoul, Seoul, Republic of Korea b School of Built Environment, Curtin University of Technology, Perth, Australia c School of Engineering and Applied Science, Columbia University, NY, United States
+a b s t r a c t
+Article history:
+Received 30 March 2011
+Received in revised form 14 June 2011 Accepted 15 June 2011
+Schedule revision
+Design errors leading to rework and/or design changes are considered to be the primary contributor to schedule delays and cost overruns in design and construction projects.
+While design errors are deemed prevalent, most design and construction firms do not measure the number of errors they create, thereby having limited knowledge regarding their mechanism to undermine project performance.
+To address this, a system dynamics model has been developed to capture the dynamics of design errors and systematically assess their negative impacts.
+This paper reports on the development of the model, and its application to a university building project.
+The results indicate that design errors can significantly delay project schedule in spite of continuous schedule recovery actions taken by construction managers.
+The case study also shows that schedule pressure can propagate the negative impact of design errors to numerous construction activities, including those that are not directly associated with the errors.
+Finally, the case study confirms that the developed model can more rigorously assess the negative impact of design errors, which is often underestimated by practitioners.
+Based on these results, it is concluded that the developed model can assist project managers in better understanding the dynamics of design errors and recovering delayed schedule, particularly under schedule pressure.
+© 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
+Introduction
+Despite advances in construction equipment and management techniques, major schedule delays and substantial cost overruns persist in design and construction projects [1–5].
+US General Accounting Office [6] reported that its 20 civil infrastructure projects across 17 states, with estimated total cost ranging from $205 million to $2.6 billion, experienced significant cost overruns ranging from around 40% to 400%.
+This trend is not limited to projects in the United States.
+Latham [7] reported that only 70% of projects in the United Kingdom were delivered within 5% of the tender cost and only 38% within 5% of the tender program.
+Bromilow [8] also claimed that only one-eighth of Australian building contracts were completed within the scheduled completion dates and that the average schedule overrun exceeded 40%.
+Flyvbjerg et al. [9] analyzed 258 mega-projects undertaken across 20 countries, concluding that cost overruns were found in 90% of these projects;
+and that such cost escalation is not a new phenomenon, but has persisted over the past 70 years.
+This broad range of research is evidence that schedule delay and cost overruns are the rule rather than the exception in the construction industry [5].
+Corresponding author.
+0895-7177/$ – see front matter © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
+Rework has been identified as an endemic problem in construction and engineering projects, and a major contributor to schedule delays and cost overruns [10].
+Rework has been defined by Love [11] as ‘‘the unnecessary effort of redoing a process or task that was incorrectly implemented the first time’’.
+Rework, on average, contributes to 52% of total cost overrun, and can increase schedule overrun by 22% [10].
+It has also been found that 5%–20% of the contract value can be attributed to rework in construction and engineering projects [12,10].
+A major contributor to rework is design error.
+When an error is identified, it often requires rework to be undertaken, which involves additional time and resource expenditure [13,14].
+Unfortunately, regardless of an individual’s skill level, experience or education, errors may occur at any time due to the physiological and psychological limitations of humans [15].
+Reason [16] contends that it is often the most qualified and highly competent individuals that commit errors with the most detrimental consequences.
+In general, design and construction firms do not measure the number of errors they create and, in particular, they generally fail to undertake appropriate design reviews, verifications and audits [17,18].
+Accordingly, errors are often not identified immediately, but tend to transpire after a period of incubation in the system [19].
+After some time, these errors are detected and the need for rework is identified, increasing the amount of remaining work [20–22].
+The degree of rework required grows when errors remained undetected for longer periods of time [23].
+Tsang and Zahra [24] suggest that the causes and effects of errors are not unidirectional or linear, but are reciprocal and looped in their relationships.
+In the pursuit of error and rework reduction, it is necessary to understand how such relationships emerge and interact with one another [25].
+Based on this recognition, this paper aims to develop a system dynamics model to assist in better understanding the complex mechanism of design errors in which they damage project performance.
+Design errors in construction projects
+Human error can be defined as ‘‘the failure of planned actions to achieve their desired goal, where this occurs without some unforeseeable or chance intervention’’ [26].
+Erroneous decisions made during design can occur due to impaired human cognition [27], particularly when designers experience workplace stress due to schedule and cost pressures [28].
+Designers’ cognitive processes can propagate throughout projects they work on and the wider organization, and this may increase the occurrence of errors [23].
+Designers may omit to:
+involve others in design decisions, inform others of assumptions made, elicit other’s needs and schedules, or understand the history of problem solving in a replicated design [27].
+Love et al.’s [29] phenomenological approach proves that the uncertainty and inevitability of error are not perceptions, but are a reality for design consultants, resulting from the exogenous factors influencing their ability to perform tasks effectively.
+These factors include schedule pressure, design fees, client procurement strategy and skilled labor supply.
+In practice, many design and construction organizations pay limited attention to errors and the resulting rework or failures that may occur [17,30,25,29].
+The size and complexity of a project, the number of professionals involved in its design and construction, and the complexities of procurement and price determination for services contribute to the potential for ‘iatrogenic’ impairment [23].
+Other systemic problems may include lack of design reviews, checks and verifications, re-use of specification and details, unrealistic schedules, understaffing, and lack of project governance [29].
+Triggered by these various factors, design errors can significantly lower project performance by generating rework, requiring additional time and resource expenditure.
+Furthermore, if errors are discovered during construction, additional time and resources may be required for demolition of incorrectly constructed components.
+Because of this additional time and cost, construction managers tend to avoid rework on problematic activities by modifying designs and specifications [1].
+Particularly in highly uncertain circumstances, there is an over-reliance on scope changes to solve problems that may arise during construction, installation and commissioning [23].
+However, if impacts of sudden changes in scope or design are not thoroughly assessed, they often induce additional problems by significantly altering project execution sequences and/or resource profiles.
+Burati et al. [31] found that 79% of rework costs arising in industrial engineering projects were the result of design changes, errors and omissions.
+Similarly, Love [11] revealed that design change orders resulting in rework can account for as much as 50% of project cost overrun.
+Not only do design errors result in rework and/or sudden design change, they are also one of the main reasons for unreliable progress monitoring, which causes recovery actions taken by project managers to be ineffective.
+Cooper [20] contended that undetected rework is the main driver of discrepancies between real progress and perceived progress.
+Since project managers take schedule recovery actions based on perceived progress, the effectiveness of recovery actions diminishes as the gap between perceived and real progress widens.
+This in turn lowers the chances of on-time project completion.
+As hidden rework is discovered, construction managers realize that real progress is less than they had perceived, and that there is much more work remaining than was perceived.
+This can cause schedule pressure amongst project managers, inducing latent conditions where further errors are likely.
+In an effort to meet a project’s schedule completion date, additional resources may be employed;
+however, such action may lead to a contradictory effect [32].
+By exceeding the limits of concurrency, complexity increases and tasks are delayed, particularly when revisions, repairs and rework occur [33].
+Pate and Cornell [34] suggests that schedule pressure not only increases the probability of errors occurring (e.g., erroneous execution in the construction stage), but also decreases the chances that they are detected using regular procedures.
+Design errors that may be deemed minor in nature are likely to be overlooked due to the time that it would invariably take to correct them [23].
+To create a robust model for assessing the impact of design errors on project performance, this paper first develops a schematic model that captures the dynamics of design errors.
+Then, based on the dynamics identified, a system dynamics model is introduced to further explain the complex mechanism of design errors, to analyze the way in which they damage project performance, and to measure the degree of this impact.
+The duration of an activity can be estimated by dividing the activity scope (i.e., the amount of work) by the production rate at which we WILL complete per time unit such as daily production (Fig. 1-(a)).
+For example, if 50 units of residential steel doors are to be installed and the nominal work rate of a given crew configuration is 5 units/day, 10 days will be the expected duration of the door installation process.
+However, as established above, if design errors (e.g., an incorrectly positioned door where it will intersect with pipelines) are not immediately identified, they are likely to be discovered during the construction stage and necessitate additional effort for rework.
+As a certain amount of effort would be wasted on rework (and sometimes also on demolition), this late error discovery may induce ‘variation in production’, which is the difference between what we WILL do and what we actually DID (Fig. 1-(b)).
+In order to compensate for lower production rates at early stages caused by ‘variation in production’, a longer duration than initially planned (‘planned duration and expected delay’) would be required to finish the work.
+Once the finish time for a given critical activity is delayed, this can delay the start time of its successor activities, which can trigger additional problems such as relocation of labor and procurement of resources.
+Considering this, it is not surprising that variation, especially of activity duration, is the main factor increasing the volume of non-value adding activities, thereby impairing project performance [35].
+In order to avoid this, construction managers would not just oversee the expected delay, but take schedule recovery actions in order to increase production rate and complete the activity within its planned duration [36–39] (Fig. 1-(c)).
+These schedule recovery actions may include assigning additional workers, hiring more productive equipment, or applying an overtime policy [39].
+Managerial actions are generally adopted in an attempt to avoid expected delay, but it should be noted that these actions may increase schedule pressure.
+Schedule pressure is calculated by dividing what we SHOULD in order to maintain a deadline with what we CAN do (Fig. 1-(d)).
+If what we SHOULD do is much greater than what we CAN do, construction managers tend to cut corners, which might mean direct omissions, but frequently it is as simple as not checking one’s work to the degree of detail necessary to find most of the error [40].
+Therefore, cutting corners often compromises quality standards, and the associated quality problems are not easily discovered until late in a project.
+In these cases, significant rework is often required.
+Therefore, in spite of a manager’s continuous effort to maintain the planned duration, ‘actual delay’ may take place and may increase the volume of non-value adding activities [35].
+In addition, if errors are made and not immediately detected under schedule pressure, but identified after work has begun on a successor activity, execution of the successor activity may then suffer from ‘variation in production’ in its early stages due to the late discovered errors.
+Then, this successor activity would also be executed under schedule pressure in order to meet its planned duration and finally result in erroneous execution and late discovery.
+As such, if design errors are not thoroughly addressed, their negative impact propagate through numerous construction activities.
+Accordingly, any variation of an activity in a construction schedule may impact the remaining activities, even if the variation does not involve these activities directly [41,14].
+This is one of the main reasons why construction managers continuously work under schedule pressure and experience schedule delays despite their best effort to recover delayed schedules [13].
+A system dynamics (SD) model was developed based on the dynamics of design errors identified through the schematic model.
+As shown in Fig. 2, this model evolved from highly established and validated models including those developed by Cooper [42], Richardson and Pugh [43], Abdel-Hamid [44], Ford and Sterman [45], Rodrigues and Williams [22],
+Park and Peña-Mora (2003) Lee et al. (2005)
+System dynamics model [expanded from [47];
+Evolved from [1,46,22,45,44,43,42]].
+Lyneis et al. [46], Park and Peña-Mora [1] and Lee et al. [47].
+The developed model consists of several sub-modules including ‘generic work execution’, ‘effort’, ‘precedence relationship’, ‘productivity’, ‘resource’, ‘progress measurement’ and ‘managerial control’.
+Among these modules, the ‘generic work execution’ module (Fig. 2) is a key component, underpinning the entire model structure.
+The ‘generic work execution’ model captures the dynamics of work execution within an activity.
+There are six possible states of any work item;
+namely WTD (Work To Do), WAI (Work Awaiting Inspection), WD (Work Done), WARFIR (Work Awaiting Request For Information Reply), WPUC (Work Pending until Upstream Correction) and WADCA (Work Awaiting
+Design Changes Approval).
+Available work items at a given time are introduced to the WTD through WIR (Work Introduction Rate), which is regulated by imposed precedence relationships with related activities (e.g., Start-to-Start or Finish-to-Start) and/or physical constraints within the given activity (e.g., second floor activity can start after completion of the first floor activity).
+Introduced work is initially stored in WTD. Work items in WTD are executed and then moved to WAI through WR (Work Rate), which is the product of the level of resources assigned and their productivity.
+Once work items are moved to WAI, they are inspected and only correctly executed work items are moved to WD through WCR (Work Completion Rate), while incorrectly executed work items are returned to WTD through IIRR (Immediately Identified Rework Rate).
+This is the basic structure of the ‘Rework Cycle’ [20].
+However, work items in WTD are not always ready to be executed.
+A representative example is discovery of design errors during construction (e.g., site conditions are not as expected and therefore design is not appropriate).
+In this situation, construction managers send RFIs (requests for information) to the design team and the work items related to the design errors cannot be executed until these design errors are corrected.
+This process is represented in the model through the movement of some work items from WTD to WARFIR through RFIR (Request For Information Rate).
+Once clarification from the design team arrives, the work related with design errors can be executed.
+This process is represented by moving work items from WARFIR to WTD through RFIRR (Request For Information Reply Rate).
+On the other hand, regardless of design errors, RFI can be requested during construction when execution errors related with a predecessor activity are discovered.
+In this case, the current activity may be disrupted until the previous activity is corrected.
+This is represented by two concurrent processes:
+the movement of work items from WARFIR to WPUC through UCRR (Upstream Correction Request Rate) in the current activity and the movement of work items from WD to WTD through LDRR (Late Discovered Rework Rate) in the predecessor activity.
+Once the predecessor is corrected, the current activity is ready for execution.
+This is captured by the movement of work items from WPUC to WTD through PWRR (Pending Work
+Sometimes, RFIs may result in design changes, particularly when it is not easy to correct design or execution errors made during a predecessor activity.
+In this case, work items in WARFIR move to WADCA through RFITDCR (Request For Information To Design Change Rate).
+Even when there are neither design errors nor execution errors, sudden design change orders (primarily due to owners’ or designers’ late request) can prevent execution of the current activity.
+In this case, some work items in WTD move to WADCA through DCR (Design Change Rate).
+Once a change order is issued, the change control board (CCB) carefully assesses the feasibility of the proposed change and makes a decision regarding whether or not the change should be implemented.
+Upon arrival at a CCD decision, execution of the current activity can resume.
+This is represented by the movement of work items from WADCA through either DCAR (Design Change Approval Rate) or DCRR (Design Change Reject Rate).
+When sudden design changes are approved during the execution of an activity, some work items already completed may need to be reworked if they are based on a superseded design document.
+This results in a transfer of some work items from WD to WTD through LDRR. As such, the quantity of work items in a given status at any point in time can be mathematically formulated as follows.
+where i = current activity, j = predecessor activity, and i, j ∈ {1, 2, 3,..., n}.
+As mentioned previously, WR is determined by the quantity of resources assigned, and their productivity in this module.
+In practice, when actual progress lags behind the planned progress, construction managers usually expedite the work rate in order to maintain progress in accordance with the planned project schedule.
+This model incorporates this managerial reaction.
+Therefore, WR in this model is not set to be a single, constant value, but is a dynamic value that can vary over the duration of a given activity.
+For example, if the perceived schedule is behind the planned schedule, the developed simulation model would increase the WR in imitation of recovery actions adopted by construction managers in practice (e.g., applying an overtime policy).
+Such an incorporation of managerial actions into the simulation model is a key to increase realism [36,48,39].
+The WR is also affected by the current progress due to the learning effect, which describes productivity improvements through repeated execution of a task.
+In addition, prolonged overtime may introduce the fatigue effect, which represents productivity deterioration due to weariness.
+Based on this recognition, WR at a given time in a give activity is calculated as follows.
+AssignedResource (AR), OverTime (OT), LearningEffect (LE) and FatigueEffect (FE) at a given time for a given activity are calculated in other sub-modules such as managerial control, productivity and progress measurement.
+These elements are not fully explained in this paper due to limited space.
+Linking with the generic execution module, the effort module was developed to estimate the amount of non-value added effort (NVAE) due to design errors, which is the difference between the assigned effort (AE) and the value added effort (VAE).
+For this, the effort module captures the amount of interruption via the work interrupted by the change order process (DCR) and the RFI process (RFIR).
+Furthermore, it measures other productivity loss by comparing actual work rate (WR) and nominal work rate.
+It also quantifies rework through the problems instantly identified by the inspection process (IIDR) and those lately discovered by the succeeding activities (LDRR).
+The total amount of wasted efforts due to design errors is calculated by integrating the effort squandered by interruption, other productivity loss and rework and then affects the work rate (WR) again by managerial reactions taken in order to meet the planned schedule.
+The developed model has been validated and verified in terms of its usefulness for assessing the impacts of design errors on project performance.
+Both the structure and behavior of the developed model was tested extensively under three distinct criteria:
+(1) suitability for purpose;
+(2) consistency with reality;
+(3) utility and effectiveness as suggested by Richardson and Pugh [43].
+An example of a method to test consistency of the model behavior with reality is an extreme condition test, which was conducted to determine whether the developed model behaved in a realistic manner under extreme values or policy.
+When no design errors were fed to the model (i.e., one extreme condition), the simulation result was exactly identical to the target schedule.
+Note that this model does not account for the impacts of other external factors such as weather or economic situation.
+Exclusion of these factors should not reject the validity of this model because a model is considered valid only for the purpose for which it is built, and not in absolute terms [49].
+A test used to prove the effectiveness of the model is a behavior reproduction test, which assesses the model’s ability to reproduce the behavior of interest.
+The details of the behavior reproduction test are provided through a case study in the following section.
+Case study:
+a university building project
+To test the applicability of the developed simulation model in terms of assessing the impact of design errors on project performance, a university building project was selected as a case study.
+General information about the project is summarized in Table 1.
+General information about the case study project.
+- Five-story building (four above-ground and one under-ground)
+- 18 classrooms, study areas, 24 interview rooms, an accountancy center, a market trading lab, and a 300-seat auditorium
+- Structural steels and concrete footings
+- Enveloped by aluminum curtain wall, brick and stone veneer with masonry
+- $42 million for construction
+Construction schedule
+- Original:
+March 2005 to July 2007 (30 months)
+- Revised (initial):
+May 2006 to May 2008 (24 months)
+- Delay and reduction of schedule due to approval/funding problems
+- The university’s first leadership in energy and environmental design (LEED) certified building project
+- Energy efficient windows, water conservation techniques, green roof systems, photovoltaic arrays, native plants, and recycling waste from construction
+It is the university’s long-term strategy that all future buildings should be LEED certified.
+In this sense, acquisition of the LEED certification is one critical success factor in this project as a ‘‘pilot building project’’.
+Typically, the university does not hire an external construction manager for projects, as an in-house project management team is able to perform the management task.
+However, in this case, the university hired an external construction manager to deal with additional complexities and risks related to acquisition of the LEED certification, and to reduce the construction schedule by 6 months in response to approval and funding problems.
+In order for a model to be utilized for assessing the impacts of design errors, the model first needs to reproduce current progress as closely as possible.
+The model can then be utilized to analyze the way in which design errors lower current performance and to forecast future performance.
+To this end, as of November 1st 2007, current progress was carefully analyzed by interviewing key project personnel (including the university project manager, construction manager, superintendent and scheduler) and reviewing relevant project documents such as a daily log, non-conformance report, RFIs and change order logs.
+In the pursuit of timely completion for this project, the construction manager closely monitored the project.
+While it is normal to assign one or two personnel for progress monitoring for a project of this size, four personnel were responsible for progress monitoring, including a member of the construction management group, the project manager, the junior engineer and the superintendent.
+As a result of independent monitoring by multiple parties, construction error potential was relatively low in this project.
+For timely progress measurement and schedule revision, three regular project meetings were held.
+First, foreman meetings were held every morning to monitor daily tasks and prevent potential disruption between related trades.
+Second, the construction manager and university project manager facilitated a meeting with project managers from each contract on a weekly basis.
+Finally, large group meetings were held once a month, usually running for one and a half days.
+Although the project management board invested their best efforts to effectively manage the project through methods described above, its actual progress was significantly delayed.
+As shown in Table 1, the initial planned project completion date was May 13th 2008.
+Extensive float was included in the initial schedule.
+Most of the activities had a range of 7 to 40 days float.
+However, due to unexpected schedule delays mostly resulting from design errors, its substantial completion was delayed to August 1st 2008, leaving the university only three weeks to move into the new building.
+This means less than one week per floor was allowed to install furniture and technology after substantial completion.
+Furthermore, since the schedule delays used up almost all float time allowed, the construction manager compressed every possible activity in order to meet the revised construction deadline (i.e., August 1st 2008).
+In addition, in order to prevent any further delay, the construction manager attempted to start all remaining activities as early as possible, even activities with plenty of float time.
+Because of this time constraint, some out-of-sequence activities were undertaken.
+For example, the interior walls were installed before the steel roof was fireproofed.
+On fireproofing the steel roof, the interior walls had to be protected and this significantly reduced workers’ productivity.
+Identified reasons of the schedule delay
+Several causes of schedule delays in the project were identified through interviewing key project personnel, including the construction manager, project manager for the university, the designer, and several superintendents.
+Project documents were also examined.
+While schedule delays in the project partially resulted from unforeseen weather conditions and unexpected ground conditions, the majority of the delays resulted from poor quality of design documents.
+An extreme example is that approximately 6 months were consumed in fixing design errors in construction documents for exterior walls.
+During this time, no work could be done in the left wing of the building.
+Another extreme example was double-paned windows installed on the exterior walls.
+Initially, 4-inch concrete blocks were designed to be placed between the double-paned windows, but were later found to be structurally insufficient to support the loads on the walls.
+It took another 6 months to redesign the wall, and no drywall installation could be executed for the interior of the building during that time.
+Another key factor impacting the schedule in this project was change orders.
+One major source for change orders was the defects of construction drawings (i.e., design errors).
+For example, the green roof was found to be structurally inadequate to support the quantity of soil it was intended to support.
+These types of errors were abundant in this project.
+Many design errors were discovered after construction had started, and significantly delayed progress and increased the cost of change orders.
+So far, more than 240 change orders were issued and most of them were required to rectify design errors.
+Change orders costing $4 million were approved, with a quarter of this amount attributed to design errors and omissions.
+(3) Long RFI and change approval time
+It was found that long RFI and change approval time also resulted in schedule delays in the project.
+Loss of key project personnel like construction managers or designers can be highly disruptive to communication and coordination [50].
+In the case project, two of the original architects were removed from the project after the design had been completed and construction had begun.
+Replacement architects were not fully familiar with the design.
+This posed problems when contractors submitted RFIs because the new architects could not respond quickly.
+They needed to accurately understand the previous architects’ work before responding to the RFIs. In addition to this, the university bureaucracy was identified as another cause of significant delay.
+The university bureaucracy is necessary to ensure that the resulting facility meets the satisfaction of all stakeholders, but from a management perspective, the various levels of bureaucracy, often in disagreement among themselves, add an additional layer of complexity to the project.
+As a result, the average time for a change order to be processed by the university was 88 days.
+This means that the construction of any related component is held up almost three months whenever a change order is required.
+Schedule revision history
+Fig. 3 shows the schedule revision history for the case project from November 15th 2006 to November 1st 2007.
+The project management team revised the schedule every month based on cumulative actual progress.
+Thus, during this period, the team made 13 revisions on the initial schedule.
+In order to avoid visual complexity, Fig. 3 shows progress at quarterly intervals.
+As observed in most university building projects, the case project was executed under a very strict schedule for opening for fall semester 2008, with classes for this building already scheduled.
+Thus, whenever the schedule was revised, the project management team attempted to maintain the planned deadline as closely as possible.
+Due to this nature, the further revision of the schedule resulted in the progress S-curve becoming ‘lazier’.
+In other words, progress at later stages became
+increasingly steeper, implying work was being performed under higher schedule pressure in order to recover wasted effort related to design errors at earlier stages of the project.
+As denoted by ‘A’ in Fig. 3, the progress of the earlier stage was very slow, because of (1) many late discovered design errors, (2) numerous RFIs and change orders, and (3) slow RFI replies and change approvals.
+Therefore, the project management team revised the schedule in order to keep the delayed progress on track.
+However, Fig. 3 shows that these revisions were not very effective in recovering the delayed progress.
+As denoted by ‘B’ in Fig. 3, the actual progress was repeatedly behind the revised progress.
+This was mainly triggered by execution under increasing schedule pressure, which not only increases the occurrence of errors, but also decreases the probability that of detection through regular procedures [34].
+One common feature observed in the schedule revision history is the project management team’s expectation of a very steep production rate (as shown in ‘C’ in Fig. 3), which may introduce additional risk such as productivity loss, execution errors, and incubation of these problems.
+The project management team continuously encountered risk of schedule delay, despite repeated revision of the schedule and their best efforts for timely completion.
+This fact may imply that the project management team underestimated the impacts of design errors and the additional risk resulting from schedule pressure, which is the latent condition for error generation.
+Fig. 4 shows a comparison of the initial schedule (developed at the beginning of construction), actual progress (as of November 1st 2007), progress forecasted by the project management team, and simulated progress.
+As shown in Fig. 4, the actual progress is far behind the planned progress.
+As denoted by ‘A’ in Fig. 4, the project delays began when 5% of the total progress was completed.
+This is mainly because detection of design errors began from that point in time.
+Also, Fig. 4 shows very slow progress until about the 200th working day, and the very slow progress at this stage is attributed to the combined effects of late discovered design errors and long RFI time resulting from change of key designers.
+Its initial planned construction duration was 522 working days, but as of the 280th working day (‘B’ in Fig. 4 which denotes more than half of the total construction duration), its actual progress was approximately 25%.
+As of November 1st 2007 (‘C’ in Fig. 4), actual progress was approximately 50%.
+Based on this actual progress, the project management team revised the schedule and tried to condense every activity where possible, in order to meet the revised construction deadline (August 1st 2008;
+‘D’ in Fig. 4).
+However, the developed simulation model results show that based on the actual performance, the project would be completed by November 15th 2008 (i.e., 3.5 months later than the planned completion), assuming the project management team were to maintain the same control policy.
+The major reason for this pessimistic estimation is that the developed model incorporates the impacts of hidden design errors on the remaining work, and additional risk resulting from higher schedule pressure.
+Certainly, this pessimistic estimation is not acceptable to the university, as the classes for this building are scheduled from August 2008.
+If the building were not completed by August 2008, the university would not provide the scheduled classes to its students.
+Therefore, it should be certainly completed by August 2008.
+However, according to the simulation results based on current progress as of November 2007, the progress would reach about 90% by August 2008.
+At last, despite the extensive use of shift work, the building was partially opened on August 2008 with only some teaching facilities available, due to urgent requirements for teaching space (e.g., classrooms and laboratories).
+Opening other facilities including staff rooms and study areas was postponed.
+After the building was opened, remaining work continued at night and over weekends during the semester, and the building was eventually completed in December 2008.
+While more verification effort is required for the application of the developed model, the case study shows that the model has a great potential in aiding construction managers to assess negative impact of design errors in a more systematic way.
+Conclusions
+Design errors are a major contributor to rework, which ultimately leads to schedule delays and cost overruns in design and construction projects.
+While eradication of all design errors is desirable to dramatically enhance project performance, this is practically impossible due to the physiological and psychological limitations of humans.
+Therefore, it is imperative to systematically assess the impact of design errors through understanding their mechanism to undermine project performance.
+In an attempt to address this issue, this paper introduced a system dynamics model that can assess the impacts of design errors based on the recognition that the causes and effects of committing errors are not unidirectional or linear, but are reciprocal and looped in their relationships.
+Application of the model to a university building project confirmed that design errors are one of the main causes of significant schedule delays despite construction managers’ best efforts to deliver timely completion of the project.
+The model application confirmed that design errors can be incubated for a long period of time, and identified, in some cases, after construction begins, significantly increasing schedule pressure.
+Schedule pressure is the latent condition of generating further errors where the negative impact of design errors can be transferred to numerous construction activities, including those that seem not to be directly related with the errors.
+Finally, the case study proved that construction managers tend to have optimism bias in estimating the recovery of delayed schedules, and this results in underestimation of the negative impacts of hidden design errors and schedule pressure.
+The developed model was proven to be a more objective and comprehensive tool to assess the impact of hidden errors and schedule pressure.
+A key expected benefit of the model, therefore, is to assist construction managers in better understanding the dynamics of design errors and more effectively recovering delayed schedules.
+This paper strode a meaningful step to better understanding and assessing the impact of design errors.
+However, further verification is required in order to obtain a general understanding about the mechanism of design errors, and the way in which they can undermine project performance.
+A method to how we can prevent their negative impact is another finding to be generalized by further verification.
+The authors are currently analyzing various projects using the developed simulation model.
+Another research direction of the authors is to estimate the benefit of conducting a constructability review prior to construction, in order to identify hidden errors and complications as early as possible.
+These works will be reported in papers currently in preparation.

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+An integrated safety management with construction management using 4D CAD model
+a School of Civil Engineering, Institute of Engineering, Suranaree University of Technology, Nakhon Ratchasima, Thailand b Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Ubon Ratchathani University, Ubon Ratchathani, Thailand
+Article history:
+Received 20 March 2009
+Received in revised form 17 August 2009
+Accepted 17 September 2009
+Construction safety
+Working-at-height
+This paper describes an integrated system for safety and construction management using the 4D CAD model.
+Safety is integrated with the construction management process throughout design, planning and control phases.
+Design information about building components and planning information about activities has been gathered to formulate the 4D CAD model.
+The rule-based system analyzes this combined information to automatically detect any working-at-height hazards and also indicates necessary safety measures in terms of activities and requirements.
+These safety measures are inserted into the construction schedule and visualized on the 4D CAD together with the other construction sequences.
+A prototype is developed and verified with a project case study.
+The results show that the developed system can be a collaboration tool for designers, project engineers, safety officers, and other project participants.
+It can raise safety awareness of the team and it leads to revisions of design and plan to be consistent with safety.
+Safety measures are apparently on the schedule;
+therefore, right resources are allocated, safety constraints are considered and alleviated ahead of time, and the safety control can explicitly refer to as well.
+This contributes to the success of safety management in the construction industry.
+2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
+Introduction
+Construction industry has a poor reputation of a high accident rate and hazardous activities on site.
+This reflects by the statistics of high accident rates in recent years in many countries (BLS, 2007;
+SSO, 2008).
+This problem causes loss of many lives, health, skilled personnel, compensation, and disrupting the production.
+It is a consequence of the failure of safety management on construction site.
+Traditionally, safety is managed separately from the construction (Hare et al., 2006).
+The construction management is focusing on productivity in aspects of time and cost.
+Safety usually conflicts with the production work and it is to blame for hindering the production work and costing some money.
+Construction management which is fragmented from safety management tends to disregard safety constraints within the construction process.
+Unless they are well integrated, the construction project never achieves the optimum benefit of the three vital objectives i.e. cost, time, and safety.
+Many research studies have addressed on the lack of integration between construction and safety (Kartam, 1997;
+Gambatese and Hinze, 1999;
+Saurin et al., 2004;
+Cameron et al., 2004;
+* Corresponding author.
+0925-7535/$ - see front matter  2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
+et al., 2005;
+Navon and Kolton, 2006;
+Hare et al., 2006).
+These researchers suggested various approaches to integrate safety into the construction process including design, planning, and control phases.
+The issue is strongly reinforced by the Construction Design and Management Safety (CDM) Regulations (HSE, 2007) which are aimed at improving the overall management and coordination of health and safety throughout all stages of a construction project.
+The regulations were introduced with the intention of creating an integrated approach to health and safety through the increased involvement of clients and designers (Hare et al., 2006).
+At the design phase, designers can actually play an important role in early influencing construction safety (Behm, 2005;
+Gambatese et al., 2007).
+Their designs direct the choice of construction methods.
+Designers must realize their privilege and be capable of identifying risks and hazards in the resulting construction methods.
+They then avoided or reduced any risks and hazards through safer designs (Baxendale and Jones, 2000).
+A design tool was developed to assist designers in identifying project-specific safety hazards and to provide best practices to eliminate the hazards.
+These safety design suggestions can be accumulated to form the database of knowledge (Gambatese and Hinze, 1999).
+In addition, a virtual reality was used to stimulate and bring back perception of hazards and safety knowledge in both explicit and implicit forms.
+It could assist on the design-for-safety process (Hadikusumo and Rowlinson, 2004).
+A study indicated that designing for safety is a viable intervention in construction.
+It just needs a new design tool that assists designers in addressing safety in the design (Gambatese et al., 2005).
+However, some hazards may still be inherent even in the safest designs as it is the nature of the construction work.
+These remaining hazards need to be handled further in the following phase.
+During the planning phase, safety must be regarded as important as construction activities (Kartam, 1997).
+Safety and health requirements should be defined the same as the construction activities are in the work breakdown structure.
+These safety-related activities then must be included into the project schedule or Critical Path Method (CPM).
+The result is a proactive safety plan and an early involvement of safety in the project before hazards being created.
+The project team can be aware of the safety requirements along with their own tasks when reviewing the project schedule.
+Necessary resources for safety performance can also be properly allocated and procured in advance.
+Research studies explored planning tools for integrating health and safety in construction (Hare et al., 2006).
+Several tools such as safety information on drawings, a responsibility chart were attempted to cut off an amount of bureaucratic paper-work (Cameron and Hare, 2008).
+However, these proposed planning tools required a lot of effort and cooperation of the project team.
+It will be better if both construction and safety can be simultaneously planned or if a new tool can automatically give safety considerations for planners.
+Finally, at the control phase, the three-levels of effective monitoring of safety performance were suggested (Saurin et al., 2004).
+The percentage of safe work packages was used as an indicator of this multi-level safety plan against the actual work being performed.
+Also, a web-based safety and health monitoring system was developed to automatically assess the actual performance and advice corrective actions required using the knowledge base (Cheung et al., 2004).
+Despite a large investment required, sensor and transmitter devices were installed at the guardrails to realtime monitor their existence and alert when they were misplaced (Navon and Kolton, 2006).
+In addition, the degree of hazard, expressing in terms of accident costs, of each construction activity is evaluated using the simulation-based model (Wang et al., 2006).
+The results from the simulation would specify the critical factors relating to activities and then urge management to control them in order to reduce the possibility of accidents.
+Although the monitoring and control are the last resort to prevent an accident, they are heavily relied on the safety plan.
+The safety planning is very important because we cannot control what we did not plan for.
+Any unidentified hazards will not be planned for safety measures and still have potential to cause harms.
+It can be concluded that risks and hazards inherent in designs or construction methods must be identified as many as possible during the design and planning phases.
+Then, safety measures against
+Project value	Project type	Participant age (years)	Working experience (years)
+1 0.22	Academic building	38	5
+2 0.63	High-rise commercial building	27	1
+4 2.79	Academic building	44	15
+5 3.00	Hospital building	31	6 6	3.61	Academic building	32	7
+9 90.1	Metropolitan water-supply plant	30	8
+Descriptions of the construction project cases.
+those risks must be incorporated into the construction schedule as ordinary activities.
+Safety activities become visible through the project participants and have their own working time in the construction sequence.
+Also, necessary resources including time, responsible workers, and budget can be optimized and allocated.
+The planning and design phases provide a vital opportunity to eliminate hazards before they appear on the site and the ability to eliminate hazards diminishes as the project progresses (Gambatese et al., 2007).
+Finally, the safety performance can be properly measured and controlled.
+Although some concepts and developments have already existed, an effective and comprehensive tool for the integrated safety management is still lacking.
+A tool is needed for collaborating between construction and safety throughout the process (Hare et al., 2006).
+This research, therefore, aims to develop a holistic and automatic system tool that integrates safety into design, planning and control processes.
+The system is supported with database that encapsulated and accumulated safety knowledge including both explicit and implicit forms.
+Hence, it supports an early involvement of the relevant parties, provides decisive information about budget, schedule, and training.
+It also improves communication, raises awareness of the parties, and can be used for allocating resources and tracking performance.
+This paper presents the research which includes an investigation of the current practice on construction sites in Thailand and reviews of relevant literature.
+The design concept, development, result and evaluation of the system are described in the following sections.
+Safety management practice in construction
+This research has conducted a survey study to realize the current practice of safety management in construction projects in Thailand.
+Eleven ongoing construction projects have been used for the interview sessions.
+These projects varied in size and type i.e. a high-rise commercial building, condominiums, academic buildings, a hospital, a metropolitan water-supply plant and mass transit infrastructures.
+Details of these projects are given in Table 1.
+These projects were purposively selected to reflect the safety problem of the industry.
+Project engineers and/or safety officers were asked with the series of questions regarding their current safety management process and the troubles of implementation.
+Role and responsibility of safety officers were also asked.
+It was found that most projects did not systematically implement the safety management on site.
+Some projects which were a relatively small size did not have a safety officer.
+Project engineers took responsibility of managing safety.
+They were usually pressured by the work progress;
+hence, gave a focus on the production work.
+Safety instructions were inconsistently given to workers during their supervision.
+A weekly safety talk which was a brief talk of safety concerns was also conducted.
+The overall site conditions were very messy and full of hazards.
+For example there were a lot of waste materials left on floors.
+Slabs at high level above ground had no guardrails.
+Accidents were reported as a required paper-work.
+People on site were overwhelmed by these hazardous conditions.
+This was because they did not plan for safety in advance, nor eliminate the hazards before they occurred.
+The other projects which were constructed by contractors of relatively large public companies had full-time safety officers as required by the regulations.
+Before the construction, safety officers developed safe operating procedures (SOPs) of all hazardous construction activities such as a procedure of welding work.
+Hazards were identified on the complete project designs.
+The procedures stated safety requirements, tools, and instructions.
+They were related to and complied with project designs and specifications, safety regulations, and the company safety guidelines.
+Workers must follow these procedures when carrying out the work.
+During the construction, safety officers observed and inspected activities on site to ensure that all safety measures were followed.
+If they spotted on anything wrong, for example broken power extension, derricks with a wearing sling, workers who missed some personal protective equipment (PPE), they would order to pause that work until corrections were made.
+In addition, they had regular training sessions such as safety talks twice a week.
+Although the SOPs of activities were available and they provided details of how an activity should be carried out safely, they were separate from the construction schedule.
+The workers might not know or be aware of when these safety measures would be needed.
+The situation similar to this not only occurred in Thailand but also somewhere else (Saurin et al., 2004;
+Navon and Kolton, 2006).
+Some studies also supported this finding that safety management in Thai construction industry was overlooked and occupational safety legislation was weakly enforced (Siriruttanapruk and Anuntakulnathi, 2004).
+Aksorn and Hadikusumo (2008) discovered that many factors were critical to the success of the safety program in Thai Construction.
+These factors were such as the management support, appropriate safety education, teamwork, and clear and realistic goals.
+However, when being asked about the assisting tool, they were positive that it would help them to accomplish safety tasks and to communicate with other trades and relevant parties as well.
+Integrated system for construction and safety management
+This study aims to develop an integrated system for construction and safety management.
+The 4D CAD model and the rulebased algorithms are used in the developed system.
+This development is grounded on the existing research.
+The prototype is created and applied to the construction working-at-height hazard.
+The concept and development of this system are explained in this section.
+The 4D CAD model is an innovative integration tool between construction design and planning.
+It combines two separated information sources, a construction schedule and a 3D CAD model.
+It helps create explicit visual perceptions of the construction sequence and be an effective collaboration media for construction teams (Koo and Fischer, 2000).
+Also, it has been used to evaluate the constructability of the planned sequences.
+This technique has been used for many applications.
+For examples:
+McKinney and Fischer (1998) has developed the 4D CAD model as a planning tool used by the project team.
+Their models can be used to investigate an impact of the use of time and space during construction.
+Wang et al. (2004) employed a work breakdown structure template to link with 3D CAD objects.
+Chau et al. (2005) applied it for the construction site and resources management.
+Ma et al. (2005) used it for planning site layouts at different construction stages.
+Jongeling and Olofsson (2007) proposed a location-based schedule method which can be enhanced with the 4D CAD model to improve the work-flow of construction activities.
+Tanyer and Aouad (2005) have extended the 4D model to the nD model that included the project cost dimension.
+Whereas the safety dimension is still not incorporated.
+Also, the 4D CAD model has been applied to construction safety.
+Its unique ability is to represent construction activities as virtual 3D objects which can effectively convey space information.
+Akinci et al. (2002a,b,c) used this technique to analyze the congestion and accessibility of working space.
+Winch and North (2006) introduced the concept of critical space analysis and used the 4D CAD model as a tool.
+Their development can optimize space allocated to tasks in relation to the critical path schedule.
+Therefore, hazard space which is generated by an activity can be analyzed using the 4D CAD model.
+Hadikusumo and Rowlinson (2004) pointed that the 3D or 4D visualization or/and virtual reality are more effectively used for hazard recognition than just the conventional 2D design drawings.
+Chantawit et al. (2005) have initiated the 4D CAD model to assist the hazard identification process.
+They use the safety library and plan to determine proper safety measures for the related project progress.
+The safety advices are given in a textual format on the resulting screen together with the 4D CAD model.
+However, their approaches required safety engineers to manually reveal those hazards and determine proper safety measures and the safety information is not really integrated into the 4D CAD model.
+In this study, the 4D CAD model is used together with the rulebased algorithms to automatically detect spatial related hazard (working-at-height) and visualize the safety measures needed together with the construction sequence.
+The result is the integrated system of concurrent construction and safety management.
+The use of the 4D CAD model for this development brings many advantages.
+It accumulates various data of the construction project from design, planning, and control processes.
+These data related to building components and construction activities can be analyzed to specify any potential working-at-height hazards in the construction activities.
+Also, the 4D CAD model provides visualization of construction scenes and sequences.
+It can assist the manual identification of the other hazards.
+It can then clearly show the newly attached safety measure activities and requirements and raise awareness to all relevant parties.
+It can be used for reviewing the constructability of the design and schedule after the safety considerations being incorporated.
+The 4D CAD model is a collaboration tool for relevant parties that enable the integration of construction and safety management.
+Characteristics of working-at-height hazard
+A hazard is an unsafe physical condition that can cause harm.
+Many hazards of various kinds are associated with the construction work.
+Construction hazards are categorized in different ways (Hughes and Ferrett, 2005;
+Holt, 2005;
+MacCollum, 2007).
+Some hazard categories (such as mechanical machinery, electricity, fire, chemical and biological agents, and physical conditions) are apparently closely related to resources (materials and equipment) used in construction activities.
+These hazard categories are easily recognized by human.
+The 4D CAD-Safety developed by Chantawit et al. (2005) is an effective tool for identifying and managing these hazards.
+Apart from those, the working-at-height hazard is more complicated because it is related to a combination of details of building components and construction activities.
+It dynamically changes and relocates according to the progress of work.
+Factors that influence the working-at-height hazard are such as activity type, sequence, component type, dimension, placement, and space.
+Therefore, it requires sophisticated analyses on identification and safety visualization.
+This study is focused only on this hazard.
+Also, the existing studies (Janicak, 1998;
+Huang and Hinze, 2003) pointed out that falls were the most frequently occurring types of construction accidents and resulting in fatalities or severe injuries.
+Fall accidents accounted for the largest percentage of all recorded accidents that is about 52%.
+Their findings also indicated that falls commonly occurred on small and low cost projects involving commercial buildings and residential constructions.
+Falls were often associated with workers on roofs, scaffolds, ladders, and floors with openings.
+The working-at-height hazard is the main cause of these accidents.
+Navon and Kolton (2006) have developed an automated model of monitoring fall hazards in building construction.
+It defines the areas in the building where fall-from-height hazards appear, and proposes protective activities to be integrated into the schedule.
+However, their approach uses the installed sensor and transmitter devices for the hazard identification.
+Their model cannot explicitly visualize safety measures together with the construction sequence.
+In this study, we use the 4D CAD model and the rule-based algorithms as tools for the hazard identification, the safety measures visualization, and the safety and construction management integration.
+Safety management is a set of actions or procedures relating to health and safety in the workplace.
+It consists of three main tasks namely hazard identification, safety measure planning, and control.
+The developed system is designed to assist these safety management processes.
+The hazard identification is the first task to be done during the construction design and planning.
+It is an important task because only identified hazards can be prepared for safety measures.
+The developed system inputs data from designs and plans to analyze each construction activity.
+Designs are an information source about the building components such as type, dimension, placement and working space.
+Plans give information about activities such as type, sequence, and materials and equipment required.
+These two information sources will be combined using the 4D CAD model.
+Rule-based algorithms are needed for analyzing these data to reveal any potential working-at-height hazards.
+The second task is the safety measure planning that will automatically suggest proper safety measures to protect or prevent hazards identified from the construction activity.
+These safety measures are extracted from the SOPs which have already been prepared and kept separately.
+The SOPs are used as the database of the system and they can be continuously updated.
+The safety measures are defined in two forms as activities and requirements.
+Safety measure activities are a task to be done such as install and remove handrails and scaffoldings, and inspect them.
+They should be regarded the same as a construction activity.
+Safety measure requirements are just things that must be provided when performing construction activity such as PPE, and safeguard tools.
+Safety activities will be automatically inserted into the schedule therefore they can be viewed by all relevant parties and be allocated with proper resources such as time, workers, and budget.
+Safety requirements will be attached to a resource list of the activity.
+Both will also be incorporated into and visualized through the 4D CAD model.
+The safety control task will be done during the construction.
+Actual data of accomplishment of safety activities and requirements can be collected and compared with what have been scheduled before.
+Safety accomplishment percentage can be quantified.
+A schematic concept of the integrated system is illustrated in Fig. 1.
+The core of the system is the rule-based algorithm which is designed to assist the safety management process as described above.
+The outputs of the system will be shown to the participants (designers, project engineers, or safety officers).
+The results may lead to a revision of construction designs or plans in order to be more efficient with safety constraints.
+Also, SOPs may be accumulated to provide a comprehensive safety database and knowledge for the system.
+The rule-based algorithms for working-at-height hazard
+Some previous research has used design drawings and virtual reality of the design to assist safety experts on the hazard identification (Gambatese and Hinze, 1999;
+Hadikusumo and Rowlinson, 2004).
+The processes were still heavily relied on human recognition.
+Some other research (Akinci et al., 2002b;
+Chantawit et al., 2005;
+Navon and Kolton, 2006) developed approaches to identify construction hazards, but none of them created the rule-based algorithms to enable the automation in the process.
+In this study, it aims to formulate a rule-based system that automates the process.
+Many factors related to details of both building components and activities (i.e. component type, dimension, placement, working space, activity type, sequence, and materials and equipment) are used as input data.
+These factors are systematically examined to find any working-at-height hazards.
+After hazards being identified, the rule-based system also suggests proper safety measures including safety activities or requirements.
+While being implemented, the rule-based system can be updated and maintained by the safety officers.
+The safety measures suggested by the system can be visualized via the 4D CAD model.
+The rule-based algorithms for working-at-height hazards are formulated and embedded in the 4D CAD model.
+Fig. 2 shows the overall programming procedure of these algorithms.
+The main programming procedure loops through the project timeline from the start to the completion dates.
+At any particular time, the program loops through a list of construction activities and examines each activity individually.
+The rule-based algorithms are separated into two modules namely the Hazard Explorer and the Safety Measure Advisor.
+The first one examines input data which are details of the activity and its related building component.
+The Hazard Explorer results in the activity and the placements where the working-atheight hazards are found.
+The latter responsively inserts safety measures into the 4D CAD model at the right placement and schedule.
+The programming procedures of the two modules are described separately.
+The Hazard Explorer determines the performing status of the activity that are distinctively defined as not-started, in-progress, or finished.
+Not-started activities are neglected while only in-progress and finished activities are taken on the following steps.
+Given that every activity has its own associated building component (represented by 3D CAD objects);
+the program also determines its component type.
+Five component types are classified as column, beam, slab, wall, and others.
+The program retrieves geometric properties of the component i.e. height, top- and bottom-planes.
+It extracts all edges of the component and results in discrete lines.
+These lines are evaluated to find top and bottom levels, height, topand bottom-plane edges of the component.
+Fig. 3 shows an example of geometric properties retrieved from a component.
+Workers could fall from building components or scaffolds around those building components that they are working on (Huang and Hinze, 2003) where they are 2 m. high above the ground level.
+The placement of the working-at-height hazards can be derived from the top-plane edges of the component.
+Some temporary structures are required as safety measures to prevent or protect these hazards.
+They are such as scaffolding, guardrails,
+The integrated system for safety and construction management.
+The programming procedure of the rule-based algorithms for the in-progress objects.
+protective partitions and cover plates.
+Therefore, corresponding The other module, the Safety Measure Advisor is responsible for boundaries can be delineated for these safety measures. automatically generating (or show) and removing (or hide) proper
+Geometric properties of a 3D CAD object.
+safety measures for an activity.
+It has different methods designed to handle different performing statuses and component types.
+In case of the in-progress activities, boundaries of the particular safety measures are generated depends on their component types.
+It is detailed as the following.
+Both columns and beams are provided with surrounding safetyboundaries at the offset distance of 100 cm.
+These boundaries represent the temporary supporting structures and hazardous space around columns and beams during their construction.
+The height of the boundaries is the same as the height of columns.
+Fig. 4 shows the boundaries generated for a typical column and beam.
+The program takes their top-plane edges to create a greater offset perimeter.
+It then vertically extrudes this perimeter downward by the column height and results with boundary surfaces around a column or a beam.
+Slabs are also provided with surrounding safety-boundaries at their edges.
+The boundaries are separated into two portions, high and low.
+The low boundaries are located from the bottom-plane of that slab downward by the height of the column below.
+They represent the temporary supporting structures for in situ cast slabs or the installation zone for pre-cast slabs.
+The other high boundaries are located from the top-plane of that slab upward at the height of 110 cm.
+These represent the guardrails around slabs during their construction.
+Fig. 4 shows both high and low safety-
+Safety boundary surfaces for a column, a beam, and a slab.
+boundaries generated for a typical slab.
+The program extrudes the slab’s bottom-plane edges downward by the column height and results in the low boundary surfaces.
+The other portion, high boundary surfaces result from the extrusion upward of top-plane edges by 110 cm.
+This program can also be applied on a slab with openings.
+The program finally makes these boundaries (for columns, beams, and slabs) as the safety measure activity (entitled install safety temporary structures) and associates it to the construction plan and the 4D CAD model.
+Also, the safety measure requirements such as scaffolds, guardrails, are attached to the resource lists of the activities.
+Walls are different from the other component types.
+Walls are constructed on a slab.
+They can be internal or external walls.
+External walls, which can protect against falls and falling objects, will replace the temporary guardrails which are represented by the high safety-boundaries of the relating slabs.
+The wall construction will trigger the removal of these high safety-boundaries.
+The program makes this action as another safety activity required (entitled remove safety temporary structures) and also associates it to the construction plan and the 4D CAD model.
+Sophisticated geometric operations are formulated to achieve that result.
+The bottom-plane of the wall is assumed to be on the same level as the top-plane of its supporting slab (or the contact-plane).
+All bottom-plane edges of the wall that are longer than 30 cm. are examined and their midpoints (called wall_midpoints) are determined.
+Then, all slabs (by their top-plane level) at this wall_midpoints’ level are examined.
+The program refers to their high boundary surfaces (already exist).
+These surfaces considered one at a time.
+Their midpoints are also determined and called slab_midpoint.
+All these resulting wall_midpoints and slab_midpoints should be on the same level (the contact-plane).
+The program evaluates the distance between every possible pair of these points.
+If at least one of these pairs gives the distance less than 30 cm, the program assumes that the wall exists on that side of the slab and removes that relating surface.
+This midpoint operation also works on a slab with openings.
+An example of this midpoint operation for a wall on a slab is shown in Fig. 5.
+The resulting midpoints of the wall and slab are wall_midpoints as 1, 2, 3, ... , 6;
+and slab_midpoints as A, B, C, and D. The program begins the first loop on a surface that gives a slab_midpoint of A. The point A can be possibly paired with six wall_midpoints.
+All distances between these six pairs are evaluated.
+It is found that two pairs have distances less than 30 cm.
+This implies that a wall have already been constructed on this side of the slab.
+The program then hides the relating surfaces.
+After that the program goes to the next loop and repeats this procedure again and again until every surface is considered.
+All results from pairing and evaluation of the example are shown in Table 2.
+Fig. 5 also shows that the midpoint operation can work on a case of a slab with an opening.
+In case of ‘finished’ Objects, their associated safety-boundaries are removed.
+This applies to columns, beams, and slabs (only for their low boundaries).
+Walls do not have their own safety-boundaries so that no action is done when they are finished.
+The programming procedure of the removal starts from tracing the linkage of an individual component and its own surface boundaries.
+It then changes the visibility of the associated surfaces from ‘Show’ to ‘Hide’.
+After that, the program inserts the safety activity entitled removal safety temporary structures and associates it to the construction plan and the 4D CAD model.
+The midpoint operation for a wall on a slab.
+Wall exists
+Remove surface
+Wall exists
+Remove surface
+Wall exists
+The prototype is developed using AutoCAD Architecture and Microsoft Project.
+Both software supports the automation interfaces and have a Component Object Model (COM).
+Also, they both support an embedded customized program with Visual Basic for Application (VBA).
+Hence, a VBA code can be programmed within AutoCAD to create ActiveX Object of the MS Project application.
+The prototype consists of the 4D CAD model and the embedded rule-based algorithms named Hazard Explorer and Safety Measure Advisor.
+Some 4D CAD models (Akinci et al., 2002b;
+Tanyer and Aouad, 2005) were developed using the IFC or BIM compatible software;
+however, some others (Wang et al., 2004;
+Chau et al., 2005;
+Chantawit et al., 2005) including this research selected the commonly used software for the development.
+The 4D CAD model is created via linkages between 3D CAD objects (representing building components) and the corresponding construction activities.
+The simulation control of the 4D CAD model is developed using VBA and AutoCAD’s object model.
+The visualization is exhibited within the AutoCAD while the corresponding schedule information is simultaneously retrieved from the MS Project through the linking keys.
+The details of the 4D CAD model formulation can be found in the literature so that they are excluded from this paper.
+The developments of the rule-based algorithms named Hazard Explorer and Safety Measure Advisor are done on AutoCAD Architecture.
+The software distinguishes many types of structural and non-structural components using the ‘ObjectName’ property.
+They are such as ‘‘AecDbSlab” for slabs;
+‘‘AecDbWall” for walls;
+and ‘‘AecsDbMember” with ‘Type’ equals to ‘‘aecsMemberTypeColumn” for columns and ‘‘aecsMemberTypeBeam” for beams.
+The safety boundary surfaces created in the program are the ‘Surface’ type of CAD objects.
+They are results of the ‘Extrude’ function of edge lines.
+The ‘Visible’ property of an Object is used to show or hide these ‘Surface’ Objects.
+The ‘SetXData’ is another function that is used to associate a building Object with its own safety Surfaces.
+The program uses the ‘SetXData’ function to record ‘Handles’ of all associated objects within the main object.
+Prototype implementation and evaluation
+A construction project of a three-floor hotel was used as a test case.
+It was an ongoing medium-sized project (at the time of validation) with the budget of 2.5 million dollars.
+The hotel had 45 rooms, one 700-seat convention room, and a total of area of 6650 sq.m.
+The 4D CAD model of the particular project and the rule-based system were formulated.
+Prospective users including a designer, a project engineer (planner), a site engineer and a safety officer were participated in evaluating the prototype system.
+This evaluation session was based on descriptive and subjective data given from the participants.
+The evaluation could not be conducted on a number of projects and this was a drawback of this prototype.
+The constraints were that the formulation of the 4D CAD model of a construction project was time-consuming and the access of the ongoing project information required full support and cooperation from the company.
+However, this evaluation was intended to diversify the opinions from different project participants.
+Criteria for evaluating the prototype were usefulness and ease of use.
+The usefulness was divided into hazard identification, safety measures advice, safety-integrated construction sequence, construction design and schedule verification, and safety measure control.
+The ease of use was divided into automation, visualization results, project independency, and 4D CAD model formulation.
+The prototype could identify working-at-height hazards according to the progress of the construction project.
+Different building components were identified with the hazards at their own placements.
+Fig. 6 showed a resulting screenshot of the prototype system at a particular simulated time.
+The construction plan divided the building into two zones:
+A for accommodation rooms;
+and B for offices and a convention room.
+Fig. 6 showed that the project was progressing on the second floor.
+The in-progress activities were such as a group of columns and cast-in situ slabs in Zone A;
+a group of beams and long strip cast-in situ slabs in Zone B. The rule-based system could analyze these activities and identify the working-at-height hazards.
+A resulting screenshot of the developed prototype of the hotel project case.
+The prototype could give safety measure advices.
+It inserted the corresponding safety-boundaries around the related building components of these in-progress activities.
+The other boundaries were around the completed second-floor slabs.
+They were the high boundary surfaces which were left in place until the construction of walls on the slabs.
+When external walls on the second floor were constructed, their associating boundary surfaces would be removed.
+The prototype could integrate safety measures into the construction schedule.
+The original schedule did not provide interval time for the safety activities between the formwork erection and the steel-bar placing activities.
+The prototype added three safety measure activities into the original schedule such as the scaffolding inspections and the guardrails installation and removal activities.
+Also, their associated safety measure requirements were attached to the resource list of these activities.
+The project engineer then revised the schedule to accommodate these added activities.
+Zone A was subdivided into A1 and A2 so that the carpenters and the masons, who waited for these safety measure activities, could continue their work on the other side of Zone A. Also, a contingency plan was prepared if the scaffolding failed in the inspection and had to be corrected.
+The safety officer pointed out that this tool could improve collaborations between the production and the safety teams.
+It hence motivated workers to rigorously comply with the safety measures.
+The prototype system was an integrated tool that could be used to check the consistency of the design, plan, and safety.
+It informed participants of the other necessary safety-related activities rather than only the main production activities.
+The prototype led to discover some problems on the original design and schedule.
+In this project, the prototype revealed that a lot of guardrails would be needed according to the original schedule.
+The guardrails available on site were insufficient.
+After considering the reuses of the guardrails to keep them at a minimum, the construction sequence was revised.
+Activities related to the wall construction were rescheduled to follow the slab construction more closely.
+Also, a group of the welders were reallocated from the roof truss assembly to the guardrail installation activities.
+Since this project used a lot of pre-cast slabs, a tower crane was a critical sharing resource.
+The prospective users were notified that its slings needed to be replaced regularly.
+These safety measure activities needed an execution time that could halt the pre-cast slab installation activities;
+therefore, they were scheduled on the overtime and the next morning was spared in case they were not finished.
+The prototype could support safety measure control.
+As the safety measures were added into the construction schedule, the progress of these activities was properly monitored.
+The actual data of percentage complete of the activities were regularly required to update the schedule.
+Any nonconformity was easily found and corrected.
+The prototype ensured that the necessary safety measures were accomplished in the right sequence.
+Ease of use
+The automation of the prototype helped reduce interactions required from the users.
+The construction schedule was normally prepared based on the production aspect.
+The rule-based algorithms could automate the safety management tasks for the users.
+Hazard identification, safety measures integration, and control were automatically assisted.
+The project engineer could then considered potential safety constraints and coordinated with the designer, the site engineer and the safety officer in advance.
+The prototype system could explicitly visualize the construction scenes and sequence which looked closely to the real site (as shown in Fig. 6).
+The visualization of the 4D CAD model was very impressive.
+The safety measures were incorporated into the construction sequence and easily perceived through graphics.
+The safety-boundaries could help indicate the space required for temporary structures and guardrails, and the remaining space for safe work.
+The simulated construction sequence with safety created a clear and mutual understanding among the project team.
+The rule-based algorithms were project-independent.
+They were designed to analyze the geometric properties of 3D CAD objects which representing building components and the schedule information.
+Once the rule-based algorithms were formulated and maintained, they could be applied to any construction project as this project test case.
+They were a programming VBA code which could be exported and re-embedded onto a new project file.
+The formulation of the 4D CAD model for the construction project was a skillful and effortful task.
+The 3D modeling of the whole construction project was required.
+The modeling needed to be systematic and precise and had to use the right kind of CAD objects.
+The performance of the rule-based algorithms was heavily relied on the correctness of the 4D CAD model.
+All participants in the session stated that this model formulation task was very difficult and hindering the efficiency of the prototype.
+An approach to reduce this effort can be a challenge of the future research.
+This research developed an integrated system for safety and construction management that early incorporates safety measures into the designs and plans.
+The system helps all participants consider and prepare for safety constraints before that work is actually executed.
+For medium and small construction projects where usually absents a full-time safety officer, this system can assist project engineers to concurrently manage safety and construction.
+The rule-based algorithms are formulated to help automatically identify working-at-height hazards in designs and plans, and responsively advise proper safety measures.
+The working-at-height which is a principal contributor to fatal construction accidents is a very complicated hazard and relates to many causal factors.
+These integrated safety measures are also visualized via the 4D CAD model that will clearly notify the participants.
+The visualization can be used to check the constructability and revise designs, plans and controls for safety.
+The system can facilitate the effective and successful implementation of the safety management throughout the construction process and it helps to make the construction a safe workplace.
+The evaluation of this prototype was conducted on a construction project.
+It was the drawback of the prototype generalization.
+Limitations of the system are such as the effort to build up the 4D CAD model and the safety rule-based algorithms at the first implementation.
+Future research can alleviate this process or propose other different approaches for the holistic integration.
+In addition, the success of the system implementation requires project participants to value the safety as the most important issue.
+This research is funded by The Commission on Higher Education and The Thailand Research Fund (MRG5080271).

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+	Automation in Construction 12 (2002) 213–224
+Application of data warehouse and Decision Support System in construction management
+aDepartment of Civil and Structural Engineering, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hunghom, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China bDepartment of Civil Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China Accepted 8 August 2002
+How to provide construction managers with information about and insight into the existing data, so as to make decision more efficiently without interrupting the daily work of an On-Line Transaction Processing (OLTP) system is a problem during the construction management process.
+To solve this problem, the integration of a data warehouse and a Decision Support System (DSS) seems to be efficient. ‘Data warehouse’ technology is a new database discipline, which has not yet been applied to construction management.
+Hence, it is worthwhile to experiment in this particular field in order to gauge the full scope of its capability.
+First reviewed in this paper are the concepts of the data warehouse, On-Line Analysis Processing (OLAP) and DSS. The method of creating a data warehouse is then shown, changing the data in the data warehouse into a multidimensional data cube and integrating the data warehouse with a DSS. Finally, an application example is given to illustrate the use of the Construction Management Decision Support System (CMDSS) developed in this study.
+Integration of a data warehouse and a DSS enable the right data to be tracked down and provide the required information in a direct, rapid and meaningful way.
+Construction managers can view data from various perspectives with significantly reduced query time, thus making decisions faster and more comprehensive.
+The applications of a data warehousing integrated with a DSS in construction management practice are seen to have considerable potential.
+D 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
+Decision Support System;
+Project management;
+Construction;
+Data warehouse;
+On-Line Analysis Processing
+Introduction
+Using Decision Support System (DSS) in construction management
+At present, some transaction processing systems, which are updated continually throughout the day, are
+often employed to run the day-to-day business of a construction company [1].
+For instance, if some materials are delivered into the warehouse, the OnLine Transaction Processing (OLTP) will consistently make additions to the inventory.
+However, it is usually found in such systems that the construction process is a ‘‘temporary’’ and ‘‘specific’’ activity, which means the data of one project can seldom be used for another
+* Corresponding author.
++852-2766-6014;
++8522334-6389.
+Is that the true situation?
+Probably not, because although construction products are ‘unique’, some similarities still exist between them, and con-
+0926-5805/02/$ - see front matter D 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
+S0926-5805(02)00087-0
+struction processes and management skills are typically common to all projects [2].
+How to analyze the successes and failures of finished projects and how to use the existing data to analyze patterns and trends for new projects are the problems we have to face.
+During the project control phase, in order to take rectifying actions for any deviations in the performance, project managers often need timely analysis reports to measure and monitor construction performance.
+They also need timely analysis reports to assist in making long-term decisions [3].
+It is found that most of the reporting and analysis, time was spent on collecting data from the various systems before the analysis can be made.
+Managers want and need more information, but analysts can provide only minimal information at a high cost within the desired time frames [4].
+In order to provide information for predicting patterns and trends more convincingly and for analyzing a problem or situation more efficiently, an integrated Decision Support System (DSS) designed for this particular purpose is needed.
+An important role of a Decision Support System is to provide information for users to analyze situations and make decisions.
+Put in another way, a Decision Support System provides information for employees to make decisions and do their jobs more effectively [5].
+This decision-making can be of a long-term strategic nature, such as analyzing event patterns over several years to prevent or reduce the rate of occurrence of a particular event.
+Decision-making can also be short-term and tactical in nature, such as reviewing and changing the time schedule for a particular part of a project.
+Good systems provide the information needed, so that employees are better equipped to make more informed decisions.
+Described in this paper is the development of a prototype Decision Support System, employing the new ‘data warehouse’ technology incorporating large quantity of analysis information needed for both long-term and short-term construction management decision-making.
+Using a data warehouse to support a DSS
+Being a new branch of the database community developed in recent years [6], the ‘data warehouse’ is a read-only analytical database that is used as the foundation of a Decision Support System.
+The purpose of a data warehouse is to ensure that the appropriate data is available to the appropriate end user at the appropriate time.
+A data warehouse is a global repository that stores preprocessed queries on data, which reside in multiple, possibly heterogeneous, operational query base for making effective decisions [5].
+The contents of a data warehouse may be a replica of part of some source data or they may be the results of preprocessed queries or both.
+This method of data storage provides a powerful tool-helping project organizations in making decisions.
+The architecture of a data warehousing system allows a number of alternative ways to integrate and query (such as previous or projected) information stored in it.
+Thus, a data warehouse coupled with On-Line Analysis Processing (OLAP) enables project managers to creatively approach, analyze and understand project problems.
+The data warehouse system is used to provide solutions for construction problems, since it transforms operational data into strategic decision-making information.
+The data warehouse stores summarized information instead of operational data.
+This summarized information is time-variant and provides effective answers to queries such as ‘‘What are the supply patterns and trends of various construction materials?
+’’, ‘‘How is the material consumption this year different from its counterpart last year?
+’’, ‘‘How many accidents happened in the last 10 years and how much did they cost?
+’’, ‘‘What is the percentage increase in the cost of human resources during the last 5 years?
+’’, ‘‘Did machine repair have any influence on construction progress?
+If so, what was the influence coefficient?
+’’ and so on.
+To extract this information from a distributed relational model, we would need to query multiple data sources and integrate the information at a particular point before presenting the answers to the user.
+In a data warehouse, such queries find their answers in a central place, thus reducing the processing and management costs.
+What is new in our system?
+As a matter of fact, Decision Support Systems have been applied in construction management for several years.
+The early systems such as management information systems, report-oriented systems and so on are often born with flaws [7].
+Firstly, they are not separated from transaction systems completely and the sharing of a database or data file slows down either transaction or analysis process.
+Secondly, because of the limitations of a relational database, users can only observe their data from flat views.
+Thirdly, these applications are all developed by computer specialists in information centers after lengthy data analysis, but sometimes not all the requirements of construction managers are embodied sufficiently.
+These problems could be solved in the Construction Management Decision Support System (CMDSS) developed in this study.
+The main characteristic of CMDSS is the separation of the analysis database from the operational database, which renders the decision support process much faster.
+Another advance is the use of OLAP, which changes the data in a relational database into multidimensional cubes that could be observed from all perspectives.
+In addition, visualization (use of graphic and presentation techniques) presents data from several kinds of views.
+In CMDSS, moreover, users could do a lot more on their own without computer experts preprogramming everything for them.
+Because of these advances, construction managers can make decisions more efficiently, which is the key objective of our system.
+Design data warehouse for Decision Support System
+Existing data models used to design traditional OLTP systems may not be appropriate for modeling complex queries under a data warehouse environment.
+The transactions in OLTP systems are made-up of simple, predefined queries.
+For example, if we want to know the latest arrival date of all materials in all warehouses, we can use a Structural Query Language (SQL) query such as SELECT flngMaterialID, MAX(fdtmArriveDate) AS Date, flngMaterialType, flngDepotID FROM tb_Stock GROUP BY flngMaterialID, flngMaterialType, flngDepotID HAVING (flngMaterialType=2).
+In the data warehouse environments, queries tend to use connections between tables and have a longer computation time, such as Select Material.MaterialName, Material.MaterialKind, Inventory.Quantity from Material, Inventory, Material INNER JOIN Inventory ON Material.MaterialID =Inventory.MaterialID. The above query provides the name and type of materials, as well as the quantity in the inventory.
+Since the information on materials and inventory are put in different tables, a connection between table ‘Material’ and table ‘Inventory’ is required.
+This kind of processing environment warrants a multidimensional data model, a new perspective on data modeling.
+The conceptual multidimensional data model can be physically realized in two ways:
+(1) by using a trusted relational database approach (star schema/ snowflake schema) or (2) by making use of a specialized multidimensional database.
+The ‘star’ schema is adopted here mainly because of its clarity, convenience and rapid indexing ability [8].
+The other methods are not so suitable here, since they involve more or less much more complicated transformation, which does not appear to be justified in our situation.
+In concise term, a star schema can be defined as a specific type of database design used to support analytical processing, which includes a specific set of denormalized tables.
+A star schema contains two types of tables:
+fact tables and dimension tables.
+Fact tables contain the quantitative or factual data about a construction management entity.
+Dimension tables are smaller and hold descriptive data that reflect the dimensions of an entity.
+SQL queries then use predefined and user-defined links between the fact and dimension tables within the star schema, with constraints on the data to return required information.
+A typical material inventory model with sample dimensions and properties is shown in Table 1 for CMDSS developed in this project.
+The core part of any star schema is the fact table, which is shown as Table 2.
+Now, the whole star schema model could be created.
+There is one material inventory fact table and five dimension tables shown in Fig. 1.
+These dimension tables are connected with the fact table by foreign keys (FK), which can keep all the views coherent.
+Besides the inventory star schema, the example given above, several other star schemas are designed in our system, including material issuing, material balance, material use, machine cost, machine use, machine repair, human resource use, salary, progress, noncompliance, event, etc.
+Each star schema includes
+Content Type
+a fact table and several dimension tables, just like the inventory star schema.
+In addition to the data model design, several other steps should be taken before the data warehouse can be completed.
+These steps are as follows:
+Data is extracted from the source systems, databases and files.
+Data from the source systems is integrated.
+Data is loaded into the data warehouse.
+Data is transformed into the format that can be used by the front–end tool.
+The process of a data warehouse design is shown in Fig. 2.
+In CMDSS, the ‘‘Import and Export Data’’ tool is used to integrate data from distributed OLTP databases, files, etc.
+With a view to transform the fact table and dimension tables in the star schema designed above into a multidimensional cube that can be further explored by the front–end tools such as Visual Basic, MS Access, MS Excel, the OLAP tool is applied here.
+Microsoft OLAP Services is based on and tightly linked to relational databases.
+However, it is a real multidimensional information system, where all information is modeled in terms of OLAP structures, not relational structures [7].
+The OLAP structures are a valuable feature because many important analyses are difficult or impossible to phrase in SQL using tabular structures.
+For example, one characteristic of most OLAP applications is the need to provide fast access to aggregated source data.
+Precalculating all possible aggregations can lead to a tremendous increase in the storage requirements for the database, while calculating all aggregations on each occasion makes for a slow query response time.
+The approach taken by OLAP Services is to precalculate some of the possible aggregate data values, and to leave any remaining aggregation and all other calculations to be completed at query time.
+Microsoft OLAP Services provides a relatively well optimized solution [9].
+In this case, cubes, dimensions, measures, hierarchies, levels and cells constitute the basic OLAP structures.
+These, taken together, define the logical structure of an OLAP database.
+A data cube is a structure for housing multidimensional data.
+Everyone using a data warehouse will use cubes when analyzing the data.
+Measures are the data that we wish to analyze, while dimensions define the organization of these measures [10].
+Our data warehouse may contain an inventory table that has fields for location, time, material, supplier, storekeeper, price, quantity and total amount.
+If so, we will generally analyze price, quantity and total amount by warehouse, time, material, supplier and storekeeper.
+In this case, price, quantity and total amount will be our measures, and warehouse, time, material, supplier and storekeeper will each be a dimension.
+The elements of a dimension are called members.
+The path to organize mem-
+Total Amount
+Material inventory star schema.
+bers in a cube is called hierarchy.
+For instance, the time dimension may be organized in two hierarchies:
+natural time hierarchy and fiscal time hierarchy.
+In the former one, time may be organized in year, quarter, month and date.
+While in the latter one, time may be organized in fiscal month and fiscal week.
+A level refers to a group of related members which share a common meaning.
+For example, a level construct named ‘month’ may contain all of the month-level members in a time dimension.
+Each unique intersection composed of one member from every dimension in the cube is called a cell [10].
+For instance, the intersection of July (member of Time) and Hong Kong (member of Geography) constructs one cell, and the value of the cell could either be measure, such as price, quantity or total amount.
+Microsoft OLAP Services is strongly based on relational databases.
+All dimension levels and cube measures need to correspond to columns of tables, views or queries.
+They can be in many different tables or all in one table, so long as dimension tables and fact tables can be joined in a single query.
+OLAP Services uses a highly declarative linkage among dimension, cube structures and Relational Database Management System (RDBMS) tables.
+Once the links are created, OLAP Services will form all queries on the linked tables and manipulate all query results.
+Many cubes about material, machine, human source, progress, quality and event are created in our system on the basis of the star schemas designed before.
+New multidimensional cubes can be added at any moment by the users as the need arises.
+An ‘Inventory’’ cube created in our system is shown in Fig. 3.
+The major operations that could be done on OLAP cubes are Selection, Roll-up, Drill-Down and Slice, through which we can view data from all perspectives and all levels [11].
+Process of data warehouse design.
+Inventory cube in Microsoft OLAP.
+Design of DSS for construction management
+The following fundamental questions should be first understood prior to the design of a DSS:
+How are reports and analyses shared between users?
+How are structured navigation paths or command buttons created?
+Is there a query controller to limit the allowable elapsed time run for a query or to limit the total number of rows that can be returned?
+Is there an ability to run a query during off-peak hours to save costs?
+These questions are quite important for deciding the aim and the direction of a DSS, which also means the success of it.
+The purpose of the DSS is to enable analysts to extract information quickly and easily.
+The data being analyzed are often historical in nature:
+daily, weekly and yearly results.
+For this reason, the System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) for DSS is quite different from an On-Line Transaction Processing (OLTP) system.
+The SDLC of a common OLTP system will usually go through several phases:
+planning, analysis, design, development, testing and implementation.
+The focus of a DSS is data, not construction processing and their associated functionality.
+This lack of domain functionality implies a much faster development life cycle.
+Under the DSS application, a front–end tool is employed to create predefined reports to accommodate the need for different levels of users to have prebuilt reports to begin their analysis [5].
+Hence, the general data access processes are visualization of the data warehouse, formulation of the request, processing the request and presentation of the results.
+After the data warehouse design and OLAP transformation, two steps are left to create a DSS application.
+The first is to design the front–end interface.
+The second is to generate codes to access and navigate metadata to obtain information on the data in the warehouse, and link it together with the front–end interface.
+Parameter selection dialog box for DSS.
+A major consideration in designing the DSS interface is the level of users.
+Different type of DSS interface should be designed for different users.
+Generally, we may face two distinctly different levels of users:
+The experienced users who develop ad hoc queries using parameters.
+These users were also trained on the data model.
+The novice or casual users, who are most comfortable in a point and click environment, where icons are employed instead of queries.
+Predefined information selection box.
+For the above reason, two different interfaces were designed for our CMDSS. The first is designed
+DSS interface selection and display views selection.
+for the experienced users.
+They can select parameters in the parameter dialog box and view the data more flexibly.
+A typical parameter dialog box is shown in Fig. 4.
+The second interface is designed for the novice who can just click and view the predefined information directly.
+The selection interface is shown in Fig. 5.
+Moreover, data returned from a request in this DSS can be displayed in a wide variety of ways.
+Here, data reports and some graphical views are explored to view the data and assist users in gathering insights from the data.
+Once a data report is presented, a wide range of capabilities may allow modification of the display, including:
+changing the axis of the report (rows and columns), changing the sort order of the results, adding subtotals and grand totals at appropriate breaks in the reports, formatting of fonts, styles, sizes and colors.
+Graphical display of information allows easy detection of trends and anomalies.
+A wide variety of graph types are available here, including line, pie, bar, area and so on.
+With a graphical display, users may be able to change graph type, axis labels, colors and titles.
+Parameter selection.
+The next significant step following the design of the interface was to generate codes integrating the data warehouse and the interface.
+In the novice interface, once a user presses a button, a precoded SQL statement will be passed directly to the Multidimensional Database Management System (MDBMS), and the appropriate answer set will be displayed on the interface by the prediction function.
+But, in the interface for experienced users, once a user has formulated a request, our system can translate the end user’s request to generate the appropriate SQL statements, get the result set from the MDBMS and display it in a
+variety of views.
+Because of its good connections with databases, Visual Basic 6.0 was adopted here to develop our CMDSS, using also ActiveX Data Objectives Multidimensional (ADOMD) as a vehicle for communication.
+The following code is a sample used to display the value of a cell in a grid:
+For intColum = 0 To Cellset.Axes(0).Positions.
+For intRow =0 To Cellset.Axes(1).Positions.
+Grid.Column=intColumn+intFixedColumns Grid.Row =intRow +intFixedRows Grid.Value =Cellset (intColumn, intRow).
+Next intRow
+Other advanced capabilities that many construction organizations require to support the full decisionmaking process may also include:
+exception reporting (alerts are messages that appear when user defined conditions are not met or when there is a problem), drill-down (users have the freedom to ‘‘drive off’’ the existing report and retrieve information that may lie along, above or below the current level of detail;
+drilldown can be done from a report or a graph), data surfacing (we can keep the report layout constant, but change the constraints, for example, a material-consumption trend report for concrete in Hong Kong, changed to a material-consumption trend for steel in Beijing), ranking (review information that is ranked on one or more columns) and automation (mechanisms are in place to schedule recurring analysis at a specified time).
+In brief, there is a lot of differences between DSS development and common OLTP system development, which are embodied on the objectives, databases, SDLC, capabilities and development tools.
+Application
+CMDSS was used in the Hong Kong Polytechnic University Student Dormitory construction project.
+The results enable the prototype properties to be validated and demonstrate the capabilities of the system in real application case.
+As an illustrated example, the procedure in using CMDSS to facilitate the inventory decision is shown in the following paragraphs in a step by step manner.
+The procedure for other decision-making is similar.
+Choosing the interface:
+Two kinds of interface are available.
+One interface is for novices and the other is for experienced users.
+Here, we choose a self-defined interface, which is designed for experienced users, with the tool bar shown in Fig. 6.
+Choosing display views:
+There are several views available to display the query result, including line chart, pie chart, bar chart, area chart and report file.
+Users can choose any of them.
+A line chart is shown in Fig. 6.
+Input parameters:
+Some parameters are entered before the query result is viewed.
+Here, we choose inventory as an observing cube, and choose the Time dimension (Quarter level) as the X-axis, the Material dimension (Material Kind level) as the Y-axis and the Amount as measure.
+Users can also attach some conditions to the query.
+Conditions can be selected in the combo box and added by ‘Add’ button or cleared by ‘Reset’ button.
+In this example, we want to determine the total amount of the materials stored in the warehouse whose storekeepers are female with materials from suppliers in Beijing.
+This condition is displayed in the condition box as ‘‘[SupplierGeography].[City].[Beijing], [Gender].[Gender].[F]’’.
+The parameter selection dialog box is shown in Fig. 7.
+Result display:
+After entering the parameters, results will be displayed on the interface.
+An Inventory cube, which is observed in several views in the DSS, is shown in Fig. 8.
+In the line chart, X-axis is Time Dimension and Y-axis is Total Cumulative Amount together with contributions from different material types.
+We can observe the Total Cumulative Amount of all the material types in four quarters of a year.
+The legend on the right of the chart displays the colors representing different material types.
+In the grid shown below the chart, the values of the amount of each material type at each quarter of the year are given.
+The same information can be observed in four different types of charts:
+line chart, pie chart, bar chart and area chart.
+The above results illustrate that construction managers can easily determine the inventory trend of the material and the amount of each material type from the information shown by the above charts and the grids in
+Material inventory observed from various views (a–d).
+Fig. 8 (continued).
+It facilitates significantly the managers to formulate an appropriate inventory decision or warehouse storage strategy.
+In this paper, the development of a prototype Construction Management Decision Support System (CMDSS) employing the integration of the ‘data warehouse’ technology with an OLAP is delineated.
+It has been illustrated, through a real case application in Hong Kong, that CMDSS is advanced at least in the following aspects:
+CMDSS enables insight to be gained into the factors having impacts on construction management activities that will help managers in making decisions to improve management performance.
+CMDSS is interactive.
+Users can interact with the computer so that the users can constantly refine the view of data to pursue various ways of thought.
+CMDSS provides extremely fast response to queries.
+CMDSS is multidimensional.
+Users can view figures from multiple perspectives and can also choose different view angles.
+In short, CMDSS is able to assist project managers by providing accurate and timely information for construction decision-making.
+The integration of a data warehouse and a DSS appear to be a promising way to solve decision-making problems during construction management process.
+Acknowledgements
+This research is supported by the Research Grants Council of Hong Kong (PolyU5060/99E) tand the Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 59778055).

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+	Automation in Construction 12 (2003) 395–406
+Automating hierarchical document classification for construction management information systems
+Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign,
+Newmark CE Lab. MC 250, 205 North Mathews Avenue, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
+Accepted 8 January 2003
+The widespread use of information technologies for construction is considerably increasing the number of electronic text documents stored in construction management information systems.
+Consequently, automated methods for organizing and improving the access to the information contained in these types of documents become essential to construction information management.
+This paper describes a methodology developed to improve information organization and access in construction management information systems based on automatic hierarchical classification of construction project documents according to project components.
+A prototype system for document classification is presented, as well as the experiments conducted to verify the feasibility of the proposed approach.
+D 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
+Construction management;
+Classification systems;
+Information management;
+Information systems;
+Text/data mining
+Introduction
+The use of communications and information technologies in the construction industry is creating new opportunities for collaboration, coordination, and information exchange among organizations that work on a construction project.
+Inter-organizational construction management information systems are increasingly being used for this purpose.
+They comprise a set of interrelated components that collect, retrieve, process, store, and distribute data to support planning, control, and decision-making among project organiza-
+In the distributed and dynamic construction environment, the ability to exchange and integrate data from different sources and in different formats becomes crucial to the development of the construction processes supported by these management information systems.
+Furthermore, the data collected in these systems provide a valuable source for data mining [11,28].
+Discovered knowledge can be used to increase the performance of future activities and projects.
+Given that a large percentage of the project documents is generated in text format, methods for organizing and improving access to the information contained in these types of documents become essential to con-
+* Corresponding author.
++1-217-333-4759;
++1-217333-9464.
+struction information management.
+Construction information classification systems (CICSs) can be used to support this information management process.
+The classification structure in a construction information
+0926-5805/03/$ - see front matter D 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
+classification system (CICS) defines concept hierarchies that can be used for document classification, providing a common framework for document organization and management among project organizations.
+These classification frameworks can be embedded in inter-organizational information systems, like project websites, project management software, and document management systems.
+Examples of CICSs include:
+the CSI MasterFormat [17], CSI UniFormat [33], CI/SfB, Uniclass, and the Overall Construction Classification System [20].
+One limitation of the existing inter-organizational information systems is the reliance on manual classification methods conducted by human experts.
+With the growth in the use of information technologies by construction companies, the increasing availability of electronic documents, and the development of modelbased systems, manual classification becomes impractical.
+One example of the limitations of manual classification is the time and effort that would be required to classify all documents created in a construction project (contracts, specifications, meeting minutes, change orders, field reports, and requests for information, among others), according to all components of a CICS.
+Another limitation of the current systems is the consideration of documents as single units for the purpose of classification and retrieval.
+Many construction documents, including specifications and meeting minutes, should clearly be divided and then assigned to more than one item of a CICS. This limitation can be illustrated by the case in which a project manager wants to access information contained in meeting minutes regarding a specific CSI MasterFormat item in order to solve an issue.
+Using current technologies, the project manager would need to manually search and analyze each document individually in order to obtain the desired information.
+A third problem that exists in available systems is the lack of support for differences in vocabularies and naming conventions.
+This problem can be illustrated by the case in which an architect gives a name for a particular object in a project model.
+Since there is usually no standard vocabulary among organizations that participate in a construction project, references to that particular object in project documents are often done using different names.
+Using current technologies, project managers would need to map the model object’s name to the terms being used in the different construction documents.
+The previously mentioned limitations and the push towards fully integrated and automated project processes justify the need for the development of automated classification methods for construction project documents that can explore the internal characteristics of these documents and adapt to different classification frameworks.
+This paper presents a unique way to improve information organization and access in inter-organizational construction management systems based on methods for automated hierarchical classification of construction project documents according to CICSs items.
+In order to accomplish this goal, a combination of techniques from the areas of information retrieval and text mining was explored.
+As a result, a methodology for automated hierarchical document classification was devised and implemented.
+A prototype of a construction document classification system was also developed to provide easy deployment and scalability to the classification process.
+The developed prototype automated all steps of the text classification process.
+Experiments were conducted to validate the results and demonstrate the applicability of the implemented techniques.
+Construction management information systems
+The escalating globalization and complexity of construction projects have increased the participation of companies from diverse locations in project teams [3].
+In this environment, effective inter-organizational construction management information systems able to minimize time and distance constraints are necessary.
+Examples of such systems are described extensively in literature [18,19,22,27,32,34,39].
+In the distributed and dynamic construction environment, the ability to exchange and integrate information from different sources and in different data formats becomes crucial to the improvement of the construction processes supported by these systems.
+Simoff and Maher [26] argue that a key issue in managing construction information is the diversity of data types, including:
+structured data files, stored in database management systems or specific applications, such as data warehousing, enterprise resource planning, cost estimating, scheduling, payroll, finance, and accounting;
+semi-structured data files, such as HyperText Markup Language (HTML), Extensible Markup Language (XML), or Standardized General Markup Languages (SGML) files;
+unstructured text data files, such as contracts, specifications, catalogs, change orders, requests for information, field reports, and meeting minutes;
+unstructured graphic files stored in binary format, such as 2D and 3D drawings;
+unstructured multimedia files, such as pictures, audio, and video files.
+For instance, let us consider a typical construction situation where a construction manager wants to find all available information about one construction activity, say, placing concrete in a slab.
+He/she will probably find the drawings in computer-aided design (CAD) files, the cost estimates in files produced by cost estimation systems, the schedule in files generated by project management software, the specifications and contracts in text documents, the communications among project members in e-mail files, and price quotes in files collected from different websites.
+A major task is how to retrieve, classify, and integrate information in these different file formats, especially considering that the files can also be stored in different organizations, computers, or file systems.
+Information integration methodologies have been investigated worldwide in order to improve information organization and access in inter-organizational construction management information systems.
+Teicholz [31] argues that project information should be integrated in three dimensions:
+‘‘(1) horizontal integration of multiple disciplines that take part in a construction project;
+(2) vertical integration of multiple stages in the life cycle of a facility;
+and (3) longitudinal integration over time, which is also related with the capture of knowledge that allows improved performance or better decisions in the
+Fisher and Kunz [8] argue that technical and managerial strategies have been used to improve information integration.
+On the technical side, there are four approaches to achieve integration [21,40]:
+‘‘(i) communication between applications;
+(ii) knowledge-based interfaces linking multiple applications and multiple databases;
+(iii) integration through geometry;
+and (iv) integration through a shared project model holding all the information relating to a project according to a common infrastructure model.’’
+The technical integration through a shared project model can be based on the creation of model-based systems using 3D/4D CAD [1] or on the use of distributed software architectures to facilitate the integration of decentralized project information [29,32].
+The adoption of data standards can support these integration approaches.
+Examples of initiatives in this area are presented by Eastman [7], and include the ISO-STEP, the Industry Foundation Classes (IFC) created by the International Alliance for Interoperability [12], and the aecXML specification [2].
+Currently, the majority of the architecture, engineering, construction, and facilities management (AEC/FM) information integration initiatives focus on structured data types.
+Nevertheless, Soibelman and Caldas [27] argue that a large percentage of the construction data is stored on semi-structured and unstructured files.
+Recent research work addressed some of the issues related with unstructured data integration.
+Fruchter [9] describes tools to capture, share, and reuse project information.
+Garrett et al. [10] explore the use of text analysis for building up classifications of regulation sections.
+Wood [38] describes an approach to extracting concepts from textual design documentation.
+BruUggemann et al. [4] proposed the use of arbitrarily structured metadata to markup documents.
+Scherer and Reul [24] use text clustering techniques to group similar documents and retrieve project knowledge from heterogeneous AEC/ FM documents.
+Yang et al. [35] and Kosovac et al. [16] proposed the use of controlled vocabularies (thesauri) to integrate heterogeneous data representations.
+Since a great percentage of AEC/FM information is exchanged using text data files, the management of the information contained in these types of documents becomes crucial to construction information management.
+Construction information classification systems
+Construction management information systems generate a significant quantity of data that needs to be organized, stored, accessed, and used by all project organizations.
+The increase in the amount and types of information generated and the construction industry’s subsequent reliance on it motivated the creation of classification standards that can comprehend the full scope of construction information.
+These standards enable the organization of project information and facilitate the communication between project organizations throughout the project’s life cycle.
+The information classification standards created by the AEC/FM industry are called construction information classification systems [13].
+They can be defined as a standard representation of construction project information.
+According to Kang and Paulson [13,14], a construction information classification system provides a common method for improving organization and coordination of information in construction projects.
+Examples of CICSs include the CSI Masterformat [17], the CSI Uniformat [33], and the Overall Construction Classification System [20], and Uniclass [14].
+For instance, in OCCS project facilities, constructed entities, spaces, elements, work results, products, process phases, process services, process participants, process aids, process information, and attributes are all defined in a standard manner.
+Therefore, CICSs provide a common framework for information organization and access in construction management information systems as well as knowledge dissemination, being an essential component in the integration of construction project information.
+Automated hierarchical construction documentclassification
+From the observations and problems presented in Sections 1 and 2, we can infer that information integration, organization, and access should be considered in construction management.
+Since a great percentage of the information exchanged among construction organizations is stored in text data files, the management of the information contained in these types of documents becomes essential.
+In order to improve the management of text-based information, an automated document classification method was devised and implemented.
+The method was designed according to the construction document classification process developed by the authors and described in Ref. [6].
+The importance of this study is that automated document classification methods can be used to improve information organization and access in current information management systems as well as being a foundation for integration of construction documents in emerging model-based systems.
+Experiments were conducted in order to evaluate the alternative methods that could be applied in each of the phases of the document classification process.
+The database selected for this evaluation was the Sweet’s Product Marketplace [30].
+This database stores data from over 10,700 manufacturers and 61,300 products for the construction industry.
+Construction products are classified using the hierarchical structure of CSI MasterFormat [17] in this database.
+The experiments were conducted using 3030 randomly selected documents from the Sweet’s database.
+The goal was to verify the classification accuracy of the proposed automated document classification method, using the classification decisions already defined in the Sweet’s database as a benchmark.
+The selected documents were originally classified in the database according to a subset of 121 CSI MasterFormat items.
+These items were distributed according to the CSI MasterFormat classification hierarchy and were composed of 16 items on level one, 52 items on level two, and 53 items on level three.
+The activity diagram of the proposed document classification process is presented in Fig. 1.
+The definition of the classes and the selection of the training positive, training negative, testing positive, and testing negative documents that will be used to create the classification model and verify their accuracy are the initial activities that should be conducted.
+The documents used to create the classification models as well as the new documents to be classified are usually stored in different data formats including:
+word processor, spreadsheet, e-mail, HTML, XML, PostScript (PS), and Portable Document Format (PDF) files.
+In order to apply the classification algorithms, these files need to be converted to text file format.
+This is usually done using file converter systems in order to create a text version of each document, while keeping the original documents in their native formats and locations.
+The text versions can then be used in the remaining activities of the classification process.
+UML activity diagram of CDCS.
+The next two steps require decisions regarding removal of stopwords and stemming.
+Stopwords are frequent words that do not carry information relevant to text classification like conjunctions, prepositions, and pronouns.
+Stemming is the process of prefix and/ or suffix removal to generate word stems.
+This is done to group words that have the same conceptual meaning.
+Our experiments revealed that the removal of stopwords, as well as the use of stemming algorithms improves classification accuracy in most of the cases.
+The index terms were obtained in one of the steps of the document classification process.
+Therefore, predefined index terms were not used in the process.
+According to Sebastiani [25], a major characteristic, or difficulty of text classification problems is the high dimensionality of the feature space.
+Many classification algorithms cannot deal with such a large feature set, since processing is extremely costly in computational terms.
+Hence, in many cases, there is a need to reduce the original feature set, which is commonly known as dimensionality reduction (DR) or attribute selection in the pattern recognition literature.
+Various DR methods have been tested in this research.
+These methods are grounded on concepts from the areas of information theory and linear algebra [36].
+In our experiments, the information gain method gave satisfactory results.
+In the information gain method, the expected reduction in entropy caused by selecting a term that will be used to classify the documents is calculated for all terms that occur in the documents belonging to each class.
+Terms with highest information gain are selected.
+The information gain is calculated using the following formula:
+CÞ ¼ EntropyðT;
+CÞ  ðNhasT=NtotalÞ
+ChasTÞ  ðNnoT=NtotalÞ
+Gain(T,C)=Information gain for term Tin class
+(NposhasT/NhasT)log2 (NposhasT/NhasT) (NneghasT/ NhasT) log2 (NneghasT/NhasT);
+Entropy(T,CnoT) =
+(NposnoT/NnoT) log2 (NposnoT/NnoT)  (NnegnoT/ NnoT)log2 (NnegnoT/NnoT);
+Ntotal = Total number of training documents in class C;
+Npos = Total number of positive training documents in class C;
+Nneg =Total number of negative training documents in class C;
+NhasT =Total number of training documents in class C that has term T;
+NnoT = Total number of training documents in class C that does not have term T;
+NposhasT = Total number of positive training documents in class C that has term T;
+NneghasT =Total number of negative training documents in class C that has term T;
+NposnoT =Total number of positive training documents in class C that does not have term T;
+NnegnoT =Total number of negative training documents in class C that does not have term T.
+The research demonstrated that the effectiveness of DR methods depends on the classification method used.
+For instance, the results for support vector machines [15] without dimensionality reduction were slightly better than when dimensionality reduction was used.
+Table 1 presents the classification accuracy results for support vector machines in different CSI MasterFormat levels without dimensionality reduction, as well as the best classification result obtained from the test cases where dimensionality reduction was used.
+Classification algorithms cannot directly interpret text documents.
+For this reason, a preparation and indexing procedure that maps a text document into a compact representation of its content needs to be uniformly applied to training and test documents.
+The vector space model was selected for document representation because the resulting model can be uniformly applied to the different classification algorithms analyzed.
+In the vector space model, vectors represent documents.
+The collection of documents is represented by an mn term-by-document weighted frequency matrix A={aij}, where aij was defined as the weight of a term i in document j.
+Each of the m
+Effect of dimensionality reduction on classification accuracy using
+CSI MasterFormat level	Classification accuracy
+Dimensionality reduction
+Without (%)
+unique terms in the document collection is assigned a row in the matrix, while each of the n documents in the collection is assigned a column in the matrix.
+A non-zero element, aij, indicates not only that term i occurred in document j, but also the number of times the term appears in that document or its relative weight.
+Since the number of terms in a given document is typically far less than the number of terms in the entire document collection, the matrix A is usually very sparse.
+For each class (defined here as a CICS item), only the terms selected after the dimensionality reduction step are used to create the vector space model.
+An independent vector space model needs to be created for each class.
+Several ways of determining the weights aij were investigated, including:
+Boolean weighting, absolute frequency, term frequency-inverse document frequency (tf-idf) weighting, and normalized term frequency-inverse document frequency (tfc) weighting [23].
+These approaches were originally developed based on two empirical observations regarding text documents:
+(i) the more times a word occurs in a document, the more relevant it is to the subject of the document, and (ii) the more times the word occurs throughout all documents in the collection, the more poorly it discriminates between documents.
+In Boolean weighting, a value of 1 is given to each cell, aij, in which the term i occurred in document j.
+In absolute frequency weighting, the cell aij value is given by the absolute frequency of the term i in document j. tf idf weighting uses the following formula to calculate the cell values:
+tf  idfki ¼ fki  log2ðN=dkÞ;
+tf-idfki =the tf-idf weight of term k in document i;
+fki =the absolute frequency of term k in document i;
+N=the number of documents in the collection;
+dk =the number of documents containing term k.
+The reasoning behind the tf-idf weighting is that if the term occurs in many of the documents in the collection, then it does not serve well as a document identifier and should be given a low weight as a potential index term.
+In tfc weighting, the values for each cell aij is calculated by the formula:
+tfcki =the tfc weight of term k in document i;
+tf-idfki =the tf-idf weight of term k in document i;
+tfidfsi =the tf-idf weight of term s in document i;
+T=set of all terms that occurs at least once in the collection.
+In tfc weighting, the values of tf-idf weighting are normalized to minimize the effect of length differences among documents.
+Our experiments demonstrated that these different weighting schemes have different classification accuracies.
+Table 2 presents the accuracy results in different CSI MasterFormat levels, using the index weighting methods previously described.
+The machine learning algorithms used to create the classification models have their own data input format and requirements.
+Usually, their data input is made using text files containing the data that will be processed.
+The data transformation step aims to create the data input files required by the classification algorithms.
+Basically, the information from the vector space model is converted into the appropriate text file format.
+Pattern classification algorithms are used to create the classification models.
+In this case, the classes are represented by the items of a Construction Information Classification System.
+Hence, construction document classification is defined as the task of assigning a Boolean value to each pair {dj, ci}aDC, where D is a domain of project documents and C is a set of CICS items (classes).
+A value of T (true) assigned to {dj, ci} indicates a decision that document dj is related with item ci, while a value of F (false) indicates that dj is not related with item ci.
+Several algorithms were tested, including:
+naive Bayes, k-nearest neighbors, Rocchio, and support vector machines (SVM).
+Table 3 presents the classification accuracy results in different CSI MasterFor-
+Effect of the index weighting methods on classification accuracy
+Effect of the classification method on classification accuracy
+Classification accuracy without dimensionality reduction
+Classification method
+mat levels using different classification algorithms.
+Since SVM outperformed the other classification methods in this experiment, and was also the method with best performance in other experiments conducted by the authors and reported in Ref. [6], a support vector machine [15] was the algorithm selected for the implementation of the automated hierarchical document classification process.
+By using a SVM classifier, a classification model can be created for each class by observing the characteristics of a set of documents that have previously been classified manually by a domain expert.
+This approach relies on the existence of an initial corpus of documents previously classified according to their relevance to a set of project components.
+A document dj is called a positive example of ci if {dj, ci}=T and a negative example of ci if {dj, ci} =F.
+Since each construction document can belong to more than one class (one individual document can be related to more than one CICS item), the classification process was designed to handle multiple binary classifications.
+In this case, each document is compared with each class.
+For each class, a binary decision is made in order to define whether the document is related or not with that particular class (CICS item).
+The large number of classes that usually need to be defined in order to classify construction documents imposes another challenge on the classification task.
+For multiple binary classifications, a classification model has to be created for each of the existing classes.
+In support vector machines, each model is defined by a specific multidimensional space composed of all training document vectors for that class.
+The SVM classifier aims to find a decision surface that best separates the positive and negative training document vectors for each class in a high dimensional feature space.
+Each dimension in this feature space is represented by an index term, and the coordinate for each dimension is defined by the corresponding index term weight.
+In its simplest linear separable case, SVM finds a hyperplane that separates the set of positive examples from the set of negative examples with maximum margin.
+Fig. 2 illustrates the linear separating hyperplane.
+The pointsxwhich lie on the hyperplane satisfy wx+b=0, where w is normal to the hyperplane, b/NwN is the perpendicular distance from the hyperplane to the origin, and NwN is the Euclidian norm of w [5].
+This problem can be solved using constrained quadratic programming optimization methods in which the margin, given by 2/NwN, is maximized subject to the constraints yi*(wxi +b)z1, where xi represents each individual training document vector for the class being considered and yi corresponds to classification decision (+1 for positive documents and 1 for negative documents) for document vector xi.
+Data about all multidimensional spaces and hyperplanes (support vectors) need to be stored efficiently since these data will be required in order to classify new/unseen documents.
+After generating the classification model, its effectiveness is evaluated.
+The alternative adopted for this evaluation was to randomly split the initial collection of documents into two sets.
+Training set:
+set of documents that were used to create the classification model.
+set of documents that were used for testing the effectiveness of the classifier.
+In our experiments, the random selection of training and testing sets was repeated 10 times and the results were averaged in order to calculate the accuracy of each classification model.
+In each trial, the documents in the test set did not participate in the training set.
+If this condition was not satisfied, then the experimental results obtained would probably be unrealistically good.
+The definition of the size of the training set was also crucial to avoid overfitting.
+This happens when the classifier performs with few errors on the training set and does not generalize to the new test cases.
+SVM Classification.
+Whenever a new document needs to be classified, it must be projected into the multidimensional space of each of the existing classes considering the same data preparation options (e.g.:
+use of the stemmer, index term weighting method).
+This projection is conducted very carefully since the index terms in the document to be classified need to match the right multidimensional space dimensions.
+Considering that the new document vector is xnew, the classification decision for a new document for a given class is given by the sign of (wxnew +b).
+A positive value means that the new document is related to this class.
+A negative value means that the new document is not a member of this class.
+Since, there are several classification models (one for each class), the new document needs to be projected in several multidimensional spaces.
+Therefore, this process needs to be repeated for each of the existing classification models.
+Implementing automated hierarchical documentclassification
+A prototype system, called the Construction Document Classification System (CDCS), was implemented in order to test the feasibility of the proposed approach.
+The system enables the classification of construction documents according to the specific classification items found in construction information classification systems.
+CDCS automates the steps involved in the document classification process previously described.
+It is currently composed of seven main modules:
+data selection, data conversion, dimensionality reduction, data preparation, data transformation, learning, and classification.
+The system was implemented in the programming language Java and uses Java Database Connectivity (JDBC) to communicate with a database management system (SQL Server).
+This database stores the data generated during the creation of the classification models;
+this data will also be used in the classification of new documents.
+In CDCS, the classification structure can be defined according to a hierarchy of classes.
+For instance, considering the CSI MasterFormat [17] as the classification structure, the document is initially classified according to each element of the first level (CSI MasterFormat level one-Divisions).
+For the elements in the first level in which the classification decision was true (meaning that the document was related with that particular CSI MasterFormat level one itemDivision), the binary classification can then be conducted for the second hierarchical level (CSI MasterFormat level two).
+Following the same process, for
+Hierarchical classification results (level one)
+Classification accuracy (%)
+Site Construction
+Wood and Plastics
+Thermal and
+Special Construction
+Conveying Systems
+the elements in the second level in which the classification decision was true (meaning that the document was related with that particular CSI MasterFormat level two item), the binary classification can then be conducted for the third hierarchical level (CSI MasterFormat level three).
+Tests using CDCS were conducted to evaluate the performance of the proposed automated hierarchical classification method.
+Hierarchical classification is more challenging than flat classification because the accuracy tends to reduce in the lower hierarchical levels.
+This usually happens because it is more difficult to differentiate the classes at the lower levels since they contain fewer training documents and the documents are more similar.
+Preliminary results indicated that the highest classification accuracy was achieved using SVM as the classification algorithm, tfc, as the index weighting method, and no dimensionality reduction.
+This configuration achieved an average accuracy of 95.88% for the first hierarchical level, 91.53% for the second level, and 86.37% for the third.
+The average classification accuracy for SVMs, considering the tests conducted in all class levels, was 92.05%, which is comparable to human performance in similar manual document classification tasks [37].
+Table 4 and Fig. 3 present the hierarchical classification accuracy results for this case.
+CSI MasterFormat Hierarchical Level Fig. 3.
+Hierarchical classification results (Average by Level).
+At first, the fact that the results using dimensionality results were slightly lower than when no dimensionality reduction method was used seems surprising.
+However, according to Joachims [15], this happens because in text classification there are only very few irrelevant features (index terms).
+He demonstrated that even features ranked lowest still contain considerable information and that aggressive dimensionality reduction may result in a loss of information.
+Similar behavior occurred in our experiments.
+The tfc indexing method considered both the frequency of the index term in the document and in the project collection, and used a normalization method to minimize document vector length differences.
+Support vector machines performed well because of the high dimensionality of the feature space, composed of document vectors that had only few entries that were not zero.
+This happens because each document contained only some of the index terms that occurred in the project collection.
+The proposed methodology can also be used to improve the organization and access to more unstructured text documents.
+It has been successfully tested in other types of construction documents, such as meeting minutes, requests for information, change orders, and design review documents.
+In this paper, a methodology for automated hierarchical document classification was described and evaluated.
+Automatic hierarchical classification is part of an ongoing research project that aims to improve the organization and access of unstructured text documents in construction management information systems and facilitate the integration of such documents in model-based systems.
+This is a very important issue for construction information management because a large percentage of project information is stored in text documents and these documents contain valuable information for decision-making, data analysis, and knowledge discovery.
+The methodology supports the generation of classification models based on project information classification structures, such as construction information classification systems or project model objects.
+After creating these classification models, new construction documents can be effectively classified.
+The main characteristics of the proposed methodology are:
+It does not require the manual assignment of metadata (keywords or index terms) to all documents in the information system.
+Manual assignment of metadata is a tedious task.
+It is also hard to achieve consistency when a large number of users from different organizations are adding documents to the system.
+It does not need the utilization of a controlled vocabulary that would only be effective if it was accepted as a standard by the AEC/FM organizations and adopted by all users of a construction management information system.
+It uses already existing AEC/FM standards to define the categories that will be used for classification;
+It facilitates the creation of automated mapping mechanisms from documents to project components.
+Experiments were conducted to verify the classification accuracy for hierarchical classification structures.
+A construction products’ database, originally classified according to a hierarchical structure, was used in this analysis.
+The results demonstrated the effectiveness and applicability of automated document classification methods for construction management information systems.
+Examples of other problems that can benefit from the proposed automated classification method include:
+analysis of construction project documentation, organization of multimedia project inspection files based on their description, facilitation of automated access to project specifications in proactive project controls systems, identification of problem areas and potential causes of delays, cost overruns, or quality deviations, and generation of lessons learned that could be applied in future activities and projects.
+The authors would like to thank the National Science Foundation for the support under the grant number 0201299.

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+	Automation in Construction 12 (2003) 407–417
+Evaluating the value IT adds to the process of project information management in construction
+Rodney A. Stewart*, Sherif Mohamed1
+School of Engineering, Griffith University, Gold Coast Campus, PMB 50 Gold Coast Mail Centre, Queensland, QLD 9726, Australia
+Accepted 8 January 2003
+This paper looks at the potential applications and benefits of using the Balanced Scorecard (BSC) as a framework to evaluate the value IT adds to the process of project information management in construction.
+The paper builds upon recently published works by the authors, by further strengthening the conceptually developed ‘Construct IT’ BSC framework, through the validation of the frameworks five (5) IT-related performance measurement perspectives and associated performance indicators.
+Construction professionals from large construction contracting and project management organisations located within Australia were used as the target group for a questionnaire survey.
+The survey results supported the five perspective ‘Construct IT’ BSC framework.
+Evidence of reliability and validity is presented for the conceptual framework.
+D 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
+Balanced scorecard;
+Information technology;
+Performance measurement;
+Information management;
+Construction projects
+Introduction
+During the last decade or so, significant productivity improvements experienced by a wide range of industries have been associated with IT implementation.
+IT has provided these industries with great advantages in speed of operation, consistency of data generation, accessibility and exchange of information.
+However, despite the well-documented high expectations of construction organizations achieving ITinduced improved responsiveness, efficiency and con-
+trol of business operations [1,2], some of these organisations are dissatisfied by their IT investments [3].
+This dissatisfaction is due in part to the limited understanding about the definition and measurement of IT [4], leading to some concerns as to the value IT adds to the process of project information management in construction.
+In an attempt to evaluate this degree of IT-induced value adding, Stewart and Mohamed [5] argue that organizations should adopt sound and consistent IT performance evaluation techniques that allow for benchmarking the overall performance improvement resulting from IT investments.
+* Corresponding author.
++61-75552-8778;
++6175552-8065.
+E-mail addresses:
+[email protected] (R.A. Stewart),
+[email protected] (S. Mohamed).
+This paper adopts an information-centric definition, which encompasses the use of electronic machines and programs for the processing storage, transfer and presentation of information.
+This is to demonstrate the key role that IT plays in improving
+0926-5805/03/$ - see front matter D 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
+the effectiveness of communication and information exchange in the context of managing a construction project.
+Additionally, the paper focuses only on the IT performance evaluation phase due to the perceived lack of an appropriate IT performance measurement framework, developed specifically for construction projects [6].
+The paper provides a framework to assist construction organisations to evaluate the value IT adds to the process of project information management.
+The proposed framework is in the form of a Balanced Scorecard (BSC), which incorporates five (5) IT-related performance measurement perspectives and associated performance indicators [5,7].
+The framework reliability and validity was tested through a questionnaire survey approach targeting large construction contractors and project managers in Australia.
+The paper has been organised as follows.
+The first section provides a brief background on the design and development of the theoretical framework and associated performance perspectives and indicators.
+Following this is the description of the theoretical framework and associated performance perspectives and indicators.
+Then, the methodology of the study is described, followed by the results of the analysis.
+Finally, the paper ends with some implications for practitioners, suggestions for future research and conclusions.
+Theoretical framework
+Generally, IT investment appraisal is more difficult than other investment decisions because IT-induced benefits are hard to identify and quantify [8].
+As a consequence, more traditional investment appraisal methods such as Return on Investment (ROI), Net Present Value (NPV) or Internal Rate of Return (IRR) have been difficult to apply despite being widely understood by senior managers [9].
+The IT productivity paradox prompted calls for new approaches to evaluate IT-related investments [10].
+In an attempt to address the IT productivity paradox in the context of project information management in construction, the authors recently conducted a comprehensive review of IT performance evaluation frameworks [5,7].
+As a result, this paper suggests that the BSC has the potential to help organisations to identify and evaluate the value IT adds to the process of project information management, in a holistic manner, through the process of benchmarking.
+2.1. ‘Construct IT’ BSC
+In an attempt to provide a balanced approach to IT performance evaluation, the authors recently developed an IT performance evaluation framework, in the form of a ‘Construct IT’ BSC, for the construction industry [5].
+This framework incorporates five (5) robust IT-related performance measurement perspectives:
+(1) operational;
+(2) benefits;
+(3) user orientation;
+(4) strategic competitiveness;
+and (5) technology/system (see Fig. 1).
+These perspectives and their associated indicators were customised for the specific elements of IT and construction.
+The framework utilises project-, tool- and process-specific IT indicators designed to reflect the particular aspects where IT implementation can improve project-based information management processes.
+In a more recent industrybased case study, which utilised the framework for the evaluation of a web-based communication system on a construction project, individual indicators were developed, screened and refined for each perspective of the framework [7].
+This empirical case study yielded 25 indicators spread across the five perspectives of the framework, for evaluating users’ perceptions of web-based technology.
+The reader is referred to References [5,7] for a complete description of the ‘Construct IT’ BSC perspectives and indicators utilised herein.
+This study goes beyond the initial development and case-specific application of the ‘Construct IT’ BSC by validating framework perspectives and ranking associated indicators.
+For evaluating the value IT adds to the project information management process, potential indicators were initially extracted from general management, construction management and IT literature [11–16].
+The outcome of this review has led to a list containing a large number of potential indicators, for each perspective, deemed to be applicable to measure IT-induced performance.
+Using industry input, a further screening of this comprehensive list was conducted to ensure validity, reliability and significance of performance indicators [6,7].
+This, in turn, has led to two distinct groups of performance indicators.
+The first of these is objective whereas the second is a subjective group of 30 items.
+Proposed ‘Construct IT’ BSC with five performance perspectives [5].
+The former of these groups focuses on quantitative measures, which are complementary to what is discussed herein, but outside the scope of this paper.
+The latter is the focus of this paper.
+Mohamed and Stewart [7] detail the rationale for selecting subjective performance indicators for each perspective (see Table 1).
+In addition to developing and refining IT performance perspectives and indicators, this study attempts to model the dependency of perspectives on indicators and the interdependency of indicators across the five perspectives.
+To achieve this research objective, the approach utilised was the Performance Measurement Process Framework (PMPF), developed by Kagioglou et al. [17].
+The PMPF is in the form of a matrix, which was designed to enhance the measurement properties of the BSC, and encompasses all its elements in a structured layout.
+The primary advantages of the PMPF are as follows.
+(1) The possibility to accumulate the results of each performance indicator and derive a result, which indicates the indicator’s importance in terms of indicator interdependence.
+This illustrates that the specific indicators developed for a specific perspective might have an influence on another perspective.
+Therefore, the performance indicators can be analysed to illustrate which are the critical ones, e.g. the ones with a high score that can have influence beyond their own perspective.
+(2) The possibility to accumulate the results for each perspective and derive the perspective dependence on indicators.
+The result can minimise the number of metrics used to determine the goals of the perspective.
+Additionally, it can illustrate the fact that no one goal can be measured by only one indicator in isolation.
+Furthermore, it illustrates the importance of understanding and clarifying the relationships between indicators.
+The application of the PMPF concept in this study is illustrated further in Section 5 of this paper.
+For a more detailed explanation of the intricacies of the PMPF, the reader is directed to Kagioglou et al. [17].
+Summary of IT performance indicator responses
+As mentioned earlier, the indicators were collated, screened, and refined by the construction industry
+Operational perspective (OP) (weighting 28%)
+through questionnaire dissemination.
+In order to further refine the screened ‘list’ of indicators, a follow-up project-focused questionnaire was developed and disseminated, with the aim to achieve the following goals:
+Validation of the developed BSC perspectives;
+Refinement of the screened ‘list’ of indicators at the project tier;
+Quantifying the relative importance of indicators;
+Calculating the interdependence of indicators;
+Calculating each perspective’s dependency on indicators;
+Ranking perspectives and indicators.
+In order to achieve the above research goals, the questionnaire contained questions on the background of the survey respondents and the IT portfolio of their organisation.
+This is followed by five sections, which are devoted to the developed BSC perspectives.
+Each perspective includes a list of screened indicators, where respondents were required to circle the level of importance of each indicator on a 5-point Likert scale with ‘Not Important’ at the one extreme and ‘Very Important’ at the other.
+The final section asks the respondents to rate the importance of each indicator to the five perspectives, on a scale of 1 to 5 as detailed previously.
+The aim of this section is to
+Q1	IT-enhanced processing of progress claims
+Q2	Improved contract administration
+Q3	IT-enhanced coordination and communication
+Q4	IT-enhanced decision-making process
+Q5	Faster reporting and feedback
+Q6	Reduced unnecessary site visits
+Q7	Reduced no. of quality assurance
+Benefits perspective (BE) (weighting 20%)
+Q9	Reduced multiple handling of documents
+Q11	Realised cost savings
+Q14	Streamlining of processes
+Technology/System perspective (TS) (weighting 17%)
+Q16	Reliability of IT tool	3.96
+Q17	Appropriateness for application	3.95 function
+Q19	Improved quality of output	3.96
+Q20	Effective system security	3.93 Q21	Suitability for site conditions	3.94
+Strategic competitiveness perspective (SC) ( Weighting 19%)
+Q22	Improved staff computer literacy	3.83	0.82
+Q23	Enhanced organisational	3.94	0.86 competitiveness
+Q24	Enhanced organisational image	3.65	0.94
+Q25	Project alliances forged through	3.25	1.02 electronic means
+Q26	Ability to attract more	3.36	1.17
+sophisticated clients
+User orientation perspective (UO) (weighting 16%)
+Q27	Satisfactory level and frequency	3.83	0.82 of IT training
+Q28	Satisfactory level and frequency	4.04	0.82 of IT support
+Q30	User satisfaction (user, client, other)	4.18	0.78
+Notes to Table 1:
+Operational perspective (OP):
+concerned with the impact of IT on productivity and efficiency.
+Benefits perspective (BE):
+investigates the link between IT implementation and associated tangible (monetary) and intangible (non-monetary, i.e. time savings) benefits.
+Technology/System perspective (TS):
+refers to the hardware and software, covering issues such as tool performance, reliability, availability, security and suitability to the application/process.
+Strategic competitiveness perspective (SC):
+focuses on the longterm strategic goals of the organisation and how the newly implemented technology creates competitive advantage.
+User orientation perspective (UO):
+covers issues associated with the
+usage such as tool utilisation rate, availability of training and technical support and satisfaction with the tool.
+quantify perspective dependency and indicator interdependency using the performance measurement relationship matrix developed by Kagioglou et al. [17].
+Sampling procedure
+Large construction contractors and project management organisations were targeted as they were most likely to adopt innovative IT for project information management and construction professionals working for these organisations would be more suited to evaluating the importance of perspectives and indicators.
+Additionally, these organisations would benefit the most from IT implementation because of the size and complexity of their projects [3].
+The questionnaire was sent to 322 construction project professionals representing large construction contractors and project management organisations.
+A small sample of government project managers also participated in the survey.
+A total of 108 positive returns were received, representing an average response rate of 33%.
+This rate appears to be consistent with other reported mail surveys in the literature [18].
+Five questionnaires were eliminated due to missing data, leaving a final sample size of 103.
+Respondents were classified into four categories:
+director/operations manager (30%), project manager/ project engineer/construction manager (53%), IT professional (14%) and other (3%).
+The position of other includes human resources manager, or finance officer, or project administrator.
+The average work experience of respondents engaged in the survey is 13.4 years, with about 34% of respondents having more than 20 years of experience.
+The next part of the questionnaire survey asked respondents to detail what IT applications and tools they had available to them on construction projects.
+As mentioned previously, the survey adopts an information-centric definition of IT and thus only these types of applications/tools were included in the survey.
+The survey demonstrated a high percentage of respondents utilising a variety of IT applications and tools including:
+(1) Intranet;
+(2) Internet;
+(3) e-mail;
+(4) local area network (LAN);
+(5) wide area network (WAN);
+(6) web-based project management application (WBPMA);
+(7) video conferencing;
+and (8) online remote network (mobile).
+Respondents were requested to detail the primary driving force behind the utilisation of these IT tools.
+The results indicate that the larger construction organisations have been pro-active in planning for innovative IT implementation with 85% of respondents indicating company strategy as the primary driving force.
+Only a small fraction of respondents indicated client requirements as the primary driving force.
+Perspectives and indicators
+This section was the most imperative component of the questionnaire survey.
+Its purpose was to gauge the opinions of industry professionals as to the importance of the various IT performance perspectives and their associated indicators.
+The aim of these questions was to determine the relative weighting of perspectives, the relative importance of indicators and to validate the developed framework perspectives through statistical analysis.
+To facilitate understanding of the proposed ‘Construct IT’ BSC, the survey describes perspectives and indicators clearly and includes illustrative examples, where necessary.
+In addition, a coloured pamphlet detailing the research project and conceptual framework was included with the survey.
+Respondents rated the importance of the five perspectives of the ‘Construct IT’ BSC. The mean weighting of the five perspectives in descending order is:
+(1) operational 28%, (2) benefits 20%, (3) strategic competitiveness 19%, (4) technology/system 17%, and (5) user orientation 16% (see Table 1).
+This indicates that respondents place the most importance on the operational perspective.
+However, the other four perspectives have weighting between 16% and 20%, indicating that all five perspectives are required to evaluate the value IT adds to the process of project information management.
+If the situation presented itself where one of the five perspectives was substantially less than the remaining, then there may be a case to remove it from the framework.
+The next section asked respondents to rate the importance of each performance indicator associated with the perspectives detailed above.
+The questionnaire respondent was required to circle the level of importance of each indicator on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from:
+(1) not important;
+(2) slightly important;
+(3) somewhat important;
+(4) important;
+and (5) very important.
+The mean value and standard deviation for the 30 performance indicators is detailed in Table 1.
+The mean values range from 2.75 for Q6:
+Reduced unnecessary site visits, to 4.27 for Q28:
+User friendliness.
+The mean value for all indicators detailed in the questionnaire is 3.85 indicating that the respondents rated the indicators, on average, as important.
+Only one value has a mean less than 3 (i.e., Q6:
+Reduced unnecessary site visits).
+This indicator was removed from further analysis.
+The remaining items (29) were subjected to a principal component factor analysis, followed by a varimax rotation, to determine the underlying perspectives of the framework.
+The data was deemed to be appropriate for the analysis by exceeding the 0.5 threshold level, as indicated by the Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin factor solution measure of sampling adequacy of 0.75 [19].
+The initial analysis using SPSS V10.0 yielded a fivefactor solution, which accounted for 57% of the variance (see Table 2).
+However, the interpretability of the solution was rendered problematic because of four complex items, which loaded on more than one factor.
+For example, Item Q4:
+IT-enhanced decisionmaking process, was diffused across three factors with loading less than 0.5.
+Similarly, items Q7, Q14 and Q22 were equally diffused across two or more factors with loading less than 0.5.
+Due to the problematic nature of these four items, they were removed from further analysis.
+A subsequent analysis of the remaining 25 items yielded five factors with eigenvalues greater than one, which together accounted for 61% of the explained variance.
+Table 3 details the factor loadings, explained variance, eigenvalues and Cronbach’s a for the five factors.
+As can be seen, all analysed items have loadings greater than the minimum values of 0.5 suggested by Hair et al. [19] and were selected to define the five factors (perspectives).
+Cronbach’s a for individual factors ranged from 0.73 to 0.89, which are well above the lower acceptable limits of 0.50–0.60, indicating adequate external consistency [20].
+4 item to observation ratio has been suggested by Hair et al. [19].
+The respective item to observation ratio in
+Varimax factor loadings for the initial five-factor solution
+Item Factor analysis components
+technology/ operational benefits system
+user	strategic
+a Variable loads strongly into only one factor. b Variable is diffused over two or more factors.
+this study is approximately1:
+4.1, suggesting that the study meets the required standards for factor analysis. 4.3.
+PMPF matrix analysis
+This section demonstrates the analysis of the PMPF and describes its various elements (see Table
+The main aim of the framework presented in Table 4 is to present a holistic performance management/ measurement process framework accounting for input, process and output of performance measurement, as suggested by Kagioglou et al. [17].
+Using the five perspectives and their associated performance indicators established from factor analy-
+Varimax rotated factor loadings for the five-factor solution
+IT-enhanced processing of progress claims
+Improved contract administration
+IT-enhanced coordination and communication
+Cronbach’s a=0.73
+Faster reporting and feedback
+Reduced multiple handling of documents
+Cronbach’s a=0.85
+Realised cost savings
+Reliability of IT tool
+Appropriateness for application/function
+Improved quality of output
+Cronbach’s a=0.89
+Effective system security
+Suitability for site conditions
+Enhanced organisational competitiveness
+Enhanced organisational image
+Cronbach’s a=0.73
+Project alliances forged through electronic means
+Ability to attract more sophisticated clients
+User orientation
+Satisfactory level and frequency of IT training
+Satisfactory level and frequency of IT support
+Cronbach’s a=0.82
+User satisfaction
+sis, it is now possible to construct the matrix.
+When providing responses for the PMPF, respondents were asked to rate the importance of the indicator to each of the five perspectives, on a scale of 1 to 5, where:
+(1) not important;
+(2) slightly important;
+(3) somewhat important;
+(4) important;
+and (5) very important.
+For example, for the importance of the indicator OP1:
+ITenhanced processing of progress claims, on the five perspectives, can be described as follows:
+Important—very important (score 4.20) to the operational perspective since IT is supposed to
+streamline the process;
+Somewhat important—important (score 3.61) to the benefits perspective since more efficient processing of progress claims will generate cost savings to the organisation;
+Somewhat important (score 3.04) to the technology/system perspective because if the hardware or software fails the user will have to resort to manual procedures.
+As suggested earlier, the primary advantage of the PMPF is that it can help identify each indicator’s interdependency and each perspective’s dependency on indicators.
+Indicator interdependency is calculated by summing the mean values for each of the five perspectives.
+For example, for the indicator OP1:
+ITenhanced processing of progress claims, the sum of the mean values is (4.20 +3.61+3.04+2.90+3.15= 16.89).
+This interdependence value can be compared to that of other indicators to examine which indicators have the highest perspective interdependence.
+Indicator interdependence ranges from 15.88 for SC4 to 19.20 for TS1.
+As expected, indicator TS1:
+reliability of IT tool, has a high interdependence value since all five perspectives rely on IT reliability to achieve their desired objectives.
+Also, all indicators in the user orientation perspective have a high interdependence because this perspective is a key enabler to achieving the other objectives.
+In addition, it is possible to accumulate the results for the five perspectives and derive the perspective’s dependency on indicators.
+By summation of each column in Table 4, perspective dependency can be calculated.
+The results of the questionnaire survey are as follows:
+(1) operational=97.8;
+(2) benefits =90.8;
+(3) technology/system=84.3;
+(4) strategic competitiveness =85.8;
+and (5) user orientation =83.8.
+These results indicate that the perspective dependence is highest for the operational perspective, suggesting
+Performance measurement relationship matrix
+Performance indicator	Perspective	Indicator
+Code	Description	Operational	Benefit	Technology/	Strategic	User
+IT-enhanced processing of progress claims
+Improved contract administration
+IT-enhanced coordination and communication
+Faster reporting and feedback
+Reduced multiple handling of documents
+Realised cost savings
+Reliability of IT tool
+Appropriateness for application/function
+Improved quality of output
+Effective system security
+Enhanced organisational competitiveness
+Enhanced organisational image
+Project alliances forged through elect. means
+Ability to attract more sophisticated clients
+Satisfactory level and frequency of IT training
+Satisfactory level and frequency of IT support
+User satisfaction
+Perspective rank
+that, in order to gain a realistic picture of IT-induced value adding to the process of project information management, operational indicators and measures are essential.
+These results relate very well with the perspective weight values obtained independently (see Table 1), where the operational perspective has the highest weighting (28%).
+Ranking indicators
+The ranking of indicators (see Table 5) has been calculated by multiplying the indicator mean (IM) value by the indicator interdependence mean (IIM) value.
+For example, for the indicator OP1:
+ITenhanced processing of progress claims (3.56  16.89=60.132).
+Using this technique, the rank within each perspective and the overall rank of each indicator is calculated.
+The two highest ranked indicators in each perspective and the 10 highest indicators overall are in bold and underlined in Table 5.
+The highest ranked indicator was UO5:
+user friendliness, whilst the lowest was SC4:
+project alliances forged through electronic means.
+It is important to note that even though the technology/system and user orientation perspectives have 5 of the 10 highest ranked indicators, they are the two lowest ranked perspectives according to weight and dependency on indicators.
+This suggests that the respondents see these ‘soft’ perspectives as key enablers to achieving IT-induced value adding in the process of project information management.
+However, their overall perception is that the majority of value generated from IT implementation is derived from the ‘results-driven’ operational and benefits perspectives.
+Moreover, the indicator interdependence values for the indicators in the strategic competitiveness perspective were quite low,
+Ranking indicators
+Code	Description	Indicator	Indicator	IMIIM	Rank within	Rank overall
+IT-enhanced processing of progress claims
+IT-enhanced coordination and communication
+OP4 Faster reporting and feedback 4.06 17.54 71.205 3 12 OP5 Quicker response times 4.00 18.40 73.594 2 7 OP6 Optimise staff utilisation 3.95 17.70 69.930 4 14
+BE1	Time savings due to efficient doc. management	4.05	18.15	73.494	2	8 BE2	Reduced multiple handling of documents	4.14	17.73	73.416	3	9 BE3	Improved document quality	3.88	17.21	66.757	4	19 BE4	Realised cost savings	4.14	18.37	76.046	1	4
+TS1	Reliability of IT tool	3.96	19.20	76.050	1	3
+TS2	Appropriateness for application/function	3.95	18.37	72.579	2	10
+Improved quality of output
+Effective system security
+Suitability for site conditions
+Improved client satisfaction
+Enhanced organisational image
+Project alliances forged through electronic means
+Satisfactory level and frequency of IT training
+Satisfactory level and frequency of IT support
+suggesting that these indicators have low relevance to the other perspectives.
+This further suggests that IT is yet to be viewed as a strategic tool by construction professionals.
+Also, it reflects the difference in the respondents’ perceptions towards realised benefits (short-term) and potential benefits (long-term).
+This research study empirically refined and validated the proposed five-perspective ‘Construct IT’ BSC framework.
+The study demonstrated that all five perspectives of the framework were justified through a varimax rotated factor analysis.
+The survey respondents considered the Operational perspective to be the most important, carrying a weighting of 28%, however, all perspectives were deemed necessary with minimal disparity between the weighting of the other perspectives.
+This reinforces the assumption that all five perspectives are necessary to holistically evaluate the value IT adds to the process of project information management.
+The results from the performance measurement relationship matrix (see Table 4) also confirm this assumption by having only a 16% variance between the highest and lowest perspective dependency value.
+Weighting the operational perspective higher than the other perspectives suggests that respondents are more concerned with how IT can directly affect the day-to-day information management processes.
+As expected, gains in the efficiency or productivity of operational processes seems to be noticed and acknowledged quickly while flow-on effects to the Benefits and Strategic Competitive perspectives may not be as obvious.
+The results further indicate that none of the indicators within the strategic competitiveness perspective have made it in the top 10 ranked indicators.
+This is perhaps due to the fact that the majority of respondents are operations/project managers that are not heavily involved in the process of project-based information managing.
+It would be of interest to determine if strategic competitiveness indicators will have a higher-ranking order in a top-management focused survey.
+Within each perspective are a number of indicators that are ranked based on their mean and indicator interdependence values.
+All of the retained 25 indicators were perceived as important (i.e., mean values of >3) by the respondents for capturing the various tangible and intangible elements of value derived from IT implementation.
+However, the flexible nature of the framework enables organisations to choose other indicators that reflect their particular goals and objectives.
+Despite this, the authors recommend adopting the two highest ranked indicators, at a minimum, within each perspective.
+The study showed that these indicators were the most effective for capturing IT-induced value.
+In summary, this research approach has elicited an IT performance evaluation framework, in the form of a ‘Construct IT’ BSC, that can evaluate the many diverse elements of value derived from IT for improving the process of project information management in construction.
+Concluding remarks
+Without the effective use of IT to facilitate the process of information management amongst project participants, it is unlikely that major improvements to the communication process will eventuate by continuing to use traditional paper-based processes.
+This paper has sought to emphasise the importance of a structured evaluation framework to evaluate the value IT adds to the process of project information management.
+A balanced scorecard approach was chosen, as the template for this framework, due to its success in a wide spectrum of industries/applications.
+The framework is in the form of a ‘Construct IT’ BSC with IT performance perspectives and indicators developed specifically for managing information on construction projects.
+The conceptual framework was developed through extensive review of the IT literature and consultation with construction management academics and industry professionals.
+Following this process, the conceptual framework was then subjected to industry scrutiny through questionnaire survey.
+The questionnaire targeted large construction contractors and project management organisations located within Australia, and 103 valid responses were received.
+The final framework was in the form of a ‘Construct IT’ BSC which goes beyond traditional evaluation approaches by accommodating the wider intangible human, organisational and strategic benefits of IT investments.
+The contents of this paper have two primary implications for researchers and practitioners in the construction industry.
+Firstly, the research study has demonstrated that IT projects need to be evaluated across a range of diverse perspectives.
+Secondly, a variety of indicators spread across these perspectives are imperative to encompass the complete spectrum of value elements obtainable from innovative IT investments.
+The attractiveness of the ‘Construct IT’ BSC to the construction industry is its simplicity and flexibility.
+It is the authors’ contention that evaluating ITinduced value added to project information management should be measured across the proposed five perspectives, however, the proposed indicators of the framework should not be considered fixed, e.g. indicators can be individually developed to suit the goals of the organisation.
+The dynamic nature of IT requires that the indicators must also continually evolve to accurately quantify the value IT adds to the process.
+Therefore, construction organisations should lay the foundations for an IT performance measurement and management culture, by actively seeking to quantify the value IT generates.
+This only happens when top management is sincerely supportive and involved in the process itself.