ID,Article,Type
TRAIN_1,"There are a variety of emerging applications for NLP, including the following:, voice-controlled computer interfaces (such as in aircraft cockpits), programs that can assist with planning or other tasks ,, more-realistic interactions with computer-controlled game characters, robots that interact with humans in various settings such as hospitals, automatic analysis or summarization of news stories and other text, intelligence and surveillance applications (analysis of communication, etc. ), data mining, creating consumer profiles, and other ecommerce applications, search-engine improvements, such as in determining relevancy",Human-written
TRAIN_2,"As each new means of communication and social interaction is introduced, social customs and etiquette evolve in response. For example, it took time before the practice of saying “hello” and identifying oneself became the universal way to initiate a phone conversation. By the 1980s, a system of topical news postings , carried on the Internet was becoming widely used in universities, the computer industry, and scientific institutions. Many new users did not understand the system, and posted messages that were off topic. Others used their postings as to insult or attack (“flame”) other users, particularly in newsgroups discussing perennially controversial topics such as abortion. When a significant number of postings in a newsgroup are devoted to flaming and counter-flaming, many users who had sought civilized, intelligent discussion leave in protest. In 1984, Chuq von Rospach wrote a document entitled “A Primer on How to Work with the Usenet Community. ” It and later guides to net etiquette or “netiquette” offered useful guidelines to new users and to more experienced users who wanted to facilitate civil discourse.",Human-written
TRAIN_3,"These suggestions include:, Learn about the purpose of a newsgroup before you post to it. If a group is moderated, understand the moderator’s guidelines so your postings won’t be rejected. , Before posting, follow some discussions to see what sort of language, tone, and attitude seems to be appropriate for this group Do not post bulky graphics or other attachments unless the group is designed for them. , Avoid “ad hominem” (to the person) attacks when discussing disagreements. , Do not post in ALL CAPS, which is interpreted as “shouting. ”, Check your postings for proper spelling and grammar. On the other hand, avoid “flaming” other users for their spelling or grammar errors. , When replying to an existing message, include enough of the original message to provide context for your reply, but no more. , If you know the answer to a question or problem raised by another user, send it to that user by e-mail. That way the newsgroup doesn’t get cluttered up with dozens of versions of the same information.",Human-written
TRAIN_4,"In recent years there has been growing concern that Internet users may eventually be treated differently by service providers depending on the kind of data they download or the kind of application programs they use online. Advocates of network (or net) neutrality , want legislation that would bar cable, DSL, or other providers , from making such distinctions, such as by charging content providers higher fees for high volumes of data or even blocking certain applications. Advocates of net neutrality believe that, since there are rather limited choices for broadband Internet service, discrimination on the basis of Web content could lead to a loss of freedom for consumers and providers alike",Human-written
TRAIN_5,"By the late 1970s, researchers at many major universities were using the UNIX operating system ,. In 1979, a suite of utilities called UUCP was distributed with the widely used UNIX Version 7. These utilities could be used to transfer files between UNIX computers that were linked by some form of telephone or network connection. Two Duke University graduate students, Tom Truscott and Jim Ellis, decided to set up a way in which users on different computers could share a collection of files containing text messages on various topics. They wrote a simple set of shell scripts that could be used for distributing and viewing these message files. The first version of the news network linked computers at Duke and at the University of North Carolina. Soon these programs were revised and rewritten in the C language and distributed to other UNIX users as the “A” release of the News software. During the 1980s, the news system was expanded and features such as moderated newsgroups were added. As the Internet and its TCP/IP protocol , became a more widespread standard for connecting computers, a version of News using the NNTP (Network News Transmission Protocol) over the Internet was released in 1986. Netnews is a mature system today, with news reading software available for virtually every type of computer",Human-written
TRAIN_6,"Netnews postings are simply text files that begin with a set of standard headers, similar to those used in e-mail. (Like e-mail, news postings can have binary graphics or program files attached, using a standard called MIME, for Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions. )The files are stored on news servers—machines that have the spare capacity to handle the hundreds of gigabytes of messages now posted each week. The files are stored in a typical hierarchical UNIX fashion, grouped into approximately 75,000 different newsgroups. As shown in the following table, the newsgroups are broken down into 10 major categories. The names of individual groups begin with the major category and then specify subdivisions. For example, the newsgroup comp. sys. ibm. pc deals with IBM PC-compatible personal computers, while comp. os. linux deals with the Linux operating system.",Human-written
TRAIN_7,"The servers are linked into a branching distribution system. Messages being posted by users are forwarded to the nearest major regional “node” site, which in turn distributes them to other major nodes. In turn, when messages arrive at a major node from another region, they are distributed to all the smaller sites that share the newsfeed. Due to the volume of groups and messages, many sites now choose to receive only a subset of the total newsfeed. Sites also determine when messages will expire (and thus be removed from the site). There are dozens of different news reading programs that can be used to view the available newsgroups and postings. On UNIX systems, programs such as elm and tin are popular, while other newsreaders cater to Windows, Macintosh, and other systems. Major Web browsers such as Netscape and Internet Explorer offer simplified news reading features. To use these news readers, the user accesses a newsfeed at an address provided by the Internet Service Provider (ISP). There are also services that let users simply navigate through the news system by following the links on a Web page. The former service called DejaNews, now Google Groups, is the best-known and most complete such site",Human-written
TRAIN_8,"NLP is a multidisciplinary field that draws from linguistics and computer science, particularly artificial intelligence ,. In terms of linguistics, a program must be able to deal with words that have multiple meanings (“wind up the clock” and “the wind is cold today”) as well as grammatical ambiguities (in the phrase “little girl’s school” is it the school that is little, the girls, or both?). Of course each language has its own forms of ambiguity. Programs can use several strategies for dealing with these problems, including using statistical models to predict the likely meaning of a given phrase based on a “corpus” of existing text in that language ,. As formidable as the task of extracting the correct (literal) meaning from text can be, it is really only the first level of natural language processing. If a program is to successfully summarize or draw conclusions about a news report from North Korea, for example, it would also have to have a knowledge base of facts about that country and/or a set of “frames” , about how to interpret various situations such as threat, bluff, or compromise. )",Human-written
TRAIN_9,"The idea of networks has been around for centuries, as people have always sought ways to connect with each other over long distances. However, the modern computer network as we know it today began to take shape in the mid-20th century. In the 1950s, computers were large, expensive, and rare machines that were primarily used by governments, large corporations, and academic institutions. These computers were often housed in large rooms or buildings and were operated by trained technicians. One of the earliest computer networks was the SAGE (Semi-Automatic Ground Environment) system, which was developed in the late 1950s by the United States Air Force. The SAGE system was designed to provide early warning of potential air attacks by the Soviet Union. It used a network of interconnected computers to track incoming enemy aircraft and coordinate defensive responses. In the 1960s, the US Department of Defense developed the ARPANET, which was the first wide-area network to use packet switching. The ARPANET was initially designed as a way for researchers at different universities and research institutions to share computing resources and collaborate on research projects. Over the years, computer networks evolved and became more sophisticated, eventually leading to the creation of the World Wide Web in the 1990s. Today, networks are an essential part of our daily lives, connecting people and devices all over the world and enabling us to access information and services instantly from almost anywhere.",AI-generated
TRAIN_10,"The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a conceptual model that describes the communication process between computing systems. It is composed of seven layers, each of which defines a specific function in the communication process. The layers are:Physical layer: This layer is responsible for transmitting raw data between devices using physical connections like cables, wires, or radio signals. It defines the electrical and physical specifications for the connection. Data link layer: This layer is responsible for transmitting data between devices on the same physical network. It defines how data is organized into frames for transmission and how errors are detected and corrected. Network layer: This layer is responsible for routing data between different networks. It determines the optimal path for data to travel and uses protocols like IP (Internet Protocol) to transmit data between networks. Transport layer: This layer provides reliable, end-to-end communication between devices. It breaks down data into smaller packets for transmission and ensures that they are received correctly at the other end. Session layer: This layer establishes, manages, and terminates connections between devices. It allows applications on different devices to establish a communication session and manage the exchange of data. Presentation layer: This layer is responsible for data representation and encryption. It transforms data into a format that can be understood by the application layer and encrypts it for secure transmission. Application layer: This layer provides services to end-users, such as email, file transfer, and web browsing. It defines the protocols and formats used by applications to communicate with each other. The OSI model is a reference model and does not specify any particular protocol or technology. However, it provides a common framework that helps network designers and developers to understand the various functions and interactions between different layers of the network.",AI-generated
TRAIN_11,"NAS stands for Network-Attached Storage. It refers to a storage device that is connected to a network and allows multiple users and devices to access and share files and data over that network. NAS devices typically have their own operating systems and can provide a wide range of features such as file sharing, backup and recovery, media streaming, and remote access. NAS devices can be used in both home and business settings to centralize and manage data storage across multiple devices and users. They are often used as a more cost-effective and flexible alternative to traditional file servers, which require dedicated hardware and IT support. NAS devices can range in size from small, single-drive units to large enterprise-level systems with multiple drives and advanced features.",AI-generated
TRAIN_12,"A Storage Area Network (SAN) is a dedicated high-speed network that provides block-level access to data storage. In a SAN, storage devices such as disk arrays, tape libraries, and other storage appliances are connected to servers through a series of switches and/or hubs. SANs are designed to provide high-speed, reliable access to large amounts of data, and are often used in enterprise environments where large amounts of data need to be stored and accessed by multiple servers and applications. SANs provide centralized storage management, which allows administrators to allocate storage resources to servers and applications as needed. SANs typically use Fibre Channel or iSCSI protocols to connect storage devices to the network. Fibre Channel is a high-speed, dedicated network technology that provides very low latency and high reliability. iSCSI, on the other hand, is an IP-based protocol that allows storage devices to be connected to the network using standard Ethernet connections. SANs can provide a number of benefits, including increased performance, scalability, and availability of data. They are often used in data centers and other large-scale IT environments to provide high-performance storage for critical applications and data.",AI-generated
TRAIN_13,"Cyberpunk is a subgenre of science fiction that typically focuses on a future dystopian society dominated by advanced technology and corporate control. The term was first used in the 1980s to describe a type of science fiction that features a gritty, urban setting, high-tech weaponry, and a distinct anti-authoritarian attitude. The central themes of cyberpunk often include a focus on the dangers of technology and the impact of artificial intelligence, virtual reality, and cybernetic enhancements on human society. It often explores themes of social decay, economic inequality, and the struggle of individuals to find their place in a complex and oppressive world. Some well-known examples of cyberpunk include William Gibson's Neuromancer, Bruce Sterling's Schismatrix, and the movies Blade Runner and The Matrix. Cyberpunk has also influenced other media, such as video games, music, and fashion.",AI-generated
TRAIN_14,"Neuroprosthetics is a field of study that involves developing devices that can replace or restore the function of the nervous system. These devices are designed to interface directly with the brain, spinal cord, or peripheral nerves and can be used to restore movement, sensation, or other functions that may have been lost due to injury or disease. At Duke University, researchers have been working on developing advanced neuroprosthetics that can help people with spinal cord injuries regain movement and mobility. One of the key areas of focus has been on developing brain-machine interfaces (BMIs) that can translate brain activity into movement. In a recent study published in the journal Nature Medicine, researchers at Duke University demonstrated that a monkey with a spinal cord injury was able to regain the ability to walk with the help of a brain-controlled robotic exoskeleton. The monkey had electrodes implanted in its brain that were able to decode signals related to movement and translate them into commands that controlled the robotic exoskeleton. The researchers also used a wireless connection to send feedback from the exoskeleton back to the monkey's brain, which allowed it to adjust its movements in real-time. This approach has the potential to enable people with spinal cord injuries to regain movement and independence. Overall, the research carried out at Duke University and other institutions in the field of neuroprosthetics is aimed at developing new and innovative approaches to restoring function and improving the quality of life for people with neurological disorders or injuries.",AI-generated
TRAIN_15,"Neurality refers to the concept of neural networks, which are a type of artificial intelligence modeled after the structure and function of the human brain. Neural networks are composed of interconnected nodes, called artificial neurons, that process and transmit information. Each neuron receives input from multiple other neurons and computes a weighted sum of these inputs. The neuron then passes this sum through a nonlinear activation function to produce an output, which is then transmitted to other neurons. This process of computing weighted sums and passing the results through activation functions is repeated multiple times, allowing the neural network to build increasingly complex representations of the input data. Neural networks can be trained to perform a wide range of tasks, such as image recognition, language translation, and even playing games like chess. The training process involves adjusting the weights on the connections between neurons so as to minimize a chosen loss function. This process is repeated for multiple passes over the training data, until the network has learned to accurately predict the desired output for a given input.",AI-generated
TRAIN_16,"NLP, or Natural Language Processing, is a field of study and technology concerned with the interaction between computers and humans using natural language. It involves using algorithms and statistical models to analyze and understand human language and to generate text or speech in response. For example, consider a simple NLP application: sentiment analysis. Sentiment analysis is the task of determining the emotional tone behind a piece of text, such as a movie review. A sentiment analysis model might take in a movie review written in English and output a label indicating whether the review is positive, negative, or neutral. The model might make this determination by analyzing the words used in the review and their relationships to each other, as well as other information such as the context in which the words are used.",AI-generated
TRAIN_17,"Multitasking refers to the ability of an individual or a system to perform multiple tasks simultaneously. In a computing context, multitasking refers to the ability of an operating system to run multiple programs or processes at the same time, allowing the user to switch between them or have multiple programs running in the background. For humans, multitasking can refer to the ability to perform multiple tasks or activities at the same time, such as typing an email while listening to music, or cooking dinner while talking on the phone. However, research has shown that human multitasking is often not as effective as performing each task separately and in sequence, as multitasking can lead to decreased productivity and increased stress. In both human and computer systems, multitasking can also refer to the ability to quickly switch between tasks and effectively allocate resources to different tasks as needed. This requires effective management of resources, such as memory and processing power, as well as efficient algorithms for scheduling and switching between tasks.",AI-generated
TRAIN_18,". NET is a software framework developed by Microsoft that provides a platform for building and running a wide range of applications, including desktop applications, web applications, and mobile applications. The framework is designed to make it easier for developers to build high-quality, secure, and scalable applications for the Windows operating system and other platforms. . NET provides a large set of libraries and tools that developers can use to build their applications. These libraries cover a wide range of functionality, from basic input/output operations to more complex tasks such as network programming, data access, and multimedia support. Additionally, the . NET framework provides a common execution environment for all . NET applications, allowing them to share resources and take advantage of optimizations provided by the framework. . NET also includes a runtime environment, called the Common Language Runtime (CLR), which manages the execution of . NET code and provides services such as memory management, security, and exception handling. The CLR also enables . NET applications to run on multiple platforms and devices, including Windows, Linux, and macOS, as well as iOS and Android for mobile devices. In summary, . NET is a comprehensive software framework that provides developers with a platform for building a wide range of applications, as well as a set of libraries, tools, and a runtime environment to make development easier and more efficient. . NET is a software framework developed by Microsoft that provides a platform for building and running a wide range of applications, including desktop applications, web applications, and mobile applications. The framework is designed to make it easier for developers to build high-quality, secure, and scalable applications for the Windows operating system and other platforms. . NET provides a large set of libraries and tools that developers can use to build their applications. These libraries cover a wide range of functionality, from basic input/output operations to more complex tasks such as network programming, data access, and multimedia support. Additionally, the . NET framework provides a common execution environment for all . NET applications, allowing them to share resources and take advantage of optimizations provided by the framework. . NET also includes a runtime environment, called the Common Language Runtime (CLR), which manages the execution of . NET code and provides services such as memory management, security, and exception handling. The CLR also enables . NET applications to run on multiple platforms and devices, including Windows, Linux, and macOS, as well as iOS and Android for mobile devices. In summary, . NET is a comprehensive software framework that provides developers with a platform for building a wide range of applications, as well as a set of libraries, tools, and a runtime environment to make development easier and more efficient.",AI-generated
TRAIN_19,"Cognitive science is the study of mental processes such as reasoning, memory, and the processing of perception. It is necessarily an interdisciplinary approach that includes fields such as psychology, linguistics, and neurology. The importance of the computer to cognitive science is that it offers a potential nonhuman model for a thinking entity. The attempts at artificial intelligence over the past 50 years have used the insights of cognitive science to help devise artificial means of reasoning and perception. At the same time, the models created by computer scientists (such as the neural network and Marvin Minsky’s idea of “multiple intelligent agents”) have in turn been applied to the study of human cognition ,",Human-written
TRAIN_20,"With the exception of a few experimental systems, color graphics first became widely available only with the beginnings of desktop computers in the late 1970s. The first microcomputers were able to display only a few colors (some, indeed, displayed only monochrome or grayscale). Today’s PC video hardware has the potential to display millions of colors, though of course the human eye cannot directly distinguish colors that are too close together. There are several important schemes that are used to define a “color space”—that is, a range of values that can be associated with physical colors.",Human-written
TRAIN_21,"One of the simplest color systems displays colors as varying intensities of red, green, and blue. This corresponds to the electronics of a standard color computer monitor, which uses three electron guns that bombard red, green, and blue phosphors on the screen. A typical RGB color scheme uses 8 bits to store each of the red, green, and blue components for each pixel, for a total of 24 bits (16,777,216 colors). The 32-bit color system provides the same number of colors but includes 8 bits for alpha, or the level of transparency. The number of bits per pixel is also called the bit depth or color depth",Human-written
TRAIN_22,"NLP, or Natural Language Processing, is a subfield of computer science and artificial intelligence that focuses on the interactions between computers and human language. Specifically, NLP aims to develop algorithms and techniques that enable computers to analyze, understand, and generate natural language. The goal of NLP is to enable computers to perform a range of language-related tasks, such as text translation, sentiment analysis, speech recognition, chatbot development, and text summarization, among others. NLP involves the use of techniques from linguistics, computer science, and statistics, among other fields, to enable machines to process and analyze large volumes of human language data. NLP is a rapidly evolving field that has seen significant advancements in recent years, thanks in large part to advances in machine learning and artificial intelligence. As a result, NLP has become increasingly important in a wide range of industries, including healthcare, finance, e-commerce, and marketing, among others.",AI-generated
TRAIN_23,"In the late 1990s “banner ads” started to appear on Websites, and other forms of advertising soon followed. Companies rushed into the online world, either with the belief thatit had unlimited potential for finding new customers, or outof fear that the competition would get there first. Unfortunately it was hard to measure the actual effectiveness ofads, and Web sites (such as for publications) that lookedto third-party advertising as a source of income found theoutlook bleak in the wake of the bursting of the “dot-combubble” of the early 2000 decade. Only a few years later, however, advertisers using newbusiness models and targeting techniques have made onlineadvertising not only a viable business, but a rapidly growing one. (According to the Interactive Advertsing Bureau,Internet advertising revenue in the United States in 2007was $21. 2 billion, up 26 percent from 2005. )The effects of the online advertising revolution are rippling outward, impacting traditional advertising mediasuch as newspapers (in particular see craigslist), magazines, and even television.",Human-written
TRAIN_24,"Compilers are traditionally thought of as having a “front end” that analyzes the source code (high-level language statements) and a “back end” that generates the appropriate low-level code. The front end processing begins with lexical analysis. The compiler scans the source program looking for matches to valid tokens as defined by the language. A token is any word or symbol that has meaning in the language, such as a keyword (reserved word) such as if or while. Next, the tokens are parsed or grouped according to the rules of the language. The result of parsing is a “parse tree” that resolves statements into their component parts. For example, an assignment statement may be parsed into an identifier, an assignment operator (such as =), and a value to be assigned. The value in turn may be an arithmetic expression that consists of operators and operands.",Human-written
TRAIN_25,"The process of code generation usually involves multiple passes that gradually substitute machine-specific code and data for the information in the parse tree. An important consideration in modern compilers is optimization, which is the process of substituting equivalent (but more efficient) constructs for the original output of the front end. For example, an optimizer can replace an arithmetic expression with its value so that it need not be repeatedly calculated while the program is running. It can also “hoist out” an invariant expression from a loop so that it is calculated only once before the loop begins. On a larger scale, optimization can also improve the communication between different parts (procedures) of the program. The compiler must attempt to “prove” that the change it is making in the program will never cause the program to operate incorrectly. It can do this, for example, by tracing the possible paths of execution through the program (such as through branching and loops) and verifying that each possible path yields the correct result. A compiler that is too “aggressive” in making assumptions can produce subtle program errors. (Many compilers allow the user to control the level of optimization, and whether to optimize for speed or for compactness of program size. ) During development, a compiler is often set to include special debugging code in the output. This code preserves potentially important information that can help the debugging facility better identify program bugs. After the program is working correctly, it will be recompiled without the debugging code",Human-written
TRAIN_26,"A compiler is a program that takes as input a program written in a source language and produces as output an equivalent program written in another (target) language. Usually the input program is in a high-level language such as C++ and the output is in assembly language for the target machine ,. Compilers are useful because programming directly in low-level machine instructions (as had to be done with the first computers) is tedious and prone to errors. Use of assembly language helps somewhat by allowing substitution of symbols (variable names) for memory locations and the use of mnemonic names for operations (such as “add for addition, rather than some binary instruction code). An assembler is essentially a compiler that needs to make only relatively simple translations, because assembly language is still at a relatively low level.",Human-written
TRAIN_27,"Netnews, or Usenet, is a distributed system for exchanging news and information in the form of messages posted to newsgroups. The system is decentralized, meaning that there is no central server or authority that controls it. Instead, messages are distributed across a network of interconnected servers, which synchronize with each other to ensure that all messages are available to all users. Here's how the distribution and reading of netnews works:Posting a message: Users can post messages to a newsgroup by composing a message in their newsreader software and submitting it to their local news server. The message is then propagated to other servers that subscribe to the newsgroup, until it reaches all servers in the network. Replication and synchronization: Each news server stores a copy of all messages it receives, and periodically synchronizes with other servers to exchange new messages and updates. This ensures that all servers have the same set of messages, and that users can access the latest messages from any server in the network. Reading messages: Users can browse newsgroups and read messages using their newsreader software. The software retrieves messages from their local news server, and can also retrieve messages from other servers in the network if the local server does not have a copy of a particular message. Message threading: Netnews uses a threading system to group related messages together in a tree-like structure, based on their subject and message ID. This makes it easy for users to follow a conversation or track the evolution of a discussion over time. Archiving: Messages are typically archived on news servers, and can be accessed by users even after they have been removed from their local server or the server they were originally posted to. This allows users to search for and access older messages and discussions. Overall, the distribution and reading of netnews is based on a decentralized, peer-to-peer system that relies on the synchronization and replication of messages across a network of servers. This allows users to access a wide range of topics and discussions from anywhere in the network, while also ensuring that messages are distributed and stored redundantly to prevent loss or corruption.",AI-generated
TRAIN_28,"Brain implants are electronic devices that are designed to interface with the brain and can be used to treat a variety of neurological disorders, including Parkinson's disease, epilepsy, and chronic pain. In the future, it is likely that brain implants will become even more advanced and sophisticated, with new features and capabilities that will enhance their effectiveness and utility. Here are some potential future developments in brain implants:Improved Precision: One of the key challenges of brain implants is ensuring that they are precisely targeted to the specific areas of the brain that need to be treated. In the future, it is likely that brain implants will become even more precise, with the ability to target specific cells or neural circuits. Wireless Connectivity: Many current brain implants require wires to connect to external devices. In the future, it is possible that brain implants will be able to communicate wirelessly, which could make them less invasive and easier to use. Better Energy Efficiency: Many current brain implants require regular battery replacements, which can be invasive and inconvenient. In the future, it is likely that brain implants will become more energy-efficient, potentially using novel power sources like body heat or motion. Enhanced Sensing: Current brain implants can detect neural activity, but in the future, it is possible that they will be able to sense additional signals like blood flow, temperature, or chemical changes in the brain. This could provide more detailed information about brain function and enable more precise treatment. Integration with AI: As artificial intelligence (AI) technologies become more advanced, it is likely that brain implants will be able to integrate with these systems. This could allow for real-time analysis of brain activity and enable more precise and effective treatment. Overall, the future of brain implants is likely to be characterized by continued innovation and development, with new technologies and capabilities that have the potential to transform the treatment of neurological disorders.",AI-generated
TRAIN_29,"Optical Character Recognition (OCR) is a technology that is used to convert printed or handwritten text into digital text. OCR systems are designed to scan an image containing text and use algorithms to recognize and convert the text into a digital format that can be edited, searched, or processed by a computer. OCR technology typically works by analyzing the shapes of characters in an image and comparing them to a database of known character shapes. The system then uses pattern recognition algorithms to match the characters in the image to the closest match in the database. Once the characters have been identified, the OCR system converts them into digital text that can be edited or searched. OCR technology is used in a wide range of applications, including document scanning and conversion, automated data entry, and text recognition in images and videos. OCR is commonly used to convert printed text from books, magazines, and newspapers into digital formats, and is also used in industries such as healthcare, finance, and legal services to digitize and process large volumes of text-based documents.",AI-generated
TRAIN_30,"Microsoft . NET is a programming platform , that is intended to pro-vide a clear and consistent way for applications written in a variety of languages such as C++, C#, and Visual Basic to access Windows functions and to interact with other programs and services on the same machine or over the Internet. . NET consists of the following main parts:, Base Class Library of data types and common func-tions (such as file manipulation and graphics) that is available to all . NET languages, Common Language Runtime, which provides the code that applications need to run within the operat-ing system, manage memory, and so forth (“Common language” means it can be used for any . NET pro-gramming language. ), ASP . NET, a class framework for building dynamic Web applications and services (the latest version of ASP—see activeseRveRpages), ADO . NET, a class framework that allows programs to access databases and data services",Human-written
TRAIN_31,"Whatever memory chips or other devices are installed in a computer, the operating system and application programs must have a way to allocate, use, and eventually release portions of memory. The goal of memory management is to use available memory most efficiently. This can be difficult in modern operating environments where dozens of pro-grams may be competing for memory resources. Early computers were generally able to run only one program at a time. These machines didn’t have a true oper-ating system, just a small loader program that loaded the application program, which essentially took over control of the machine and accessed and manipulated the memory. Later systems offered the ability to break main memory into several fixed partitions. While this allowed more than one program to run at the same time, it wasn’t very flexible.",Human-written
TRAIN_32,"If computers were merely fast sequential calculators, they would still be of some use. However, much of the power of the computer comes from its ability to carry out repetitive tasks without supervision. The loop is the programming language structure that controls such activities. Virtually every language has some form of loop construct, with vari-ations in syntax ranging from the relatively English-like COBOL and Pascal to the more cryptic C.",Human-written
TRAIN_33,"Starting in the 1980s, many organizations sought to connect their employees’ desktop computers so they could share central databases, share or back up files, communicate via e-mail, and collaborate on projects. A system that links computers within a single office or home, or a larger area such as a building or campus, is called a local area network (LAN). (Larger networks linking branches of an organiza-tion throughout the country or world are called wide area networks, or WANs. See netWoRk. )",Human-written
TRAIN_34,"Naturally there must be software to manage the transmis-sion and reception of data packets. The structure of a packet (sometimes called a frame) has been standardized with a preamble, source and destination addresses, the data itself, a checksum, and two special layers that interface with the differing ways that Ethernet and token ring networks physi-cally handle the packets.",Human-written
TRAIN_35,"A list is a series of data items that can be accessed sequen-tially by following links from one item to the next. Lists can be very useful for ordering or sorting data items and for storing them on a stack or queue. There are two general approaches to constructing lists. In a data list used with procedural programming languages such as C, each list item consists of a structure consisting of a data member and a pointer. The pointer, called “next,” contains the address of the next item. A program can easily “step through” a list by starting with the first item, process-ing its data, then using the pointer to move to the next item, continuing until some condition is met or the end of the list is reached.",Human-written
TRAIN_36,"Lists are generally used to provide convenient access to rel-atively small amounts of data where flexibility is required. Unlike an array, a list need use only as much memory as it needs to accommodate the current number of items (includ-ing their associated pointers). A LISP-style node list can be even more flexible in that items with varying sizes and types of data can be included in the same list. Lists are thus a more flexible way to implement such things as look-up tables.",Human-written
TRAIN_37,"Linux is an increasingly popular alternative to proprietary operating systems. Its development sprang from two sources. First was the creation of open-source versions of UNIx utili-ties , by maverick programmer Richard Stallman as part of the gNU (“gnu’s not UNIx”) project during the 1980s. Although these tools were useful, the kernel, or basic set of operating system functions, was still missing ,. Starting in 1991, another creative programmer, Linus Torvalds, began to release open-source versions of the UNIx kernel ,. The combination of the ker-nel and utilities became known as Linux (a combination of Linus and UNIx), though Stallman and his supporters believe that gNU/Linux is a more accurate name.",Human-written
TRAIN_38,"The idea behind an operating system kernel is that there is a relatively small core set of “primitive” functions that are necessary for the operation of system services ,. These functions can be provided in a single component that can be adapted and updated as desir-able. The fundamental services include:, Process control—scheduling how the processes (pro-grams or threads of execution within programs) share the CPU, switching execution between processes, cre-ating new processes, and terminating existing ones ,. , Interprocess communication—sending “messages” between processes enabling them to share data or coordinate their data processing. , memory management—allocating and freeing up memory as requested by processes as well as imple-menting virtual memory, where physical storage is treated as an extension of main (RAm) memory. (See memoRymanagement. ), File system services—creating, opening, reading from, writing to, closing, and deleting files",Human-written
TRAIN_39,"JavaScript is one of several popular languages that can enable Web pages to interact with users more quickly and efficiently ,. The language first appeared in the mid-1990s’ Netscape 2 browser under the name LiveScript. Technically, JavaScript is the Sun microsystems trademark for its implementation of a standard called ECmAScript. Despite the name, Java-Script is not directly related to the Java programming lan-guage. In its early years JavaScript was perhaps a victim of its own success. Having a relatively easy-to-use scripting lan-guage provided an easier way to add features such as 3D buttons and pop-up windows to formerly humdrum Web forms. However, as with an earlier generation’s fondness for multiple fonts, early JavaScript programmers were often prone to add unnecessary and confusing clutter to Web pages. Besides sometimes annoying users, early JavaScript also suffered from significant differences in how it was implemented by the major browsers. As a result, Netscape users were sometimes stymied by JavaScript written for micr osoft Internet Explorer, and vice versa. Finally, browser flaws have sometimes allowed JavaScript to be used to com-promise security such as by installing malware-infested “browser helpers. ” As a result, many security experts began to recommend that users disable JavaScript execution in their browsers.",Human-written
TRAIN_40,"Java has largely fulfilled this promise for Web developers. C++ programmers have an easy learning curve to Java, since the two languages have very similar syntax and a similar use of classes and other object-oriented features. On the other hand, programmers who don’t know C++ benefit from Java being more streamlined than C++. For example, Java avoids the necessity to use pointers , and uses classes as the consistent building block of program structure. Software powerhouses such as microsoft (until recently) and IBm have joined Sun in pro-moting Java. Another much-touted feature of Java is its platform independence. The language itself is separate from the vari-ous operating system platforms. For each platform, a Java Vir tual machine ( JVm) is created, which interprets or com-piles the code generated by the Java compiler so it can run on that platform. For security, Java applets run within a “sandbox” or restricted environment so the user is protected from mali-cious Java programs. (For example, programs are not allowed to access the user’s disk or to connect the user’s machine to another Web site. ) Web browsers can also be set to disable the running of Java applets.",Human-written
TRAIN_41,"Java is a computer language similar in structure to C++. Although Java is a general-purpose programming language, it is most often used for creating applications to run on the Internet, such as Web servers. A special type of Java pro-gram called an applet can be linked into Web pages and run on the user’s Web browser ,. As an object-oriented language, Java uses classes that provide commonly needed functions including the creation of user interface objects such as windows and buttons ,. A variety of sets of classes (“class frameworks”) are available, such as the AWT (Abstract Windowing Toolkit).",Human-written
TRAIN_42,"An interpreter is a program that analyzes (parses) program-ming commands or statements in a high-level language ,, creates equivalent executable instructions in machine code , and executes them. An interpreter differs from a compiler in that the lat-ter converts the entire program to an executable file rather than processing and executing it a statement at a time . many earlier versions of the BASIC programming lan-guage were implemented as interpreters. Since an inter-preter only has to hold one program statement at a time in memory, it could run on early microcomputers that had only a few tens of thousands of bytes of system memory. How-ever, interpreters run programs considerably more slowly than a compiled program would run. One reason is that an interpreter “throws away” each source code statement after it interprets it. This means that if a statement runs repeat-edly ,, it must be re-interpreted each time it runs. A compiler, on the other hand, would create only one set of machine code instructions for the loop and then move on. Also, because a compiler keeps the entire program in memory, it can analyze the relationship between multiple statements and recognize ways to rearrange or substitute them for greater efficiency.",Human-written
TRAIN_43,"An Internet service provider is any organization that pro-vides access to the Internet. While nonprofit organiza-tions such as universities and government agencies can be Internet service provider considered to be ISPs, the term is generally applied to a commercial, fee-based service. Typically, a user is given an account that is accessed by logging in through the operating system’s Internet connec-tion facility by supplying a user ID and password. Once con-nected, the user can run Web browsers, e-mail clients, and other programs that are designed to work with an Internet connection. most ISPs now charge flat monthly fees rang-ing from $20 or so for dial-up access to around $40–$60 for high-speed cable or DSL connections ,. Some services such as America Online and CompuServe include ISP service as part of a package that also includes such features as software libraries, discussion forums, and instant messaging. Online services tend to be more expen-sive than “no frills” ISP services",Human-written
TRAIN_44,"Internet radio is the provision of radio broadcast content over the Internet ,. Basically, the digitized sound files of the broadcasts can be accessed and played using widely available software such as Windows media Player or RealPlayer. Internet radio began in the mid-1990s, and today an increasing number of broadcast stations are offering their programming in this form, allowing them to reach audiences far beyond the reach of their signal. Some stations stream live (during the actual broadcast), while others make programs available for download. (For auto-matic downloading of broadcasts, see podcasting). There are also “radio stations” that provide their content only via the Internet. Internet radio should not be confused with satellite or cable radio, which carry conventional radio sig-nals in real time.",Human-written
TRAIN_45,"The growth of the Internet and its centrality in business, education, and other fields has led many programmers to specialize in Internet-related applications. These can include the following:, low-level infrastructure (networking [wired and wire-less], routing, encryption support, and so on), Web servers and related software, e-commerce infrastructure ,, interfacing with databases, data analysis and extraction ,, support for searching ,, autonomous software to navigate the net ,, Internet-based communications ,, systems to deliver text and media ,, support for collaborative use of the Internet ,, security software (firewalls, intrusion analysis, etc. )",Human-written
TRAIN_46,"Netnews (also called Usenet, for UNIx User Net-work) is in effect the world’s largest computer bul-letin board. It began in 1979, when Duke University and the University of North Carolina set up a simple mechanism for “posting” text files that could be read by other users. Today there are tens of thousands of topical “newsgroups” and millions of messages (called articles). Although still impressive in its quantity of content, many Web users now rely more on discus-sion forums based on Web pages ,.",Human-written
TRAIN_47,"Ftp (File Transport Protocol) enables the transfer of one or more files between any two machines con-nected to the Internet. This method of file transfer has been largely supplanted by the use of download links on Web pages, except for high-volume applica-tions (where an ftp server is often operated “behind the scenes” of a Web link). FTP is also used by Web developers to upload file",Human-written
TRAIN_48,"Telnet is another fundamental service that brought the Internet much of its early utility. Telnet allows a user at one computer to log into another machine and run a program there. This provided an early means for users at PCs or workstations to, for example, access the Library of Congress catalog online. However, if program and file permissions are not set properly on the “host” system, telnet can cause security vulner-abilities. The telnet user is also vulnerable to having IDs and passwords stolen, since these are transmitted as clear (unencrypted) text. As a result, some online sites that once supported telnet access now limit access to Web-based forms. (Another alternative is to use a program called “secure shell” or ssh, or to use a telnet client that supports encryption. )",Human-written
TRAIN_49,"WAIS (Wide Area Information Service) is a gateway that allows databases to be searched over the Inter-net. WAIS provided a relatively easy way to bring large data resources online. It, too, has largely been replaced by Web-based database services.",Human-written
TRAIN_50,"The Internet is the worldwide network of all computers (or networks of computers) that communicate using a particu-lar protocol for routing data from one computer to another ,. As long as the programs they run follow the rules of the protocol, the computers can be connected by a variety of physical means including ordinary and special phone lines, cable, fiber optics, and even wireless or satel-lite transmission.",Human-written
TRAIN_51,"Internationalization and localization are ways to adapt computer software (often created in the United States or Europe) to other languages and cultures. The abbreviations I18n and L10n are sometimes used for internationalization and localization, respectively (the numbers in each word refer to the number of letters in the alphabet between the letters). The two processes are complementary.",Human-written
TRAIN_52,"By the mid-2000 decade, the biggest intellectual property battles were not about esoteric program codes but rather revolved around how to satisfy the ordinary home consum-er’s appetite for music and video while preserving produc-ers’ revenues. Increasingly, music and even video is being downloaded rather than being bought in commercial pack-aging at the local store. In the Sony v. Universal case (1984) the Supreme Court ruled that manufacturers of devices such as VCRs were not liable for their misuse if there were “substantial non-infringing uses”—such as someone making a copy of legally possessed media for their own use. However, in 2005 the Supreme Court ruled that grokster, a decentralized file-sharing service, could be held liable for the distribution of illegally copied media if it “actively induced” such copying. By 2006 media industry lobbyists (particularly the Recording Industry Institute of America, or RIAA) were promoting a number of bills in Congress that would fur-ther restrict consumers’ rights to use media. Such mea-sures might include requiring that devices be able to detect “flagged” media and refuse to copy it ,, as well as adding stricter provisions to the Digital millennium Copyright Act (DmCA). These mea-sures are opposed by cyber-libertarian groups such as the Electronic Frontier Foundation and consumer groups such as the Home Recording Rights Coalition.",Human-written
TRAIN_53,"Intellectual property can be defined as the rights the cre-ator of an original work (such as an invention or a book) has to control its reproduction or use. Developers of new computer hardware, software, and media content must be able to realize a return on their time and effort. This return is threatened by the ease with which programs and data on disks can be illicitly copied and redistributed. Several legal mechanisms can be used to deter such behavior.",Human-written
TRAIN_54,"Information theory is the study of the fundamental charac-teristics of information and its transmission and reception. As a discipline, information theory took its impetus from the ideas of Claude Shannon ,. In his seminal paper “A mathematical Theory of Com-munication” published in the Bell System Technical Journalin 1948, Shannon analyzed the redundancy inherent in any form of communication other than a series of purely ran-dom numbers. Because of this redundancy, the amount of information (expressed in binary bits) needed to convey a message will be less than the number in the original mes-sage. It is because of redundancy that data compression algorithms can be applied to text, graphics, and other types of files to be stored on disk or transmitted over a network",Human-written
TRAIN_55,"While much attention is paid by system designers to the representation, storage and manipulation of information in the computer, the ultimate value of information processing software is determined by how well it provides for the effec-tive retrieval of that information. The quality of retrieval is dependent on several factors: hardware, data organization, search algorithms, and user interface.",Human-written
TRAIN_56,"Image processing is a general term for the manipulation of a digitized image to produce an enhanced or more con-venient version. Some of the earliest applications were in the military (aerial and, later, satellite reconnaissance) and in the space program. The military and space programs had a great need for extracting as much useful information as possible from images that were often gathered under extreme or marginal conditions. They also needed to make cameras and other hardware components simultaneously more compact and more efficient, and generally had the funds to pay for such specialized developments. Once developed, higher-quality image processing sys-tems found their way into other applications such as domes-tic surveillance and medical imaging. The development of cameras that could directly turn light into digitized images , made image processing seam-less by avoiding the necessity of scanning images from tra-ditional film. Image processing applications can be divided into three general categories: enhancement, interpretation, and maintenance.",Human-written
TRAIN_57,"Starting in the late 1950s, in computer facilities at mIT, Stanford, and other research universities people began to encounter persons who had both unusual programming skill and an obsession with the inner workings of the machine. While ordinary users viewed the computer sim-ply as a tool for solving particular problems, this peculiar breed of programmers reveled in extending the capabilities of the system and creating tools such as program editors that would make it easier to create even more powerful programs. The movement from mainframes that could run only one program at a time to machines that could simulta-neously serve many users created a kind of environmental niche in which these self-described hackers could flourish. Indeed, while administrators sometimes complained that hackers took up too much of the available computer time, they often depended on them to fix the bugs that infested the first versions of time-sharing operating systems. Hack-ers also tended to work in the wee hours of the night while normal users slept.",Human-written
TRAIN_58,"The base 16 or hexadecimal system is a natural way to rep-resent the binary data stored in a computer. It is more com-pact than binary because four binary digits can be replaced by a single “hex” digit. The following table gives the corresponding decimal, binary, and hex values from 0 to 15:Note that decimal and hex digits are the same from 0 to 9, but hex uses the letters A–F to represent the digits cor-responding to decimal 10–15. The system extends to higher numbers using increasing powers of 16, just as decimal uses powers of 10: For example, hex FF represents binary 111 11111 or decimal 255. many of the apparently arbitrary numbers encountered in programming can be better under-stood if one realizes that they correspond to convenient groupings of bits: FF is eight bits, sufficient to hold a single character ,. In low-level pro-gramming memory addresses are also usually given in hex",Human-written
TRAIN_59,"In operating systems and certain programming languages (such as LISP), a heap is a pool of memory resources avail-able for allocation by programs. The memory segments (sometimes called cells) can be the same size or of variable size. If the same size, they are linked together by pointers ,. memory is then allocated for a vari-able by traversing the list and setting the required number of cells to be “owned” by that variable. (While some lan-guages such as Pascal and C use explicit memory allocation or deallocation functions, other languages such as LISP use a separate runtime module that is not the responsibility of the programmer. )",Human-written
TRAIN_60,"In the early days of computing, the programmers of a sys-tem tended to also be its users and were thus intimately familiar with the program’s operation and command set. To search a hashed database, the hashing formula is first applied to the search key, yielding a hash value. That value can then be used in a binary search to quickly zero in on the matching record, if any.  health, personalIf not a programmer, the user of a mainframe program was probably at least a well-trained operator who could work with the aid of a brief summary or notes provided by the programmer. However, with the beginnings of office auto-mation in the 1970s and the growing use of desktop com-puters in office, home, and school in the 1980s, increasingly complex programs were being put in the hands of users who often had only minimal computer training ,. While programs often came with one or more tutorial or reference manuals, designers realized that offering help through the program itself would have some clear advan-tages. First, the user would not have to switch attention from the computer screen to look things up in a manual. Second, the help system could be programmed to not only provide information, but also to help the user find the informa-tion needed in a given situation. For example, related topics could be linked together and a searchable index provided",Human-written
TRAIN_61,"A hash is a numeric value generated by applying a math-ematical formula to the numeric values of the characters in a string of text ,. The for-mula is chosen so that the values it produces are always the same length (regardless of the length of the original text) and are very likely to be unique. (Two different strings should not produce the same hash value. Such an event is called a collision. )",Human-written
TRAIN_62,"The two major application areas for hashing are informa-tion retrieval and cryptographic certification. In databases, an index table can be built that contains the hash values for the key fields and the corresponding record number for each field, with the entries in hash value order. To search the database, an input key is hashed and the value is compared with the index table (which can be done using a very fast binary search). If the hash value is found, the corresponding record number is used to look up the record. This tends to be much faster than searching an index file directly.",Human-written
TRAIN_63,"Even after decades of evolution in computing, the hard disk drive remains the primary means of fast data storage and retrieval in computer systems of all sizes. The disk itself consists of a rigid aluminum alloy platter coated with a magnetic oxide material. The platter can be rotated at speeds of more than 10,000 rpm. A typical drive consists of a stack of such platters mounted on a rotating spindle, with a read/write head mounted above each platter. Early hard drive heads were controlled by a stepper motor, which positioned the head in response to a series of electrical pulses. (This system is still used for floppy drives. ) Today’s hard drives, however, are controlled by a voice-coil actuator, similar in structure to an audio speaker. The coil surrounds a magnet. When a current enters the coil, it gen-erates a magnetic field that interacts with that of the perma-nent magnet, moving the coil and thus the disk head. Unlike the stepper motor, the voice coil is continuously variable and its greater precision allows data tracks to be packed more tightly on the platter surface, increasing disk capacity. The storage capacity of a drive is determined by the number of platters and the spacing (and thus number) of tracks that can be laid down on each platter. Capacities have steadily increased while prices have plummeted: In 1980, for example, a hard drive for an Apple II microcom-put er cost more than $1,000 and held only 5 mB of data. As of 2007 internal hard drives with a capacity of 500 gB or more cost around a $150. 00.",Human-written
TRAIN_64,"most interfaces between users and computer systems involve the equivalent of switches—keyboard keys or mouse but-tons. These interfaces cannot respond to degrees of pres-sure (for an exception, see gRaphicstablet). Further, there is no feedback returned to the user through the interface device—the key or mouse does not “push back. ”Haptic (from the greek word for “touch”) interfaces are different in that they do register the pressure and motion of touch, and they often provide touch feedback as well.",Human-written
TRAIN_65,"Some emerging or near-future uses of haptic technology include:One approach to handwriting recognition involves the extraction of a stroke pattern and its comparison to a database of templates rep-resenting various letters and symbols. Ultimately the corresponding ASCII character is determined and stored. haptic interfaces , remote surgery, where the surgeon can feel the resis-tance of tissues and the location of anatomical features, use of haptic technology to provide robots with more humanlike gripping capabilities, 3D sculpture in a virtual 3D world modeling the char-acteristics of different materials and tools",Human-written
TRAIN_66,"Starting in the late 1950s, in computer facilities at mIT, Stanford, and other research universities people began to encounter persons who had both unusual programming skill and an obsession with the inner workings of the machine. While ordinary users viewed the computer sim-ply as a tool for solving particular problems, this peculiar breed of programmers reveled in extending the capabilities of the system and creating tools such as program editors that would make it easier to create even more powerful programs. The movement from mainframes that could run only one program at a time to machines that could simulta-neously serve many users created a kind of environmental niche in which these self-described hackers could flourish. Indeed, while administrators sometimes complained that hackers took up too much of the available computer time, they often depended on them to fix the bugs that infested the first versions of time-sharing operating systems. Hack-ers also tended to work in the wee hours of the night while normal users slept.",Human-written
TRAIN_67,"A handwriting recognition system begins by building a representation of the user’s writing. With a pen or stylus system, this representation is not simply a graphical image but includes the recorded “strokes” or discrete movements that make up the letters. The software must then create a representation of features of the handwriting that can be used to match it to the appropriate character templates. Handwriting recognition is actually an application of the larger problem of identifying the significance of features in a pattern.",Human-written
TRAIN_68,"A number of handheld computers beginning with Apple’s Newton in the mid-1990s and the now popular Palm devices and BlackBerry have some ability to recognize handwrit-ing. However, current systems can be frustrating to use 0 handwriting recognitionbecause accuracy often requires that users write very care-fully and consistently or (as in the case of the Palm) even replace their usual letter strokes with simplified alternatives that the computer can more easily recognize. If the user is allowed to use normal strokes, the system must be gradu-ally “trained” by the user giving writing samples and con-firming the system’s guess about the letters. As the software becomes more adaptable and processing power increases (allowing more sophisticated algorithms or larger neural networks to be practical) users will be able to write more naturally and systems will gain more consumer acceptance. (One step in this direction is the Tablet PC, a notepad-sized computer with a digitizer tablet and a stylus and handwrit-ing recognitions software, included in Windows xP and expanded in Windows Vista. Programs such as microsoft OneNote use handwriting recognition to allow users to incorporate handwritten text into notes that can be orga-nized and quickly retrieved. )Currently, handwriting recognition is used mainly in niche applications, such as collecting signatures for deliv-ery services or filling out “electronic forms” in applications where the user must be mobile and relatively hands-free",Human-written
TRAIN_69,"game consoles are computer devices dedicated to (or pri-marily used for) playing video games. The earliest such devices appeared in the 1970s from magnavox and then Atari, and could only play simple games like Pong (a crude simulation of ping-pong). Slightly later systems began to feature cartridges that allowed them to play a greater vari-ety of games.",Human-written
TRAIN_70,"The normal method for getting a computer to perform a task is to specify the task clearly, choose the appropriate approach ,, and then implement and test the code. However, this approach requires that the pro-grammer first know the appropriate approach, and even when there are many potentially suitable algorithms, it isn’t always clear which will prove optimal.",Human-written
TRAIN_71,"Variations of genetic algorithms or “evolutionary program-ming” have been used for many applications. In engineering development, a virtual environment can be set up in which a simulated device such as a robot arm can be allowed to evolve until it is able to perform to acceptable specifica-tions. (NASA has also used genetic programs competing on 80 computers to design a space antenna. ) Different versions of an expert system program can be allowed to compete at performing tasks such as predicting the behavior of finan-cial markets. Finally, a genetic program is a natural way to simulate actual biological evolution and behavior in fields such as epidemiology",Human-written
TRAIN_72,"A genetic program consists of a number of copies of a routine that contain encoded “genes” that represent ele-ments of algorithms. The routines are given a task (such as sorting data or recognizing patterns) and the most suc-cessful routines are allowed to “reproduce” by exchanging genetic material. (Often, further “mutation” or variation is introduced at this stage, to increase the range of available solutions. ) The new “generation” is then allowed to tackle the problem, and the process is repeated. As a result, the routines become increasingly efficient at solving the given problem, just as organisms in nature become more perfectly adapted to a given environment.",Human-written
TRAIN_73,"Bill gates built microsoft, the dominant company in the computer software field and in doing so, became the world’s wealthiest individual, with a net worth measured in the tens of billions. Born on October 28, 1955, to a successful professional couple in Seattle, gates’s teenage years coin-cided with the first microprocessors becoming available to electronics hobbyists. gates showed both technical and business talent as early as age 15, when he developed a computerized traffic-control system. He sold his invention for $20,000, then dropped out of high school to work as a programmer for TRW for the very respectable salary of $30,000. By age 20, gates had returned to his schooling and become a freshman at Harvard, but then he saw a cover article in Popular Electron-ics. The story introduced the Altair, the first commercially available microcomputer kit.",Human-written
TRAIN_74,"geographic data can be stored as either a raster or a vector representation. A raster system divides the area into a grid and assigns values to each cell in the grid. For exam-ple, each cell might be coded according to its highest point of elevation, the amount of vegetation (ground cover) it has, its population density, or any other factor of interest. The simple grid system makes raster data easy to manipulate, but the data tends to be “coarse” since there is no informa-tion about variations within a cell.",Human-written
TRAIN_75,"The power of geographic information systems comes from the ability to integrate data from a variety of sources, whether aerial photography, census records, or even scanned paper maps. Once in digital form, the data can be represented in a variety of ways for various purposes. A sophisticated gis can be queried to determine, for example, how much of a pro-posed development would have a downhill gradient and be below sea level such that flooding might be a problem. These results can in turn be used by simulation programs to deter-mine, for example, whether release of a chemical into the groundwater from a proposed plant site might affect a partic-ula r town two miles away. geographic information systems are thus vital for the management of a variety of complex systems that are distributed over a geographical area, such as water and sewage systems, power transmission grids, and traffic control systems. Other applications include emergency planning (and evacuation routes) and the long-term study of the effects of global warming trends.",Human-written
TRAIN_76,"globalization can be described as a group of trends that are breaking down the boundaries between national and regional economies, making countries more dependent on one another, and resulting in the freer flow of labor and resources. These trends have been praised by free trade advocates and decried by proponents of labor rights and environmentalism. However one feels about them, it is clear that global trends are reshaping the computer and information industry in many ways, and pose significant challenges.",Human-written
TRAIN_77,"global trends that affect computer technology, software, and services include:, offshoring, or the continuing movement of manufac-turing of high-value components (and whole systems) from the industrialized West to regions such as Asia, outsourcing—moving functions (such as technical support) from a company’s home country to areas where suitable labor forces are cheaper ,, removal of traditional intermediaries such as brokers and agents, with some of their functions being taken over by software ,, decentralized networks (of which the Internet itself is the most prominent example) and the tendency of information to flow freely and quickly despite barri-ers such as censorship, virtualization—creation of work groups or whole companies that are distributed across both space and time (24 hours), coordinated by the Internet and mobile communications ,, increasing use of open-source and collaborative mod-els of software and information development ,, blurring of the distinction between consumers and producers of information",Human-written
TRAIN_78,"Computer-related businesses must also deal with the effects of globalization on the market for hardware, software, and services. Lower-cost offshore manufacturing has helped contribute to making many computer systems and peripher-als into commodity items. This certainly benefits consum-ers (consider the ubiquitous $100 or less computer printer). However, it becomes more difficult to extract a premium for a brand as opposed to a generic name. Some companies have responded by relentless efforts to maximize efficiency in manufacturing , while a few others have maintained a reputation for style or innovation . Consumers have increasingly objected, however, to the difficulty in dealing with offshore technical support. While the power of the Internet has opened many new ways of reaching potential customers around the world, dealing with a global marketplace brings considerable added complications, such as the need to deal with different regulatory systems . In some areas there is also the problem of unauthor-ized copying of software and media products .",Human-written
TRAIN_79,"Polymorphism is a concept in object-oriented programming that allows different objects to be treated as if they were the same type. It allows code to be more flexible and reusable by allowing different objects to be used interchangeably. To illustrate this concept with an example, let's consider a program that deals with different shapes, such as circles, squares, and triangles. Each shape has its own unique properties and methods, such as its size, color, and the ability to calculate its perimeter. Now, let's suppose we want to create a method that takes a shape object as input and calculates its perimeter. We can use polymorphism to create a single method that works for all types of shapes, rather than creating separate methods for each shape.",AI-generated
TRAIN_80,"Online advertising, also known as internet advertising, is a form of digital marketing that uses the internet to deliver promotional marketing messages to consumers. It encompasses a variety of advertising methods, including display ads, social media advertising, search engine marketing, email marketing, and mobile advertising. Online advertising allows businesses to reach a large audience of potential customers across the internet, regardless of their location or device. It can be targeted to specific demographics, interests, and behaviors, making it a more effective and efficient way to reach a specific audience compared to traditional advertising methods. There are different pricing models for online advertising, including cost per click (CPC), cost per thousand impressions (CPM), and cost per acquisition (CPA). Advertisers can track and measure the performance of their ads using metrics such as click-through rates, conversion rates, and return on investment (ROI). Online advertising has become a major part of the digital marketing landscape, with businesses of all sizes using it to promote their products and services to a global audience. It is a constantly evolving industry, with new technologies and strategies emerging to help advertisers better target and engage with their audience.",AI-generated
TRAIN_81,"There are several types of online ads that businesses and advertisers can use to reach their target audience. Here are some of the most common types:Display ads: These are visual ads that appear on websites, often in the form of banners, images, or videos. They can be targeted to specific audiences based on demographics, interests, and behaviors. Search engine ads: These are text ads that appear at the top or bottom of search engine results pages, based on the keywords that users search for. They can be targeted to specific geographic regions and are priced on a pay-per-click (PPC) basis. Social media ads: These are ads that appear on social media platforms, such as Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram. They can be targeted based on demographics, interests, and behaviors, and can include images, videos, and interactive elements. Video ads: These are ads that appear before, during, or after online video content, such as YouTube videos. They can be targeted based on demographics and interests, and can include pre-roll, mid-roll, or post-roll ads. Native ads: These are ads that blend in with the content of a website or app, making them less disruptive to the user experience. They can be targeted based on the context of the content, and can include articles, videos, or sponsored posts. Email ads: These are ads that appear in email newsletters or promotional emails. They can be targeted based on the recipient's interests and behaviors, and can include images, text, or call-to-action buttons. In-app ads: These are ads that appear within mobile apps, often in the form of banners, interstitial ads, or rewarded ads. They can be targeted based on the app's content or the user's behavior, and can include images, videos, or interactive elements. Each type of online ad has its own strengths and weaknesses, and choosing the right type of ad depends on the goals of the campaign and the target audience.",AI-generated
TRAIN_82,"A network attached storage (NAS) unit can be thought of as a dedicated data storage unit that is available to all users of a network. Unlike a traditional dedicated file storage unit ,, a NAS unit typically has an operating system and software designed specifically (and only) for providing data storage services. The actual storage is usually provided by an array of hard drives ,. Files on the NAS are accessed through protocols such as SMB (server message block), common on Windows networks, and NFS (network file system), used on many UNIX and some Linux networks. In recent years smaller, lower-cost NAS devices have become available for smaller networks, including home networks, where they can store music, video, and other files ,",Human-written
TRAIN_83,"Chatterbots, also known as chatbots or simply bots, are computer programs designed to simulate conversation with human users, primarily through text-based communication. These bots use artificial intelligence (AI) techniques, such as natural language processing (NLP), to understand and respond to user input in a way that mimics human conversation. Chatterbots can be programmed to perform a variety of tasks, such as answering customer service inquiries, providing information about products or services, and even engaging in casual conversation. Some popular examples of chatbots include Apple's Siri, Amazon's Alexa, and Google Assistant. Chatbots can be designed to operate through various platforms such as messaging apps, social media platforms, and websites. In recent years, advancements in AI and machine learning have enabled chatbots to become increasingly sophisticated, allowing them to understand context, recognize sentiment, and even learn from previous interactions with users.",AI-generated
TRAIN_84,"Chess has a long history of being used as a benchmark for measuring the capabilities of computers, specifically in the area of artificial intelligence (AI). Chess is a complex game that requires strategy, foresight, and decision-making, making it a challenging task for computers to master. The first notable example of computer chess was the 1950s when computer scientists began experimenting with programming computers to play chess. However, it wasn't until the 1970s when the first computer chess tournament was held, and the first commercially available computer chess program, Chess 4. 0, was released. Since then, computer chess has made significant progress, and today, the best computer chess programs can easily defeat even the most skilled human players. This progress has been driven by advances in hardware and software, as well as improvements in AI techniques such as search algorithms, game tree pruning, and machine learning. In 1997, IBM's Deep Blue computer famously defeated chess world champion Garry Kasparov in a highly publicized match. This event marked a significant milestone in computer chess and demonstrated that computers could outperform human players in certain areas.",AI-generated
TRAIN_85,"Chess has been an important testbed for the development of artificial intelligence (AI) since the earliest days of computing. The game's complexity and strategic depth make it an ideal domain for exploring the limits of machine intelligence and testing new AI algorithms. One of the key challenges in developing AI systems for chess is the enormous search space of possible moves. In the game of chess, there are approximately 10^120 possible games, which is many orders of magnitude larger than the number of atoms in the observable universe. To overcome this challenge, AI researchers have developed a range of techniques, such as alpha-beta pruning, minimax search, and Monte Carlo tree search, to efficiently explore the search space and find good moves. Another challenge in developing AI for chess is representing the game state in a way that is amenable to machine learning. Historically, this has been done using hand-crafted features that encode various aspects of the game state, such as the relative values of the pieces and the mobility of the pieces. However, in recent years, deep learning techniques have been used to automatically learn representations of the game state from raw board positions.",AI-generated
TRAIN_86,"A chipset is a set of electronic components on a computer's motherboard that manages the flow of data between the processor, memory, input/output devices, and other components. The chipset provides the fundamental interface between the processor and the rest of the system, enabling communication and coordination between the various hardware components. The chipset is composed of two main components: the northbridge and the southbridge. The northbridge is responsible for connecting the processor to the memory and high-speed input/output devices, such as the graphics card. The southbridge connects to the slower input/output devices, such as USB and SATA controllers, as well as providing support for legacy devices. Chipsets are essential for the proper functioning of a computer system, as they ensure that data flows efficiently between the various components. The chipset also plays a role in determining the overall performance of the system, as it can affect the speed and responsiveness of the processor, memory, and other components.",AI-generated
TRAIN_87,"In computing, the term ""last mile"" refers to the final leg of the telecommunications network that connects the end user to the wider network. The last mile typically refers to the physical connection between a user's premises (such as a home or office) and the telecommunications provider's network infrastructure. The last mile is often considered the most challenging and expensive part of the telecommunications network to build and maintain, as it involves deploying physical infrastructure (such as cables or wireless towers) to reach individual homes and businesses. In many cases, the cost of deploying and maintaining this infrastructure can be prohibitively high, particularly in rural or remote areas. The quality and reliability of the last mile connection can have a significant impact on the performance and usability of internet and telecommunications services. For example, if the last mile connection is slow or unreliable, users may experience slow internet speeds, dropped calls, or other issues that impact their ability to access and use digital services. There are several technologies used to provide last mile connectivity, including wired technologies such as DSL, cable modems, and fiber optic cables, as well as wireless technologies such as cellular networks, satellite internet, and fixed wireless connections.",AI-generated
TRAIN_88,"In object-oriented programming (OOP), a class is a blueprint or template for creating objects. It defines a set of properties (also known as attributes or fields) and methods that are common to all objects of a certain type. A class provides a way to encapsulate data and functionality, allowing for modular and organized programming. It defines the behavior and properties of a certain type of object, but does not create any actual objects itself. Instead, an object is created from a class using a process called instantiation. A class can be thought of as a template or a cookie cutter, while an object is an instance of that template or cookie cutter. For example, a class called ""Person"" might define attributes such as name, age, and address, and methods such as ""walk"" and ""speak"". An object created from the Person class would have specific values for those attributes (such as ""John"", 30, and ""123 Main St. ""), and would be able to perform the methods defined in the class. Classes can also inherit properties and methods from other classes, allowing for more complex relationships and structures. This is known as inheritance and is a key feature of OOP.",AI-generated
TRAIN_89,"Client-server computing is a model of distributed computing where tasks are divided between clients and servers. In this model, a client is a computer or device that requests data or services from a server, which is a computer or device that provides the data or services requested by the client. The client-server model is widely used in computer networks and the internet to provide a wide range of services, such as email, web browsing, file sharing, and database access. The model allows multiple clients to access a centralized resource or service, which can be more efficient and cost-effective than having each client perform the same task independently. In a client-server architecture, the client typically sends a request to the server, which processes the request and returns the requested data or service to the client. The server may also be responsible for managing data storage, security, and other aspects of the service being provided.",AI-generated
TRAIN_90,"Client-server computing offers several advantages over other computing models, including:Centralized control: Client-server architecture allows for a centralized management of data and resources, which can help to improve security and consistency of the data. Scalability: The client-server model is scalable, meaning that additional clients can be added to the system without the need for significant changes to the underlying infrastructure. Resource sharing: The server can act as a centralized resource pool, which allows clients to share resources such as storage, processing power, and memory. Improved performance: Client-server architecture can improve performance by allowing the server to handle complex and resource-intensive tasks, freeing up client resources for other tasks. Improved maintenance and support: Client-server architecture simplifies maintenance and support, as software and data can be centrally managed, updated, and backed up. Platform independence: The client-server model enables platform independence, which means that clients can access the server regardless of the operating system or hardware platform they are running on.",AI-generated
TRAIN_91,"Clock speed, also known as clock rate, refers to the frequency at which a computer's central processing unit (CPU) can execute instructions. It is measured in Hertz (Hz), and typically expressed in Gigahertz (GHz) for modern CPUs. Clock speed represents the number of clock cycles per second that the CPU can execute. Each clock cycle represents a single unit of work that the CPU can perform. A higher clock speed means that the CPU can perform more work in a given amount of time, which can result in improved performance. However, clock speed is not the only factor that determines CPU performance. Other factors, such as the number of cores, cache size, and instruction set, also play an important role in determining overall performance.",AI-generated
TRAIN_92,"COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language) is a high-level programming language designed for business applications. It was first introduced in 1959 and is still widely used today for processing large amounts of data in applications such as banking, insurance, and government. COBOL was designed to be easily readable and understandable by business people, as well as programmers. It features a rich set of data processing capabilities, including support for complex record structures and file processing. COBOL programs are typically compiled rather than interpreted, and they are often run on mainframe computers. However, the language has been adapted to run on modern platforms, such as Windows and Unix. Despite its age, COBOL remains an important language in the business world due to its reliability and ability to handle large volumes of data. It is estimated that billions of lines of COBOL code are still in use today.",AI-generated
TRAIN_93,"A codec (short for coder-decoder) is a technology used to compress and decompress digital media such as audio and video. The purpose of a codec is to reduce the file size of digital media without significantly degrading its quality. There are two types of codecs: lossy and lossless. Lossy codecs are designed to reduce file size by discarding some of the original data, resulting in a smaller file but a loss of quality. Lossless codecs, on the other hand, compress the data without discarding any of it, resulting in a smaller file but no loss of quality. Codecs are used in a variety of applications, such as streaming media over the internet, video conferencing, and recording and playing back digital media. Some examples of popular codecs include H. 264 for video and MP3 for audio. In order for digital media to be played back or edited, the appropriate codec must be installed on the computer or device. Codecs can be proprietary, meaning they are owned by a particular company and require licensing, or open source, meaning they are freely available for use by anyone.",AI-generated
TRAIN_94,"Cognitive science is an interdisciplinary field of study that examines the nature of human thought, including perception, attention, memory, language, problem-solving, and decision-making. It combines research from psychology, neuroscience, linguistics, philosophy, computer science, and anthropology to understand how the human mind processes information and how we interact with the world around us. Cognitive science seeks to explain how mental processes work at different levels, from the neural level to the behavioral level. It investigates questions such as: How do we perceive and interpret sensory information? How do we acquire and use knowledge? How do we reason and make decisions? How do we use language to communicate?Cognitive science research often involves experiments and modeling, using techniques from various fields, such as brain imaging, computational modeling, and cognitive psychology. It has important applications in areas such as education, artificial intelligence, and human-computer interaction.",AI-generated
TRAIN_95,"In computing, colors are typically represented using combinations of red, green, and blue (RGB) values. Each pixel on a computer screen is made up of three small subpixels, one red, one green, and one blue, and the intensity of each subpixel determines the overall color of the pixel. The RGB color model is based on the additive color theory, which states that by adding different intensities of red, green, and blue light together, all colors can be created. The values for each color component are typically represented as numbers ranging from 0 to 255, with 0 indicating no intensity and 255 indicating full intensity. In addition to the RGB color model, there are other color models used in computing, such as CMYK (Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, Key/Black) used in printing, and the HSL (Hue, Saturation, Lightness) and HSV (Hue, Saturation, Value) color models used in image processing and graphic design. Color is an important aspect of user interfaces and web design, as it can affect the mood and tone of a website or application. Different colors are associated with different emotions and can be used to create contrast, highlight important information, and create a sense of hierarchy and organization.",AI-generated
TRAIN_96,"RGB stands for Red, Green, and Blue, which are the primary colors of light. In the RGB color model, colors are created by combining different intensities of red, green, and blue light. The model is based on the additive color theory, which states that by adding different intensities of light together, all colors can be created. In the RGB color model, each color component is typically represented as an integer value ranging from 0 to 255, where 0 indicates no intensity and 255 indicates maximum intensity. By combining different values of red, green, and blue, a total of 16. 7 million colors can be created.",AI-generated
TRAIN_97,"CMYK stands for Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, and Key (Black), which are the primary colors used in printing. In the CMYK color model, colors are created by combining different intensities of cyan, magenta, yellow, and black ink. The CMYK color model is based on the subtractive color theory, which states that by subtracting different colors from white, all colors can be created. When all four colors are combined at their full intensity, they absorb all the light and produce black. In the CMYK color model, each color component is typically represented as a percentage value ranging from 0% to 100%, where 0% indicates no ink and 100% indicates full ink coverage. By combining different percentages of cyan, magenta, yellow, and black, a wide range of colors can be created.",AI-generated
TRAIN_98,"A variety of other frauds and scams appear online or viae-mail with some frequency:, the “419” or “Nigerian money letter” that promises arich cut for helping facilitate a money transfer for adistressed official, fraudulent charitable solicitations, particularly aftersuch disasters as the Asian tsunami or HurricaneKatrina, adoption and marriage scams, educational fraud, such as worthless degrees offeredby unaccredited institutions, dubious employment schemes or “home businesses”involving preparing mailings or medical billing, services that offer to “repair” bad credit ratings, tax-avoidance schemes, often based on nonexistentlegal claims or loopholes",Human-written
TRAIN_99,"Online casinos appeared in 1995, but at first they couldonly be played “for fun,” with no actual money changinghands. That soon changed: In 1996, InterCasino appeared—it would be the first of hundreds of online casinos, sportsbookmakers, and other types of gambling. Generally theseoperations are based outside of the United States—Caribbean islands such as Antigua and Curaçao are popular locations. Online casinos offer traditional table games such asblackjack, roulette, and craps. Generally odds and payoffsare comparable to those at traditional casinos. Assumingthe game is honest and properly programmed, the house’srevenue comes from a percentage of the amount bet—blackjack having the lowest house percentage and roulette thegreatest. Slot machines (which give an even higher percentage to the house) can also be simulated online.",Human-written
TRAIN_100,"Online poker has become very popular, particularly gamessuch as Texas Hold’Em. Estimated revenues from onlinepoker in the United States were $2. 4 billion in 2005. Unlike the case with casino games, online poker playersplay against each other, not the house. The house’s revenuecomes from a “rake,” or percentage, of the pot. Many sitesoffer organized tournaments, and some online players havegone on to win traditional tournaments. (The aptly namedChris Moneymaker won an online tournament, qualifyinghim to enter the 2004 World Series of Poker, which he wenton to win. )Like online casinos, online poker is illegal in the UnitedStates. Proponents argue that while any given hand is random, poker in the long run is a game of skill, not chance. Agroup called the Poker Players Alliance has been lobbyingto exempt poker from Internet gambling laws. A third type of online gambling is sports betting, whichis legal in many countries but only in Nevada in the UnitedStates. The Web has also given sports bettors a forum fordiscussing (or arguing about) teams and their prospects.",Human-written
TRAIN_101,"CMYK stands for cyan, magenta, yellow, and black. This four component color system is standard for most types of color printing, since black is an ink color in printing but is simply the absence of color in video. One of the more difficult tasks to be performed by desktop publishing software is to properly match a given RGB screen color to the corresponding CMYK print color. Recent versions of Microsoft Windows and the Macintosh operating system include a CMS (color matching system) to support color matching.",Human-written
TRAIN_102,"Although most color schemes now support thousands or millions of colors, it would be wasteful and inefficient to use three or four bytes to store the color of each pixel in memory. After all, any given application is likely to need only a few dozen colors. The solution is to set up a palette,which is a table of (usually 256) color values currently in use by the program. (A palette is also sometimes called a CLUT, or color lookup table. ) The color of each pixel can then be stored as an index to the corresponding value in the palette",Human-written
TRAIN_103,"The compilation process is the process by which a compiler translates source code written in a programming language into machine code that can be executed by a computer. The process typically involves several stages:Lexical Analysis: The compiler reads the source code and identifies the tokens (keywords, identifiers, operators, etc. ) in the code. Syntax Analysis: The compiler analyzes the structure of the code to ensure that it conforms to the syntax rules of the programming language. This stage involves creating an abstract syntax tree (AST) that represents the structure of the code. Semantic Analysis: The compiler performs checks to ensure that the code is semantically correct, such as checking that variables are declared before they are used, and that functions are called with the correct number and type of arguments. Code Generation: The compiler generates machine code that can be executed by the computer. This involves translating the AST into a lower-level representation of the code, such as assembly language or machine code. Optimization: The compiler may perform various optimizations on the generated code to improve its performance or reduce its size. This may involve removing redundant code, reordering instructions, or replacing code with more efficient alternatives. Once the compilation process is complete, the resulting machine code can be executed by the computer's processor. The process of compilation is typically performed by a dedicated software program called a compiler, which is specific to the programming language being used.",AI-generated
TRAIN_104,"Code generation is the process of converting the high-level source code written in a programming language into low-level machine code that can be executed by a computer. The code generation process is typically the final stage of the compilation process, following lexical analysis, syntax analysis, and semantic analysis. The process of code generation can be divided into several steps:Intermediate Representation: The compiler typically converts the source code into an intermediate representation (IR) that is easier to analyze and optimize than the original source code. Instruction Selection: The compiler selects the appropriate machine instructions to implement each operation in the IR. This involves mapping high-level operations to the corresponding low-level instructions, such as adding two numbers or loading data from memory. Register Allocation: The compiler assigns registers to hold intermediate values and computations. This involves minimizing the number of register accesses and maximizing the reuse of registers to improve performance. Instruction Scheduling: The compiler reorders the instructions to optimize performance, taking into account factors such as data dependencies and instruction latencies. Code Emission: The compiler generates the final machine code by emitting the selected instructions and associated data. Optimization: The compiler may perform additional optimizations on the generated code to improve its performance or reduce its size. This may involve removing redundant code, reordering instructions, or replacing code with more efficient alternatives.",AI-generated
TRAIN_105,"Portability is the ability to adapt software or hardware to a wide variety of platforms (that is, computer systems or operating systems). Developers want their products to be portable so they can adapt to an often rapidly changing marketplace. A typical strategy for portability is to choose a language that is in widespread use and a compiler that is certified as meeting the ANSI or other standard for the language. The program should be written in such a way that it makes as few assumptions as possible about hardwaredependent matters such as how data is stored in memory. It is also sometimes possible to use standard frameworks that provide the same functions in several different operating systems such as Windows, Macintosh, and UNIX.",Human-written
TRAIN_106,"With simple rules but endless permutations, chess has fascinated millions of players for hundreds of years. When mechanical automatons became fashionable in the 18th century, onlookers were intrigued by “the Turk,” a chessplaying automaton. While the Turk was eventually shown to be a hoax (a human player was hidden inside), the development of the electronic digital computer in the mid-20th century provided the opportunity to create a true automatic chess player. In 1950 Claude Shannon outlined the two basic strategies that would be used by future chess-playing programs. The “brute force” strategy would examine the possible moves for the computer chess player, the possible replies of the opponent to each move, the possible next moves by the computer, and so on for as many half moves or “plies” as possible. The moves would be evaluated by a “minimax” algorithm that would find the move that best improves the computer’s position despite the opponent’s best play.",Human-written
TRAIN_107,"Sophisticated string processing (such as parsing and pattern matching) tends to be awkward to express in traditional number-oriented programming languages. Several languages have been designed especially for manipulating textual data. Snobol, designed in the early 1960s, is best 82? ? ? ? characters and stringsknown for its sophisticated pattern-matching and pattern processing capabilities. A similar language, Icon, is widely used for specialized string-processing tasks today. Many programmers working with textual data in the UNIX environment have found that the awk and Perl languages are easier to use than C for extracting and manipulating data fields. (See awk and Perl. )",Human-written
TRAIN_108,"Today’s online games feature a “persistent world” hosted onone or more servers that grows and develops from day to dayand in which the “avatars” or representatives of thousandsof players interact with game-generated creatures or oneanother, using client software. Players can spend hundredsof hours helping their characters develop skills, increasingtheir levels through experience points gained from successful combat or other activities. Players (and their characters) frequently form organizations such as guilds or clans,because the tougher challenges generally require the cooperation of different types of classes of characters (fighters,healers, and magic-users). Modern MM ORPGs began in the late 1990s with suchtitles as Ultima Online and EverQuest. The most popularMMORPG in the mid-2000s was World of Warcraft.",Human-written
TRAIN_109,"In the late 1990s, a new consumer technology enabled users to create their own CDs with data or audio tracks. The cheapest kind, CD-R (Compact Disk Recordable) uses a layer of a dyed material and a thin gold layer to reflect the laser beam. Data is recorded by a laser beam hitting the dye layer in precise locations and marking it (in one of several ways, depending on technology). The lengths of marked (“striped”) track and unmarked track together encode the data.",Human-written
TRAIN_110,"The famous Turing test , proposes that if a human is unable to reliably distinguish messages from a computer from those of another person, the computer program involved can at least be provisionally declared to be “intelligent. ” The advent of textual communication via the Internet , has afforded a variety of ways to attempt to meet this challenge. Programs that mimic human conversational styles have come to be known as “chatterbots. ”The prototypical chatterbot was ELIZA, developed by Joseph Weizenbaum in the mid-1960s ,. ELIZA mimicked a form of nondirective psychotherapy in which the therapist echoes or plays off of the client’s statements as a form of gentle encouragement and validation. Thus if one types, “My father didn’t really like me,” ELIZA might reply, “Tell me more about your father. ” Although primitive, ELIZA once inadvertently fooled an executive into thinking he was exchanging messages with Weizenbaum. Other classic chatterbots include Parry, designed to mimic a paranoid, and the story-generating Racter.",Human-written
TRAIN_111,"Phishing is a type of cybercrime where an attacker tries to trick individuals into revealing sensitive information like passwords, credit card numbers, or personal identification numbers. Here are some ways to prevent phishing:Be cautious of emails and messages: Do not open any attachments or click on any links in emails or messages that appear suspicious. Always verify the sender's email address and check for any spelling or grammatical errors. Keep your software updated: Always keep your software and operating system up to date with the latest security patches and updates. This can help protect against known vulnerabilities that attackers can exploit. Use anti-phishing tools: Use anti-phishing tools provided by your web browser or email client, which can help identify and block phishing attempts. Use strong passwords: Use strong, unique passwords for each online account, and avoid using the same password across multiple accounts. Consider using a password manager to generate and store complex passwords. Educate yourself: Stay informed about the latest phishing techniques and common scams. Be wary of any messages or emails that ask for personal information. Enable two-factor authentication: Use two-factor authentication for all accounts that support it. This adds an extra layer of security to your accounts by requiring a second factor, such as a fingerprint or code generated on your phone, to log in. Be skeptical of unsolicited offers: Be skeptical of any unsolicited offers or requests, especially those that seem too good to be true. Avoid providing personal information unless you are sure that the request is legitimate. By following these steps, you can reduce the risk of falling victim to phishing attacks and protect your sensitive information.",AI-generated
TRAIN_112,"The C++ language was designed by Bjarne Stroustrup at AT&T’s Bell Labs in Murray Hill, New Jersey, starting in 1979. By that time the C language had become well established as a powerful tool for systems programming ,. However Stroustrup (and others) believed that C’s limited data structures and function mechanism were proving inadequate to express the relationships found in increasingly large software packages involving many objects with complex relationships.",Human-written
TRAIN_113,"During the late 1980s and 1990s, C++ became a very popular language for a variety of applications ranging from systems programming to business applications and games. The growth of the language coincided with the development of more powerful desktop computers and the release of inexpensive, easy-to-use but powerful development environments from Microsoft, Borland, and others. Since these compilers could also handle traditional C code, programmers could “port” existing code and use the object-oriented techniques of C++ as they mastered them. By the late 1990s, however, C++, although still dominant in many areas, was being challenged by Java, a language that simplified some of the more complex features of C++ and that was designed 68? ? ? ? C++particularly for writing software to run on Web servers and browsers ,. For an alternative approach to creating a somewhat more “streamlined” C-type language,",Human-written
TRAIN_114,"Podcasts have a wide range of applications, some of which include:Entertainment: Podcasts can be a great source of entertainment, offering listeners a wide range of options to choose from, such as comedy, storytelling, and music. Education: Podcasts can be used for educational purposes, offering a convenient way for people to learn about specific topics and gain new skills. News and Current Events: Podcasts can be a great way to stay informed about the latest news and events, with many news organizations offering podcasts that cover the latest headlines. Marketing: Podcasts can be used as a marketing tool for businesses to reach new audiences and promote their products or services. Personal Development: Podcasts can offer listeners insights and advice on personal development, such as self-help, motivation, and mindfulness. Storytelling: Podcasts can be used as a platform for storytelling, offering a unique way for people to share their stories with a global audience. Overall, podcasts offer a flexible and versatile platform that can be used for a wide range of purposes, making them an increasingly popular medium for content creators and consumers alike.",AI-generated
TRAIN_115,"There are many applications of NLP across various industries and fields. Some of the most common applications of NLP include:Text analysis and classification: NLP can be used to classify and analyze large volumes of text data, such as emails, social media posts, and customer reviews. Sentiment analysis: NLP can be used to analyze the sentiment of text data, such as whether a customer review is positive or negative. Speech recognition: NLP can be used to transcribe spoken language into text, which can be used for a variety of purposes, including voice assistants and customer service chatbots. Machine translation: NLP can be used to translate text from one language to another, enabling communication across language barriers. Chatbots and virtual assistants: NLP can be used to develop chatbots and virtual assistants that can communicate with users in natural language, answering questions and providing assistance. Content generation: NLP can be used to generate text content, such as news articles or product descriptions, based on input data. Text summarization: NLP can be used to summarize large volumes of text data, such as news articles or research papers, into shorter summaries. Named entity recognition: NLP can be used to identify and extract information about named entities, such as people, places, and organizations, from text data. These are just a few examples of the many applications of NLP, which has a wide range of potential uses across numerous industries and fields.",AI-generated
TRAIN_116,"A disk cache uses the same general principle as a processor cache. Here, however, it is RAM (either a part of main memory or separate memory on the disk drive) that is the faster medium and the disk drive itself that is slower. When an application starts to request data from the disk, the cache reads one or more complete blocks or sectors of data from the disk rather than just the data record being requested. Then, if the application continues to request sequential data records, these can be read from the high-speed memory on the cache rather than from the disk drive. It follows that disk caching is most effective when an application, for example, loads a database file that is stored sequentially on the disk",Human-written
TRAIN_117,"Caching techniques can be used in other ways. For example, most Web browsers are set to store recently read pages on disk so that if the user directs the browser to go back to such a page it can be read from disk rather than having to be retransmitted over the Internet (generally a slower process). Web servers and ISPs (such as cable services) can also cache popular pages so they can be served up quickly",Human-written
TRAIN_118,"The final stage in the development of the calculator would be characterized by the use of electronics to replace mechanical (or electromechanical) action. The use of logic 70? ? ? ? calculatorcircuits to perform calculations electronically was first seen in the giant computers of the late 1940s, but this was obviously impractical for desktop office use. By the late 1960s, however, transistorized calculators comparable in size to mechanical desktop calculators came into use. By the 1970s, the use of integrated circuits made it possible to shrink the calculator down to palm-size and smaller. These calculators use a microprocessor with a set of “microinstructions” that enable them to perform a repertoire of operations ranging from basic arithmetic to trigonometric, statistical, or business-related function",Human-written
TRAIN_119,"Chuq von Rospach is a well-known author and speaker on the topic of netiquette (network etiquette). In his writing, he has suggested a number of guidelines for good online behavior. Here are some of his suggestions:Respect others: This means treating other people with respect and avoiding insults, flaming, or other forms of aggressive or hurtful behavior. Be concise: When posting messages online, try to be brief and to the point. Avoid rambling or going off-topic. Stay on topic: When participating in online discussions, try to keep your contributions relevant to the topic at hand. Use appropriate language: Avoid using profanity or other offensive language, and be mindful of the fact that people from different backgrounds and cultures may be reading your posts. Be aware of privacy issues: Respect people's privacy by not sharing personal information about them without their consent. Use good manners: Remember to say ""please"" and ""thank you"" when appropriate, and avoid interrupting others. Be forgiving: People sometimes make mistakes online. Try to be forgiving and give others the benefit of the doubt. Overall, Chuq von Rospach's suggestions for netiquette are designed to promote respectful, constructive online communication. By following these guidelines, we can create a more positive and productive online community.",AI-generated
TRAIN_120,"Online games today range from elaborate war games toopen-ended fantasy worlds to virtual universes that mirror“real-world” activities, including economics, politics, andeven education. The first online games appeared in the late 1970s onPLATO, an educational network, as well as on the earlyInternet of the 1980s. These MUDs (multiuser dungeons)were generally based on pen-and-paper role-playing gamesof the time, notably Dungeons & Dragons. These games were text based, with players typing their characters’ actionsand dialog while the changing world as seen by the players was similarly described. By the early 1990s, however,MUDs had spun off many variants. Many were still “hackn’ slash” dungeon games (which were also offered on America Online and other commercial services). Many of theseMUD-like games such as AOL’s Neverwinter Nights offeredsimple graphics. Meanwhile other games began to offermore sophisticated social interactions as well as the abilityof players to make their own additions to the game world,including buildings.",Human-written
TRAIN_121,"Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are powerful tools for capturing, storing, manipulating, analyzing, and visualizing geographic data. Here are some of the key strengths and benefits of GIS:Spatial analysis: GIS allows users to analyze spatial data and relationships between geographic features, such as proximity, adjacency, and connectivity. This can be used to identify patterns, trends, and relationships that are not visible in tabular data. Decision-making: GIS can help decision-makers to understand and visualize complex data in a geographic context, allowing them to make more informed and effective decisions. For example, GIS can be used to identify suitable locations for new facilities, such as schools, hospitals, or stores. Resource management: GIS can be used to manage and optimize natural resources, such as water, land, and forests. For example, GIS can be used to track and analyze the distribution of natural resources, monitor changes in land use and land cover, and assess the impact of human activities on the environment.",AI-generated
TRAIN_122,"Affiliate marketing is a type of online marketing in which a business or advertiser pays a commission to a third-party affiliate for promoting and driving traffic to their products or services. It is a performance-based marketing strategy that involves four main parties: the advertiser, the affiliate, the customer, and the network. In affiliate marketing, the advertiser provides the affiliate with promotional materials, such as banner ads or product links, to use in their marketing efforts. The affiliate then promotes the advertiser's products or services to their audience, such as on their website or social media channels. When a customer clicks on the affiliate's promotional link and makes a purchase, the affiliate earns a commission from the advertiser. Affiliate marketing can be beneficial for all parties involved. Advertisers can reach new customers and increase their sales without having to invest in traditional advertising methods. Affiliates can earn money by promoting products or services that align with their brand and audience. Customers can discover new products or services that they may not have found otherwise. Affiliate marketing can be used in a variety of industries, including e-commerce, travel, finance, and more. There are different types of affiliate marketing programs, including pay-per-click (PPC), pay-per-lead (PPL), and pay-per-sale (PPS). It is important for both advertisers and affiliates to choose the right program and set clear expectations for commission rates, performance metrics, and marketing guidelines. Overall, affiliate marketing is a popular and effective way for businesses to reach new customers and increase their sales, while providing affiliates with a way to monetize their online presence and promote products or services they believe in.",AI-generated
TRAIN_123,"Maintaining user interest in online advertising is essential for the success of any online advertising campaign. Here are some tips on how to keep users engaged and interested in your online ads:Keep it relevant: Make sure your ads are relevant to the user's interests and needs. Use targeting options to show ads to users who are likely to be interested in what you're offering. Keep it simple: Use clear and concise messaging that is easy to understand. Avoid using too much text or complicated language. Use eye-catching visuals: Use high-quality images or videos that grab the user's attention and stand out from other ads on the page. Provide value: Offer something of value to the user, such as a discount, free trial, or informative content. This will make the user more likely to engage with your ad. Personalize the experience: Use personalization techniques to make the ad feel more personalized and relevant to the user. This can include using the user's name or showing ads based on their previous browsing history. Use interactive elements: Use interactive elements, such as quizzes, polls, or games, to engage the user and encourage them to interact with your ad. Test and optimize: Continuously test and optimize your ads to improve their performance. This can include testing different ad formats, messaging, and targeting options to see what works best for your audience. By following these tips, you can maintain user interest in your online ads and increase the likelihood of users engaging with your brand and taking action, such as making a purchase or filling out a form.",AI-generated
TRAIN_124,"DBMS stands for Database Management System. It is a software system that is used to manage, store, and retrieve data in a database. A DBMS is designed to provide a way to store and organize large amounts of data, as well as to provide a means of accessing that data quickly and efficiently.",AI-generated
TRAIN_125,"The psychology of computing is a field of study that focuses on the psychological processes involved in human-computer interaction. It seeks to understand how people perceive, process, and interact with computer technology, and how these interactions affect their behavior, cognition, and emotions. One of the key areas of study in the psychology of computing is human-computer interaction (HCI). HCI researchers seek to understand how people interact with computer technology, and how technology can be designed to better support human needs and capabilities. This involves studying factors such as user interface design, usability, user experience, and cognitive load. Another important area of study in the psychology of computing is the impact of technology on human cognition and behavior. Researchers in this field examine how computer technology affects attention, memory, learning, decision-making, and social behavior. They also explore the impact of technology on mental health and well-being, and the potential risks and benefits of technology use. The psychology of computing is a multidisciplinary field that draws on theories and methods from psychology, computer science, engineering, design, and other related disciplines. Its findings are applied in a variety of settings, including the design of computer systems, software applications, and digital media, as well as in areas such as healthcare, education, and entertainment.",AI-generated
TRAIN_126,"Introduced in 2002, C# (pronounced “C sharp”) is a programming language similar to C++ and Java but simplified in several respects and tailored for use with Microsoft’s latest programming platform ,. C# is a general-purpose language and is thoroughly objectoriented—all functions must be declared as members of a class or “struct,” and even fundamental data types are derived from the System. Object class ,. Compared with C++, C# is stricter about the use and conversion of data types, not allowing most implicit conversions (such as from an enumeration type to the corresponding integer—see data structures). Unlike C++, C# does not permit multiple inheritance (where a type can be derived from two or more base types), thereby avoiding an added layer of complexity in class relationships in large software projects. (However, a similar effect can be obtained by declaring multiple “interfaces” or specified ways of accessing the same class. )Unlike Java (but like C++), C# includes pointers (and a safer version called “delegates”), enumerations (enum types), structs (treated as lightweight classes), and overloading (multiple definitions for operators). The latest version of the language, C# 3. 0 (introduced in 2007), provides additional features for list processing and functional programming ,",Human-written
TRAIN_127,"In the telecommunications industry, “the last mile” refers to the connections and equipment that actually bring content to users’ homes and businesses. One source of Cisco’s continued growth in the 2000 decade is the way it has addressed the consumer sector through strategic acquisitions. In 2003, Cisco acquired Linksys, maker of home Internet routers and wireless access points. In 2005, Scientific Atlanta—maker of cable modems, digital cable boxes, and other consumer equipment—also became a Cisco company. The company has also entered the area of Internet telephony , by teaming up with Skype to build a cordless phone that can connect to a computer to make phone calls over the Internet. Moving from hardware into software, Cisco in 2007 purchased Utah Street Networks, a San Francisco–based maker of software to link online communities , and operator of the Tribe. net Web site. Around the same time, Cisco made a much larger buy, acquiring WebEx, maker of online collaboration software, for $3. 2 billion. In 2007 Cisco had revenue of $35 billion, with more than 63,000 employees.",Human-written
TRAIN_128,"A class is a data type that combines both a data structure and methods for manipulating the data. For example, a string class might consist of an array to hold the characters in the string and methods to compare strings, combine strings, or extract portions of a string ,. As with other data types, once a class is declared, objects (sometimes called instances) of the class can be created and used. This way of structuring programs is called object-oriented programming because the class object is the basic building block ,. Object-oriented programming and classes provide several advantages over traditional block-structured languages. In a traditional BASIC or even Pascal program, there is no particular connection between the data structure and the procedures or functions that manipulate it. In a large program one programmer might change the data structure without alerting other programmers whose code assumes the original structure. On the other hand, someone might write a procedure that directly manipulates the internal data rather than using the methods already provided. Either transgression can lead to hard-to-find bugs.",Human-written
TRAIN_129,"Newsgroups emerged in the early days of the internet as a way for people to communicate and share information with each other. The development of newsgroups can be traced back to the 1970s, when the first email systems were created. At that time, email was used primarily by academics and researchers, who used it to share information and collaborate on projects. In the late 1970s, a new communication protocol called Usenet was developed, which allowed people to post and read messages in public discussion forums called newsgroups. Usenet was decentralized, meaning that anyone with an internet connection could participate in discussions and post messages in newsgroups on a wide range of topics. As the internet grew in popularity in the 1990s, so did the number of people using newsgroups. At their peak, there were tens of thousands of newsgroups covering a wide range of topics, from politics and religion to sports and entertainment. Some newsgroups were moderated by volunteers who ensured that discussions remained civil and on-topic, while others were unmoderated and often became heated and contentious. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, the popularity of newsgroups began to wane as other forms of online communication, such as social media and instant messaging, emerged. However, newsgroups continue to exist today, albeit with much smaller user bases than in their heyday. Many newsgroups have migrated to web forums or email discussion lists, but the basic idea of public discussion forums where people can share information and ideas lives on.",AI-generated
TRAIN_130,"Short for “coder/decoder,” a codec is essentially an algorithm for encoding (and compressing) a stream of data for transmission, and then decoding and decompressing it at the receiving end. Usually the data involved represents audio or video content ,. Typically the data is being downloaded from a Web site to be played on a personal computer or portable player ,. A codec is described as “lossy” if some of the original information is lost in the compression process. It then becomes a question of whether the loss in quality is perceived by the user as significant. A codec that preserves all the information needed to re-create the original file is “lossless. ” For most purposes, the much greater size of the lossless version of a file is not worth the (often imperceptible) increase in quality or fidelity. A codec is usually used in connection with a “container format” that specifies how the encoded data is to be stored in a file. Often a container can hold more than one data stream and even more than one kind of media (such as video and audio). When one refers to a Windows WAV file, for example, one is actually referring to a container.",Human-written
TRAIN_131,"In computer science, a backdoor is a hidden method of bypassing normal authentication or security controls in a system, allowing a user to gain unauthorized access to the system or its data. A backdoor is usually created by the system's designer or developer as a means of accessing the system in case of an emergency or for troubleshooting purposes. However, backdoors can also be created maliciously by attackers to gain unauthorized access to a system or network. Backdoors can be hidden in various parts of a system, including software applications, operating systems, and network infrastructure. Backdoors can be difficult to detect, as they are designed to remain hidden and bypass normal security controls. However, they can be discovered through regular security audits, network monitoring, and analysis of system logs. Backdoors are considered a serious security threat, as they can allow attackers to access sensitive information, steal data, and carry out other malicious activities. Preventing backdoors requires implementing strong security controls, such as access controls, authentication mechanisms, and encryption, and regularly monitoring and testing systems for vulnerabilities.",AI-generated
TRAIN_132,"Computing is a complex, pervasive, and increasingly vital human activity. It is not surprising that human psychology can play an important role in many aspects of computer use. Since the 1960s psychology (in particular see cognitivescience) has contributed to the structuring of interaction between computer systems and users ,. It is important to note the significant differences between how computers and humans perceive and process information: computers are extremely fast in processing in a highly structured setting (e. g. , a program). The human brain, on the other hand, while thousands of times slower, is thus far greatly superior in coping with loosely structured data through pattern recognition, the making of analogies, and generalization. A number of researchers , have promoted the idea of creating a human-computer synergy where the structure of the system takes advantage of both the machine’s computational and data-retrieval abilities and the human user’s ability to work with the larger picture. Such research is continuing as autonomous software , and is beginning to interact with Web user",Human-written
TRAIN_133,Disk Cache is a temporary storage place that a computer can use to storea file after reading it from the hard drive. For instance‚ telling a computerto open a MP3 file‚ it may take several seconds for it to locate and read thefile into memory from the PCs hard drive. However‚ if the computer storesthe file in the Disk Cache‚ the next time one wishes to open the same file‚data can be retrieved from the disk cache rather than loading it from the harddrive. One definition refers to a Disk Cache specifically as: hard disk-based memory used to store accessed web pages. This technique enables the browserload the stored pages from the cache rather than from the network. That iswhy clicking the ‘Back’ button on a browser usually retrieves a page nearlyinstantaneously. The virtual memory system that comes with Microsoft Windows is also another example of disk caching to increase performance,Human-written
TRAIN_134,"Confidentiality is the property that data or information is not made availableor disclosed to unauthorized, parties (e. g. , individuals, organizations andprocesses). Hence, a health insurer cannot get access to medical files as suchbut only to information pertaining to a particular bill submitted electronicallyfor reimbursement",Human-written
TRAIN_135,"PHP (Hypertext Preprocessor) is a popular open-source scripting language used for web development. It was first released in 1995 and is primarily used for server-side web development. PHP scripts are executed on a web server, generating dynamic web pages that can include HTML, CSS, and JavaScript. PHP is used in a variety of applications, including e-commerce websites, content management systems, and social media platforms. It is well-known for its ease of use, flexibility, and scalability, making it a popular choice for building web applications. Some of the key features of PHP include:Cross-platform compatibility: PHP can run on a variety of platforms, including Windows, Linux, and macOS. Object-oriented programming support: PHP supports object-oriented programming, allowing developers to write modular, reusable code. Database integration: PHP has built-in support for many popular databases, including MySQL, PostgreSQL, and Oracle. Extensive library support: PHP has a vast collection of libraries and frameworks, making it easier for developers to build web applications quickly and efficiently. Easy integration with other technologies: PHP can be easily integrated with other web technologies, such as HTML, CSS, JavaScript, and XML. Overall, PHP is a powerful and versatile language that has played a significant role in the development of the modern web.",AI-generated
TRAIN_136,"Extensive Mark-up Language (XML) is the first building bloc for a Semantic Web. Invisible to the human viewer, XML tags can be used to describehow information on a page is structured, allowing visiting computers to readand act on it without human invention. XML describes data in terms of its content. In that respect XML is a markuplanguage that has significant potential for the capture and onward processingof data directly from web pages. The real significance of this is that Businessto Business data transfer is greatly facilitated by XML as neither party needs. to write interfaces to each other’s systems; they merely need to be able toaccept and process XML. Unlike Hyper Text Mark-up Language (HTML) which is a single predefined language‚ XML is a metalanguage. Hence‚ it is a language for describing other languages. Therefore‚ visiting computers need to be familiar with thespecific XML language before then can interpret the web page or document. Hence‚ a computer can refer to an XML “schema” located elsewhere on theweb.",Human-written
TRAIN_137,"Some typical features of a smart building include the following:, lighting that is controlled by time of day, scheduling, and occupancy sensors, temperature and air-flow sensors to determine the amount of cooling, heating, or fresh air needed, controls for central heating, hot water, and air conditioning systems, optimizing efficiency and minimizing energy use, alarms for intrusion, fire, carbon monoxide/dioxide, and other hazards, alarms indicating failure or unsafe operating conditions for various devices, integration of alarm and status messages with communications systems, enabling users to receive them by e-mail, text message, phone, or other means",Human-written
TRAIN_138,"There are a variety of ways in which data (facts or measurements about the world) can be turned into a digital representation suitable for manipulation by a computer. For example, pressing a key on the keyboard sends a signal that is stored in a memory buffer using a value that represents the ASCII character code for the key pressed. Moving the mouse sends a stream of signals that are proportional to the rotation of the ball which in turn is calibrated into a series of coordinates and ultimately to a position on the screen where the cursor is to be moved. Digital cameras and scanners convert the varying light levels of what they “see” into a digital image",Human-written
TRAIN_139,"Since the late 1990s, Web users (particularly younger ones)have been adept at sharing media content online ,. In the 2000 decade, however,the emphasis has shifted to users not merely sharing otherpeoples’ content, but creating their own ,. The first part of the recipe was the availability ofubiquitous digital cameras and camcorders; the second partwas easy-to-use video-editing software; and the third partwas a Web site that could host the results. Created in 2005 by three former PayPal employees, thevideo-sharing site YouTube has been the leading venue foramateur video. Although available content includes clipsfrom movies and TV shows (some unauthorized), much ofthe most interesting content is original videos created anduploaded by users. Beyond just sharing or accessing con-tent, users are encouraged to rate and comment on the vid-eos they see, and users can also subscribe to “feeds” of newmaterial that is likely to be of interest to them. By 2008 more than 83 million videos were available onYouTube—and hundreds of thousands added each day.",Human-written
TRAIN_140,"Cellular automata are mathematical models consisting of a grid of cells, each of which can be in one of a finite number of states, and a set of rules that determine how the cells change state over time. Cellular automata have been used in a wide variety of fields, including:Physics: Cellular automata can be used to model physical systems, such as the behavior of fluids, gases, and solids. They can also be used to simulate the behavior of subatomic particles and the evolution of the universe. Biology: Cellular automata have been used to model biological systems, such as the spread of diseases, the growth of bacterial colonies, and the behavior of animal populations. Computer Science: Cellular automata have been used in computer science for a variety of applications, including cryptography, image processing, and artificial intelligence. Economics: Cellular automata have been used to model economic systems, such as the behavior of stock markets and the spread of financial crises. Sociology: Cellular automata have been used to model social systems, such as the spread of rumors, the diffusion of innovations, and the emergence of social norms. Art: Cellular automata have been used as a tool for creating art and music, often by using the patterns generated by the rules to create visual or auditory stimuli.",AI-generated
TRAIN_141,"The essential core of the UNIX system is the kernel, which provides facilities to organize and access files ,, move data to and from devices, and control the running of programs (processes). In designing UNIX, Thompson deliberately kept the kernel small, noting that he wanted maximum flexibility for users. Since the kernel was the only part of the system that could not be reconfigured or replaced by the user, he limited it to those functions that reliability and efficiency dictated be handled at the system level. Another way in which the UNIX kernel was kept simple was through device independence. This meant that instead of including specific instructions for operating particular models of terminal, printers, or plotters within the kernel, generic facilities were provided. These could then be interfaced with device drivers and configuration files to control the particular devices. A UNIX system typically has many users, each of whom may be running a number of programs. The interface that processes user commands is called the shell. It is important to note that in UNIX a shell is just another program, so there can be (and are) many different shells reflecting varying tastes and purposes ,. Traditional UNIXshells include the Bourne shell (sh), C shell (csh), and Korn shell (ksh). Modern UNIX systems can also have graphical user interfaces similar to those found on Windows and Macintosh personal computers ,.",Human-written
TRAIN_142,"SAP (NYSE symbol: SAP) is a German acronym for Systeme, Anwendungen, und Produkete in der Datenverarbeitung (“Systems, Applications, and Products in Data Processing”). Five former IBM engineers in Germany founded the company in 1972. Although unfamiliar to the American public, unlike IBMand Microsoft, SAP is the world’s largest business software company, and fourth-largest software provider in general (behind Microsoft, IBM, and Oracle). The company operates worldwide through three geographical divisions.",Human-written
TRAIN_143,"Active OS Fingerprinting is conducted in order to detect the target’s Oper ating System. It is usually done by sending specially crafted network packets and comparing them against known responses. Each operating system re sponds to different packet differently and even response to the ping command can give a good indication of the target OS. Several methods have been developed and fingerprints are widely available on the internet. The tool of the trade for this is a tool called Network Mapper (nmap). While Active OS Fingerprinting is more accurate than Passive OS Fingerprinting, it has a significant disadvantage. Being active, means that attackers have to send packets to the host, hence, Active versus passive Fingerprinting means risking discovery ,.",Human-written
TRAIN_144,"Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) is a technology that uses radio waves to wirelessly identify and track objects or people. RFID systems consist of three main components: a tag or transponder, a reader or interrogator, and a backend system for processing the data. The RFID tag contains a small microchip and an antenna, which can be attached to or embedded within an object. When the tag is exposed to radio waves from a nearby reader, it powers up and sends back a signal containing its unique identifier. RFID technology has a wide range of applications, from tracking inventory and assets in supply chain management to monitoring patients in hospitals and controlling access to secure areas. It provides a more efficient and automated way to collect data and streamline processes, compared to manual methods such as barcode scanning.",AI-generated
TRAIN_145,"Because of their frequent use to share copyrighted music, video, or other material, a variety of organizations of copy-right owners have sued file-sharing services and/or their users. The biggest problem for the courts is to determine whether there is “substantial non-infringing use”—that is, the service is being used to exchange legal data. Some file-sharing services have been accused of dis-tributing malware (viruses or spyware) or of being used to distribute material that is illegal per se (such as child pornography). In response to litigation threats, file-sharing services have tended to become more decentralized, and some have features that increase anonymity of users , or use encryption.",Human-written
TRAIN_146,"Open Source is code that is put into the public domain. Hence, any usercan take advantage of it usually for free. Most importantly, if the code ispopular many people may examine it and, therefore, assuring that securitybugs are published quickly. Very nicely for users, fixes are usually availablein relatively short time thereafter",Human-written
TRAIN_147,"Podcasting (from iPod plus broadcasting) lets users subscribe to and automatically download regularly distributed content (such as radio broadcasts) over the Internet. The media files can be stored on an Apple iPod or other media player ,, personal computer, or other device ,. Podcasting became popular starting around 2004–05 and has become widely used by individuals and organizations. Typically, files to be podcast are put on a Web server. The URLs for the files and other information (such as episode titles) is provided in files called feeds, using a format such as RSS or Atom ,. The user installs client software (such as iPodder), browses the feeds (such as through an online directory), and decides what to subscribe to. The software then periodically checks the feeds, obtains the URLs of the latest files, and downloads them automatically. The software can, if desired, then transfer the downloaded files to a portable media player, such as over a USB connection",Human-written
TRAIN_148,Hexadecimal is a numerical system using base 16 (as opposed to the usualbase 10). Hexadecimal is a useful way to express binary computer numbersin which a byte is normally expressed as having 8 bits; with 2 hexadecimalcharacters representing eight binary digits—aka a byte.,Human-written
TRAIN_149,"Biometric identification systems are a type of authentication system that uses unique biological characteristics to verify the identity of an individual. These systems rely on biometric data, which can include fingerprints, iris scans, facial recognition, voiceprints, and other physiological or behavioral traits. Biometric identification systems typically work by capturing biometric data from an individual and comparing it to a stored database of biometric data to verify the individual's identity. The system may also perform additional verification steps, such as checking against a list of authorized users or requiring the user to enter a password or PIN. Biometric identification systems offer several advantages over traditional authentication systems, such as:Increased security - Biometric data is unique to each individual and cannot be easily replicated or stolen, making it more difficult for attackers to gain unauthorized access. Convenience - Biometric identification systems are easy to use and can provide fast and accurate authentication, eliminating the need for users to remember passwords or carry physical tokens. Cost-effective - Biometric identification systems can be cost-effective in the long term, as they eliminate the need for expensive physical tokens or manual verification processes. However, biometric identification systems also have some limitations and potential drawbacks. These can include:Privacy concerns - Biometric data is highly personal and sensitive, and there may be concerns about how it is collected, stored, and used. Accuracy and reliability - Biometric identification systems may not always be accurate or reliable, as factors such as lighting conditions or changes in an individual's appearance can affect the accuracy of the biometric data. Implementation challenges - Biometric identification systems can be complex and costly to implement, requiring specialized hardware and software, and may require significant training and support for users. Overall, biometric identification systems offer a promising approach to authentication and security, but must be implemented carefully and with appropriate safeguards to ensure privacy and accuracy.",AI-generated
TRAIN_150,"In computer science, a binder refers to a software tool that is used to combine two or more files or programs into a single executable file. Binders are commonly used by malware authors to merge a legitimate program or file with a malicious payload, allowing the malware to execute without being detected by antivirus software or other security measures. Binders work by taking two or more files and merging them into a single executable file, which can then be run on a target system. Binders can be designed to include a variety of malicious payloads, including backdoors, keyloggers, and other types of malware. Binders can be used to bypass security measures that are designed to detect and prevent malware infections, as the merged files may appear to be a legitimate program or file. This can make it more difficult for security professionals to detect and remove the malware, and can lead to serious security breaches and data loss. Binders are a security threat, and it is important to use strong security measures, such as antivirus software and network monitoring tools, to detect and prevent malware infections. It is also important to be cautious when downloading and running software or files from unknown sources, and to ensure that all software and systems are kept up-to-date with the latest security patches and updates.",AI-generated
TRAIN_151,"One advantage of using abstract data types is that it separates a structure and functionality from its implementation. In designing the abstract stack type, for example, one can focus on what a stack does and its essential functions. One avoids becoming immediately bogged down with details, such as what sorts of data items can be placed on the stack, or exactly what mechanism will be used to keep track of the number of items currently stored. This approach also avoids “featuritis,” the tendency to see how many possible functions or features one can add to the stack object. For example, while it might be useful to give a stack the ability to print out a list of its items, it is probably better to wait until one needs such a capability than to burden the basic stack idea with extra baggage that may make it more cumbersome or less efficient. An abstract data type or its embodiment",Human-written
TRAIN_152,"A flowchart is a diagram showing the “flow” or progress of operations in a computer program. Flowcharting was one of the earliest aids to program design and documentation, and a plastic template with standard flowcharting symbols was a common programming accessory. Today CASE (com-puter-aided software engineering) systems often include utilities that can automatically generate flowcharts based on the control structures and procedure calls found in the program code. The standard flowchart symbols include blocks of vari-ous shapes that represent input/output, data processing, sorting and collating, and so on. Lines with arrows indicate the flow of data from one stage or process to the next. A diamond-shaped symbol indicates a decision to be made by the program. If the decision is an “if” , separate lines branch off to the alternatives. If the decision involves repeated testing ,, the line returns back to the decision point while another line indi-cates the continuation of processing after the loop exits. Devices such as printers and disk drives have their own symbols with lines indicating the flow of data to or from the device",Human-written
TRAIN_153,"Expert systems typically consist of two main components: a knowledge base and an inference engine. The knowledge base contains the rules, facts, and other information relevant to the problem domain. The inference engine uses this knowledge to reason about the problem, make decisions, and provide recommendations or solutions.",AI-generated
TRAIN_154,"At bottom, a data bit in a computer is “all or nothing” (1 or 0). most decisions in computer code are also all or nothing: Either a condition is satisfied, and execution takes one specified path, or the condition is not satisfied and it goes elsewhere. In real life, of course, many situations fall between the cracks. For example, a business might want to treat a credit applicant who almost qualifies for “A” status different from one who barely made “B. ” While a program could be refined to include many gradations between B and A, another approach is to express the degree of “closeness” (or certainty) using fuzzy logic.",Human-written
TRAIN_155,"The header information also includes:, The total length of the packet. In theory packets can be as large as 65 kbytes; in practice they are limited to a smaller maximum. , An identification number that can be used if a packet is broken into smaller pieces for efficiency in transmission. This allows the packet to be reassembled at the destination. , A “time to live” value that specifies how many hops (movements from one intermediate host to another) the packet will be allowed to take. This is reduced by 1 for each hop. If it reaches 0, the packet is assumed to have gotten “lost” or stale, and is discarded. , A protocol number (the protocol is usually TCP, see below). , A checksum for checking the integrity of the header itself (not the data in the packet). , The source and destination addresses. The source and destination are given as IP addresses, which are 32 bits long and typically written as four sets of up to three numbers each—for example, 208. 162. 106. 17",Human-written
TRAIN_156,"The growth in desktop computing since the 1980s has resulted in much data being moved from mainframe com-puters to desktop PCs, which are now usually linked by networks. While a network enables users to exchange files, there remains the problem of storing large files or collec-tions of files (such as databases) that are too large for a typi-cal PC hard drive or that need to be accessed and updated by many users. The common solution is to obtain a computer with large, fast disk drives ,. This computer, the file server, is equipped with software (often included with the networking package) that serves (provides) files as requested by users or applications on the other PCs on the network. (See also client-seRveRcomputing. ) The specifics of configuring the server for optimum efficiency, providing adequate security, and arranging for backup or archiving varies with the particular network operating sys-tem in use (the most popular environments are Windows NT, Vista, and the various versions of UNIx and Linux)",Human-written
TRAIN_157,"A flag is a variable that is used to specify a particular condi-tion or status ,. Usually a flag is either true or false. For example, a flag Valid_Form could be set to true before the input form is processed. If the validation check for any data field fails, the flag would be set to false. After the input procedure has ended, the main program would check the Valid_Form flag. If it’s true, the data on the form is processed (for example, continuing on to the payment process). If the flag is false, the input form might be redis-played with errors or omissions highlighted.",Human-written
TRAIN_158,"When people think of a computer, they generally think of a general-purpose computing system housed in a separate box, for use on the desk or as a laptop or hand-held device. However, the personal computer and its cousins are only the surface of a hidden web of computing capability that reaches deep into numerous devices used in our daily lives. Modern cars, for example, often contain several specialized computer systems that monitor fuel injection or enhance the car’s grip on the road under changing conditions. Many kitchen appliances such as microwaves, dishwashers, and even toasters contain their own computer chips. Communications systems ranging from cell phones to TV satellite dishes include embedded computers. Most important, embedded systems are now essential to the operation of critical infrastructure such as medical monitoring systems and power transmission networks. (The potential vulnerability of embedded systems to the Y2K date-related problems was a major concern in the months leading up to 2000, especially because many embedded systems might have to be replaced rather than just reprogrammed. In the event, it turned out that there were relatively few date-dependent systems and only minor disruptions were experienced",Human-written
TRAIN_159,"The basic idea of VoIP is simple: the Internet can carry packets of any sort of data ,, which means it can carry the digitized human voice as well, carrying ordinary phone calls. There are several ways to do this:, a regular phone plus an adapter that connects to the computer and compresses and converts between regular analog phone signals and the digital equivalent, a complete “IP phone” unit that includes all needed hardware and software—no computer needed, just a network connection, such as to a router, use of the computer’s own sound card and speakers with a microphone, plus software (often free)Using that last option, VoIP service can be essentially free, regardless of distance. However, one can only call someone who is currently connected to the Internet and also has VoIP software",Human-written
TRAIN_160,"Command and Conrol Warfare (C2W) is an integrated use of electronicwarfare, military deception, operations security, and also physical destruction. These activities are supported by intelligence in order to deny information or degrade or destroy adversary command and control capabilities. Friendly C2 activities are protected C2W is an application of information operations in military operations and a subset of information warfare. Hence,it can be offensive and defensive raising ethical questions for non militaryapplications if ever used.",Human-written
TRAIN_161,"An expert system has two main components, a knowledge baseand an inference engine. The knowledge base consists of a set of assertions (facts) or of rules expressed as if . . . then statements that specify conditions that, if true, allow a particular inference to be drawn ,. The inference engine accepts new assertions or queries and tests them against the stored rules. Because satisfying one rule can create a condition that is to be tested by a subsequent rule, chains of reasoning can be built up. If the reasoning is from initial facts to an ultimate conclusion, it is called forward chaining. If a conclusion is given and the goal is to prove that conclusion, there can be backward chaining from the conclusion to the assertions",Human-written
TRAIN_162,Authentication results in positively verifying the identity of a user‚ device‚ or another entity in an information system. This is often a prerequisite for allowing access to resources offered by a system. One element that contributes to the reliability of individual authentication is good password management practices. In an area of high risk‚ stronger authentication may be required such as: Asymmetric Keys—see Access Control Biometrics—see Biometrics Cryptographic Tokens—see Cryptography Digital Certificates—see Digital Certificate Smart Cards—see Smart Card One-Time Password Generators—where password can be used once only. Stronger authentication relies on combining one or more of the following: password / Pin or something else user knows‚ token or other means‚ that is something user has‚ and finally‚ biometrics or other technique enabling system to identify who the person is. The above means may be used to verify the true source of a message or data. But all approaches have their weak spots and combinations of measures are usually more effective. In case of electronic voting‚ the term refers to verification that an electronic ballot really comes from the person it claims to have been initiated by‚ and not from an imposter.,Human-written
TRAIN_163,"a fault-tolerant system depends on a combination of redundancy, error detection and correction, system monitoring and management, system recovery and failover, and careful system design and architecture to provide reliable operation in the face of failures or malfunctions.",AI-generated
TRAIN_164,"Besides the microprocessor and associated circuitry, the smart card contains a small amount of RAM (random access memory) to hold “scratch” data during processing, as well as up to 64 kB of ROM (read-only memory) containing the card’s programming instructions. The program is created on a desktop computer and written to the ROMthat is embedded in the card. Finally, the card includes up to 64 kB of EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory) for holding account balances and other data. This memory is nonvolatile (meaning that no power is needed to maintain it), and can be erased and rewritten by the card reader. “Contact” cards must be swiped through the reader and are most commonly used in retail, phone, pay TV, or health care applications. “Contactless” cards need only be brought into the proximity of the reader, which communicates with it via radio signals or a low-powered laser beam. Contactless cards are more practical for applications such as collecting bridge tolls ,. The card reader (or terminal) at the point of sale contains its own computer, which runs software that requests particular services from the card’s program, including providing identifying information and balances, updating balances, and so on.",Human-written
TRAIN_165,"In order for a computer to work with information, the information must be digitized—converted to data that application programs can recognize and manipulate ,. Computer users have thus been confronted with the task of converting millions of pages of printed words or graphics into machine-readable form. Since it is expensive to re-key text (and impractical to redraw images), some way is needed to automatically convert the varying shades or colors of the text or images into a digitized graphics image that can be stored in a file. This is what a scanner does. The scanner head contains a charge-coupled device (CCD) like that used in digital cameras ,. The CCD contains thousands or millions of tiny regions that can convert incoming light into a voltage level. Each of these voltage levels, when amplified, will correspond to one pixel of the scanned image. (A color scanner uses three different diodes for each pixel, each receiving light through a red, green, or blue filter. )",Human-written
TRAIN_166,"A Green PC is a computer that has been designed to be energy-efficient and environmentally friendly. Green PCs are designed to use less energy than traditional computers, which can help reduce their impact on the environment and lower energy costs.",AI-generated
TRAIN_167,"An important characteristic of quality software is its ability to handle errors that arise in processing (also called run-time errors or “exceptions”). Before it is released for general use, a program should be thoroughly tested with a variety of input ,. When errors are found, the soundness of the algorithm and its implementation must be checked, as well as the program logic ,. Interaction between the program and other programs (including the operating system) as well as with hardware must also be considered. (See bugsand debugging. )However, even well-tested software is likely to encounter errors. Therefore a program intended for widespread use must include instructions for dealing with errors, anticipated or otherwise. The process of error handling can be divided into four stages: validation, detection, communication, and amelioration.",Human-written
TRAIN_168,"""Cyberpunk"" is a term that originated in the science fiction genre and refers to a subgenre of science fiction that often focuses on a dystopian future where technology has advanced to the point of becoming an integral part of society, but has also brought about significant social and cultural changes. Cyberpunk typically features protagonists who are hackers, rebels, or outcasts who use advanced technology and their skills to navigate the often corrupt and oppressive society they live in. The genre is often characterized by a dark, gritty aesthetic, and themes of artificial intelligence, virtual reality, and the blurring of boundaries between human and machine. In recent years, ""cyberpunk"" has also become associated with a broader cultural movement that draws inspiration from the genre's themes and aesthetic. This can include fashion, music, and other forms of art that incorporate elements of cyberpunk into their design and presentation.",AI-generated
TRAIN_169,"Ontologies can be used to provide guidance to a variety oftypes of programs (for example, see expert system, natural language processing, and software agent). Thusif an automatic news summarizer program encounters astory that includes references to opposing lawyers and legalissues, it could apply an ontology that defines the likelyrelationship of the participants in the case. Creating useful ontologies is quite labor intensive interms of the human thinking and coding involved. However, there have been substantial efforts in recent years tocreate anthologies for many fields, particularly in biologyand genetics. The Web Ontology Language (OWL) is apopular tool for creating ontologies that can be used tomake Web content more understandable to programs ,. Meanwhile, an ambitious and long-running projectcalled Cyc (for Encyclopedia) under the direction of Douglas Lenat has been engaged in creating what amounts tovast ontologies for many of the domains included in everyday human life as well as specialized fields of knowledge. Alarge portion of this work has been made available as opensource.",Human-written
TRAIN_170,"Forerunners of RSS go back to the mid-1990s, with RDF Site Summary first appearing in 1999 for use on Netscape’s portal. The adoption of RSS by the New York Times in 2002 greatly aided the popularization of the format, as did the growing number of blogs that needed a way for contributors and readers to keep in touch. Today Web browsers such as Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, and Safari support RSS. File-sharing services such as BitTorrent can be combined with RSS to deliver content automatically to users’ hard drives. An offshoot of RSS called Atom has been less widely adopted, but offers better compatibility with XML standards and better management of multimedia content",Human-written
TRAIN_171,"Some of the major smartphone manufacturers and their operating systems include the following:, Symbian (Symbian OS), used by Nokia, Motorola, Samsung, and others, Windows Mobile (enhanced Windows CE), popular in phones used in Asia, Blackberry (RIM), the popular PDA/smartphone, Linux, used as the base on which to build a variety of PDA/phone operating systems, including products from Motorola, Palm, and Nokia (Maemo), OS X (Apple), used in Apple’s innovative and very popular iPhone",Human-written
TRAIN_172,"Database administration is the management of database systems ,. Database administration can be divided into four broad areas: data security, data integrity, data accessibility, and system development.",Human-written
TRAIN_173,"Google is a multinational technology company that specializes in internet-related services and products. It was founded in 1998 by Larry Page and Sergey Brin while they were Ph. D. students at Stanford University. Today, Google is one of the largest and most successful companies in the world, with a market capitalization of over a trillion dollars. Google is best known for its search engine, which is the most widely used search engine in the world. It uses a complex algorithm to provide users with relevant and useful search results based on their queries. Google also offers a wide range of other products and services, including:Google Ads: a platform for creating and displaying online advertisements. Google Cloud: a cloud computing platform that offers a wide range of services, including storage, data analytics, and machine learning. Google Workspace: a suite of productivity tools, including Gmail, Google Drive, Google Docs, and Google Sheets. Google Maps: a mapping and navigation service that provides detailed maps and driving directions. Google's success has been driven by its focus on innovation, user experience, and data-driven decision making. The company has a strong culture of experimentation and encourages its employees to take risks and think creatively. Google's business model is primarily based on advertising revenue, which is generated by displaying ads alongside search results and other online content.",AI-generated
TRAIN_174,"Dating back to the mid-1990s, VBScript is a scripting language developed by Microsoft and based on its popular Visual Basic programming language ,. It is also part of the evolution of what Microsoft called “active scripting,” based on components that allow outside access to the capabilities of applications. The host environment in which scripts run is provided through Windows (as with Windows Script Host) or within Microsoft’s Internet Explorer browser. For client-side processing, VBScript can be used to write scripts embedded in HTML pages, which interact with the standard Document Object Model , in a way similar to other Web scripting languages (in particular, see JavaScript). However, VBScript is not supported by popular non-Microsoft browsers such as Firefox and Opera, so developers generally must use the widely compatible JavaScript instead. VBScript can also be used for processing on the Web server, particularly in connection with Microsoft’s Web servers ,. Because versions of Windows starting with Windows 98 include Windows Script Host, VBScripts can also be written to run directly under Windows. One unfortunate consequence was scripts containing worms (such as the I LOVE YOU worm) or other malware and mailed as attachments to unwary use",Human-written
TRAIN_175,"A flash or “thumb” drive is a small data storage device that uses semiconductor flash memory rather than a disk drive. It is connected to a digital device using the universal serial bus ,. Because most computers, digital cameras, and other digital devices have USB ports, a flash drive is a convenient way to provide up to 16 gB (as of 2007) of low power, rewritable memory. Flash drives first appeared in late 2000. Flash drives can use a separate USB cable (useful when several devices need to be connected to closely spaced USB ports) or simply have a connector that plugs directly into the port. many people who regularly work with several computers carry their backup data or even a complete oper-ating system (such as Linux) on a flash drive, perhaps con-nected to their keyring.",Human-written
TRAIN_176,"There are two basic ways to store font data in the computer system. Bitmapped fonts store the actual pat-tern of tiny dots that make up the letters in the font. This has the advantage of allowing each letter in each point size to be precisely designed. The primary disadvantage is the amount of memory and system resources required to store a font in many point sizes. In practice, this con-sideration results in only a relatively few fonts and sizes being available.",Human-written
TRAIN_177,"Web services can be accessed using a variety of protocols and programming languages. The most common way to access web services is through HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol), using a variety of HTTP methods such as GET, POST, PUT, and DELETE. To access a web service, you typically need to know its API (Application Programming Interface), which is a set of rules that defines how clients can interact with the service. The API typically includes information about the URL structure, available HTTP methods, input and output formats, and any authentication or authorization requirements. Here are a few common ways to access web services:Using a web browser: Some web services provide a web interface that you can access using a web browser like Chrome, Firefox, or Safari. This allows you to interact with the service using a graphical user interface (GUI) rather than writing code. Using a programming language: Many programming languages provide libraries or frameworks for accessing web services, such as Python's requests library or Java's Spring framework. These libraries typically abstract away the details of HTTP communication, allowing you to focus on writing code to interact with the service. Using a tool like Postman: Postman is a popular tool for testing and interacting with web services. It allows you to send HTTP requests to a web service, inspect the responses, and save the requests for later use. Using command-line tools: Tools like curl or wget can be used to send HTTP requests from the command line. These tools are often used in scripts or automation workflows. Overall, accessing web services requires an understanding of the service's API and the tools and libraries available in your programming language or environment. Once you know how to access a web service, you can use it to retrieve data, perform operations, or integrate it into your own applications.",AI-generated
TRAIN_178,"Once the programs agree on the basic parameters for a file transfer, the transfer has to be managed to ensure that it completes correctly. Typically, files are divided into blocks of data (such as 1K, or 1024 bytes each). During the 1970s, Ward Christensen developed xmodem, the first widely used file transfer program for PCs running CP/m (and later, mS-DOS and other operating systems). xmodem was quite reli-able because it incorporated a checksum (and later, a more advanced CRC) to check the integrity of each data block. If an error is detected, the receiving program requests a retransmission.",Human-written
TRAIN_179,"The origins of social networking can be traced back to the early days of the internet, when people began using online forums and bulletin board systems (BBS) to connect with others who shared their interests. These systems allowed users to post messages and share information with others who were interested in similar topics. In the late 1990s, the first social networking sites began to emerge. These sites were designed to help people connect with each other in new ways, using advanced features like user profiles, messaging systems, and friend lists. Some of the earliest social networking sites included:Six Degrees: Launched in 1997, Six Degrees was one of the first social networking sites. It allowed users to create profiles and connect with other users, although it was not very successful and shut down in 2001. Friendster: Launched in 2002, Friendster was one of the first social networking sites to gain widespread popularity. It allowed users to create profiles, connect with friends, and share photos and other content. MySpace: Launched in 2003, MySpace quickly became one of the most popular social networking sites in the world. It allowed users to create customized profiles, connect with friends, and share music and other content. Facebook: Launched in 2004, Facebook was initially only available to college students, but quickly grew to become the largest social networking site in the world. It offered features like user profiles, news feeds, and messaging systems, and quickly became a global phenomenon. Since the early days of social networking, the concept has continued to evolve and expand, with new sites and services emerging to meet the needs of users around the world. Today, social networking is an integral part of many people's daily lives, with billions of users around the world connecting with each other through a wide range of platforms and services.",AI-generated
TRAIN_180,"Role-Based Access Control (RBAC) means that access decisions are basedon the roles the user has as part of tasks to be performed ,. The central notion of RBAC is that users do not have discretionary access to enterprise objects. Instead, access permissions are administrativelyassociated with roles, and users are administratively made members of appropriate roles. This idea greatly simplifies management of authorizationwhile providing an opportunity for great flexibility in specifying and enforcing enterprise- specific protection policies. Users can be made members ofroles as determined by their responsibilities and qualifications and can beeasily reassigned from one role to another without modifying the underlyingaccess structure. Roles can be granted new permissions as new applicationsand actions are incorporated, and permissions can be revoked from roles asneeded.",Human-written
TRAIN_181,"Anyone who has seen computers in old movies is familiar with the row of large, freestanding tape cabinets with their spinning reels of tape. The visual cue that the computer was running consisted of the reels thrashing back and forth vigorously while rows of lights flashed on the computer console. Magnetic tape was indeed the mainstay for data storage in most large computers , in the 1950s through the 1970s. In early mainframes the main memory (corresponding to today’s RAM chips) consisted of “core”—thousands of tiny magnetized rings crisscrossed with wires by which they could be set or read. Because core memory was limited to a few thousand bytes (kB), it was used only to hold the program instructions , and to store temporary working data while the program was running. The source data to be processed by the program was read from a reel of tape on the drive. If the program updated the data (rather than just reporting on it), it would generally write a new tape with the revised data. In large facilities a person called a tape librarian was in charge of keeping the reels of tape organized and providing them to the computer operators as needed.",Human-written
TRAIN_182,"Parallel processing is a type of computing in which multiple processors or cores work together to execute a task simultaneously, allowing for faster processing and greater efficiency. It's commonly used in scientific simulations, data analytics, and multimedia processing. There are two main types: shared memory and distributed memory. Parallel processing is becoming increasingly important in the age of big data and complex computational tasks.",AI-generated
TRAIN_183,"Sector means pie-shaped slices and track that are concentric rings on a disk. A combination of two or more sections on a single track makes a clusteror block, the minimum unit used to store information. The number of sectorsper track determines the size of each cluster. In turn, the number of clusterson a disk’s surface decides the storage capacity of the disk. The sector is the smallest unit that can be accessed on a disk and it has asize of 512 Bytes.",Human-written
TRAIN_184,"Fabrication of computer chips in more than 200 large plants around the world involves a variety of toxic chemicals and waste products. The Silicon Valley alone is home to 29 toxic sites under the EPA’s Superfund Program. The shift of much of semiconductor and computer component manufacturing to countries such as China that have less strict pollution controls has also exacerbated what has become a global problem. Whether through regulation or enlightened self-interest, companies that want to reduce future emissions can use several strategies. manufacturing equipment and processes can be modified so they create fewer toxic substances or at least keep them from getting into the environment. Non-toxic (or less toxic) materials can be substituted where possible—for example, use of ozone-depleting chlorofluo-rocarbons (CFCs) as cleaning agents has been largely elimi-nated. Finally, waste can be properly sorted and disposed of, and recycled wherever feasible. Like other major manufacturing sectors, the computer industry is also faced with the need to reduce the amount of the greenhouse gases (particularly CO2) contributing to global warming. This mainly means further reducing the energy consumption of new PCs. In June 2007 a number of major players, including google, Intel, Dell, Hewlett-Packard, microsoft, and Sun, established the Climate Savers Computing Initiative. going beyond Energy Star, the pro-gram is expected to reduce power consumption equivalent to 54 million tons of greenhouse gases annually—about the same as that produced by 11 million cars or 20 large coal-fired power plants.",Human-written
TRAIN_185,"Port Scan gives a list of all ports that are actually listening. The netstat command can be run locally to determine the open ports but an external port scanagainst the system is usually also needed. If the results of netstat differ fromthe port scanning results‚ validation of why each port is open‚ and what isrunning on each port is needed. Ports that cannot be validated or justifiedshould be closed. The final list should be recorded and used to audit the portson a regular basis‚ thereby making sure no extraneous ports appear ,. Blocking ports is not a substitute for a comprehensive security solution. Anattacker may have gained access via other means such as a dial-up modem‚ atrojan e-mail attachment‚ or a person who is an organization insider. Hence‚the attacker can exploit these ports if not properly secured on every hostsystem in the firm",Human-written
TRAIN_186,"Also called digital money or e-cash, digital cash represents the attempt to create a method of payment for online transactions that is as easy to use as the familiar bills and coins in daily commerce ,. At present, credit cards are the principal means of making online payments. While using credit cards takes advantage of a well-established infrastructure, it has some disadvantages. From a security standpoint, each payment potentially exposes the payer to the possibility that the credit card number and possibly other identifying information will be diverted and used for fraudulent transactions and identity theft. While the use of secure (encrypted) online sites has reduced this risk, it cannot be eliminated entirely ,. Credit cards are also impracticable for very small payments from cents to a few dollars (such as for access to magazine articles) because the fees charged by the credit card companies would be too high in relation to the value of the transaction.",Human-written
TRAIN_187,"By default, once information is digitized it is simply a pattern of bits that can be easily copied within the same or a different medium, using a variety of software or the built-in facilities of the operating system. Of course the development of tape-recording technology in the mid-20th century already made it possible to copy audio recordings, and the later development of videotape and the VCR did the same for video. However, while analog copying techniques lose some accuracy (or fidelity) with each generation of copying, digital files can be copied exactly each time. It is equally easy to e-mail, upload, or otherwise distribute audio or video files. Legally, the creator of an original work can assert copyright—literally, the “right to copy” or to control when and how the work is distributed. Digital rights management (DRM) refers to a variety of technologies that can be used to enforce this right by making it at least difficult for the purchaser of one copy of a work to copy and distribute it in turn. (Similar technologies have also been used to prevent copying of software, which is, after all, just another pattern of bits—see copy protection and software piracy andcounterfeiting. )",Human-written
TRAIN_188,"Just as the way business is organized and conducted has been profoundly changed by information and communications technology, the operation of government at all levels has been similarly affected. The term e-government (or electronic government) is a way of looking at these changes as a whole and of considering how government uses (or might use) various computer applications. The use of information technology in government can involve changes in the organization and internal communications of government departments, changes in how services are delivered to the public, and providing new ways for the public to interact with the agency. Internally, government agencies have many of the same information management and sharing needs as private enterprises ,. However, government agencies are likely to have to adapt their information systems to account for complex, specialized regulations (both those the agency administers and others it is subject to). The standards of openness and accountability are generally different from and stricter than those that apply to private organizations.",Human-written
TRAIN_189,"From microbiology to plasma physics, modern science would be impossible without the computer. This is not because the computer has replaced the scientific method of observation, hypothesis, and experiment. Modern scientists essentially follow the same intellectual procedures at did Galileo, Newton, Darwin, and Einstein. Rather, understanding of the layered systems that make up the universe has now reached so complex and detailed a level that there is too much data for an individual human mind to grasp. Further, the calculations necessary to process the data usually can’t be performed by unaided humans in any reasonable length of time. This can be caused either by the inherent complexity of the calculation , or the sheer amount of data (as in DNA sequencing; see bioinformatics and data mining)",Human-written
TRAIN_190,"Ways to stop the spread of spam include the following:, e-mail filtering software, using a combination of text analysis by keyword or statistical correlation , and lists of Internet locations (domains) associated with spamming; filtering can be done both by service providers and individual users, or collaboratively, tightening the technical requirements for messages to be accepted by mail servers (much spam has poorly formatted headers), improving techniques for blocking the viruses used by spammers to set up their bots—see computervirus and firewall, attempting to shut down the infrastructure that supports spam operations, such as hosts who allow e-mail, and sellers of spamming software and illicitly gathered address lists",Human-written
TRAIN_191,"Typical firewall functions include:, Examining incoming data packets and blocking those that include commands to examine or use unauthor-ized ports or IP addresses, Blocking data packets that are associated with com-mon hacking techniques such as “trojans” or “back-door” exploitationsThis diagram shows a finite-state representation of a ZIP code. The arrows link each state (within a circle) to its possible successor. In this simple example each digit must be followed by another digit until the fifth digit, which can either be followed by a blank (indi-cating a five-digit ZIP code) or four more digits for a 9-digit ZIP.  firewall, Hiding all the internal network addresses on a local network, presenting only a single address to the outside world (this is also called NAT, or Network Address Translation), monitoring particular applications such as ftp (file transfer protocol) and telnet (remote login), restrict-ing them to certain addresses. Often a special address called a proxy is established rather than allowing direct connections between the outside and the local network.",Human-written
TRAIN_192,"The process of removing redundant information from data so that it takes up less space is called data compression. Besides saving disk space, compressing data such as e-mail attachments can make data communications faster. Compression methods generally begin with the realization that not all characters are found in equal numbers in text. For example, in English, letters such as e and s are found much more frequently than letters such as j or x. By assigning the shortest bit codes to the most common characters and the longer codes to the least common characters, the number of bits needed to encode the text can be minimized",Human-written
TRAIN_193,"There are many smartphone manufacturing companies and operating systems available in the market, but some of the major ones include:Apple: Apple is a US-based company that manufactures iPhones and uses the iOS operating system. Samsung: Samsung is a South Korean company that manufactures smartphones and tablets, and uses the Android operating system. Huawei: Huawei is a Chinese company that manufactures smartphones and tablets, and uses the Android operating system. Xiaomi: Xiaomi is a Chinese company that manufactures smartphones, tablets, and other electronic devices, and uses the Android operating system. Oppo: Oppo is a Chinese company that manufactures smartphones and uses the Android operating system. Vivo: Vivo is a Chinese company that manufactures smartphones and uses the Android operating system. Google: Google is a US-based company that manufactures the Pixel smartphones and uses the Android operating system. OnePlus: OnePlus is a Chinese company that manufactures smartphones and uses the Android operating system. LG: LG is a South Korean company that manufactures smartphones and uses the Android operating system. Sony: Sony is a Japanese company that manufactures smartphones and uses the Android operating system. These are just a few examples of the many smartphone manufacturing companies and operating systems available in the market. There are many other companies and operating systems that are also widely used.",AI-generated
TRAIN_194,"A digital video recorder (DVR) records digital television broadcasts and stores them on a disk ,. DVRs first appeared as commercial products in 1999 in Replay TV and TiVo, the latter becoming the most successful player in the field. A DVR works with digital signals and discs rather than tape used by the video cassette recorders (VCRs) that had become popular starting in the 1980s. The digital recorder has several advantages over tape:, much larger capacity, limited only by hard drive size, instant (random) access to any recorded programming without having to go forward or backward through a tape, the ability to “time shift” within a live broadcast, including pausing and instant replay, the ability to skip over commercials, digital special effects",Human-written
TRAIN_195,"Timing attacks were publicized by Paul Kocher in 1996. They attack the implementation of cryptosystems by measuring observable differences in the timing of the algorithm based on the particular value of the key. They then use statistical methods to determine the bits of key by observing many operations using the same key. Timing attacks typically require a significant number of chosen ciphertexts. Related attacks can use any measure of differences in the performance of the encryption and decryption functions such as power consumption and heat dissipation. Timing attacks and related attacks can be protected against to some degree by “blinding” the devices performing encryption and decryption computations so that all computations have the same performance, regardless of the particular key and message being used. However, this can have a substantial performance cost, as it requires all computations to have worst-case performance. Such attacks can also be protected against by designing systems so that they will not act as an “oracle” by decrypting and returning all and any messages that come their way, thereby preventing an attacker from obtaining the necessary data to carry out the attack. However, this is not always possible without interfering with the purpose of the system.",Human-written
TRAIN_196,"A scanner is a device that captures images or text and converts them into digital data that can be stored, manipulated, and transmitted. The first scanners were developed in the 1950s and 1960s for specialized applications such as document archiving and scientific research. In the 1980s, scanners became more widely available as personal computers became more popular. The earliest scanners were flatbed scanners that used a moving light source and a photosensitive element to scan documents or images. Over time, scanners became more sophisticated, with faster scanning speeds, higher resolutions, and more advanced features such as automatic document feeders, optical character recognition (OCR), and duplex scanning. Today, scanners are used in a variety of applications, from document archiving and digitization to graphic design, medical imaging, and security screening. There are many different types of scanners available, including flatbed scanners, sheet-fed scanners, handheld scanners, and drum scanners, each with their own strengths and limitations. Overall, scanners have revolutionized the way we store and transmit information, making it easier and faster to share and access information in digital form.",AI-generated
TRAIN_197,"The primary use of text editors today is to create programs and scripts. These must generally be created using only standard ASCII characters ,, without all the embedded formatting commands and graphics found in word processing documents. Programmer’s text editors can be very sophisticated in their own right, providing features such as built in syntax checking and formatting or (as with the Emacs editor) the ability to program the editor itself. Ultimately, however, program editors must create a source code file that can be processed by the compiler. Text editors are also useful for writing quick, short scripts , and can be handy for writing HTML code for the Web. However, many Web pages are now designed using word processor–like programs that convert the WYSIWYG (what you see is what you get) formatting into appropriate HTML codes automatically",Human-written
TRAIN_198,"TCL, which stands for Tool Command Language, is a scripting language that is used primarily for rapid prototyping, automation, and embedding into other applications. Here are some of the extensions and applications of TCL:Tk - Tcl/Tk is a popular combination of scripting language and graphical user interface (GUI) toolkit that is used for creating cross-platform applications. Tk provides a set of widgets, such as buttons, menus, and text boxes, that can be easily integrated into a Tcl script to create a GUI. Expect - Expect is an extension to Tcl that provides a way to automate interactive applications, such as Telnet, SSH, and FTP. With Expect, scripts can be written to interact with these applications, entering commands and responding to prompts automatically. SQLite - SQLite is a popular relational database management system (RDBMS) that can be embedded into other applications. Tcl provides an interface to SQLite, allowing it to be used as a database engine in Tcl scripts. Apache HTTP Server - Tcl can be used to create server-side scripts that can be executed by the Apache HTTP Server. This allows Tcl to be used to create dynamic web pages and web applications. NS-2 - NS-2 is a popular network simulation tool that is used to simulate and analyze network protocols and architectures. Tcl is used as the scripting language for NS-2, providing a flexible and powerful way to configure and run simulations. Rapid prototyping - Tcl's ease of use and flexibility make it a popular choice for rapid prototyping and scripting tasks. It is often used to create quick and dirty scripts for testing and experimentation. Automation - Tcl's scripting capabilities make it a good choice for automating repetitive tasks, such as system administration and testing. Overall, Tcl's flexibility, ease of use, and powerful scripting capabilities make it a popular choice for a wide range of applications, from rapid prototyping and automation to web development and network simulation.",AI-generated
TRAIN_199,Extranet helps the organization to link the outside world such as suppliersand customers with a private intranet. While this is similar to the internet‚access is controlled and restricted to particular groups‚ similar to the Intranet. Accordingly‚ an Extranet web server can be accessed by all the participantsinvolved in a project (e. g. ‚ various engineers and the firm developing a newproduct)‚ but not by anyone else. In this example‚ the Extranet providesproject management functions for the work in progress and the work teamsinvolved. The security is increased; however‚ breaches can still occur (e. g. ‚cyberpunk getting hold of a password or access to a server who‚ with apassword‚ is given access to the Extranet),Human-written
TRAIN_200,"Jaguar, panther, tiger, and leopard—these and other namesof sleek big cats represent versions of Apple’s Macintoshoperating system, OS X (pronounced “OS 10”—see AppleCorporation and Macintosh). Unlike the previous MacOS, OS X, while broadly maintaining Apple’s user interfacestyle ,, is based on a version of UNIXcalled OpenStep, developed by NeXT starting in the 1980s,. OS X development began when Steve Jobsreturned as Apple CEO in 1997 ,and the company bought NeXT, acquiring the software. Thefirst version, OS X 10. 0, or Cheetah, was released in 2001,but the system was not widely used until 10. 1 (Puma) wasreleased later the same year. At the core of OS X is a free and open-source version ofUNIX called “Darwin,” with a kernel called XNU. On top ofthis Apple built a distinctive and subtly colorful user interface called Aqua and a new version of the Macintosh Finderfile and program management system",Human-written
TRAIN_201,"The benefits of RFID technology are numerous: better inventory control ,; more secure passports and other forms of ID; faster, easier access to transportation systems; and potentially, the avoidance of mishaps in hospitals, such as the wrong patient receiving a drug or procedure. However, there are privacy and security concerns that remain to be fully resolved. The primary threat is that unauthorized persons could illicitly obtain information or track people or goods, for purposes ranging from simple larceny to identity theft. Privacy rights organizations have also raised concerns that information about consumer purchases could be used for unwanted marketing (or sold to third parties), while information about a library patron’s reading habits could trigger unwarranted government investigations in the name of fighting terrorism. There is an incentive to produce RFID cards and tags that are resistant to unauthorized reading or tampering. A cryptographic protocol can be used such that no information will be sent or received unless the reader and tag “know” the correct keys. Another possibility is to create a device that can “jam” reading attempts in the device’s vicinity, perhaps protecting a customer’s grocery cart from being scanned. Finally, RFID cards can be put inside in a sleeve of material that blocks the signals. However, cryptographic and other security technologies raise the cost of RFID devices and may make them impracticable for some applications. In September 2006 the National Science Foundation awarded a $1. 1 million grant to the RFID Consortium for Security and Privacy to study potential risks and safeguards for the technology. That same year a group of major corporations together with the National Consumers League released a draft set of standards and guidelines for best practices in using RFID, with broader scope than the existing EPC (electronic product code) standard",Human-written
TRAIN_202,"Major policy issues involving information technology industries include:, foreign trade and the protection of intellectual property ,, attempts to reform the patent system to prevent what is seen as dubious and expensive litigation, the need for an increasing number of trained workers and providing a sufficient number of visas for foreign workers ,, preserving equal access to the Internet ,, which pits content providers against telecommunications companies, promoting the development of a next-generation Internet infrastructure (“Internet 2”)government support for computer research (such as through the National Science Foundation)—see government funding of computer research, favorable treatment of online businesses with regard to taxation (often objected to by traditional brickand-mortar businesses)—see e-commerce, laws against computer-related fraud and other crime ,, Privacy regulations ,The computer industry is also involved in issues that will affect its future over the longer term, such as the need to improve math and science education in elementary and high schools, energy and environmental policy, and issues such as health care and pensions that affect all sectors of the economy.",Human-written
TRAIN_203,"Attack is a single unauthorized access attempt, or unauthorized use attempt,regardless of success. Success may or may not result in the alteration, releasing or denying of data. The likelihood of success depends on the effectivenessof implemented security measures that reduce the risk and probability for athreat resulting in a compromised system ,. Computernetworks make it easier to start attacks and speed their dissemination, or forone anonymous individual to reach vast numbers of people at virtually nocost. Defending against Attacks means engineering in a world ruled by Satan’sLaw. The differences between Attacks and Accidents are intent, intelligence,and control. Things go wrong because there is a malicious and intelligentadversary trying to force things to go wrong ,Table 3A outlines a taxonomy of the attacks that can be launched againstinformation resources and infrastructure.",Human-written
TRAIN_204,Blue Screen of Death (BSOD) is a term used in relations to Microsoft Windows operating systems. Some crashes of these systems appear as a bluesscreen with white hexadecimal text (part of memory dump). Many usersconsider this a useless information‚ however it can be often used to detectmisbehaving programs (often not from Microsoft) causing these fatal crashes,Human-written
TRAIN_205,"Numbers with a fractional (decimal) part are usually storedin a format called floating point. The “floating” means thatthe location of the decimal point can be moved as necessaryto fit the number within the specified digit range. A floatingpoint number is actually stored in four separate parts. Firstcomes the sign, indicating whether the number is negativeor positive. Next comes the mantissa, which contains theactual digits of the number, both before and after the decimal point. The radix is the “base” for the number systemused. Finally, the exponent determines where the decimalpoint will be placed. For example, the base 10 number 247. 35 could be represented as 24735 × 10-2. The -2 moves the decimal pointat the end two places to the left. However, floating-pointnumbers are normalized to a form in which there is just onedigit to the left of the decimal point. Thus, 247. 35 wouldactually be written 2. 4735 × 102. This system is also knownas scientific notation. As noted earlier, actual data storage in modern computers is always in binary, but the same principle applies. According to IEEE Standard 754, 32-bit floating-point numbers use 1 bit for the sign, 8 bits for the exponent, and 23bits for the mantissa (also called the significand, since itexpressed the digits that are significant—that is, guaranteed not to be “lost” through overflow or underflow in processing). The double precision float, declared as a “double”in C programs, uses 1, 11, and 52 bits respectively.",Human-written
TRAIN_206,"Java is a high-level, object-oriented programming language that is used to create a wide range of applications, from desktop software to mobile apps and web applications. It was first introduced in 1995 by Sun Microsystems, and is now owned and developed by Oracle Corporation. One of the key features of Java is its platform independence, which means that Java code can be run on any platform that has a Java Virtual Machine (JVM) installed, including Windows, Linux, and macOS. This makes Java programs highly portable and enables developers to write code that can run on a wide range of devices without modification. Java is also known for its ease of use and maintainability, with a syntax that is designed to be straightforward and easy to learn, even for beginners. It is based on an object-oriented programming model, which allows developers to write code that is organized around objects and their interactions. In addition to its core language features, Java also has a large and active community of developers who have created a wide range of libraries, frameworks, and tools that can be used to simplify common programming tasks, such as database access, network communication, and user interface design. Overall, Java is a versatile and powerful programming language that is used by millions of developers around the world for a wide range of applications, and it is considered to be one of the most popular and widely-used programming languages in the world.",AI-generated
TRAIN_207,"The earliest computer chess theorists such as Claude Shannon and Alan Turing saw the game as one potential way to demonstrate true machine intelligence. Ironically, by the time computers had truly mastered chess, the artificial intelligence (AI) community had concluded that mastering the game was largely irrelevant to their goals. AI pioneers Herbert Simon and John McCarthy have referred to chess as “the Drosophila of AI. ” By this they mean that, like the ubiquitous fruit flies in genetics research, chess became an easy way to measure computer prowess. But what was it measuring? The dominant brute-force approach was more a measure of computing power than the application of such AI techniques as pattern recognition. (There is, however, still some interest in writing chess programs that “think” more like a human player. ) In recent years there has been some interest in programming computers to play the Asian board game Go, where positional and structural elements play a greater role than in chess. However, even the latest generation of Go programs seem to be relying more on a statistical approach than a deep conceptual analysis.",Human-written
TRAIN_208,"A hard drive is a non-volatile storage device used to store digital data, such as computer files and software applications. It consists of one or more platters, which are circular disks coated with a magnetic material that can store data, and a set of read/write heads that can read and write data to the platters. When data is written to a hard drive, the read/write heads magnetically encode the data onto the platters. To read the data, the read/write heads move over the platters and sense the magnetic fields to retrieve the encoded data. Hard drives typically spin at high speeds, often between 5400 and 7200 revolutions per minute (RPM), to enable faster data access. Hard drives come in different form factors, such as 2. 5-inch and 3. 5-inch drives, and in different capacities, ranging from a few hundred gigabytes to several terabytes. They can be connected to a computer via various interfaces, such as SATA, SCSI, or IDE, and can be internal or external. In addition to traditional hard drives, there are also solid-state drives (SSDs) that use flash memory to store data. Unlike hard drives, SSDs have no moving parts, which makes them faster and more durable than hard drives. However, they are generally more expensive and have lower storage capacities than hard drives. Hard drives are a common type of storage device used in personal computers, servers, and other computing devices. They are used to store operating systems, applications, and user data, and are often the primary storage device in a computer system.",AI-generated
TRAIN_209,"Distributed Denial-of-Service Attack (DDoS) is a distributed version ofDoS. Many hosts are used to send packets to a target host. This way the hostis flooded by a high amount of traffic and similar results to DoS are achieved,. Administrators should check any systems connected to the internet frequently for the presence of DDoS software that could be used to attack othernetworks by following the steps as outlined in Table 8. Moreover, unnecessary ports should be closed. For instance, during August 2003 MSBlaster took advantage of known vulnerable network ports inWindows, ports that should have been closed.",Human-written
TRAIN_210,"ActiveX is a set of technologies developed by Microsoft that allows software components to be reused across different applications and platforms. ActiveX is based on the Component Object Model (COM) and allows components to be developed in various programming languages such as C++, Visual Basic, and Java. ActiveX components are designed to be installed on a client's computer and accessed by other applications, such as web browsers or office applications. They can provide a range of functionality, including user interface controls, data access components, and multimedia playback components. ActiveX components can be downloaded and installed automatically from web servers when a user visits a website that uses them. This feature is often used by web developers to provide additional functionality to their web pages, such as multimedia playback, interactive forms, and dynamic content. While ActiveX provides many benefits in terms of code reuse and functionality, it has also been criticized for its security vulnerabilities. ActiveX controls can potentially allow malicious code to be executed on a user's computer if they are not properly secured or validated. As a result, many web browsers have implemented security measures to prevent unauthorized installation of ActiveX controls.",AI-generated
TRAIN_211,"Digital Certificates is the electronic version of an ID card that establishesone’s credentials and authenticates a person’s connection when performinge-commerce or e-government transactions. To obtain Digital Certificate an organization or individual must apply toa Certifications Authority which is responsible for validating and ensuringthe authenticity of requesting organization. The Certificate will identify thename of the organization, a serial number, the validity date (“from / to”) andthe organization’s Public Key where encryption to / from that organizationis required. In addition, the Digital Certificate will also contain the Digital Signature ofthe Certification Authority to allow any recipient to confirm the authenticityof the Digital Certificate. A global standard (X. 509 Public Key Infrastructure for the Internet) defines the requirements for Digital Certificates and the major Certificate Authorities conform to this. Such standards, and the integrity of the CertificateAuthorities are vital for the establishment of ‘digital trust’, without whiche-Commerce will never attain its full potential.",Human-written
TRAIN_212,"In evaluating a job site it is important to get a feel forthe kinds of jobs offered and the target audience, such asprofessionals, recent graduates, white-collar or service sector jobs, and so on. Other important features to look forinclude:, powerful search or filtering capability, such as by typeof job or employer, keywords in job description, orlocality, the ability to put one’s resume online and edit orupdate it as needed. , the ability to have several versions of one’s resumetailored to different types of jobs, automatic e-mail alerts about newly added jobs thatmeet the user’s criteria, privacy protections so that contact information fromresumes is not used for marketing or other nonemployment purposes, lack of fees to job seekers (normally employers are theservice’s source of revenue)",Human-written
TRAIN_213,"Originally standing for Simple Object Access Protocol, but now no longer an acronym, SOAP is a standard way to access Web services ,. In today’s Web, where what appears to users to be a single site or application is usually built from many services, such a facility is essential. Prior to SOAP, Web applications usually communicated through remote procedure calls (RPC). However there were problems with compatibility of applications running under different operating systems (and perhaps using different programming languages), as well as security problems that often led to such facilities being blocked. SOAP, on the other hand, uses the same HTTP recognized by all Web servers and browsers ,—indeed, it can also use secure HTTP (https). A SOAP request (or message) is an ordinary XML file , that includes an “envelope” element specifying it to be a SOAP message, an optional header, a body element containing the information pertaining to the function or transaction requested, and an optional fault element to specify error processing. After receiving the message, the destination server returns a message providing the requested information.",Human-written
TRAIN_214,"A system administrator is the person responsible for managing the operations of a computer facility to ensure that it runs properly, meets user needs, and protects the integrity of users’ data. Such facilities range from offices with just a few users to large campus or corporate facilities that may be served by a large staff of administrators. The system administrator’s responsibilities often include:, setting up accounts for new users, allocating computing resources (such as server space) among users, configuring the file, database, or local area network (LAN) servers, installing new or upgraded software on users’ workstations, keeping up with new versions of the operating system and networking software, using various tools to monitor the performance of the system and to identify potential problems such as device “bottlenecks” or a shortage of disk space, ensuring that regular backups are made, configuring network services such as e-mail, Internet access, and the intranet (local TCP/IP network), using tools such as firewalls and virus scanners to protect the system from viruses, hacker attacks, and other security threats ,, providing user orientation and training, creating and documenting policies and procedures",Human-written
TRAIN_215,Firmware often takes the form of a device which is attached to‚ or built into‚a computer‚ such as a ROM chip. It performs some software function but isnot a program in the sense of being installed and run from the computer’sstorage media. Hence‚ it is located in the middle of the conceptual continuumbetween hardware and software.,Human-written
TRAIN_216,"After many years of effort researchers have been able tocreate systems that can recognize particular human faces,. On the other hand, any normalsix-month-old child can effortlessly recognize familiarfaces (such as parents). The fundamental task of turningraw data (whether from senses, instruments, or computerfiles) into recognizable objects or drawing inferences iscalled pattern recognition. Pattern recognition is at theheart of many areas of research and application in computing ,. Despite the challenge in getting machines to do what comes naturally for biological organisms, the potentialpayoffs are immense. A pattern-recognition system begins with data, whetherstored or real-time (such as from a robot’s camera). The firsttask in turning potentially billions of bytes of data intomeaningful objects is to extract features from what is likelya high proportion of redundant or irrelevant data. (Withvisual images, this often involves finding edges that defineshapes. ) The extracted features are then classified to determine what objects they might represent. This can be doneby comparing structures to templates or previously classified data or by applying statistical analysis to determine thelikely correlation of the new data to existing patterns ,. Pattern recognition often includes learning algorithmsas well; indeed, the field is often considered to be a subtopicof machine learning. For example, classification systemscan be refined by “training” them and reinforcing successful determinations ,.",Human-written
TRAIN_217,"Simulation is the process of creating a model or representation of a system or process, in order to study its behavior under different conditions or scenarios. Simulations can be performed using a variety of techniques, including mathematical models, computer programs, physical models, or a combination of these methods. Simulations are used in many fields, including engineering, physics, biology, economics, and social sciences, to name a few. They are often used to test hypotheses, explore new ideas, and make predictions about the behavior of complex systems. In a simulation, the system being studied is typically represented by a set of variables and equations, which describe the behavior of the system over time. The simulation is then run using various input values or scenarios, and the output is analyzed to understand how the system behaves under different conditions. Simulations can be used for many purposes, including predicting the performance of a new product or design, optimizing the operation of a manufacturing process, testing the safety of a new drug, or studying the behavior of a complex ecosystem. They can also be used to train individuals in a safe, controlled environment, such as flight simulators for pilots or simulators for medical procedures. Overall, simulation is a powerful tool for understanding and predicting the behavior of complex systems, and is widely used in a variety of applications and fields.",AI-generated
TRAIN_218,"Digital Signature uses public-key algorithm to generate a digital signature,which is a block of data used to create some authentication ,. When a judge sees a digital signature, he or she does not knowanything about the signatory’s intentions. He doesn’t know if the personagreed to the document as one being presented with a notarized signature. Nor do we know if the signatory ever saw the signed document. The problemis that:while a digital signature authenticates the document up to the point of the signingcomputer,it does not authenticate the link between that computer and the individual. Digital signatures prove, mathematically, that a secret value known as theprivate key was present in a computer at the time the person’s signature wascalculated. It is a small step from that inferring that the individual enteredthat key into the computer at the time of signing. But it is a much largerstep to assume that the individual actually intended a particular documentto be signed. And without a tamperproof computer trusted by the signingindividual, one can expect “digital signature experts” to show up in courtcontesting a lot of digital signatures.",Human-written
TRAIN_219,"Encryption is the process of conversion of an easily understood format (text)into another format apparently lacking sense because it is encoded. Theencrypted text is called ciphertext ,. In the Encryption context, Algorithms use a key to control encryption anddecryption (See Algorithm), two categories are used:Symmetric (or Secret-key): Uses the same key for encryption & decryption, orthe latter key is easily derived from the encryption key ,. Asymmetric (or Public key): A different key is used for encrypting and decrypting a message; accordingly, the decrypting key cannot be derived from theencrypting key. (See also Algorithms, Tables 11A and 11B). A majority of cryptographic products are software rather than hardwarebased. Moreover, many are communications-oriented rather than data storageoriented; they heavily tend towards secure electronic mail, IP security (IPsec),and Virtual Private Network applications. In 1999 a report identified 805 hardware and / or software products incorporating cryptography manufactured in 35 countries outside the UnitedStates. Most were manufactured in these countries in that order:United Kingdom, followed by Germany, Canada, Australia, Switzerland,Sweden, the Netherlands, and Israel. Other countries accounted for slightly more than a quarter of the world’stotal of encryption products. Table 11A outlines some of the algorithms thathave been used based on the DES standard. Table 11B outlines the various standards that were submitted for testingand examination. These finalists were part of the tests being undertaken toselect the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) Rijndael",Human-written
TRAIN_220,"Applications programmers write programs to help users work better, while systems programmers write programs to help the computer itself work better ,. Systems programmers generally work for companies in the computer industry that develop operating systems, network facilities, program language compilers and other software development tools, utilities, and device drivers. However, systems programmers can also work for applications developers to help them interface their programs to the operating system or to devices ,. Modern operating systems are highly complex, so systems programmers tend to specialize in particular areas. These might include device drivers, software development tools, program language libraries, applications programming interfaces (APIs), and utilities for monitoring system conditions and resources. Systems programmers develop the infrastructure needed for networking, as well as multiple-processor computers and distributed computing systems. Systems programmers also play a key role when an application program must be “ported” to a different platform or simply modified to run under a new version of the operating system",Human-written
TRAIN_221,"Social Engineering is a technique where persuasion and/or deception are usedto gain access to the systems. This is typically implemented through humanconversation or other interaction. Typical example of this is an attack wherea hacker pretends to be a high positioned IT executive traveling on companybusiness and having problems to connect to the organization’s informationsystem through its remote access point. The person may gradually succeed in persuading the Help Desk operatorto tell him or her all the necessary details for the connection set-up. Later onattacker calls again, complaining that his password for some reason does notwork and persuades the Help Desk to change it to a password of her or hisliking. Hence, the person may gain unauthorized access ,. The term can also be applied to exploiting the victim’s good intentions andlack of in-depth technical knowledge in order to inspire fear and confusion. This process is often considered in the context of ‘memetics’, which dealswith the transfer of memes (the ‘unit of cultural inheritance’) from brain tobrain. Where social engineering is linked to an IT security issue or hoax, it nearlyalways trades on technophobia",Human-written
TRAIN_222,"It is often more efficient to have a large, relatively expensive computer provide an application or service to users on many smaller, inexpensive computers that are linked to it by a network connection. The term server can apply to both the application providing the service and the machine running it. The program or machine that receives the service is called the client. A familiar example is browsing the Web. The user runs a Web browser, which is a client program. The browser connects to the Web server that hosts the desired Web site. Another example is a corporate server that runs a database. Users’ client programs connect to the database over a local area network (LAN). Many retail transactions are also handled using a client-server arrangement. Thus, when a travel or theater booking agent sells a ticket, the agent’s client program running on a PC or terminal connects to the server containing the database that keeps track of what seats are available",Human-written
TRAIN_223,"are similar to Java applets in that ActiveX controls may be includedwithin a web page. The control is downloaded and executed on the browser’scomputer in the form of a pre-compiled executable. Unfortunately, ActiveXdoes not enforce any form of security management technology. Hence, ActiveX control has the same level of control of the client computer as theuser that is executing the browser. ActiveX controls are specific to MicrosoftInternet Explorer (MSIE). ActiveX controls are elements that can be added to web pages, therebyproviding them with more functionality (e. g. , animation, video, and threedimensional browsing). The controls are written in programming languagessuch as Visual Basic, C or C++. They are written in a different code than theone used for the web pages itself such as HTML. They could, however, beinfected with malicious code (Malware). Whatever risks are associated with running native executables on a computer also apply to ActiveX. How security of ActiveX controls is handled isat the user’s discretion who runs the browser. Without appropriate training this may be risky, justifying disabling this functionality within webbrowsers by setting security settings to ‘high,’ ActiveX is prevented fromrunning",Human-written
TRAIN_224,"There are many calculations or other processes that can be described using a specific series of states or conditions. For example, the state of a combination lock depends not only on what numeral is being dialed or punched at the moment, but on the numbers that have been previously entered. An even simpler example is a counter (such as a car odometer), whose next output is equal to one increment plus its cur-rent setting. In other words, a state-based device has an inherent “memory” of previous steps.",Human-written
TRAIN_225,"Web cache, also known as a browser cache or HTTP cache, is a technology used by web browsers and web servers to improve the speed and efficiency of web page access. When a web page is loaded, the web browser typically downloads all of the associated resources, such as images, scripts, and stylesheets, from the web server. With web cache, the browser can store a local copy of these resources in cache memory, so that if the user returns to the same page, the browser can load the resources from cache instead of re-downloading them from the server. This can result in faster page load times, reduced network traffic, and lower server load. Web cache works by utilizing the available memory in a computer's RAM to store frequently accessed web page resources. The cache can be managed by the web browser, which determines which resources should be cached based on their access patterns and available memory. Web cache can also be implemented at the server level, where the server stores a cache of frequently accessed pages or resources to reduce server load and improve response times.",AI-generated
TRAIN_226,"Transmitting data involves the sending of bits (ones and zeros) as signaled by some alternation in physical characteristics (such as voltage or frequency). There are a number of ways in which errors can be introduced into the data stream. For example, electrical “noise” in the line might be interpreted as spurious bits, or a bit might be “flipped” from one to zero or vice versa. Generally speaking, the faster the rates at which bits are being sent, the more sensitive the transmission is to effects that can cause errors. While a few wrong characters might be tolerated in some text messages or graphics files, binary files representing executable programs must generally be received perfectly, since random changes can make programs fail or produce incorrect results. Data communications engineers have devised a number of methods for checking the accuracy of data transmissions",Human-written
TRAIN_227,"Netnews, also known as Usenet, is a global network of discussion forums, where people can post and read messages on various topics. It was developed in the late 1970s as a way for users of different computer systems to share information and communicate with each other. Netnews uses a distributed architecture, where messages are stored on servers called Usenet hosts, and are replicated across multiple hosts to ensure redundancy and availability. Users can access netnews using specialized newsreader software, which allows them to browse and participate in discussions on various newsgroups. While netnews has declined in popularity since the rise of the World Wide Web and other social media platforms, it still remains an important part of the internet's history and is used by a dedicated community of users today.",AI-generated
TRAIN_228,"Moore’s Law is a theorem that states that the amount of information storableon a given amount of silicon has roughly doubled every year since the technology was invented. First mentioned in 1964 by semiconductor engineerGordon Moore, co-founder of Intel in 1968, this held until the late 1970s,at which point the doubling period slowed to 18 months. Some are nowsuggesting that it is taking again 24–30 months.",Human-written
TRAIN_229,"The concept of virtualization can also be applied to how work involving computers is being conceptualized and organized in the modern world ,. A “virtual office” or even “virtual corporation” is a business entity that is not tied to a physical location, but uses networks, communications technology, and facilities such as video conferencing to keep workers in touch. Alternatively, several organizations can share the same physical space (such as for mail or shipping) while maintaining their separate identities. Similarly, people can form long-lasting social networks while meeting physically seldom (if at all)—see socialnetworking and virtual community",Human-written
TRAIN_230,"The unusual computing term demon (sometimes spelled daemon) refers to a process (program) that runs in the background, checking for and responding to certain events. The utility of this concept is that it allows for automation of information processing without requiring that an operator initiate or manage the process. For example, a print spooler demon looks for jobs that are queued for printing, and deals with the negotiations necessary to maintain the flow of data to that device. Another demon (called chron in UNIX systems) reads a file describing processes that are designated to run at particular dates or times. For example, it may launch a backup utility every morning at 1:00 a. m. E-mail also depends on the periodic operation of “mailer demons. ”",Human-written
TRAIN_231,"The architecture of grid computing typically consists of several layers that work together to manage and coordinate resources across a network of computers. The following are the main layers of a typical grid computing architecture:Resource Layer: This layer includes the individual computers or nodes that make up the grid network. Each node contributes resources such as processing power, storage, and memory to the grid. Nodes may vary in their capabilities and configurations, and may be connected to the grid intermittently or permanently. Fabric Layer: This layer provides the infrastructure to manage and coordinate the resources of the grid. It includes software and hardware components such as network switches, routers, and firewalls that enable communication and data exchange between nodes. Middleware Layer: This layer provides the software framework that enables applications to access and utilize the resources of the grid. It includes middleware components such as resource managers, schedulers, and security systems that ensure efficient and secure resource allocation and utilization. Application Layer: This layer includes the applications or services that run on the grid and use its resources to perform computational tasks. Applications may be scientific simulations, data analytics, or other types of processing-intensive tasks that require significant computing resources. User Layer: This layer provides the interface for users to interact with the grid and its resources. Users may submit jobs or tasks to the grid, monitor their progress, and receive results through a web interface, command-line interface, or other user-friendly application.",AI-generated
TRAIN_232,"FireWire, also known as IEEE 1394, is a high-speed serial bus interface standard used for connecting peripheral devices to computers. It was developed by Apple in the 1990s and later standardized by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). FireWire provides a fast and reliable interface for connecting devices such as hard drives, digital cameras, and audio interfaces to a computer. It supports data transfer rates of up to 400 Mbps (FireWire 400) or 800 Mbps (FireWire 800), which is faster than USB 2. 0.",AI-generated
TRAIN_233,omputer Security Incident Response Team (CSIRT) is a service organization that is responsible for receiving‚ reviewing‚ and responding tocomputer security Incident reports and activity. A CSIRT usually performs these services for a defined constituency or agroup of stakeholders. These could a firm or a g,Human-written
TRAIN_234,"JavaScript is an interpreted scripting language, similar in capability toMicrosoft’s Visual Basic, or SUN Microsystems’ Perl scripting language. Java script is interpreted, not compiled, and therefore slower to execute thancompiled code. It is easier to maintain and fast enough for small applications. Security risks associated with JavaScript are generally limited toDenial-of-Service (DoS) , attacks, such as excessive loadon the processor, or annoyance attacks ,.",Human-written
TRAIN_235,"The term supply chain management was developed in the 1980s to refer to the systematic efforts to improve the efficiency and reliability of this vital business activity. Although the details will vary with the industry, a supply chain can include the following activities:, obtaining the raw materials or components needed for the product, manufacturing finished products, marketing the product, distributing the product to retailers or other outlets, servicing the product and supporting customers, (increasingly) providing for the ultimate recycling or disposal of the product",Human-written
TRAIN_236,"PHP is an HTML-embedded Web scripting language. Accordingly‚ PHPcode can be inserted into the HTML of a Web page. When a PHP page isaccessed‚ the PHP code is read or “parsed” by the server the page resides on. The output from the PHP functions on the page are typically returned asHTML code‚ which can be read by the browser. Because the PHP code istransformed into HTML before the page is loaded‚ users cannot view the PHPcode on a page. This make PHP pages secure enough to access databases andother secure information. A lot of the syntax of PHP is borrowed from other languages such as C‚Java and Perl ,. However‚ PHP has a number of uniquefeatures and specific functions as well. The goal of the language is to allowWeb developers to write dynamically generated pages quickly and easily. PHP is also helpful for creating database-driven Web sites.",Human-written
TRAIN_237,"Fault tolerance is a design concept that recognizes that all computer-based systems will fail eventually. The question is whether a system as a whole can be designed to “fail grace-fully. ” This means that even if one or more components fail, the system will continue to operate according to its design specifications, even if its speed or throughput must decrease.",Human-written
TRAIN_238,"As millions of people became new computer users during the 1980s, a thriving computer book publishing industry offered users a more user-friendly approach than that usually provided in the manuals issued by the software companies. The “Dummies” books, offering bite-sized servings of information written in a breezy style and accompanied by cartoons, eventually spread beyond computers into hundreds of other fields and the format was then copied by other publishers. Publishers such as Sams, Coriolis, and particularly O’Reilly have aimed their offerings at more experienced users, programmers, and multimedia developers. Computer trade books are often written by experienced developers and systems programmers who can offer advanced knowledge and “tips and tricks” to their less experienced colleagues. Since many technical “gurus” are not experienced writers, the best results often come from collaboration between the expert and an experienced technical writer and/or editor who can review the material for completeness, organization, and clarity. In recent years there has been some contraction in the computer book industry. This has arisen from several sources: improved on-line help included in products; the dominance of many applications areas by a handful of products; and fewer people needing beginner-level instructions",Human-written
TRAIN_239,"When videotape first became available in the 1950s, recorders cost thousands of dollars and could only be afforded by TV studios. Today the VCR is inexpensive and ubiquitous. However, it is hard to edit videotape. Tape is a linear medium, meaning that to find a given piece of video the tape has to be moved to that spot. Removing or adding something involves either physically splicing the tape (as is done with film) or more commonly, feeding in tape from two or more recorders onto a destination tape. Besides being tedious and limited in capabilities, “linear editing” by copying loses a bit of quality with each copying operation. Today, however, it is easy to shoot video in digital form , or to convert analog video into digital form. Digital video is a stream of data that represents sampling of the source signal, such as from the chargecoupled device (CCD) that turns light photons into electron flow in a digital camera or digital camcorder. This process involves either software or hardware compression for storage and decompression for viewing and editing (such a scheme is called a CODEC for “compression/decompression”). The most widely used formats include DV (Digital Video) and MPEG (Motion Picture Expert Group), which has versions that vary in the amount of compression and thus fidelity",Human-written
TRAIN_240,"HTTP is a protocol for transmitting data over the internet between web servers and clients, such as web browsers. It defines how data is formatted and transmitted, and enables web servers and clients to communicate and exchange data efficiently.",AI-generated
TRAIN_241,"Analysis tools are computer software or web applications that are used to analyze data, identify patterns, and draw insights from large and complex datasets. These tools are used by analysts, researchers, and data scientists to process and interpret data, in order to make informed decisions and predictions. Some popular analysis tools include:Statistical analysis software: These tools are used to perform statistical analysis on data, such as hypothesis testing, regression analysis, and clustering. Examples include R, SAS, and SPSS. Data visualization software: These tools are used to create charts, graphs, and other visual representations of data, in order to help users understand and communicate data insights. Examples include Tableau, Power BI, and QlikView. Business intelligence software: These tools are used to analyze data from various sources, such as sales data, customer data, and financial data, in order to make informed business decisions. Examples include SAP BusinessObjects, IBM Cognos, and Oracle Business Intelligence. Machine learning software: These tools are used to train and deploy machine learning models, in order to make predictions and automate decision-making. Examples include TensorFlow, Scikit-learn, and Keras. Big data tools: These tools are used to process and analyze large and complex datasets, such as those generated by social media, sensors, and IoT devices. Examples include Apache Hadoop, Spark, and Cassandra.",Human-written
TRAIN_242,"The resolution of a scanner depends on the number of pixels into which it can break the image. The color depth depends on how many bits of information that it can store per pixel (more information means more gradations of color or gray). Resolutions of 2,400 dots per inch (dpi) or more are now common, with up to 36 bit color depth, allowing for about 68. 7 billion colors or gradations ,Besides considerations of resolution and color depth, the quality of a scanned image depends on the quality of the scanner’s optics as well as on how the page or other object reflects light. As anyone who has browsed eBay listings knows, the quality of scans can vary considerably. Most scanners come with software that allows for the scanner to be controlled and adjusted from the PC, and image-editing software can be used to further adjust the scanned image",Human-written
TRAIN_243,"A fundamental problem in computer design is the control of devices such as disk drives and printers. Each device is designed to respond to a particular set of control commands sent as patterns of binary values through the port to which the device is connected. For example, a printer will respond to a “new page” command by skipping lines to the end of the current page and moving the print head to the start of the next page, taking margin settings into account. The problem is this: When an applications program such as a word processor needs to print a document, how should the necessary commands be provided to the printer? If every application program has to include the appropriate set of commands for each device that might be in use, programs will be bloated and much development effort will be required for supporting devices rather than extending the functionality of the product itself. Instead, the manufacturers of printers and other devices such as scanners and graphics tablets typically provide a program called a driver. (A version of the driver is created for each major operating system in use. ) The driver serves as the intermediary between the application, the operating system and the low-level device control system. It is sometimes useful to have drivers in the form of continually running programs that monitor the status of a device and wait for commands.",Human-written
TRAIN_244,"Prior to the court-ordered breakup of AT&T in 1984, the phone industry functioned in a monolithic way and was not very responsive to the needs of the growing computer networking industry. The breakup of AT&T led to growing competition, providing a wider variety of telecommunications equipment and lower phone rates just as PC users were starting to buy modems and sign up with online services and bulletin boards. The growing deregulation movement in the 1990s (culminating in the Telecommunications Act of 1996) furthered this process by opening cable and broadcast television, radio, and other wireless communication to competition. With more than half of American Internet users on high-speed connections ,, the delivery of communications and media over the Net can only grow. Wireless and mobile services (satellite, cell network, and 802. 11—see wireless computing) have also been growing vigorously. The result is that the “information highway” now has many lanes, with some being express lanes.",Human-written
TRAIN_245,"There are many online services (including some free ones) that will provide users with personal Web pages. There are also programs such as Microsoft FrontPage that allow users to design Web pages by arranging objects visually on the screen and setting their properties. However, creating and maintaining a complete Web site with its many linked pages, interactive forms and interfaces to databases and other services is a complicated affair. For most moderate to large-size organizations, it requires the services of a new category of IT professional: the webmaster",Human-written
TRAIN_246,"The developer of each application program that writes data files must define a format for the data. The format must be able to preserve all the features that are supported by the program. For example, a word processing program will include special codes for font selection, typestyles (such as bold or italic), margin settings, and so on. In most markets there are more than one vendor, so there is the potential for users to encounter the need to convert files such as word processing documents from one vendor’s format to another. For example, a Microsoft Word user needing to send a document to a user who has WordPerfect, or the user may encounter another user who also has Microsoft Word, but a later version.",Human-written
TRAIN_247,"Critical Information Infrastructure (CII) may include the information technology component (e. g. , hardware, software and data) of essential ser[1]vices, such as telecommunication, finance/banking, food production, trans[1]port and logistics, energy and utilities as well as critical government services . One also should consider that in many countries much of the CII for essential services such as electricity supply lines are is privately owned. CII may be vulnerable to an outside dimension that comes from disruption through natural disasters, accidents and mismanagement as well as deliberate Attack with criminal intent. An inside dimension is Safety and System-related issues including Complexity.",Human-written
TRAIN_248,"A device driver is a software program that allows the operating system to communicate with and control a specific hardware device such as a printer, scanner, or graphics card. Device drivers act as a bridge between the hardware device and the operating system, enabling the device to perform its intended functions. When a device is first installed or connected to a computer, the operating system checks to see if a compatible driver is already installed. If it is not, the operating system will prompt the user to install the necessary driver software. Once installed, the device driver allows the operating system to interact with the device, sending and receiving data and commands as needed. Device drivers are specific to the hardware they control and are often updated to fix bugs or add new features. It is important to keep device drivers up-to-date to ensure optimal performance and compatibility with other software and hardware components.",AI-generated
TRAIN_249,"Computers consume a variety of resources, starting with their manufacturing and packaging. Resource consumption can be reduced by building more compact units and by designing components so they can be more readily stripped and recycled or reused. Adopting reusable storage media (such as rewrit-able CDs), recycling printer toner cartridges, and changing office procedures to minimize the generation of paper docu-ments are also ways to reduce resource consumption.",Human-written
TRAIN_250,"is a method used for dynamic web sites/pages thatincludes one or more scripts (small embedded programs) that are processedon a web server before the page is sent to the user. An ASP is somewhat similarto a server-side include or a common gateway interface (CGI) application inthat it involves programs that run on the server, usually tailoring a page forthe user. Typically, the script in the web page at the server uses input receivedas the result of the user’s request for the page to access data from a database,thereafter it builds or customizes the page on the fly before sending it to therequestor.",Human-written
TRAIN_251,"Today the term data is associated in many peoples’ minds mainly with computers. However, data (as in “given facts” or measurements) has been used as a term by scientists and scholars for centuries. Just as with a counting bead, a notch in a stick, or a handwritten tally, data as stored in a computer (or on digital media) is a representation of facts about the world. These facts might be temperature readings, customer addresses, dots in an image, the characteristics of a sound at a given instant, or any number of other things. But because computer data is not a fact but a representation of facts, its accuracy and usefulness depends not only on the accuracy of the original data, but on its context in the computer",Human-written
TRAIN_252,"The more than five-century-old art of typography (the design, arrangement, and setting of printing type) was transformed in the latter part of the 20th century by digital technology. With the exception of some traditional presses devoted to the fine book market, nearly all type used today is designed and set by computer. Most users are familiar with the typefaces distributed with their operating system and software, such as the popular Adobe and TrueType ,. Many such font designs are based on (and sometimes named after) traditional typefaces, modified for readability using typical displays and printers. For control of composition, there are three overlapping levels of software, ranging from easiest to use (but most limited) to most complex, versatile, and precise. Modern word processors such as Microsoft Word and Open Office provide enough control for many types of shorter documents ,. Desktop publishing software adds facilities suitable for layout of fliers, brochures, newsletters, and similar publications that often mix text and graphics ,. More elaborate documents such as books, magazines, and newspapers require more sophisticated facilities to control the layout and flow of text. Some traditional choices include LaTex (for the Tex typesetting program), used particularly by scientists and other academics, and the older troff and its offshoots on UNIX systems. More recent programs include Quark, FrameMaker, PageMaker, and InDesign. Related utilities often used in digital typography include font editors (for design and modification) and utilities to convert fonts from one format to another",Human-written
TRAIN_253,"In personal computers a chipset is a group of integrated circuits that together perform a particular function. System purchasers generally think in terms of the processor itself (such as a Pentium III, Pentium IV, or competitive chips from AmD or Cyrix). However they are really buying a system chipset that includes the microprocessor itself , and often a memory cache (which may be part of the microprocessor or a separate chip—see cache) as well as the chips that control the memory bus (which connects the processor to the main memory on the moth-erboard—see bus. ) The overall performance of the system depends not just on the processor’s architecture (including data width, instruction set, and use of instruction pipe-lines) but also on the type and size of the cache memory, the memory bus (RDRAm or “Rambus” and SDRAm) and the speed with which the processor can move data to and from memory. In addition to the system chipset, other chipsets on the motherboard are used to support functions such as graphics (the AgP, or Advanced graphics Port, for example), drive connection (EIDE controller), communication with exter-nal devices ,, and connections to expansion cards (the PCI bus). At the end of the 1990s, the PC marketplace had chip-sets based on two competing architectures. Intel, which originally developed an architecture called Socket 7, has switched to the more complex Slot-1 architecture, which is most effective for multiprocessor operation but offers the advantage of including a separate bus for accessing the cac he memory. meanwhile, Intel’s main competitor, AmD, has enhanced the Socket 7 into “Super Socket 7” and is offering faster bus speeds. On the horizon may be com-pletely new architecture. In choosing a system, consumers are locked into their choice because the microprocessor pin sockets used for each chipset architecture are different.",Human-written
TRAIN_254,"Secure Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTPS) uses HTTP but additionally activates web server security‚ in the form of Secure Socket Layer (SSL). This means that the communications between the client and the (host) webserver are encrypted and‚ additionally‚ that the host web server may be validated by the client using a Digital Certificate on the server ,. The URL for such web sites indicates that they are secure by the use of‘https://address’ (rather than http://address). Some may list this term as shttp instead of https.",Human-written
TRAIN_255,"The amount of fault tolerance to be provided for a sys-tem depends on a number of factors:, How important is it that the system not fail?, How critical is a given component to the operation of the system?, How likely is it that a given component will fail? (mean time between failures, or mBTF), How expensive is it to make the component or system fault tolerant?",Human-written
TRAIN_256,"Computer Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) is a section of the RAMmemory containing important data, such as date and time of the computerclock, and its configuration settings. A battery that is housed on the computermotherboard powers the CMOS. While a virus can overwrite information onthe CMOS, it can neither infect nor reside in it.",Human-written
TRAIN_257,"File-sharing services allow participants to provide access to files on their personal computers, such as music or video. In turn, the user can browse the service to find and down-load material of interest. The structure is generally that of a peer-to-peer (P2P) network with no central server. The first major file-sharing service was Napster. This was a P2P network but had a central server that provided the searchable list of files and locations—but not the files themselves, which were downloaded from users’ PCs. Napster was forced to close in 2001 by legal action from copyright holders ,. A new but unrelated for-pay service opened later under the same name.",Human-written
TRAIN_258,"This is a general term for features that reduce the growing environmental impact of the manufacture or use of comput-ers. This impact has several aspects: energy consumption, resource consumption, e-waste, and pollution and green-house emissions.",Human-written
TRAIN_259,"The most popular programming environment for Ruby is Ruby on Rails, an open-source application framework aimed particularly at writing programs that connect Web sites to databases. The framework is based on the model view controller approach (separating data access and logic from the user interface) and includes “scaffolding” that can be quickly filled in to provide data-driven Web sites with basic functionality. Developers can also create plug-ins to extend the built-in packages",Human-written
TRAIN_260,"FORTRAN (short for ""FORmula TRANslation"") is a high-level programming language that was originally developed by IBM in the 1950s. It was the first widely used programming language and is still used today in some scientific and engineering applications. FORTRAN was designed to be a language that could be used for scientific and engineering calculations, which often involve complex mathematical formulas. It was also designed to be efficient, so that it could run on early computers with limited memory and processing power. FORTRAN has evolved over the years and has several versions, including FORTRAN 77, Fortran 90, Fortran 95, and Fortran 2003. The language has influenced the development of many other programming languages and is still used in areas such as numerical analysis, scientific computing, and simulation.",AI-generated
TRAIN_261,"In the earliest programming languages, any part of a program could access any other part simply by executing an instruction such as “jump” or “goto. ” Later, the concept of the subroutine helped impose some order by creating relatively self-contained routines that could be “called” from the main program. At the time the subroutine is called, it is provided with necessary data in the form of global variables or (preferably) parameters, which are variable references or values passed explicitly when the subroutine is called. When the subroutine finishes processing, it may return values by changing global variables or changing the values of variables that were passed as parameters",Human-written
TRAIN_262,"The Blue Screen of Death (BSOD) is an error screen displayed on a Windows computer when the operating system encounters a critical error that it cannot recover from. The screen appears as a blue background with white text and is also known as a ""stop error"" or a ""system crash. ""The BSOD is typically caused by hardware or software issues, such as faulty drivers, system files, or memory problems. When a critical error occurs, Windows displays the BSOD to prevent further damage to the system and to allow the user to troubleshoot the problem. The BSOD screen provides a message that includes a stop code, which can help identify the cause of the error. The stop code is a hexadecimal code that indicates the type of error that occurred, such as a driver issue or a memory problem. When a BSOD occurs, the computer will typically restart automatically, although it may also display a memory dump or other diagnostic information. To resolve the issue, users can try to identify the cause of the error using the stop code and other diagnostic information provided on the BSOD screen. BSODs can be frustrating and disruptive, but they are an important safety feature of the Windows operating system that helps prevent further damage to the system when critical errors occur.",AI-generated
TRAIN_263,"Much future progress in car computing will depend on creating integrated networking between vehicles and the road. An advanced navigation system could take advantage of real-time information being transmitted by the surrounding vehicles. For example, a stalled car would transmit warning messages to other drivers about the impending obstacle. Vehicles that sense an oil slick, ice, or other road hazard could also “mark” the location so it can be avoided by subsequent drivers. Data about the speed and spacing of traffic could provide real-time information about traffic jams, possibly routing vehicles into alternative lanes or other roads to reduce congestion and travel time",Human-written
TRAIN_264,"This concept refers to the organization of data processing and communications across an entire corporation or other organization. Historically, computing technology and infrastructure often developed at different rates in the various departments of a corporation. For example, by the 1970s, departments such as payroll and accounting were making heavy use of electronic data processing (EDP) using mainframe computers. The introduction of the desktop computer in the 1980s often resulted in operations such as marketing, corporate communications, and planning being conducted using a disparate assortment of software, databases, and document repositories. Even the growing use of networking often meant that an enterprise had several different networks with at best rudimentary intercommunication",Human-written
TRAIN_265,"Integers (whole numbers) have the simplest representation, but there are two important considerations: the totalnumber of bits available and whether one bit is used to holdthe sign. Since all numbers are stored as binary digits, an unsignedinteger has a range from 0 to 2bits where “bits” is the totalnumber of bits available. Thus if there are 16 bits available, the maximum value for an integer is 65535. If negativenumbers are to be handled, a signed integer must be used(in most languages such as C, C++, and Java, an integer issigned unless unsigned is specified). Since one bit is usedto hold the sign and each bit doubles the maximum size, itfollows that a signed integer can have only half the rangeabove or below zero. Thus, a 16-bit signed integer can rangefrom -32,768 to 32,767. One complication is that the available sizes of integersdepend on whether the computer system’s native data sizeis 16, 32, or 64 bits. In most cases the native size is 32 bits,so the declaration “int” in a C program on such a machineimplies a signed 32-bit integer that can range from - 231 or-2,147,483,647 to 231-1, or 2,147,483,647. However, if one isusing large numbers in a program, it is important to checkthat the chosen type is large enough. The long specifier isoften used to indicate an integer twice the normal size, or64 bits in this case.",Human-written
TRAIN_266,"SOAP stands for Simple Object Access Protocol. It is a messaging protocol used for exchanging structured information between networked applications. SOAP is a widely used protocol for web services and is often used in enterprise applications. SOAP messages are typically sent using XML (Extensible Markup Language) and can be transmitted over a variety of transport protocols, such as HTTP, SMTP, or JMS. A SOAP message consists of a header and a body. The header contains information about the message, such as the encoding used and any security information, while the body contains the actual data being exchanged. One of the key benefits of SOAP is that it allows applications running on different platforms and written in different programming languages to communicate with each other. This is because SOAP is based on open standards and is independent of any particular platform or programming language. SOAP is often used in enterprise applications, such as those used for financial transactions or supply chain management, where security and reliability are critical. However, it can be more complex and slower than other web services protocols like REST, which is more commonly used for modern web applications.",AI-generated
TRAIN_267,"Computers and technology play a role in the lives of mostyoung people that many adults have difficulty compre-hending. Children in industrialized countries are liable toencounter video games even before they arrive at school. Once there, they will be exposed to a considerable amountof educational software, depending on their school’s afflu-ence ,. Upon returningfrom school, there are more sophisticated games, MySpacepages to keep updated ,, sophisti-cated tools for creating music and video, and, of course, theInternet in all its vast diversity. Meanwhile, a web of inces-sant messages , islikely to keep the youngster in touch with friends.",Human-written
TRAIN_268,"The C programming language was developed in the early 1970s by Dennis Ritchie, who based it on the earlier languages BCPL and B. C was first used on DEC PDP-11 computers running the newly developed UNIX operating system, where the language provided a high-level alternative to the use of PDP Assembly language for development of the many utilities that give UNIX its flexibility. Since the 1980s, C and its descendent, C++, have become the most widely used programming languages.",Human-written
TRAIN_269,"Concern about potential tampering with computers has led many jurisdictions to begin to replace touchscreen systems with optical-scan systems, where the voter marks a sturdy paper ballot. (About half of U. S. counties now use optical-scan systems. ) The advantage of optical systems is that the voter physically marks the ballot and can see how he or she has voted, and after tabulation the physical ballots are available for review in case of problems. However, optical-scan ballots must be properly marked using the correct type of pencil, or they may not be read correctly. Unlike the touchscreen, it is not possible to give the voter immediate feedback so that any errors can be corrected. Optical-ballot systems may cost more because of paper and printing costs for the ballots, which may have to be prepared in several languages. However this cost may be offset by not having to develop or validate the more complicated software needed for all-electronic systems.",Human-written
TRAIN_270,"Many PC users have become acquainted with chatting through participating in “chat rooms” operated by online services such as America Online (AOL). A chat room is a “virtual space” in which people meet either to socialize generally or to discuss particular topics. At their best, chat rooms can develop into true communities whose participants develop long-term friendships and provide one another with information and emotional support ,. However, the essentially anonymous character of chat (where participants often use “handles” rather than real names) that facilitates freedom of expression can also provide a cover for mischief or even crime. Chat rooms have acquired a rather lurid reputation in the eyes of the general public. There has been considerable public concern about children becoming involved in inappropriate sexual conversation. This has been fueled by media stories (sometimes exaggerated) about children being recruited into face-toface meetings with pedophiles. AOL and other online services have tried to reduce such activity by restricting online sex chat to adults, but there is no reliable mechanism for a service to verify its user’s age. A chat room can also be supervised by a host or moderator who tries to prevent “flaming” (insults) or other behavior that the online service considers to be inappropriate",Human-written
TRAIN_271,"File transfer can be implemented in several different ways, depending on the requirements and constraints of the system. Some common implementations of file transfer include:Client-server file transfer: In this implementation, files are transferred between a client computer and a server computer. The client sends a request for a file to the server, which then sends the file back to the client. This is commonly used for file transfer over the internet, such as downloading files from a website. Peer-to-peer file transfer: In this implementation, files are transferred directly between two or more computers on a network, without the need for a centralized server. Peer-to-peer file transfer is often used for sharing files between individuals or for file sharing networks, such as BitTorrent. Cloud-based file transfer: In this implementation, files are transferred between a local computer and a remote cloud server, which stores and manages the files. Cloud-based file transfer is commonly used for storing and sharing files online, such as with cloud storage services like Google Drive or Dropbox. Physical media transfer: In this implementation, files are transferred using physical media, such as USB drives or CDs/DVDs. Physical media transfer is commonly used for transferring large files or for situations where internet access is not available or practical.",AI-generated
TRAIN_272,"Supply chain management (SCM) refers to the coordination and management of all the activities involved in the production, procurement, and delivery of products or services. Effective supply chain management helps organizations to streamline their operations, reduce costs, and improve customer satisfaction. The following are the key activities involved in supply chain management:Planning: This involves forecasting demand, developing production plans, and determining inventory levels. Sourcing: This involves identifying suppliers, negotiating contracts, and managing supplier relationships. Procurement: This involves purchasing raw materials, components, and other inputs needed for production. Production: This involves transforming raw materials and other inputs into finished products or services. Inventory management: This involves managing inventory levels to ensure that there is enough stock to meet demand without incurring excess inventory costs. Logistics and transportation: This involves managing the transportation of goods and services from suppliers to the organization and from the organization to customers. Distribution: This involves managing the distribution of finished products or services to customers. Customer service: This involves ensuring that customers are satisfied with the products or services they receive and addressing any issues that arise. Performance measurement: This involves tracking key performance indicators, such as inventory turnover, order fulfillment rates, and on-time delivery rates, to evaluate the effectiveness of the supply chain management system and identify areas for improvement. Overall, effective supply chain management involves close coordination and collaboration among all stakeholders, including suppliers, manufacturers, logistics providers, and customers, to ensure that products or services are delivered efficiently, cost-effectively, and with high quality.",AI-generated
TRAIN_273,"An interesting variant is the Internet tablet, best known in Nokia’s N-series. These are smaller and lighter than a tablet PC. The Nokia N810, for example, has a slide-out keyboard as well as a virtual screen keyboard. The most notable feature is the Internet browser and related applications, such as e-mail and instant messaging, and built-in wireless connections ,. Although there is no phone, Internet-based services such as Skype can be used to place calls, or a Bluetooth-equipped mobile phone. The Nokia series uses a variant of Linux and can run a large variety of open-source applications",Human-written
TRAIN_274,"With a parallel connection, however, the eight bitsof the byte are sent simultaneously, each along its own wire,so parallel ports are generally faster than serial ports. Also,since the data is transmitted simultaneously, the protocolfor marking the beginning and end of each data byte is simpler. On the other hand, parallel cables are more expensive(since they contain more wires) and are generally limitedto a length of 10 feet or so because of electrical interferencebetween the parallel wires. The original parallel interface for personal computerswas designed by Centronics, and a later version of this 36-pin connector remains popular today. Later, IBM designed a25-pin version. In addition to the wires carrying data, additional wires are used to carry control signals",Human-written
TRAIN_275,"The Domain Name System (DNS) is the Internet's system for mapping alphabetic names to numeric Internet Protocol (IP) addresses like a phone book maps a person's name to a phone number. For example, when a Web address (URL) is typed into a browser, a DNS query is made to learn an IP address of a Web server associated with that name. Using the www. example. com URL, example. com is the domain name, and www is the hostname. DNS resolution maps www. example. com into an IP address (such as 192. 0. 2. 1). When a user needs to load a webpage, a conversion must occur between what a user types into their web browser (www. example. com) into an IP address required to locate the www. example. com site. The DNS system is an open worldwide network of database name servers that include 13 authoritative name servers that serve the DNS root zone level, known as ""root servers"". A root server (also called a DNS root nameserver) receives a DNS query that includes a domain name (e. g. www. thousandeyes. com), and responds by directing that request to a top-level domain (TLD) nameserver, based on the TLD of that domain such as . com, . net, and . org. It directly responds to requests for DNS records in the root zone by returning an appropriate list of the authoritative TLD name servers for the appropriate TLD that can resolve the initial DNS lookup request for an IP address of that domain name.",Human-written
TRAIN_276,"Probability is a measure of the likelihood that a specific event will occur. It is a mathematical concept that is used to describe the uncertainty or randomness of an event. Probability is expressed as a number between 0 and 1, where 0 represents an impossible event and 1 represents a certain event. The probability of an event occurring can be calculated by dividing the number of favorable outcomes by the total number of possible outcomes. For example, if a coin is flipped, the probability of getting heads is 1/2 or 0. 5, since there are two possible outcomes (heads or tails) and one of them is favorable. Probability theory is used in a wide range of fields, including statistics, economics, physics, engineering, and computer science. It is used to model and analyze complex systems that involve randomness or uncertainty, such as weather patterns, stock prices, and game theory.",AI-generated
TRAIN_277,"The smart card is the next generation of transaction devices. Magnetically coded credit, debit, and ATM cards have been in use for many years. These cards contain a magnetic strip encoded with a small amount of fixed data to identify the account. All the actual data (such as account balances) is kept in a central server, which is why credit cards must be validated and transactions approved through a phone (modem) link. Some magnetic strip cards such as those used in rapid transit systems are rewritable, so that, for example, the fare for the current ride can be deducted. Telephone cards work the same way. Nevertheless, these cards are essentially passive tokens containing a small amount of data. They have little flexibility. However, since the mid-1970s it has been possible to put a microprocessor and rewritable memory into a card the size of a standard credit card. These smart cards can store a hundred or more times the data of a magnetic strip card. Further, because they have an onboard computer ,, they can interact with a computer at the point of service, exchanging and updating information",Human-written
TRAIN_278,"In computer science, a stack is an abstract data type that represents a collection of elements, where the elements are stored and retrieved based on a last-in, first-out (LIFO) principle. This means that the most recently added element is the first one to be removed. Think of a stack of plates; you can only remove the top plate, and to add another plate, it must be placed on top. A stack has two main operations: push and pop. The push operation adds an element to the top of the stack, while the pop operation removes the most recently added element from the top of the stack. Other operations on a stack can include peek, which retrieves the most recently added element without removing it, and is_empty, which checks if the stack contains any elements. Stacks are commonly used in programming, especially for implementing recursive algorithms, maintaining a history of function calls, and evaluating expressions. They are also used in many other applications, such as compilers, operating systems, and web browsers.",AI-generated
TRAIN_279,"The concept of patterns and pattern languages carries over well into software design. As with architectural patterns, a software pattern describes a problem and solution, along with relevant structures ,. Note that patterns are not executable code; they are at a higher level (one might say abstract enough to be generalizable, specific enough to be applicable). Software patterns can specify how objects are created and ways in which they function and interface with other objects. Patterns are generally documented using a common format",Human-written
TRAIN_280,"Error correction is the process of detecting and correcting errors that occur during the transmission or storage of data. In computing, errors can occur due to a variety of factors such as data corruption, interference, or noise in the communication channel, or hardware malfunctions. Error correction codes are used to detect and correct errors in data. These codes are added to the data before transmission or storage, and they are designed to allow the receiver to detect and correct any errors that may occur during the process. One common error correction code is the Hamming code, which is a binary code that adds extra bits to the data being transmitted. These extra bits are calculated based on the original data and are used to detect and correct errors in the transmitted data. Another commonly used error correction code is the Reed-Solomon code, which is used to correct errors in block codes, such as those used in CDs and DVDs. Error correction is important in computing because it ensures the accuracy and reliability of data transmission and storage. Without error correction, data could be lost or corrupted during transmission, resulting in errors or incorrect information being received. Error correction helps to ensure that data is transmitted and stored accurately, which is critical for many applications, such as data transfer, online transactions, and digital communication.",AI-generated
TRAIN_281,"Keystroke Monitoring is audit trail software or a specially designed device,recording every key struck by a user and every character of the response thatthe information system returns to the user.",Human-written
TRAIN_282,"Encapsulation is a fundamental concept in object-oriented programming (OOP) that refers to the practice of hiding the internal details of an object and exposing only the essential features or interfaces that other objects need to interact with it. In encapsulation, the internal state of an object is kept private, and can only be accessed or modified through the object's public methods or interfaces. This protects the integrity of the object's data and ensures that it is accessed and modified in a controlled, safe manner.",AI-generated
TRAIN_283,"Steganography (“hidden writing”) is a form of data hiding. Unlike cryptography, which creates an unreadable version of a message for anyone withoutthe key, Steganography conceals even the existence of secret messages. Oneof the earliest forms of Steganography is spread-spectrum radio transmissions, in which parts of a message (even parts of individual bits) are senton pseudo-randomly varying radio frequencies; without the right equipment,the signal is merely electronic white noise. Steganography circumvents restrictions on encryption and preventsSIGINT (signals intelligence) personnel from detecting encrypted traffic. Digital watermarks and copy-protection schemes are forms of Steganography used to reduce the ease of illegal copying of intellectual property and totrace the origin of files ,. There are many tools available for embedding secret messages in otherfiles; for instance, MP3STEGO modifies MP3 audio files to hold messages. Steganalysis tools look for tell-tale patterns in changed data when lookingfor concealed messages.",Human-written
TRAIN_284,"eBayeBay Inc. (NASDAQ symbol: EBAY) is the world’s largest online auction and shopping site. The first appearance of the auction service was in 1995 as AuctionWeb, part of the personal Web site of Pierre Omidyar ,. Omidyar was surprised at how rapidly the auction service (which was initially free) grew. After he imposed a modest listing fee, Omidyar found himself receiving thousands of dollars in small checks, and decided that online auctions could become a full-time business.",Human-written
TRAIN_285,"According to the OSI (open systems interconnection) model, a network can be considered to be a series of seven layers laid one atop another ,. The physical layer is at the bottom. It specifies the physical connections between the computers, which can be anything from ordinary phone lines to cable, fiber optic, or wireless. This layer specifies the required electrical characteristics (such as voltage changes and durations that constitute the physical signal that is recognized as either a 1 or 0 in the “bit stream. ”The next layer, called the data link layer, specifies how data will be grouped into chunks of bits (frames or packets) and how transmission errors will be dealt with ,. The network layer groups the data frames as parts of a properly formed data packet and routes that packet from the sending node to the specified destination node. A variety of routing algorithms can be used to determine the most efficient route given current traffic or line conditions. The transport layer views the packets as part of a complete transmission of an object (such as a Web page) and ensures that all the packets belonging to that object are sorted into their original sequence at the destination. This is necessary because packets belonging to the same message may be sent via different routes in keeping with traffic or line conditions. The session layer provides application programs communicating over the network with the ability to initiate, terminate, or restart an interrupted data transfer. The presentation layer ensures that data formats are consistent so that all applications know what to expect. This layer can also provide special services ,. Finally, the application layer gives applications highlevel commands for performing tasks over the network, such as file transfer protocol (ftp)",Human-written
TRAIN_286,"Encapsulated PostScript (EPS) is a file format used to store and exchange high-resolution graphics and images. It was developed by Adobe Systems and is widely used in the printing and publishing industries. EPS files are essentially a special type of PostScript file that has been designed to be embedded into other documents, such as word processing documents or page layout documents. EPS files can contain vector graphics, raster images, or a combination of both.",AI-generated
TRAIN_287,"The preceding data types all hold single values. However, most modern languages allow for the construction of data types that can hold more than one piece of data. The arrayis the most basic structured data type; it represents a series of memory locations that hold data of one of the basic types. Thus, in Pascal an array of integer holds integers, each taking up two bytes of memory. Many languages have composite data types that can hold data of several different basic types. For example, the struct in C or the record in Pascal can hold data such as a person’s first and last name, three lines of address (all arrays of characters, or strings), an employee number (perhaps an integer or double), a Boolean field representing the presence or absence of some status, and so on. This kind of data type is also called a user-defined data type because programmers can define and use these types in almost the same ways as they use the language’s built-in basic types. What is the difference between data types and data structures? There is no hard-and-fast distinction. Generally, data structures such as lists, stacks, queues, and trees are more complex than simple data types, because they include data relationships and special functions (such as pushing or popping data on a stack). However, a list is the fundamental data type in list-processing languages such as Lisp, and string operators are built into languages such as Snobol. (See list processing, stack, queue, and tree. )Further, in many modern languages fundamental and structured data types are combined seamlessly into classes that combine data structures with the relevant operations ,",Human-written
TRAIN_288,"eBay is an online marketplace where people can buy and sell a wide variety of goods and services. It was founded in 1995 and has since become one of the largest e-commerce platforms in the world, with operations in many countries. On eBay, individuals and businesses can list items for sale, and buyers can browse and purchase items using a bidding or fixed-price system. The site offers a diverse range of products, including electronics, clothing, collectibles, and much more. eBay also provides tools and services to help sellers manage their listings, process payments, and ship items to buyers. Additionally, the site has a feedback system that allows buyers and sellers to rate and review each other, which helps establish trust and reputation within the community.",AI-generated
TRAIN_289,"A secure hash is a cryptographic function that takes an input (such as a message or data file) and produces a fixed-size output, called a hash or message digest. The hash is designed to be a unique and irreversible representation of the input data, meaning that even a small change in the input will result in a vastly different hash value. Secure hash functions are commonly used for message integrity checking, digital signatures, and password storage. Examples of popular secure hash functions include SHA-256 and MD5.",AI-generated
TRAIN_290,"Firewall consists of a set of related programs‚ located at a network gateway server. A firewall is a combination of hardware and software used toimplement a security policy governing the network traffic between two ormore networks. Some of that traffic may be under the administrator’s control(e. g. ‚ organization’s networks) and some of which may be out of the systemadministrator’s control (e. g. ‚ the Internet). Firewalls determine whether to block or allow network traffic by lookingat TCP7IP packet headers to determine if these are in accordance with predetermined security policy. However‚ a firewall does neither have the capabilityto recognize malicious code (Malware‚ Virus)‚ nor any means for preventingits transfer to a target system. A Firewall usually protects the resources of a private network from usersfrom other networks. A network firewall commonly serves as a primary lineof defense against external threats to an organization’s computer systems‚networks‚ and critical information. Firewalls can also be used to partition anorganization’s internal networks‚ reducing the risk from insider attacks. There are three types of firewalls:Pack Filter—filters the contents of the IP packet header‚ therefore‚ limited tothe source and destination address as well as the TCP/UDP port number. Filterdoes not check content of message/data;Circuit Filter or Circuit Level Gateway—applies packet filtering but verifiesinformation based on TCP or UDP packet header information as well. Hence‚it can make a better decision if the individual packets form part of a valid TCPsequence. Creates a handshake‚ and once that takes place passes everythingthrough until the session is ended. Still it has no knowledge of which user isrequesting access to services; andApplication Filter—uses proxies to apply filter rules based on the data contentand sometimes the user. A dedicated program called a ‘proxy’ or ‘proxy server’is used to effect the application filter policy rules. Commonly used applicationfilter is the web proxy. It can be used to restrict the internal (or Intranet) webpages that are published out to the internet ,.",Human-written
TRAIN_291,"Distributed computing is particularly suited to applications that require extensive computing resources and that may need to be scaled (smoothly enlarged) to accommodate increasing needs ,. Examples might include large databases, intensive scientific computing, and cryptography. A particularly interesting example is SETI@home, which invites computer users to install a special screen saver that runs a distributed process during the computer’s idle time. The process analyzes radio telescope data for correlations that might indicate receipt of signals from an extraterrestrial intelligence ,. Besides being able to marshal very large amounts of computing power, distributed systems offer improved fault tolerance. Because the system is decentralized, if a particular computer fails, its processes can be replaced by ones running on other machines. Replication (copying) of data across a widely dispersed network can also provide improved data recovery in the event of a disaster",Human-written
TRAIN_292,"prior to the late 1970s, most computer applications (other than some scientific and experimental ones) did not use graphics. However, the early microcomputer systems such as the Apple II, Radio Shack TRS-80, and Commodore PET could all display graphics, either on a monitor or (with the aid of a video modulator) on an ordinary TV set. While primitive (low resolution; monochrome or just a handful of colors) this graphics capability allowed for a thriving mar-ket in games and educational software. The earliest video displays for mainstream PCs pro-vid ed basic text display capabilities (such as the mDA, or monochrome display adapter, with 25 lines of text up to 80 characters per line) plus the ability to create graphics by setting the color of individual pixels. The typical low-endgraphics card of the early 1980s was the CgA (Color graphics Adapter), which offered various modes such as 320 by 200 pixels with four colors. Computers marketed forprofessional use offered the EgA (Enhanced graph-ics Adapter), which could show 640 by 350 pixels at 16 colors.",Human-written
TRAIN_293,Ping is a computer network utility used to test the connectivity and response time of network devices. It sends a packet of data to a specific IP address or hostname and measures the round-trip time it takes for the data to travel between two devices. It's commonly used for network troubleshooting and monitoring.,AI-generated
TRAIN_294,"cookies are data files that are stored on a hard disk by some web sites. Whenever visiting a Website, it tries to access this cookie enabling usersto enter the site according to one’s preferences (e. g. , first page shows news,email and horoscope). Cookies may also store one’s password to access a siteunless the user prevents the browser from doing so, a must for any securityminded user. Additional information is collected from subsequent browsingon the web site, to further personalize one’s browsing experience on this website (e. g. , customer profile). Cookies are accessible to a particular Website only and cannot be used byother Websites to gain information about the user",Human-written
TRAIN_295,Ubiquitous Computing is a term put forward by Mark Weiser in Ubiquitous Computing is a term put forward by Mark Weiser in 1988‚ describing it as information technology’s next wave after the mainframe and PC. In this new world‚ what Weiser called “calm technology” will reside around us‚ interacting with users in natural ways to anticipate their needs and supply the information they want wherever they are. Pervasive Computing requires that computing devices are ubiquitious and if not invisible‚ at least handy for users and easy to take wherever one wishes to go (e. g. ‚ small cellular used for tracking location of person). PervasiveComputing envisions environments richly lathered with computation‚ communication and networked devices‚ mobile users interacting with their environment using speech and vision‚ with secure access to personal or publicdata. Pervasive Computing environments will not simply be standalone vehicles for number crunching‚ rather they will immerse their users in a triad of nvisible computation‚ communication and devices‚ working in concert to satisfy userrequirements according to the facilities available in the environment. As such Pervasive Computing is a world saturated with computing andcommunication on the road to Ubiquitous Computing. The latter also gracefully integrates social and end-user issues including but not limited to SocialInformatics and Social Securematics.,Human-written
TRAIN_296,"This concept involves the creation of a software system that runs programs and stores data across a number of different computers, an idea pervasive today. A simple form is the central computer (such as in a bank or credit card company) with which thousands of terminals communicate to submit transactions. While this system is in some sense distributed, it is not really decentralized. Most of the work is done by the central computer, which is not dependent on the terminals for its own functioning. However, responsibilities can be more evenly apportioned between computers ,.",Human-written
TRAIN_297,"By itself, a Web page coded in HTML is simply a “static” display that does not interact with the user (other than for the selection of links). (See html, dhtml, and xhtm. ) Many Web services, including online databases and e-commerce transactions, require that the user be able to interact with the server. For example, an online shopper may need to browse or search a catalog of CD titles, select one or more for purchase, and then complete the transaction by providing credit card and other information. These functions are provided by “gateway programs” on the server that can access databases or other facilities. One way to provide interaction with (and through) a Web page is to use the CGI (common gateway interface). CGI is a facility that allows Web browsers and other client programs to link to and run programs stored on a Web site. The stored programs, called scripts, can be written in various languages such as JavaScript or PHP , and placed in a cgi-bin folder on the Web server. The CGI script is referenced by an HTML hyperlink on the Web page, such as<A HREF=“http://www. MyServer. com/cgi-bin/MyScript”>MyScript </A>",Human-written
TRAIN_298,"Eiffel refers to the Eiffel programming language, which is a high-level, object-oriented programming language designed by Bertrand Meyer in the mid-1980s. The language is named after Gustave Eiffel, the French engineer who designed the Eiffel Tower. Eiffel is known for its focus on software engineering principles such as design-by-contract, automatic memory management, and the use of the Uniform Access Principle. The language's syntax is designed to be simple, readable, and expressive, with features that encourage modular programming, extensibility, and maintainability. Eiffel is commonly used in developing mission-critical software systems, such as aerospace, finance, and medical applications, where reliability, safety, and security are of paramount importance. The language is also used in education and research, particularly in the study of software engineering and formal methods.",AI-generated
TRAIN_299,"Moving toward greater autonomy, we have the “service robots” that have begun to show up in some institutions such as hospitals and laboratories. These mobile robots are often used to deliver supplies. For example, the HelpMate robot can travel around a hospital by itself, navigating using an internal map. It can even take an elevator to go to another floor. Service robots have had only modest market penetration, however. They are relatively expensive and limited in function, and if relatively low-wage more versatile human labor is available, it is generally preferred. For now mobile robots and service robots are most likely to turn up in specialized applications in environments too dangerous for human workers, such as in the military, law enforcement, handling of hazardous materials, and so on.",Human-written
TRAIN_300,"Broadly speaking, a graphics file consists of data that speci-fies the color of each pixel (dot) in an image. Since there are many ways this information can be organized, there are a variety of graphics file formats.",Human-written
TRAIN_301,"Web sites such as news providers and blogs , are constantly posting new material. While readers can periodically visit a site to look for new material, an increasingly popular option is to subscribe to a “Web feed” and receive the latest information automatically. The most commonly used tool for Web feeds is RSS, which can stand for Really Simple Syndication, Rich Site Summary, or RDF Site Summary, depending on the format used. The data in an RSS feed can include article titles, summaries, excerpts (such as the first paragraph), or the complete article or posting. Feeds can also include multimedia such as graphics, video, or sound. The data (and any linked material) is formatted using standard markup elements ,. As part of the process of setting up a feed on the Web server, the feed is “published” so that it can be found and read using a client program called a reader or aggregator (the latter can combine feeds or organize them in a newspaper-like format for convenience). RSS readers can be stand-alone applications or be included with many modern Web browsers and e-mail clients. Alternatively, Webbased readers or aggregators such as NewsGator Online can allow feeds to be read using any Web browser. Readers of Web pages can find RSS feeds by looking for a “subscribe” icon or the words RSS or XML. Specialized search engines such as Bloglines can also help users find interesting feeds. Additionally, information on the server can also be used by software to automatically deliver the latest content",Human-written
TRAIN_302,"Access Control Matrix (ACM) is a security model used to specify the access rights of subjects to objects in a computer system. The ACM is a table or matrix that lists all the subjects (users, processes, programs) and objects (files, directories, devices) in a system, along with the access rights that each subject has to each object. The access rights can include read, write, execute, and delete permissions. In an ACM, each row represents a subject and each column represents an object. Each cell in the matrix indicates the access rights of the corresponding subject to the corresponding object. For example, a cell may contain the value ""rwx"" to indicate that the subject has read, write, and execute permissions to the object. The ACM provides a way to control and manage access to resources in a system by ensuring that only authorized users or processes can access specific objects. It is also useful for auditing and tracking user activity, as it provides a clear view of who has access to what resources in the system. ACMs can be implemented using various access control models, such as discretionary access control (DAC), mandatory access control (MAC), and role-based access control (RBAC). Each of these models uses different methods for assigning access rights to subjects based on their identity, job function, or security clearance level.",AI-generated
TRAIN_303,"In the 1940s, the main objective in developing the first digital computers was to speed up the process of calculation. In the 1950s, the machines began to be used for more general data-processing tasks by governments and business. By the 1960s, computers were in use in most major academic, government, and business organizations. The desire for users to share data and to communicate both within and outside their organization led to efforts to link computers together into networks. Computer manufacturers began to develop proprietary networking software to link their computers, but they were limited to a particular kind of computer, such as a DEC PDP minicomputer, or an IBM mainframe. However, the U. S. Defense Department, seeing the need for a robust, decentralized network that could maintain links between their computers under wartime conditions, funded the development of a protocol that, given appropriate hardware to bridge the gap, could link these disparate networks ,.",Human-written
TRAIN_304,"Google and other large search enginesor portals can make money from advertisers is through“affiliate marketing”; Google’s version is called Ad Sense. Participating Web sites are indexed, and the resulting keywords are matched with ads awaiting placement. The sitecarrying the ad generally gets a per-click payment. However, the problem of “click fraud” has also arisen: Scammerscan set up an affiliate site and then use special software togenerate the clicks, while making them come from a varietyof sources. Despite these problems, in 2006 about 40 percent of revenue from online advertising was attributed tosearch-related ads.",Human-written
TRAIN_305,Password is usually a string of alphanumeric characters a user will type onhis or her keyboard with lower and/or uppercase letters as well and hopefullywithout vocals such as (19mlnMY82]. Ideally‚ a computer or a network hasits own dictionary of common passwords‚ whereby a password previouslyused or included in the dictionary is refused by the system. Passwords must never (ever) be written down. Neither should one useone’s first‚ last or a family member’s name nor one containing all digits or aword contained in a dictionary. Below are some additional issues that needto be remembered.,Human-written
TRAIN_306,"The Document Object Model (DOM) is a way to represent a Web document , as an object that can be manipulated using code in a scripting language ,. The DOM was created by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) as a way to standardize methods of manipulating Web pages at a time when different browsers used different access models. The full specification is divided into four levels (0 through 3). By 2005, most DOMspecifications were supported by the major Web browsers. Using DOM, a programmer can navigate through the hierarchical structure of a document, following links or “descending” into forms and user-interface objects. With DOM one can also add HTML or XML elements, as well as load, save, or format documents.",Human-written
TRAIN_307,"In-house documentation refers to the process of creating, maintaining, and updating internal documents within an organization. These documents can include policies, procedures, guidelines, manuals, and other resources that are used by employees to perform their jobs effectively. In-house documentation is essential for any organization because it provides a consistent framework for how work is done and helps to ensure that everyone is on the same page. It also helps to ensure that best practices are followed, and that employees have the information and resources they need to do their jobs well. Examples of in-house documentation include employee handbooks, training manuals, operational procedures, and quality control guidelines. These documents are typically created by internal staff, such as human resources, training departments, or subject matter experts, and are designed to meet the specific needs of the organization. In-house documentation may be stored in a variety of formats, such as paper documents, electronic files, or cloud-based systems. It is important to ensure that these documents are up-to-date and accessible to all employees who need them. Overall, in-house documentation is a critical component of organizational success, providing a consistent framework for how work is done and ensuring that employees have the resources they need to perform their jobs effectively.",AI-generated
TRAIN_308,"FireWire is a high-speed serial interface used by personal computers and digital audio and video equipment. (The name FireWire is an Apple brand name, but it is used gener-ically. Technically it is the IEEE 1394 Serial Bus. )FireWire was developed in the 1990s by the IEEE P1394 Working group with substantial funding from Apple and help from engineers from major corporations including IB m, Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC), Sony, and Texas Instruments. In 1993 it was hailed as the “most sig-nificant new technology” by Byte magazine.",Human-written
TRAIN_309,PCx is a compressed bitmap format originally used by the popular PC Paintbrush program. In recent years it has been largely supplanted by BmP and TIFF.,Human-written
TRAIN_310,"There are a variety of ways to electronically register, store, and process votes. In recent years older manual systems (paper ballots or mechanical voting machines) have been replaced in many areas with systems ranging from purely digital (touch screens) to hybrid systems where marked paper ballots are scanned and tabulated by machine. However, voting systems have been subject to considerable controversy, particularly following the Florida debacle in the 2000 U. S. presidential election. The criteria by which voting systems are evaluated include:, how easy it is for the voter to understand and use the system, accessibility for disabled persons, whether the voter’s intentions are accurately recorded , the ability to make a permanent record of the vote, prevention of tampering (physical or electronic), provisions for independent auditing of the votes in case of disputeThe degree to which a given system meets these criteria can vary considerably because of both design and implementation issues.",Human-written
TRAIN_311,Port Address Translation (PAT) is communication technology used byrouters to allow multiple users in a local network to access—with their ownIP address—the Internet or corporate networks via a single public address. PAT actually translates multiple private IP addresses to a single public address‚ or to a public sub network‚ recognized by the IP service provider. Thisfunction can reduce operating costs‚ increase security and simplify Internetaccess. If an attacker wants to access ports connected to the 3Com OfficeConnectRemote 812 ADSL router the router will not allow this connection. However‚firmware versions V1. 1. 9 and V1. 1. 7 had a confirmed vulnerability that ifa connection is made to a redirected port using PAT and then to any portnot redirected using PAT‚ the router allows the successive connections to anyport. The problem exists with TCP and with UDP.,Human-written
TRAIN_312,"grid or cluster computing involves the creation of a sin-gle computer architecture that consists of many separate computers that function much like a single machine. The computers are usually connected using fast networks ,. The purpose of the arrangement can be to provide redundant processing in case of system failures, to dynamically balance a fluctuating work load, or to split large computations into many parts that can be performed simultaneously. This latter approach to “high-performance computing” creates the virtual equivalent of a very large and powerful machine.",Human-written
TRAIN_313,"The PHP processor parses only the code within the delimiters <? and ?>. (An alternative set of delimiters is <script language =‘php’> </script>. Besides being embedded in HTML pages, PHP can be used interactively at the command line, where it has replaced older languages such as awk, Perl, or shell scripting for many users. PHP can also be linked to user-interface libraries (such as GTK+ for Linux/UNIX) to create applications that run on the client machine rather than the server. PHP has a basic set of data types plus one called “resource” that represents data processed by special functions that return images, text files, database records, and so on. Additionally, PHP5 provides full support for objects, including private and protected member variables, constructors and destructors, and other features similar to those found in C++ and other languages. There are numerous libraries of open-source objects and functions that enable PHP scripts to perform common Internet tasks, including accessing database servers (such as MySQL) as well as extensions to the language to handle popular Web formats such as Adobe Flash animation. Programmers have access to a wide range of PHP resources through PEAR (the PHP Extension and Application Repository). The combination of sophisticated features and easy interactive scripting has made PHP the language of choice for many Web developers, who use it as part of the group of technologies called LAMP, for Linux, Apache (Web server), MySQL (database), and PHP.",Human-written
TRAIN_314,"Even if scientists have a basic understanding of a system, it may be hard to determine what the overall results of the interaction of the many particles (or other elements) in the system will be. This is true, for example, in the analysis of events taking place in nuclear reactors. Fortunately computers can apply the laws of the system to each of many particles and determine the resulting actions from their aggregate behavior ,. Simulation is particularly important in fields where actual experiments are not possible because of distance or time. Thus, a hypothesis about the formation of the universe can be tested by applying it to a set of initial conditions believed to reflect those at or near the time of the big bang. However, even the most skilled scientists have trouble relating numbers to the shape and interaction of real-world objects. Computers have greatly aided in making it possible to visualize structures and phenomena using high-resolution 3D color graphics ,. Features of interest can be enhanced, and arbitrary (“false”) colors can be used to visually show such things as temperature or blood flow. These techniques can also be used to create interactive models where scientists can, for example, combine molecules in new ways and have the computer calculate the likely properties of the result. Finally, computer visualization and modeling can be used both to teach science and to give the general public some visceral grasp of the meaning of scientific theories and discoveries",Human-written
TRAIN_315,"Between 2000 and 2004 the numbers of text messages sent worldwide soared from 17 billion to 500 billion. At about a dime a message, texting became a major source of revenue for phone companies. Since then, texting has continued to grow, particularly in parts of Europe, the Asia-Pacific region (particularly China), and Japan (where it has largely become an Internet-based service). In the United States texting is most popular among teenagers ,. It is not uncommon to see a bench full of teens talking excitedly to one another while carrying on simultaneous texting with unseen friends in what, to many adult onlookers, appears to be an incomprehensible code, their conversation perhaps ending with ttyl (talk to you later). Loosely affiliated groups communicating by text , have organized everything from “happenings” to serious protest campaigns (as in the anti-WTO [World Trade Organization] demonstrations in Seattle in 1999 and in the Philippines uprising in 2001. )",Human-written
TRAIN_316,"Although the most important part of Web 2. 0 is its business and social models, a number of Web technologies are needed to provide the flexibility and rich interaction needed to offer a new Web experience. These include:, dynamic, efficient generation of content ,, programming interfaces , using structured text files ,, platforms for running applications in the browser, such as Google apps, merging and customizing content from different sources ,, user subscription to content platforms for user-created content and collaboration",Human-written
TRAIN_317,"Asymmetrical Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL) allows voice, video anddata to be transmitted over a single telephone line at up to 6. 144 megabitsper second (Mbps) in a single direction, with significantly slower speedsin the other direction. Accordingly, it is very appropriate for downloading large amounts of data but for certain applications, such as videoconferencing, other technologies work better [see also Very-High-bit-rateDigital Subscriber Line (VDSL), Discrete Multi-Tone (DMT) modulation,Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM-VDSL)].",Human-written
TRAIN_318,"The dot-matrix printer, which came into common use in the 1980s, uses a different principle of operation than typewriter-style printers. Unlike the latter, the dot-matrix printer does not form solid characters. Instead, it uses an array of magnetically controlled pins (9 pins at first, but 24 on later models). Each character is formed by pressing the appropriate pins into a ribbon that pushes into the paper, leaving a pattern of tiny dots. Besides being relatively inexpensive, dot-matrix printers are versatile in that a great variety of character styles or fonts can be printed ,, either by loading different sets of bitmaps. Likewise, graphic images can also be printed. However, because the characters are made of tiny dots, they don’t have the crisp, solid look of printed type",Human-written
TRAIN_319,Apache is a freely available multiplatform web server. It is currently the most commonly used server on internet connected sites. Its genesis was in early 1995 when developers of some high visibility web sites decided to pool their patches and enhancements to the NCSA / 1. 3 server to create a patchy server. The project has since gained considerable momentum.,Human-written
TRAIN_320,"access Control Matrix means preparing a system permitting to bring together user and the system’s available resources. Preparing a matrix requires the following steps: A broad level of groups of resources that share the same or similar security objectives is established based on requirements for Confidentiality, Integrity, Availability, User Accountability, Authentication and Audit (Compliance) (CIA UAA). The resources include files, directories, applications, databases, hosts services, processes and others including those protected by the operating system or by other mechanisms. Users are grouped according to common security needs into functional teams and a group owner is identified who is responsible for group management If necessary, naming standards for resources can be defined based on the findings under 1 & 2 above, thereby further facilitating resource groupings. Now a decision can be made on the degree of access such as read, write, execute, take ownership, access control, delete, purge, modify, file scan ,. Balancing central security control and group administration decides about the involvement of security administration. A corporation’s access control matrix should not become a static document but, instead, regular review and improvement is a must. This matrix is closely linked to a Role-Based Access management system, whereby user roles (e. g. , nurse versus private or general physician) have roles to perform requiring access and modification of data or addition of new information regarding an electronic patient file.",Human-written
TRAIN_321,"During the late 1950s and 1960s, software rapidly grew more complex—especially operating system software and large business applications. With the typical program consisting of many components being developed by different programmers, it became difficult both to see the “big picture” and to maintain consistent procedures for transferring data from one program module to another. As computer scientists worked to develop sounder principles , it also occurred to them that the power of the computer to automate procedures could be used to create tools for facilitating program design and managing the resulting complexity. CASE, or computer-aided software engineering, is a catchall phrase that covers a variety of such tools involved with all phases of development",Human-written
TRAIN_322,"Critical Infrastructure Protection (CIP) tries to coordinate efforts to protectcritical infrastructure that may include but not be limited to informationtechnology and utility grids (e. g. , electricity). Critical Infrastructure mayinclude essential services such as telecommunication, finance/banking, foodproduction, transport and logistics, energy and utilities as well as criticalgovernment services. One also should consider that in many countries much of the CriticalInfrastructure (e. g. , electricity, gas distribution and shipping) is privatelyowned. Critical Infrastructure Protection may also include Emergency Preparedness. Its mission is usually to enhance the safety and security of citizens orusers in their physical and cyber environments. Mandates could be such as:to provide a comprehensive approach to protecting critical infrastructure—thekey physical and cyber components of the energy and utilities, communications,services, transportation, safety and government sectors; andto be a government’s primary agency for ensuring national civil emergencypreparedness–for all types of emergencies.",Human-written
TRAIN_323,"Smart mobs are similar in organization to flash mobs but tend to be more purposeful and enduring forms of social organization. The phenomenon was first described by How-ard Rheingold in his book Smart Mobs: The Next Social Revolution ,. Rheingold describes several examples of smart mobs, including teenage “thumb tribes” in Tokyo and Helsinki, Finland (named for their use of tiny thumb-operated keyboards on cell phones). Their typical activities included organizing impromptu raves or converging on rock stars or other celebrities.",Human-written
TRAIN_324,"Protocol is a set of formal rules describing how to transmit data, especiallyacross a network. Low level protocols define the electrical and physicalstandards to be observed, bit- and byte-ordering and the transmission anderror detection and correction of the bit stream. High level protocols dealwith the data formatting, including the syntax of messages, the terminal tocomputer dialogue, character sets, sequencing of messages etc. Protocols are,therefore, a set of rules that define how communications should take place,as they are common formulas that enable two separate computers to ‘speak’with and ‘understand’ each other. The first group of protocols includes the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) family, used for communication via Internet. Other examples are such as HTTP that is used for Web page communications,being a subset of TCP/IP",Human-written
TRAIN_325,"A dynamic link library (DLL) is a collection of small programs that larger programs can load when needed to complete specific tasks. The small program, called a DLL file, contains instructions that help the larger program handle what may not be a core function of the original program. An example of those tasks might be communicating with a specific device, such as a printer or scanner to process a document. DLL files that support specific device operations are known as device drivers. DLL contains bits of code and data, like classes and variables, or other resources such as images that the larger program can use. In addition to being a generic term for dynamic link libraries, Dynamic Link Library is also the name of Microsoft's version of the shared library concept for Windows. A shared library can exist in any operating system (OS).",Human-written
TRAIN_326,"Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) is a separate and shielded or ‘cut off’ systemfrom the main corporate network, containing technical equipment such asthe Webpage. This further protects the main system from being accessed byexternal parties or via the InternetThe term comes from the buffer zone that was set up between North Koreaand South Korea following their war in the early 1950s. A DMZ is not a singlesecurity component; it signifies a capability. Within the DMZ one can find:firewalls,choke and access routers, and alsofront-end and back-end servers. Essentially, the DMZ provides multi-layer filtering and screening to completely block off access to the corporate network and data. And, even wherea legitimate and authorised external query requests corporate data, no directconnection will be permitted from the external client, only a back-end serverwill issue the request (which may require additional authentication) fromthe internal corporate network. How much data may be accessible from theoutside is also depending on asset values that may be represented by thesedata",Human-written
TRAIN_327,"Thousands of real-time views of the world are available on the Web. These include everything from the prosaic (a coffee machine at MIT) to the international (a view of downtown Paris or Tokyo) to the sublime (a Rocky Mountain sunset). All of these views are made possible thanks to the availability of inexpensive digital cameras ,. To create a basic webcam, the user connects a digital camera to a PC, usually via a USB cable. A program controls the camera, taking a picture at frequent intervals (perhaps every 30 seconds or minute). The picture is received from the camera as a JPG (JPEG) file. The program then uploads the picture to the user’s Web page (usually using file transfer protocol, or ftp), replacing the previous picture. Users connected to the Web site can click to see the latest picture. Alternatively, a script running on the server can update the picture automatically.",Human-written
TRAIN_328,"An applet is a small program that uses the resources of a larger program and usually provides customization or addi-tional features. The term first appeared in the early 1990s in connection with Apple’s AppleScript scripting language for the macintosh operating system. Today Java applets rep-resent the most widespread use of this idea in Web develop-ment ,. Java applets are compiled to an intermediate repre-sentation called bytecode, and generally are run in a Web browser ,. Applets thus represent one of several alternatives for interacting with users of Web pages beyond what can be accomplished using simple text markup ,. An applet can be invoked by inserting a reference to its program code in the text of the Web page, using the HTmL applet element or the now-preferred object element. Although the distinction between applets and scripting code (such as in PHP) is somewhat vague, applets usually run in their own window or otherwise provide their own interface, while scripting code is generally used to tailor the behavior of separately created objects. Applets are also rather like plug-ins, but the latter are generally used to provide a particular capability (such as the ability to read or play a particular kind of media file), and have a stan-dardized facility for their installation and management ,. Some common uses for applets include animations of scientific or programming concepts for Web pages support-ing class curricula and for games designed to be played using Web browsers. Animation tools such as Flash and Shockwave are often used for creating graphic applets. To prevent badly or maliciously written applets from affecting user files, applets such as Java applets are gen-erally run within a restricted or “sandbox” environment where, for example, they are not allowed to write or change files on disk.",Human-written
TRAIN_329,Smurfing is an attack that exploits features of the IP protocol within theTCP/IP protocol used for internet communications. A smurf attack causes a victim’s computer to become completely ‘waylaid’ with answering fictitious network requests (‘Pings’) that it grinds to ahalt and prevents anyone else from logging on.,Human-written
TRAIN_330,"These general principles also apply to systems where more than one processor is available ,, but there is the added complication of deciding where the scheduling program will be run. In a multiprocessing system that has one “master” and many “slave” processors, the scheduling program runs on the master processor. This arrangement is simple, but it means that when a slave processor wants to schedule a program it must wait until the scheduling program gets its next time-slice on the master processor. One alternative is to allow any processor that has free time to run the scheduling algorithm. This is harder to set up because it requires a mechanism to make sure two processors do not try to run the scheduling program at the same time, but it smoothes out the bottleneck that would arise from relying on a single processor.",Human-written
TRAIN_331,"By the 1990s, PC users generally used tapes only for making backups. A typical backup tape drive uses DAT (digital audio tape) cartridges that hold from hundreds of megabytes to several gigabytes of data. Most drives use a rotating assembly of four heads (two read and two write) that verify data as it’s being written. As a backup medium, tape has a lower cost per gigabyte than disk devices. It is easy to use and can be set up to run unattended (except for periodically changing cartridges). However, since tapes are written and read sequentially, they are not convenient for restoring selected files ,. Many smaller installations now prefer using a second (“mirror”) hard drive as backup, using disk arrays , or using recordable CDs or optical drives for smaller amounts of data ,. Many large companies and government agencies have thousands of reels of tape stored away in their vaults since the 1960s, including data returned from early NASA space missions. As time passes, it becomes increasingly difficult to guarantee that this archived data can be successfully read. This is due both to gradual deterioration of the medium and the older data formats becoming obsolete ,.",Human-written
TRAIN_332,Sniffer is software designed to look at and/or to collect traffic on the wire. Sniffing tools are built into majority of UNIX type systems and there is wealthof free tools available on the internet for other platforms. Majority of themare designed around the libpcap library and tcpdump tool. Some IntrusionDetection Systems have option of being run as a sniffer too.,Human-written
TRAIN_333,"Advantages of digital libraries include the following:166? ? ? ? e-books and digital libraries, There is never a shortage of copies or the need for a reader to wait for access. ,? Many digital libraries allow full searching of the text of all volumes. Libraries can also use a common data format (such as “Open Archives. ”) to make their material searchable throughout the Internet. ,? Many older, hard-to-find books can be made more “discoverable” and accessible",Human-written
TRAIN_334,"An operating system is an overarching program that manages the resources of the computer. It runs programs andprovides them with access to memory (RAM), input/outputdevices, a file system, and other services. It provides application programmers with a way to invoke system services, andgives users a way to control programs and organize files. The “core” functions include “booting” the system and initializing devices, process management(loading programs intro memory assigning them a share ofprocessing time), and allowing processes to communicatewith the operating system or one another ,. Multiprogramming systems often implement not only processes (running programs) but also threads, or sections ofcode within programs that can be controlled separately. A memory management scheme is used to organize andaddress memory, handle requests to allocate memory, freeup memory no longer being used, and rearrange memory tomaximize the useful amount ,. There is also a scheme for organizing data created orused by programs into files of various types ,. Mostoperating systems today have a hierarchical file system thatallows for files to be organized into directories or foldersthat can be further subdivided if necessary",Human-written
TRAIN_335,"Click Wrap Agreement checks if a user meets certain requirements, by clicking on the I Agree button, the user has agreed to complete terms of use agreement including another confirmation that the user meets certain requirements(e. g. , working at an educational institutions or being located in a country theproduct can and may be used). To complete the agreement, the user mayagain be required to scroll to the bottom of the agreement and click on the “IAgree” icon [see also End User License Agreement (EULA), Jurisdiction]. This is also sometimes called a Shrink Wrap Agreement, whereby rippingoff the shrink wrap around the software implies that the user will take advantage of the software according to the conditions stipulated by the vendor",Human-written
TRAIN_336,"There are a number of ways that sound can be sampled, stored, or generated digitally ,. Here we will look at some of the most popular sound file formats. WAVThe WAV (wave) file format is specific to Microsoft Windows. It essentially stores the raw sample data that represents the digitized audio content, including information about the sampling rate (which in turns affects the sound quality). Since WAV files are not compressed, they can consume considerable disk space. AIFFAIFF stands for Audio Interchange File Format, and is specific to the Apple Macintosh and to Silicon Graphics (SGI) platforms. Like WAV, it stores actual sound sample data. A variant, AIFF-C, can store compressed sound. AUThe AU (audio) file format was developed by Sun Microsystems and is used mainly on UNIX systems, and also in Java programming. MIDIMIDI stands for Musical Instrument Digital Interface. Unlike most other sound formats, MIDI files don’t represent sampled sound data. Rather, they represent virtual musical instruments that synthesize sound according to complex algorithms that attempt to mirror the acoustic characteristics of real pianos, guitars, or other instruments. Since MIDI is like a “score” for the virtual instruments rather than storing the sounds, it is much more compact than sampled sound formats. MIDI is generally used for music composition rather than casual listening. MP3MP3 is actually a component of the MPEG (Moving Picture Expert Group) multimedia standard, and stands for MPEG1 Audio Layer 3. It is now the most popular sound format, using compression to provide a balance of sound quality",Human-written
TRAIN_337,"Today it is easy to optically scan text or graphics printed onpages and convert it into a graphical representation for storage in the computer ,. However, a shape suchas a letter c doesn’t mean anything in particular as a graphic. Optical character recognition (OCR) is the process of identifying the letter or other document element that correspondsto a given part of the scanned image and converting it tothe appropriate character ,. Ifthe process is successful, the result is a text document thatcan be manipulated in a word processor, database, or otherprogram that handles text. Raymond Kurzweil (1948– )marketed the first commercially practicable general-purposeoptical character recognition system in 1978.",Human-written
TRAIN_338,"When a user types in (or clicks on) a link in the browser window, the browser sends a HTTP request ,. To construct the request, the browser first looks at the address (URL) in the user request. An address such as http://www. well. com/conferencing. html consists of three parts In order to direct the browser’s request to the appropriate host and server, the browser sends the URL to a name server ,. The name server provides the appropriate numeric IP address ,. The browser then sends an HTTP “get” request to the server’s IP address. Assuming the page requested is valid, the server sends the HTML file to the browser. The browser in turn interprets the formatting and display instructions in the HTML file and “renders” the text and graphics appropriately. It is remarkable that this whole process from user click to displayed page usually takes only a few seconds, even if the Web site is thousands of miles away and requests must be relayed through many intervening computers",Human-written
TRAIN_339,"The operation of the Internet requires that each participating computer have a unique address to which data packets can be routed ,. The Domain Name System (DNS) provides alphabetical equivalents to the numeric IP addresses, giving the now familiar-looking Web addresses (URLs), e-mail addresses, and so on. The system uses a set of “top-level” domains to categorize these names. One set of domains is based on the nature of the sites involved, including: . com (commercial, corporate), . edu (educational institutions), . gov (government), . mil (military), . org (nonprofit organizations), . int (international organizations), . net (network service providers, and so on). The other set of top-level domains is based on the geographical location of the site. For example, . au (Australia), . fr (France), and . ca (Canada). (While the United States has the . us domain, it is generally omitted in practice, because the Internet was developed in the United States)",Human-written
TRAIN_340,"The Master Boot Record (MBR) is a piece of code at the beginning of a hard disk that initiates the boot process and contains information about the disk's partition table and boot loader. It can be vulnerable to malware attacks, and preventative measures such as antivirus software and backups are recommended.",AI-generated
TRAIN_341,"Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) is the “next generation” protocol designed by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) to replace the currentversion Internet Protocol, IP Version 4 (“IPv4”). Most of today’s internet uses IPv4, which is now twenty years old. IPv4has been remarkably resilient in spite of its age, but it is beginning to haveproblems. Most importantly, there is a growing shortage of IPv4 addresses,which are needed by all new machines added to the Internet. IPv6 fixes a number of problems in IPv4, such as the limited number ofavailable IPv4 addresses. It also adds many improvements to IPv4 in areassuch as routing and network autoconfiguration. IPv6 is expected to graduallyreplace IPv4, with the two coexisting for a number of years during a transitionperiod ,.",Human-written
TRAIN_342,"The most popular e-commerce sectors today include the selling of books, music and movies, travel-related services, electronics, clothing, luxury goods, and medications. (In 2006, online buyers actually spent more money on clothing than on computers and related products. ) A number of other online activities can be considered part of e-commerce, although they are usually not included in retailing statistics",Human-written
TRAIN_343,"In recent years there has been growing concern that Internet users may eventually be treated differently by service pro-viders depending on the kind of data they download or the kind of application programs they use online. Advocates of network (or net) neutrality , want legislation that would bar cable, DSL, or other provid-ers , from making such distinctions, such as by charging content pro-viders higher fees for high volumes of data or even blocking certain applications. Advocates of net neutrality believe that, since there are rather limited choices for broadband Internet service, discrimination on the basis of Web content could lead to a loss of freedom for consumers and providers alike.",Human-written
TRAIN_344,"A data structure is a way of organizing data for use in a computer program. There are three basic components to a data structure: a set of suitable basic data types, a way to organize or relate these data items to one another, and a set of operations, or ways to manipulate the data. For example, the array is a data structure that can consist of just about any of the basic data types, although all data must be of the same type. The way the data is organized is by storing it in sequentially addressable locations. The operations include storing a data item (element) in the array and retrieving a data item from the array.",Human-written
TRAIN_345,"Web users increasingly have access to such content as news broadcasts, songs, and even full-length videos. The problem is that the user must receive the content in real time at a steady pace, not in sputters or jerks. However, factors such as load on the Web server and network congestion between the server and user can cause delays in transmission. One way to reduce the problem would be to compress the data ,. However, excessive compression would compromise audio or picture quality to an unacceptable extent. Fortunately, a technology called streaming offers a way to smooth out the transmission of large amounts audio or video content ,. When a user clicks on an audio or video link, the player software (or Web browser plug-in) is loaded and the transmission begins. Typically, the player stores a few seconds of the transmission ,, so any momentary delays in the transmission of data packets will not appear as the data starts to play. Assuming the rate of transmission remains sufficient, enough data remains in the buffer so that data can be “fed” to the playing software at a steady pace. If, however, there is too much delay due to network congestion, the playback will pause while the player refills its buffer",Human-written
TRAIN_346,"Abstract data types are used to describe a “generic” type of data, specifying how the data is stored and what operations can be performed on it ,. DFor example, an abstract stack data type includes a structure for storing data (such as a list or array) and a set of operations, such as “pushing” an integer onto the stack and “popping” (removing) an integer from the stack. (For the process of combining data and operations into a single entity, see encapsulation. ) Abstract data types can be implemented directly in object-oriented programming languages",Human-written
TRAIN_347,"The psychology of cyberspace is a field of study that focuses on the psychological processes involved in human interactions with computer-mediated environments, such as the internet, social media, virtual reality, and other digital spaces. It seeks to understand how people perceive, process, and interact with technology-mediated environments, and how these interactions affect their behavior, cognition, and emotions. One of the key areas of study in the psychology of cyberspace is the impact of digital environments on human behavior and cognition. Researchers in this field examine how technology-mediated environments influence attention, memory, learning, decision-making, and social behavior. They also explore the effects of digital environments on mental health and well-being, including the potential risks and benefits of technology use. Another important area of study in the psychology of cyberspace is online identity and self-presentation. Researchers in this area examine how people present themselves online, how they manage their online reputations, and how they form social connections in digital environments. They also explore how anonymity, privacy, and surveillance impact online behavior and self-disclosure. The psychology of cyberspace is a multidisciplinary field that draws on theories and methods from psychology, communication studies, sociology, anthropology, and computer science. Its findings are applied in a variety of settings, including the design of digital technologies and online environments, as well as in areas such as education, healthcare, and marketing.",AI-generated
TRAIN_348,"The Internet and its perception as a shared cyberspace adds new dimensions to the psychology of computing. In fact, the emphasis here is not on computation per se but on the representation of ideas and images, communication, social interaction, and identity. In particular, pioneering work , has illuminated ways in which online interactions affect identity and sense of self—even encouraging the assumption of multiple identities ,. Indeed, virtual worlds such as Second Life offer new ways to study the formation of communities and social interactions. On the positive side, it has been argued that cyberspace has encouraged people (particularly adolescents) to experiment with new identities in a relatively safe environment, but lack of inhibition and experience can lead to risky behavior such as involvement with sexual predators. The very fact that many people (particularly the young) may spend several hours a day or more immersed in the online world has also led to concerns; some psychologists have even suggested that “Internet addiction disorder” (IAD) be included as an official mental disorder similar to compulsive gambling. However, as of 2007, the American Medical Association has not recommended that IAD be classified as a mental disorder, and the American Society of Addiction Medicine has resisted such a status. Generally, excessive or inappropriate use of the Internet has been seen as a symptom of more traditional diagnoses such as obsession or compulsion.",Human-written
TRAIN_349,"The file server has many advantages over storing the files needed by each user on his or her own PC. By storing the files on a central server, ordinary users’ PCs do not need to have larger, more expensive disk drives. Central storage also makes it easier to ensure that backups are run regularly.",Human-written
TRAIN_350,"Darknets are a collection of networks and technologies used to share digitaland other content or objects (e. g. , software programs, songs, movies, andbooks) and have substantial non-infringing uses. The darknet is not a separatephysical network but an application and protocol layer riding on existingnetworks. Darknets offer distributed object storage, whereby today’s Darknets do notrely upon any centralized server or service—a peer just needs the IP addressof one or a few participating peers to be able to reach any host on the Darknet. Also important is that with the open protocol, anyone can write a clientapplication for a particular Darknet. Second, Gnutella is not really “run”by anyone: it is an open protocol and anyone can write a Gnutella clientapplication. Members-only darknets are popping up to protect file sharing from prying eyes. Inn",Human-written
TRAIN_351,"Different kinds of objects often have analogous methods. For example, suppose there is a series of classes that represent various polygons: square, triangle, hexagon, and so forth. Each class has a method called “perimeter” thatreturns the total distance around the edges of the object. Ifeach of these classes is derived from a base polygon class,each class inherits the base class’s perimeter method andadapts it for its own use. Thus, a square might calculateits perimeter simply by multiplying the length of a side byfour, while the rectangle would have to add up differentsized pairs of sides, and so on.",Human-written
TRAIN_352,"Forth has a very simple structure. The Forth system con-sists of a collection of words. Each word is a sequence of operations (which can include other existing words). For example, the DUP word makes a copy of a data value. Data is held by a stack. For example, the arithmetic expression written as 2 + 3 in most languages would be written in Forth as + 2 3. When the + operator (which in Forth is a pre-defined word) executes, it adds the next two numbers it encounters (2 and 3) together, and puts the sum on the stack (where in turn it might be fetched for further process-ing by the next word in the program ,. This rep-resentation is also called postfix notation and is familiar to many users of scientific calculators.",Human-written
TRAIN_353,"Zuse was born on June 22, 1910, in Berlin. He stud-ied civil engineering at the Technische Hochschule Berlin-Charlottenburg, receiving his degree in 1935. One of histasks in engineering was performing calculations of thestress on structures such as bridges. At the time these cal-culations were carried out by going through a series of stepson a form over and over again, plugging in the data andcalculating by hand or using an electromechanical calcula-tor. Like other inventors before him, Zuse began to wonderwhether he could build a machine that could carry outthese repetitive steps automatically. departing from other calculator designers). The Z1 had trouble storing and retrieving numbers andnever worked well. Undeterred, Zuse began to develop anew machine that used electromechanical telephone relays(a ubiquitous component that was also favored by HowardAiken [see Aiken, Howard]). The new machine workedmuch better, and Zuse successfully demonstrated it at theGerman Aerodynamics Research Institute in 1939. With World War II under way, Zuse was able to obtainfunding for his Z3, which was able to carry out automaticsequences from instructions. Zuseused spare time from his military duties at the Henschelaircraft company to work on the Z4, which was completedin 1949.",Human-written
TRAIN_354,"E-commerce has become a popular way for consumers to shop for goods and services. However, with the increasing use of e-commerce, security and privacy issues have become a concern for consumers. Here are some of the common security and privacy issues in e-commerce:Cybersecurity: Online transactions involve the exchange of sensitive information such as credit card details, personal information, and passwords. Therefore, e-commerce sites need to have strong cybersecurity measures to prevent data breaches, hacking, and other cyber threats. Payment fraud: Payment fraud is a common issue in e-commerce, where fraudsters use stolen credit card information to make fraudulent purchases. Online retailers need to have measures in place to detect and prevent payment fraud, such as fraud detection algorithms and multi-factor authentication. Privacy: Consumers are often hesitant to share their personal information online, as they fear it may be used for malicious purposes. Therefore, e-commerce sites need to have clear privacy policies and ensure that consumers' personal information is secure and not shared with third parties without their consent. Phishing scams: Phishing scams are a common issue in e-commerce, where fraudsters send emails or messages that appear to be from legitimate retailers, asking for personal information or login credentials. Online retailers need to educate their customers on how to spot and avoid phishing scams. Malware: Malware, such as viruses and Trojans, can infect e-commerce sites and compromise customers' personal information. Online retailers need to have strong antivirus software and regularly update their systems to prevent malware attacks.",AI-generated
TRAIN_355,"As the name implies, a touchscreen is a screen display that can respond to various areas being touched or pressed. Invented in 1971, the first form of touchscreens to become part of daily life were found on automatic teller machines (ATMs) and point-of-sale credit card processors. Touchscreens can detect the pressure of a finger or stylus in several ways: A “resistive” touchscreen uses two layers of electrically conductive metallic material separated by a space. When an area is touched, the two layers are electrically connected, and the change in electrical current is registered and converted to a code that identifies the location touched. Surface acoustic wave (SAW) touchscreens use an ultrasonic wave that is interrupted by a touch; capacitive touchscreens respond to the change in electron storage (capacitance) caused by contact with a human body. Various other acoustic, mechanical (strain-based), or optical systems can also be used, with the latter being particularly popular",Human-written
TRAIN_356,"Ruby on Rails, also known as simply Rails, is a web application framework written in the Ruby programming language. It was created by David Heinemeier Hansson in 2004 and has since become one of the most popular web frameworks for building dynamic, database-driven web applications. Rails provides a set of conventions and tools for building web applications, including support for database migrations, model-view-controller (MVC) architecture, and a wide range of plugins and gems that extend its functionality. One of the key features of Rails is its emphasis on convention over configuration. This means that Rails provides sensible defaults and conventions that help developers get up and running quickly without having to spend a lot of time configuring the framework. For example, Rails provides a default directory structure for organizing files, a default database schema for storing data, and a set of naming conventions that make it easy to map between database tables and Ruby classes. Rails is also known for its focus on developer productivity, with a philosophy that emphasizes simplicity, elegance, and developer happiness. This has made it a popular choice for startups and small businesses, as well as larger enterprises. Rails is used by many popular websites and companies, including GitHub, Shopify, Airbnb, and Basecamp.",AI-generated
TRAIN_357,"The DVD (alternatively, Digital Video Disc or Digital Versatile Disc) is similar to a CD, but uses laser light with a shorter wavelength. This means that the size of the pits and lands will be considerably smaller, which in turns means that much more data can be stored on the same size disk. A DVD disk typically stores up to 4. 7 GB of data, equivalent to about six CDs. This capacity can be doubled by using both sides of the disk. The high capacity of DVD-ROMs (and their recordable equivalent, DVD-RAMs) makes them useful for storing feature-length movies or videos, very large games and multimedia programs, or large illustrated encyclopedias. The development of high-definition television (HDTV) standards spurred the introduction of higher capacity DVD formats. The competition between Sony’s Blu-Ray and HD-DVD (backed by Toshiba and Microsoft, among others) was resolved by 2008 in favor of the former. BluRay offers high capacity (25GB for single layer discs, 50GB for dual layer).",Human-written
TRAIN_358,Challenge-Handshake Authentication Protocol (CHAP) is used to periodically verify the identity of the peer using a 3-way handshake. This isdone upon initial link establishment‚ and MAY be repeated anytime after thelink has been established. After the Link Establishment phase is complete‚ the authenticator sendsa “challenge” message to the peer which is a random byte-sequence as wellas the identifier‚ a randomly generated number. The peer responds with avalue calculated using a “one-way hash” function. The authenticator checksthe response against its own calculation of the expected hash value. If thevalues match‚ the authentication is acknowledged; otherwise the connectionSHOULD be terminated. CHAP provides protection against playback attack through the use of anincrementally changing identifier and a variable challenge value. The use ofrepeated challenges is intended to limit the time of exposure to any singleattack. The authentication can occur between client and server‚ in largerinfrastructures‚ however‚ the administration of keys or passwords can bequite a big effort. CHAP also supports the use of central server that acts as a central certification unit according to such as‚ the Remote Access Dial-in User Serviceprinciple or is in control of the frequency and timing of the challenges.,Human-written
TRAIN_359,"Java Sandbox contains specific provisions to deal with potentially dangerousapplets, and tries to execute them in a protected mode that severely limits theeffects they can have on other applications and the host computer. The Javadesign team spent time worrying about malicious executables and how theycan be prevented from running amok, hence the Sandbox was invented.",Human-written
TRAIN_360,"Sony Corporation, commonly referred to as Sony, is a multinational conglomerate corporation based in Tokyo, Japan. Founded in 1946, the company is involved in a wide range of businesses, including electronics, gaming, entertainment, financial services, and more. Sony is well-known for its consumer electronics products, including TVs, audio equipment, cameras, and smartphones. The company is also a major player in the gaming industry, with its PlayStation console series and related games and accessories. In addition to its electronics and gaming businesses, Sony has a significant presence in the entertainment industry. The company owns multiple film and television studios, as well as music labels and streaming services. Sony Pictures Entertainment is responsible for producing and distributing a wide range of movies and TV shows, while Sony Music Entertainment is one of the world's largest music companies. Overall, Sony is a large and diverse corporation with a wide range of products and services. The company has a reputation for innovation and quality, and its products are used by millions of people around the world.",AI-generated
TRAIN_361,"Cellular automata theory has been applied to a variety of fields that deal with the complex interrelationships of components, including biology (microbe growth and population dynamics in general), ecology (including forestry), and animal behavior, such as the flight of birds. (The cues that a bird identifies in its neighbors are like the input conditions for a cell in a cellular automaton. The “output” would be the bird’s flight behavior. )The ability of cellular automatons to generate a rich complexity from simple components and rules mimics the development of life from simple components, and thus cellular automation is an important tool in the creation and study of artificial life. This can be furthered by combining a set of cellular automation rules with a geneticalgorithm, including a mechanism for inheritance of characteristics. Cellular automation principles can also be applied to engineering in areas such as pattern or image recognition",Human-written
TRAIN_362,"While spam can appear in any communications medium (including chat, instant messaging, and even blogs), the most prevalent type is e-mail spam, which costs U. S. businesses billions of dollars a year in processing expenditures, lost time, and damage caused by malicious software (malware) for which spam can be either a delivery vehicle or an inducement. In 2007 an estimated 90 billion spam messages were sent each day. The fundamental driving force of spam is the fact that, given one has Internet access, sending e-mail costs essentially nothing, no matter how many messages are sent. Thus even if only a tiny number of people respond to a spam solicitation (such as for sexual-enhancement products), the result is almost pure profit for the spammer. Besides directly making fraudulent solicitations for products that are ineffective, counterfeit, or nonexistent, spam carries two other dangers: inducements to click to visit fake Web sites , and attachments containing viruses or other dangerous software ,",Human-written
TRAIN_363,"A wiki is a collaborative website that allows users to create, edit, and link web pages easily. The structure of a wiki typically consists of the following elements:Pages: A wiki is made up of individual pages, each of which can contain text, images, links, and other media. Pages can be created, edited, and deleted by users with appropriate permissions. Links: Pages in a wiki are connected through links, which allow users to navigate from one page to another. Links can be created within a page or between pages, and they often form a web of interconnected information. Navigation: A wiki typically has a navigation system that allows users to browse through pages and find the information they need. Navigation can take the form of a table of contents, a search bar, or a hierarchical menu. History: One of the defining features of a wiki is its revision history. Every change made to a page is recorded, allowing users to see who made what changes and when. This makes it easy to track the evolution of a page over time and to undo mistakes or vandalism. Categories: Categories are a way of organizing pages in a wiki. Pages can be assigned to one or more categories, which helps users find related content and facilitates maintenance and cleanup of the wiki. Overall, the structure of a wiki is designed to promote collaboration and sharing of knowledge among a community of users. By allowing anyone to contribute and edit pages, wikis can quickly accumulate a wealth of information and evolve over time to reflect the collective knowledge of their users.",AI-generated
TRAIN_364,"The traditional computer display uses a cathode ray tube (CRT) like that in a television set ,. The flat-panel display is an alternative used in most laptop com-puters and some higher-end desktop systems. The most common type uses a liquid crystal display (LCD). The dis-play consists of a grid of cells with one cell for each of the three colors (red, green, and blue) for each pixel.",Human-written
TRAIN_365,"While the attention of the first computer designers focused mainly on numeric calculations, it was clear that much of the data that business people and others would want to manipulate with the new machines would be textual in nature. Billing records, for example, would have to include customer names and addresses, not just balance totals. The “natural” representation of data in a computer is as a series of two-state (binary) values, interpreted as binary numbers. The solution for representing text (letters of the alphabet, punctuation marks, and other special symbols) is to assign a numeric value to each text symbol. The result is a character code, such as ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange), which is the scheme used most widely today. (Another system, EBCDIC (Extended Binary-Coded Decimal Interchange Code) was used during the heyday of IBM mainframes, but is seldom used today.",Human-written
TRAIN_366,"Just about anyone with an e-mail account has received messages purporting to be from a bank, a popular e-commerce site such as Amazon or eBay, or even a government agency. Typically the message warns of a problem (such as a suspended account) and urges the recipient to click on a link in the message. If the user does so, what appears to look like the actual site of the relevant institution is actually a “spoof,” or fake site. If the user goes on to enter information such as account numbers or passwords in order to fix the “problem,” the information actually goes to the operator of the fake site, where it can be used for fraudulent purchases or even impersonation ,. The bogus site can also attempt to download viruses, spyware, keyloggers, or other forms of “malware” to the unwitting user’s computerThis all-too-common scenario is called “phishing,” alluding to “fishing” for unwary users with various sorts of bait, with the f changed to ph in keeping with traditional hacker practice. Phishing is similar to other techniques for manipulating people through deception, fear, or greed that hackers often refer to as “social engineering. ” Unlike oneon-one approaches, however, phishing relies on the ability to send large quantities of e-mail at virtually no cost ,, the availability of simple techniques for disguising both e-mail addresses and Web addresses (URLs), and the ease with which the appearance of a Web site can be convincingly replicated. Although e-mail is the most common “hook” for phishing, any form of communication, including text or instant messages, can be used. Recently sites such as MySpace have become targets for automated phishing expeditions that changed links on pages to point to fraudulent sites",Human-written
TRAIN_367,"Functional languages have generally been used for special-ized purposes, although they can in principle perform any task that an imperative language can. APL, which is basi-cally a functional language, has devotees who appreciate its compact and powerful syntax for performing calculations ,. LISP and its variants have long been favored for many artificial intelligence applications, particularly natu-ral language processing, where its representation of data as lists and the facility of its list-processing functions seems a natural fit. Proponents of functional languages argue that they free the programmer from having to be concerned with explic-itly setting up and using variables. In a functional language, problems can often be stated in a more purely mathematical way. Further, because functional programs are not orga-nized as sequentially executed tasks, it may be easier to implement parallel processing systems using functional languages. However, critics point out that imperative languages are much closer to how computers actually work (employing actual storage locations and sequential operation) and thus produce code likely to be much faster and more efficient than that produced by functional languages.",Human-written
TRAIN_368,"Yahoo!has played an importantrole in the development of Web services. In 1994 Stan-ford students Jerry Yang and David Filo developed the firstpopular directory of Web sites. Realizing thatthe millions of Web users flocking to their site provided anopportunity for advertising and services, the two partnersincorporated Yahoo! in 1995. Yahoo! continued to grow, and the company acquireda number of other online services, which they used to pro-vide Web-based e-mail, Web hosting, and news. But havingflown so high, Yahoo! had far to fall when the dot-com mar-ket bubble burst in 2001: A stock that had traded at around$130. 00 per share fell as low as $4. 06. However, Yahoo! proved its resilience as one of the fewearly dot-coms to survive and has continued to thrive inthe post-bubble era since 2002. The company made strate-gic partnerships with telecommunications companies suchas BT and Verizon. Yahoo! entered a continuing strugglewith another Web services powerhouse , whileacquiring new media sites (such as the photo-sharing ser-vice Flickr and the social “bookmarking” service del. icio. us), and creating new services ,. Yahoo! also provides onlinestorefronts, competing in that venue mainly with eBay.",Human-written
TRAIN_369,"For people who find commercial online services to be too expensive or confining, there are alternatives available for just the cost of an Internet connection. The popular Internet Relay Chat (IRC) was developed in Finland by Jarkko Oikarinen in the late 1980s. Using one of the freely available client programs, users connect to an IRC server, which in turn is connected to one of dozens of IRC networks. Users can create their own chat rooms (called channels). There are thousands of IRC channels with participants all over the world. To participate, a user simply joins a channel and sees all messages currently being posted by other users of the channel. In turn, the user’s messages are posted for all to see. While IRC uses only text, there are now enhanced chat systems (often written in Java to work with a Web browser) that add graphics and other features. There are many other technologies that can be used for conversing via the Internet. Some chat services (such as Cu-SeeMe) enable participants to transmit their images ,. Voice can also be transmitted over an Internet connection ,. For a very pervasive form of “ad hoc” textual communication, see texting and instant messaging",Human-written
TRAIN_370,"Command and Control Warfare (C2W) is a military strategy that involves the use of various tactics to disrupt or disable an adversary's command and control systems while protecting one's own systems. C2W aims to achieve information superiority by denying an adversary access to critical information, degrading their decision-making ability, and reducing their effectiveness on the battlefield. Some of the tactics used in C2W include electronic warfare, deception, and psychological operations. Electronic warfare involves using electromagnetic radiation to disrupt an adversary's electronic systems. Deception involves misleading an adversary about one's own capabilities and intentions. Psychological operations involve using information and propaganda to influence an adversary's behavior and decision-making.",AI-generated
TRAIN_371,"The ever-growing World Wide Web consists of billions of linked HTML documents (and other resources), but most of the links contain no information about why the linkage has been made or what it might mean. Services such as Google can automatically trace the links and index each page , with the aid of “metadata” such as keywords that summarize page content. However, discovering the relationships between data items on pages, or between pages—and their meaning, or semantics—requires human scrutiny. In his 1999 book Weaving the Web, World Wide Web creator Tim Berners-Lee , described a new way in which Web pages might be organized in the future:I have a dream for the Web [in which computers] become capable of analyzing all the data on the Web—the content, links, and transactions between people and computers. A “Semantic Web,” which should make this possible, has yet to emerge, but when it does, the day-to-day mechanisms of trade, bureaucracy and our daily lives will be handled by machines talking to machines. The “intelligent agents” people have touted for ages will finally materialize. In other words, by encoding definitions of objects and their relationships into the text of Web pages, programs , can be written to use this information to answer sophisticated questions such as “which devices from this vendor use open-source software?”",Human-written
TRAIN_372,"All of the sorting algorithms discussed so far rely upon some form of comparison. However, it also possible to sort records by calculating their relative positions or distribution ,. In its simplest form, an array can be created whose range of indexes is equal to 1 to the maximum possible key value. Each key is then stored in the index position equal to its value (that is, a record with a key of 2314 would be stored in the array at position Array[2314]. This procedure works well, but only if the keys are all integers, the range is small enough to fit in memory, and there are no duplicate keys (since a duplicate would in effect overwrite the record already stored in that position). A more practical approach is to use a formula (hash function) that should create a unique hash value for each key. The function must be chosen to minimize “collisions” where two keys end up with the same hash value, which creates the same problem as with duplicate keys. A hash sort is quite efficient within those constraints",Human-written
TRAIN_373,"An End User License Agreement (EULA) is a legal contract between a software owner and the end user that outlines the terms and conditions for using the software, including any restrictions and limitations of liability. By accepting the EULA, the end user agrees to abide by the specified conditions of use.",AI-generated
TRAIN_374,"The history of graphics cards can be traced back to the 1970s, when computer graphics were first being developed. In the early days, graphics were generated by the computer's central processing unit (CPU), which limited the quality and speed of graphics rendering. The first dedicated graphics card was developed in the late 1970s by IBM, which introduced the Monochrome Display Adapter (MDA) in 1981. The MDA was a text-only display adapter that could display up to 80 columns of text on a monochrome monitor. In the early 1980s, the Color Graphics Adapter (CGA) was introduced, which was the first graphics card to support color graphics. The CGA could display 16 colors at a resolution of 320x200 pixels. In the mid-1980s, the Enhanced Graphics Adapter (EGA) was introduced, which could display up to 16 colors at a higher resolution of 640x350 pixels. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, a number of new graphics standards were introduced, including Video Graphics Array (VGA), Super VGA (SVGA), and XGA. These standards offered higher resolutions, more colors, and faster refresh rates, and helped to drive the development of dedicated graphics cards. In the mid-1990s, 3D graphics technology began to emerge, with the introduction of the first 3D graphics accelerators. These cards, such as the 3dfx Voodoo and the Nvidia RIVA, were designed to offload 3D rendering tasks from the CPU, resulting in smoother and more realistic graphics.",AI-generated
TRAIN_375,"Business Continuity Plan (BCP) is a plan to ensure that the essential business functions of the organization are able to continue (or re-start) in the event of unforeseen circumstances; normally a disaster of some sort ,. The BCP follows the Disaster Recovery Plan ,. BCP identifies the critical people and their roles and functions while the BCP is in force‚ information‚ systems‚ and other infrastructures (e. g. ‚ telephones‚ servers‚ SMS gateways) that are required to enable the business to operate again fully. The BCP lays out a detailed plan which‚ if called upon‚ should be executed to assure minimum additional disruption after a massive computer Virus Attack or disaster. Companies that do not have clear business continuity plans remain very vulnerable. Good recovery from a disaster is‚ however‚ contingent upon people‚ processes and training. Finally‚ management awareness may be the main weakness in business continuity planning. Doing the basics well is they key‚ whereby if one says one will take his or her data off site within 24 hours of a calamity‚ one must make sure that this is being done. Hence‚ fire drills or ‘dress rehearsals’ by simulating various disaster scenarios will permit the organization to be in a better position‚ while recovering faster after a disaster. Hence‚ business continuity and disaster recovery plans need to be exercised so that kinks may be worked out before the crisis hits.",Human-written
TRAIN_376,"The concept of digital convergence is an attempt to explore the implications of so many formerly disparate analog media now being available in digital form. All forms of digital media have key features in common. First, they are essentially pure information (computer data). This means that regardless of whether the data originally represented still images from a camera, video, or film, the sound of a human voice, music, or some other form of expression, that data can be stored, manipulated, and retrieved under the control of computer algorithms. This makes it easier to create seamless multimedia presentations ,. Services or products previously considered to be separate can be combined in new ways.",Human-written
TRAIN_377,"is considered to take place only when accessto a computer or network resource is intentionally blocked or degraded as aresult of malicious action taken by another user. While these attacks coulddamage data directly or permanently they do not have to. However, theyintentionally compromise the availability of the resources. An attacker carriesout a denial-of-service attack by making a resource inoperative, by taking upso much of a shared resource that none of the resource is left for other users,or by degraded the resource so that it is less valuable to users. Those sharedresources are reached through processes and can include other processes,shared files, disk space, percentage of CPU, modems, etc. DoS is an attack based on the principles of the TCP Three-way Handshakeexploitation. It was very popular in late 1990s. Flooding system by speciallycrafted packets from one host could disable its networking capabilities andin some cases even force it to reboot. Majority of the exploitable holes werepatched and this form of attack is nowadays nearly impossible.",Human-written
TRAIN_378,"eMail or Electronic Mail is an electronically transmitted message which arrives as a computer file on a user’s PC or the corporation’s server. Originallyconceived as a simple means of sending short messages from one computer toanother, the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) was introduced withoutsecurity in mind. Whilst standards have been agreed for the attachment of files to eMailmessages, be aware that such files can contain Malicious Code such as a Virus. eMail is insecure because:Message can purport to have been sent from an individual, whilst it was sentfrom somebody else, possible misrepresentation;The From field may have been modified to indicate a sender that is fallacious ordoes not exist;Because there is no Authentication, the eMail can be opened by anyone unlessit is encrypted ,;When sending eMail, the sender has no guarantee that the recipient has receivedit after passing through multiple computer nodes to get to the final destination, hence, without requesting safe receipt there is little guarantee ,; andeMail is not a legal document unless sent using a digital signature but by 2002,EU member states and the USA (some states) have begun accepting documents withDigital Signatures as legally binding documents",Human-written
TRAIN_379,"Common Business-Oriented Language was developed under the impetus of a 1959 Department of Defense initiative to create a common language for developing business applications that centered on the processing of data from files. (The military, after all, was a “business” whose inventory control and accounting needs dwarfed those of all but the largest corporations. ) At the time, the principal business-oriented language for mainframe computers was FLOW-MATIC, a language developed by Grace Hopper’s team at RemingtonRand UNIVAC and limited to that company’s computers ,. The first COBOL compilers became available in 1960, and the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) issued a standard specification for the language in 1968. Expanded standards were issued in 1974 and 1985 (COBOL-74 and COBOL-85) with a new standard issued in 2002.",Human-written
TRAIN_380,"Popular groupware software suites such as Lotus Notes and microsoft Exchange generally offer at least some of the following features:, e-mail coordination, including the creation of group or task-oriented mail lists, shared calendar, giving each participant information about all upcoming events, meeting management, including scheduling (ensur-ing compatibility with everyone’s existing schedule) and facilities booking, scheduling tasks with listing of persons responsible for each task, progress (milestones met), and check-ing off completed tasks, real-time “chat” or instant message capabilities, documentation systems that allow a number of people to make comments on the same document and see and respond to each other’s comments, “whiteboard” systems that allow multiple users to draw a diagram or chart in real time, with everyone able to see and possibly modify it",Human-written
TRAIN_381,"Deregulation can have positive effects such as increased competition and innovation, and negative effects such as reduced consumer protection, job losses, and increased environmental impact. Its impact depends on the industry and context.",AI-generated
TRAIN_382,"This type of system uses a screen display that can be directly manipulated by the voter ,. In the most common type, called DRE (direct-recording electronic), a computer program interprets and tabulates the vote as it is cast, storing an image in a removable memory unit and (usually) printing out a copy for backup. After voting is complete, the memory module can be sent to the central counting office. (Alternatively, votes can be transmitted over a computer network in batches throughout the day. ) In a few cases, voting has also been implemented through secure Internet sites.",Human-written
TRAIN_383,"In the kind of science fiction sometimes called “cyberpunk,”people are able to “jack in” or connect their brains directly tocomputer networks. Because of this direct input into the brain(or perhaps the optic and other sensory nerves), a personwho is jacked in experiences the virtual world as fully real,and can (depending on the world’s rules) manipulate it withhis or her mind. This kind of all-immersive virtual reality isstill science fiction, but today people are beginning to controlcomputers and artificial limbs directly with their minds.",Human-written
TRAIN_384,"For some time, technology pundits have talked about computers being literally woven into daily life, embedded in clothing and personal accessories. However, implementations have thus far seen only limited use. For example, watches with limited computer functions , have not proven popular—a watch large enough for input and display of information would likely be too bulky for comfort. (People have also walked about with attached webcams, although the novelty seems to have quickly worn off. )",Human-written
TRAIN_385,"Hashing has many applications in computer science, but two major ones are:Data Storage and Retrieval: Hashing is used for efficient data storage and retrieval in many applications. Hash tables are widely used data structures that store data in a way that allows for fast lookups, insertions, and deletions. In a hash table, data elements are stored based on their keys, and a hash function is used to map the keys to an index in an array. This makes it easy to quickly access a data element given its key, and the time complexity of basic operations like insertions and lookups is typically O(1) on average. Data Authentication and Verification: Hashing is also used for data authentication and verification. When a hash function is applied to a message or data file, it generates a fixed-length hash value that is unique to the input data. This makes it possible to verify that the data has not been tampered with or corrupted in any way, as any changes to the input data will result in a different hash value. Hashing is widely used for password storage, where passwords are hashed and stored in a database, and for digital signatures, where a hash of a document or message is signed to ensure its authenticity and integrity.",AI-generated
TRAIN_386,"o trends in recent years have changed the emphasis in scheduling algorithms. One is the continuing drop in price per unit of processing power and memory. This means that maximum efficiency in using the hardware can often give way in favor of catering to the user’s convenience and perceptions by giving more priority to interaction with the user. The other development is the growing use of systems where much of the burden of graphics and interactivity is placed on the user’s desktop, thus simplifying the complexity of sch",Human-written
TRAIN_387,"Eiffel is an interesting programming language developed by Bertrand Meyer and his company Eiffel Software in the 1980s. The language was named for Gustav Eiffel, the architect who designed the famous tower in Paris. The language and accompanying methodology attracted considerable interest at software engineering conferences. Eiffel fully supports (and in some ways pioneered) programming concepts found in more widely used languages today ,. Syntactically, Eiffel emphasizes simple, reusable declarations that make the program easier to understand, and tries to avoid obscure or lower-level code such as compiler optimizations.",Human-written
TRAIN_388,"Rich Text Format was developed in the later 1980s by programmers at Microsoft. Its purpose is to allow for interchange of documents between Microsoft Word and other software, while preserving the original formatting. An RTF file is itself a plain text file containing the document text enclosed in control codes that determine the formatting. Although RTF is an 8-bit format, special escape sequences can be used to specify 16-bit Unicode characters, such as for non-Roman alphabets. Libraries and utilities are available for reading and writing RTF from most popular programming languages, including Perl, PHP, and Ruby. In practice, RTF created by word processors tends to contain many control codes needed to ensure compatibility with older programs, making the files bulky and not practicable to edit directly. However, saving a file in RTF is a good way to ensure that a document can be used by recipients who may have, for example, older versions of Word.",Human-written
TRAIN_389,"The systems analyst serves as the bridge between the needs of the user and the capabilities of the computer system. The systems analyst goes into action when users request that some new application or function be provided (usually in a corporate computing environment). The first step is to define the user’s requirements and to prepare precise specifications for the program. In doing so, the systems analyst is aided by methodologies developed by computer scientists over the last several decades ,. Often flowcharts or other aids are used to help visualize the operation of the program ,. After communicating with the user, the systems analyst must then communicate with the programmers, helping them understand what is needed and reviewing their work as they begin to design the program. Although the systems analyst may do little actual programming, he or she must be familiar with programming tools and practices. This may make it possible to suggest existing software or components that could be adapted instead of undertaking the cost and time involved with creating a new program. As a program is developed, systems analysts are often responsible for designing tests to ensure that the software works properly ,",Human-written
TRAIN_390,"Passive RFID tags have no power supply; the power induced by the reading signal is used to transmit the response. Because this power is very small, passive tags can only be read at distances from about 4 inches (10 cm) to a few yards (meters), depending on the antenna size and type. The main advantage of passive tags is that the lack of a battery makes them small, lightweight, and inexpensive, making them ideal for attaching to merchandise (they have also been embedded under the skin of pets and, in a few cases, even people). Smart cards for use in transit systems and similar applications are also passive; the system is activated by “tagging” or bringing the card near the reader. Active RFID tags have their own battery. Their advantage is that they are able to initiate communication with the reader, and the signal they send is much stronger, more reliable, and with greater range (up to about 1,500 feet [500 m]). The stronger signal allows for communication in rougher environments (such as outdoors for tracking cattle or shipping containers).",Human-written
TRAIN_391,"With today’s networked PCs and the use of e-mail attach-ments it is easy to send a copy of a file or files from one computer to another, because networks already include all the facilities for doing so. Earlier, many PCs were not net-worked but could be connected via a dial-up modem. To established the connection, a terminal program running on one PC had to negotiate with its counterpart on the other machine, agreeing on whether data would be sent in 7- or 8-bit chunks, and the number of parity bits that would be included for error-checking ,. The sending program would inform the receiving program as to the name and basic type of the file. For binary files (files intended to be interpreted as literal binary codes, as with executable programs, images, and so on) the contents would be sent unchanged. For text files, there might be the issue of which character set (7- bit or 8-bit ASCII) was being used, and whether the ends of lines were to be marked with a CR (carriage return) character, an LF (linefeed), or bot",Human-written
TRAIN_392,"The dashboard of a car is designed to present vital real-time information to the driver, such as speed, fuel supply, and engine status. Ideally this information should be easy to grasp at a glance, allowing for prompt action when necessary. Conversely, unnecessary and potentially distracting information should be avoided, or at least relegated to an unobtrusive secondary display. A digital dashboard is a computer display that uses similar concepts. Its goal is to provide an executive or manager with the key information that allows him or her to monitor the health of the enterprise and to take action when necessary. (A digital dashboard can also be part of a larger set of management tools—see decision support system.",Human-written
TRAIN_393,"At bottom, information in a computer is stored as a series of bits, which can be grouped into larger units such as bytes or “words” that represent particular numbers or characters. In order to be stored and retrieved, a collection of such binary data must be given a name and certain attributes that describe how the information can be accessed. This named entity is the file.",Human-written
TRAIN_394,"A number of applications programs include the ability for third-party developers to write small programs that extend the main program’s functionality. For example, thousands of “filters” (algorithms for transforming images) have been written for Adobe Photoshop. These small programs are called plug-ins because they are designed to connect to the main program and provide their service whenever it is desired or required. Perhaps the most commonly encountered plug-ins are those available for Web browsers such as Firefox, Netscape, or Internet Explorer. Plug-ins can enable the browser to display new types of files (such as multimedia). Many standard programs for particular kinds of files are now provided both as stand-alone applications and as browser plug-ins. Examples include Adobe (PDF document format), Apple QuickTime (graphics, video, and animation), RealPlayer (streaming video and audio), and Macromedia Flash (interactive animation and presentation). These and many other plug-ins are offered free for the downloading, in order to increase the number of potential users for the formats and thus the market for the development packages. One of the most useful plug-ins found in most browsers is one that allows the browser to run Java applets ,. In turn, Java is often used to write other plug-ins. Beyond such traditional workhorses, a number of innovative browser plug-ins have appeared, particularly for the increasingly popular Firefox browser. For example, there are plug-ins that enable the user to view and work with the HTML and other elements of the page being viewed. Another popular area is plug-ins that make it easier to capture and organize material from Web pages, going well beyond the standard favorites or bookmark facility.",Human-written
TRAIN_395,"Bitmap formats have the advantage of storing the exact color of every pixel without losing any information. How-ever, this means that the files can be very large (from hundreds of thousands of bytes to several megabytes for Windows screen graphics). BmP and other bitmap formats do support a simple method of compression called run-length encoding (RLE), where a series of identical pixels is replaced by a single pixel and a count. Bitmap files can be further compressed through the use of utilities such as the popular Zip program",Human-written
TRAIN_396,"Today a Web user can view a live news broadcast, listen to music from a radio station, or view a document formatted to near-print quality. All these activities are made possible by “helper” software , that gives the Web browser the capability to load and display or play files in special formats. Examples include the Adobe PDF (Portable Document Format) reader, the Windows Media Player, and RealPlayer for playing video and audio content ,. What makes the browser even more versatile is the ability to load and run programs from Web sites ,. Java was highly touted starting in the mid-1990s, and some observers believed that by making Web browsers into platforms capable of running any sort of software, there would be less need for proprietary operating systems such as Microsoft Windows",Human-written
TRAIN_397,bulletin Board System(s) (BBS) are a type of online computer service thatfunctions as an electronic notice board. Users can read or post messages‚download programs‚ and play online games. Some functions of a BBS aresimilar to that of the internet‚ but on a smaller scale.,Human-written
TRAIN_398,"EPS (Encapsulated PostScript) is a vector-based rather than bitmap (raster) format. This means that an EPS file consists not of the actual pixel values of an image, but the instruc-tions for drawing the image (including coordinates, colors, and so on). The instructions are specified as a text file in the versatile PostScript page description language. This for-mat is usually used for printing, and requires a printer that supports PostScript (there are also PostScript renderers that run entirely in software, but they tend to be slow and some-what unreliable).",Human-written
TRAIN_399,"SAP specializes in Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP), enhancing a corporation’s ability to manage its key assets and needs and to plan for the future. This software consists of three tiers: the database, an application server, and the client. Early versions of this software were designed to run on mainframes. Other major products include:, SAP NetWeaver, which integrates all other SAP modules using modern open-standard Web technologies ,, Customer Relationship Manager ,, Supply Chain Management ,, Supplier Relationship Management, Human Resource Management System, Product Lifestyle ManagementExchange Infrastructure, Enterprise Portal, SAP Knowledge Warehouse",Human-written
TRAIN_400,"The earliest design tool was the flowchart, often drawn with the aid of a template that could be used to trace the symbols on paper ,. With its symbols for the flow of execution through branching and looping, the flowchart provides a good tool for visualizing how a program is intended to work. However large and complex programs often result in a sea of flowcharts that are hard to relate to one another and to the program as a whole. Starting in the 1960s, the creation of programs for manipulating flow symbols made it easier both to design flowcharts and to visualize them in varying levels of detail.",Human-written
TRAIN_401,"A fiber optic (or optical fiber) cable transmits photons (light) instead of electrons. Depending on the diameter of the cable, the light is guided either by total internal reflec-tion or as a waveguide (manipulating refraction). These principles were known as early as the mid-19th century and began to be used in the 20th century for such applications as dental and medical illumination and in experiments in transmitting images for television.",Human-written
TRAIN_402,"The marketplace has spoken, and the desktop GUI is now the mainstream interface for most ordinary PC users. However, there are a variety of other interfaces that are used for particular circumstances or applications, such as:, touchscreens (as with ATMs) ,, handwriting or written “gesture” recognition, such as on handheld computers , or for drawing tablets, voice-controlled systems ,, trackballs, joysticks, and touchpads (used as mouse alternatives), virtual reality interfaces using head-mounted systems, sensor gloves, and so on ,Because much interaction with computers is now away from the desktop and taking place on laptops, handheld, or palm computers, and even in cars, there is likely to be continuing experimentation with user interface design.",Human-written
TRAIN_403,"Early computer printers were limited to one or a few built-in fonts, either stamped on typewriter style keys on daisy wheels, or stored as patterns in the printer’s software (with dot matrix printers). In the mid-1970s, when Xerox researchers were developing the laser printer, they realized they needed an actual programming language that could describe fonts, graphics, and other elements that could be printed on the more versatile new printers. PARC researchers developed InterPress; meanwhile two of them, John Warnock and Chuck Geschke, founded their own company in 1982 ,. They then created a more streamlined version of InterPress that they called PostScript. The first printer to include built-in PostScript capability was Apple’s LaserWriter, in 1985. PostScript soon became the standard for a burgeoning industry ,. Because PostScript is an actual programming language (for a somewhat similar language, see Forth), software such as word processors can include functions that turn a text document into a PostScript document, ready for printing. A PostScript interpreter in the printer (or even in another application) interprets the PostScript commands to re-create the document. The commands specify rasters (combinations of straight lines and curves), which can be scaled and transformed to provide the specified output, including fonts, which can be enhanced by including “hints” to help the system identify key features. This processor is thus sometimes called a Raster Image Processor (RIP)",Human-written
TRAIN_404,"Disaster Recovery Plan deals with the immediate crisis and tries to securecritical IT infrastructure by preventing further spread or continuation of thecrisis such as a computer virus or a denial of service attack ,. The Disaster Recovery Plan is needed to make sure that when the disasterstrucks, people are being taken to safety quickly, or the further spread of aVirus or Trojan horse can be prevented. Also, with the help of the BusinessContinuity Plan, systems can go online again immediately if need be or elsewithin the time frame planned and agreed upon beforehand ,",Human-written
TRAIN_405,"The semantic Web is not something that can appear overnight—after all, it will take considerable human effort to encode the information needed for machines to understand Web resources, and additional effort to code the application programs that will take advantage of that information. However, the potential payoff is huge, allowing both human and automated searchers to tackle much more sophisticated tasks. For example, the University of Maryland is developing a prototype semantic search engine called Swoogle. It can extract information and determine relationships between documents that include RDF or OWL elements. Swoogle can also help users find appropriate ontologies for exploring a subject ,. Much research needs to be done. For example, there is the problem of deriving a measure of “reliability” or “trust” based on the data sources used to answer the query, which may be scattered all over the world and represent very different kind",Human-written
TRAIN_406,"Public Key (PKI) is used to verify that the signature was really generatedusing the corresponding private key. Public keys are often registered witha third party and can be downloaded so the person can check if the key isgenuine. (See also Digital Signatures). Public Key Infrastructure is needed as a means of generating and managing the encryption keys is required. It is the use and management of cryptographic keys-a public key and a private key-for the secure transmission andauthentication of data across public networks. Vendor systems do, however,differ (Key Recovery, Encryption-Authorization).",Human-written
TRAIN_407,"DSL (digital subscriber line) is one of the two most prevalent forms of high-speed wired access to the Internet ,. DSL can operate over regular phone lines (sometimes called POTS or “plain old telephone service”). DSL takes advantage of the fact that existing phone lines can carry frequencies far beyond the narrow band used for voice telephony. When installing DSL, the phone company must evaluate the quality of existing lines to determine how many frequency bands are usable, and thus how much data can be transmitted. Further, because the higher the frequency the shorter the distance the signal can travel, the available bandwidth drops as one gets farther from the central office or a local DSL access Multiplexer (DSLAM)",Human-written
TRAIN_408,"Whether at a business meeting or a scientific conference, the use of slides or transparencies has been largely replaced by software that can create a graphic presentation. Generally, the user creates a series of virtual “slides,” which can consist of text (such as bullet points) and charts or other graphics. Often there are templates already structured for various types of presentations, so the user only needs to supply the appropriate text or graphics. There are a variety of options for the general visual style, as well as for transitions (such as dissolves) between slides. Another useful feature is the ability to time the presentation and provide cues for the speaker. Finished presentations can be shown on a standard monitor screen (if the audience is small) or output to a screen projectorMicrosoft PowerPoint is the most widely used presentation program. It includes the ability to import Excel spreadsheets, Word documents, or other items created by Microsoft Office suite applications. The user can switch between outline view (which shows the overall structure of the presentation) to viewing individual slides or working with the slides as a collection. There are a number of alternatives available including Apple’s Keynote and Open Office, which includes a presentation program comparable to PowerPoint. Another alternative is to use HTML Web-authoring programs to create the presentation in the form of a set of linked Web pages. (PowerPoint and other presentation packages can also convert their presentations to HTML. ) Although creating presentations in HTML may be more difficult than using a proprietary package and the results may be somewhat less polished, the universality of HTML and the ability to run presentations from a Web site are strong advantages of that approach.",Human-written
TRAIN_409,"UNIX is a multi-user, multi-tasking operating system that was developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s at Bell Labs. The architecture of UNIX can be divided into several layers, each providing different services to the user and to the system. Kernel: The kernel is the core of the operating system, responsible for managing system resources such as memory, CPU time, and input/output devices. It also provides an interface between applications and the hardware. Shell: The shell is a command-line interface that allows users to interact with the operating system. It interprets user commands and passes them to the kernel for execution. There are several types of shells available in UNIX, including the Bourne shell (sh), C shell (csh), Korn shell (ksh), and Bash shell (bash). File system: The file system is responsible for managing files and directories on the storage devices. UNIX file systems are organized as a hierarchical tree structure, with the root directory (/) at the top and subdirectories branching out from there. Utilities: UNIX provides a set of command-line utilities for managing the operating system and performing various tasks, such as copying files, searching for text in files, and manipulating text files. These utilities include ls, cp, grep, and sed, among many others. Libraries: UNIX provides a set of standard libraries that can be used by application developers to simplify their coding efforts. These libraries include the Standard C Library (libc) and the POSIX (Portable Operating System Interface) library. Applications: UNIX supports a wide range of applications, including text editors, compilers, web servers, and database management systems. Some of the most popular UNIX applications include the vi editor, the gcc compiler, the Apache web server, and the MySQL database management system. Overall, the architecture of UNIX is designed to provide a flexible, modular, and extensible operating system that can be customized to meet the needs of individual users and organizations.",AI-generated
TRAIN_410,"Data compression is the process of reducing the amount of space required to store or transmit digital data by removing redundant or non-essential information from the data. This is achieved by encoding the data using an algorithm that can be used to recreate the original data accurately. Data compression is used to save storage space, reduce the amount of time required to transmit data over a network, and reduce the cost of data storage and transmission. The effectiveness of data compression depends on the type of data being compressed, as well as the compression algorithm used.",AI-generated
TRAIN_411,A basic problem in computer design is how to optimize the fetching of instructions or data so that it will be ready when the processor (CPU) needs it. One common solution is to use a cache. A cache is an area of relatively fast-access memory into which data can be stored in anticipation of its being needed for processing. Caches are used mainly in two contexts: the processor cache and the disk cache,Human-written
TRAIN_412,"Traditionally documents such as advertisements, brochures, and reports were prepared by combining typed or printed text with pasted-in illustrations (such as photographs and diagrams). This painstaking layout process was necessary in order to produce “camera-ready copy” from which a printing company could produce the final product. Starting in the late 1980s, desktop computers became powerful enough to run software that could be used to create page layouts. In addition, display hardware gained a high enough resolution to allow for pages to be shown on the screen in much the same form as they would appear on the printed page. (This is known by the acronym WYSIWYG, or “what you see is what you get. ”) The final ingredient for the creation of desktop publishing was the advent of affordable laser or inkjet printers that could print near print quality text and high-resolution graphics",Human-written
TRAIN_413,"e-Government is the public’s efforts to bring dealings with the governmentonline, thereby enabling citizens to conduct most of their businesses (e. g. ,ordering a passport) online. Accordingly, while the UK wants every government transaction to be offered online by 2005, Denmark has chosen toprovide all of its citizens with digital signatures to enable them to do all theirtransactions online ,. Pushing e-Government initiatives requires satisfactory IT security of information, data and protection of people’s privacy which can be a challenge. For instance in 2002, Canada’s Auditor General released a report in which itstated that government sites do not seem to do well as far as privacy and datasecurity are concerned. His 2003 report acknowledged some improvementsbut did not yet give e-Government sites a passing grade. Quite likely, othergovernments may have to improve on this score as well. As Table 9 suggests, putting down a policy about e-government and ITinitiatives is important. The hard work follows thereafter. Providing everycitizen with a digital signature is a start but, without addressing the issuesin Table 9, it is unlikely to improve service for citizens. Accordingly, governments will have to learn how to manage the changed relationships withtheir citizens and business thanks to e-government. Also, Identity Theft maybecome an issue thanks to increased use of digital signatures by citizensinteracting with the government.",Human-written
TRAIN_414,"There are several features that you should consider when evaluating job sites. These features can help you determine whether a job site is reputable, user-friendly, and effective in helping you find the job opportunities that best match your skills and experience. Some of the key features to consider include:Job listings: Look for job sites that have a large number of current job listings in your field or industry. Search filters: Make sure the job site has search filters that allow you to narrow down job listings by location, industry, job type, and other criteria. Resume uploading: Check whether the job site allows you to upload your resume and create a profile to showcase your skills and experience. Alerts and notifications: Look for job sites that offer email alerts or push notifications to let you know when new job opportunities are posted. Company research: Some job sites allow you to research companies and read reviews from current and former employees to get a better sense of their work culture and reputation. Networking opportunities: Consider job sites that offer networking opportunities, such as online forums or discussion boards where you can connect with other job seekers and industry professionals. User interface: Look for job sites that have a user-friendly interface that is easy to navigate and search. Mobile compatibility: Check whether the job site has a mobile app or is optimized for mobile browsing, as this can be helpful if you need to search for jobs on the go. Cost: Some job sites may charge a fee for access to certain features, so make sure you understand the cost structure before you sign up. By considering these features, you can evaluate job sites and choose the ones that are most likely to help you find the job opportunities that are right for you.",AI-generated
TRAIN_415,"Remote Access Tools (RATs) are software tools that allow users to remotely access and control another computer or device over a network connection. RATs can be used for a variety of legitimate purposes, such as IT support, remote working, and online collaboration. However, RATs can also be used maliciously, such as in the case of cyber attacks or unauthorized surveillance. Hackers can use RATs to gain unauthorized access to a victim's computer or network, allowing them to steal sensitive data, install malware, or carry out other nefarious activities. RATs can be disguised as legitimate software, making them difficult to detect and remove. To protect against RATs, it is important to use reputable antivirus and firewall software, keep software up to date with the latest security patches, and be cautious when downloading or installing software from untrusted sources.",AI-generated
TRAIN_416,"The earliest form of voting system consisted of paper ballots marked and tabulated entirely by hand. The first generation of “automatic” voting systems involved mechanical voting machines (where votes were registered by pulling levers). Next came two types of hybrid systems where votes were cast mechanically but tabulated automatically. These systems used punch cards , or “marksense” or similar systems where the voter filled in little squares and the ballots were then scanned and tabulated automatically. The ultraclose and highly disputed 2000 U. S. presidential election “stress-tested” voting systems that most people had previously believed were reasonably accurate. The principal problems were the interpretation of punch cards that were not properly punched through (so-called dimpled or hanging chads) and the fact that some ballot layouts proved to be confusing or ambiguous. Two types of voting systems have been proposed as replacements for the problematic earlier technology",Human-written
TRAIN_417,"The term word processor was actually coined by IBMin the 1960s to refer to a system consisting of a Selectric typewriter with magnetic tape storage. This allowed the typist to record keystrokes (and some data such as margin settings) on tape. Material could be corrected by being rerecorded. The tape could then be used to print as many perfect copies of the document as required. A version using magnetic cards instead of tape appeared in 1969. The first modern-style word processor was marketed by Lexitron and Linolex. It also used magnetic tape, but it added a video display screen. Now the writer could see and correct text without having to print it first. A few years later, a new invention, the floppy disk, became the standard storage medium for dedicated word processing systems. The word-processing systems developed by Wang, Digital Equipment Corporation, Data General, and others became a feature in large offices in the late 1970s. These systems were essentially minicomputers with screens, keyboards, and printers and running a specialized software program. Because these systems were expensive (ranging from about $8,000 to $20,000 or more), they were not affordable by smaller businesses. Typically, they were operated by specially trained personnel (who became known also as “word processors”) to whom documents were funneled for processing, as with the old “typing poo",Human-written
TRAIN_418,"In computers, the term ""flash mob"" typically refers to a group of individuals who organize a spontaneous and coordinated online activity, such as a social media campaign or an online protest. Flash mobs often use social media platforms and other online tools to mobilize large groups of people quickly and efficiently. Flash mobs can take many different forms, ranging from coordinated tweets or Facebook posts to more elaborate online events such as virtual marches or protests. They are often used to draw attention to a particular cause, raise awareness about an issue, or promote a message or idea.",Human-written
TRAIN_419,honeynet is a network of hosts that is specifically designed to be compromised. It is further refinement of a Honeypot. Highest security precautionsare taken and such networks are heavily monitored. The purpose of suchnetworks is to study Hackers’ behaviors‚ tools‚ motives and possible contrameasures.,Human-written
TRAIN_420,"Grove, Andrew S. (1936– )Hungarian-AmericanEntrepreneur. Andrew grove is a pioneer in the semiconductor industry and builder of Intel, the corporation whose processors now power the majority of personal computers. grove was born András gróf on September 2, 1936, in Budapest to a Jewish family. grove’s family was disrupted by the german occupa-tion of Hungary later in World War II. Andrew’s father was conscripted into a work brigade and then into a Hungarian formation of the german army. Andrew and his mother, maria, had to hide from the Nazi roundup in which many Hungarian Jews were sent to death in concentration camps.",Human-written
TRAIN_421,"many programs and operating systems are structured as an endless loop where an input (or command) is processed, the results returned, the next input is processed, and so on, until an exit command is received. A mode or state can be used to determine the system’s activity. For example, a program might be in different modes such as waiting for input, processing input, displaying results, and so on. The program logic will refer to the current state to determine what to do next and at some point the logic will transitionthe system to the next state in the sequence. The validity of some kinds of programs, protocols, or circuits can therefore be proven by showing that there is an equivalent finite-state machine—and thus that all possible combinations of inputs have been accounted for. Finite-state machines have many other interesting appli-cations. Simple organisms can be modeled as a set of states that interact with the environment . The lower-level functions of robots can also be represented as a set of interacting finite-state machines. Even video game characters often use FSms to give them a repertoire of plausible behavior.",Human-written
TRAIN_422,"Advisory and Notification Markup Language (ANML) is an Extensible Markup Language (XML) -based specification for describing advisories and other types of notifications. ANML is currently being developed to help in solving the inconsistent use of terminology by software vendors in their advisories. The hope is that ANML will make it easy for applications to read these advisories. This will make way for the necessary tools to automatically update systems. Although ANML will have its biggest impact for security advisories, it can be used for any type of notification. Some examples include bug-fixes, feature enhancements, upgrade availability, and many more. More information can be found in Appendix 1 (Opensec) and Appendix 6 under ADML",Human-written
TRAIN_423,Batch Files are files usually describing automated sequence of commands. These are used in mainframe operations where even special languages weredeveloped for creation of batches. Shell scripts known in the UNIX worldcan also be considered in some cases as batch files. In MS-DOS and MSWindows context‚ these files are characterized by a . BAT extension. Thesetext files contain MS-DOS commands‚ one on each line of the file that areprocessed in sequential order‚ for example when the computer is booted (e. g. ‚Autoexec. bat).,Human-written
TRAIN_424,"Operating System are computer programs that that are primarily or entirelyconcerned with controlling the computer and its associated hardware, ratherthan with processing work for users. Computers can operate without application software, but they cannot run without an operating system. Examplesare DOS, MaxOS, Linux and Unix.",Human-written
TRAIN_425,"Because of its many practical features and its availability for the popular IBM 360 mainframes, PL/I enjoyed considerable success in the late 1960s and 1970s. The language was later ported to most major platforms and operating systems. When personal computers came along, PL/I became available for IBM’s OS/2 operating system as well as for Microsoft’s DOS and Windows, although the language never really caught on in those environments. Computer scientists such as structured programming guru Edsger Dijkstra decried PL/I’s lack of a clear, welldefined structure. In his Turing Award Lecture in 1972, Dijkstra opined that “I absolutely fail to see how we can keep our growing programs firmly within our intellectual grip when by its sheer baroqueness the programming language—our basic tool, mind you!—already escapes our intellectual control. ” (See Dijkstra, Edsger. )On a practical level the sheer number of features in the language meant that truly mastering it was a lengthy process. A language like C, on the other hand, had a much simpler “core” to master even though it was less versatile. PL/I also tended to retain the mainframe associations from its birth at IBM, while C grew up in the world of minicomputers and the UNIX community and proved more suitable for PCs. Nevertheless, PL/I provided many examples that language designers could use in attempting to design better implementations.",Human-written
TRAIN_426,"By the mid-1990s, many thousands of pages were being added to the World Wide Web each day ,. The availability of graphical browsing programs such as Mosaic, Netscape, and Microsoft Internet Explorer , made it easy for ordinary PC users to view Web pages and to navigate from one page to another. However, people who wanted to use the Web for any sort of systematic research found they needed better tools for finding the desired information. There are basically three approaches to exploring the Web: casual “surfing,” portals, and search engines. A user might find (or hear about) an interesting Web page devoted to a business or other organization or perhaps a particular topic. The page includes a number of featured links to other pages. The user can follow any of those links to reach other pages that might be relevant. Those pages are likely to have other interesting links that can be followed, and so on. Most Web users have surfed in this way: It can be fun and it can certainly lead to “finds” that can be bookmarked for later reference. However, this approach is not systematic, comprehensive, or efficient. Alternatively, the user can visit a site such as the famous Yahoo! started by Jerry Yang and David Filo ,. These sites specialize in selecting what their editors believe to be the best and most useful sites for each topic, and organizing them into a multilevel topical index. The portal approach has several advantages: The work of sifting through the Web has already been done, the index is easy to use, and the sites featured are likely to be of good quality. However, even Yahoo!’s busy staff can examine only a tiny portion of the estimated 1 trillion or so Web pages being presented on about 175 million different Web sites (as of 2008). Also, the sites selected and featured by portals are subject both to editorial discretion (or bias) and in some cases to commercial interest.",Human-written
TRAIN_427,"Although it sounds similar, a storage area network (SAN) does not function as its own file server. Rather, it attaches storage modules such as hard drives or tape libraries to an existing server so that it appears to the server’s operating system as though it were locally attached. Typically the protocol used to attach the storage is SCSI ,, but the physical connection is fiber or high-speed Ethernet. The emphasis for SAN applications is the need for fast access to data, such as in large online databases, e-mail servers, and high-volume file servers. SANs offer great flexibility, since storage can be expanded without changing the network structure, and a replacement server can quickly be attached to the storage in case of hardware failure",Human-written
TRAIN_428,Web Cache is closely related to Disk Caching and occurs between webservers and a client or many clients. It watches requests for HTML pages‚images and files to come by‚ saving a copy for itself. Then‚ if there is anotherrequest for the same object‚ it will use the copy that it has‚ instead of askingthe origin server for it again. This type of caching may‚ however‚ infringe upon copyrights and publishers and music distributors are trying to find a solution for this problem,Human-written
TRAIN_429,"The history of handwriting recognition systems dates back to the 1960s, when researchers began to develop algorithms to recognize handwritten characters and symbols. One of the earliest systems was developed at IBM, which used pattern recognition techniques to recognize handwritten digits. In the following decades, researchers continued to refine handwriting recognition algorithms, and by the 1980s, commercial handwriting recognition systems began to appear. These early systems were limited in their accuracy and were mostly used in specialized applications such as check processing. The introduction of personal digital assistants (PDAs) in the 1990s and the increasing use of tablet computers and smartphones in the 2000s led to renewed interest in handwriting recognition technology. By the early 2000s, handwriting recognition software had become widely available on mobile devices, allowing users to input text using a stylus or their finger.",AI-generated
TRAIN_430,"Smart cars are vehicles equipped with advanced computing and communication technologies that enable them to collect, analyze, and share data to provide a wide range of features and services. These technologies include:Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS): Smart cars are equipped with a variety of sensors and cameras that enable ADAS features such as lane departure warning, automatic emergency braking, adaptive cruise control, and blind spot monitoring. These features use computer algorithms to analyze data from the sensors and provide alerts or take action to prevent accidents. Connectivity: Smart cars are connected to the internet and other vehicles, enabling them to share data about traffic conditions, road hazards, and weather conditions. This connectivity also allows for over-the-air software updates, remote diagnostics, and other services. Infotainment: Smart cars offer advanced infotainment systems that provide features such as internet connectivity, voice commands, music streaming, and navigation. These systems are often integrated with the vehicle's ADAS features to provide real-time information and alerts. Self-driving: Some smart cars are capable of autonomous driving, using a combination of sensors, cameras, and computer algorithms to navigate roads without human intervention. These cars are still in development and are not yet widely available. Energy Efficiency: Smart cars often use advanced technologies such as regenerative braking, stop-start systems, and aerodynamic designs to improve fuel efficiency and reduce emissions.",Human-written
TRAIN_431,"Wary users have a number of ways to reduce their chance of being “phished. ” Some signs of bogus messages include:, The message is addressed generically (“dear PayPal user”) or to the user’s e-mail address rather than the account name. , The text of the message contains spelling errors or poor grammar. , The URL shown for a link in the message (perhaps via a “tool tip”) does not match the institution’s real Web address. Fortunately there are ways in which software can help detect and block most phishing attempts. A good spam filter is the first line of defense and can block many phishing messages from getting to the user in the first place. Anti-phishing features are also increasingly included in Web browsers, or available as plug-ins. Thus “blacklists” of known phishing sites can be checked in real time and warnings given, or the site’s address can be blocked from access by the system. Web sites can also introduce an added layer of security: Bank of America, for example, asks users to select and label one of several images offered by the bank. The image and label are subsequent displayed as part of the log-in process. If the user does not see the image and the user’s label, then the site is presumably not the real bank site",Human-written
TRAIN_432,"The term digital divide was coined in the late 1990s amid growing concern that groups such as minorities, the elderly, and rural residents were not becoming computer literate and connecting to the Internet at the same rate as the young, educated, and relatively affluent. Nearly a decade later this perception of a chasm has diminished somewhat. According to the Pew Internet & American Life project, as of 2006 about two-thirds (70 per-148? ? ? ? digital dashboardcent) of American adults were using the Internet, and the number has continued to increase, though more slowly (there is evidence of a “hard core” unconnected population). Groups that lagged in Internet usage included Americans 65 years or older (35 percent), African Americans (58 percent), and persons without at least a high school education (36 percent).",Human-written
TRAIN_433,"IBM did succeed in creating RPG (Report Program Generator), a language designed to make it easier for programmers (including beginners) to generate business reports. Most COBOL programs read data, perform tests and calculations, and print the results. RPG, first released in 1964 for use with the new System/360 mainframe and the smaller System/3, simplifies this process and eliminates most writing of program code statements. A “classic” RPG program is built around the “RPGcycle,” consisting of three stages. During the input stage, the input device(s), file type, access specifications, and data record structure are specified. (These specifications can be quite elaborate. ) The heart of the program specifies calculations to be performed with the various data fields, while the output section specifies how the results will be laid out in report form, including such things as headers, footers, and sections. Subsequent versions of RPG added more features. RPGIV, released in 1994, includes the ability to define subroutines, for example. IBM has also released VisualAge RPG, which allows for the creation and running of RPG programs in the Microsoft Windows environment. There are also tools for interfacing RPG programs with various database systems and to use RPG for writing Web-based (CGI) programs",Human-written
TRAIN_434,"BASIC was invented at Dartmouth College in 1963–1964 by John G. Kemeny and Thomas E. Kurtz, both professors of mathematics, assisted by a group of undergraduate student programmers. Computers then were huge, slow, and expensive; there were no personal computers. Their goal was to bring easy and accessible computing to all students, not just science or engineering students. The method they chose called for developing a time-shared operating system, which would allow many users simultaneously. (This operating system was developed entirely by Dartmouth undergraduate students. ) The new language, BASIC, easy to learn and easy to use, was an essential part of this effort. BASIC was thus developed originally for a large multipleuser, time-shared system and not for personal computers, which did not appear widely until the early 1980s. It has been asked whyBASICwas invented. Couldn’t an existing language have been used for the purpose? The answer to the second question is no, which also answers the first question. Other computer languages did exist in 1963, although there were not nearly as many as there are today. The principal ones were FORTRAN and Algol; most of the others are long since forgotten. Some of the common languages used today—C, C++, and Java—had not even been conceived. FORTRAN and Algol were each considered briefly. These languages were designed for production use on big machines or for scientific research, using punched cards. But neither was suitable for use by beginners, neither was particularly well suited for a time-shared environment, and neither permitted speedy handling of short programs. Kemeny and Kurtz had experimented with other simple computer languages as early as 1956, but with only modest success. So, in 1963, when they began building a time-shared system for students, they quickly realized that a new language had to be invented—BASIC.",Human-written
TRAIN_435,"The bubble sort is based on making comparisons and swaps. It makes the most convenient comparison possible: each record with its neighbor. The algorithm looks at the first two records. If the second has a lower key than the first, the records are swapped. The procedure continues with the second and third records, then the third and fourth, and so on through all the records, swapping pairs of adjacent records whenever they are out of order. After one pass the record with highest key will have “bubbled up to” the end of the list. The procedure is then repeated for all but the last record until the two highest records are at the end, and so on until all the records are sorted. Unfortunately, the number of comparisons and swaps that must be made makes the bubble sort as slow as the selection sort.",Human-written
TRAIN_436,"Typewriters are mechanical or electromechanical devices used for writing or printing text on paper. They were commonly used for typing documents, letters, and other written materials before the advent of personal computers and printers. Typewriters were first invented in the 19th century, and they quickly became popular due to their ability to produce legible, professional-looking documents. Early typewriters were purely mechanical, with keys that pressed inked ribbons against paper to create the desired characters. Later models added electric power to speed up the typing process and eliminate the need for manual carriage returns. Typewriters were once a common fixture in offices, schools, and other institutions, but they have largely been replaced by digital technology. However, some people still use typewriters for their unique aesthetic and tactile experience. In recent years, there has been a resurgence of interest in typewriters among writers, artists, and collectors",AI-generated
TRAIN_437,"A simulation is a simplified (but adequate) model that represents how a system works. The system can be an existing, real-world one, such as a stock market or a human heart, or a proposed design for a system, such as a new factory or even a space colony. If a system is simple enough (a cannonball falling from a height, for example), it is possible to use formulas such as those provided by Newton to get an exact answer. However, many real-world systems involve many discrete entities with complex interactions that cannot be captured with a single equation. During the 1940s, scientists encountered just this problem in attempting to understand what would happen under various conditions in a nuclear reaction. Together with physicist Enrico Fermi, two mathematicians, John von Neumann , and Stanislaw Ulam, devised a new way to simulate complex systems. Instead of trying fruitlessly to come up with some huge formula to “solve” the whole system, they applied probability formulas to each of a number of particles—in effect, “rolling the dice” for each one and then observing their resulting distribution and behavior. Because of its analogy to gambling, this became known as the Monte Carlo method. It turned out to be widely useful not only for simulating nuclear reactions and particle physics but for many other activities (such as bombing raids or the spread of disease) where many separate things behave according to probabilities.",Human-written
TRAIN_438,"The large computers that first became available in the 1950s , used “line printers. ” These devices have one hammer for each column of the output. A rapidly moving band of type moves under the hammers. Each hammer strikes the band when the correct character passes by. Printing is therefore done line by line, hence the name. Line printers were fast (600 lines per minute or more) but like the mainframes they served, they were bulky and expensive. The typewriter offered another point of departure for designing printers. A few early computers such as the BINAC (an offshoot of ENIAC) used typewriters rigged with magnetically controlled switches (solenoids). However, a more natural fit was with the Teletype, invented early in the 20th century to print telegraph messages. Since the Teletype is already designed to print from electrically transmitted character codes, it was easy to rig up a circuit to translate the contents of computer data into appropriate codes for printing. (Since the Teletype could send as well as receive messages, it was often used as a control terminal for computer operators or for time-sharing computer users into the 1970s. )The daisy-wheel printer was another typewriter-like device. It used a movable wheel with the letters embedded in slim “petals” (hence the name). It was slow (about 10 characters a second), noisy, and expensive, but it was the only affordable alternative for early personal computer users who required “letter-quality” output.",Human-written
TRAIN_439,"Until the mid-1990s, the floppy disk or diskette was the primary method for distributing software and providing removable data storage for personal computers. Diskettes first appeared in the late 1960s on IBm minicomputers, and became more widespread on a variety of minicomputers and early microcomputers during the 1970s. The now obsolete 8-inch and 5-¼ inch disks were made from mylar with a metal oxide coating, the assembly being housed in a flexible cardboard jacket (hence the term “floppy disk”). The more compact 3. 5-inch diskettes first widely introduced with the Apple macintosh in 1984 became the standard type for all PCs by the 1990s. These diskettes are no longer truly “floppy” and come in a rigid plastic case.",Human-written
TRAIN_440,"An expert system is a computer program that uses encoded knowledge and rules of reasoning to draw conclusions or solve problems. Since reasoning (as opposed to mechanical calculation) is a form of intelligent behavior, the field of expert systems (also called knowledge representation or knowledge engineering) is part of the broader field of AI",Human-written
TRAIN_441,"Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology was used by Gillette infield tests for tracking packets of razors through its supply chain. Michelinplans to use vulcanizing to attach an RFID to a tire. Benetton is another clothing manufacturer that tested RFID tags in someproducts, such as, by weaving the technology into the collar tags of clothesthat cost at least $15 to keep track of them as they ship. Benetton pulled backfrom this RFID trial after a consumer group announced a global boycott ofthe clothing manufacturer. The advantage of RFIDs over barcodes is that information can be collectedwithout a line of sight to the tag, hence, a pallet of goods or a razor can justbe scanned by passing through a radio field. With location tracking chips in mobile phones and toll payment cards thetechnology can always provide information about where the product and itsuser are currently located. This does not look good for data protection and Privacy and consumeradvocacy groups have complained loudly and continue fighting for citizen’srights to privacy.",Human-written
TRAIN_442,"Many objects are more elaborate or specialized variations ofmore basic objects. For example, in Microsoft Windows thevarious kinds of dialog boxes are specialized versions of thegeneral Window class. Therefore, the specialized versionis created by declaring it to be derived from a “base class. ”Put another way, the specialized class inherits the basicdata and functions available in the base (parent) class. Theprogrammer can then add new data or functions or modifythe inherited ones to create the necessary behavior for thespecialized class. Languages such as C++ allow for a class to be derivedfrom more than one base class. This is called multipleinheritance. For example, a Message Window class mightinherit its overall structure from the Window class andits text-display capabilities from the Message class. However, it can sometimes be difficult to keep the relationshipsbetween multiple classes clear. The Java language takes thealternative approach of being limited to only single inheritance of classes, but allowing interfaces (specifications ofhow a class interacts with the program) to be multiplyinherited.",Human-written
TRAIN_443,"The tree is a data structure that consists of individual intersections called nodes. The tree normally starts with a single root node. (Unlike real trees, data trees have their root at the top and branch downward. ) The root connects to one or more nodes, which in turn branch into additional nodes, often through a number of levels. (A node that branches downward from another node is called that node’s childnode. ) A node at the bottom that does not branch any further is called a terminal node or sometimes a leaf. Trees are useful for expressing many sorts of hierarchical structures such as file systems where the root of a disk holds folders that in turn can hold files or additional folders, and so on down many levels. (A corporate organization chart is a noncomputer example of a hierarchical tree. )",Human-written
TRAIN_444,"YouTube broke into the highly visual field ofpolitical advertising. Most candidates in the 2008 presiden-tial primaries have put their statements and other videos onYouTube. ups). Political commentators and journalists have also beenactive in putting their opinions on YouTube (or comment-ing on those of others). Perhaps the political establishment’sbiggest nod to YouTube is the series of debates cosponsoredby CNN and YouTube, bringing together the Republicanand Democratic primary fields. YouTube has had its share of criticism: Critics havecharged the service with not sufficiently policing copyrightviolations and violent content (including videos of fightsor bullying in schools), as well as neo-Nazi propaganda,scenes of animal abuse, and videos by anti-American insur-gent groups, as well as generally tasteless exhibitionism. Afew countries and some schools have responded by block-ing access to the service.",Human-written
TRAIN_445,"The bubble sort and quicksort are designed to work with records that are in random order. However, in many applications a database grows slowly over time. At any given time the existing database is already sorted, so it hardly makes sense to have to resort the whole database each time a new record is added. Instead, an insertion sort can be used. In its simplest form, the algorithm looks sequentially through the sorted records until it finds the first record whose key is higher than that of the new record. The new record can then be inserted just before that record, much like the way a bridge player might organize the cards in a hand. (Since inserting a record and physically moving all the higher records up in memory can be time-consuming, a linked list of key values and associated record number is often used instead. (See list processing. ) That way only the links need to be changed rather than any records being moved. The insertion sort was improved by Donald L. Shell in 1959. His “shellsort” takes a recursive approach (like that in the quicksort), and applies the insertion sort procedure to successively smaller partitions. Another improvement on the insertion sort is the mergesort. As the name implies, this approach begins by creating two small lists of sorted records (using a simple comparison algorithm), then merging the lists into longer lists. Merging is accomplished by looking at the two keys on the top of two lists and taking whichever is lowest until the lists are exhausted. The merge sort also lends itself to a recursive approach, and it is comparable in speed and stability to the heapsort",Human-written
TRAIN_446,"Search engines are software tools that allow users to search for information on the World Wide Web. They have become an essential part of our daily lives, as they make it easy to find information on almost any topic. Here is a brief background on the development of search engines and the approaches to exploring the web:Directory-based search engines: In the early days of the web, search engines were based on directories of websites. These directories were organized by topic, and users could browse through them to find sites related to their interests. Examples of early directory-based search engines include Yahoo! and DMOZ. Keyword-based search engines: As the number of websites on the web grew, it became impractical to rely on manual directory listings. In the mid-1990s, keyword-based search engines were developed, which allowed users to search for specific words or phrases on the web. Examples of early keyword-based search engines include AltaVista and Lycos. PageRank algorithm: In the late 1990s, Google introduced a new algorithm called PageRank, which revolutionized the way search engines ranked web pages. PageRank is based on the idea that a web page is important if other important pages link to it. This allowed Google to provide more relevant and accurate search results than its competitors. Natural language processing: In recent years, search engines have started to incorporate natural language processing techniques to better understand the intent behind user queries. This has led to the development of more sophisticated search algorithms that can provide more personalized and accurate results. Approaches to exploring the web include:Browsing: This approach involves manually navigating through websites and following links to find information. Browsing is useful for discovering new websites and exploring topics in depth. Keyword search: This approach involves entering one or more keywords into a search engine and viewing the search results. Keyword search is useful for finding specific information quickly. Natural language search: This approach involves entering a question or phrase into a search engine and allowing the search engine to interpret the query and provide relevant results. Natural language search is useful for complex or nuanced queries that may not be easily expressed as keywords.",AI-generated
TRAIN_447,"With regard to databases, ensuring data security includes the assignment and control of users’ level of access to sensitive data and the use of monitoring tools to detect compromise, diversion, or unauthorized changes to database files ,. When data is proprietary, licensing agreements with both database vendors and content providers may also need to be enforced.",Human-written
TRAIN_448,"grid and cluster architectures often overlap, but the term grid tends to be applied to a more loosely coordinated structure where the computers are dispersed over a wider area (not a local network). In a grid, the work is usually divided into many separate packets that can be processed independently without the computers having to share data. Each task can be completed and submitted without waiting for the completion of any other task. Clusters, or the other hand, more closely couple computers to act more like a single large machine.",Human-written
TRAIN_449,"Optical fiber in its modern form was developed in the 1950s. The glass fiber through which the light passes is surrounded by a transparent cladding designed to provide the needed refractive index to keep the light confined. The cladding in turn is surrounded by a resin buffer layer and often an outer jacket and plastic cover. Fiber used for com-munication is flexible, allowing it to bend if necessary. Early optical fiber could not be used for practical com-munication because of progressive attenuation (weakening) of the light as it traveled. However, by the 1970s the attenu-ation was being reduced to acceptable levels by removing impurities from the fibers. Today the light signals can travel hundreds of miles without the need for repeaters or amplifi-ers. In the 1990s a new type of optical fiber (photonic crys-tal) using diffraction became available. This kind of fiber is particularly useful in applications that require higher power signals.",Human-written
TRAIN_450,"Once the document page has been scanned into an imageformat, there are various ways to identify the characters. One method is to use stored templates that indicate the pattern of pixels that should correspond to each character. Generally, a threshold of similarity is defined so that an exactmatch is not necessary to classify a character: The templatemost similar to the character is chosen. Some systems storea set of templates for each of the fonts most commonly foundin printed text. (Recognizing cursive writing is a much morecomplex process: See handwriting recognition. )A more generalized method uses structural features(such as “all t’s have a single vertical line and a shortercrossbar line”) to classify characters. To analyze a character,the different types of individual features are identified andthen compared to a set of rules to determine the charactercorresponding to that particular combination of features. Sometimes thresholds or “fuzzy logic” are used to decidethe probable identity of a character.",Human-written
TRAIN_451,"Current uses for RFID tags and cards of various types include:, automatic fare payments systems for transit systems, automatic toll payments for bridges and turnpikes, automatic book checkout systems for libraries, where it reduces repetitive strain injury (RSI) in staff and simplifies checking shelves, student ID cards, passports (RFID has been included in new U. S. passports since 2006), tracking cattle, including determining the origin of unhealthy animals, identification chips placed beneath the skin of pets, experimental human RFID implants (pioneered by British computer scientist Kevin Warwick) and now used by VIP customers in a few nightclubs, tracking goods from original shipment to inventory (Wal-Mart now requires its major suppliers to include RFID labels with shipments), scientific sensors, such as seismographic instruments",Human-written
TRAIN_452,"The vulnerability of computer systems to malicious or criminal attack has been greatly increased by the growing number of connections between computers (and local net-works) and the worldwide Internet ,. The widespread use of permanent broadband connections by consumers (such as DSL and cable modem links) has increased the risk to home users. Intruders can use “port scanning” programs to determine what connections a given system or network has open, and can use other programs to snoop and steal or destroy sensitive data.",Human-written
TRAIN_453,"Dell Computer (NASDAQ: DELL) is one of the world’s leading manufacturers and sellers of desktop and laptop computers ,. By 2008 Dell had more than 88,000 employees worldwide. The company was founded by Michael Dell, a student at the University of Texas at Austin whose first company was PC’s Limited, founded in 1984. Even at this early stage Dell successfully employed several practices that would come to typify the Dell strategy: Sell directly to customers (not through stores), build each machine to suit the customer’s preferences, and be aggressive in competing on price. In 1988 the growing company changed its name to Dell Computer Corporation. In the early 1990s Dell tried an alternative business model, selling through warehouse clubs and computer superstores. When that met with little success, Dell returned to the original formula. In 1999 Dell overtook Compaq to become the biggest computer retailer in America.",Human-written
TRAIN_454,"The arithmetic logic unit is the part of a computer system that actually performs calculations and logical comparisons on data. It is part of the central processing unit (CPU), and in practice there may be separate and multiple arithmetic and logic units ,. The ALU works by first retrieving a code that represents the operation to be performed (such as ADD). The code also specifies the location from which the data is to be retrieved and to which the results of the operation are to be stored. (For example, addition of the data from memory to a num-ber already stored in a special accumulator register within the CPU, with the result to be stored back into the accumu-lator. ) The operation code can also include a specification of the format of the data to be used (such as fixed or float-ing-point numbers)—the operation and format are often combined into the same code. In addition to arithmetic operations, the ALU can also carry out logical comparisons, such as bitwise operations that compare corresponding bits in two data words, corresponding to Boolean operators such as AND, OR, and xOR ,. The data or operand specified in the operation code is retrieved as words of memory that represent numeric data, or indirectly, character data ,. Once the operation is per-formed, the result is stored (typically in a register in the CPU). Special codes are also stored in registers to indicate characteristics of the result (such as whether it is positive, negative, or zero). Other special conditions called excep-tions indicate a problem with the processing. Common exceptions include overflow, where the result fills more bits than are available in the register, loss of precision (because there isn’t room to store the necessary number of decimal places), or an attempt to divide by zero. Exceptions are typically indicated by setting a flag in the machine status register.",Human-written
TRAIN_455,"Host means a computer that communicates across the network (e. g. ‚ information system‚ PC or other IT hardware). But a host can also be a PC‚information system or other IT software or hardware that affords subsistenceor lodgment to an infectious agent under normal conditions ,. Some malicious code or viruses pass successive stages in alternatehosts of different systems.",Human-written
TRAIN_456,"Designers of modern operating systems face a range of issues related to performance, security, usability, and compatibility. Some of the key issues are:Security: One of the biggest challenges for modern operating systems is ensuring security against malware, viruses, and other cyber threats. Designers need to implement robust security measures to protect against attacks and ensure that user data is safe. Performance: Modern operating systems need to be fast and responsive, with low latency and minimal resource usage. This requires careful optimization of system resources, such as memory, CPU, and I/O operations. Compatibility: Operating systems need to be compatible with a wide range of hardware and software configurations. Designers need to ensure that the operating system can work seamlessly with different hardware devices, including printers, scanners, and other peripherals. Usability: Operating systems should be intuitive and easy to use, with a consistent interface that users can navigate easily. Designers need to ensure that the user experience is positive and that users can easily access the features and functions they need. Updates and maintenance: Operating systems need to be updated regularly to fix bugs and security vulnerabilities, and designers need to ensure that these updates are delivered seamlessly and without disrupting the user experience. Privacy: Operating systems should also protect the user's privacy and personal data. Designers need to implement privacy settings and features that give users control over their personal data and limit access to sensitive information. Accessibility: Operating systems should also be designed to be accessible to users with disabilities. Designers need to ensure that users with vision, hearing, or mobility impairments can use the operating system effectively. Overall, designers of modern operating systems face a range of complex challenges that require careful planning, testing, and optimization to deliver a reliable, secure, and user-friendly experience.",AI-generated
TRAIN_457,"The Web filter examines requests made by a Web user , and blocks those associated with sites deemed by the filter user to be objectionable. There are two basic mechanisms for determining whether a site is unsuitable. The first is to check the site’s address (URL) against a list and reject a request for any site on the list. (Most filter programs come with default lists; the filter user can add other sites as desired. Generally, the filter is installed with a password so only the authorized user [such as a parent] can change the filter’s behavior. )The other filtering method relies on a list of keywords associated with objectionable activities (such as pornography). When the user requests a site, the filter checks the page for words on the keyword list. If a matching word or phrase is found, the site is blocked and not shown to the user.",Human-written
TRAIN_458,"Keystroke monitoring is the process of tracking and recording the keys that are pressed on a computer keyboard, usually for monitoring employee activity or detecting unauthorized access to computer systems. It can be performed using hardware or software-based methods, but is controversial due to privacy concerns and potential for unethical use.",AI-generated
TRAIN_459,"Broadband refers to a type of high-speed internet connection that provides faster data transfer rates than traditional dial-up connections. Broadband connections are typically ""always on,"" meaning that users can access the internet at any time without having to dial in. Broadband connections can use a variety of technologies, including digital subscriber lines (DSL), cable modems, fiber optic cables, and wireless connections such as Wi-Fi and satellite. These technologies allow for faster data transfer rates, which enable users to access and download content such as videos, music, and files more quickly.",AI-generated
TRAIN_460,"The explosive growth of the World Wide Web has confronted programmers with the need to find ways to link databases and other existing resources to Web sites. The specifications for such linkages are found in the Common Gateway Interface ,. However, the early facilities for writing CGI scripts were awkward and often frustrating to use. Back in 1986, UNIX developer Larry Wall had created a language called Perl (Practical Extraction and Report Language). There were already ways to write scripts for simple data processing , as well as a handy pattern-manipulation language ,. However, Wall wanted to provide a greater variety of functions and techniques for finding, extracting, and formatting data. Perl attracted a following within the UNIX community. Since much Web development was being done on UNIX-based systems by the mid- and late-1990s, it was natural that many webmasters and applications programmers would turn to Perl to write their CGI scripts. As with many UNIX scripting languages, Perl’s syntax is broadly similar to C. However, the philosophy behind C is to provide a sparse core language with most functionality being handled by standard or add-in program libraries. Perl, on the other hand, starts with most of the functionality of UNIX utilities such as sed (stream editor), C shell, and awk, including the powerful regular expressions familiar to UNIX users. The language also includes a “hash” data type (a collection of paired keys and values) that makes it easy for a program to maintain and check lists such as of Internet hosts and their IP addresses ,.",Human-written
TRAIN_461,"Some typical features of a modern Web browser include, navigation buttons to move forward and back through recently visited pages, tabs to switch between Web pages, a “history” panel allowing return to pages visited in recent days, a search button that brings up the default search engine (which can be chosen by the user), the ability to save page as “favorites” or “bookmarks” for easy retrieval",Human-written
TRAIN_462,"An e-book is a book whose text is stored in digital form and can be read on a PC or a handheld reading device. Since most books today are created on word processors and typesetting systems, it is easy for a publisher to create an electronic version. Older books that exist only in printed form can be scanned and converted to text.",Human-written
TRAIN_463,"In today’s health care environment patients often have only a few minutes to ask their doctor important questions about their condition and possible treatments. Patients often feel they have been left on their own when it comes to obtaining detailed information. According to surveys by the Pew Internet & American Life Project, by the end of 2005 about 20 percent of Web users were reporting that the Internet “has greatly improved the way they get information about health care. ” Further, 7 million users had reported that Web sites had “played a crucial or important role in coping with a major illness. ”A variety of Web sites ranging from comprehensive and excellent to dubious (at best) offer health-related information. In evaluating them, it is important to determine who sponsors the site and what is the source of the information provided. The very extensive WebMD site, for example, is reviewed for accuracy by an independent panel of experts. One of the foremost medical institutions, the Mayo Clinic, also has an authoritative site. The site OrganizedWisdom. com offers a search engine that emphasizes information that has been reviewed by doctors for accuracy, while eliminating low-quality or duplicative results. Even if information is accurate, however, users may often lack the necessary background or context for interpreting it correctly. Understanding the results of medical studies, for example, requires some knowledge of how studies are designed, the population used, and the statistical significance and applicability of the results. As a practical matter, therefore, patients should not make any major decisions about diet, medication, or treatment options without consulting a medical professional. Attempts at self-diagnosis can be particularly prob",Human-written
TRAIN_464,"Designers of modern operating systems face a numberof continuing challenges:, security, in a world where nearly all computers arenetworked, often continuously ,, the tradeoff between powerful, attractive functionssuch as scripting and the security vulnerabilities theytend to present, the need to provide support for new applications suchas streaming audio and video ,, ease of use in installing new devices ,The continuing development of new user-interfaceconcepts, including alternative interfaces for the disabled and for special applications ,, the growing use of multiprocessing and multiprogramming, requiring coordination of processors sharingmemory and communicating with one another ,, distributed systems where server programs, clientprograms, and data objects can be allocated amongmany networked computers, and allocations continually adjusted or balanced to reflect demand on thesystem ,, the spread of portable, mobile, and handheld computers and computers embedded in devices such asengine control systems ,. (Sometimes the choice isbetween devising a scaled-down version of an existing operating system and designing a new OS that isoptimized for devices that may have limited memoryand storage capacity. )",Human-written
TRAIN_465,"In general, the overall steps in developing a program are:Detailed specification of what the program will be required to do. This can include developing a prototype and getting user’s reaction to it. , Creation of a suitable program architecture—algorithm(s) and the data types, objects, or other structures needed to implement them ,. , Coding—writing the program language statements that implement the structure. , Verification and testing of the program using realistic data and field testing ,. ,? Maintenance, or the correction of errors and adding of requested minor features (short of creating a new version of the program)",Human-written
TRAIN_466,"One consequence of the universal computer concept , is that in principle any computer can be programmed to imitate the operation of any other. An emulator is a program that runs on one computer but accurately processes instructions written for another ,. For example, fans of older computer games can now download emulation programs that allow modern PCs to run games originally intended for an Apple II microcomputer or an Atari game machine. Emulators allowing Macintosh and Linux users to run Windows programs have also achieved some success. In order to work properly, the emulator must set up a sort of virtual model of the target microprocessor, including appropriate registers to hold data and instructions and a suitably organized segment of memory. While carrying out instructions in software rather than in hardware imposes a considerable speed penalty, if the processor of the emulating PC is much faster than the one being emulated, the emulator can actually run faster than the original machine.",Human-written
TRAIN_467,"Besides military training, currently the most viable application for VR seems to be entertainment. VR techniques have been used to create immersive experiences in elaborate facilities at venues such as Disneyland and Universal Studios, and to some extent even in local arcades. VR that is accompanied by convincing physical sensations has allowed for the creation of a new generation of roller coasters that if built physically would be too expensive, too dangerous, or even physically impossible. However, there are other significant emerging applications for VR. When combined with telerobotic technology ,, VR techniques are already being used to allow surgeons to perform operations in new ways. VR technology can also be used to make remote conferencing more realistic and satisfactory for participants. Clearly the potential uses for VR for education and training in many different fields are endless. VR technology combined with robotics could also be used to give disabled persons much greater ability to carry out the tasks of daily life. In the ultimate VR system, users will be networked and able to simultaneously experience the environment, interacting both with it and one another. The technical resources and programming challenges are also much greater for such applications. The result, however, might well be the sort of environment depicted by science fiction writers such as William Gibson ,",Human-written
TRAIN_468,Burden of Proof is the necessity or duty of affirmatively proving a factor facts in a dispute. Hence‚ it is important to provide Reliable and Validevidence‚ especially if the victimized party (e. g. ‚ home user) wants to proofthat he or she has suffered damages through a computer virus. In turn‚ anorganization requires a systematic approach to develop the costs (e. g. ‚ Tables2A–2D) to arrive at the quantified losses it suffered from,Human-written
TRAIN_469,"Ergonomics is the study of the “fit” between people and their working environment. Because computers are such a significant part of the working life of so many people, finding ways for people to maximize efficiency and reduce health risks associated with computer use is increasingly important. Since the user will be looking at the computer monitor for hours on end, it is important that the display be large enough to be comfortably readable and that there be enough contrast. Glare on the monitor surface should be avoided. It is recommended that the monitor be placed so that the top line of text is slightly below eye level. A distance of about 18 inches to two feet (roughly arm’s length) is recommended. There has been concern about the health effects of electromagnetic radiation generated by monitors. Most new monitors are designed to have lower emissions",Human-written
TRAIN_470,"Types of ads include the following:, Banner ads are contained in rectangles, often at the topof the Web page. (Sometimes they can mimic dialogboxes from the operating system. ) They still accountfor about half of all online advertising, and can appearon sites of all types. , Pop-up or pop-under ads appear above or beneath thecurrent window, respectivelyFloating ads appear over the main page content, oftenmoving across the screen. , Interstitial ads are displayed before the requestedcontent (such as an article or video) is shown. Theyrun for a specified period of time, although they cansometimes be closed by the viewer. Many ads are animated; some even contain video clips. There are also ads formatted for mobile devices, includingtext messages sent to cell phones.",Human-written
TRAIN_471,"Fractals and the related idea of chaos have profoundly changed the way scientists think about and model the world. Around 1960, Benoit mandelbrot noticed that sup-posedly random economic fluctuations were not distributed evenly but tended to form “clumps. ” As he investigated other sources of data, he found that many other things exhibited this odd behavior. He also discovered that the patterns of distribution were “self-similar”—that is, if you magnified a portion of the pattern it looked like a miniature copy of the whol e. mandelbrot coined the term fractal (meaning frac-tured, or broken up) to describe such patterns. Eventually, a number of simple mathematical functions were found to exhibit such behavior in generating values.",Human-written
TRAIN_472,"Good project management software provides many tools for the purpose. Available charts and reports often include:,? Gantt charts that use bars to show the duration and percentage of completion of the various overlapping subprojects or tasks. , PERT (Program Evaluation and Review Technique) charts that show each subproject or task as a rectangular “node” with information about the task. The connections between nodes show the relationships (dependencies) between the items. PERT charts are usually used at the beginning stages of planning. , Analysis tools that show critical paths and bottlenecks (places where one or more tasks falling behind might threaten large portions of the project). Generally, the more preceding items a task is dependent on, the more likely that task is to fall behind. , Tools for estimating the probability for completion of a given task based on the probabilities of tasks it is dependent on, as well as other factors such as the likelihood of certain resources becoming available. , A system of alerts or “stoplights” that show slowdowns, potential problems, or areas where work has stopped completely. These can be set to be triggered when various specified conditions occur. , Integration between project management and budget reporting so tasks and the project as a whole can be monitored in relation to budget constraints. , Integration between the project management software and individual schedules kept in PIM software such as Microsoft Outlook or in handheld computers (PDAs) such as the PalmPilot. , Integration between project management and software for scheduling meetin",Human-written
TRAIN_473,"Data communications are the basis both for networks and for the proper functioning of servers that provide services such as World Wide Web pages, electronic mail, online databases, and multimedia content (such as audio and streaming video). While Web page design and e-commerce are the “bright lights” that give cyberspace its character, data communications are like the plumbing without which computers cannot work together. The growing demand for data communications, particularly broadband services such as DSL and cable modems, translates into a steady demand for engineers and technicians specializing in the maintenance and growth of this infrastructure ,.",Human-written
TRAIN_474,"nd User License Agreement (EULA) is a legally binding contract betweenthe developer or publisher of a software program (or application) and thepurchaser of that software. The purchaser does not own the software but has merely a right to use it in accordance with the license agreement. During software installation, the EULA is usually shown and one is required to Accept or Refuse the terms ,. In some cases, the EULA is written on the outside of the packaging withthe breaking of the seal to the CD, indicating acceptance of the EULA. In all cases, the EULA is the contract which users ignore at their peril;and whilst most EULAs contain broadly similar clauses and restrictions, itis important to confirm these before committing your organization.",Human-written
TRAIN_475,"NLP is a multidisciplinary field that draws from linguis-tics and computer science, particularly artificial intelligence ,. In terms of linguistics, a program must be able to deal with words that have multiple mean-ings (“wind up the clock” and “the wind is cold today”) as well as grammatical ambiguities (in the phrase “little girl’s school” is it the school that is little, the girls, or both?). Of course each language has its own forms of ambiguity. Programs can use several strategies for dealing with these problems, including using statistical models to predict the likely meaning of a given phrase based on a “corpus” of existing text in that language ,. As formidable as the task of extracting the correct (lit-eral) meaning from text can be, it is really only the first level of natural language processing. If a program is to success-fully summarize or draw conclusions about a news report from North Korea, for example, it would also have to have a knowledge base of facts about that country and/or a set of “frames” , about how to interpret vari-ous situations such as threat, bluff, or compromise. )",Human-written
TRAIN_476,"data warehouseModern business organizations create and store a tremendous amount of data in the form of transactions that become database records. Increasingly, however, businesses are relying on their ability to use data that was collected for one purpose (such as sales, customer service, and inventory) for purposes of marketing research, planning, or decision support. For example, transaction data might be revisited with a view to identifying the common characteristics of the firm’s best customers or determining the best way to market a particular type of product. In order to conduct such research or analysis, the data collected in the course of business must be stored in such a way that it is both accurate and flexible in terms of the number of different ways in which it can be queried. The idea of the data warehouse is to provide such a repository for data",Human-written
TRAIN_477,"List processing has a wide range of applications in various fields, including:Data analysis: List processing is often used to process and analyze large datasets in fields such as finance, marketing, and scientific research. Information management: Lists are commonly used to manage and organize data, such as customer information, inventory data, and financial records. Algorithm design: Many computational problems can be framed in terms of manipulating lists of data elements, and list processing is a fundamental technique in algorithm design. Natural language processing: List processing is used in natural language processing (NLP) applications to parse and analyze text data. Image processing: List processing can be used to manipulate and analyze image data, such as pixel values and color information. Artificial intelligence and machine learning: List processing is an important component of many machine learning and artificial intelligence algorithms, such as neural networks and decision trees. Web development: Lists are commonly used in web development to store and manipulate data, such as user profiles and shopping carts. Overall, list processing is a versatile and powerful technique that has many practical applications in a wide range of fields.",AI-generated
TRAIN_478,"Rijndael Algorithm was finally chosen as the winner because it was thefastest of them all. The algorithm was broken shortly after its adoption byMike Boyle and Chris Salter as well as by Phillip Rogaway within daysof its publication as the accepted AES. However, academic breaks are theones that force you to change things in the design process; practical breaksforce you to change things in fielded equipment. This work is clearly of theacademic-break variety",Human-written
TRAIN_479,"User-created content (UCC) refers to any form of content, such as text, images, audio, and video, that is created by users of a particular platform, website, or app, rather than by the platform or website itself. UCC is also known as user-generated content (UGC). UCC can take many forms, including blog posts, comments, product reviews, social media posts, forum discussions, videos, podcasts, and more. Users may create this content for various reasons, such as sharing their opinions, experiences, or expertise with others, expressing themselves creatively, or simply for entertainment purposes. The rise of social media and other online platforms has greatly increased the amount of UCC on the internet. This type of content can be a powerful marketing tool for businesses, as it can help them engage with their audience and build brand loyalty. However, UCC also presents challenges, such as the need to monitor content for inappropriate or harmful material, as well as the potential for copyright infringement and legal issues related to ownership and liability",AI-generated
TRAIN_480,"Users of modern operating systems such as microsoft Win-dows are familiar with multitasking, or running several programs at the same time. For example, a user might be writing a document in a word processor, pause to check the e-mail program for incoming messages, type a page address int o a Web browser, then return to writing. meanwhile, the operating system may be running a number of other pro-grams tucked unobtrusively into the background, such as a virus checker, task scheduler, or system resource monitor. Each running program “takes turns” using the PC’s cen-tral processor. In early versions of Windows, multitasking was cooperative, with each program expected to periodically yield the processor to Windows so it could be assigned to the next program in the queue. One weakness of this approach is that if a program crashes, the CPU might be “locked up” and the system would have to be rebooted. However, Win-dows NT, 2000, and xP (as well as operating systems such as UNIx) use preemptive multitasking. The operating sys-tem assigns a “slice” of processing (CPU) time to a program and then switches it to the next program regardless of what might be happening to the previous program. Thus, if a pro-gram “crashes,” the CPU will still be switched to the next program, and the user can maintain control of the system and shut down the offending program.",Human-written
TRAIN_481,"The data structures commonly used in computer science include arrays (as discussed above) and various types of lists. The primary difference between an array and a list is that an array has no internal links between its elements, data structures? ? ? ? 137while a list has one or more pointers that link the elements. There are several types of specialized list. A tree is a list that has a root (an element with no predecessor), and each other element has a unique predecessor. The guarantee of a unique path to each tree node can make the operations of inserting or deleting an item faster. A stack is a list that is accessible only at the top (or front). Any new item is inserted (“pushed”) on top of the last item, and removing (“popping”) an item always removes the item that was last inserted. This order of access is called LIFO (last in, first out). A list can also be organized in a first in, first out (FIFO) order. This type of list is called a queue, and is useful in a situation where tasks must “wait their turn” for attention",Human-written
TRAIN_482,"Data security is the practice of protecting digital data from unauthorized access, theft, destruction, alteration, or misuse. It involves implementing measures and protocols to ensure the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of data. Data security involves a combination of physical, administrative, and technical safeguards to protect data from both intentional and unintentional threats. Physical measures may include security cameras, locks, and access control systems. Administrative measures may include security policies, employee training, and access controls. Technical measures may include encryption, firewalls, and intrusion detection systems. Data security is essential for maintaining the privacy of sensitive information, such as personal identification information (PII), financial information, and confidential business data. A data breach can result in significant financial and reputational damage, legal liability, and loss of customer trust.",AI-generated
TRAIN_483,"Tcl includes a number of extensions that, for example, provide access to popular database formats such as MySQL and can interface with other programming languages such as C++ and Java. The most widely used extension is Tk, which provides a library for creating user interfaces for a variety of operating systems and languages such as Perl, Python, and Ruby. Tcl has been described as a “glue” to connect existing applications. It is relatively easy to write and test a script interactively (often at the command line), and then insert it into the code of an application. When the application runs, the Tcl interpreter runs the script, whose output can then be used by the main application ,",Human-written
TRAIN_484,"By the mid-1990s, Intel was promoting a standard for the automated detection and configuration of devices. Known as Plug and Play (PnP), this standard was incorporated in versions of Microsoft Windows starting with Windows 95 ,. The required hardware support soon appeared on PC motherboards and expansion cards. With Plug and Play the user simply connects a printer, scanner, or other device to the PC. Windows detects that a device has been connected and queries it for its official name and other information. If necessary, Windows can then prompt the user for a disk containing the appropriate driver or even search for a driver on a Web site. The concept of Plug and Play extends beyond the Windows world, however. In recent years there has been interest in developing a Universal Plug and Play (UPnP) protocol by which a variety of devices could automatically configure themselves with any of a variety of different networks. This would be particularly helpful for home users who are increasingly setting up small networks so they can share broadband Internet connections, as well as the growing number of users who want their desktop PC to work with handheld (palm) computers and other devices. Microsoft supports UPnP in versions of Windows starting with ME and XP.",Human-written
TRAIN_485,"Binders are programs permitting hackers to ‘bind’ two or more programstogether resuling in a single . EXE file. Hence‚ harmless . EXE animations‚e-greetings or other such files could have a Trojan horse inserted , ,. The only way to stop an executable from harming a PC or system is to run itin a proactive ‘sandbox’ environment and monitor its behavior for maliciousactivity in real-time.",Human-written
TRAIN_486,"Data integrity is related to data security, since the completeness and accuracy of data that has been compromised can no longer be guaranteed. However, data integrity also requires the development and testing of procedures for the entry and verification of data (input) as well as verifying the accuracy of reports (output). Database administrators may do some programming, but generally work with the programming staff in maintaining data integrity. Since most data in computers ultimately comes from human beings, the training of operators is also important. Within the database structure itself, the links between data fields must be maintained (referential integrity) and a locking system must be employed to ensure that a new update is not processed while a pending one is incomplete ,. Internal procedures and external regulations may require that a database be periodically audited for accuracy. While this may be the province of a specially trained information processing auditor, it is often added to the duties of the database administrator",Human-written
TRAIN_487,"Industrial robots work in an extremely restricted environment, so their world representation can be quite simple. However, robots that can move about in the environment have also been developed. Military programs have developed automatic guided vehicles (AGVs) with wheels or tracks, capable of navigating a battlefield and scouting or attacking the enemy ,. Space-going robots including the Sojourner Mars rover also have considerable onboard “intelligence,” although their overall tasks are programmed by remote commands. Indeed, the extent to which mobile robots are truly autonomous varies considerably. At one end is the “robot” that is steered and otherwise controlled by its human operator, such as law enforcement robots that can be sent into dangerous hostage situations. (Another example is the robots that fight in arena combat in the popular Robot Warsshows. )",Human-written
TRAIN_488,"Social scientists can use a variety of software throughout the research process. For example, researchers might use the following:, Web and bibliographical search tools to find existing research on their topic, note-taking and concept-diagramming (“mind-mapping”) software, software to conduct polls or surveys and compile the results, social networking analysis to better understand a group’s structure and dynamics, statistical analysis tools to analyze the findings ,, map-based systems for studying geographical aspects ,, modeling software to simulate the mechanism being studied, using mathematical techniques such as the Monte Carlo and Markov-Chain methods",Human-written
TRAIN_489,"Electronic mail is perhaps the most ubiquitous computer application in use today. E-mail can be defined as the sending of a message to one or more individuals via a computer system, open the file, and look for messages. In 1971, however, the ARPANET (ancestor of the Internet—see internet) was used by researchers at Bolt Beranek and Newman (BBN) to send messages from a user at one computer to a user at another. The availability of e-mail helped fuel the growth of the ARPANET through the 1970s and beyond. connection. Development and ArchitectureThe simplest form of e-mail began in the 1960s as a way that users on a time-sharing computer system could post and read messages. The messages consisted of text in a file that was accessible to all users. A user could simply log into the",Human-written
TRAIN_490,"Stream Cipher encrypts in small units, often a bit or a byte at a time. Unlike abasic block cipher, a stream cipher will have output corresponding to a giveninput will depend on where in the message it occurs. The simplest type ofstream cipher uses a complicated function, which retains state, to generatea pseudo-random sequence which is then combined with the input using asimple operation such as bytewise addition.",Human-written
TRAIN_491,"The term template is used in a several contexts in computing, but they all refer to a general pattern that can be customized to create particular products such as documents. In a word processing program such as Microsoft Word, a template (sometimes called a style sheet) is a document that comes with a particular set of styles for various elements such as titles, headings, first and subsequent paragraphs, lists, and so on. Each style in turn consists of various characteristics such as type font, type style (such as bold), and spacing. The template also includes properties of the document as a whole, such as margins, header, and footer. To create a new document, the user can select one of several built-in templates for different types of documents such as letters, faxes, and reports, or design a custom template by defining appropriate styles and properties. Special sequences of programmed actions can also be attached to a template ,. Templates can be created and used for applications other than word processing. A spreadsheet template consists of appropriate macros and formulas in an otherwise blank spreadsheet. When it is run, the template prompts the user to enter the appropriate values and then the calculations are performed. A database program can have input forms that serve in effect as templates for creating new records by inputting the necessary data.",Human-written
TRAIN_492,"There are basically two ways to move data from a computer to or from a peripheral device such as a printer or modem. A byte (8 bits) of data can be moved all at once, with each bit traveling along its own wire ,. Alternatively, a single wire can be used to carry the data one bit at a time. Such a connection is called a serial port. The serial port receives data a full byte at a time from the computer bus and uses a UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver-Transmitter) to extract the bits one at a time and send them through the port. A corresponding circuit at the other end accumulates the incoming bits and reassembles them into data bytes. The data bits for each byte are preceded by a start-bit to signal the beginning of the data and terminated by an stopbit. Depending on the application, an additional bit may be used for parity ,. Devices connected by a serial port must “negotiate” by requesting a particular connection speed and parity setting. Failure to agree results in gibberish being received.",Human-written
TRAIN_493,"The process of analyzing existing databases in order to find useful information is called data mining. Generally, a database, whether scientific or commercial, is designed for a data mining? ? ? ? 135particular purpose, such as recording scientific observations or keeping track of customers’ account histories. However, data often has potential applications beyond those conceived by its collector",Human-written
TRAIN_494,"Founded in 1982, Sun Microsystems (NASDAQ symbol: JAVA) has played an important role in the development of computer workstations and servers, UNIX-based operating systems, and the Java programming language ,. During the 1980s, Sun was known mainly for its workstations for programmers and graphics professionals, running on its own SPARC series microprocessors. However, 460? ? ? ? structured programmingby the 1990s the growing power of regular desktop PCs was reducing the need for special-purpose workstations. As the Web grew starting in the 1990s, Sun’s line of multiprocessing Web servers became quite successful, though the “dotbust” of the early 2000s cut revenues. One of Sun’s founders was a key developer of UNIXsoftware ,. Sun developed its own version of UNIX (SunOS) for its workstations in the 1980s, and then joined with AT&T to develop the widely used UNIX System V Release 4, which in turn became the basis for Sun’s new operating system, Solaris. (Sun has also supported the use of Linux on its hardware. )",Human-written
TRAIN_495,"A stack is simply a list that represents successive locations in memory into which data can be inserted. The operation of a stack can be visualized as being rather like the springloaded platform onto which dishes are stacked for washing in some restaurants. As each dish (number) is added, the stack is “pushed. ” Because only the item “on top” (the last one added) can be removed (“popped”) at any given time, a stack is described as a LIFO (last in, first out) structure. (Note that this is different from a queue, where items can be added or removed from either end [see queue]. )Stacks are useful whenever nested items must be tracked. For example, a procedure might call a procedure that in turn calls another procedure. The stack can keep track of the parameters (as well as the calling address) for each pending procedure. Stacks can also be used to evaluate nested arithmetic expressions.",Human-written
TRAIN_496,"Handwriting recognition technology has numerous applications in various fields. Here are some of the most common applications:Digitizing handwritten documents: Handwriting recognition technology can convert handwritten documents into digital form, making them easier to store, search, and share. Automatic form processing: Handwriting recognition can be used to automatically process forms that are filled out by hand, such as medical forms, surveys, and tax forms. Text recognition in images: Handwriting recognition can be used to recognize text in images, such as street signs, license plates, and product labels. Personalized note-taking: Handwriting recognition can be used in note-taking applications to recognize handwritten notes and convert them into typed text. Digital signatures: Handwriting recognition can be used to authenticate digital signatures by verifying the authenticity of a person's handwriting. Accessibility: Handwriting recognition technology can be used to help people with disabilities, such as those with physical disabilities or dyslexia, to communicate more easily by using handwriting as an input method. Education: Handwriting recognition can be used in education to provide feedback on handwriting skills, to grade written assignments, and to automatically generate quizzes or tests based on handwritten responses. Overall, handwriting recognition has many applications that can help streamline tasks, improve accessibility, and enhance productivity in a variety of fields.",AI-generated
TRAIN_497,"Digital Rights Management (DRM) (sometimes also called Digital Information Management) lets a document owner define how recipients can handledocuments in terms of forwarding, copying, and printing them. Also allowsthe DRM holder to determine expiration dates for those permissions. A document owner can also designate sections of a document that only certainpeople can change, force the use of revision marks for changes, and force theuse of certain formatting and styles. Microsoft has integrated the same typeof functionality into Office Excel 2003 and Office Outlook 2003. To enable users to take advantage of DRM features in Office 2003, Windows Rights Management Services (RMS) for Windows Server 2003 hasto be implemented first on the network. RMS is based on the ExtensibleRights Markup Language (XrML), which is a method for defining rights andpolicies.",Human-written
TRAIN_498,"A cookie is a small piece of data that is stored on a user's computer by a website they visit. Cookies are commonly used in computer science to help websites remember user preferences, login information, or other details about a user's interaction with the website. When a user visits a website, the website sends a cookie to the user's web browser, which stores the cookie on the user's computer. The next time the user visits the website, the browser sends the cookie back to the website, allowing the website to recognize the user and retrieve any previously stored information. Cookies can be used for various purposes, such as keeping a user logged in to a website, remembering items in a shopping cart, or tracking user behavior for analytics purposes. While cookies are generally harmless, they can also be used for tracking and advertising purposes, which has led to concerns about user privacy. Modern web browsers typically provide options for users to manage cookies, including the ability to block or delete cookies from certain websites.",AI-generated
TRAIN_499,"The hexadecimal system is a number system with a base of 16. It is commonly used in computing and digital electronics, as it provides an efficient way to represent binary data. In the hexadecimal system, each digit can have 16 different values, ranging from 0 to 9 and A to F. The first 10 digits in the hexadecimal system represent the numbers 0 to 9, while the letters A to F represent the numbers 10 to 15. For example, the number 10 in hexadecimal is represented by the letter A, and the number 15 is represented by the letter F. To convert a hexadecimal number to a decimal number, each digit is multiplied by its corresponding power of 16 and then added together. For example, the hexadecimal number 3B can be converted to decimal as follows:3B = (3 x 16^1) + (11 x 16^0)= (3 x 16) + (11 x 1)= 48 + 11= 59Similarly, to convert a decimal number to a hexadecimal number, the number is divided by 16 and the remainder is converted to a hexadecimal digit. The process is repeated until the quotient becomes zero. The resulting hexadecimal digits are written in reverse order to obtain the final hexadecimal number. For example, to convert the decimal number 210 to hexadecimal:210 ÷ 16 = 13 with a remainder of 213 ÷ 16 = 0 with a remainder of 13 (which is represented by the letter D)Therefore, 210 in hexadecimal is D2.",AI-generated
TRAIN_500,"Secure Hash A process which reduces a message of arbitrary length to afixed length fingerprint which is very unlikely to be the same for any othermessage. The word “secure” indicates that the algorithm has been chosen sothat it is not possible to forge a message which to have given hash value, norto create two similar messages with the same hash value.",Human-written