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+{"Q762": ["Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci[b] (15 April 1452\u00a0\u2013\u00a02 May 1519) was an Italian polymath of the High Renaissance who was active as a painter, draughtsman, engineer, scientist, theorist, sculptor, and architect.[3] While his fame initially rested on his achievements as a painter, he has also become known for his notebooks, in which he made drawings and notes on a variety of subjects, including anatomy, astronomy, botany, cartography, painting, and paleontology. Leonardo is widely regarded to have been a genius who epitomized the Renaissance humanist ideal,[4] and his collective works comprise a contribution to later generations of artists matched only by that of his younger contemporary Michelangelo.[3][4]\n", "Born out of wedlock to a successful notary and a lower-class woman in, or near, Vinci, he was educated in Florence by the Italian painter and sculptor Andrea del Verrocchio. He began his career in the city, but then spent much time in the service of Ludovico Sforza in Milan. Later, he worked in Florence and Milan again, as well as briefly in Rome, all while attracting a large following of imitators and students. Upon the invitation of Francis I, he spent his last three years in France, where he died in 1519. Since his death, there has not been a time where his achievements, diverse interests, personal life, and empirical thinking have failed to incite interest and admiration,[3][4] making him a frequent namesake and subject in culture.\n", "Leonardo is identified as one of the greatest painters in the history of art and is often credited as the founder of the High Renaissance.[3] Despite having many lost works and fewer than 25 attributed major works\u00a0\u2013  including numerous unfinished works\u00a0\u2013  he created some of the most influential paintings in Western art.[3] His magnum opus, the Mona Lisa, is his best known work and often regarded as the world's most famous painting. The Last Supper is the most reproduced religious painting of all time and his Vitruvian Man drawing is also regarded as a cultural icon. In 2017, Salvator Mundi, attributed in whole or part to Leonardo,[5] was sold at auction for US$450.3\u00a0million, setting a new record for the most expensive painting ever sold at public auction.\n", "Revered for his technological ingenuity, he conceptualized flying machines, a type of armored fighting vehicle, concentrated solar power, a ratio machine that could be used in an adding machine,[6][7] and the double hull. Relatively few of his designs were constructed or were even feasible during his lifetime, as the modern scientific approaches to metallurgy and engineering were only in their infancy during the Renaissance. Some of his smaller inventions, however, entered the world of manufacturing unheralded, such as an automated bobbin winder and a machine for testing the tensile strength of wire. He made substantial discoveries in anatomy, civil engineering, hydrodynamics, geology, optics, and tribology, but he did not publish his findings and they had little to no direct influence on subsequent science.[8]\n"]}

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+{"Q5460604": ["There are currently 6,795,130 articles on the English Wikipedia, some of which have been selected as vital articles. They are organized into five levels of vitality. Level 1 contains the ten most vital articles, and each further level expands on the selection of the previous level, as follows:\n", "The vital article lists are meant to guide the prioritization of improvements to vital articles and to monitor their quality. They are tailored to the English Wikipedia, unlike the list of articles every Wikipedia should have on Meta-Wiki. They are actively maintained by the dedicated WikiProject Vital Articles. For more on the history, process and purpose behind the vital article lists, please visit the FAQ page.\n"], "Q6373": ["The British Museum is a public museum dedicated to human history, art and culture located in the Bloomsbury area of London. Its permanent collection of eight million works is the largest in the world.[3] It documents the story of human culture from its beginnings to the present.[a] The British Museum was the first public national museum to cover all fields of knowledge.[4]\n", "The museum was established in 1753, largely based on the collections of the Anglo-Irish physician and scientist Sir Hans Sloane.[6] It first opened to the public in 1759, in Montagu House, on the site of the current building. The museum's expansion over the following 250 years was largely a result of British colonisation and resulted in the creation of several branch institutions, or independent spin-offs, the first being the Natural History Museum in 1881. The right to ownership of some of its most well-known acquisitions, notably the Greek Elgin Marbles and the Egyptian Rosetta Stone, is subject to long-term disputes and repatriation claims.[7][8]\n", "In 1973, the British Library Act 1972[9] detached the library department from the British Museum, but it continued to host the now separated British Library in the same Reading Room and building as the museum until 1997. The museum is a non-departmental public body sponsored by the Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport, and as with all national museums in the UK it charges no admission fee, except for loan exhibitions.[10]\n", "Although today principally a museum of cultural art objects and antiquities, the British Museum was founded as a \"universal museum\". Its foundations lie in the will of the Anglo-Irish physician and naturalist Sir Hans Sloane (1660\u20131753), a London-based doctor and scientist from Ulster. During the course of his lifetime, and particularly after he married the widow of a wealthy Jamaican planter,[11] Sloane gathered a large collection of curiosities, and not wishing to see his collection broken up after death, he bequeathed it to King George II, for the nation, for a sum of \u00a320,000.[12]\n"], "Q652": [], "Q220": ["Rome (Italian and Latin: Roma, Italian: [\u02c8ro\u02d0ma] \u24d8) is the capital city of Italy. It is also the capital of the Lazio region, the centre of the Metropolitan City of Rome Capital, and a special comune (municipality) named Comune di Roma Capitale. With 2,860,009 residents in 1,285\u00a0km2 (496.1\u00a0sq\u00a0mi),[2] Rome is the country's most populated comune and the third most populous city in the European Union by population within city limits. The Metropolitan City of Rome, with a population of 4,355,725 residents, is the most populous metropolitan city in Italy.[3] Its metropolitan area is the third-most populous within Italy.[5] Rome is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, within Lazio (Latium), along the shores of the Tiber. Vatican City (the smallest country in the world)[6] is an independent country inside the city boundaries of Rome, the only existing example of a country within a city. Rome is often referred to as the City of Seven Hills due to its geographic location, and also as the \"Eternal City\". Rome is generally considered to be the cradle of Western civilization and Western Christian culture, and the centre of the Catholic Church.[7][8][9]\n", "Rome's history spans 28 centuries. While Roman mythology dates the founding of Rome at around 753 BC, the site has been inhabited for much longer, making it a major human settlement for almost three millennia and one of the oldest continuously occupied cities in Europe.[10] The city's early population originated from a mix of Latins, Etruscans, and Sabines. Eventually, the city successively became the capital of the Roman Kingdom, the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire, and is regarded by many as the first-ever Imperial city and metropolis.[11] It was first called The Eternal City (Latin: Urbs Aeterna; Italian: La Citt\u00e0 Eterna) by the Roman poet Tibullus in the 1st century BC, and the expression was also taken up by Ovid, Virgil, and Livy.[12][13] Rome is also called \"Caput Mundi\" (Capital of the World).\n", "After the fall of the Empire in the west, which marked the beginning of the Middle Ages, Rome slowly fell under the political control of the Papacy, and in the 8th century, it became the capital of the Papal States, which lasted until 1870. Beginning with the Renaissance, almost all popes since Nicholas V (1447\u20131455) pursued a coherent architectural and urban programme over four hundred years, aimed at making the city the artistic and cultural centre of the world.[14] In this way, Rome first became one of the major centres of the Renaissance[15] and then became the birthplace of both the Baroque style and Neoclassicism. Famous artists, painters, sculptors, and architects made Rome the centre of their activity, creating masterpieces throughout the city. In 1871, Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, which, in 1946, became the Italian Republic.\n", "In 2019, Rome was the 14th most visited city in the world, with 8.6 million tourists, the third most visited city in the European Union, and the most popular tourist destination in Italy.[16] Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site.[17] The host city for the 1960 Summer Olympics, Rome is also the seat of several specialised agencies of the United Nations, such as the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the World Food Programme (WFP) and the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD). The city also hosts the Secretariat of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Union for the Mediterranean[18] (UfM) as well as the headquarters of many multinational companies, such as Eni, Enel, TIM, Leonardo, and banks such as BNL. Numerous companies are based within Rome's EUR business district, such as the luxury fashion house Fendi located in the Palazzo della Civilt\u00e0 Italiana. The presence of renowned international brands in the city has made Rome an important centre of fashion and design, and the Cinecitt\u00e0 Studios have been the set of many Academy Award\u2013winning movies.[19]\n"], "Q2044": ["Florence (/\u02c8fl\u0252r\u0259ns/ FLORR-\u0259nss; Italian: Firenze [fi\u02c8r\u025bntse] \u24d8)[a] is the capital city of the Italian region of Tuscany. It is also the most populated city in Tuscany, with 360,930 inhabitants in 2023, and 984,991 in its metropolitan area.[4]\n", "Florence was a centre of medieval European trade and finance and one of the wealthiest cities of that era.[5] It is considered by many academics[6] to have been the birthplace of the Renaissance, becoming a major artistic, cultural, commercial, political, economic and financial center.[7] During this time, Florence rose to a position of enormous influence in Italy, Europe, and beyond.[8] Its turbulent political history includes periods of rule by the powerful Medici family and numerous religious and republican revolutions.[9] From 1865 to 1871 the city served as the capital of the Kingdom of Italy. The Florentine dialect forms the base of standard Italian and it became the language of culture throughout Italy[10] due to the prestige of the masterpieces by Dante Alighieri, Petrarch, Giovanni Boccaccio, Niccol\u00f2 Machiavelli and Francesco Guicciardini.\n", "The city attracts millions of tourists each year, and UNESCO declared the Historic Centre of Florence a World Heritage Site in 1982. The city is noted for its culture, Renaissance art and architecture and monuments.[11] The city also contains numerous museums and art galleries, such as the Uffizi Gallery and the Palazzo Pitti, and still exerts an influence in the fields of art, culture and politics.[12] Due to Florence's artistic and architectural heritage, Forbes ranked it as one of the most beautiful cities in the world in 2010.[13]\n", "Florence plays an important role in Italian fashion,[12] and is ranked in the top 15 fashion capitals of the world by Global Language Monitor;[14] furthermore, it is a major national economic centre,[12] as well as a tourist and industrial hub.\n"], "Q29286": ["The Palazzo Pitti (Italian: [pa\u02c8lattso \u02c8pitti]), in English sometimes called the Pitti Palace, is a vast, mainly Renaissance, palace in Florence, Italy.  It is situated on the south side of the River Arno, a short distance from the Ponte Vecchio. The core of the present palazzo dates from 1458 and was originally the town residence of Luca Pitti,[1] an ambitious Florentine banker.\n", "The palace was bought by the Medici family in 1549 and became the chief residence of the ruling families of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany. It grew as a great treasure house as later generations amassed paintings, plates, jewelry and luxurious possessions.\n", "In the late 18th century, the palazzo was used as a power base by Napoleon and later served for a brief period as the principal royal palace of the newly united Italy. The palace and its contents were donated to the Italian people by King Victor Emmanuel III in 1919.\n", "The palazzo is now the largest museum complex in Florence. The principal palazzo block, often in a building of this design known as the corps de logis, is 32,000 square metres.[2] It is divided into several principal galleries or museums detailed below.\n"], "Q51252": ["The Uffizi Gallery (UK: /ju\u02d0\u02c8f\u026atsi, \u028a\u02c8fi\u02d0tsi/ yoo-FIT-see, uu-FEET-see;[3][4] Italian: Galleria degli Uffizi, pronounced [\u0261alle\u02c8ri\u02d0a de\u028e\u028e uf\u02c8fittsi]) is a prominent art museum located adjacent to the Piazza della Signoria in the Historic Centre of Florence in the region of Tuscany, Italy. One of the most important Italian museums and the most visited, it is also one of the largest and best-known in the world and holds a collection of priceless works, particularly from the period of the Italian Renaissance.\n", "After the ruling House of Medici died out, their art collections were given to the city of Florence under the famous Patto di famiglia negotiated by Anna Maria Luisa, the last Medici heiress. The Uffizi is one of the first modern museums. The gallery had been open to visitors by request since the sixteenth century, and in 1769 it was officially opened to the public, formally becoming a museum in 1865.[5]\n", "The building of the Uffizi complex was begun by Giorgio Vasari in 1560 for Cosimo I de' Medici as a means to consolidate his administrative control of the various committees, agencies, and guilds established in Florence's Republican past so as to accommodate them all one place, hence the name uffizi, \"offices\". The construction was later continued by Alfonso Parigi and Bernardo Buontalenti; it was completed in 1581. The top floor was made into a gallery for the family and their guests and included their collection of Roman sculptures.[6]\n", "The cortile (internal courtyard) is so long, narrow, and open to the Arno at its far end through a Doric screen that articulates the space without blocking it, that architectural historians[7] treat it as the first regularized streetscape of Europe. Vasari, a painter, and architect as well, emphasized its perspective length by adorning it with the matching facades' continuous roof cornices, and unbroken cornices between storeys, as well as the three continuous steps on which the museum fronts stand. The niches in the piers that alternate with columns of the Loggiato are filled with sculptures of famous artists in the 19th century.\n"], "Q490": ["Milan (/m\u026a\u02c8l\u00e6n/ mil-AN, US also /m\u026a\u02c8l\u0251\u02d0n/ mil-AHN,[5] Milanese: [mi\u02c8l\u00e3\u02d0] \u24d8; Italian: Milano, Italian: [mi\u02c8la\u02d0no] \u24d8)[6] is a city in northern Italy, regional capital of Lombardy, and the second-most populous city proper in Italy after Rome. The city proper has a population of about 1.4\u00a0million,[7] while its metropolitan city has 3.22\u00a0million residents.[8] The urban area of Milan is the fourth largest in the EU with 5.27\u00a0million inhabitants.[9] According to national sources, the population within the wider Milan metropolitan area (also known as Greater Milan), is estimated between 4.9\u00a0million and 7.4\u00a0million making it by far the largest metropolitan area in Italy and one of the largest in the EU.[10][11] Milan is the economic capital of Italy, one of the economic capitals of Europe and a global financial centre.[12][13]\n", "Milan is a leading alpha global city,[14] with strengths in the fields of art, chemicals,[15] commerce, design, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media (communication), services, research and tourism. Its business district hosts Italy's stock exchange (Italian: Borsa Italiana), and the headquarters of national and international banks and companies. In terms of GDP, Milan is the wealthiest city in Italy, has the third-largest economy among EU cities after Paris and Madrid, and is the wealthiest among EU non-capital cities.[16][17][18] Milan is viewed along with Turin as the southernmost part of the Blue Banana urban development corridor (also known as the \"European Megalopolis\"), and one of the Four Motors for Europe. Milan is one of the international tourism destinations, appearing among the most visited cities in the world, ranking second in Italy after Rome, fifth in Europe and sixteenth in the world.[19][20] Milan is a major cultural centre, with museums and art galleries that include some of the most important collections in the world, such as major works by Leonardo da Vinci.[21][22] It also hosts numerous educational institutions, academies and universities, with 11% of the national total of enrolled students.[23][24]\n", "Founded around 590 BC[25] under the name Medhelanon[26] by a Celtic tribe belonging to the Insubres group and belonging to the Golasecca culture, it was conquered by the ancient Romans in 222 BC, who latinized the name of the city into Mediolanum. The city's role as a major political centre dates back to the late antiquity, when it served as the capital of the Western Roman Empire.[27] From the 12th century until the 16th century, Milan was one of the largest European cities and a major trade and commercial centre; consequently, it became the capital of the Duchy of Milan, one of the greatest political, artistic and fashion forces in the Renaissance.[28][29] Having become one of the main centres of the Italian Enlightenment during the early modern period, the city subsequently became the industrial and financial capital of modern Italy.[30][31] Capital of the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy, after the Restoration it was among the most active centres of the Risorgimento, until its entry into the unified Kingdom of Italy.\n", "Milan has been recognized as one of the world's four fashion capitals.[32] Many of the most famous luxury fashion brands in the world have their headquarters in the city, including: Armani, Prada, Versace, Moschino, Valentino and Zegna.[33][34] It also hosts several international events and fairs, including Milan Fashion Week and the Milan Furniture Fair, which are among the world's biggest in terms of revenue, visitors and growth.[35][36][37] The city is served by many luxury hotels and is the fifth-most starred in the world by Michelin Guide.[38] It hosted the Universal Exposition in 1906 and 2015. In the field of sports, Milan is home to two of Europe's most successful football teams, AC Milan and Inter Milan, and one of Europe's main basketball teams, Olimpia Milano. Milan will host the Winter Olympic and Paralympic games for the first time in 2026, together with Cortina d'Ampezzo.[39][40][41]\n"], "Q641": ["Venice (/\u02c8v\u025bn\u026as/ VEN-iss, Italian: Venezia, Italian: [ve\u02c8n\u025bttsja] \u24d8)[note 1] is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto region. It is built on a group of 126 islands that are separated by expanses of open water and by canals; portions of the city are linked by 472 bridges.[3] The islands are in the shallow Venetian Lagoon, an enclosed bay lying between the mouths of the Po and the Piave rivers (more exactly between the Brenta and the Sile). In 2020, around 258,685\u00a0people resided in greater Venice or the Comune di Venezia, of whom around 51,000 live in the historical island city of Venice (centro storico) and the rest on the mainland (terraferma). Together with the cities of Padua and Treviso, Venice is included in the Padua-Treviso-Venice Metropolitan Area (PATREVE), which is considered a statistical metropolitan area, with a total population of 2.6\u00a0million.[4]\n", "The name is derived from the ancient Veneti people who inhabited the region by the 10th\u00a0century\u00a0BC.[5][6] The city was historically the capital of the Republic of Venice for almost a millennium, from 810 to 1797. It was a major financial and maritime power during the Middle Ages and Renaissance, and a staging area for the Crusades and the Battle of Lepanto, as well as an important centre of commerce\u2014especially silk, grain, and spice, and of art from the 13th century to the end of the 17th. The city-state of Venice is considered to have been the first real international financial centre, emerging in the 9th century and reaching its greatest prominence in the 14th\u00a0century.[7] This made Venice a wealthy city throughout most of its history.[8] For centuries Venice possessed numerous territories along the Adriatic Sea and within the Italian peninsula, leaving a significant impact on the architecture and culture that can still be seen today.[9][10] The Venetian Arsenal is considered by several historians to be the first factory in history, and was the base of Venice's naval power.[11] The sovereignty of Venice came to an end in 1797, at the hands of Napoleon. Subsequently, in 1866, the city became part of the Kingdom of Italy.[12]\n", "Venice has been known as \"La Dominante\", \"La Serenissima\", \"Queen of the Adriatic\", \"City of Water\", \"City of Masks\", \"City of Bridges\", \"The Floating City\", and \"City of Canals\". The lagoon and the historic parts of the city within the lagoon were inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987, covering an area of 70,176.4 hectares (173,410 acres).[13] In view of the fact that Venice and its lagoon are under constant threat in terms of their ecology and the safeguarding of the cultural heritage, Venice's UNESCO listing has been under constant examination by UNESCO.[14] Parts of Venice are renowned for the beauty of their settings, their architecture, and artwork.[13] Venice is known for several important artistic movements \u2013 especially during the Renaissance period \u2013 and has played an important role in the history of instrumental and operatic music; it is the birthplace of Baroque composers Tomaso Albinoni and Antonio Vivaldi.[15]\n", "In the 21st century, Venice remains a very popular tourist destination, a major cultural centre, and has been ranked many times the most beautiful city in the world.[16][17] It has been described by The Times as one of Europe's most romantic cities[18] and by The New York Times as \"undoubtedly the most beautiful city built by man\".[19] However, the city faces challenges including an excessive number of tourists, pollution, tide peaks and cruise ships sailing too close to buildings.[20][21][22]\n"], "Q4692": ["The Renaissance (UK: /r\u026a\u02c8ne\u026as\u0259ns/ rin-AY-s\u0259nss, US: /\u02c8r\u025bn\u0259s\u0251\u02d0ns/ \u24d8 REN-\u0259-sahnss)[1][a] is a period in history and a cultural movement marking the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity, covering the 15th and 16th centuries and characterized by an effort to revive and surpass the ideas and achievements of classical antiquity; it was associated with great social change in most fields and disciplines, including art, architecture, politics, literature, exploration and science. It began in the Republic of Florence.\n", "The Renaissance's intellectual basis was its version of humanism, derived from the concept of Roman humanitas and the rediscovery of classical Greek philosophy, such as that of Protagoras, who said that \"man is the measure of all things\". Early examples were the development of perspective in oil painting and the revived knowledge of how to make concrete. Although the invention of metal movable type sped the dissemination of ideas from the later 15th century, the changes of the Renaissance were not uniform across Europe: the first traces appear in Italy as early as the late 13th century, in particular with the writings of Dante and the paintings of Giotto.\n", "As a cultural movement, the Renaissance encompassed innovative flowering of Latin and vernacular literatures, beginning with the 14th-century resurgence of learning based on classical sources, which contemporaries credited to Petrarch; the development of linear perspective and other techniques of rendering a more natural reality in painting; and gradual but widespread educational reform. In politics, the Renaissance contributed to the development of the customs and conventions of diplomacy, and in science to an increased reliance on observation and inductive reasoning. Although the Renaissance saw revolutions in many intellectual and social scientific pursuits, as well as the introduction of modern banking and the field of accounting,[3] it is perhaps best known for its artistic developments and the contributions of such polymaths as Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo, who inspired the term \"Renaissance man\".[4][5]\n", "The term rinascita (\"rebirth\") first appeared in Giorgio Vasari's Lives of the Artists (c.\u20091550), the corresponding French word, renaissance, was adopted into English as the term for this period during the 1830s.[6][b]\n"]}

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+{"Q71887839": [], "Q469379": ["Francesco Melzi, or Francesco de Melzi (1491\u20131567), was an Italian painter born into a family of the Milanese nobility in Lombardy. He became a pupil of Leonardo da Vinci and remained as his closest professional assistant throughout his career. After da Vinci's death he became the literary executor of all da\u00a0Vinci's papers, editing them into a manuscript on painting he published as Tratatto della Pittura [Treatise on Painting] or a compilation entitled the Codex Urbinas.\n", "Francesco's father, Gerolamo Melzi, was an engineer for Francesco\u00a0II Sforza's military, and a captain in the militia in Milan under Louis XII.[1] Francesco lived with his family in the Villa Melzi\u00a0[it] in Vaprio d'Adda (not to be confused with the Villa Melzi d'Eril in Bellagio, Lombardy), which today is still under the ownership of the Dukes Melzi d'Eril.[2](p19) Francesco grew up in the Milanese court, and was raised with proper manners and was granted a good education, which included training in the arts. He was reasonably talented in the arts and worked very hard.[3]\n", "As a member of a prominent family of the Milanese court, however, Francesco would have had political and social responsibilities as he got older that would have caused him to discontinue his studies in art had it not been for Leonardo da\u00a0Vinci. Leonardo returned to Milan for some time around 1505 and stayed with the Melzi family.[4] It was there that he met Francesco for the first time, enticed by his good nature and handsomeness. In a biography of Leonardo da\u00a0Vinci, it is argued that he felt compelled to stay in Milan longer than he had intended after meeting with the young Francesco.[5](p381) Francesco is described in literature as charming and graceful, an adolescent without the awkwardness or lack of manners typical of boys around this age.[5](p381) Francesco and another pupil of Leonardo's \u2013 Boltraffo \u2013 stood out from the other students as they were capable painters, very bright, and well-learned. Because of his upbringing in the high court, Francesco was gracious and dignified, and had a very good education.[6](p351) Shortly after they met, Francesco began studying and working at Leonardo's workshop and quickly became his master's favorite pupil, and the most devoted as well.[7] Despite this, fairly little is written about the apprentice painter, and what is known about him is almost exclusively within the context of Leonardo.\n", "Other than Francesco, none of Leonardo's pupils went on to become respected artists. And although he is not well-known, Francesco is referred to as being the first person responsible for collecting, organizing, and preserving Leonardo da\u00a0Vinci's notes on painting, and transforming it into a manuscript copy known as the Codex Urbinas. After Leonardo's death in 1519, Francesco returned to Italy and married Angiola di\u00a0Landriani; with her he fathered eight children.[8](p371) One of his children, Orazio, inherited Leonardo's manuscripts after Francesco's death in 1569~1570.\n"], "Q1638622": ["The Adoration of the Magi or Adoration of the Kings or Visitation of the Wise Men is the name traditionally given to the subject in the Nativity of Jesus in art in which the three Magi, represented as kings, especially in the West, having found Jesus by following a star, lay before him gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh, and worship him. It is related in the Bible by Matthew 2:11: \"On entering the house, they saw the child with Mary his mother; and they knelt down and paid him homage. Then, opening their treasure chests, they offered him gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh. And having been warned in a dream not to return to Herod, they left for their own country by another path\".\n", "Christian iconography considerably expanded the bare account of the Biblical Magi described in the Gospel of Matthew (2:1\u201322).  By the later Middle Ages this drew from non-canonical sources like the Golden Legend by Jacobus de Voragine.  Artists used the expanded Christian iconography to reinforce the idea that Jesus was recognized, from his earliest infancy, as king of the earth.  The adoration scene was often used to represent the Nativity, one of the most indispensable episodes in cycles of the Life of the Virgin as well as the Life of Christ.\n", "Stories throughout the Middle Ages started circulating, which speculated who exactly were the three kings who were famous for visiting the Christ child. Many people assumed that they came from somewhere in the east.[1] Eventually it was decided that the three kings would represent the three main continents at the time; Europe, Asia, and Africa.[1] The three names that prevailed over the centuries for the three kings were Gaspar (or Caspar), Melchior, and Balthasar.[1] The prominence of this story, as well as the three kings or magi, is due to the great theological significance that the Biblical story holds, their exotic clothes and looks, as well as their great and expensive gifts.[1]\n", "In the church calendar, the event is commemorated in Western Christianity as the Feast of the Epiphany (January 6). The Eastern Orthodox Church commemorates the Adoration of the Magi on the Feast of the Nativity (December 25).  The term is anglicized from the Vulgate Latin section title for this passage: A Magis adoratur.\n"], "Q1892745": ["Salvator Mundi, Latin for Saviour of the World, is a subject in iconography depicting Christ with his right hand raised in blessing and his left hand holding an orb (frequently surmounted by a cross), known as a globus cruciger. The latter symbolizes the Earth, and the whole composition has strong eschatological undertones.\n", "The theme was made popular by Northern painters such as Jan van Eyck, Hans Memling, and Albrecht D\u00fcrer. There are also several versions of the theme attributed to Titian, notably the one in the Hermitage Museum.\n", "One painting of the subject, simply titled Salvator Mundi, was attributed or reattributed to Leonardo da Vinci in 2011. This painting disappeared from 1763 until 1900 when it was acquired from Sir Charles Robinson. It was at the time thought to be a work by Leonardo's follower, Bernardino Luini, and was purchased for the Doughty House in Richmond, London by Sir Francis Cook.[1] By this time Christ's face and hair had been extensively repainted. A photograph taken in 1912 records the work's altered appearance.[2] In 2017, this painting sold at auction for US$450,300,000, the highest price ever paid for a painting.[3]\n"], "Q121998": ["An ambassador is an official envoy, especially a high-ranking diplomat who represents a state and is usually accredited to another sovereign state or to an international organization as the resident representative of their own government or sovereign or appointed for a special and often temporary diplomatic assignment.[1] The word is also used informally for people who are known, without national appointment, to represent certain professions, activities, and fields of endeavor, such as sales.\n", "An ambassador is the ranking government representative stationed in a foreign capital or country. The host country typically allows the ambassador control of specific territory called an embassy, whose territory, staff, and vehicles are generally afforded diplomatic immunity in the host country. Under the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, an ambassador has the highest diplomatic rank. Countries may choose to maintain diplomatic relations at a lower level by appointing a charg\u00e9 d'affaires in place of an ambassador.\n", "The foreign government to which an ambassador is assigned must first approve the person. In some cases, the foreign government might reverse its approval by declaring the diplomat a persona non grata, i.e. an unacceptable person. This kind of declaration usually results in recalling the ambassador to their home nation. In accordance with the Congress of Vienna of 1815 and the 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, the ambassador and embassy staff are granted diplomatic immunity and personal safety while living abroad.[2][3]\n", "Due to the advent of modern technologies, today's world is a much smaller place in relative terms. With this in mind, it is considered important that the nations of the world have at least a small staff living in foreign capitals in order to aid travelers and visitors from their home nation. As an officer of the foreign service, an ambassador is expected to protect the citizens of their home country in the host country.[4][3]\n"], "Q2041543": ["Otto's Encyclopedia (Czech: Ottova encyklopedie or Ott\u016fv slovn\u00edk nau\u010dn\u00fd), published at the turn of the 20th century, is the largest encyclopedia written in Czech. For its scope and the quality of the writing, it is comparable to the greatest world encyclopedias of its time, such as Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica.[1]\n", "At the beginning of the 1880s, Jan Otto, a Czech book-seller and publisher, began planning a new general Czech encyclopedia. He was inspired by the first Czech encyclopedia by F. L. Rieger, a fourteen-volume work published between 1860 and 1874, but wanted to go further. For a long time Otto could not find an eligible editor-in-chief until he began to cooperate with Jan Mal\u00fd, a former co-editor of the Reiger's encyclopedia, who laid down a concept of the new work with a proposed name - Czech national encyclopedia (N\u00e1rodn\u00ed encyklopedie \u010desk\u00e1) in 1884. After Mal\u00fd's death the following year, Otto found a new editor-in-chief, Tom\u00e1\u0161 Masaryk later the president of Czechoslovakia, and in 1886 the actual work began (Masaryk himself leading subjects of psychology, sociology, philosophy and logic disciplines, but didn't contribute any text to published encyclopedias[2][3]). Work on encyclopedia then was slower than Masaryk promised. The next year, Masaryk got involved in a tempestuous dispute over the authenticity of the allegedly historical Zelenohorsk\u00fd and Kr\u00e1lovedvorsk\u00fd manuscripts and resigned from the editorship. Otto managed to establish a new editorial group from prominent technicians, theologians and representatives of Czech universities including figures such as Karel Boromejsk\u00fd M\u00e1dl. Their intensive work and the work of their collaborators lead to the publication of the first volume of the encyclopedia, under the name Ott\u016fv slovn\u00edk nau\u010dn\u00fd (Otto's Encyclopedia), in January 1888. From that point onwards, the work progressed without major problems and volumes were published regularly until the last (28th) one appeared in 1908.\n", "Otto's Encyclopedia consists of 28 (27 regular plus one supplementary) volumes. It contains approximately 150,000 entries printed on 28,912 pages, using an estimated 130 million letters. There are nearly 5,000 images and illustrations and 479 pages of attachments in the encyclopedia. Around 55 main editors and 1,100 external collaborators participated in its creation. [4]\n", "Immediately after finishing his encyclopedia, Otto began to plan a second, sixteen-volume revised edition and started to prepare its realization. The preparation was continued by others even after he died (1916) and during the World War I but it was never completed due to quickly rising expenses.\n"], "Q3181656": ["The Nuttall Encyclop\u00e6dia: Being a Concise and Comprehensive Dictionary of General Knowledge[1] is a late 19th-century encyclopedia, edited by Rev. James Wood, first published in London in 1900 by Frederick Warne & Co Ltd.\n", "Editions were recorded for 1920, 1930, 1938 and 1956 and was still being sold in 1966. Editors included  G. Elgie  Christ and A. L. Hayden for 1930, Lawrence Hawkins Dawson for 1938 and C. M. Prior for 1956.[2]\n", "The Nuttall Encyclop\u00e6dia is named for Dr. Peter Austin Nuttall (d. 1869), whose works, such as Standard Pronouncing Dictionary of the English Language (published in 1863), were eventually acquired by Frederick Warne, and would be published for decades to come.\n", "The title page proclaims this encyclopedia to be \"a concise and comprehensive dictionary of general knowledge consisting of over 16,000 terse and original articles on nearly all subjects discussed in larger encyclop\u00e6dias, and specially dealing with such as come under the categories of history, biography, geography, literature, philosophy, religion, science, and art\".\n"], "Q148540": ["The Republic of Florence (Italian: Repubblica di Firenze), known officially as the Florentine Republic (Italian: Repubblica Fiorentina, pronounced [re\u02c8pubblika fjoren\u02c8ti\u02d0na]), was a medieval and early modern state that was centered on the Italian city of Florence in Tuscany, Italy.[1][2] The republic originated in 1115, when the Florentine people rebelled against the Margraviate of Tuscany upon the death of Matilda of Tuscany, who controlled vast territories that included Florence. The Florentines formed a commune in her successors' place.[3] The republic was ruled by a council known as the Signoria of Florence. The signoria was chosen by the gonfaloniere (titular ruler of the city), who was elected every two months by Florentine guild members.\n", "During the Republic's history, Florence was an important cultural, economic, political and artistic force in Europe. Its coin, the florin, was the dominant trade coin of Western Europe for large scale transactions and became widely imitated throughout the continent.[4][5] During the Republican period, Florence was also the birthplace of the Renaissance, which is considered a fervent period of European cultural, artistic, political and economic \"rebirth\".[6]\n", "The republic had a checkered history of coups and countercoups against various factions. The Medici faction gained governance of the city in 1434 under Cosimo de' Medici. The Medici kept control of Florence until 1494. Giovanni de' Medici, who later became Pope Leo X, reconquered the republic in 1512.\n", "Florence repudiated Medici authority for a second time in 1527, during the War of the League of Cognac. The Medici reassumed their rule in 1531 after an 11-month siege of the city, aided by Emperor Charles\u00a0V.[7] Pope Clement\u00a0VII, himself a Medici, appointed his relative Alessandro de' Medici as the first \"Duke of the Florentine Republic\", thereby transforming the Republic into a hereditary monarchy.[7][8]\n"], "Q36834": ["A composer is a person who writes music.[1] The term is especially used to indicate composers of Western classical music,[2] or those who are composers by occupation.[3] Many composers are, or were, also skilled performers of music.\n", "The term is descended from Latin, comp\u014dn\u014d; literally \"one who puts together\".[4] The earliest use of the term in a musical context given by the Oxford English Dictionary is from Thomas Morley's 1597 A Plain and Easy Introduction to Practical Music, where he says \"Some wil  [sic] be good descanters [...] and yet wil be but bad composers\".[1]\n", "\"Composer\" is a loose term that generally refers to any person who writes music.[1] More specifically, it is often used to denote people who are composers by occupation,[3] or those who work in the tradition of Western classical music.[2] Writers of exclusively or primarily songs may be called composers, but since the 20th century the terms 'songwriter' or 'singer-songwriter' are more often used, particularly in the tradition of popular music.[5] In other contexts, the term 'composer' can refer to a literary writer,[6] or more rarely and generally, someone who combines pieces into a whole.[7]\n", "Across cultures and traditions composers may write and transmit music in a variety of ways. In much popular music, the composer writes a composition, and it is then transmitted via oral tradition. Conversely, in some Western classical traditions music may be composed aurally\u2014i.e. \"in the mind of the musician\"\u2014and subsequently written and passed through written documents.[8]\n"], "Q371908": ["The Albertina is a museum in the Innere Stadt (First District) of Vienna, Austria. It houses one of the largest and most important print rooms in the world with approximately 65,000 drawings and approximately 1 million old master prints, as well as more modern graphic works, photographs and architectural drawings.  The museum also houses temporary exhibitions. The museum had 360,073 visitors in 2020, down 64 percent from 2019 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, but still ranked 55th in the List of most-visited art museums in the world.[1]\n", "The Albertina was erected on one of the last remaining sections of the fortifications of Vienna, the Augustinian Bastion. Originally, the Hofbauamt (Court Construction Office), which had been built in the second half of the 17th century, stood in that location. In 1744 it was refurbished by the director of the Hofbauamt, Emanuel Teles Count Silva-Tarouca, to become his palace; it was therefore also known as Palais Taroucca. The building was later taken over by Duke Albert of Saxen-Teschen who used it as his residence.  Albert later brought his graphics collection there from Brussels, where he had acted as the governor of the Habsburg Netherlands. He had the building extended by Louis Montoyer. Since then, the palace has immediately bordered the Hofburg. The collection was expanded by Albert's successors.  When his grandson Archduke Albrecht, Duke of Teschen  lived there until his death in 1895 it was called the Palais Erzherzog Albrecht.\n", "The collection was created by Duke Albert with the Genoese count Giacomo Durazzo, the Austrian ambassador in Venice. In 1776 the count presented nearly 1,000 pieces of art to the duke and his wife Maria Christina (Maria Theresa's daughter). Count Durazzo, who was the brother of Marcello Durazzo, the Doge of Genoa \u2013 \"wanted to create a collection for posterity that served higher purposes than all others: education and the power of morality should distinguish his collection....\" \nIn the 1820s Archduke Charles, Duke Albert and Maria Christina's foster son, initiated further modifications to the building by Joseph Kornh\u00e4usel, which affected mostly its interior decoration. After Archduke Charles, his son Archduke Albert then Albrecht's nephew the popular Archduke Friedrich, Duke of Teschen lived in the building.\n", "In early 1919, the new socialist government of Austria confiscated, without compensation, both the building and the collection belonging to the Archduke Friedrich and evicted him. In 1920 the collection of prints and drawings was united with the collection of the former Imperial court library. In 1921 the building was renamed The Albertina. \n"]}

data/text_file_v1_1000.json

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+{"Q59115": ["Philosophy of science is the branch of philosophy concerned with the foundations, methods, and implications of science. Amongst its central questions are the difference between science and non-science, the reliability of scientific theories, and the ultimate purpose and meaning of science as a human endeavour. Philosophy of science focuses on metaphysical, epistemic and semantic aspects of scientific practice, and overlaps with metaphysics, ontology, logic, and epistemology, for example, when it explores the relationship between science and the concept of truth. Philosophy of science is both a theoretical and empirical discipline, relying on philosophical theorising as well as meta-studies of scientific practice. Ethical issues such as bioethics and scientific misconduct are often considered ethics or science studies rather than the philosophy of science.\n", "There is little consensus among philosophers about many of the central problems concerned with the philosophy of science, including whether science can reveal the truth about unobservable things and whether scientific reasoning can be justified at all as leading to definite knowledge. In addition to these general question, philosophers of science consider problems that apply to particular sciences (such as biology, physics and social sciences such as economics and psychology). Some philosophers of science also use contemporary results in science to reach conclusions about philosophy itself.\n", "While philosophical thought pertaining to science dates back at least to the time of Aristotle, general philosophy of science emerged as a distinct discipline only in the 20th century in the wake of the logical positivist movement, which aimed to formulate criteria for ensuring all philosophical statements' meaningfulness and objectively assessing them. Karl Popper criticized logical positivism and helped establish a modern set of standards for scientific methodology. Thomas Kuhn's 1962 book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions was also formative, challenging the view of scientific progress as the steady, cumulative acquisition of knowledge based on a fixed method of systematic experimentation and instead of arguing that any progress is relative to a \"paradigm\", the set of questions, concepts, and practices that define a scientific discipline in a particular historical period.[1]\n", "Subsequently, the coherentist approach to science, in which a theory is validated if it makes sense of observations as part of a coherent whole, became prominent due to W. V. Quine and others. Some thinkers such as Stephen Jay Gould seek to ground science in axiomatic assumptions, such as the uniformity of nature. A vocal minority of philosophers, and Paul Feyerabend in particular, argue that there is no such thing as the \"scientific method\", so all approaches to science should be allowed, including explicitly supernatural ones. Another approach to thinking about science involves studying how knowledge is created from a sociological perspective, an approach represented by scholars like David Bloor and Barry Barnes. Finally, a tradition in continental philosophy approaches science from the perspective of a rigorous analysis of human experience.\n"], "Q999234": ["Scientific terminology is the part of the language that is used by scientists in the context of their professional activities. While studying nature, scientists often encounter or create new material or immaterial objects and concepts and are compelled to name them. Many of those names are known only to professionals. However, due to popularization of science, they gradually become part of common languages. Several categories of scientific terminology can be distinguished.\n", "The increasing focus of science on technological applications results in extensive search for new materials having unusual or superior properties. Their names can be categorized into new substances (nanotubes, etc.) and registered trademarks and brand names, such as Teflon. Trademarks and brand names are vast fields on their own and are not covered in this article.\n", "Unlike laser and SQUID, many names of the new devices and techniques are commonly used in full spelling, e.g., scanning tunneling microscope, etc. Some devices like transistor, magnetron, etc., have integrated into our life so much that their names are no longer considered terminology and are rather neologisms.\n", "SIESTA,[5] SQUID and SHRIMP are acronyms distinguished from siesta, squid and shrimp by capitalization. However, there are pairs of scientific terminology and common words, which can only be distinguished by context. Representative examples come from particle physics where certain properties of particles are called flavour, color, but have no relation to conventional flavor and color. Another famous example is frustration[6] used to describe ground state properties in condensed matter physics, and especially in magnetic systems.\n"], "Q46857": ["\nThe scientific method is an empirical method for acquiring knowledge that has characterized the development of science since at least the 17th century. (For notable practitioners in previous centuries, see history of scientific method.)\n", "The scientific method involves careful observation coupled with rigorous scepticism, because cognitive assumptions can distort the interpretation of the observation. Scientific inquiry includes creating a hypothesis through inductive reasoning, testing it through experiments and statistical analysis, and adjusting or discarding the hypothesis based on the results.\n", "Although procedures vary from one field of inquiry to another, the underlying process is frequently the same. The process in the scientific method involves making conjectures (hypothetical explanations), deriving predictions from the hypotheses as logical consequences, and then carrying out experiments or empirical observations based on those predictions.[a][4] A hypothesis is a conjecture based on knowledge obtained while seeking answers to the question. The hypothesis might be very specific or it might be broad. Scientists then test hypotheses by conducting experiments or studies. A scientific hypothesis must be falsifiable, implying that it is possible to identify a possible outcome of an experiment or observation that conflicts with predictions deduced from the hypothesis; otherwise, the hypothesis cannot be meaningfully tested.[5]\n", "Though the scientific method is often presented as a fixed sequence of steps, it represents rather a set of general principles.[7] Not all steps take place in every scientific inquiry (nor to the same degree), and they are not always in the same order.[8][9]\n"], "Q1650915": ["Research is \"creative and systematic work undertaken to increase the stock of knowledge\".[1] It involves the collection, organization and analysis of evidence to increase understanding of a topic, characterized by a particular attentiveness to controlling sources of bias and error. These activities are characterized by accounting and controlling for biases. A research project may be an expansion of past work in the field. To test the validity of instruments, procedures, or experiments, research may replicate elements of prior projects or the project as a whole.\n", "The primary purposes of basic research (as opposed to applied research) are documentation, discovery, interpretation, and the research and development (R&D) of methods and systems for the advancement of human knowledge. Approaches to research depend on epistemologies, which vary considerably both within and between humanities and sciences. There are several forms of research: scientific, humanities, artistic, economic, social, business, marketing, practitioner research, life, technological, etc. The scientific study of research practices is known as meta-research.\n", "A researcher is a person engaged in conducting research, possibly recognized as an occupation by a formal job title. In order to be a social researcher or a social scientist, one should have enormous knowledge of subjects related to social science that they are specialized in. Similarly, in order to be a natural science researcher, the person should have knowledge of fields related to natural science (physics, chemistry, biology, astronomy, zoology and so on). Professional associations provide one pathway to mature in the research profession.[2]\n", "The word research is derived from the Middle French \"recherche\", which means \"to go about seeking\", the term itself being derived from the Old French term \"recerchier\" a compound word from \"re-\" + \"cerchier\", or \"sercher\", meaning 'search'.[4] The earliest recorded use of the term was in 1577.[4]\n"], "Q4164871": [], "Q5624818": ["This infobox may be added to an article by copy-pasting the code below at the start of the article, completing it (and/or replacing any of the commented information) and then grouping those parameters left unused together.\n", "Number of children (e.g. three or 3), or list of names, in which case, separate entries using Template:Plainlist or Template:Unbulleted list. For privacy reasons, consider omitting the names of children of living persons, unless the children are independently notable.", "The HTML markup produced by this template includes an hCard microformat, which makes the person's details parsable by computers, either acting automatically to catalogue articles across Wikipedia or via a browser tool operated by a reader, to (for example) add the subject to an address book or database. For more information about the use of microformats on Wikipedia, please see the microformat project.\n", "Date-of-birth (\"bday\") information will only be included in the microformat if {{birth date}}, or {{birth date and age}} are used in the infobox. (Do not use these if the date is before 1583). Be cautious about using these if the person is still living, per WP:DOB.\n"], "Q2020153": ["An academic conference or scientific conference (also congress, symposium, workshop, or meeting) is an event for researchers (not necessarily academics) to present and discuss their scholarly work. Together with academic or scientific journals and preprint archives, conferences provide an important channel for exchange of information between researchers. Further benefits of participating in academic conferences include learning effects in terms of presentation skills and \"academic habitus\", receiving feedback from peers for one's own research, the possibility to engage in informal communication with peers about work opportunities and collaborations, and getting an overview of current research in one or more disciplines.[1][2]\n", "Conferences usually encompass various presentations. They tend to be short and concise, with a time span of about 10 to 30 minutes; presentations are usually followed by a discussion. The work may be bundled in written form as academic papers and published as the conference proceedings.\n", "Usually a conference will include keynote speakers (often, scholars of some standing, but sometimes individuals from outside academia). The keynote lecture is often longer, lasting sometimes up to an hour and a half, particularly if there are several keynote speakers on a panel.\n", "In addition to presentations, conferences also feature panel discussions, round tables on various issues, poster sessions and workshops. Some conferences take more interactive formats, such as the participant driven \"unconference\" or various conversational formats.[3]\n"], "Q20826540": ["A scholar is a person who is a researcher or has expertise in an academic discipline. A scholar can also be an academic, who works as a professor, teacher, or researcher at a university. An academic usually holds an advanced degree or a terminal degree, such as a master's degree or a doctorate (PhD). Independent scholars and public intellectuals work outside the academy yet may publish in academic journals and participate in scholarly public discussion.\n", "In contemporary English usage, the term scholar sometimes is equivalent to the term academic, and describes a university-educated individual who has achieved intellectual mastery of an academic discipline, as instructor and as researcher. Moreover, before the establishment of universities, the term scholar identified and described an intellectual person whose primary occupation was professional research. In 1847, minister Emanuel Vogel Gerhart spoke of the role of the scholar in society:\n", "[A] scholar [is one] whose whole inward intellectual and moral being has been symmetrically unfolded, disciplined and strengthened under the influence of truth... No one faculty should be drawn out to the neglect of others. The whole inner man should be unfolded harmoniously.[1]", "[T]o be a scholar involves more than mere learning... A genuine scholar possesses something more: he penetrates and understands the principle and laws of the particular department of human knowledge with which he professes acquaintance. He imbibes the life of Science... [and] his mind is transfused and moulded by its energy and spirit.[1]"], "Q7043111": [], "Q106727050": []}

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+{"Q30046708": [], "Q12132640": ["Scientific terminology is the part of the language that is used by scientists in the context of their professional activities. While studying nature, scientists often encounter or create new material or immaterial objects and concepts and are compelled to name them. Many of those names are known only to professionals. However, due to popularization of science, they gradually become part of common languages. Several categories of scientific terminology can be distinguished.\n", "The increasing focus of science on technological applications results in extensive search for new materials having unusual or superior properties. Their names can be categorized into new substances (nanotubes, etc.) and registered trademarks and brand names, such as Teflon. Trademarks and brand names are vast fields on their own and are not covered in this article.\n", "Unlike laser and SQUID, many names of the new devices and techniques are commonly used in full spelling, e.g., scanning tunneling microscope, etc. Some devices like transistor, magnetron, etc., have integrated into our life so much that their names are no longer considered terminology and are rather neologisms.\n", "SIESTA,[5] SQUID and SHRIMP are acronyms distinguished from siesta, squid and shrimp by capitalization. However, there are pairs of scientific terminology and common words, which can only be distinguished by context. Representative examples come from particle physics where certain properties of particles are called flavour, color, but have no relation to conventional flavor and color. Another famous example is frustration[6] used to describe ground state properties in condensed matter physics, and especially in magnetic systems.\n"], "Q3849895": [], "Q19652": ["The public domain (PD) consists of all the creative work to which no exclusive intellectual property rights apply. Those rights may have expired,[1] been forfeited,[2] expressly waived, or may be inapplicable.[3] Because no one holds the exclusive rights, anyone can legally use or reference those works without permission.\n", "As examples, the works of William Shakespeare, Ludwig van Beethoven, Miguel de Cervantes, Zoroaster, Lao Zi, Confucius, Aristotle,  L. Frank Baum, Leonardo da Vinci and Georges M\u00e9li\u00e8s are in the public domain either by virtue of their having been created before copyright existed, or by their copyright term having expired.[1] Some works are not covered by a country's copyright laws, and are therefore in the public domain; for example, in the United States, items excluded from copyright include the formulae of Newtonian physics and cooking recipes.[4] Other works are actively dedicated by their authors to the public domain (see waiver); examples include reference implementations of cryptographic algorithms,[5][6][7] and the image-processing software ImageJ (created by the National Institutes of Health).[8] The term public domain is not normally applied to situations where the creator of a work retains residual rights, in which case use of the work is referred to as \"under license\" or \"with permission\".\n", "As rights vary by country and jurisdiction, a work may be subject to rights in one country and be in the public domain in another. Some rights depend on registrations on a country-by-country basis, and the absence of registration in a particular country, if required, gives rise to public-domain status for a work in that country. The term public domain may also be interchangeably used with other imprecise or undefined terms such as the public sphere or commons, including concepts such as the \"commons of the mind\", the \"intellectual commons\", and the \"information commons\".[9]\n", "Although the term domain did not come into use until the mid-18th century, the concept can be traced back to the ancient Roman law, \"as a preset system included in the property right system\".[10] The Romans had a large proprietary rights system where they defined \"many things that cannot be privately owned\"[10] as res nullius, res communes, res publicae and res universitatis.[11] The term res nullius was defined as things not yet appropriated.[12] The term res communes was defined as \"things that could be commonly enjoyed by mankind, such as air, sunlight and ocean.\"[10] The term res publicae referred to things that were shared by all citizens, and the term res universitatis meant things that were owned by the municipalities of Rome.[10] When looking at it from a historical perspective, one could say the construction of the idea of \"public domain\" sprouted from the concepts of res communes, res publicae, and res universitatis in early Roman law.[10]\n"], "Q6160": ["\nThe term includes property damage, such as graffiti and defacement directed towards any property without permission of the owner. The term finds its roots in an Enlightenment view that the Germanic Vandals were a uniquely destructive people.", "The Vandals, an ancient Germanic people, are associated with senseless destruction as a result of their sack of Rome under King Genseric in 455. During the Enlightenment, Rome was idealized, while the Goths and Vandals were blamed for its destruction. The Vandals may not have been any more destructive than other invaders of ancient times, but they did inspire English poet John Dryden to write, Till Goths, and Vandals, a rude Northern race, Did all the matchless Monuments deface (1694). However, the Vandals did intentionally damage statues, which may be why their name is associated with the vandalism of art. The term Vandalisme was coined in 1794 by Henri Gr\u00e9goire, bishop of Blois, to describe the destruction of artwork following the French Revolution. The term was quickly adopted across Europe. This new use of the term was important in colouring the perception of the Vandals from later Late Antiquity, popularizing the pre-existing idea that they were a barbaric group with a taste for destruction.[2]\n", "Historically, vandalism has been justified by painter Gustave Courbet as destruction of monuments symbolizing \"war and conquest\". Therefore, it is often done as an expression of contempt, creativity, or both. Courbet's attempt, during the 1871 Paris Commune, to dismantle the Vend\u00f4me column, a symbol of the past Napoleon III authoritarian Empire, was one of the most celebrated events of vandalism. Nietzsche himself would meditate after the Commune on the \"fight against culture\", taking as example the intentional burning of the Tuileries Palace on 23 May 1871. \"The criminal fight against culture is only the reverse side of a criminal culture\" wrote Klossowski after quoting Nietzsche.[3]\n", "In a proposal to the International Conference for Unification of Criminal Law held in Madrid in 1933, Raphael Lemkin envisaged the creation of two new international crimes (delicta juris gentium): the crime of barbarity, consisting in the extermination of racial, religious, or social collectivities, and the crime of vandalism, consisting in the destruction of cultural and artistic works of these groups.[4] The proposal was not accepted. A figurative accusation of vandalism was applied towards the theology of Marcion of Sinope.[5]\n"], "Q527": ["The sky is an unobstructed view upward from the surface of the Earth. It includes the atmosphere and outer space. It may also be considered a place between the ground and outer space, thus distinct from outer space.\n", "In the field of astronomy, the sky is also called the celestial sphere. This is an abstract sphere, concentric to the Earth, on which the Sun, Moon, planets, and stars appear to be drifting. The celestial sphere is conventionally divided into designated areas called constellations.\n", "Usually, the term sky informally refers to a perspective from the Earth's surface; however, the meaning and usage can vary. An observer on the surface of the Earth can see a small part of the sky, which resembles a dome (sometimes called the sky bowl) appearing flatter during the day than at night.[1] In some cases, such as in discussing the weather, the sky refers to only the lower, denser layers of the atmosphere.\n", "The daytime sky appears blue because air molecules scatter shorter wavelengths of sunlight more than longer ones (redder light).[2][3][4][5] The night sky appears to be a mostly dark surface or region spangled with stars. The Sun and sometimes the Moon are visible in the daytime sky unless obscured by clouds. At night, the Moon, planets, and stars are similarly visible in the sky.\n"], "Q88154291": ["The Mona Lisa (/\u02ccmo\u028an\u0259 \u02c8li\u02d0s\u0259/ MOH-n\u0259 LEE-s\u0259; Italian: Gioconda [d\u0292o\u02c8konda] or Monna Lisa [\u02c8m\u0254nna \u02c8li\u02d0za]; French: Joconde [\u0292\u0254k\u0254\u0303d]) is a half-length portrait painting by Italian artist Leonardo da Vinci. Considered an archetypal masterpiece of the Italian Renaissance,[4][5] it has been described as \"the best known, the most visited, the most written about, the most sung about, [and] the most parodied work of art in the world\".[6] The painting's novel qualities include the subject's enigmatic expression,[7] monumentality of the composition, the subtle modelling of forms, and the atmospheric illusionism.[8]\n", "The painting has been traditionally considered to depict the Italian noblewoman Lisa del Giocondo.[9] It is painted in oil on a white Lombardy poplar panel. Leonardo never gave the painting to the Giocondo family.[10] It was believed to have been painted between 1503 and 1506; however, Leonardo may have continued working on it as late as 1517. It was acquired by King Francis I of France and is now the property of the French Republic. It has normally been on display at the Louvre in Paris since 1797.[11]\n", "The painting's global fame and popularity partly stem from its 1911 theft by Vincenzo Peruggia, who attributed his actions to Italian patriotism\u2014a belief it should belong to Italy. The theft and subsequent recovery in 1914 generated unprecedented publicity for an art theft, and led to the publication of many cultural depictions such as the 1915 opera Mona Lisa, two early 1930s films (The Theft of the Mona Lisa and Ars\u00e8ne Lupin) and the song \"Mona Lisa\" recorded by Nat King Cole\u2014one of the most successful songs of the 1950s.[12]\n", "The Mona Lisa is one of the most valuable paintings in the world. It holds the Guinness World Record for the highest known painting insurance valuation in history at US$100\u00a0million in 1962,[13] equivalent to $1 billion as of 2023[update].[14]\n"], "Q12280": ["A bridge is a structure built to span a physical obstacle (such as a body of water, valley, road, or railway) without blocking the way underneath. It is constructed for the purpose of providing passage over the obstacle, which is usually something that is otherwise difficult or impossible to cross. There are many different designs of bridges, each serving a particular purpose and applicable to different situations. Designs of bridges vary depending on factors such as the function of the bridge, the nature of the terrain where the bridge is constructed and anchored, the material used to make it, and the funds available to build it.\n", "The earliest bridges were likely made with fallen trees and stepping stones. The Neolithic people built boardwalk bridges across marshland. The Arkadiko Bridge, dating from the 13th century BC, in the Peloponnese is one of the oldest arch bridges still in existence and use.\n", "The Oxford English Dictionary also notes that there is some suggestion that the word can be traced directly back to Proto-Indo-European *b\u02b0r\u0113w-. However, they also note that \"this poses semantic problems.\"[3]\n", "Neolithic people also built a form of boardwalk across marshes; examples of such bridges include the Sweet Track and the Post Track in England, approximately 6000 years old.[5] Ancient people would also have used log bridges[6] consisting of logs that fell naturally or were intentionally felled or placed across streams. Some of the first human-made bridges with significant span were probably intentionally felled trees.[7] Among the oldest timber bridges is the Holzbr\u00fccke Rapperswil-Hurden bridge that crossed upper Lake Z\u00fcrich in Switzerland; prehistoric timber pilings discovered to the west of the Seedamm causeway date back to 1523 BC. The first wooden footbridge there led across Lake Z\u00fcrich; it was reconstructed several times through the late 2nd century AD, when the Roman Empire built a 6-metre-wide (20\u00a0ft) wooden bridge to carry transport across the lake. Between 1358 and 1360, Rudolf IV, Duke of Austria, built a 'new' wooden bridge across the lake that was used until 1878; it was approximately 1,450 metres (4,760\u00a0ft) long and 4 metres (13\u00a0ft) wide. On April 6, 2001, a reconstruction of the original wooden footbridge was opened; it is also the longest wooden bridge in Switzerland.\n"], "Q153032": ["Lisa del Giocondo (Italian pronunciation: [\u02c8li\u02d0za del d\u0292o\u02c8kondo]; n\u00e9e\u00a0Gherardini [\u0261erar\u02c8di\u02d0ni]; 15 June 1479 \u2013 15 July 1542) was an Italian noblewoman and member of the Gherardini family of Florence and Tuscany. Her name was given to the Mona Lisa, her portrait commissioned by her husband and painted by Leonardo da Vinci in the Italian Renaissance.\n", "Little is known about Lisa's life. Lisa was born in Florence. She married in her teens to a cloth and silk merchant who later became a local official; she was a mother to five children and led what is thought to have been a comfortable and ordinary life. Lisa outlived her husband, who was considerably her senior.\n", "In the centuries after Lisa's death, the Mona Lisa became the world's most famous painting.[1] In 2005, Lisa was identified as a subject for a da Vinci portrait around 1503, strongly suggesting her as the model for Mona Lisa.[2]\n", "Lisa's Florentine family was old and aristocratic but over time had lost their influence.[3] They were well off but not wealthy, and lived on a farm income in a city where there were great disparities in wealth among its inhabitants.[4]\n"], "Q14619895": []}

data/text_file_v1_1020.json

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+{"Q15087813": [], "Q14619896": [], "Q107425": ["A landscape is the visible features of an area of land, its landforms, and how they integrate with natural or human-made features, often considered in terms of their aesthetic appeal.[1] A landscape includes the physical elements of geophysically defined landforms such as mountains, hills, water bodies such as rivers, lakes, ponds and the sea, living elements of land cover including indigenous vegetation, human elements including different forms of land use, buildings, and structures, and transitory elements such as lighting and weather conditions. Combining both their physical origins and the cultural overlay of human presence, often created over millennia, landscapes reflect a living synthesis of people and place that is vital to local and national identity.\n", "The character of a landscape helps define the self-image of the people who inhabit it and a sense of place that differentiates one region from other regions. It is the dynamic backdrop to people's lives. Landscape can be as varied as farmland, a landscape park or wilderness. The Earth has a vast range of landscapes including the icy landscapes of polar regions, mountainous landscapes, vast arid desert landscapes, islands, and coastal landscapes, densely forested or wooded landscapes including past boreal forests and tropical rainforests and agricultural landscapes of temperate and tropical regions. The activity of modifying the visible features of an area of land is referred to as landscaping.\n", "There are several definitions of what constitutes a landscape, depending on context.[2] In common usage however, a landscape refers either to all the visible features of an area of land (usually rural), often considered in terms of aesthetic appeal, or to a pictorial representation of an area of countryside, specifically within the genre of landscape painting. When people deliberately improve the aesthetic appearance of a piece of land\u2014by changing contours and vegetation, etc.\u2014it is said to have been landscaped,[1] though the result may not constitute a landscape according to some definitions.\n", "The word landscape (landscipe or landscaef) arrived in England\u2014and therefore into the English language\u2014after the fifth century, following the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons; these terms referred to a system of human-made spaces on the land. The term landscape emerged around the turn of the sixteenth century to denote a painting whose primary subject matter was natural scenery.[3] Land (a word from Germanic origin) may be taken in its sense of something to which people belong (as in England being the land of the English).[4] The suffix -scape is equivalent to the more common English suffix -ship.[4] The roots of -ship are etymologically akin to Old English sceppan or scyppan, meaning to shape. The suffix -schaft is related to the verb schaffen, so that -ship and shape are also etymologically linked. The modern form of the word, with its connotations of scenery, appeared in the late sixteenth century when the term landschap was introduced by Dutch painters who used it to refer to paintings of inland natural or rural scenery. The word landscape, first recorded in 1598, was borrowed from a Dutch painters' term.[5] The popular conception of the landscape that is reflected in dictionaries conveys both a particular and a general meaning, the particular referring to an area of the Earth's surface and the general being that which can be seen by an observer. An example of this second usage can be found as early as 1662 in the Book of Common Prayer:\n"], "Q22340494": [], "Q61266859": [], "Q10292830": [], "Q3305213": ["Painting is a visual art, which is characterized by the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a solid surface (called the \"matrix\"[1] or \"support\").[2] The medium is commonly applied to the base with a brush, but other implements, such as knives, sponges, and airbrushes, can be used.\n", "In art, the term \"painting\" describes both the act and the result of the action (the final work is called \"a painting\"). The support for paintings includes such surfaces as walls, paper, canvas, wood, glass, lacquer, pottery, leaf, copper and concrete, and the painting may incorporate multiple other materials, including sand, clay, paper, plaster, gold leaf, and even whole objects.\n", "Painting is an important form of visual art, bringing in elements such as drawing, composition, gesture, narration, and abstraction.[3] Paintings can be naturalistic and representational (as in still life and landscape painting), photographic, abstract, narrative, symbolistic (as in Symbolist art), emotive (as in Expressionism) or political in nature (as in Artivism).\n", "A portion of the history of painting in both Eastern and Western art is dominated by religious art. Examples of this kind of painting range from artwork depicting mythological figures on pottery, to Biblical scenes on the Sistine Chapel ceiling, to scenes from the life of Buddha (or other images of Eastern religious origin).\n"], "Q13369744": [], "Q66362718": [], "Q8502": ["A mountain is an elevated portion of the Earth's crust, generally with steep sides that show significant exposed bedrock. Although definitions vary, a mountain may differ from a plateau in having a limited summit area, and is usually higher than a hill, typically rising at least 300 metres (980\u00a0ft) above the surrounding land. A few mountains are isolated summits, but most occur in mountain ranges.[1]\n", "Mountains are formed through tectonic forces, erosion, or volcanism,[1] which act on time scales of up to tens of millions of years.[2] Once mountain building ceases, mountains are slowly leveled through the action of weathering, through slumping and other forms of mass wasting, as well as through erosion by rivers and glaciers.[3]\n", "High elevations on mountains produce colder climates than at sea level at similar latitude. These colder climates strongly affect the ecosystems of mountains: different elevations have different plants and animals. Because of the less hospitable terrain and climate, mountains tend to be used less for agriculture and more for resource extraction, such as mining and logging, along with recreation, such as mountain climbing and skiing.\n", "The highest mountain on Earth is Mount Everest in the Himalayas of Asia, whose summit is 8,850\u00a0m (29,035\u00a0ft) above mean sea level. The highest known mountain on any planet in the Solar System is Olympus Mons on Mars at 21,171\u00a0m (69,459\u00a0ft).\n"]}

data/text_file_v1_1030.json

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+{"Q2822867": ["An armrest (or arm-rest) is a part of a chair, where a person can rest their arms on. Armrests are built into a large variety of chairs such as automotive chairs, armchairs, airline seats,[1] sofas, and more. Adjustable armrests are commonly found in ergonomic office chairs and gaming chairs.\n", "Armrest is also a feature found in most modern automobiles on which the occupants can rest their arms. Armrests are commonly placed between the front car seats on the driver and passenger side of the vehicle. Sometimes one or two armrests may also be attached to each individual seat, a feature commonly found in minivans (MPVs) and some SUVs.\n", "Many larger cars also have a broad arm-rest between the back seats, which may be folded out when the central (third) seating place is not required. In some designs where occupant safety is emphasised, including some Volvo models, the armrest doubles as a child seat, complete with specially adjustable seatbelt.\n"], "Q106857865": [], "Q296955": ["Oil paint is a type of slow-drying paint that consists of particles of pigment suspended in a drying oil, commonly linseed oil. The viscosity of the paint may be modified by the addition of a solvent such as turpentine or white spirit, and varnish may be added to increase the glossiness of the dried oil paint film. The addition of oil or alkyd medium can also be used to modify the viscosity and drying time of oil paint. Oil paints were first used in Asia as early as the 7th century AD and can be seen in examples of Buddhist paintings in Afghanistan. Oil-based paints made their way to Europe by the 12th century and were used for simple decoration, but oil painting did not begin to be adopted as an artistic medium there until the early 15th century. Common modern applications of oil paint are in finishing and protection of wood in buildings and exposed metal structures such as ships and bridges. Its hard-wearing properties and luminous colors make it desirable for both interior and exterior use on wood and metal. Due to its slow-drying properties, it has recently been used in paint-on-glass animation. The thickness of the coat has considerable bearing on the time required for drying: thin coats of oil paint dry relatively quickly.\n", "The technical history of the introduction and development of oil paint, and the date of introduction of various additives (driers, thinners) is still\u2014despite intense research since the mid 19th century\u2014not well understood. The literature abounds with incorrect theories and information: in general, anything published before 1952 is suspect.[1] Until 1991 nothing was known about the organic aspect of cave paintings from the Paleolithic era. Many assumptions were made about the chemistry of the binders. Well known Dutch-American artist Willem de Kooning is known for saying \"Flesh is the reason oil paint was invented\".[2]\n", "The oldest known oil paintings are Buddhist murals created c.\u2009650 AD. The works are located in cave-like rooms carved from the cliffs of Afghanistan's Bamiyan Valley, \"using walnut and poppy seed oils.\"[3]\n", "Though the ancient Mediterranean civilizations of Greece, Rome, and Egypt used vegetable oils, there is little evidence to indicate their use as media in painting. Indeed, linseed oil was not used as a medium because of its tendency to dry very slowly, darken, and crack, unlike mastic and wax (the latter of which was used in encaustic painting).\n"], "Q3591845": ["Vichy France (French: R\u00e9gime de Vichy; 10 July 1940 \u2013 9 August 1944), officially the French State (\u00c9tat fran\u00e7ais), was the French rump state headed by Marshal Philippe P\u00e9tain during World War II. It was named after its seat of government, the city of Vichy. Officially independent, but with half of its territory occupied under the harsh terms of the 1940 armistice with Nazi Germany, it adopted a policy of collaboration. Though Paris was nominally its capital, the government established itself in the resort town of Vichy in the unoccupied \"free zone\" (zone libre), where it remained responsible for the civil administration of France as well as its colonies.[3] The occupation of France by Nazi Germany at first affected only the northern and western portions of the country, but in November 1942 the Germans and Italians occupied the remainder of Metropolitan France, ending any  pretence of independence by the Vichy government.\n", "The Third French Republic had begun the war in September 1939 on the side of the Allies. On 10 May 1940, it was invaded by Nazi Germany. The German Army rapidly broke through the Allied lines by bypassing the highly fortified Maginot Line and invading through Belgium, Luxembourg, and as an extension, the Ardennes. By mid-June, the military situation of the French was dire, and it was apparent that it would lose the battle for Metropolitan France. The French government began to discuss the possibility of an armistice. Paul Reynaud resigned as prime minister rather than sign an armistice, and was replaced by Marshal Philippe P\u00e9tain, a hero of World War I. Shortly thereafter, P\u00e9tain signed the Armistice of 22 June 1940.\n", "At Vichy, P\u00e9tain established an authoritarian government that reversed many liberal policies and began tight supervision of the economy. Conservative Catholics became prominent, and Paris lost its avant-garde status in European art and culture. The media were tightly controlled and promoted antisemitism and, after Operation Barbarossa started in June 1941, anti-Sovietism. The terms of the armistice allowed some degree of independence and neutrality to the Vichy government, such as keeping the French Navy and French colonial empire under French control and avoiding full occupation of the country by Germany. Despite heavy pressure, the Vichy government never joined the Axis powers and even remained formally at war with Germany. In practice, however, Vichy France became a collaborationist regime.\n", "Germany kept two million French prisoners-of-war and imposed forced labour (service du travail obligatoire) on young Frenchmen. French soldiers were kept hostage to ensure that Vichy would reduce its military forces and pay a heavy tribute in gold, food, and supplies to Germany. French police were ordered to round up Jews and other \"undesirables\" such as communists and political refugees, and at least 72,500 French Jews were killed in Nazi concentration camps.[4]\n"], "Q15324": ["A body of water or waterbody[1] (often water body) is any significant accumulation of water on the surface of Earth or another planet. The term most often refers to oceans, seas, and lakes, but it includes smaller pools of water such as ponds, wetlands, or more rarely, puddles. A body of water does not have to be still or contained; rivers, streams, canals, and other geographical features where water moves from one place to another are also considered bodies of water.[2]\n", "Most are naturally occurring geographical features, but some are artificial. There are types that can be either. For example, most reservoirs are created by engineering dams, but some natural lakes are used as reservoirs. Similarly, most harbors are naturally occurring bays, but some harbors have been created through construction.\n", "Bodies of water are affected by gravity, which is what creates the tidal effects.[3] Moreso, the impact of climate change on water is likely to intensify as observed through the rising sea levels, water acidification and flooding. This means that climate change has pressure on water bodies.[4]\n"], "Q1395822": ["Lisa del Giocondo (Italian pronunciation: [\u02c8li\u02d0za del d\u0292o\u02c8kondo]; n\u00e9e\u00a0Gherardini [\u0261erar\u02c8di\u02d0ni]; 15 June 1479 \u2013 15 July 1542) was an Italian noblewoman and member of the Gherardini family of Florence and Tuscany. Her name was given to the Mona Lisa, her portrait commissioned by her husband and painted by Leonardo da Vinci in the Italian Renaissance.\n", "Little is known about Lisa's life. Lisa was born in Florence. She married in her teens to a cloth and silk merchant who later became a local official; she was a mother to five children and led what is thought to have been a comfortable and ordinary life. Lisa outlived her husband, who was considerably her senior.\n", "In the centuries after Lisa's death, the Mona Lisa became the world's most famous painting.[1] In 2005, Lisa was identified as a subject for a da Vinci portrait around 1503, strongly suggesting her as the model for Mona Lisa.[2]\n", "Lisa's Florentine family was old and aristocratic but over time had lost their influence.[3] They were well off but not wealthy, and lived on a farm income in a city where there were great disparities in wealth among its inhabitants.[4]\n"], "Q30": ["The United States of America (USA or U.S.A.), commonly known as the United States (US or U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America, between Canada and Mexico. It is a federation of 50 states, a federal capital district (Washington, D.C.), and 326 Indian reservations. Outside the union of states, it asserts sovereignty over five major unincorporated island territories and various uninhabited islands.[j] The country has the world's third-largest land area,[d] largest maritime exclusive economic zone,\nand the third-largest population, exceeding 334 million.[k]\n", "Paleo-Indians migrated across the Bering land bridge more than 12,000 years ago. British colonization led to the first settlement of the Thirteen Colonies in Virginia in 1607. Clashes with the British Crown over taxation and political representation sparked the American Revolution, with the Second Continental Congress formally declaring independence on July 4, 1776. Following its victory in the Revolutionary War (1775\u20131783), the country continued to expand across North America. As more states were admitted, sectional division over slavery led to the secession of the Confederate States of America, which fought the remaining states of the Union during the 1861\u20131865 American Civil War. With the Union's victory and preservation, slavery was abolished nationally. By 1900, the United States had established itself as a great power, becoming the world's largest economy. After Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, the U.S. entered World War II. The aftermath of the war left the U.S. and the Soviet Union as the world's two superpowers and led to the Cold War, during which both countries engaged in a struggle for ideological dominance and international influence.  Following the Soviet Union's collapse and the end of the Cold War in 1991, the U.S. emerged as the world's sole superpower.\n", "The U.S. national government is a presidential constitutional republic and liberal democracy with three separate branches of government: legislative, executive, and judicial. It has a bicameral national legislature composed of the House of Representatives, a lower house based on population; and the Senate, an upper house based on equal representation for each state. Substantial autonomy is given to states and several territories, with a political culture that emphasizes liberty, equality under the law, individualism, and limited government. \n", "One of the world's most developed countries, the United States ranks among the highest in the world in international measures of  income, wealth, economic competitiveness, productivity, innovation, human rights, and higher education. It has the highest median income per capita of any non-microstate and possesses by far the largest amount of wealth of any country, with the American economy the largest nominally and accounting for over a quarter of global GDP. The U.S. is a founding member of the World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States, NATO, Quadrilateral Security Dialogue, World Health Organization, and a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council.\n"], "Q1192305": ["The Smithsonian American Art Museum (commonly known as SAAM, and formerly the National Museum of American Art) is a museum in Washington, D.C., part of the Smithsonian Institution. Together with its branch museum, the Renwick Gallery, SAAM holds one of the world's largest and most inclusive collections of art, from the colonial period to the present, made in the United States. More than 7,000 artists are represented in the museum's collection. Most exhibitions are held in the museum's main building, the Old Patent Office Building (shared with the National Portrait Gallery), while craft-focused exhibitions are shown in the Renwick Gallery.\n", "The museum provides electronic resources to schools and the public through its national education program.  It maintains seven online research databases with more than 500,000 records, including the Inventories of American Painting and Sculpture that document more than 400,000 artworks in public and private collections worldwide. Since 1951, the museum has maintained a traveling exhibition program; as of 2013, more than 2.5\u00a0million visitors have seen the exhibitions. \n", "The museum's history can be traced to the creation of the Smithsonian Institution in 1846. The act of Congress establishing the Smithsonian called for it to include \"a gallery of art\".[9] In its early years, however, little effort was put into developing the art collection, as Smithsonian Secretary Joseph Henry preferred to focus on scientific research.[10][11] The collection was first on display in the original Smithsonian Building (now known as the Castle). In 1865, a fire destroyed much of the collection.[12] Those art holdings that survived were mostly loaned to the Library of Congress and the Corcoran Gallery of Art in the following decades.[13] In 1896, the artworks were brought back to the Smithsonian, after Congress appropriated money to construct a fireproof room for them.[14]\n", "The Smithsonian began to refer to its art collection as the National Gallery of Art in 1906, in connection with efforts to receive Harriet Lane Johnston's art collection, which she had bequeathed to the \"national art gallery\".[15] The collection grew as the Smithsonian buildings grew, and the collection was housed in one or more Smithsonian buildings on the National Mall.[16]\n"], "Q1138030": ["The Cloisters, also known as the Met Cloisters, is a museum in the Washington Heights neighborhood of Upper Manhattan, New York City. The museum, situated in Fort Tryon Park, specializes in European medieval art and architecture, with a focus on the Romanesque and Gothic periods. Governed by the Metropolitan Museum of Art, it contains a large collection of medieval artworks shown in the architectural settings of French monasteries and abbeys. Its buildings are centered around four cloisters\u2014the Cuxa, Saint-Guilhem, Bonnefont and Trie\u2014that were acquired by American sculptor and art dealer George Grey Barnard in France before 1913, and moved to New York. Barnard's collection was bought for the museum by financier and philanthropist John D. Rockefeller Jr. Other major sources of objects were the collections of J. P. Morgan and Joseph Brummer.\n", "The museum's building was designed by the architect Charles Collens, on a site on a steep hill, with upper and lower levels. It contains medieval gardens and a series of chapels and themed galleries, including the Romanesque, Fuentidue\u00f1a, Unicorn, Spanish, and Gothic rooms.[3] The design, layout, and ambiance of the building are intended to evoke a sense of medieval European monastic life.[4] It holds about 5,000 works of art and architecture, all European and mostly dating from the Byzantine to the early Renaissance periods, mainly during the 12th through 15th centuries. The objects include stone and wood sculptures, tapestries, illuminated manuscripts and panel paintings, of which the best known include the c.\u20091422 Early Netherlandish M\u00e9rode Altarpiece and the c.\u20091495\u20131505 Flemish Hunt of the Unicorn tapestries.\n", "Rockefeller purchased the museum site in Washington Heights in 1930 and donated it to the Metropolitan in 1931. Upon its opening on May 10, 1938, the Cloisters was described as a collection \"shown informally in a picturesque setting, which stimulates imagination and creates a receptive mood for enjoyment\".[5]\n", "The basis for the museum's architectural structure came from the collection of George Grey Barnard, an American sculptor and collector who almost single-handedly established a medieval art museum near his home in the Fort Washington section of Upper Manhattan. Although he was a successful sculptor who had studied at the Art Institute of Chicago, his income was not enough to support his family. Barnard was a risk taker and led most of his life on the edge of poverty.[6] He moved to Paris in 1883 where he studied at the Acad\u00e9mie des Beaux-Arts.[6] He lived in the village of Moret-sur-Loing, near Fontainebleau, between 1905 and 1913,[7] and began to deal in 13th- and 14th-century European objects to supplement his earnings. In the process he built a large personal collection of what he described as \"antiques\", at first by buying and selling stand-alone objects with French dealers,[8] then by the acquisition of in situ architectural artifacts from local farmers.[6]\n"], "P3634": []}

data/text_file_v1_1040.json

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+{"Q109858": ["Fifth Avenue is a major and prominent thoroughfare in the borough of Manhattan in New York City, New York, United States. It stretches north from Washington Square Park in Greenwich Village to West 143rd Street in Harlem. It is one of the most expensive shopping streets in the world.[3][4]\n", "Fifth Avenue carries two-way traffic from 142nd to 135th Street and carries one-way traffic southbound for the remainder of its route. The entire street used to carry two-way traffic until 1966. From 124th to 120th Street, Fifth Avenue is cut off by Marcus Garvey Park, with southbound traffic diverted around the park via Mount Morris Park West and northbound to Madison Avenue. Most of the avenue has a bus lane, though not a bike lane. Fifth Avenue is the traditional route for many celebratory parades in New York City, and is closed on several Sundays per year.\n", "Fifth Avenue was originally only a narrower thoroughfare but the section south of Central Park was widened in 1908. The midtown blocks between 34th and 59th Streets were largely a residential area until the turn of the 20th century, when they were developed as commercial areas. The section of Fifth Avenue in the 50s is consistently ranked among the most expensive shopping streets in the world, and the section between 59th and 96th Streets across Central Park was nicknamed \"Millionaire's Row\" in the early 20th century due to the high concentration of mansions there. A section of Fifth Avenue running from 82nd to 110th Streets, also alongside Central Park, is also nicknamed Museum Mile due to the large number of museums there.\n", "Fifth Avenue between 42nd Street and Central Park South (59th Street) was relatively undeveloped through the late 19th century.[5]:\u200a2\u200a The surrounding area was once part of the common lands of the city of New York, which was allocated \"all the waste, vacant, unpatented, and unappropriated lands\" as a result of the 1686 Dongan Charter.[6] The city's Common Council came to own a large amount of land, primarily in the middle of the island away from the Hudson and East Rivers, as a result of grants by the Dutch provincial government to the colony of New Amsterdam. Although originally more extensive, by 1785 the council held approximately 1,300 acres (530\u00a0ha), or about 9 percent of the island.[7]\n"], "Q72650": [], "Q113262": [], "Q574004": ["The Crucifixion and Last Judgement diptych (or Diptych with Calvary and Last Judgement)[1] consists of two small painted panels attributed to the Early Netherlandish artist Jan van Eyck, with areas finished by unidentified followers or members of his workshop. This diptych is one of the early Northern Renaissance oil-on-panel masterpieces, renowned for its unusually complex and highly detailed iconography, and for the technical skill evident in its completion. It was executed in a miniature format; the panels are just 56.5\u00a0cm (22.2\u00a0in) high by 19.7\u00a0cm (7.8\u00a0in) wide. The diptych was probably commissioned for private devotion.\n", "The left-hand wing depicts the Crucifixion. It shows Christ's followers grieving in the foreground, soldiers and spectators milling about in the mid-ground and a portrayal of three crucified bodies in the upper-ground. The scene is framed against an expansive and foreboding sky with a view of Jerusalem in the distance. The right-hand wing portrays scenes associated with the Last Judgement: a hellscape at its base, the resurrected awaiting judgement in the centre-ground, and a representation of Christ in Majesty flanked by a Great De\u00ebsis of saints, apostles, clergy, virgins and nobility in the upper section. Portions of the work contain Greek, Latin and Hebrew inscriptions.[2] The original gilt frames contain Biblical passages in Latin drawn from the books of Isaiah, Deuteronomy and Revelation. According to a date written in Russian on their reverse, the panels were transferred to canvas supports in 1867.\n", "The earliest surviving mention of the work appears in 1841, when scholars believed the two panels were wings of a lost triptych.[3] The Metropolitan Museum of Art acquired the diptych in 1933. At that time, the work was attributed to Jan's brother Hubert[4] because key areas formally resembled pages of the Turin-Milan Hours, which were then believed to be of Hubert's hand.[5] On the evidence of technique and the style of dress of the figures, the majority of scholars believe the panels are late works by Jan van Eyck, executed in the early 1430s and finished after his death. Other art historians hold that van Eyck painted the panels around the early 1420s and attribute the weaker passages to a younger van Eyck's relative inexperience.[5][6]\n", "Along with Robert Campin and later Rogier van der Weyden, Van Eyck revolutionised the approach towards naturalism and realism in Northern European painting during the early to mid 15th century.[7] He was the first to manipulate oils to give the close detailing that infused his figures with the high degree of realism and complexity of emotion seen in this diptych.[8] He coupled this with a mastery of glaze to create luminous surfaces with a deep perspective\u2014most noticeable in the upper portion of the Crucifixion panel\u2014which had not been achieved before.[9]\n"], "Q728373": [], "Q108824471": [], "Q111909811": [], "Q99300239": [], "Q109479322": [], "Q1321055": ["Born Ottilie Helene Angela Godeffroy[1]\non 18 August 1880 in Vienna, she was the daughter of the Austrian chemist Richard Max Victor Godeffroy (1847\u20131895)[2] and his wife, the Hungarian pianist Adelheid Ottilie Augustine Godeffroy (n\u00e9e Hrdlicka, died 1920), who was born in Romania.[3] After graduating from elementary school, she switched to the public school in Alsergrund, Vienna. She was baptized in the evangelical parish Augsburg Confession in Vienna.[4] On 31 May 1928 she converted to Catholicism[5]\n", "She adopted \"Durieux\" as a stage name because her mother disapproved of her acting career. She trained as an actress in Vienna and made her debut at the Moravian Theatre in Olm\u00fctz (now Olomouc) in 1902. She then moved to Berin where she worked with Max Reinhardt and with a group of expressionist artists around Kurt Hiller and Jakob van Hoddis. In 1903, she performed as Salome (in conjunction with Gertrud Eysoldt) in Oscar Wilde's play of the same name. The role brought Durieux great recognition, drawing the attention of well-known artists, including Auguste Renoir, Max Slevogt, Lovis Corinth, and Franz von Stuck, all of whom painted her portrait.[6]\n", "In 1911 Durieux entered the stage of the Lessing Theater where, on 1 November 1913, she became the second actress to perform the role Eliza Doolittle in a German language production of George Bernard Shaw's play Pygmalion, half a year before its English premiere on 11 April 1914.[7] From 1915 she performed at the Royal Schauspielhaus Berlin. In 1923, Durieux appeared on Broadway in Dario Niccodemi's play The Shadow at the 39th Street Theatre.[8]\n", "In 1904, Durieux married the Berlin Secession painter Eugen Spiro, whose younger sister was Baladine Klossowska. They divorced consensually in 1905, after she had fallen in love with Paul Cassirer. She started dating the successful art dealer and editor and they got married in 1910. The marriage lasted 16 years, however Cassirer was very affected when Durieux wanted to divorce him. When their divorce was declared in 1926, Cassirer committed suicide in a room next to the court room where their hearing had taken place.[9]\n"]}

data/text_file_v1_1050.json

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+{"Q1125200": [], "Q3202069": ["The Annunciation (from the Latin annuntiatio; Ancient Greek: \u039f \u0395\u03c5\u03b1\u03b3\u03b3\u03b5\u03bb\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u03cc\u03c2 \u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u03c4\u03cc\u03ba\u03bf\u03c5; also referred to as the Annunciation to the Blessed Virgin Mary, the Annunciation of Our Lady,[1] or the Annunciation of the Lord) is, according to the Gospel of Luke, the announcement by the archangel Gabriel to Mary that she would conceive and bear a son through a virgin birth and become the mother of Jesus Christ, the Christian Messiah and Son of God, marking the Incarnation.[2] Gabriel told Mary to name her son Jesus.[3]\n", "According to Luke\u00a01:26,[4] the Annunciation occurred \"in the sixth month\" of Elizabeth's pregnancy with John the Baptist.[5] Many Christians observe this event with the Feast of the Annunciation on 25\u00a0March,[2] an approximation of the northern vernal equinox nine full months before Christmas, the ceremonial birthday of Jesus.\n", "The Annunciation is a key topic in Christian art in general, as well as in Marian art in the Catholic Church, having been especially prominent during the Middle Ages and Renaissance. A work of art depicting the Annunciation is sometimes itself called an Annunciation.\n", "And the angel answering, said to her: The Holy Ghost shall come upon thee, and the power of the most High shall overshadow thee. And therefore also the Holy which shall be born of thee shall be called the Son of God. And behold thy cousin Elizabeth, she also hath conceived a son in her old age; and this is the sixth month with her that is called barren: Because no word shall be impossible with God.\n"], "Q1196533": [], "Q776175": [], "Q2957596": ["The Monteleone chariot is an Etruscan chariot dated to c. 530 BC, considered one of the world's great archaeological finds. It was originally uncovered at Monteleone di Spoleto, Umbria, Italy, and is currently a major attraction in the collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City.[1]\n", "Though about 300 ancient chariots are known to still exist, only six are reasonably complete, and the Monteleone chariot is the best-preserved[2] and most complete[3][4] of all known surviving examples. Carlos Pic\u00f3n, curator of the museum's Greek and Roman department, has called it \"the grandest piece of sixth-century Etruscan bronze anywhere in the world\".[5]\n", "The Monteleone chariot was part of a chariot burial, containing the remains of two human corpses, along with two drinking cups. Measuring 131\u00a0cm (51+5\u20448\u00a0in) in height and designed to be drawn by two horses, the chariot itself is constructed of wood covered with hammered bronze plates and carved ivory decoration. It is thought to be a \"parade chariot\" rather than one actually used in warfare.[6]\n", "The bronze plates are decorated with Homeric iconography in relief; the main panel depicts Achilles being handed his replacement armor by his mother, Thetis, after his first set had been fatally lent to Patroklos.  Below the helmet is a shield decorated with a Gorgon head. The left side panel shows two warriors in combat, thought to be Achilles and the Trojan Memnon.  The right panel shows the apotheosis of Achilles, as he ascends in a chariot pulled by winged horses.  The chariot's shaft emerges from the mouth of a boar; the dead deer below the shield may be meant to be shown carried by the boar.  Rows of smaller scenes run along the base of the chariot platform. These are thought to show \"Achilles as a youth in the care of the centaur Chiron and Achilles as a lion felling his foes, in this case a stag and a bull\".  Two nude male figues flank the central scene.[7]\n"], "Q1338563": ["Max Hollein (born 7 July 1969 in Vienna)[1] is an Austrian art historian and the current CEO and Director of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City.[2] He served as Director and CEO of the Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco from July 2016,[3] until April 2018, the Metropolitan Museum of Art announced that Hollein would become its 10th director.[4]\n", "Hollein oversaw both the de Young and the Legion of Honor museums, which together are the seventh most-visited art institutions in the United States, with 1.4 million visitors in 2016.[5] Hollein joined the Fine Arts Museums in July 2016 from his position as the director of  Schirn Kunsthalle Frankfurt, St\u00e4del Museum[6] and the Liebieghaus Skulpturensammlung.\n", "Hollein was born in Vienna in 1969 to architect Hans Hollein and Helene Hollein. He studied art history at the University of Vienna and business administration at the Vienna University of Economics. During this period, he also free-lanced for the business section of the national daily newspaper \"Der Standard\". In 1995, following the successful completion of his studies with two master's degrees, one in art history and the other in business administration, he moved to New York City to take on the position of project director of exhibitions at the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in New York.\n", "From 1996 until the end of 2000, he worked closely with Guggenheim director Thomas Krens, initially as \"Executive Assistant to the Director\" and, from 1998 onward, as \"Chief of Staff and Manager of European Relations\" responsible for key projects such as the establishment of the exhibition halls \"Deutsche Guggenheim Berlin\" and \"Guggenheim Las Vegas\". He was also involved in fundraising, travelling exhibitions, the inauguration activities at Guggenheim Bilbao as well as liaising with European cultural institutions, collectors, media, curators and sponsors.\n"], "Q188031": [], "Q6825168": ["The Metropolitan Opera House is an historic opera house and current pop concert venue located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. It has been used for many different purposes over its history. Now known as The Met, the theatre reopened in December 2018, after a complete renovation, as a concert venue. It is managed by Live Nation Philadelphia.[4]\n", "Built over the course of just a few months in 1908, it was the ninth opera house built by impresario Oscar Hammerstein I. It was initially the home of Hammerstein's Philadelphia Opera Company, and called the \"Philadelphia Opera House\". Hammerstein sold the house to the Metropolitan Opera of New York City in 1910, when it was renamed. The Met used the theatre through 1920, after which various opera companies used the house through 1934.\n", "For over five more decades it remained in constant use in turn as a movie theater, a ballroom, a sports venue, mechanic training center, and a church. The building then fell into serious disrepair and was unused and vacant from 1988 until 1995, when it became the \"Holy Ghost Headquarters Revival Center at the Met\". The church stabilized much of the building, eventually paving the way for the latest renovation of the opera house in 2017\u20132018.\n", "The Metropolitan Opera House was built by Hammerstein to be the home of his then new opera company, the Philadelphia Opera Company (POC). Hammerstein hired architect William H. McElfatrick of the firm J.B. McElfatrick & Son to design the opera house in 1907, and construction began the following year. When it opened as the Philadelphia Opera House in 1908, it was the largest theater of its kind in the world, seating more than 4,000 people.\n"], "Q39013": [], "Q1426419": []}

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+{"Q11299": ["Manhattan (/m\u00e6n\u02c8h\u00e6t\u0259n, m\u0259n-/ \u24d8) is the most densely populated and geographically smallest of the five boroughs of New York City. The borough is coextensive with New York County, the smallest county by geographical area in the U.S. state of New York. Located almost entirely on Manhattan Island near the southern tip of the state, Manhattan constitutes the geographical and demographic center of the Northeast megalopolis and the urban core of the New York metropolitan area.[6] Manhattan serves as New York City's economic and administrative center and has been described as the cultural, financial, media, and entertainment capital of the world.[7][8][9][10]\n", "Present-day Manhattan was originally part of Lenape territory.[11] European settlement began with the establishment of a trading post by Dutch colonists in 1624 on lower Manhattan Island; the post was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The territory and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, the Duke of York.[12] New York, based in present-day Manhattan, served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790.[13] The Statue of Liberty in New York Harbor greeted millions of arriving immigrants in the late 19th century and is a world symbol of the United States and its ideals.[14] Manhattan became a borough during the consolidation of New York City in 1898, and houses New York City Hall, the seat of the city's government.[15] The Stonewall Inn in Greenwich Village, part of the Stonewall National Monument, is considered the birthplace of the modern gay rights movement, cementing Manhattan's central role in LGBT culture.[16][17] It was also the site of the World Trade Center, which was destroyed during the September 11 terrorist attacks.\n", "Situated on one of the world's largest natural harbors, the borough is bounded by the Hudson, East, and Harlem rivers and includes several small adjacent islands, including Roosevelt, U Thant, and Randalls and Wards Islands. It also includes the small neighborhood of Marble Hill now on the U.S. mainland. Manhattan Island is divided into three informally bounded components, each cutting across the borough's long axis: Lower, Midtown, and Upper Manhattan. Manhattan is one of the most densely populated locations in the world, with a 2020 census population of 1,694,250 living in a land area of 22.66 square miles (58.69\u00a0km2),[3][18] or 72,918 residents\u00a0per square mile (28,154 residents/km2), and its residential property has the highest sale price per square foot in the United States.[19] Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere.[20]\n", "Anchored by Wall Street in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan, New York City has been called both the most economically powerful city and the leading financial and fintech center of the world,[21][22][23]and Manhattan is home to the world's two largest stock exchanges by total market capitalization, the New York Stock Exchange and Nasdaq.[24] Many multinational media conglomerates are based in Manhattan, as are numerous colleges and universities, such as Columbia University and New York University; the headquarters of the United Nations is also located in the borough. Manhattan hosts three of the world's most-visited tourist attractions in 2013: Times Square, Central Park, and Grand Central Terminal.[25] Penn Station is the busiest transportation hub in the Western Hemisphere.[26] The borough hosts many prominent bridges and tunnels, and skyscrapers including the Empire State Building, Chrysler Building, and One World Trade Center.[27] It is also home to the National Basketball Association's New York Knicks and the National Hockey League's New York Rangers.\n"], "Q2577471": ["Calvert Vaux FAIA (/v\u0254\u02d0ks/; December 20, 1824 \u2013 November 19, 1895) was an English-American architect and landscape designer, best known as the co-designer, along with his prot\u00e9g\u00e9 and junior partner Frederick Law Olmsted, of what would become New York City's Central Park.\n", "Vaux, on his own and in various partnerships, designed and created dozens of parks across the northeastern United States, most famously in New York City, Brooklyn, and Buffalo. He introduced new ideas about the significance of public parks in America during a hectic time of urbanization. This industrialization of the cityscape inspired Vaux to focus on an integration of buildings, bridges, and other forms of architecture into their natural surroundings. He favored naturalistic and curvilinear lines in his designs.\n", "In addition to landscape architecture, Vaux was a highly-sought after architect until the 1870s, when his modes of design could not endure the country's return to classical forms. His partnership with Andrew Jackson Downing, a major figure in horticulture, landscape design, and domestic architecture, brought him from London to Newburgh, New York, in 1850. There, Downing's praise of Gothic Revival and Italianate architecture contributed to Vaux's personal growth as a designer of homes and landscapes. After Downing's sudden death in 1852, Vaux was left with their assistant Frederick Clarke Withers to continue Downing's legacy. He left Newburgh in 1856 to grow his practice in New York City, where he began, received, and completed commissions with Olmsted, Withers, and Jacob Wrey Mould. As a result, Vaux's name was frequently overshadowed by other designers, such as Olmsted, yet the contemporary American public still recognized his talents.\n", "Born in London to a physician, Vaux was baptized at St Benet Gracechurch on February 9, 1825. He trained as an apprentice under the architect Lewis Nockalls Cottingham, a leader of the Gothic Revival movement interested in Tudor architecture.[1] Vaux trained under Cottingham until the age of twenty-six, also befriending George Godwin and George Truefitt during his studies.[citation needed]\n"], "Q3157603": ["Jacob Wrey Mould (7 August 1825 \u2013 14 June 1886)[1] was a British architect, illustrator, linguist and musician, noted for his contributions to the design and construction of New York City's Central Park. He was \"instrumental\" in bringing the British High Victorian style of architecture to the United States,[2] and was a founding member of the American Institute of Architects.[3]\n", "Born in Chislehurst, Kent in 1825, Mould attended King's College School in 1842. For two years, he studied the Alhambra in Spain under Owen Jones, the \"master of polychromy,\"[4] with whom he later co-designed the \"Turkish Chamber\" of Buckingham Palace. Mould's subsequent designs were often influenced by his appreciation of the Moorish style of architecture.\n", "Mould designed decorations for The Great Exhibition in London in 1851. He moved to the United States in 1852,[3] and worked on the Crystal Palace Exhibition in Manhattan. He was invited by Moses H. Grinnell in 1853 to design and build Unitarian Church of All Souls,[5] and then was brought in on early plans for the great urban park in the heart of the city, Central Park. Working closely with creators Calvert Vaux and Frederick Law Olmsted, he designed many of the park's notable landmarks, including the \"graceful\" and \"richly decorated\" old Bandstand,[6] Belvedere Castle,[7] a great number of bridges,[8] and the carvings on the Bethesda Terrace.[9][10]\n", "Though described as eccentric and ill-mannered,[11] Mould was hired full-time as an assistant city architect in 1857, and from 1870 to 1871 was architect-in-chief for the Department of Public Works.[3] In the 1860s, he had also built two notable country homes in Long Island on Hempstead Bay, both of which were lavish and ornate buildings for rich clients from New York.[3] Mould also collaborated with Vaux on the design of the original Metropolitan Museum of Art and the American Museum of Natural History, and designed the fountain at City Hall Park (1871).[12]\n"], "Q3937681": [], "Q16729216": ["The Anna Wintour Costume Center is a wing of the Metropolitan Museum of Art main building in Manhattan that houses the collection of the Costume Institute, a curatorial department of the museum focused on fashion and costume design. The center is named after Anna Wintour, the longtime editor-in-chief of Vogue, Chief Content Officer[2] of Cond\u00e9 Nast, and chair of the museum's annual Met Gala (often called the \"Met Ball\")[3] since 1995. It was endowed by Lizzie and Jonathan Tisch.[4] As of August 2017, the chief curator is Andrew Bolton.[5]\n", "The center was formally opened by the First Lady of the United States Michelle Obama on May 5, 2014.[6] Guests included Sarah Jessica Parker, Diane Von Furstenberg, Tory Burch, Zac Posen, Ralph Lauren, and Donatella Versace.[7][8][9][10]\n", "In 1902, wealthy philanthropists Irene and Alice Lewisohn began to volunteer at the Henry Street Settlement House in New York, a community center that provided social services and healthcare to immigrant families.[11] Alice, who acted in plays herself, began working as a drama teacher, while Irene devoted herself to dance productions. In 1914, the sisters bought a lot on the corner of Grand and Pitt Streets and donated it to the Settlement for building a new theater. The Neighborhood Playhouse opened in 1915. By 1920, the theater employed professional actors, and it was known for its experimental productions and its revue \"The Grand Street Follies.\"[12] Theater designer Aline Bernstein served her apprenticeship there from 1915 to 1924 designing costumes and stage sets.\n", "The Playhouse closed in 1927, but the company continued to produce plays on Broadway under the management of Helen F. Ingersoll. In 1928, with Rita Wallach Morganthau, the Lewisohns established the Neighborhood Playhouse School of the Theatre at East 54th Street, where it became an actor training school and students were offered a two-year program formal drama and dance training to become professionals.[12]\n"], "Q7468425": [], "Q11396960": ["A production company, production house, production studio, or a production team is a studio that creates works in the fields of performing arts, new media art, film, television, radio, comics, interactive arts, video games, websites, music, and video. These groups consist of technical staff to produce the media, and are often incorporated as a commercial publisher.\n", "Generally the term refers to all individuals responsible for the technical aspects of creating a particular product, regardless of where in the process their expertise is required, or how long they are involved in the project.  For example, in a theatrical performance, the production team has not only the running crew, but also the theatrical producer, designers, and theatrical direction.\n", "The production company may be directly responsible for fundraising the production or may accomplish this through a parent company, partner, or private investor. It handles budgeting, scheduling, scripting, the supply with talent and resources, the organization of staff, the production itself, post-production, distribution, and marketing.[1]\n", "Production companies are often either owned or under contract with a media conglomerate, film studio, record label, video game publisher, or entertainment company, due to the concentration of media ownership, who act as the production company's partner or parent company. This has become known as the \"studio system\". Independent studios usually prefer production house (see Lionsgate), production studio (see Amazon Studios), or production team (see Rooster Teeth). In the case of television, a production company would serve under a television network. Production companies can work together in co-productions. In music, the term production team typically refers to a group of individuals filling the role of \"record producer\" usually reserved for one individual. Some examples of musical production teams include Matmos and D-Influence.\n"], "Q18325436": ["\nA 501(c)(3) organization is a United States corporation, trust, unincorporated association or other type of organization exempt from federal  income tax under section 501(c)(3) of Title 26 of the United States Code. It is one of the 29 types of 501(c) nonprofit organizations[1] in the US.\n", "501(c)(3) tax-exemptions apply to entities that are organized and operated exclusively for religious, charitable, scientific, literary or educational purposes, for testing for public safety, to foster national or international amateur sports competition, or for the prevention of cruelty to children or animals. 501(c)(3) exemption applies also for any non-incorporated community chest, fund, cooperating association or foundation organized and operated exclusively for those purposes.[2][1] There are also supporting organizations\u2014often referred to in shorthand form as \"Friends of\" organizations.[3][4][5][6][7]\n", "26\u00a0U.S.C.\u00a0\u00a7\u00a0170 provides a deduction for federal income tax purposes, for some donors who make charitable contributions to most types of 501(c)(3) organizations, among others. Regulations specify which such deductions must be verifiable to be allowed (e.g., receipts for donations of $250 or more).\n", "Due to the tax deductions associated with donations, loss of 501(c)(3) status can be highly challenging if not fatal to a charity's continued operation, as many foundations and corporate matching funds do not grant funds to a charity without such status, and individual donors often do not donate to such a charity due to the unavailability of tax deduction for contributions.[8]\n"], "Q75107930": [], "Q2842849": ["The American Alliance of Museums (AAM), formerly the American Association of Museums,[2] is a non-profit association whose goal is to bring museums together. Founded in 1906, the organization advocates for museums and provides \"museum professionals with the resources, knowledge, inspiration, and connections they need to move the field forward.\"[3]\n", "AAM represents the scope of museums, professionals, and nonpaid staff who work for and with museums. AAM represents more than 25,000 individual museum professionals and volunteers, 4,000 institutions, and 150 corporate members. Individual members include directors, curators, registrars, educators, exhibit designers, public relations officers, development officers, security managers, trustees, and volunteers.\n", "Museums represented by the members include art, history, science, military, maritime, and youth museums, as well as public aquariums, zoos, botanical gardens, arboretums, historic sites, and science and technology centers.\n", "An informal meeting was held at the National Museum in Washington, D.C., on December 21, 1905, for the \"purpose of discussing the advisability of endeavoring to establish an association of the museums of America.\"[5] Major events in the history of the Alliance include:\n"]}

data/text_file_v1_1070.json

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+{"Q60": ["New York, often called New York City[b] or simply NYC, is the most populous city in the United States, located at the southern tip of New York State on one of the world's largest natural harbors. The city comprises five boroughs, each of which is coextensive with a respective county. It is a global city and a cultural, financial,[10] high-tech,[11] entertainment, and media center with a significant influence on commerce, health care, scientific output, life sciences,[12][13] research, technology, education, politics, tourism, dining, art, fashion, and sports. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy,[14][15] and is sometimes described as the world's most important city[16] and the capital of the world.[17][18]\n", "With an estimated population in 2022 of 8,335,897 distributed over 300.46 square miles (778.2\u00a0km2),[4] the city is the most densely populated major city in the United States. New York has more than double the population of Los Angeles, the nation's second-most populous city.[19] New York is the geographical and demographic center of both the Northeast megalopolis and the New York metropolitan area, the largest metropolitan area in the U.S. by both population and urban area. With more than 20.1 million people in its metropolitan statistical area[20] and 23.5 million in its combined statistical area as of 2020, New York City is one of the world's most populous megacities.[21] The city and its metropolitan area are the premier gateway for legal immigration to the United States. As many as 800 languages are spoken in New York,[22] making it the most linguistically diverse city in the world. In 2021, the city was home to nearly 3.1 million residents born outside the U.S.,[19] the largest foreign-born population of any city in the world.[23]\n", "New York City traces its origins to Fort Amsterdam and a trading post founded on the southern tip of Manhattan Island by Dutch colonists in approximately 1624. The settlement was named New Amsterdam (Dutch: Nieuw Amsterdam) in 1626 and was chartered as a city in 1653. The city came under English control in 1664 and was renamed New York after King Charles II granted the lands to his brother, the Duke of York.[24] The city was temporarily regained by the Dutch in July 1673 and was renamed New Orange; however, the city has been named New York since November 1674. New York City was the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790.[25] The modern city was formed by the 1898 consolidation of its five boroughs: Manhattan, Brooklyn, Queens, The Bronx, and Staten Island, and has been the largest U.S. city ever since.\n", "Anchored by Wall Street in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan, New York City has been called both the world's premier financial and fintech center[26][27] and the most economically powerful city in the world.[28] As of 2022[update], the New York metropolitan area is the largest metropolitan economy in the world with a gross metropolitan product of over US$2.16\u00a0trillion.[7][8] If the New York metropolitan area were its own country, it would have the tenth-largest economy in the world. The city is home to the world's two largest stock exchanges by market capitalization of their listed companies: the New York Stock Exchange and Nasdaq. New York City is an established safe haven for global investors.[29] As of 2023[update], New York City is the most expensive city in the world for expatriates to live.[30] New York City is home to the highest number of billionaires, individuals of ultra-high net worth (greater than US$30 million),[31] and millionaires of any city in the world.[32]\n"], "Q3182579": ["John Taylor Johnston (April 8, 1820 \u2013 March 24, 1893) was an American businessman and patron of the arts. He served as president of the Central Railroad of New Jersey and was one of the founders of The Metropolitan Museum of Art.\n", "Johnston was born on April 8, 1820, in New York City.  He was the eldest child of John Johnston and Margaret (n\u00e9e Taylor) Howard Johnston, a widow of Rhesa Howard Jr. who was the nephew of William Few, Signer of the U.S. Constitution from Georgia whose brother-in-law was U.S. Secretary of the Treasury Albert Gallatin.[1]  His younger brother was James Boorman Johnston, who commissioned the Tenth Street Studio Building at 51 West 10th Street between Fifth and Sixth Avenues.  His sister, Margaret Taylor Johnston, was married to John Bard (a grandson of Dr. Samuel Bard) and together were founders of Bard College.[2]\n", "Both of his parents were of Scottish ancestry,[3] and his father was a prominent businessman with Boorman, Johnston, & Co. and was a co-founder of Washington Square North.  His mother had four siblings who, likewise, married two grandchildren, a great-granddaughter, and a nephew of founding father Roger Sherman, Signer of the U.S. Constitution and the U.S. Declaration of Independence from Connecticut.\n", "Johnston grew up in Greenwich Village, where he was born, and was educated at Edinburgh High School in Edinburgh, Scotland. He graduated from the University of the City of New York, an institution founded by his father and several other civic-minded New Yorkers, in 1839. He later studied at Yale Law School, where his classmates included Charles Astor Bristed, Daniel D. Lord, and Henry G. DeForest.[3]\n"], "Q2085381": ["Publishing is the activity of making information, literature, music, software, and other content available to the public for sale or for free.[1] Traditionally, the term refers to the creation and distribution of printed works, such as books, comic books, newspapers, and magazines. With the advent of digital information systems, the scope has expanded to include digital publishing such as ebooks, digital magazines, websites, social media, music, and video game publishing.\n", "The commercial publishing industry ranges from large multinational conglomerates such as News Corp, Pearson, Penguin Random House, and Thomson Reuters,[2] to major retail brands and thousands of small independent publishers. It has various divisions such as trade/retail publishing of fiction and non-fiction, educational publishing, and academic and scientific publishing..[3] Publishing is also undertaken by governments, civil society, and private companies for administrative or compliance requirements, business, research, advocacy, or public interest objectives.[4] This can include annual reports, research reports, market research, policy briefings, and technical reports. Self-publishing has become very common.\n", "Newspapers or news websites are publications of current reports, articles, and features written by journalists and are available for free, sometimes available with a premium edition, or paid for, either individually or through a subscription. They are filled with photographs or other media and are normally subsidized with advertising. Typically they cover local, national, and international news or feature a particular industry. Some organizations charge premium fees if they have the expertise and exclusive knowledge. The news industry is meant to serve the public interest, hold people and businesses to account, and promote freedom of information and expression.[7] Editors manage the tone of voice of their publication; for example, negative versus positive articles can affect the reader's perspective.[8]\n", "A journal is an academic or technical publication also available in digital and/or print format, containing articles written by researchers, professors, and individuals with professional expertise. These publications are specific to a particular field and often push the boundaries established in these fields. They normally have peer review processes before publishing to test the validity and quality of the content.[9]\n"], "Q67429127": [], "Q67429126": [], "Q67429146": [], "Q67429143": ["A musical instrument is a device created or adapted to make musical sounds. In principle, any object that produces sound can be considered a musical instrument\u2014it is through purpose that the object becomes a musical instrument. A person who plays a musical instrument is known as an instrumentalist. The history of musical instruments dates to the beginnings of human culture. Early musical instruments may have been used for rituals, such as a horn to signal success on the hunt, or a drum in a religious ceremony. Cultures eventually developed composition and performance of melodies for entertainment. Musical instruments evolved in step with changing applications and technologies.\n", "The exact date and specific origin of the first device considered a musical instrument, is widely disputed. The oldest object identified by scholars as a musical instrument, is a simple flute, dated back 50,000\u201360,000 years. Many scholars date early flutes to about 40,000 years ago. Many historians believe that determining the specific date of musical instrument invention is impossible, as the majority of early musical instruments were constructed of animal skins, bone, wood, and other non-durable, bio-degradable materials. Additionally, some have proposed that lithophones, or stones used to make musical sounds--like those found at Sankarjang in India--are examples of prehistoric musical instruments. \n", "Musical instruments developed independently in many populated regions of the world. However, contact among civilizations caused rapid spread and adaptation of most instruments in places far from their origin. By the post-classical era, instruments from Mesopotamia were in maritime Southeast Asia, and Europeans played instruments originating from North Africa. Development in the Americas occurred at a slower pace, but cultures of North, Central, and South America shared musical instruments. \n", "By 1400, musical instrument development slowed in many areas and was dominated by the Occident. During the Classical and Romantic periods of music, lasting from roughly 1750 to 1900, many new musical instruments were developed. While the evolution of traditional musical instruments slowed beginning in the 20th century, the proliferation of electricity led to the invention of new electric and electronic instruments, such as electric guitars, synthesizers and the theremin.\n"], "Q67429140": ["The medieval art of the Western world covers a vast scope of time and place, with over 1000 years of art in Europe, and at certain periods in Western Asia and Northern Africa. It includes major art movements and periods, national and regional art, genres, revivals, the artists' crafts, and the artists themselves.\n", "Art historians attempt to classify medieval art into major periods and styles, often with some difficulty. A generally accepted scheme includes the later phases of Early Christian art, Migration Period art, Byzantine art, Insular art, Pre-Romanesque, Romanesque art, and Gothic art, as well as many other periods within these central styles. In addition, each region, mostly during the period in the process of becoming nations or cultures, had its own distinct artistic style, such as Anglo-Saxon art or Viking art.\n", "Medieval art was produced in many media, and works survive in large numbers in sculpture, illuminated manuscripts, stained glass, metalwork and mosaics, all of which have had a higher survival rate than other media such as fresco wall-paintings, work in precious metals or textiles, including tapestry. Especially in the early part of the period, works in the so-called \"minor arts\" or decorative arts, such as metalwork, ivory carving, vitreous enamel and embroidery using precious metals, were probably more highly valued than paintings or monumental sculpture.[1]\n", "Medieval art in Europe grew out of the artistic heritage of the Roman Empire and the iconographic traditions of the early Christian church. These sources were mixed with the vigorous \"barbarian\" artistic culture of Northern Europe to produce a remarkable artistic legacy. Indeed, the history of medieval art can be seen as the history of the interplay between the elements of classical, early Christian and \"barbarian\" art.[2]  Apart from the formal aspects of classicism, there was a continuous tradition of realistic depiction of objects that survived in Byzantine art throughout the period, while in the West it appears intermittently, combining and sometimes competing with new expressionist possibilities developed in Western Europe and the Northern legacy of energetic decorative elements.  The period ended with the self-perceived Renaissance recovery of the skills and values of classical art, and the artistic legacy of the Middle Ages was then disparaged for some centuries.  Since a revival of interest and understanding in the 19th century it has been seen as a period of enormous achievement that underlies the development of later Western art.\n"], "Q67429128": [], "Q67429134": []}

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+{"Q67429147": ["In 2022, the museum welcomed 3,208,832 visitors, making it the third-most visited museum in the United States and the eighth-most visited art museum in the world.[5] In 2000, its permanent collection was said to have over two million works;[1] it currently lists a total of 1.5 million objects.[6] The collection is divided into 17 curatorial departments. The main building at 1000 Fifth Avenue, along the Museum Mile on the eastern edge of Central Park on Manhattan's Upper East Side, is by area one of the world's largest art museums. The first portion of the approximately 2-million-square-foot (190,000\u00a0m2) building was built in 1880. A much smaller second location, The\u00a0Cloisters at Fort Tryon Park in Upper Manhattan, contains an extensive collection of art, architecture, and artifacts from medieval Europe.\n", "The Metropolitan Museum of Art was founded in 1870 with its mission to bring art and art education to the American people. The museum's permanent collection consists of works of art ranging from the ancient Near East and ancient Egypt, through classical antiquity to the contemporary world. It includes  paintings,  sculptures, and graphic works from many European Old Masters, as well as an extensive collection of American, modern, and contemporary art. The Met also maintains extensive holdings of African, Asian, Oceanian, Byzantine, and Islamic art. The museum is home to encyclopedic collections of musical instruments, costumes, and decorative arts and textiles, as well as antique weapons and armor from around the world. Several notable interiors, ranging from 1st-century Rome through modern American design, are installed in its galleries.\n", "The Met's permanent collection is curated by seventeen separate departments, each with a specialized staff of curators and scholars, as well as six dedicated conservation departments and a Department of Scientific Research.[7] The permanent collection includes works of art from classical antiquity and ancient Egypt; paintings and sculptures from nearly all the European masters; and an extensive collection of American and modern art. The Met maintains extensive holdings of African, Asian, Oceanian, Byzantine, and Islamic art.[8] The museum is also home to encyclopedic collections of musical instruments, costumes and accessories, and antique weapons and armor from around the world.[9] A great number of period rooms, ranging from first-century Rome through modern American design, are permanently installed in the Met's galleries.[10] Since the late 1800s, the Museum has been collecting diverse materials from all over the world. It reaches out to \"exhibition designers, architects, graphic designers, lighting designers, and production designers\" that enables the museum to maintain its collection in good conditions.[11]\n", "Beginning in the late 19th century, the Met started acquiring ancient art and artifacts from the Near East. From a few cuneiform tablets and seals, the museum's collection of Near Eastern art has grown to more than 7,000 pieces.[12] Representing a history of the region beginning in the Neolithic Period and encompassing the fall of the Sasanian Empire and the end of Late Antiquity, the collection includes works from the Sumerian, Hittite, Sasanian, Assyrian, Babylonian, and Elamite cultures (among others), as well as an extensive collection of unique Bronze Age objects. The highlights of the collection include the Sumerian Stele of Ushumgal, the Elamite silver Kneeling Bull with Vessel, the Pratt Ivories, and a set of monumental stone lamassu, or guardian figures, from the Northwest Palace of the Assyrian king Ashurnasirpal II.[13]\n"], "Q67429133": [], "Q67429137": [], "Q67429139": ["Islamic art is a part of Islamic culture and encompasses the visual arts produced since the 7th century CE by people who lived within territories inhabited or ruled by Muslim populations.[1] Referring to characteristic traditions across a wide range of lands, periods, and genres, Islamic art is a concept used first by Western art historians in the late 19th century.[2] Public Islamic art is traditionally non-representational, except for the widespread use of plant forms, usually in varieties of the spiralling arabesque. These are often combined with Islamic calligraphy, geometric patterns in styles that are typically found in a wide variety of media, from small objects in ceramic or metalwork to large decorative schemes in tiling on the outside and inside of large buildings, including mosques. Other forms of Islamic art include Islamic miniature painting, artefacts like Islamic glass or pottery, and textile arts, such as carpets and embroidery.\n", "The early developments of Islamic art were influenced by Roman art, Early Christian art (particularly Byzantine art), and Sassanian art, with later influences from Central Asian nomadic traditions. Chinese art had a significant influence on Islamic painting, pottery, and textiles.[3] From its beginnings, Islamic art has been based on the written version of the Quran and other seminal religious works, which is reflected by the important role of calligraphy, representing the word as the medium of divine revelation.[4][5]\n", "Religious Islamic art has been typically characterized by the absence of figures and extensive use of calligraphic, geometric and abstract floral patterns. In secular art of the Muslim world, representations of human and animal forms historically flourished in nearly all Islamic cultures, although, partly because of opposing religious sentiments, living beings in paintings were often stylized, giving rise to a variety of decorative figural designs.[6]\n", "Both religious and secular art objects often exhibit the same references, styles and forms. These include calligraphy, architecture, textiles and furnishings, such as carpets and woodwork. Secular arts and crafts include the production of textiles, such as clothing, carpets or tents, as well as household objects, made from metal, wood or other materials. Further, figurative miniature paintings have a rich tradition, especially in Persian, Mughal and Ottoman painting. These pictures were often meant to illustrate well-known historical or poetic stories.[7] Some interpretations of Islam, however, include a ban of depiction of animate beings, also known as aniconism. Islamic aniconism stems in part from the prohibition of idolatry and in part from the belief that creation of living forms is God's prerogative.[8][6]\n"], "Q67429148": [], "Q67087093": ["In 2022, the museum welcomed 3,208,832 visitors, making it the third-most visited museum in the United States and the eighth-most visited art museum in the world.[5] In 2000, its permanent collection was said to have over two million works;[1] it currently lists a total of 1.5 million objects.[6] The collection is divided into 17 curatorial departments. The main building at 1000 Fifth Avenue, along the Museum Mile on the eastern edge of Central Park on Manhattan's Upper East Side, is by area one of the world's largest art museums. The first portion of the approximately 2-million-square-foot (190,000\u00a0m2) building was built in 1880. A much smaller second location, The\u00a0Cloisters at Fort Tryon Park in Upper Manhattan, contains an extensive collection of art, architecture, and artifacts from medieval Europe.\n", "The Metropolitan Museum of Art was founded in 1870 with its mission to bring art and art education to the American people. The museum's permanent collection consists of works of art ranging from the ancient Near East and ancient Egypt, through classical antiquity to the contemporary world. It includes  paintings,  sculptures, and graphic works from many European Old Masters, as well as an extensive collection of American, modern, and contemporary art. The Met also maintains extensive holdings of African, Asian, Oceanian, Byzantine, and Islamic art. The museum is home to encyclopedic collections of musical instruments, costumes, and decorative arts and textiles, as well as antique weapons and armor from around the world. Several notable interiors, ranging from 1st-century Rome through modern American design, are installed in its galleries.\n", "The Met's permanent collection is curated by seventeen separate departments, each with a specialized staff of curators and scholars, as well as six dedicated conservation departments and a Department of Scientific Research.[7] The permanent collection includes works of art from classical antiquity and ancient Egypt; paintings and sculptures from nearly all the European masters; and an extensive collection of American and modern art. The Met maintains extensive holdings of African, Asian, Oceanian, Byzantine, and Islamic art.[8] The museum is also home to encyclopedic collections of musical instruments, costumes and accessories, and antique weapons and armor from around the world.[9] A great number of period rooms, ranging from first-century Rome through modern American design, are permanently installed in the Met's galleries.[10] Since the late 1800s, the Museum has been collecting diverse materials from all over the world. It reaches out to \"exhibition designers, architects, graphic designers, lighting designers, and production designers\" that enables the museum to maintain its collection in good conditions.[11]\n", "Beginning in the late 19th century, the Met started acquiring ancient art and artifacts from the Near East. From a few cuneiform tablets and seals, the museum's collection of Near Eastern art has grown to more than 7,000 pieces.[12] Representing a history of the region beginning in the Neolithic Period and encompassing the fall of the Sasanian Empire and the end of Late Antiquity, the collection includes works from the Sumerian, Hittite, Sasanian, Assyrian, Babylonian, and Elamite cultures (among others), as well as an extensive collection of unique Bronze Age objects. The highlights of the collection include the Sumerian Stele of Ushumgal, the Elamite silver Kneeling Bull with Vessel, the Pratt Ivories, and a set of monumental stone lamassu, or guardian figures, from the Northwest Palace of the Assyrian king Ashurnasirpal II.[13]\n"], "Q67429130": ["The history of Asian art includes a vast range of arts from various cultures, regions, and religions across the continent of Asia. The major regions of Asia include Central, East, South, Southeast, and West Asia.\n", "Central Asian art primarily consists of works by the Turkic peoples of the Eurasian Steppe, while East Asian art includes works from China, Japan, and Korea. South Asian art encompasses the arts of the Indian subcontinent, while Southeast Asian art includes the arts of Brunei, Cambodia, East Timor, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar (Burma), the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam. West Asian art encompasses the arts of the Near East, including the ancient art of Mesopotamia, and more recently becoming dominated by Islamic art.\n", "In many ways, the history of art in Asia parallels the development of Western art.[1][2] The art histories of Asia and Europe are greatly intertwined, with Asian art greatly influencing European art, and vice versa; the cultures mixed through methods such as the Silk Road transmission of art, the cultural exchange of the Age of Discovery and colonization, and through the internet and modern globalization.[3][4][5]\n", "The first modern human occupation in the difficult climates of Northeast Asia is dated to circa 40,000 ago, with the early Yana culture of northern Siberia dated to circa 31,000 BCE. By around 21,000 BCE, two main cultures developed: the Mal'ta culture and slightly later the Afontova Gora-Oshurkovo culture.[6]\n"], "Q60596834": [], "Q67429136": [], "Q67429142": []}

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+{"Q67429123": [], "Q67429132": [], "Q20185456": [], "Q20187112": [], "Q52624955": [], "Q17355822": [], "Q17813915": [], "Q17815340": ["Portrait of Anna van der Aar is an oil-on-panel painting by the Dutch Golden Age painter Frans Hals, painted in 1626 and now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, in New York. It is considered a pendant portrait to that of her husband, the writer Petrus Scriverius.\n", "225. ANNA VAN DER AAR (born in 1576), wife of Petrus Scriverius. B. 66; M. 73. Half-length; in a painted oval. She is turned three-quarters left. Her right hand is on her bosom. She wears a black dress embroidered with gold, a white cap, and a large ruff. [Pendant to 224.] Inscribed in the right centre, \"Ao AETAT 50,\" and below on the painted frame signed with the monogram and the date 1626; panel, 8 1/2 inches by 6 inches. Mentioned by Paul Eudel\u00a0[fr], L'H\u00f4tel Drouot en 1881, p. 72; and see Moes, Iconographia Batava, No. 7. Engraved by Adrien Didier in the Wilson catalogue. \n"], "Q19911492": ["The Visit to the Nursery is an oil-on-canvas painting by French artist Jean-Honor\u00e9 Fragonard, created c. 1775, now held in the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C., which it entered in 1946 as part of the Samuel H. Kress collection.[1][2] It was previously identified with a work auctioned in a 1780 sale of Fragonard's major client Jean Fran\u00e7ois Leroy de Senneville (1715\u200a\u2013\u200a1784), a fermier g\u00e9n\u00e9ral, and then re-auctioned four years later, but a work more closely matching that work's description was rediscovered around 2009 in a collection in Estonia.[3]\n"], "Q19911671": []}

data/text_file_v1_110.json

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+{"Q475667": ["The F\u00fchrermuseum or Fuhrer-Museum (English: Leader's Museum), also referred to as the Linz art gallery, was an unrealized art museum within a cultural complex planned by Adolf Hitler for his hometown, the Austrian city of Linz, near his birthplace of Braunau. Its purpose was to display a selection of the art bought, confiscated or stolen by the Nazis from throughout Europe during World War II.  The cultural district was to be part of an overall plan to recreate Linz, turning it into a cultural capital of Nazi Germany and one of the greatest art centers of Europe, overshadowing Vienna, for which Hitler had a personal distaste.  He wanted to make the city more beautiful than Budapest, so it would be the most beautiful on the Danube River, as well as an industrial powerhouse and a hub of trade; the museum was planned to be one of the greatest in Europe.[1][2]\n", "The expected completion date for the project was 1950, but neither the F\u00fchrermuseum nor the cultural centre it was to anchor were ever built. The only part of the elaborate plan which was constructed was the Nibelungen Bridge, which is still extant.[3]\n", "As early as 1925, Hitler had conceived of a \"German National Gallery\" to be built in Berlin[4] with himself as director.  His plan, drawn out in a sketchbook, may have been influenced by the Kaiser-Friedrich-Museum, and consisted of a building with two sections, one with 28 rooms and the other with 32.[4] Hitler denoted which of his favorite 19th-century German artists were to be collected, and in what rooms their work would hang. Among his favorite painters were Hans Makart, Franz Defregger, Eduard Gr\u00fctzner, Franz von Stuck, Franz von Lenbach, Anselm Feuerbach, Heinrich Z\u00fcgel and Carl Spitzweg,[5] and he had extolled \"Aryan art\" by Moritz von Schwind and Arnold B\u00f6cklin in Mein Kampf.[6] At one time in his planning he dedicated five of the rooms in the museum to the work of Adolph von Menzel and three rooms to both Schwind and B\u00f6cklin. Carl Rottmann, Edouard von Engerth, and Anton von Werner were to share a single room, as were Makart and Karl von Piloty; Wilhelm Tr\u00fcbner and Fritz von Uhde; Gr\u00fctzner and Defregger; and the artists of the Nazarene movement. Other painters who would enjoy their own room in Hitler's original plans were Peter von Cornelius, Hans von Mar\u00e9es, Bonaventura Genelli, Anselm Feuerbach and Wilhelm Leibl. These choices reflected Hitler's taste at the time, which was a preference for sentimental 19th-century Germanic romantic painters,[7][8] including \"both 'schmaltzy' genre pictures ... [and] heroic, idyllic, allegorical. historical-patriotic themes, the visual equivalent of Wagner, without the genius.\"[9]\n", "It was after the Anschluss with Austria, with the House of German Art in Munich already completed, that Hitler conceived of having his dream museum not in any of the premiere cities in Germany, where it could be overshadowed, but in his \"hometown\" of Linz in Austria, and discussed his plans with the director of the local Provincial Museum, Theodor Kerschner, while visiting there.[10]\n"], "Q338330": ["The Gallerie dell'Accademia is a museum gallery of pre-19th-century art in Venice, northern Italy. It is housed in the Scuola della Carit\u00e0 on the south bank of the Grand Canal, within the sestiere of Dorsoduro. It was originally the gallery of the Accademia di Belle Arti di Venezia, the art academy of Venice, from which it became independent in 1879, and for which the Ponte dell'Accademia and the Accademia boat landing station for the vaporetto water bus are named. The two institutions remained in the same building until 2004, when the art school moved to the Ospedale degli Incurabili.\n", "The Accademia di Belle Arti di Venezia was founded on 24 September 1750; the statute dates from 1756.[1] The first director was Giovanni Battista Piazzetta; Gianbattista Tiepolo became the first president after his return from W\u00fcrzburg.[2]\n", "In 1807 the academy was re-founded by Napoleonic decree. The name was changed from Veneta Academia di Pittura, Scultura e Architettura to Accademia Reale di Belle Arti, \"royal academy of fine arts\", and the academy was moved to the Palladian complex of the Scuola della Carit\u00e0, where the Gallerie dell'Accademia are still housed. The collections of the Accademia were first opened to the public on 10 August 1817.[1][3]\n", "The Gallerie dell'Accademia became independent from the Accademia di Belle Arti di Venezia in 1879. Like other state museums in Italy, it falls under the Ministero per i Beni e le Attivit\u00e0 Culturali, the Italian Ministry of Culture and Heritage.\n"], "Q271928": ["The Palazzo Vecchio (Italian pronunciation: [pa\u02c8lattso \u02c8v\u025bkkjo] \"Old Palace\") is the town hall of Florence, Italy. It overlooks the Piazza della Signoria, which holds a copy of Michelangelo's David statue, and the gallery of statues in the adjacent Loggia dei Lanzi.\n", "Originally called the Palazzo della Signoria, after the Signoria of Florence, the ruling body of the Republic of Florence, this building was also known by several other names: Palazzo del Popolo, Palazzo dei Priori, and Palazzo Ducale, in accordance with the varying use of the palace during its long history. The building acquired its current name when the Medici duke's residence was moved across the Arno River to the Palazzo Pitti.\n", "In 1299, the commune and people of Florence decided to build a palace that would be worthy of the city's importance, and that would be more secure and defensible in times of turbulence for the magistrates of the commune.[1] Arnolfo di Cambio, the architect of the Duomo and the Santa Croce church, began construction upon the ruins of Palazzo dei Fanti and Palazzo dell'Esecutore di Giustizia, once owned by the Uberti family. Giovanni Villani (1276\u20131348) wrote in his Nuova Cronica that the Uberti were \"rebels of Florence and Ghibellines\", stating that the palazzo was built to ensure that the Uberti family homes would never be rebuilt on the same location.[1]\n", "The cubical building is made of solid rusticated stonework, with two rows of two-lighted Gothic windows, each with a trefoil arch. In the 15th century, Michelozzo di Bartolomeo Michelozzi added decorative bas-reliefs of the cross and the Florentine lily in the spandrels between the trefoils. The building is crowned with projecting crenellated battlements, supported by small arches and corbels. Under the arches are a repeated series of nine painted coats of arms of the Florentine republic. Some of these arches can be used as embrasures (spiombati) for dropping heated liquids or rocks on invaders.\n"], "Q1450630": ["The Princes Czartoryski Museum (Polish: Muzeum Ksi\u0105\u017c\u0105t Czartoryskich [mu\u02c8z\u025bum \u02c8k\u0255\u0254\u0303\u0290\u0254nt t\u0282art\u0254\u02c8r\u0268sk\u02b2ix]) \u2013 often abbreviated to Czartoryski Museum \u2013 is a historic museum in Krak\u00f3w, Poland, and one of the country's oldest museums. The initial collection was formed in 1796 in Pu\u0142awy by Princess Izabela Czartoryska. The Museum officially opened in 1878.[1]\n", "The Pu\u0142awy collection was partly destroyed after the November 1830 Uprising and the confiscation of the Czartoryski properties. Most of the Museum holdings, however, were saved and moved to Paris, where they reposed at the H\u00f4tel Lambert. In 1870 Prince W\u0142adys\u0142aw Czartoryski decided to move the collections to Krak\u00f3w, where they arrived in 1876.\n", "The most renowned painting at the Museum is one of Leonardo da Vinci's best-known works, the Lady with an Ermine. Other highlights include two works by Rembrandt; several antiquities, including sculptures; Renaissance tapestries and decorative arts; and paintings by Hans Holbein the Younger, Jacob Jordaens, Luca Giordano, Pieter Brueghel the Younger, Dieric Bouts, Joos van Cleve, Lorenzo Lotto, Lucas Cranach the Younger, Lorenzo Monaco, Andrea Mantegna, Alessandro Magnasco, and the Master of the Female Half-Lengths.\n", "Princess Izabela Czartoryska founded the museum in Pu\u0142awy to preserve Polish heritage in keeping with her motto, \"The Past to the Future.\" The first objects in her \"Temple of Memory\" of 1796 were trophies commemorating the victory against the Turks at the Battle of Vienna in 1683.\n"], "Q1464509": ["The NGV houses an encyclopedic art collection across two sites: NGV International, located on St Kilda Road in the Melbourne Arts Precinct of Southbank, and the Ian Potter Centre: NGV Australia, located nearby at Federation Square. The NGV International building, designed by Sir Roy Grounds, opened in 1968, and was redeveloped by Mario Bellini before reopening in 2003. It houses the gallery's international art collection and is on the Victorian Heritage Register.\n", "In 1850, the Port Phillip District of New South Wales was granted separation, officially becoming the colony of Victoria on 1 July 1851. In the wake of a gold rush the following month, Victoria emerged as Australia's richest colony, and Melbourne, its capital, Australia's largest and wealthiest city. With Melbourne's rapid growth came calls for the establishment of a public art gallery, and in 1859, the Government of Victoria pledged \u00a32000 for the acquisition of plaster casts of sculpture.[3] These works were displayed in the Museum of Art, opened by Governor Sir Henry Barkly in May 1861 on the lower floor of the south wing of the public Library (now the State Library of Victoria) on Swanston Street.[4] Further money was set aside in the early 1860s for the purchase of original paintings by British and Victorian artists. These works were first displayed in December 1864 in the newly opened Picture Gallery, which remained under the curatorial administration of the Public Library until 1882.[5][6] Grand designs for a building fronting Lonsdale and Swanston streets were drawn by Nicholas Chevalier in 1860 and Frederick Grosse in 1865, featuring an enormous and elaborate library and gallery, but these visions were never realised.\n", "On 24 May 1874, the first purpose-built gallery, known as the McArthur Gallery, opened in the McArthur room of the State Library, and the following year, the Museum of Art was renamed the National Gallery of Victoria.[4] The McArthur Gallery was only ever intended as a temporary home until the much grander vision was to be realised.[7] However such an edifice did not eventuate and the complex was instead developed incrementally over several decades.\n", "The National Gallery of Victoria Art School, associated with the gallery, was founded in 1867 and remained the leading centre for academic art training in Australia until about 1910.[8] The School's graduates went on to become some of Australia's most significant artists. This later became the VCA (Victorian College of the Arts), which was bought by The University of Melbourne in 2007 after it went bankrupt.\n"], "Q867541": [], "Q602358": ["The Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopaedic Dictionary (Russian: \u042d\u043d\u0446\u0438\u043a\u043b\u043e\u043f\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0441\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0440\u044c \u0411\u0440\u043e\u043a\u0433\u0430\u0443\u0437\u0430 \u0438 \u0415\u0444\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0430, romanized:\u00a0Entsiklopedicheskiy slovar Brokgauza i Yefrona, abbr. \u042d\u0421\u0411\u0415, ESBE; 35 volumes, small; 86 volumes, large) is a comprehensive multi-volume encyclopaedia in Russian. It contains 121,240 articles, 7,800 images, and 235 maps. It was published in the Russian Empire in 1890\u20131907, as a joint venture of Leipzig and St Petersburg publishers. The articles were written by the prominent Russian scholars of the period, such as Dmitri Mendeleev and Vladimir Solovyov. Reprints have appeared following the dissolution of the Soviet Union.\n", "In 1889, the owner of one of the St. Petersburg printing houses, Ilya Abramovich Efron, at the initiative of Semyon Afanasyevich Vengerov, entered into an agreement with the German publishing house F. A. Brockhaus for the translation into Russian of the large German encyclopaedic dictionary (de) into Russian as \u042d\u043d\u0446\u0438\u043a\u043b\u043e\u043f\u0435\u0434\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0441\u043b\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0440\u044c \u0411\u0440\u043e\u043a\u0433\u0430\u0443\u0437\u0430 \u0438 \u0415\u0444\u0440\u043e\u043d\u0430, published by the same publishing house. Initially, it was supposed to be limited to the translation of this publication, but only with a more detailed presentation of issues related to Russia. It was supposed to release only 16\u201318 volumes.\n", "The first eight volumes (up to the letter \"B\"), published under the general editorship of Professor Ivan Efimovich Andreevsky, were almost literal translation with a slight adaptation for the Russian reader. These volumes caused a lot of complaints about the quality of the translation, and the overall management of the publication also left much to be desired. So, the journal \"Northern Herald\" noted: \"There are too many significant shortcomings. There is too little effort, love, and, what is stranger, not enough impressive edition, both literary and purely scholarly!\" (1890. \u2116 4. \u2013 pp. 76\u201377), and the journal \"Historical Bulletin\" added to this that the Encyclopaedic Dictionary was \"carelessly and unsatisfactorily compiled. The very language of the articles is heavy and in places wrong. The translation is immediately visible, and it is far from a professorial one, but a gymnasium, awkward, literal\" (1890, No. 5. \u2013 p. 454). \n", "After the death of Professor Ivan Andreevsky, the editorial office was headed by Academician Konstantin Konstantinovich Arseniev and Professor of St. Petersburg University Fyodor Fomich Petrushevsky, which marked a new period in the encyclopaedia's history. Starting from the 9th volume, the translated material fades into the background, there is much more factual and statistical material. Particular attention is paid to geographical articles, the editorial states: \"Russian cities are located absolutely everything, with the addition of more townships, villages and villages with over 3 thousand inhabitants or deserving attention.\" \n"], "Q134307": ["A portrait is a painting, photograph, sculpture, or other artistic representation of a person, in which the face and its expressions are predominant. The intent is to display the likeness, personality, and even the mood of the person. For this reason, in photography a portrait is generally not a snapshot, but a composed image of a person in a still position. A portrait often shows a person looking directly at the painter or photographer, to most successfully engage the subject with the viewer.\n", "Plastered human skulls were reconstructed human skulls that were made in the ancient Levant between 9000 and 6000 BC in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B period. They represent some of the oldest forms of art in the Middle East and demonstrate that the prehistoric population took great care in burying their ancestors below their homes. The skulls denote some of the earliest sculptural examples of portraiture in the history of art.[3]\n", "Most early representations that are clearly intended to show an individual are of rulers, and tend to follow idealizing artistic conventions, rather than the individual features of the subject's body, though when there is no other evidence as to the ruler's appearance the degree of idealization can be hard to assess. Nonetheless, many subjects, such as Akhenaten and some other Egyptian pharaohs, can be recognised by their distinctive features. The 28 surviving rather small statues of Gudea, ruler of Lagash in Sumer between c.\u20092144\u20132124 BC, show a consistent appearance with some individuality, although it is sometimes disputed that these count as portraits.[4]\n", "Some of the earliest surviving painted portraits of people who were not rulers are the Greco-Roman funeral portraits that survived in the dry climate of Egypt's Faiyum district. These are almost the only paintings from the classical world that have survived, apart from frescos, though many sculptures and portraits on coins have fared better. Although the appearance of the figures differs considerably, they are considerably idealized, and all show relatively young people, making it uncertain whether they were painted from life.\n"], "Q11063": ["An astronomer is a scientist in the field of astronomy who focuses their studies on a specific question or field outside the scope of Earth. They observe astronomical objects such as stars, planets, moons, comets and galaxies \u2013 in either observational (by analyzing the data) or theoretical astronomy. Examples of topics or fields astronomers study include planetary science, solar astronomy, the origin or evolution of stars, or the formation of galaxies. A related but distinct subject is physical cosmology, which studies the Universe as a whole.\n", "Astronomers usually fall under either of two main types: observational and theoretical. Observational astronomers make direct observations of celestial objects and analyze the data. In contrast, theoretical astronomers create and investigate models of things that cannot be observed. Because it takes millions to billions of years for a system of stars or a galaxy to complete a life cycle, astronomers must observe snapshots of different systems at unique points in their evolution to determine how they form, evolve, and die. They use this data to create models or simulations to theorize how different celestial objects work.\n", "Historically, astronomy was more concerned with the classification and description of phenomena in the sky, while astrophysics attempted to explain these phenomena and the differences between them using physical laws. Today, that distinction has mostly disappeared and the terms \"astronomer\" and \"astrophysicist\" are interchangeable. Professional astronomers are highly educated individuals who typically have a PhD in physics or astronomy and are employed by research institutions or universities.[1] They spend the majority of their time working on research, although they quite often have other duties such as teaching, building instruments, or aiding in the operation of an observatory.\n", "The American Astronomical Society, which is the major organization of professional astronomers in North America, has approximately 7,000 members. This number includes scientists from other fields such as physics, geology, and engineering, whose research interests are closely related to astronomy.[2] The International Astronomical Union comprises almost 10,145 members from 70 countries who are involved in astronomical research at the PhD level and beyond.[3]\n"], "Q170790": ["A mathematician is someone who uses an extensive knowledge of mathematics in their work, typically to solve mathematical problems. Mathematicians are concerned with numbers, data, quantity, structure, space, models, and change.\n", "One of the earliest known mathematicians was Thales of Miletus (c.\u2009624\u00a0\u2013 c.\u2009546 BC); he has been hailed as the first true mathematician and the first known individual to whom a mathematical discovery has been attributed.[1] He is credited with the first use of deductive reasoning applied to geometry, by deriving four corollaries to Thales's theorem.\n", "The number of known mathematicians grew when Pythagoras of Samos (c.\u2009582\u00a0\u2013 c.\u2009507 BC) established the Pythagorean school, whose doctrine it was that mathematics ruled the universe and whose motto was \"All is number\".[2] It was the Pythagoreans who coined the term \"mathematics\", and with whom the study of mathematics for its own sake begins.\n", "The first woman mathematician recorded by history was Hypatia of Alexandria (c.\u2009AD 350 \u2013 415). She succeeded her father as librarian at the Great Library and wrote many works on applied mathematics. Because of a political dispute, the Christian community in Alexandria punished her, presuming she was involved, by stripping her naked and scraping off her skin with clamshells (some say roofing tiles).[3]\n"]}

data/text_file_v1_1100.json

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+{"Q19906011": [], "Q53445802": [], "Q42144264": [], "Q55656666": [], "Q8030760": [], "Q18511742": [], "Q19924921": ["Alexander Hamilton (January 11, 1755, or 1757[a]\u00a0\u2013 July 12, 1804) was an American military officer, statesman, and Founding Father who served as the first secretary of the treasury from 1789 to 1795 during George Washington's presidency.\n", "Born out of wedlock in Charlestown, Nevis, Hamilton was orphaned as a child and taken in by a prosperous merchant. He pursued his education in New York City where, despite his young age, he was a prolific and widely read pamphleteer advocating for the American revolutionary cause, though an anonymous one. He then served as an artillery officer in the American Revolutionary War, where he saw military action against the British in the New York and New Jersey campaign, served for years as an aide to General George Washington, and helped secure American victory at the climactic Siege of Yorktown. After the Revolutionary War, Hamilton served as a delegate from New York to the Congress of the Confederation in Philadelphia. He resigned to practice law and founded the Bank of New York. In 1786, Hamilton led the Annapolis Convention to replace the Articles of Confederation with the Constitution of the United States, which he helped ratify by writing 51 of the 85 installments of The Federalist Papers.\n", "As a trusted member of President Washington's first cabinet, Hamilton served as the first U.S. Secretary of the Treasury. He envisioned a central government led by an energetic president, a strong national defense, and an industrial economy. He successfully argued that the implied powers of the Constitution provided the legal authority to fund the national debt, assume the states' debts, and create the First Bank of the United States, which was funded by a tariff on imports and a whiskey tax. He opposed American entanglement with the succession of unstable French Revolutionary governments and advocated in support of the Jay Treaty under which the U.S. resumed friendly trade relations with the British Empire. He also persuaded Congress to establish the Revenue Cutter Service. Hamilton's views became the basis for the Federalist Party, which was opposed by the Democratic-Republican Party led by Thomas Jefferson. Hamilton and other Federalists supported the Haitian Revolution, and Hamilton helped draft the constitution of Haiti.\n", "After resigning as Secretary of the Treasury, Hamilton resumed his legal and business activities. He was a leader in the abolition of the international slave trade. In the Quasi-War, Hamilton called for mobilization against France, and President John Adams appointed him major general. The army, however, did not see combat. Outraged by Adams' response to the crisis, Hamilton opposed his reelection campaign. Jefferson and Aaron Burr tied for the presidency in the electoral college and, despite philosophical differences, Hamilton endorsed Jefferson over Burr, whom he found unprincipled. When Burr ran for governor of New York in 1804, Hamilton again campaigned against him, arguing that he was unworthy. Taking offense, Burr challenged Hamilton to a duel. In the July 11, 1804, duel in Weehawken, New Jersey, Burr shot Hamilton in the stomach. Hamilton was immediately transported to the home of William Bayard Jr. in Greenwich Village for medical attention, but succumbed to his wounds the following day.\n"], "Q19925787": ["The Portrait of a Lady is a novel by Henry James, first published as a serial in The Atlantic Monthly and Macmillan's Magazine in 1880\u201381 and then as a book in 1881. It is one of James's most popular novels and is regarded by critics as one of his finest.\n", "The Portrait of a Lady is the story of a spirited young American woman, Isabel Archer, who, \"affronting her destiny,\"[1] finds it overwhelming. She inherits a large amount of money and subsequently becomes the victim of Machiavellian scheming by two American expatriates. Like many of James's novels, it is set in Europe, mostly England and Italy. Generally regarded as the masterpiece of James's early period,[2] this novel reflects James's continuing interest in the differences between the New World and the Old, often to the detriment of the former. It also treats in a profound way the themes of personal freedom, responsibility, and betrayal.\n", "Isabel Archer, from Albany, New York, is invited by her maternal aunt, Lydia Touchett, to visit Lydia's rich husband, Daniel, at his estate near London, following the death of Isabel's father. There, Isabel meets her uncle, her friendly invalid cousin Ralph Touchett, and the Touchetts' robust neighbor, Lord Warburton.\n", "Isabel later declines Warburton's sudden proposal of marriage. She also rejects the hand of Caspar Goodwood, the charismatic son and heir of a wealthy Boston mill owner. Although Isabel is drawn to Caspar, her commitment to her independence precludes such a marriage, which she feels would demand the sacrifice of her freedom.\n"], "Q19905413": [], "Q19906252": []}

data/text_file_v1_1110.json

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+{"Q29003788": ["In 2016, Mantua was designated as the Italian Capital of Culture. In 2017, it was named as the European Capital of Gastronomy, included in the Eastern Lombardy District (together with the cities of Bergamo, Brescia, and Cremona).\n", "In 2008, Mantua's centro storico (old town) and Sabbioneta were declared by UNESCO to be a World Heritage Site. Mantua's historic power and influence under the Gonzaga family has made it one of the main artistic, cultural, and especially musical hubs of Northern Italy and the country as a whole. Having one of the most splendid courts of Europe of the fifteenth, sixteenth, and early seventeenth centuries.[3] Mantua is noted for its significant role in the history of opera; the city is also known for its architectural treasures and artifacts, elegant palaces, and the medieval and Renaissance cityscape. It is the city where the composer Monteverdi premiered his opera L'Orfeo and to where Romeo was banished in Shakespeare's play Romeo and Juliet. It is the nearest town to the birthplace of the Roman poet Virgil, who is commemorated by a statue at the lakeside park \"Piazza Virgiliana\".\n", "Mantua is surrounded on three sides by artificial lakes, created during the 12th century as the city's defence system. These lakes receive water from the River Mincio, a tributary of the River Po which descends from Lake Garda. The three lakes are called Lago Superiore, Lago di Mezzo, and Lago Inferiore (\"Upper\", \"Middle\", and \"Lower\" Lakes, respectively). A fourth lake, Lake Pajolo, which once served as a defensive water ring around the city, dried up at the end of the 18th century.\n", "The area and its environs are important not only in naturalistic terms, but also anthropologically and historically; research has highlighted a number of human settlements scattered between Barche di Solferino and Bande di Cavriana, Castellaro and Isolone del Mincio. These dated, without interruption, from Neolithic times (5th\u20134th millennium BC) to the Bronze Age (2nd\u20131st millennium BC) and the Gallic phases (2nd\u20131st centuries BC), and ended with Roman residential settlements, which could be traced to the 3rd\u00a0century AD.\n"], "Q28790437": ["The Armor of Emperor Ferdinand I is a suit of plate armor created by the Nuremberg armorer Kunz Lochner in 1549 for the future Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor.[1][2]  One of several suits of armor made for the Emperor Ferdinand during the wars of Reformation and conflict with the Ottomans, the etched but functional armor is thought by scholars to symbolize and document the role of the Habsburg Catholic monarchs as warriors on Europe's literal and ideological battlefields.[3]\n", "The armor is dominated by etched symbolism of the Madonna and Child as Woman of the Apocalypse atop a crescent moon on the breastplate, echoing the design on an armor of his brother Charles V at the Royal Armoury of Madrid.[1][4]  On the backplate, a fire-steel (radiating sparks), a Burgundian emblem originated by Philip the Good, sits at a saltire of crossed branches under Saints Peter and Paul in architectural settings.[2][4]\n", "In function, it is a working piece of field armor (feldk\u00fcri\u00df or feldharnisch)[5][6] intended for military use, rather than parade armor, and the etching technique allowed elaboration and complexity in its design, without diminishing the defensive capabilities of the piece.\n", "Ferdinand's then-status as King of the Romans (the heir apparent to his brother Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor) is symbolized by a crowned doubled-headed Reichsadler eagle on the toe caps of the sabatons covering his feet.[5]\n"], "Q29385588": [], "Q20167246": [], "Q30339474": [], "Q42142314": [], "Q42174058": [], "Q42186356": [], "Q940298": ["Richard Morris Hunt (October 31, 1827 \u2013 July 31, 1895) was an American architect of the nineteenth century and an eminent figure in the history of architecture of the United States. He helped shape New York City with his designs for the 1902 entrance fa\u00e7ade and Great Hall of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the pedestal of the Statue of Liberty (Liberty Enlightening the World), and many Fifth Avenue mansions since destroyed.[1]\n", "Hunt is also renowned for his Biltmore Estate, America's largest private house, near Asheville, North Carolina, and for his elaborate summer cottages in Newport, Rhode Island, which set a new standard of ostentation for the social elite and the newly minted millionaires of the Gilded Age.\n", "Hunt was born at Brattleboro, Vermont into the prominent Hunt family. His father, Jonathan Hunt, was a lawyer and U.S. congressman, whose own father, Jonathan Hunt, senior, was lieutenant governor of Vermont.[2] Hunt's mother, Jane Maria Leavitt, was the daughter of Thaddeus Leavitt, Jr., a merchant, and a member of the influential Leavitt family of Suffield, Connecticut.\n", "Richard Morris Hunt was named for Lieut. Richard Morris, an officer in the U.S. Navy, a son of Hunt's aunt,[3][4] whose husband Lewis Richard Morris was a U.S. Congressman from Vermont and the nephew of Gouverneur Morris, author of large parts of the U.S. Constitution.[5] Hunt was the brother of the Boston painter William Morris Hunt, and the photographer and lawyer Leavitt Hunt.\n"], "Q1915267": ["McKim, Mead & White was an American architectural firm based in New York City. The firm came to define architectural practice, urbanism, and the ideals of the American Renaissance in fin de si\u00e8cle New York City.\n", "The firm's founding partners, Charles Follen McKim (1847\u20131909), William Rutherford Mead (1846\u20131928), and Stanford White (1853\u20131906), were giants in the architecture of their time, and remain important as innovators and leaders in the development of modern architecture worldwide. They formed a school of classically trained, technologically skilled designers who practiced well into the mid-20th century.[1] According to Robert A. M. Stern, only Frank Lloyd Wright was more important to the identity and character of modern American architecture.[2]\n", "Elsewhere in New York state and New England, the firm designed college, library, school and other buildings such as the Boston Public Library, Walker Art Building at Bowdoin College, the Garden City campus of Adelphi University, and the Rhode Island State House. In Washington, D.C., the firm renovated the West and East Wings of the White House, and designed Roosevelt Hall on Fort Lesley J. McNair and the National Museum of American History.\n", "Across the United States, the firm designed buildings in Illinois, Kentucky, Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Washington, and Wisconsin. Outside of the United States, the firm developed buildings in Canada, Cuba, and Italy. The scope and breadth of their achievement is notable, considering that many of the technologies and strategies they employed were nascent or non-existent when they began working in the 1880s.[3]\n"]}

data/text_file_v1_1120.json

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+{"Q23011166": [], "Q82069921": [], "Q89503593": [], "Q89503830": ["The Met Fifth Avenue is the primary museum building for the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City. The building is located at 1000 Fifth Avenue, along the Museum Mile on the eastern edge of Central Park in Manhattan's Upper East Side.\n", "After negotiations with the City of New York in 1871, the Met was granted the land between the East Park Drive, Fifth Avenue, and the 79th and 85th Street transverse roads in Central Park. A red-brick and stone building was designed by American architect Calvert Vaux and his collaborator Jacob Wrey Mould. Vaux's ambitious building was not well received; the building was dubbed by critics as a \"mausoleum\", its High Victorian Gothic style was already considered dated prior to completion, and the president of the Met termed the project \"a mistake\".[6]\n", "Within 20 years, a new architectural plan engulfing the Vaux building was already being executed. Since that time, many additions have been made, including the distinctive Beaux-Arts Fifth Avenue facade, Great Hall, and Grand Stairway. These were designed by architect and Met trustee Richard Morris Hunt, but completed by his son, Richard Howland Hunt in 1902 after his father's death.[7] The architectural sculpture on the facade is by Karl Bitter.[8]\n", "The wings that completed the Fifth Avenue facade in the 1910s were designed by the firm of McKim, Mead & White. The modernistic glass sides and rear of the museum are the work of Roche-Dinkeloo. Kevin Roche was the architect for the master plan and expansion of the museum for over 40 years. He was responsible for designing all of its new wings and renovations including but not limited to the American Wing, Greek and Roman Court, and recently opened Islamic Wing.[9]\n"], "Q97040817": [], "Q46834891": [], "Q73357989": [], "Q20376947": ["This template's initial visibility currently defaults to autocollapse, meaning that if there is another collapsible item on the page (a navbox, sidebar, or table with the collapsible attribute), it is hidden apart from its title bar; if not, it is fully visible.\n"], "Q42302787": [], "Q124130702": ["The Director of the Metropolitan Museum of Art is the director of the museum. The Metropolitan Museum of Art of New York City, colloquially \"the Met\", is the largest art museum in the United States. With 6,953,927 visitors to its three locations in 2018, it was the third most visited art museum in the world.[2] Its permanent collection contains over two million works,[3] divided among seventeen curatorial departments.[4] The director, currently Max Hollein, is responsible for acting as a \"curator, lawyer and diplomat\", according to The Wall Street Journal. They produce around 40 exhibits at the museum a year, manage the museums' approximately 2,200 employees, and oversee the collection and curatorial departments.[5]\n", "The Director currently reports to Daniel H. Weiss, President and CEO of the Museum. The director typically has had a large degree of autonomy in operation, with Philippe de Montebello refusing to report to then president and CEO William Macomber in 1977.[6] It has generally been the highest-ranking official in the museum's leadership, with the director serving as president. On June 13, 2017, the Met announced the reestablishment of a separate museum president, higher than the director.[7]\n", "Past directors have historically been prominent figures in the art world. Past directors include: United States consul at Larnaca in Cyprus and Medal of Honor recipient Luigi Palma di Cesnola, Director of the Victoria and Albert Museum Sir Caspar Purdon Clarke, secretary of the Art Commission of Boston and director of the Boston Museum of Fine Arts Edward Robinson, Parks Commissioner of New York City Thomas Hoving, and director of the Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco Max Hollein.\n"]}

data/text_file_v1_1130.json

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+{"Q398723": ["The Last Supper is the final meal that, in the Gospel accounts, Jesus shared with his apostles in Jerusalem before his crucifixion.[2] The Last Supper is commemorated by Christians especially on Holy Thursday.[3] The Last Supper provides the scriptural basis for the Eucharist, also known as \"Holy Communion\" or \"The Lord's Supper\".[4]\n", "The First Epistle to the Corinthians contains the earliest known mention of the Last Supper. The four canonical gospels state that the Last Supper took place in the week of Passover, days after Jesus's triumphal entry into Jerusalem, and before Jesus was crucified on Good Friday.[5][6] During the meal, Jesus predicts his betrayal by one of the apostles present, and foretells that before the next morning, Peter will thrice deny knowing him.[5][6]\n", "The three Synoptic Gospels and the First Epistle to the Corinthians include the account of the institution of the Eucharist in which Jesus takes bread, breaks it and gives it to those present, saying \"This is my body given to you\".[5][6] The Gospel of John tells of Jesus washing the feet of the apostles,[7] giving the new commandment \"to love one another as I have loved you\",[8] and has a detailed farewell discourse by Jesus, calling the apostles who follow his teachings \"friends and not servants\", as he prepares them for his departure.[9][10][11]\n", "Some scholars have looked to the Last Supper as the source of early Christian Eucharistic traditions.[12][13][14][15][16][17] Others see the account of the Last Supper as derived from 1st-century eucharistic practice as described by Paul in the mid-50s.[13][18][19][20]\n"], "Q29130277": ["The Last Supper is the final meal that, in the Gospel accounts, Jesus shared with his apostles in Jerusalem before his crucifixion.[2] The Last Supper is commemorated by Christians especially on Holy Thursday.[3] The Last Supper provides the scriptural basis for the Eucharist, also known as \"Holy Communion\" or \"The Lord's Supper\".[4]\n", "The First Epistle to the Corinthians contains the earliest known mention of the Last Supper. The four canonical gospels state that the Last Supper took place in the week of Passover, days after Jesus's triumphal entry into Jerusalem, and before Jesus was crucified on Good Friday.[5][6] During the meal, Jesus predicts his betrayal by one of the apostles present, and foretells that before the next morning, Peter will thrice deny knowing him.[5][6]\n", "The three Synoptic Gospels and the First Epistle to the Corinthians include the account of the institution of the Eucharist in which Jesus takes bread, breaks it and gives it to those present, saying \"This is my body given to you\".[5][6] The Gospel of John tells of Jesus washing the feet of the apostles,[7] giving the new commandment \"to love one another as I have loved you\",[8] and has a detailed farewell discourse by Jesus, calling the apostles who follow his teachings \"friends and not servants\", as he prepares them for his departure.[9][10][11]\n", "Some scholars have looked to the Last Supper as the source of early Christian Eucharistic traditions.[12][13][14][15][16][17] Others see the account of the Last Supper as derived from 1st-century eucharistic practice as described by Paul in the mid-50s.[13][18][19][20]\n"], "Q4003124": ["The Last Supper is the final meal that, in the Gospel accounts, Jesus shared with his apostles in Jerusalem before his crucifixion.[2] The Last Supper is commemorated by Christians especially on Holy Thursday.[3] The Last Supper provides the scriptural basis for the Eucharist, also known as \"Holy Communion\" or \"The Lord's Supper\".[4]\n", "The First Epistle to the Corinthians contains the earliest known mention of the Last Supper. The four canonical gospels state that the Last Supper took place in the week of Passover, days after Jesus's triumphal entry into Jerusalem, and before Jesus was crucified on Good Friday.[5][6] During the meal, Jesus predicts his betrayal by one of the apostles present, and foretells that before the next morning, Peter will thrice deny knowing him.[5][6]\n", "The three Synoptic Gospels and the First Epistle to the Corinthians include the account of the institution of the Eucharist in which Jesus takes bread, breaks it and gives it to those present, saying \"This is my body given to you\".[5][6] The Gospel of John tells of Jesus washing the feet of the apostles,[7] giving the new commandment \"to love one another as I have loved you\",[8] and has a detailed farewell discourse by Jesus, calling the apostles who follow his teachings \"friends and not servants\", as he prepares them for his departure.[9][10][11]\n", "Some scholars have looked to the Last Supper as the source of early Christian Eucharistic traditions.[12][13][14][15][16][17] Others see the account of the Last Supper as derived from 1st-century eucharistic practice as described by Paul in the mid-50s.[13][18][19][20]\n"], "Q51633": ["The Last Supper is the final meal that, in the Gospel accounts, Jesus shared with his apostles in Jerusalem before his crucifixion.[2] The Last Supper is commemorated by Christians especially on Holy Thursday.[3] The Last Supper provides the scriptural basis for the Eucharist, also known as \"Holy Communion\" or \"The Lord's Supper\".[4]\n", "The First Epistle to the Corinthians contains the earliest known mention of the Last Supper. The four canonical gospels state that the Last Supper took place in the week of Passover, days after Jesus's triumphal entry into Jerusalem, and before Jesus was crucified on Good Friday.[5][6] During the meal, Jesus predicts his betrayal by one of the apostles present, and foretells that before the next morning, Peter will thrice deny knowing him.[5][6]\n", "The three Synoptic Gospels and the First Epistle to the Corinthians include the account of the institution of the Eucharist in which Jesus takes bread, breaks it and gives it to those present, saying \"This is my body given to you\".[5][6] The Gospel of John tells of Jesus washing the feet of the apostles,[7] giving the new commandment \"to love one another as I have loved you\",[8] and has a detailed farewell discourse by Jesus, calling the apostles who follow his teachings \"friends and not servants\", as he prepares them for his departure.[9][10][11]\n", "Some scholars have looked to the Last Supper as the source of early Christian Eucharistic traditions.[12][13][14][15][16][17] Others see the account of the Last Supper as derived from 1st-century eucharistic practice as described by Paul in the mid-50s.[13][18][19][20]\n"], "Q302": ["Jesus[c] (c.\u20096 to 4 BC\u00a0\u2013 AD 30 or 33), also referred to as Jesus Christ,[d] Jesus of Nazareth, and many other names and titles, was a first-century Jewish preacher and religious leader.[6] He is the central figure of Christianity, the world's largest religion. Most Christians believe Jesus to be the incarnation of God the Son and the awaited messiah, the Christ that is prophesied in the Old Testament.\n", "Virtually all modern scholars of antiquity agree that Jesus existed historically.[e] Accounts of Jesus' life are contained in the Gospels, especially the four canonical Gospels in the New Testament. Academic research has yielded various views on the historical reliability of the Gospels and how closely they reflect the historical Jesus.[14][f][17][18] Jesus was circumcised at eight days old, was baptized by John the Baptist as a young adult, and after 40 days and nights of fasting in the wilderness, began his own ministry. Being an itinerant teacher, he was often referred to as \"rabbi\".[19] Jesus often debated with fellow Jews on how to best follow God, engaged in healings, taught in parables, and gathered followers, among whom twelve were his primary disciples. He was arrested in Jerusalem and tried by the Jewish authorities,[20] turned over to the Roman government, and crucified on the order of Pontius Pilate, the Roman prefect of Judea. After his death, his followers became convinced that he rose from the dead, and following his ascension, the community they formed eventually became the early Christian Church that expanded as a worldwide movement.[21] Accounts of his teachings and life were initially conserved by oral transmission, which was the source of the written Gospels.[22]\n", "Christian theology includes the beliefs that Jesus was conceived by the Holy Spirit, was born of a virgin named Mary, performed miracles, founded the Christian Church, died by crucifixion as a sacrifice to achieve atonement for sin, rose from the dead, and ascended into Heaven, from where he will return. Commonly, Christians believe Jesus enables people to be reconciled to God. The Nicene Creed asserts that Jesus will judge the living and the dead, either before or after their bodily resurrection, an event tied to the Second Coming of Jesus in Christian eschatology. The great majority of Christians worship Jesus as the incarnation of God the Son, the second of three prosopons of the Trinity.[g] The birth of Jesus is celebrated annually, generally on 25 December,[h] as Christmas. His crucifixion is honoured on Good Friday and his resurrection on Easter Sunday. The world's most widely used calendar era\u2014in which the current year is AD 2024 (or 2024 CE)\u2014is based on the approximate birthdate of Jesus.[23]\n", "Jesus is also revered in Islam, the Bah\u00e1\u02bc\u00ed Faith, and the Druze Faith. In Islam, Jesus (often referred to by his Quranic name \u02bf\u012as\u0101) is considered the penultimate prophet of God and the messiah, who will return before the Day of Judgement. Muslims believe Jesus was born of the virgin Mary but was neither God nor a son of God. Most Muslims do not believe that he was killed or crucified but that God raised him into Heaven while he was still alive.[i] In contrast, Judaism rejects the belief that Jesus was the awaited messiah, arguing that he did not fulfill messianic prophecies, was not lawfully anointed and was neither divine nor resurrected.\n"], "Q282": ["Wine is an alcoholic drink made from fermented fruit. Yeast consumes the sugar in the fruits and converts it to ethanol and carbon dioxide, releasing heat in the process. Though wine can be made from a variety of fruit crops such as plum, cherry, pomegranate, blueberry, currant and elderberry, it is most often made from grapes, and the term \"wine\" generally refers to grape wine when used without a qualifier. \n", "Different varieties of grapes and strains of yeasts are major factors in different styles of wine. These differences result from the complex interactions between the biochemical development of the grape, the reactions involved in fermentation, the grape's growing environment (terroir), and the wine production process. Many countries enact legal appellations intended to define styles and qualities of wine. These typically restrict the geographical origin and permitted varieties of grapes, as well as other aspects of wine production. \n", "Wine has been produced for thousands of years. The earliest evidence of wine is from the present-day Georgia (6000 BCE), Persia (5000 BCE), Italy and Armenia (4000 BCE). New World wine has some connection to alcoholic beverages made by the indigenous peoples of the Americas, but is mainly connected to later Spanish traditions in New Spain.[2][3] Later, as Old World wine further developed viticulture techniques, Europe would encompass three of the largest wine-producing regions. Today, based on statistics gathered by the International Organisation of Vine and Wine (OIV) in 2022 the top five wine producing countries are Italy, France, Spain, the United States and Australia.[4]\n", "Wine has long played an important role in religion. Red wine was associated with blood by the ancient Egyptians[5] and was used by both the Greek cult of Dionysus and the Romans in their Bacchanalia; Judaism also incorporates it in the Kiddush, and Christianity in the Eucharist. Egyptian, Greek, Roman, and Israeli wine cultures are still connected to these ancient roots. Similarly the largest wine regions in Italy, Spain, and France have heritages in connection to sacramental wine, likewise, viticulture traditions in the Southwestern United States started within New Spain as Catholic friars and monks first produced wines in New Mexico and California.[6][7][8]\n"], "Q33080871": [], "Q2263612": ["Fresco-secco (or a secco or fresco finto) is a wall painting technique where pigments mixed with an organic binder and/or lime are applied onto dry plaster.[1] The paints used can e.g. be casein paint, tempera, oil paint, silicate mineral paint. If the pigments are mixed with lime water or lime milk and applied to a dry plaster the technique is called lime secco painting. \nThe secco technique contrasts with the fresco technique, where the painting is executed on a layer of wet plaster.\n", "Because the pigments do not become part of the wall, as in buon fresco, fresco-secco paintings are less durable.  The colors may flake off the painting as time goes by, but this technique has the advantages of a longer working time and retouchability. In Italy, the fresco technique was reintroduced around 1300 and led to an increase in the general quality of mural painting. This technological change coincided with the realistic turn in Western art and the changing liturgical use of murals.[2]\n", "The treatise Silparatna by Kumaradeva (8th century) gives an account of the fresco-secco painting technology in detail. According to this text, a picture should be painted with appropriate colours, along with proper forms and sentiments (rasas), and moods and actions (bhavas). White, yellow, red, black and terre verte are pointed out in the text as pure colors. Different shades were also prepared from these original colors. Five types of brushes with various shapes and sizes (flat, long, medium, etc.) made of animal hair and grass fibre are also recommended.[3]\nSpecialist painters and decorators still use this technique to great effect in the world of interior design e.g. faux marble.\n"], "Q7802": ["Bread is a staple food prepared from a dough of flour (usually wheat) and water, usually by baking. Throughout recorded history and around the world, it has been an important part of many cultures' diet. It is one of the oldest human-made foods, having been of significance since the dawn of agriculture, and plays an essential role in both religious rituals and secular culture.\n", "Bread may be leavened by naturally occurring microbes (e.g. sourdough), chemicals (e.g. baking soda), industrially produced yeast, or high-pressure aeration, which creates the gas bubbles that fluff up bread. In many countries, commercial bread often contains additives to improve flavor, texture, color, shelf life, nutrition, and ease of production.\n", "Bread is one of the oldest prepared foods. Evidence from 30,000 years ago in Europe and Australia revealed starch residue on rocks used for pounding plants.[1][2] It is possible that during this time, starch extract from the roots of plants, such as cattails and ferns, was spread on a flat rock, placed over a fire and cooked into a primitive form of flatbread. The oldest evidence of bread-making has been found in a 14,500-year-old Natufian site in Jordan's northeastern desert.[3][4] Around 10,000 BC, with the dawn of the Neolithic age and the spread of agriculture, grains became the mainstay of making bread. Yeast spores are ubiquitous, including on the surface of cereal grains, so any dough left to rest leavens naturally.[5]\n", "An early leavened bread was baked as early as 6000 BC in southern Mesopotamia, cradle of the Sumerian civilization, who may have passed on the knowledge to the Egyptians around 3000 BC. The Egyptians refined the process and started adding yeast to the flour. The Sumerians were already using ash to supplement the dough as it was baked.[6]\n"], "Q5043": ["Christianity (/kr\u026ast\u0283i\u02c8\u00e6n\u026ati/ or /kr\u026asti\u02c8\u00e6n\u026ati/) is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with roughly 2.4\u00a0billion followers, comprising around 31.2% of the world population.[2] Its adherents, known as Christians, are estimated to make up a majority of the population in 157 countries and territories. Christians believe that Jesus is the Son of God, whose coming as the Messiah was prophesied in the Hebrew Bible (called the Old Testament in Christianity) and chronicled in the New Testament.\n", "Christianity remains culturally diverse in its Western and Eastern branches, and doctrinally diverse concerning justification and the nature of salvation, ecclesiology, ordination, and Christology. The creeds of various Christian denominations generally hold in common Jesus as the Son of God\u2014the Logos incarnated\u2014who ministered, suffered, and died on a cross, but rose from the dead for the salvation of humankind; and referred to as the gospel, meaning the \"good news\". The four canonical gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John describe Jesus's life and teachings, with the Old Testament as the gospels' respected background.\n", "Christianity began in the 1st century after the birth of Jesus as a Judaic sect with Hellenistic influence, in the Roman province of Judea. The disciples of Jesus spread their faith around the Eastern Mediterranean area, despite significant persecution. The inclusion of Gentiles led Christianity to slowly separate from Judaism (2nd century). Emperor Constantine I decriminalized Christianity in the Roman Empire by the Edict of Milan (313), later convening the Council of Nicaea (325) where Early Christianity was consolidated into what would become the state religion of the Roman Empire (380). The Church of the East and Oriental Orthodoxy both split over differences in Christology (5th century), while the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Catholic Church separated in the East\u2013West Schism (1054). Protestantism split into numerous denominations from the Catholic Church in the Reformation era (16th century). Following the Age of Discovery (15th\u201317th century), Christianity expanded throughout the world via missionary work, extensive trade and colonialism. Christianity played a prominent role in the development of Western civilization, particularly in Europe from late antiquity and the Middle Ages.[3][4][5]\n", "The six major branches of Christianity are Roman Catholicism (1.3\u00a0billion people), Protestantism (900\u00a0million),[note 1][7][8] Eastern Orthodoxy (220\u00a0million), Oriental Orthodoxy (60\u00a0million), Restorationism (35\u00a0million),[note 2] and the Church of the East (600 thousand). Smaller church communities number in the thousands despite efforts toward unity (ecumenism). In the West, Christianity remains the dominant religion even with a decline in adherence, with about 70% of that population identifying as Christian. Christianity is growing in Africa and Asia, the world's most populous continents. Christians remain greatly persecuted in many regions of the world, particularly in the Middle East, North Africa, East Asia, and South Asia.\n"]}

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+{"Q8441": ["Like most other male mammals, a man's genome usually inherits an X\u00a0chromosome from the mother and a Y\u00a0chromosome from the father. Sex differentiation of the male fetus is governed by the SRY gene on the Y chromosome. During puberty, hormones which stimulate androgen production result in the development of secondary sexual characteristics, thus exhibiting greater differences between the sexes. These include greater muscle mass, the growth of facial hair and a lower body fat composition. Male anatomy is distinguished from female anatomy by the male reproductive system, which includes the penis, scrotum, testicles, sperm duct, prostate gland and the epididymis, and by secondary sex characteristics, including a narrower pelvis, narrower hips, and smaller breasts.\n", "Throughout human history, traditional gender roles have often defined and limited men's activities and opportunities. Men often face conscription into military service or are directed into professions with high mortality rates. Many religious doctrines stipulate certain rules for men, such as religious circumcision. Men are over-represented as both perpetrators and victims of violence.\n", "The English term \"man\" is derived from the Proto-Indo-European root *man- (see Sanskrit/Avestan manu-, Slavic m\u01eb\u017e \"man, male\").[4] More directly, the word derives from Old English mann. The Old English form primarily meant \"person\" or \"human being\" and referred to men, women, and children alike. The Old English word for \"man\" as distinct from \"woman\" or \"child\" was wer. Mann only came to mean \"man\" in Middle English, replacing wer, which survives today only in the compounds \"werewolf\" (from Old English werwulf, literally \"man-wolf\"), and \"wergild\", literally \"man-payment\".[5][6][7]\n", "In humans, sperm cells carry either an X or a Y sex chromosome. If a sperm cell carrying a Y chromosome fertilizes the female ovum, the offspring will have a male karyotype (XY). The SRY gene is typically found on the Y chromosome and causes the development of the testes, which in turn govern other aspects of male sex differentiation. Sex differentiation in males proceeds in a testes-dependent way while female differentiation is not gonad dependent.[8]\n"], "Q12871": ["Simon the Zealot (Acts 1:13, Luke 6:15) or Simon the Canaanite or Simon the Canaanean (Matthew 10:4, Mark 3:18; Greek: \u03a3\u03af\u03bc\u03c9\u03bd \u1f41 \u039a\u03b1\u03bd\u03b1\u03bd\u03af\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2; Coptic: \u2ca5\u2c93\u2c99\u2cb1\u2c9b \u2ca1\u2c93-\u2c95\u2c81\u2c9b\u2c81\u2c9b\u2c89\u2c9f\u2ca5; Classical Syriac: \u072b\u0721\u0725\u0718\u0722 \u0729\u0722\u0722\u071d\u0710)[3] was one of the most obscure among the apostles of Jesus. A few pseudepigraphical writings were connected to him, but Jerome does not include him in De viris illustribus written between 392 and 393 AD.[4]\n", "Simon, (whom he also named Peter,) and Andrew his brother, James and John, Philip and Bartholomew, Matthew and Thomas, James the son of Alphaeus, and Simon called Zelotes, And Judas the brother of James, and Judas Iscariot, which also was the traitor.", "To distinguish him from Simon Peter, he is given a surname in all three of the Synoptic Gospels where he is mentioned. Simon is called \"Zelotes\" in Luke and Acts (Luke 6:15 Acts 1:13). For this reason, it is generally assumed that Simon was a former member of the political party, the Zealots. In Matthew and Mark, however, he is called \"Kananites\" in the Byzantine majority and \"Kananaios\" in the Alexandrian manuscripts and the Textus Receptus (Matthew 10:4 Mark 3:18). Both Kananaios and Kananites derive from the Hebrew word \u05e7\u05e0\u05d0\u05d9 qanai, meaning zealous, so most scholars today generally translate the two words to mean \"Zealot\". However, Jerome and others, such as Bede, suggested that the word \"Kananaios\" or \"Kananite\" should be translated as \"Canaanean\" or \"Canaanite\", meaning that Simon was from the town of \u05e7\u05e0\u05d4 Cana in Galilee.[5] If this is the case, his epithet would have been \"Kanaios\".\n", "Robert Eisenman has argued that contemporary talmudic references to Zealots refer to them as kanna'im \"but not really as a group\u2014rather as avenging priests in the Temple\".[6] Eisenman's broader conclusions, that the zealot element in the original apostle group was disguised and overwritten to make it support the assimilative Pauline Christianity of the Gentiles, are more controversial. John P. Meier argues that the term \"Zealot\" is a mistranslation and in the context of the Gospels means \"zealous\" or \"religious\" (in this case, for keeping the Law of Moses), as the Zealot movement apparently did not exist until 30 to 40 years after the events of the Gospels.[7] However, neither Brandon[8] nor Hengel[9] support this view.\n"], "Q14748": [], "Q32489": ["A knife (pl.: knives; from Old Norse knifr 'knife, dirk'[1]) is a tool or weapon with a cutting edge or blade, usually attached to a handle or hilt. One of the earliest tools used by humanity, knives appeared at least 2.5 million years ago, as evidenced by the Oldowan tools.[2][3] Originally made of wood, bone, and stone (such as flint and obsidian), over the centuries, in step with improvements in both metallurgy and manufacturing, knife blades have been made from copper, bronze, iron, steel, ceramic, and titanium. Most modern knives have either fixed or folding blades; blade patterns and styles vary by maker and country of origin.\n", "Knives can serve various purposes. Hunters use a hunting knife, soldiers use the combat knife, scouts, campers, and hikers carry a pocketknife; there are kitchen knives for preparing foods (the chef's knife, the paring knife, bread knife, cleaver), table knife (butter knives and steak knives), weapons (daggers or switchblades), knives for throwing or juggling, and knives for religious ceremony or display (the kirpan).[4]\n", "The blade edge can be plain or serrated, or a combination of both. Single-edged knives may have a reverse edge or false edge occupying a section of the spine. These edges are usually serrated and are used to further enhance function.\n", "The handle, used to grip and manipulate the blade safely, may include a tang, a portion of the blade that extends into the handle. Knives are made with partial tangs (extending part way into the handle, known as \"stick tangs\") or full tangs (extending the full length of the handle, often visible on top and bottom). There is also the enter\u00e7ado construction method present in antique knives from Brazil, such as the Sorocaban Knife, which consists in riveting a repurposed blade to the ricasso of a bladeless handle. The handle may include a bolster, a piece of heavy material (usually metal) situated at the front or rear of the handle. The bolster, as its name suggests, is used to mechanically strengthen the knife.\n"], "Q43600": ["Matthew the Apostle (Saint Matthew)[a] is named in the New Testament as one of the twelve apostles of Jesus. According to Christian traditions, he was also one of the four Evangelists as author of the Gospel of Matthew, and thus is also known as Matthew the Evangelist.\n", "The claim of his gospel authorship is rejected by most biblical scholars, though the \"traditional authorship still has its defenders.\"[3] The New Testament records that as a disciple, he followed Jesus. Church Fathers such as Irenaeus and Clement of Alexandria claim that Matthew preached the gospel to the Jewish community in Judea, before going to other countries.\n", "Matthew is mentioned in Matthew 9:9[4] and Matthew 10:3[5] as a tax collector (in the NIV) who, while sitting at the \"receipt of custom\" in Capernaum, was called to follow Jesus.[6] He is also listed among the Twelve Disciples, but without identification of his background, in Mark 3:18, Luke 6:15 and Acts 1:13.[7] In passages parallel to Matthew 9:9, both Mark 2:14[8] and Luke 5:27[9] describe Jesus's calling of the tax collector Levi, the son of Alphaeus. However, they do not explicitly associate it with the name Matthew.\n", "The New Testament records that as a disciple, Matthew followed Jesus. Afterward, the disciples withdrew to an upper room (Acts 1:10\u201314)[10] (traditionally the Cenacle) in Jerusalem.[11] The disciples remained in and about Jerusalem and proclaimed that Jesus was the promised Messiah.\n"], "Q43945": ["Jude (Greek: \u1f38\u03bf\u03cd\u03b4\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f38\u03b1\u03ba\u03ce\u03b2\u03bf\u03c5 translit. Io\u00fadas Iak\u00f3bou; Syriac/Aramaic: \u071d\u0717\u0718\u0715\u0710[3] translit. Yahwada) was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus according to the New Testament. He is generally identified as Thaddeus (Greek: \u0398\u03b1\u03b4\u03b4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03c2; Armenian: \u0539\u0561\u0564\u0565\u0578\u057d; Coptic: \u2c91\u2c81\u2c87\u2c87\u2c89\u2c9f\u2ca5) and is also variously called Judas Thaddaeus, Jude Thaddaeus, Jude of James, or Lebbaeus.[4] He is sometimes identified with Jude, the brother of Jesus, but is clearly distinguished from Judas Iscariot, the disciple who betrayed Jesus prior to his crucifixion. Catholic writer Michal Hunt suggests that Judas Thaddaeus became known as Jude after early translators of the New Testament from Greek into English sought to distinguish him from Judas Iscariot and subsequently abbreviated his forename.[5] Most versions of the New Testament in languages other than English and French refer to Judas and Jude by the same name.[6]\n", "Jude is commonly depicted with a club. He is also often shown in icons with a flame around his head. This represents his presence at Pentecost, when he received the Holy Spirit with the other apostles. Another common attribute is Jude holding an image of Jesus, known as the Image of Edessa. In some instances, he may be shown with a scroll or a book (the Epistle of Jude) or holding a carpenter's rule.[8]\n", "Jude is clearly distinguished from Judas Iscariot, another apostle and later the betrayer of Jesus. Both Jude and Judas are translations of the name \u1fda\u03bf\u03cd\u03b4\u03b1\u03c2 in the Koine Greek original text of the New Testament, which in turn is a Greek variant of Judah (Y'hudah), a name which was common among Jews at the time. In most Bibles in languages other than English and French, Jude and Judas are referred to by the same name.\n", "Translations into English from the original Greek of the New Testament vary in their rendering of Luke 6:16 and Acts 1:13. A literal translation of the references to Jude in these passages gives \"Jude of James\" (Greek: \u1f38\u03bf\u03cd\u03b4\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f38\u03b1\u03ba\u03ce\u03b2\u03bf\u03c5), as in Young's Literal Translation of the Bible, but scholars differ on whether this means \"Jude, brother of James\" or \"Jude, son of James\". The King James and the Douay-Rheims versions call him  \"Judas the brother of James\", making him the same person as the writer of the Epistle of Jude, who identifies himself as \"Jude, the servant of Jesus Christ, and brother of James\" (Jude 1:1).\n"], "Q35473": ["A window is an opening in a wall, door, roof, or vehicle that allows the exchange of light and may also allow the passage of sound and sometimes air. Modern windows are usually glazed or covered in some other transparent or translucent material, a sash set in a frame[1] in the opening; the sash and frame are also referred to as a window.[2] Many glazed windows may be opened, to allow ventilation, or closed, to exclude inclement weather. Windows may have a latch or similar mechanism to lock the window shut or to hold it open by various amounts.\n", "In addition to this, many modern day windows may have a window screen or mesh, often made of aluminum or fibreglass, to keep bugs out when the window is opened. Windows are primarily designed to facilitate a vital connection with the outdoors, offering those within the confines of the building visual access to the everchanging events occurring outside. The provision of this connection serves as an integral safeguard for the health and well-being of those inhabiting buildings, lest they experience the detrimental effects of enclosed buildings devoid of windows. Among the myriad criteria for the design of windows, several pivotal criteria have emerged in daylight standards: location, time, weather, nature, and people. Of these criteria, windows that are designed to provide views of nature are considered to be the most important by people.[3]\n", "Types include the eyebrow window, fixed windows, hexagonal windows, single-hung, and double-hung sash windows, horizontal sliding sash windows, casement windows, awning windows, hopper windows, tilt, and slide windows (often door-sized), tilt and turn windows, transom windows, sidelight windows, jalousie or louvered windows, clerestory windows, lancet windows, skylights, roof windows, roof lanterns, bay windows, oriel windows, thermal, or Diocletian, windows, picture windows, Rose windows, emergency exit windows, stained glass windows, French windows, panel windows, double/triple-paned windows, and witch windows.\n", "The Romans were the first known to use glass for windows, a technology likely first produced in Roman Egypt, in Alexandria c.\u2009100 AD. Presentations of windows can be seen in ancient Egyptian wall art and sculptures from Assyria. Paper windows were economical and widely used in ancient China, Korea, and Japan. In England, glass became common in the windows of ordinary homes only in the early 17th century whereas windows made up of panes of flattened animal horn were used as early as the 14th century. In the 19th century American west, greased paper windows came to be used by pioneering settlers. Modern-style floor-to-ceiling windows became possible only after the industrial plate glass making processes were fully perfected.\n"], "Q43399": ["Andrew the Apostle (Koin\u0113 Greek: \u1f08\u03bd\u03b4\u03c1\u03ad\u03b1\u03c2, romanized:\u00a0Andr\u00e9as [an\u02c8dre.a\u02d0s\u0320]; Latin: Andreas [\u00e4n\u032a\u02c8d\u032are\u02d0.\u00e4\u02d0s]; Aramaic: \u05d0\u05b7\u05e0\u05d3\u05bc\u05e8\u05b5\u05d0\u05d5\u05b8\u05e1; Classical Syriac: \u0710\u0730\u0722\u0715\u0741\u072a\u0736\u0710\u0718\u0733\u0723, romanized:\u00a0\u02beAnd're\u02bew\u0101s[5]), also called Saint Andrew, was an apostle of Jesus. According to the New Testament, he was a fisherman and one of the Twelve Apostles chosen by Jesus. The title First-Called (\u03a0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03cc\u03ba\u03bb\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2, Pr\u014dtokl\u0113tos) stems from the Gospel of John, where Andrew, initially a disciple of John the Baptist, follows Jesus and, recognizing him as the Messiah, introduces his brother Simon Peter to him.[6]\n", "The name \"Andrew\" (meaning manly, brave, from Greek: \u1f00\u03bd\u03b4\u03c1\u03b5\u03af\u03b1, translit.\u00a0andre\u00eda, lit.\u00a0\"manhood, valour\"), like other Greek names, appears to have been common among the Jews and other Hellenized people since the second or third century B.C.[8] No Hebrew or Aramaic name is recorded for him.\n", "Andrew the Apostle was born between 5 and 10 AD[9] in Bethsaida, in Galilee.[10] The New Testament states that Andrew was the brother of Simon Peter,[11] and likewise a son of Jonah. \"The first striking characteristic of Andrew is his name: it is not Hebrew, as might have been expected, but Greek, indicative of a certain cultural openness in his family that cannot be ignored. We are in Galilee, where the Greek language and culture are quite present.\"[12]\n", "Both he and his brother Peter were fishermen by trade and also Simon Peter who became a \"fisher of men\", hence the tradition that Jesus called them to be his disciples by saying that he will make them \"fishers of men\" (Greek: \u1f01\u03bb\u03b9\u03b5\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03ce\u03c0\u03c9\u03bd, translit.\u00a0halie\u00ees anthr\u1e53p\u014dn).[13] According to Mark 1:29, at the beginning of Jesus' public life, they occupied the same house at Capernaum.[8]\n"], "Q43675": ["Philip the Apostle (Greek: \u03a6\u03af\u03bb\u03b9\u03c0\u03c0\u03bf\u03c2; Aramaic: \u0726\u071d\u0720\u071d\u0726\u0718\u0723; Coptic: \u2cab\u2c93\u2c97\u2c93\u2ca1\u2ca1\u2c9f\u2ca5, Philippos) was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus according to the New Testament. Later Christian traditions describe Philip as the apostle who preached in Greece, Syria, and Asia-Minor.\n", "In the Roman Rite, the feast day of Philip, along with that of James the Less, was traditionally observed on 1 May, the anniversary of the dedication of the church dedicated to them in Rome (now called the Church of the Twelve Apostles). In the short-lived calendar reform of 1960, it was transferred to 11 May, but since 1969 it has been assigned to 3 May. The Eastern Orthodox Church celebrates Philip's feast day on 14 November. \n", "The Synoptic Gospels list Philip as one of the apostles. The Gospel of John recounts Philip's calling as a disciple of Jesus.[1] Philip is described as a disciple from the city of Bethsaida, and the evangelist connects him with Andrew and Peter, who were from the same town. He also was among those surrounding John the Baptist when the latter first pointed out Jesus as the Lamb of God. It was Philip who first introduced Nathanael (sometimes identified with Bartholomew) to Jesus.[2] According to Butler, Philip was among those attending the wedding at Cana.[3]\n", "Of the four Gospels, Philip figures most prominently in the Gospel of John.[a] Jesus tests Philip (John 6:6) when he asks him how to feed the 5,000 people.[2] Later he appears as a link to the Greek community. Philip bore a Greek name, could likely speak Greek,[4] and may have been known to the Greek pilgrims in Jerusalem. He advises Andrew that certain Greeks wish to meet Jesus, and together they inform Jesus of this (John 12:21).[2] During the Last Supper, when Philip asked Jesus to show them the Father, he provides Jesus the opportunity to teach his disciples about the unity of the Father and the Son.[3]\n"], "Q43669": ["Thomas the Apostle (Greek: \u0398\u03c9\u03bc\u1fb6\u03c2; Syriac \u072c\u0710\u0718\u0721\u0710, T\u02be\u014dm\u0101, meaning \"the twin\"),[a] also known as Didymus (Greek: \u0394\u03af\u03b4\u03c5\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2 Didymos, meaning \"twin\"), was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus according to the New Testament. Thomas is commonly known as \"Doubting Thomas\" because he initially doubted the resurrection of Jesus Christ when he was told of it (as is related in the Gospel of John); he later confessed his faith (\"My lord and my God\") on seeing the wounds left over from the crucifixion.\n", "According to traditional accounts of the Saint Thomas Christians of modern-day states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala in India, Saint Thomas travelled outside the Roman Empire to preach the Gospel, travelling as far as the Mylapore in South India (modern-day Tamil Nadu)[1][4][5][6] and reached Muziris (modern-day North Paravur and Kodungalloor in Kerala State) in AD 52.[7][8][1] In 1258, some of the relics were brought to Ortona, in Abruzzo, Italy, where they have been held in the Church of Saint Thomas the Apostle.[9] He is regarded as the patron saint of India among its Christian adherents,[10][11] and the Feast of Saint Thomas on July 3 is celebrated as Indian Christians' Day.[12][13] The name Thomas remains quite popular among the Saint Thomas Christians of the Indian subcontinent.\n", "Many churches in the Middle East and southern Asia, besides India, also mention Apostle Thomas in their historical traditions as being the first evangelist to establish those churches, the Assyrian Church of the East,[14] the early church of Sri Lanka.[15]\n", "Protestant denominations\nAndhra Evangelical Lutheran, Assemblies Jehovah Shammah, Christian Revival Church, Church of North India, Church of South India, Garo Baptist, Indian Brethren, Indian Pentecostal Church of God, Church of God (Full Gospel), North Bank Baptist Christian, Northern Evangelical Lutheran, Methodist Church, Presbyterian, The Pentecostal Mission, Seventh-day Adventist, United Evangelical Lutheran\n"]}

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+{"Q57216": [], "Q43982": ["Bartholomew[a] was one of the twelve apostles of Jesus according to the New Testament. Most scholars today identify Bartholomew as Nathanael or Nathaniel,[6] who appears in the Gospel of John (1:45\u201351; cf. 21:2).[7][8][9]", "The name Bartholomew (Greek: \u0392\u03b1\u03c1\u03b8\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03bc\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03c2, transliterated \"Bartholomaios\") comes from the Imperial Aramaic: \u05d1\u05e8-\u05ea\u05d5\u05dc\u05de\u05d9 bar-Tolmay \"son of Talmai\"[10] or \"son of the furrows\".[10] Bartholomew is listed in the New Testament among the Twelve Apostles of Jesus in the three Synoptic Gospels: Matthew,[11] Mark,[12] and Luke,[13] and in Acts of the Apostles.[14]\n", "Eusebius of Caesarea's Ecclesiastical History (5:10) states that after the Ascension, Bartholomew went on a missionary tour to India, where he left behind a copy of the Gospel of Matthew. Tradition narrates that he served as a missionary in Mesopotamia and Parthia, as well as Lycaonia and Ethiopia in other accounts.[15]\nPopular traditions say that Bartholomew preached the Gospel in India and then went to Greater Armenia.[10]\n", "Two ancient testimonies exist about the mission of Saint Bartholomew in India. These are by Eusebius of Caesarea (early 4th century) and by Saint Jerome (late 4th century). Both of these refer to this tradition while speaking of the reported visit of Saint Pantaenus to India in the 2nd century.[16] The studies of Fr A.C. Perumalil SJ and Moraes hold that the Bombay region on the Konkan coast, a region which may have been known as the ancient city Kalyan, was the field of Saint Bartholomew's missionary activities. Previously the consensus among scholars was at least skeptical about an apostolate of Saint Bartholomew in India. Stallings (1703), Neander (1853), Hunter (1886), Rae (1892), Zaleski (1915) supported it, while scholars such as Sollerius (1669), Carpentier (1822), Harnack (1903), Medlycott (1905), Mingana (1926), Thurston (1933), Attwater (1935), etc. do not. The main argument is that the India that Eusebius and Jerome refer to should be identified as Ethiopia or Arabia Felix.[16]\n"], "Q44015": ["John the Apostle[12] (Ancient Greek: \u1f38\u03c9\u03ac\u03bd\u03bd\u03b7\u03c2; Latin: Ioannes[13] c.\u20096 AD \u2013 c.\u2009100 AD; Ge'ez: \u12ee\u1210\u1295\u1235;), also known as Saint John the Beloved and, in Eastern Orthodox Christianity, Saint John the Theologian,[14] was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus according to the New Testament. Generally listed as the youngest apostle, he was the son of Zebedee and Salome. His brother James was another of the Twelve Apostles. The Church Fathers identify him as John the Evangelist, John of Patmos, John the Elder, and the Beloved Disciple, and testify that he outlived the remaining apostles and was the only one to die of natural causes, although modern scholars are divided on the veracity of these claims. \n", "John the Apostle is traditionally held to be the author of the Gospel of John, and many Christian denominations believe that he authored several other books of the New Testament (the three Johannine epistles and the Book of Revelation, together with the Gospel of John, are called the Johannine works), depending on whether he is distinguished from, or identified with, John the Evangelist, John the Elder, and John of Patmos.\n", "Although the authorship of the Johannine works has traditionally been attributed to John the Apostle,[15] only a minority of contemporary scholars believe he wrote the gospel,[16] and most conclude that he wrote none of them.[15][17][18] Regardless of whether or not John the Apostle wrote any of the Johannine works, most scholars agree that all three epistles were written by the same author and that the epistles did not have the same author as the Book of Revelation, although there is widespread disagreement among scholars as to whether the author of the epistles was different from that of the gospel.[19][20][21]\n", "John the Apostle was the son of Zebedee and the younger brother of James the Great. According to church tradition, their mother was Salome.[22][23] Also according to some traditions, Salome was the sister of Mary, Jesus' mother,[23][24] making Salome Jesus' aunt, and her sons John the Apostle and James were Jesus' cousins.[25]\n"], "Q43999": [], "Q81018": ["Judas Iscariot (/\u02c8d\u0292u\u02d0d\u0259s \u026a\u02c8sk\u00e6ri\u0259t/; Biblical Greek: \u1f38\u03bf\u03cd\u03b4\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f38\u03c3\u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03ce\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 Io\u00fadas Iskari\u1e53t\u0113s; Hebrew: \u05d9\u05d4\u05d5\u05d3\u05d4 \u05d0\u05d9\u05e9 \u05e7\u05e8\u05d9\u05d5\u05ea Y\u0259h\u016bda \u02be\u012a\u0161 Q\u01ddr\u012byy\u014d\u1e6f; died c.\u200930\u00a0\u2013 c.\u200933 AD) was\u2014according to Christianity's four canonical gospels\u2014a disciple and one of the original Twelve Apostles of Jesus Christ. Judas betrayed Jesus to the Sanhedrin in the Garden of Gethsemane by kissing him on the cheek and addressing him as \"master\" to reveal his identity in the darkness to the crowd who had come to arrest him.[1] Like Brutus, his name is often used synonymously with betrayal or treason.\n", "The Gospel of Mark gives no motive for Judas' betrayal but does present Jesus predicting it at the Last Supper, an event also described in all the other gospels. The Gospel of Matthew 26:15 states that Judas committed the betrayal in exchange for thirty pieces of silver. The Gospel of Luke 22:3 and the Gospel of John 13:27 suggest that he was possessed by Satan. According to Matthew 27:1\u201310, after learning that Jesus was to be crucified, Judas attempted to return the money he had been paid for his betrayal to the chief priests and hanged himself.[2] The priests used the money to buy a field to bury strangers in, which was called the \"Field of Blood\" because it had been bought with blood money. The Book of Acts 1:18 quotes Peter as saying that Judas used the money to buy the field himself and, he \"[fell] headlong... burst asunder in the midst, and all his bowels gushed out.\" His place among the Twelve Apostles was later filled by Matthias.\n", "Due to his notorious role in all the gospel narratives, Judas remains a controversial figure in Christian history. His betrayal is seen as setting in motion the events that led to Jesus' crucifixion and resurrection, which, according to traditional Christian theology brought salvation to humanity. The Gnostic Gospel of Judas\u2014rejected by the proto-orthodox Church as heretical\u2014portrays Judas' actions as done in obedience to instructions given to him by Jesus, and that he alone amongst the disciples knew Jesus' true teachings. Since the Middle Ages, Judas has sometimes been portrayed as a personification of the Jewish people, and his betrayal has been used to justify Christian antisemitism.[3]\n", "Although Judas Iscariot's historical existence is generally widely accepted among secular historians,[4][5][6][7] this relative consensus has not gone entirely unchallenged.[5] The earliest possible allusion to Judas comes from the First Epistle to the Corinthians 11:23\u201324, in which Paul the Apostle does not mention Judas by name[8][9] but uses the passive voice of the Greek word parad\u00edd\u014dmi (\u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03b4\u03af\u03b4\u03c9\u03bc\u03b9), which most Bible translations render as \"was betrayed\":[8][9] \"...the Lord Jesus on the night when he was betrayed took a loaf of bread...\"[8] Nonetheless, some biblical scholars argue that the word parad\u00edd\u014dmi should be translated as \"was handed over\".[8][9] This translation could still refer to Judas,[8][9] but it could also instead refer to God metaphorically \"handing Jesus over\" to the Romans.[8]\n"], "Q81727": ["A cup is an open-top container used to hold liquids for pouring or drinking. Although mainly used for drinking, it also can be used to store solids for pouring (e.g., sugar, flour, grains, salt).[1][2] Cups may be made of glass, metal, china,[3] clay, wood, stone, bone, polystyrene, plastic, aluminium or other materials, and are usually fixed with  stem, handles, or other adornments. Cups are used for quenching thirst across a wide range of cultures and social classes,[4] and different styles of cups may be used for different liquids or in different situations.[5] Cups of different styles may be used for different types of liquids or other foodstuffs (e.g. teacups and measuring cups), in different situations (e.g. at water stations or in ceremonies and rituals), or for decoration.[5][6]\n", "Cups have almost certainly been used since before recorded history, and indeed, they have been found at archaeological sites throughout the world. Prehistoric cups were sometimes fashioned from shells and hollowed out stones.[7]\n", "There is evidence that the Roman Empire used cups throughout Europe, with notable examples including silver cups in Wales and a color-changing glass cup in ancient Thrace.[9][10] In England, cups have been discovered which date back to several thousand years, including the Rillaton Gold Cup, about 3,700 years old. Cups were used in the Americas several centuries prior to the European arrivals.[11] Around the Gulf of Mexico, Native American societies used the Horse conch for drinking cups, among other purposes.[12]\n", "Historically, monarchs have been concerned about assassination via poisoning.  To avoid this fate, they often used dedicated cups, with cup-bearers to guard them.  A \"divining cup\" was supposed to be able to detect poison.  In the Bible, Joseph interpreted a dream for Pharaoh's cup-bearer,[13] and a silver divining cup played a key role in his reconciliation with his brothers.\n"], "Q201714": ["A tunic is a garment for the body, usually simple in style, reaching from the shoulders to a length somewhere between the hips and the knees. The name derives from the Latin tunica, the basic garment worn by both men and women in Ancient Rome, which in turn was based on earlier Greek garments that covered wearers' waists.\n", "The Roman tunica was adopted by the Roman citizens in the 3rd century BCE. It was often worn by Roman citizens and by non-citizens alike.[2] However, citizens might wear it under the toga, especially at formal occasions.\n", "The length of the garment, the presence or lack of stripes, as well as their width and ornamentation, would indicate the wearer's status in Roman society. Roman senators, for example, used the laticlavus, with broad purple stripes, and members of the equestrian class wore the Angusticlavia, with narrower stripes. Soldiers, slaves and manual workers generally had tunics to a little above the knee; those in more sedentary occupations to about the ankle (unless they were expecting to ride a horse, when a shorter one would be worn).[3]\n", "The tunic or chiton was worn as a shirt or gown by all genders among the ancient Romans. The body garment was loose-fitting for males, usually beginning at the neck and ending above the knee. A woman's garment could be either close fitting or loose, beginning at the neck and extending over a skirt or skirts.\n"], "Q44047": ["James, son of Alphaeus (Greek: \u1f38\u03ac\u03ba\u03c9\u03b2\u03bf\u03c2, Iak\u014dbos; Aramaic: \u071d\u0725\u0729\u0718\u0712 \u0712\u072a \u071a\u0720\u0726\u071d;[2] Hebrew: \u05d9\u05e2\u05e7\u05d1 \u05d1\u05df \u05d7\u05dc\u05e4\u05d9 Ya'akov ben Halfai; Coptic: \u2c93\u2c81\u2c95\u2cb1\u2c83\u2c9f\u2ca5 \u2c9b\u2ca7\u2c89 \u2c81\u2c97\u2cab\u2c89\u2c9f\u2ca5; Arabic: \u064a\u0639\u0642\u0648\u0628 \u0628\u0646 \u062d\u0644\u0641\u0649, romanized:\u00a0Ya'q\u016bb bin Half\u0101) was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus, appearing under this name in all three of the Synoptic Gospels' lists of the apostles. He is generally identified with James the Less (Greek \u1f38\u03ac\u03ba\u03c9\u03b2\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f41 \u03bc\u03b9\u03ba\u03c1\u03cc\u03c2 Iak\u014dbos ho mikros, Mark 15:40) and commonly known by that name in church tradition. He is also labelled \"the Minor\", \"the Little\", \"the Lesser\", or \"the Younger\", according to translation. He is distinct from James, son of Zebedee and in some interpretations also from James, brother of Jesus (James the Just).[3] He appears only four times in the New Testament, each time in a list of the twelve apostles.[4]\n", "James, son of Alphaeus is often identified with James the Less, who is only mentioned four times in the Bible, each time in connection with his mother. (Mark 15:40) refers to \"Mary the mother of James the younger and of Joses\", while (Mark 16:1) and (Matthew 27:56) refer to \"Mary the mother of James\".\n", "Since there was already another James (James, son of Zebedee) among the twelve apostles, equating James son of Alphaeus with \"James the Less\" made sense. (James son of Zebedee was sometimes called \"James the Greater\").\n", "Do you intend the comparatively unknown James the Less, who is called in Scripture the son of Mary, not however of Mary the mother of our Lord, to be an apostle, or not? If he is an apostle, he must be the son of Alph\u00e6us and a believer in Jesus, \"For neither did his brethren believe in him.\""], "Q175166": ["Tempera (Italian: [\u02c8t\u025bmpera]), also known as egg tempera, is a permanent, fast-drying painting medium consisting of pigments mixed with a water-soluble binder medium, usually glutinous material such as egg yolk. Tempera also refers to the paintings done in this medium. Tempera paintings are very long-lasting, and examples from the first century AD still exist. Egg tempera was a primary method of painting until after 1500 when it was superseded by oil painting. A paint consisting of pigment and binder commonly used in the United States as poster paint is also often referred to as \"tempera paint\", although the binders in this paint are different from traditional tempera paint.\n", "Tempera painting has been found on early Egyptian sarcophagus decorations. Many of the Fayum mummy portraits use tempera, sometimes in combination with encaustic painting with melted wax, the alternative painting technique in the ancient world. It was also used for the murals of the 3rd century Dura-Europos synagogue. \n", "A related technique has been used also in ancient and early medieval paintings found in several caves and rock-cut temples of India.[2] High-quality art with the help of tempera was created in Bagh Caves between the late 4th and 10th centuries and in the 7th century in Ravan Chhaya rock shelter, Odisha.[3]\n", "The art technique was known from the classical world, where it appears to have taken over from encaustic painting[citation needed] and was the main medium used for panel painting and illuminated manuscripts in the Byzantine world and Medieval and Early Renaissance Europe. Tempera painting was the primary panel painting medium for nearly every painter in the European Medieval and Early renaissance period up to 1500. For example, most surviving panel paintings attributed to Michelangelo are executed in egg tempera, an exception being his Doni Tondo which uses both tempera and oil paint.\n"], "Q244952": []}

data/text_file_v1_1160.json

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+{"Q536168": ["A tablecloth is a cloth used to cover a table. Some are mainly ornamental coverings, which may also help protect the table from scratches and stains. Other tablecloths are designed to be spread on a dining table before laying out tableware and food. Some tablecloths are designed as part of an overall table setting, with coordinating napkins, placemats, or other decorative pieces. Special kinds of tablecloth include \"runners\" which overhang the table at two ends only and \"table protectors\" which provide a padded layer under a normal tablecloth.\n", "The most common shapes for tablecloths are round, square, oval, and oblong, or rectangular, corresponding to the most common table shapes.  Tablecloths usually have an overhang, referred to as the \"drop.\"  The drop is generally 6 to 15 inches (15 to 38\u00a0cm) on each side of the table, with a shorter drop for casual dining and a longer drop for more formal occasions.  Sometimes a floor-length cloth is used. Custom-made tablecloths are also available, and some people choose to make their own.\n", "Today, dining tablecloths are typically made of cotton, a poly-cotton blend, or a PVC-coated material that can be wiped clean, but they can be made of almost any material, including delicate fabrics like embroidered silk. Ease of laundering is an important consideration for tablecloths used for dining, as they are easily soiled.\n", "In many European cultures a white, or mainly white, tablecloth used to be the standard covering for a dinner table. In the later medieval period, spreading a high quality white linen or cotton cloth on the table was an important part of preparing for a feast in a wealthy household. Over time, the custom of arranging tableware on a cloth became common for most social classes except the very poorest.[2] As eating habits changed in the 20th century, a much greater range of table-setting styles developed. Some formal dinners still use white tablecloths, often with a damask weave, but other colours and patterns are also common.\n"], "Q2100893": [], "Q1514256": ["Gesso (Italian pronunciation: [\u02c8d\u0292\u025bsso]; 'chalk', from the Latin: gypsum, from Greek: \u03b3\u03cd\u03c8\u03bf\u03c2), also known as \"glue gesso\" or \"Italian gesso\",[1] is a white paint mixture used to coat rigid surfaces such as wooden painting panels or masonite as a permanent absorbent primer substrate for painting. It consists of a binder mixed with chalk, gypsum, pigment, or any combination of these.[2]\n", "Mixing and applying it is a craft in itself, as it is usually applied in ten or more extremely thin layers. The hide glue mixture used to make the traditional gesso is rather brittle and susceptible to cracking, thus making it suitable for rigid surfaces only.\n", "When painting, there are several advantages to using gesso. It provides a strong foundation for the paint to adhere to, prevents the paint from soaking into the surface, and can also be used to achieve a desired texture or surface finish. Furthermore, Gesso can help to extend the life of a painting by acting as a barrier to protect it from moisture, dust, and UV rays.[3]\n", "Acrylic gesso is a mixture of white pigment and some kind of filler (chalk, silica, etc.) and acrylic resin dispersed in water. It produces a soft, flexible non-absorbent surface that is technically not gesso (although it is commonly called that by its manufacturers).[5][6] It can contain calcium carbonate (CaCO3) to increase the absorbency of the primer coat as well as titanium dioxide or \"titanium white\" as a whitening agent. It is sold premixed for both sizing and priming panels and flexible canvas for painting. Art supply manufacturers market canvases pre-primed with acrylic gesso. Acrylic gesso can be colored, either commercially by replacing the titanium white with another pigment, such as carbon black, or by the artist directly, with the addition of an acrylic paint. Acrylic gesso can be odorous, due to the presence of ammonia and/or formaldehyde, which are added in small amounts as preservatives. Acrylic gesso's non-absorbent acrylic polymer base makes it incompatible with media that require an absorbent substrate, such as egg tempera.[7] The Painter's Handbook notes a problem with using oil paints over an acrylic gesso ground instead of a traditional oil ground, citing a mismatch in flexibility that over time could cause the oil paint to delaminate.[8]\n"], "Q99516640": ["The word mural is a Spanish adjective that is used to refer to what is attached to a wall. The term mural later became a noun. In art, the word mural began to be used at the beginning of the 20th century. \n", "In ancient Roman times, a mural crown was given to the fighter who was first to scale the wall of a besieged town.[2] \"Mural\" comes from the Latin muralis, meaning \"wall painting\". This word is related to murus, meaning \"wall\".\n", "Murals of sorts date to Upper Paleolithic times such as the cave paintings in the Lubang Jeriji Sal\u00e9h cave in Borneo (40,000-52,000 BP), Chauvet Cave in Ard\u00e8che department of southern France (around 32,000 BP). Many ancient murals have been found within ancient Egyptian tombs (around 3150\u00a0BC),[3] the Minoan palaces (Middle period III of the Neopalatial period, 1700\u20131600 BC), the  Oxtotitl\u00e1n cave and Juxtlahuaca in Mexico (around 1200-900 BC) and in Pompeii (around 100 BC \u2013 AD 79).\n", "During the Middle Ages murals were usually executed on dry plaster (secco). The huge collection of Kerala mural painting dating from the 14th century are examples of fresco secco.[4][5] In Italy, c.\u20091300, the technique of painting of frescos on wet plaster was reintroduced and led to a significant increase in the quality of mural painting.[6]\n"], "Q9165882": ["John 13 is the thirteenth chapter of the Gospel of John in the New Testament of the Christian Bible. The \"latter half\",[1] \"second book\",[2] or \"closing part\"[3] of John's Gospel commences with this chapter. The nineteenth-century biblical commentator Alexander Maclaren calls it \"the Holy of Holies of the New Testament\" and the \"most sacred part of the New Testament\",[1] as it begins John's record of the events on the last night before the crucifixion of Jesus Christ, emphasising Jesus' love for His disciples, demonstrated in the service of washing their feet, and His commandment that they love one another in the same way.[4] The author of the book containing this chapter is anonymous, but early Christian tradition uniformly affirmed that John composed this Gospel.[5]\n", "All the events recorded in this chapter and the succeeding chapters up to John 17 took place in Jerusalem. The precise location is not specified, but John 18:1 states that afterwards, \"Jesus left with his disciples and crossed the Kidron Valley\".\n", "From the Greek syntax and theme perspective, evangelical scholar D. A. Carson regards verse 1 as an introduction to the whole 'Farewell Discourse', whereas verses 2\u20133 show the first demonstration of the full extent of Christ's love.[11]\n", "The narrative begins before the Feast of the Passover, when Jesus knew that His hour (Greek: \u03b7 \u03c9\u03c1\u03b1) had come that He should depart from this world to the Father, [when] having loved His own who were in the world, He loved them to the end.[10] The appointed hour, anticipated earlier in the gospel (John 7:30), had now arrived. Jesus had announced publicly in John 12:23 that \"the hour when the Son of Man should be glorified\" had now arrived, and He had declined in John 12:23 to ask His Father to \"save [Him] from this hour\" (Greek: \u03b5\u03ba \u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 \u03c9\u03c1\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u03b1\u03c5\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2).\n"], "Q64214275": ["The project seeks to create new encyclopedia entries and improve existing coverage of notable LGBT events, people,[1] and places,[2] and edit-a-thons have been organized to facilitate collaboration by interested editors.[3] In addition to content creation, participants have worked to translate articles into other languages and photograph pride parades and other events.[2] The \"celebration of pride\" is focused around June and October, \"traditionally the months when lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) communities around the world celebrate LGBT culture and history.\"[3]\n", "Wikipedia editors organized the campaign beginning in 2014 with events registered in at least a dozen cities in the United States as well as Bangalore and New Delhi in India.[3] The founder of the LGBT organization Queerala hosted an edit-a-thon in Kochi in 2015,[4] with support from the Wikimedia chapter for India; attendees created more than a dozen new entries for Malayalam Wikipedia.[5] By 2019, 80 events had been organized in 18 countries; a dozen of the Wiki Loves Pride event were hosted at libraries, mostly within the U.S and including Bucknell University's library[6] and the Minneapolis Central Library. Host librarians \"helped to set up the space, locate resources to improve Wikipedia articles, helped with citations, and sometimes just came to edit themselves and mentor newbies\".[2]\n"], "Q16022392": ["An edit-a-thon (sometimes written editathon) is an event where some editors of online communities such as Wikipedia, OpenStreetMap (also known as a \"mapathon\"), and LocalWiki  edit and improve a specific topic or type of content. The events typically include basic editing training for new editors and may be combined with a more general social meetup.\nThe word is a portmanteau of \"edit\" and \"marathon\". An edit-a-thon can either be \"in-person\" or online or a blended version of both. If it is not in-person, it is usually called a \"virtual edit-a-thon\" or \"online edit-a-thon\".\n", "Wikipedia edit-a-thons have taken place at Wikimedia chapter headquarters; accredited educational institutions, including Sonoma State University, Arizona State University, Middlebury College,[1] and the University of Victoria; scientific research institutions such as the Salk Institute for Biological Sciences;[2] and cultural institutions, such as museums or archives. \n", "Several Wikipedia edit-a-thons have been held during the COVID-19 pandemic adhering to social distancing measures.[citation needed] These events have been held online using synchronous voice and video chat as well as through asynchronous message boards and forums.[citation needed]\n", "Women, African Americans, and members of the LGBT community are using edit-a-thons to bridge the gap in Wikipedia's sexual and racial makeup[9] and to challenge the under-representation of Africa-related topics.[10]\n"], "Q102157715": [], "Q12154601": ["Vital articles is a list of subjects for which Wikipedia should have corresponding high-quality articles. It serves as a centralized watchlist to track the status of Wikipedia's most essential articles. This is one of eleven Level 4 sub-lists of ten thousand articles and is currently under construction.\n"], "Q12152805": []}

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+{"Q6173639": ["Vital articles is a list of subjects for which Wikipedia should have corresponding high-quality articles. It serves as a centralized watchlist to track the status of Wikipedia's most essential articles. This is one of eleven Level 4 sub-lists of ten thousand articles and is currently under construction.\n"], "Q6173773": ["Vital articles is a list of subjects for which Wikipedia should have corresponding high-quality articles. It serves as a centralized watchlist to track the status of Wikipedia's most essential articles. This is one of eleven Level 4 sub-lists of ten thousand articles and is currently under construction.\n"], "Q12153864": ["Vital articles is a list of subjects for which Wikipedia should have corresponding high-quality articles. It serves as a centralized watchlist to track the status of Wikipedia's most essential articles. This is one of eleven Level 4 sub-lists of ten thousand articles and is currently under construction.\n"], "Q8925636": [], "Q12154114": ["Vital articles is a list of subjects for which Wikipedia should have corresponding high-quality articles. It serves as a centralized watchlist to track the status of Wikipedia's most essential articles. This is one of eleven Level 4 sub-lists of ten thousand articles and is currently under construction.\n"], "Q12154011": ["Vital articles is a list of subjects for which Wikipedia should have corresponding high-quality articles. It serves as a centralized watchlist to track the status of Wikipedia's most essential articles. This is one of eleven Level 4 sub-lists of ten thousand articles and is currently under construction.\n"], "Q12154199": ["Vital articles is a list of subjects for which Wikipedia should have corresponding high-quality articles. It serves as a centralized watchlist to track the status of Wikipedia's most essential articles. This is one of eleven Level 4 sub-lists of ten thousand articles and is currently under construction.\n"], "Q12154283": ["Vital articles is a list of subjects for which Wikipedia should have correspondingly high-quality articles. It serves as a centralized watchlist to track the status of Wikipedia's most essential articles. This is one of eleven Level 4 sub-lists of ten thousand articles and is currently under construction.\n"], "Q12154377": ["Vital articles is a list of subjects for which Wikipedia should have corresponding high-quality articles. It serves as a centralized watchlist to track the status of Wikipedia's most essential articles. This is one of eleven Level 4 sub-lists of ten thousand articles and is currently under construction.\n"], "Q12154211": ["Vital articles is a list of subjects for which Wikipedia should have corresponding high-quality articles. It serves as a centralized watchlist to track the status of Wikipedia's most essential articles. This is one of eleven Level 4 sub-lists of ten thousand articles and is currently under construction.\n"]}

data/text_file_v1_1180.json

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+{"Q12154424": ["Vital articles is a list of subjects for which Wikipedia should have corresponding high-quality articles. It serves as a centralized watchlist to track the status of Wikipedia's most essential articles. This is one of eleven Level 4 sub-lists of ten thousand articles and is currently under construction.\n"], "Q484170": ["The commune (French pronunciation: [k\u0254myn] \u24d8) is a level of administrative division in the French Republic. French communes are analogous to civil townships and incorporated municipalities in the United States and Canada, Gemeinden in Germany, comuni in Italy, or municipios in Spain. The UK equivalent are civil parishes. Communes are based on historical geographic communities or villages and are vested with significant powers to manage the populations and land of the geographic area covered. The communes are the fourth-level administrative divisions of France.\n", "Communes vary widely in size and area, from large sprawling cities with millions of inhabitants like Paris, to small hamlets with only a handful of inhabitants. Communes typically are based on pre-existing villages and facilitate local governance. All communes have names, but not all named geographic areas or groups of people residing together are communes (\"lieu dit\" or \"bourg\"), the difference residing in the lack of administrative powers. Except for the municipal arrondissements of its largest cities, the communes are the lowest level of administrative division in France and are governed by elected officials including a mayor (maire) and a municipal council (conseil municipal). They have extensive autonomous powers to implement national policy.\n", "A commune is the smallest and oldest administrative division in France.[1] \"Commune\" in English has a historical association with socialist and collectivist political movements and philosophies. This association arises in part from the rising of the Paris Commune (1871) which could have more felicitously been called, in English, \"the rising of the City of Paris\". There is nothing intrinsically different between \"town\" in English and commune in French.\n", "As of January 2021, there were 35,083 communes in France, of which 34,836 were in metropolitan France, 129 in the overseas departments and 83 in the overseas collectivities and New Caledonia.[2] This is a considerably higher total than that of any other European country, because French communes still largely reflect the division of France into villages or parishes at the time of the French Revolution.\n"], "Q1469": ["The Loire (/lw\u0251\u02d0r/ LWAR, US also /lu\u02c8\u0251\u02d0r/ loo-AR, French: [lwa\u0281] \u24d8; Occitan: L\u00e9ger [\u02c8led\u0292e]; Arpitan: L\u00eare; Breton: Liger; Latin: Liger) is the longest river in France and the 171st longest in the world.[4] With a length of 1,006 kilometres (625\u00a0mi),[2] it drains 117,054\u00a0km2 (45,195\u00a0sq\u00a0mi), more than a fifth of France's land,[1] while its average discharge is only half that of the Rh\u00f4ne.\n", "It rises in the southeastern quarter of the French Massif Central in the C\u00e9vennes range (in the department of Ard\u00e8che) at 1,350\u00a0m (4,430\u00a0ft) near Mont Gerbier de Jonc; it flows north through Nevers to Orl\u00e9ans, then west through Tours and Nantes until it reaches the Bay of Biscay (Atlantic Ocean) at Saint-Nazaire. Its main tributaries include the rivers Ni\u00e8vre, Maine and the Erdre on its right bank, and the rivers Allier, Cher, Indre, Vienne, and the S\u00e8vre Nantaise on the left bank.\n", "The Loire gives its name to six departments: Loire, Haute-Loire, Loire-Atlantique, Indre-et-Loire, Maine-et-Loire, and Sa\u00f4ne-et-Loire. The lower-central swathe of its valley straddling the Pays de la Loire and Centre-Val de Loire regions was added to the World Heritage Sites list of UNESCO on December 2, 2000. Vineyards and ch\u00e2teaux are found along the banks of the river throughout this section and are a major tourist attraction.\n", "The human history of the Loire river valley is thought by some to begin with the Middle Palaeolithic period of 90\u201340 kya (thousand years ago), followed by modern humans (about 30 kya), succeeded by the Neolithic period (6,000 to 4,500\u00a0BC), all of the recent Stone Age in Europe. Then came the Gauls, the local tribes during the Iron Age period of 1500 to 500\u00a0BC. They used the Loire as a key trading route by 600\u00a0BC, using pack horses to link its trade, such as the metals of the Armorican Massif, with Phoenicia and Ancient Greece via Lyon on the Rh\u00f4ne. Gallic rule ended in the valley in 56\u00a0BC when Julius Caesar conquered the adjacent provinces for Rome. Christianity was introduced into this valley from the 3rd century AD, as missionaries (many later recognized as saints), converted the pagans. In this period, settlers established vineyards and began producing wines.[5]\n"], "Q8878357": [], "Q521148": ["Boppard (German pronunciation: [\u02c8b\u0254pa\u0281t] \u24d8), formerly also spelled Boppart, is a town and municipality (since the 1976 inclusion of 9 neighbouring villages, Ortsbezirken) in the Rhein-Hunsr\u00fcck-Kreis (district) in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany, lying in the Rhine Gorge, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The town is also a state-recognized tourism resort (Fremdenverkehrsort) and is a winegrowing centre.\n", "Boppard lies on the upper Middle Rhine, often known as the Rhine Gorge. This characteristic narrow form of valley arose from downward erosion of the Rhine\u2019s riverbed. Since 2002, the Gorge has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site. A 17\u00a0km (11\u00a0mi) stretch of the Rhine forms the town\u2019s eastern limit. Along this part of the river lie the outlying centres of Hirzenach and Bad Salzig, as well as the town\u2019s main centre, also called Boppard.\n", "Directly north of Boppard, the Rhine takes its greatest bend. This bow is called the Bopparder Hamm, although this name is more commonly applied to the winegrowing area found along it. The best known lookout point over this bow in the Rhine is the Vierseenblick, or \"Four-Lake View\". This vista gets its name from the way in which the Rhine can be seen from here, or rather the way in which it cannot be seen: hills block out most of the view of the river itself so that visitors can only see four apparently separate patches of water, rather like four lakes. These are all actually parts of the Rhine; there are no lakes to be seen. The Vierseenblick can be reached by chairlift.\n", "Since 1969, the town of Boppard has belonged to the Rhein-Hunsr\u00fcck-Kreis, and is the district's northernmost municipality. Boppard is a middle centre; the nearest upper centre is Koblenz, some 22 kilometres (14\u00a0mi) away.\n"], "Q595192": [], "Q7905816": [], "Q1135868": [], "Q62586963": [], "Q1136029": []}

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+{"Q681245": [], "Q1170619": [], "Q13224917": [], "Q104596706": [], "Q84081641": [], "Q9228411": [], "Q12556": ["Indre-et-Loire (French pronunciation: [\u025b\u0303.d\u0281\u203fe.lwa\u0281] \u24d8) is a department in west-central France named after the Indre River and Loire River. In 2019, it had a population of 610,079.[3] Sometimes referred to as Touraine, the name of the historic region, it nowadays is part of the Centre-Val de Loire region. Its prefecture is Tours and subprefectures are Chinon and Loches. Indre-et-Loire is a touristic destination for its numerous monuments that are part of the Ch\u00e2teaux of the Loire Valley.\n", "Indre-et-Loire is one of the original 83 departments established during the French Revolution on 4 March 1790. It was created from the former province of Touraine and of small portions of Orl\u00e9anais, Anjou and Poitou.[4] Its prefecture, Tours, was a centre of learning in the Early Middle Ages, having been a key focus of Christian evangelisation since St Martin became its first bishop around 375. From the mid-15th century, the royal court repaired to the Loire Valley, with Tours as its capital; the confluence of the Loire River and Cher River became a centre of silk manufacturing and other luxury goods, including the wine trade, creating a prosperous bourgeoisie.\n", "After the creation of the department it remained politically conservative, as Honor\u00e9 de Balzac recorded in several of his novels. Conservative Tours refused to welcome the railways which instead were obliged to route their lines by way of Saint-Pierre-des-Corps on the city's eastern edge.   The moderate temper of the department's politics remained apparent after the Franco-Prussian War of 1870: sentiments remained predominantly pro-royalist during the early years of the Third Republic. For most of the nineteenth century, Indre-et-Loire was a rural department, but pockets of heavy-duty industrialisation began to appear towards the century's end, accompanied by left-wing politics.   1920 saw the birth of the French Communist Party at the Congress of Tours. By 1920, Saint-Pierre-des-Corps had become a major railway hub and a centre of railway workshops: it had also acquired a reputation as a bastion of working class solidarity.\n", "Indre-et-Loire is part of the region of Centre-Val de Loire; the neighbouring departments are Loir-et-Cher, Indre, Vienne, Maine-et-Loire and Sarthe. The commune of Descartes is famous as the birthplace of French philosopher and mathematician, Ren\u00e9 Descartes.\n"], "Q752914": [], "Q1171992": [], "Q846338": []}

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+{"Q636400": ["The Ashmolean Museum of Art and Archaeology (/\u00e6\u0283\u02c8mo\u028ali\u0259n, \u02cc\u00e6\u0283m\u0259\u02c8li\u02d0\u0259n/)[2] on Beaumont Street, Oxford, England, is Britain's first public museum.[3] Its first building was erected in 1678\u20131683 to house the cabinet of curiosities that Elias Ashmole gave to the University of Oxford in 1677. It is also the world's second university museum, after the establishment of the Kunstmuseum Basel in 1661 by the University of Basel.[4]\n", "The present building was built between 1841 and 1845. The museum reopened in 2009 after a major redevelopment, and in November 2011, new galleries focusing on Egypt and Nubia were unveiled. In May 2016, the museum also opened redisplayed galleries of 19th-century art.\n", "The museum opened on 24 May 1683,[5] with naturalist Robert Plot as the first keeper. The building on Broad Street (later known as the Old Ashmolean) is sometimes attributed to Sir Christopher Wren or Thomas Wood.[6] Elias Ashmole had acquired the collection from the gardeners, travellers, and collectors John Tradescant the Elder and his son, John Tradescant the Younger. It included antique coins, books, engravings, geological specimens, and zoological specimens\u2014one of which was the stuffed body of the last dodo ever seen in Europe; but by 1755 the stuffed dodo was so moth-eaten that it was destroyed, except for its head and one claw.[7]\n", "The present building dates from 1841 to 1845. It was designed as the University Galleries by Charles Cockerell[8] in a classical style and stands on Beaumont Street. One wing of the building is occupied by the Taylor Institution, the modern languages faculty of the university, standing on the corner of Beaumont Street and St Giles' Street. This wing of the building was also designed by Charles Cockerell, using the Ionic order of Greek architecture.[9]\n"], "Q679527": ["Municipal Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen (Dutch pronunciation: [my\u02c8ze\u02d0j\u028fm \u02c8b\u0254im\u0251ns f\u0251m \u02c8b\u00f8\u02d0n\u026a\u014b\u0259(n)])[a] is an art museum in Rotterdam in the Netherlands. The name of the museum is derived from the two most important collectors of Frans Jacob Otto Boijmans and Dani\u00ebl George van Beuningen. It is located at the Museumpark in the district Rotterdam Centrum, close to the Kunsthal and the Natural History Museum.\n", "The museum opened in 1849. It houses the collections of Frans Jacob Otto Boijmans (1767\u20131847) and Dani\u00ebl George van Beuningen (1877\u20131955). The museum has become the house of over 151,000 artworks over 170 years.[3] In the collection, ranging from medieval to contemporary art, are works of Rembrandt, Claude Monet, Vincent van Gogh, and Salvador Dal\u00ed and other famous collections that includes the masterpieces of the \u2018Achilles series\u2019 by Peter Paul Rubens and \u2018A Cornfield, in the Background the Zuiderzee\u2019 by Jacob van Ruisdael.[4]\n", "The museum was established in 1849[1] as Museum Boijmans with the collection of Frans Jacob Otto Boijmans (1767\u20131847). After the agreement between the Rotterdam City Council and Boijmans, the Schielandshuis was bought by City Council to house the collections.[5] The painter and art dealer, Arie Johannes Lamme, was named the museum's first director. Much of the museum's original collection was destroyed in a fire in 1864. After the devastating fire breakout, the Schielandshuis became small to fit the growing collections and visitors of Museum Boijmans. Then the new museum was built in 1929 and opened in Museumpark in 1935.[5] The building was designed by the city architect Adriaan van der Steur (1893-1953).\n", "Then the exhibition building was built which was designed by the architect Alexander Bodon (1906-1993) with the purpose of exhibition. \"In 2003 the Flemish architects Robbrecht en Daem added new galleries to the exhibition building, siting them like a girdle around Bodon's large rooms. In their galleries they used clear and frosted glass, concrete and parts of the original brick wall. This and the library on the street side are the most recent extensions of the museum until now.\"[5]\n"], "Q731126": ["The Getty Center is located in the Brentwood neighborhood of Los Angeles and features pre-20th-century European paintings, drawings, illuminated manuscripts, sculpture, decorative arts, and photographs from the inception of photography through present day from all over the world.[2][3] The original Getty museum, the Getty Villa, is located in the Pacific Palisades neighborhood of Los Angeles and displays art from Ancient Greece, Rome, and Etruria.[4]\n", "In 1974, J. Paul Getty opened a museum in a re-creation of the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum on his property in Malibu, California.[5] In 1982, the museum became the richest in the world when it inherited US$1.2\u00a0billion.[6] In 1983, after an economic downturn in West Germany, the Getty Museum acquired 144 illuminated medieval manuscripts from the financially struggling Ludwig Collection in Aachen.[7]\n", "In 1996, John Russell, writing in The New York Times, said of the collection, \"One of the finest holdings of its kind ever assembled, it is quite certainly the most important that was in private hands.\"[8] In 1997, the museum moved to its current location in the Brentwood neighborhood of Los Angeles. The Malibu museum, renamed the \"Getty Villa\", was renovated and reopened in 2006.\n", "A suite of interactive multimedia tools called GettyGuide allows visitors to access information about exhibitions. Within the museum, the GettyGuide multimedia player provides commentary from curators and conservators on many works of art. \n"], "Q193391": ["A diplomat (from Ancient Greek: \u03b4\u03af\u03c0\u03bb\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1; romanized diploma) is a person appointed by a state, intergovernmental, or nongovernmental institution to conduct diplomacy with one or more other states or international organizations.\n", "The main functions of diplomats are: representation and protection of the interests and nationals of the sending state; initiation and facilitation of strategic agreements; treaties and conventions; promotion of information; trade and commerce; technology; and friendly relations. Seasoned diplomats of international repute are used in international organizations (for example, the United Nations, the world's largest diplomatic forum) as well as multinational companies for their experience in management and negotiating skills. Diplomats are members of foreign services and diplomatic corps of various nations of the world.\n", "The sending state is required to get the consent of the receiving state for a person proposed to serve in key diplomatic positions such as an ambassador, also referred to as the head of the mission. The receiving state of the proposed diplomat may accept the diplomat or refuse to accept the diplomat without having to provide reasons for its refusal or acceptance of the person. While the head of the mission or any member of the diplomatic staff is already on duty in the receiving state, the receiving state may still decide at anytime that the person is no longer wanted in the state and is considered persona non grata. When this happens, the sending state may discharge the person.[1]\n", "Diplomats are the oldest form of any of the foreign policy institutions of a state, predating by centuries foreign ministers and ministerial offices. They usually have diplomatic immunity, and in their official travels they usually use a diplomatic passport or, for UN officials, a United Nations laissez-passer.\n"], "Q169470": ["A physicist is a scientist who specializes in the field of physics, which encompasses the interactions of matter and energy at all length and time scales in the physical universe.[1][2] Physicists generally are interested in the root or ultimate causes of phenomena, and usually frame their understanding in mathematical terms. They work across a wide range of research fields, spanning all length scales: from sub-atomic and particle physics, through biological physics, to cosmological length scales encompassing the universe as a whole. The field generally includes two types of physicists: experimental physicists who specialize in the observation of natural phenomena and the development and analysis of experiments, and theoretical physicists who specialize in mathematical modeling of physical systems to rationalize, explain and predict natural phenomena.[1]\n", "The study and practice of physics is based on an intellectual ladder of discoveries and insights from ancient times to the present. Many mathematical and physical ideas used today found their earliest expression in the work of ancient civilizations, such as the Babylonian astronomers and Egyptian engineers, the Greek philosophers of science and mathematicians such as Thales of Miletus, Euclid in Ptolemaic Egypt, Archimedes of Syracuse and Aristarchus of Samos. Roots also emerged in ancient Asian cultures such as India and China, and particularly the Islamic medieval period, which saw the development of scientific methodology emphasising experimentation, such as the work of Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) in the 11th century. The modern scientific worldview and the bulk of physics education can be said to flow from the scientific revolution in Europe, starting with the work of astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus leading to the physics of Galileo Galilei and Johannes Kepler in the early 1600s. The work on mechanics, along with a mathematical treatment of physical systems, was further developed by Christiaan Huygens and culminated in Newton's laws of motion and Newton's law of universal gravitation by the end of the 17th century.  The experimental discoveries of Faraday and the theory of Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism were developmental high points during the 19th century. Many physicists contributed to the development of quantum mechanics in the early-to-mid 20th century. New knowledge in the early 21st century includes a large increase in understanding physical cosmology.\n", "The broad and general study of nature, natural philosophy, was divided into several fields in the 19th century, when the concept of \"science\" received its modern shape. Specific categories emerged, such as \"biology\" and \"biologist\", \"physics\" and \"physicist\", \"chemistry\" and \"chemist\", among other technical fields and titles.[6] The term physicist was coined by William Whewell (also the originator of the term \"scientist\") in his 1840 book The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences.[7]\n", "A standard undergraduate physics curriculum consists of classical mechanics, electricity and magnetism, non-relativistic quantum mechanics, optics, statistical mechanics and thermodynamics, and laboratory experience.[8][9][10] Physics students also need training in mathematics (calculus, differential equations, linear algebra, complex analysis, etc.), and in computer science.\n"], "Q154184": [], "Q1368943": ["Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH), also known as hemorrhagic stroke, is a sudden bleeding into the tissues of the brain (i.e. the parenchyma), into its ventricles, or into both.[3][4][1] An ICH is a type of bleeding within the skull and one kind of stroke (ischemic stroke being the other).[3][4] Symptoms can vary dramatically depending on the severity (how much blood), acuity (over what timeframe), and location (anatomically) but can include headache, one-sided weakness, numbness, tingling, or paralysis, speech problems, vision or hearing problems, memory loss, attention problems, coordination problems, balance problems, dizziness or lightheadedness or vertigo, nausea/vomiting, seizures, decreased level of consciousness or total loss of consciousness, neck stiffness, and fever.[2][1]\n", "Hemorrhagic stroke may occur on the background of alterations to the blood vessels in the brain, such as cerebral arteriolosclerosis, cerebral amyloid angiopathy, cerebral arteriovenous malformation, brain trauma, brain tumors and an intracranial aneurysm, which can cause intraparenchymal or subarachnoid hemorrhage.[1]\n", "The biggest risk factors for spontaneous bleeding are high blood pressure and amyloidosis.[2] Other risk factors include alcoholism, low cholesterol, blood thinners, and cocaine use.[2] Diagnosis is typically by CT scan.[1]\n", "Treatment should typically be carried out in an intensive care unit due to strict blood pressure goals and frequent use of both pressors and antihypertensive agents.[1][5] Anticoagulation should be reversed if possible and blood sugar kept in the normal range.[1] A procedure to place an external ventricular drain may be used to treat hydrocephalus or increased intracranial pressure, however, the use of corticosteroids is frequently avoided.[1] Sometimes surgery to directly remove the blood can be therapeutic.[1]\n"], "Q593644": ["A chemist (from Greek ch\u0113m(\u00eda) alchemy; replacing chymist from Medieval Latin alchemist)[1] is a graduated scientist trained in the study of chemistry, or an officially enrolled student in the relevant field. Chemists study the composition of matter and its properties. Chemists carefully describe the properties they study in terms of quantities, with detail on the level of molecules and their component atoms. Chemists carefully measure substance proportions, chemical reaction rates, and other chemical properties. In Commonwealth English, pharmacists are often called chemists.\n", "Chemists use their knowledge to learn the composition and properties of unfamiliar substances, as well as to reproduce and synthesize large quantities of useful naturally occurring substances and create new artificial substances and useful processes. Chemists may specialize in any number of subdisciplines of chemistry. Materials scientists and metallurgists share much of the same education and skills with chemists. The work of chemists is often related to the work of chemical engineers, who are primarily concerned with the proper design, construction and evaluation of the most cost-effective large-scale chemical plants and work closely with industrial chemists on the development of new processes and methods for the commercial-scale manufacture of chemicals and related products.\n", "The roots of chemistry can be traced to the phenomenon of burning. Fire was a mystical force that transformed one substance into another and thus was of primary interest to mankind. It was fire that led to the discovery of iron and glasses. After gold was discovered and became a precious metal, many people were interested to find a method that could convert other substances into gold. This led to the protoscience called alchemy. The word chemist is derived from the Neo-Latin noun chimista, an abbreviation of alchimista (alchemist). Alchemists discovered many chemical processes that led to the development of modern chemistry. Chemistry as we know it today, was invented by Antoine Lavoisier with his law of conservation of mass in 1783. The discoveries of the chemical elements has a long history culminating in the creation of the periodic table by Dmitri Mendeleev. The Nobel Prize in Chemistry created in 1901 gives an excellent overview of chemical discovery since the start of the 20th century.\n", "Jobs for chemists generally require at least a bachelor's degree in chemistry, but many positions, especially those in research, require a  Master of Science or a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD.). Most undergraduate programs emphasize mathematics and physics as well as chemistry, partly because chemistry is also known as \"the central science\", thus chemists ought to have a well-rounded knowledge about science. At the Master's level and higher, students tend to specialize in a particular field. Fields of specialization include biochemistry, nuclear chemistry, organic chemistry, inorganic chemistry, polymer chemistry, analytical chemistry, physical chemistry, theoretical chemistry, quantum chemistry, environmental chemistry, and thermochemistry. Postdoctoral experience may be required for certain positions.\n"], "Q270141": ["A polymath (Greek: \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03c5\u03bc\u03b1\u03b8\u03ae\u03c2, romanized:\u00a0polymath\u0113s, lit.\u2009'having learned much'; Latin: homo universalis, lit.\u2009'universal human')[1] is an individual whose knowledge spans over a substantial number of subjects, known to draw on complex bodies of knowledge to solve specific problems.\n", "In Western Europe, the first work to use the term polymathy in its title (De Polymathia tractatio: integri operis de studiis veterum) was published in 1603 by Johann von Wowern, a Hamburg philosopher.[2][3][4] Von Wowern defined polymathy as \"knowledge of various matters, drawn from all kinds of studies\u00a0... ranging freely through all the fields of the disciplines, as far as the human mind, with unwearied industry, is able to pursue them\".[2] Von Wowern lists erudition, literature, philology, philomathy, and polyhistory as synonyms.\n", "The earliest recorded use of the term in the English language is from 1624, in the second edition of The Anatomy of Melancholy by Robert Burton;[5] the form polymathist is slightly older, first appearing in the Diatribae upon the first part of the late History of Tithes of Richard Montagu in 1621.[6] Use in English of the similar term polyhistor dates from the late 16th century.[7]\n", "Polymaths include the great scholars and thinkers of the Renaissance and Enlightenment, who excelled at several fields in science, technology, engineering, mathematics, and the arts. In the Italian Renaissance, the idea of the polymath was allegedly expressed by Leon Battista Alberti (1404\u20131472), a polymath himself, in the statement that \"a man can do all things if he will\".[8] Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz has often been seen as a polymath. Al-Biruni was also a polymath.[9] Other well-known and celebrated polymaths include Leonardo da Vinci, Hildegard of Bingen, Ibn al-Haytham, Rabindranath Tagore, Mikhail Lomonosov, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Alan Turing, Benjamin Franklin, John von Neumann, Omar Khayyam, Charles Sanders Peirce,  Henri Poincar\u00e9, Isaac Asimov, Nicolaus Copernicus, Ren\u00e9 Descartes, Aristotle, Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, Averroes, Archimedes, George Washington Carver, Hypatia, Blaise Pascal, Africanus Horton, Wang Wei, Isaac Newton, Pierre-Paul Riquet, Leonhard Euler, \u00c9milie du Ch\u00e2telet, Nikola Tesla, Thomas Edison, Bertrand Russell, Thomas Young, Sequoyah, Thomas Jefferson and Pierre-Simon Laplace.\n"], "Q8587358": []}

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+{"Q1170864": [], "Q702657": ["The arrondissement of Tours is an arrondissement of France in the Indre-et-Loire department in the Centre-Val de Loire region. It has 54 communes.[2] Its population is 384,117 (2016), and its area is 1,087.6\u00a0km2 (419.9\u00a0sq\u00a0mi).[3]\n", "The arrondissement of Tours was created in 1800.[4] At the January 2017 reorganisation of the arrondissements of Indre-et-Loire, it gained 12 communes from the arrondissement of Chinon, and it lost 34 communes to the arrondissement of Chinon and 46 communes to the arrondissement of Loches.[5]\n", "As a result of the reorganisation of the cantons of France which came into effect in 2015, the borders of the cantons are no longer related to the borders of the arrondissements. The cantons of the arrondissement of Tours were, as of January 2015:[6]\n"], "Q701543": ["The arrondissement of Loches is an arrondissement of France in the Indre-et-Loire department in the Centre-Val de Loire region. It has 112 communes.[2] Its population is 118,282 (2016), and its area is 2,742.5\u00a0km2 (1,058.9\u00a0sq\u00a0mi).[3]\n", "As a result of the reorganisation of the cantons of France which came into effect in 2015, the borders of the cantons are no longer related to the borders of the arrondissements. The cantons of the arrondissement of Loches were, as of January 2015:[6]\n"], "Q1276841": ["The canton of Amboise is an administrative division of the Indre-et-Loire department, central France. Its borders were modified at the French canton reorganisation which came into effect in March 2015. Its seat is in Amboise.[1]\n"], "Q1171927": [], "Q1099027": [], "Q7075": ["A library is a collection of books, and possibly other materials and media, that is accessible for use by its members and members of allied institutions. Libraries provide physical (hard copies) or digital (soft copies) materials, and may be a physical location, a virtual space, or both. \nA library's collection normally includes printed materials which may be borrowed, and usually also includes a reference section of publications which may only be utilized inside the premises. Resources such as commercial releases of films, television programmes, other video recordings, radio, music and audio recordings may be available in many formats. These include DVDs, Blu-rays, CDs, cassettes, or other applicable formats such as microform. They may also provide access to information, music or other content held on bibliographic databases.\n", "Libraries can vary widely in size and may be organised and maintained by a public body such as a government, an institution (such as a school or museum), a corporation, or a private individual. In addition to providing materials, libraries also provide the services of librarians who are trained experts in finding, selecting, circulating and organising information while interpreting information needs and navigating and analysing large amounts of information with a variety of resources.\n", "Library buildings often provide quiet areas for studying, as well as common areas for group study and collaboration, and may provide public facilities for access to their electronic resources, such as computers and access to the Internet. \n", "The library's clientele and general services offered vary depending on its type: users of a public library have different needs from those of a special library or academic library, for example. Libraries may also be community hubs, where programmes are made available and people engage in lifelong learning. Modern libraries extend their services beyond the physical walls of the building by providing material accessible by electronic means, including from home via the Internet.\n"], "Q131706": ["Maria Theresa (Maria Theresia Walburga Amalia Christina; 13 May 1717 \u2013 29 November 1780) was ruler of the Habsburg dominions from 1740 until her death in 1780, and the only woman to hold the position suo jure (in her own right). She was the sovereign of Austria, Hungary, Croatia, Bohemia, Transylvania, Mantua, Milan, Galicia and Lodomeria, the Austrian Netherlands, and Parma. By marriage, she was Duchess of Lorraine, Grand Duchess of Tuscany, and Holy Roman Empress.\n", "Maria Theresa started her 40-year reign when her father, Emperor Charles VI, died on 20 October 1740. Charles VI paved the way for her accession with the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 and spent his entire reign securing it. He neglected the advice of Prince Eugene of Savoy, who believed that a strong military and a rich treasury were more important than mere signatures. Eventually, Charles VI left behind a weakened and impoverished state, particularly due to the War of the Polish Succession and the Russo-Turkish War (1735\u20131739). Moreover, upon his death, Saxony, Prussia, Bavaria, and France all repudiated the sanction they had recognised during his lifetime. Frederick II of Prussia (who became Maria Theresa's greatest rival for most of her reign) promptly invaded and took the affluent Habsburg province of Silesia in the eight-year conflict known as the War of the Austrian Succession. In defiance of the grave situation, she managed to secure the vital support of the Hungarians for the war effort. During the course of the war, Maria Theresa successfully defended her rule over most of the Habsburg monarchy, apart from the loss of Silesia and a few minor territories in Italy. Maria Theresa later unsuccessfully tried to recover Silesia during the Seven Years' War.\n", "Although she was expected to cede power to her husband, Emperor Francis I, and her eldest son, Emperor Joseph II, who were officially her co-rulers in Austria and Bohemia, Maria Theresa ruled as autocratic sovereign with the counsel of her advisers. She promulgated institutional, financial, medical and educational reforms, with the assistance of Wenzel Anton of Kaunitz-Rietberg, Friedrich Wilhelm von Haugwitz, and Gerard van Swieten. She also promoted commerce and the development of agriculture, and reorganised Austria's ramshackle military, all of which strengthened Austria's international standing. She despised Jews and Protestants, and on certain occasions she ordered their expulsion to remote parts of the realm. She also advocated for the state church.\n", "The second and eldest surviving child of Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI and Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenb\u00fcttel, Archduchess Maria Theresa was born on 13 May 1717 in Vienna, a year after the death of her elder brother, Archduke Leopold Johann,[1] and was baptised on that same evening. The dowager empresses, her aunt Wilhelmine Amalia of Brunswick-L\u00fcneburg and grandmother Eleonore Magdalene of Neuburg, were her godmothers.[2] Most descriptions of her baptism stress that the infant was carried ahead of her cousins, Maria Josepha and Maria Amalia, the daughters of Charles VI's elder brother and predecessor, Joseph I, before the eyes of their mother, Wilhelmine Amalia.[3] It was clear that Maria Theresa would outrank them,[3] even though their grandfather, Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I, had his sons sign the Mutual Pact of Succession, which gave precedence to the daughters of the elder brother.[4] Her father was the only surviving male member of the House of Habsburg and hoped for a son who would prevent the extinction of his dynasty and succeed him. Thus, the birth of Maria Theresa was a great disappointment to him and the people of Vienna; Charles never managed to overcome this feeling.[4]\n"], "Q121076356": [], "Q212805": ["A digital library, also called an online library, an internet library, a digital repository,  a library without walls, or a digital collection, is an online database of digital objects that can include text, still images, audio, video, digital documents, or other digital media formats or a library accessible through the internet. Objects can consist of digitized content like print or photographs, as well as originally produced digital content like word processor files or social media posts. In addition to storing content, digital libraries provide means for organizing, searching, and retrieving the content contained in the collection. Digital libraries can vary immensely in size and scope, and can be maintained by individuals or organizations.[1] The digital content may be stored locally, or accessed remotely via computer networks. These information retrieval systems are able to exchange information with each other through interoperability and sustainability.[2]\n", "The early history of digital libraries is not well documented, but several key thinkers are connected to the emergence of the concept.[3] Predecessors include Paul Otlet and Henri La Fontaine's Mundaneum, an attempt begun in 1895 to gather and systematically catalogue the world's knowledge, with the hope of bringing about world peace.[4] The visions of the digital library were largely realized a century later during the great expansion of the Internet.[5]\n", "Vannevar Bush and J.C.R. Licklider are two contributors that advanced this idea into then current technology. Bush had supported research that led to the bomb that was dropped on Hiroshima. After seeing the disaster, he wanted to create a machine that would show how technology can lead to understanding instead of destruction. This machine would include a desk with two screens, switches and buttons, and a keyboard.[6] He named this the \"Memex\". This way individuals would be able to access stored books and files at a rapid speed. In 1956, Ford Foundation funded Licklider to analyze how libraries could be improved with technology. Almost a decade later, his book entitled \"Libraries of the Future\" included his vision. He wanted to create a system that would use computers and networks so human knowledge would be accessible for human needs and feedback would be automatic for machine purposes. This system contained three components, the corpus of knowledge, the question, and the answer. Licklider called it a procognitive system.\n", "In 1980 the role of the library in an electronic society was the focus of a clinic on library applications of data processing. Participants included Frederick Wilfrid Lancaster, Derek De Solla Price, Gerard Salton, and Michael Gorman).[7]\n"]}

data/text_file_v1_1210.json

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+{"Q112203425": [], "Q24698763": [], "Q27032363": [], "Q635719": [], "Q21748501": ["Palazzo Brera or Palazzo di Brera is a monumental palace in Milan, in Lombardy in northern Italy. It was a Jesuit college for two hundred years. It now houses several cultural institutions including the Accademia di Brera, the art academy of the city, and its gallery, the Pinacoteca di Brera; the Orto Botanico di Brera, a botanical garden; an observatory, the Osservatorio Astronomico di Brera; the Istituto Lombardo Accademia di Scienze e Lettere, a learned society; and an important library, the Biblioteca di Brera.\n", "The origins of the palace lie in a monastery built on the lands of Guercio da Baggio, who may have been consul between 1150 and 1188. Shortly before 1178 it passed into the hands of the Humiliati.[1] The church of Santa Maria in Brera (demolished in the 19th century) was built between 1180 and 1229;[2]:\u200a251\u200a a Gothic marble portal was added by the Pisan sculptor Giovanni di Balduccio between 1346 and 1348,[3]:\u200a7\u200a and there were frescoes by Giovanni da Milano, Vincenzo Foppa and Bernardino Luini.[2]:\u200a251\u200a\n", "After the suppression of the Humiliati by Pius V on 7 February 1571, the monastery became \u2013 at the request of Carlo Borromeo and with the approval of Gregory XIII \u2013 a Jesuit college.[1] This grew to some 3000 students, and more space was needed. Between 1573 and 1590 Martino Bassi was engaged to design a new building on the lines of the Collegio Borromeo in Pavia.[3]:\u200a8\u200a The present palace was built to designs of Francesco Maria Richini from about 1615.[2]:\u200a251\u200a Work began in 1627, but was interrupted by the plague outbreak of 1630, and was resumed only in 1651; after Richini died in 1658, it was continued by his son Gian Domenico.[3]:\u200a8\u200a\n", "Following the suppression of the Jesuits by Clement XIV on 21 July 1773, the palace passed to the then rulers of northern Italy, the Austrian Habsburg dynasty.[1] In 1780 Giuseppe Piermarini completed the inner courtyard and built the imposing entrance from via Brera.[2]:\u200a252\u200a\n"], "Q31033707": [], "Q3903340": ["He graduated in 1905 from the Istituto Tecnico Carlo Cattaneo and registered at the Politecnico, studying with Enrico Agostino Griffini\u00a0[it] and Carlo Calzecchi. During this time, he worked as a caricaturist with the satirical newspapers Il Babau, A quel paese, and Guerin Meschino.[2]\n", "In September 1910, he graduated as an architect and won the Gold Medal of the College of Engineers and Architects of Milan, as its laureate. For the Conti Electrical Company, he worked on hydroelectric plants, mostly located in Formazza. The most famous are in Verampio (1912\u20131917), Valdo (1920\u20131923), Crevoladossola (1923\u20131924), and Cadarese\u00a0[it] (1925\u20131929). For the Azienda Elettrica Municipale di Milano, he designed the plant of Grosio (1918\u20131920).\n", "During the First World War, Portaluppi worked for the military in the Veneto and Friuli Regions. He resumed his professional activity after the war, rebuilding la Pinacoteca di Brera, the Villa Fossati, and the Casa degli Atellani in Corso Magenta, the home of Ettore Conti. Conti introduced Portaluppi to Milan's high society and he started to have the city's most important families as clients such as Borletti, Fossati, Venti and Crespi, Angelo Campiglio, and Mino Brughera. In 1920, Portaluppi designed two projects that are viewed as emblematic of his architecture: the skyscraper S.K.N.E. for the area of Allabanuel, and an utopian city, Hellytown.\n", "Other projects during this period were the Palazzo della Banca Commerciale Italiana (1928\u20131932), the Planetarium Hoepli (1929\u20131930), residential buildings for the Buonarroti-Carpaccio-Giotto family (1926\u20131930), the Casa Crespi on Corso Venezia (1927\u20131930), and the Palazzo Crespi on Corso Giacomo Matteotti (1928\u20131932). He designed the Italian Pavilion for the Universal Exposition in Barcelona in 1929.\n"], "Q6298577": [], "Q740437": [], "Q1007870": ["An art gallery is a room or a building in which visual art is displayed. In Western cultures from the mid-15th century, a gallery was any long, narrow covered passage along a wall, first used in the sense of a place for art in the 1590s.[1] The long gallery in Elizabethan and Jacobean houses served many purposes including the display of art. Historically, art is displayed as evidence of status and wealth, and for religious art as objects of ritual or the depiction of narratives. The first galleries were in the palaces of the aristocracy, or in churches. As art collections grew, buildings became dedicated to art, becoming the first art museums.\n", "Among the modern reasons art may be displayed are aesthetic enjoyment, education, historic preservation, or for marketing purposes. The term is used to refer to establishments with distinct social and economic functions, both public and private. Institutions that preserve a permanent collection may be called either \"gallery of art\" or \"museum of art\". If the latter, the rooms where art is displayed within the museum building are called galleries. Art galleries that do not maintain a collection are either commercial enterprises for the sale of artworks, or similar spaces operated by art cooperatives or non-profit organizations. As part of the art world, art galleries play an important role in maintaining the network of connections between artists, collectors, and art experts that define fine art.\n", "The terms 'art museum' and 'art gallery' may be used interchangeably as reflected in the names of institutions around the world, some of which are called galleries (e.g. the National Gallery and Neue Nationalgalerie), and some of which are called museums (e.g. the Museum of Modern Art and National Museum of Western Art). However, establishments that display art for other purposes, but serve no museum functions, are only called art galleries.\n", "The distinctive function of a museum is the preservation of artifacts with cultural, historical, and aesthetic value by maintaining a collection of valued objects. Art museums also function as galleries that display works from the museum's own collection or on loan from the collections of other museums. Museums might be in public or private ownership and may be accessible to all or have restrictions on access. Although primarily concerned with visual art, art museums are often used as a venue for other cultural exchanges and artistic activities where the art object is replaced by practices such as performance art, dance, music concerts, or poetry readings.\n"]}

data/text_file_v1_1220.json

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+{"Q493792": ["The Portrait of Andrea Doria as Neptune (Italian: Ritratto di Andrea Doria in veste di Nettuno) is an oil painting on canvas completed by Bronzino  for a private collection in either the 1530s or 1540s. It is now in the Pinacoteca di Brera in Milan, Italy.  An oil painting on canvas, it measures 199.5 centimetres (78.5\u00a0in) by 149 centimetres (59\u00a0in).  In a conscious revival of the convention in classical sculpture of showing important political figures in heroic nudity, it depicts the Genoan admiral, Andrea Doria, posing as the classical god of the sea, Neptune.[1]\n", "The subject of the painting is Andrea Doria, a Renaissance  condottiero and admiral from Genoa, who was also the effective ruler of the city-state.[2]  He was around sixty when the portrait was painted (the date is somewhat disputed); either way his physique hardly reflects his age at the time.[3]\n", "He chose to be depicted nude as the \"God of the Sea\".[4][5][6][7]  Although Doria is depicted naked, he is not fragile or frail. He is depicted as a powerful virile man, showing masculine spirit, strength, vigor, and power.[8] He is stern and resolute, looking calmly over all that he surveys, yet also refined and mannered.[9]\n", "The picture was meant to symbolize Doria's power, success, and fame as a celebrated admiral of his time. His beard is lengthy, flowing like the waves on the sea,[8] and tufts of hair on his head recall the Roman emperors.[9] Although his body is aged, his skin is still supple.[8]  He originally held a squared oar, a symbol of his command over his own fleet, but a trident head\u00a0\u2013 described by art critic Camille Paglia as \"cartoonish\"\u00a0\u2013 was painted over it by an unknown artist. The outline of the original oar is still faintly visible. The same individual probably added Doria's name.[9]\n"], "Q1814990": [], "Q21207398": [], "Q2385804": ["An educational institution is a place where people of different ages gain an education, including preschools, childcare, primary-elementary schools, secondary-high schools, and universities.  They provide a large variety of learning environments and learning spaces.[1][2]\n", "Educational architecture, school architecture or school building design is a discipline which practices architect and others for the design of educational institutions, such as schools and universities, as well as other choices in the educational design of learning experiences. The design of building can significantly influence the learning experience of students.[3] Additionally, because schools are important sources of traffic, employment and community activities, school buildings often act as anchor institutions in neighborhoods or communities.[4][5] The decline of a school can have significant impact on local communities.\n", "Educational buildings are often purpose built: designed with architectural choices unique to schools, such as classrooms and centralized restrooms, and other purpose built features. When the schools are closed, its often hard to repurpose the buildings. For example, in the 2013 Chicago closed 50 school buildings, and even in 2023, the government is having trouble identifying new tenants and use.[6]\n"], "Q541": ["Orvieto (Italian: [or\u02c8vj\u025b\u02d0to]) is a city and comune in the Province of Terni, southwestern Umbria, Italy, situated on the flat summit of a large butte of volcanic tuff. The city rises dramatically above the almost-vertical faces of tuff cliffs that are completed by defensive walls built of the same stone.\n", "The ancient city (urbs vetus in Latin, whence \"Orvieto\"), populated since Etruscan times, has usually been associated with Etruscan Velzna, but some modern scholars differ. Orvieto was certainly a major centre of Etruscan civilization; the archaeological museum (Museo Claudio Faina e Museo Civico) houses some of the Etruscan artifacts that have been recovered in the immediate area. A tomb in the Orvieto Cannicella necropolis bears the inscription mi aviles katacinas, \"I am of Avile Katacina\"; the tomb's occupant thus bore an Etruscan-Latin first name, Aulus, and a family name that is believed to be of Celtic origin (derived from \"Catacos\").  This interesting artifact might show the complexity of ethnic relations in ancient Italy, and how such relations could be peaceful. \n", "Also in the area is the Golini Tomb, which was constructed in the fourth century BCE. Its wall paintings depict a funeral banquet, giving some insight into the real-life gatherings held after the deaths of aristocratic Etruscans. The pictures include scenes of servants preparing for the feast in various ways.[5]\n", "Orvieto was annexed by Rome in the third century BC. Because of its site on a high, steep bluff of tuff, a volcanic rock, the city was virtually impregnable.  After the collapse of the Roman Empire its defensible site gained new importance: the episcopal seat was transferred from Bolsena, and the city was held by Goths and by Lombards before its self-governing commune was established in the tenth century, in which consuls governed under a feudal oath of fealty to the bishop.  Orvieto's relationship to the papacy has been a close one; in the tenth century Pope Benedict VII visited the city of Orvieto with his nephew, Filippo Alberici, who later settled there and became Consul of the city-state in 1016. By the thirteenth century, three papal palaces had been built.\n"], "Q157825": ["The Bode Museum, formerly called the Kaiser-Friedrich-Museum (Emperor Frederick Museum), is a listed building on the Museum Island in the historic centre of Berlin. It was built from 1898 to 1904 by order of German Emperor William II according to plans by Ernst von Ihne in Baroque Revival style. The building's front square featured a memorial to German Emperor Frederick III, which was destroyed by the East German authorities.[1] Currently, the Bode-Museum is home to the Skulpturensammlung, the Museum f\u00fcr Byzantinische Kunst and the M\u00fcnzkabinett (sculpture, coins and medals, and Byzantine art).[2] As part of the Museum Island complex, the Bode-Museum was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1999 because of its outstanding architecture and testimony to the development of museums as a cultural phenomenon in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.[3]\n", "During World War II, portions of the collection were stored in an antiaircraft tower called the Flakturm Friedrichshain for safe keeping. In May 1945, several fires destroyed some of the collections. In total, more than 400 paintings and about 300 sculptures were missing due to looting during the fire or destroyed in the fire itself.[4]\n", "Closed for repairs since 1997, the museum was reopened on 18 October 2006, after a \u20ac156 million refurbishment.[5] True to the ethos of its founding director, Wilhelm von Bode, who believed in mixing art collections,[6] it is now the home for a collection of sculptures, Byzantine art, and coins and medals.[7] The presentation of the collections is both geographic and chronological, with the Byzantine and Gothic art of northern and southern Europe displayed separately on the museum's first floor and a similar regional division of Renaissance and Baroque art on its second floor.[6]\n", "The sculpture collection displays artwork of the Christian Orient (with an emphasis on Coptic Egypt), sculptures from Byzantium and Ravenna, sculptures of the Middle Ages, the Italian Gothic, and the early Renaissance, including the controversial Flora attributed by Bode to Leonardo da Vinci but now widely argued to be a 19th-century work. Late German Gothic works are also represented by Tilman Riemenschneider, the south German Renaissance, and Prussian Baroque art up to the 18th century. In the future selected works of the Gem\u00e4ldegalerie will be integrated into the sculpture collection. This is reminiscent of William von Bode's concept of \"style rooms\", in which sculptures, paintings, and crafts are viewed together, as was usual in upper middle-class private collections.\n"], "Q388448": ["The Bargello, also known as the Palazzo del Bargello or Palazzo del Popolo (\"Palace of the People\"), is a former barracks and prison in Florence, Italy. Since 1865, it has housed the Museo Nazionale del Bargello, a national art museum.\n", "The word bargello appears to come from the late Latin bargillus (from Gothic bargi and German burg), meaning \"castle\" or \"fortified tower\". During the Italian Middle Ages it was the name given to a military captain in charge of keeping peace and justice (hence \"Captain of justice\") during riots and uproars. In Florence he was usually hired from a foreign city to prevent any appearance of favoritism on the part of the Captain. The position could be compared with that of a current Chief of police. The name Bargello was extended to the building which was the office of the captain.\n", "Construction began in 1255. The palace was built to house first the Capitano del Popolo and later, in 1261, the 'podest\u00e0', the highest magistrate of the Florence City Council. This Palazzo del Podest\u00e0, as it was originally called, is the oldest public building in Florence. This austere crenellated building served as model for the construction of the Palazzo Vecchio. In 1574, the Medici dispensed with the function of the Podest\u00e0 and housed the bargello, the police chief of Florence, in this building, hence its name.[1] It was employed as a prison; executions took place in the Bargello's yard until they were abolished by Grand Duke Peter Leopold in 1786, but it remained the headquarters of the Florentine police until 1859. When Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor Peter Leopold was exiled, the makeshift Governor of Tuscany decided that the Bargello should no longer be a jail, and it then became a national museum.\n", "The original two-story structure was built alongside the Volognana Tower in 1256. The third storey, which can be identified by the smaller blocks used to construct it, was added after the fire of 1323.  The building is designed around an open courtyard with an external staircase leading to the second floor. An open well is found in the centre of the courtyard.[1]\n"], "Q165631": ["The Gem\u00e4ldegalerie (German pronunciation: [\u0261\u0259\u02c8m\u025b\u02d0ld\u0259\u0261al\u0259\u02cc\u0281i\u02d0], Painting Gallery) is an art museum in Berlin, Germany, and the museum where the main selection of paintings belonging to the Berlin State Museums (Staatliche Museen zu Berlin) is displayed.  It was first opened in 1830, and the current building was completed in 1998. It is located in the Kulturforum museum district west of Potsdamer Platz.\n", "It holds one of the world's leading collections of European paintings from the 13th to the 18th centuries.  Its collection includes masterpieces from such artists as Albrecht D\u00fcrer, Lucas Cranach, Hans Holbein, Rogier van der Weyden, Jan van Eyck, Raphael, Botticelli, Titian, Caravaggio, Peter Paul Rubens, David Teniers the Younger, Rembrandt, Johannes Vermeer, Thomas Gainsborough, Joshua Reynolds  and Antonio Viviani.\n", "Unlike most major national European collections (with the exception of the National Gallery, London), the Gem\u00e4ldegalerie collection is not essentially formed around the former dynastic royal collection, but created by a process of acquisition by the Prussian government beginning in 1815. From the first the museum was intended to reflect the full range of European art, giving a different emphasis from that of older royal collections, including the royal collection of Saxony, now mostly in the Gem\u00e4ldegalerie Alte Meister in Dresden, the finest German princely collection, which like other royal collections is strongest in Italian art.[1]\n", "The collection is arranged more or less chronologically starting from the entrance and moving toward the farthest room; however there are many doors back to the long central space, so it is straightforward to reach any other room at any point.  The visitor chooses between southern, mainly Italian, art to the left, and German and Flemish art to the right.  Completing the circuit takes the visitor first forward, then backward, in time.  The numbering system starting on the north side of the museum covers mostly Northern European art, then British art.  A visitor following along the southern side will go through mostly Italian and Southern European art.  The main floor galleries contain some 850 works in 53 rooms, with around 400 more in several rooms off a corridor downstairs, which are also open to visitors.[2]\n"], "Q682827": ["The Frick Collection is an art museum on the Upper East Side of Manhattan in New York City. Established in 1935 to preserve the art collection of the industrialist Henry Clay Frick (1849\u20131919), the museum consists of European paintings from the 14th to the 19th centuries, as well as other works of European fine and decorative art. The museum is located at the Henry Clay Frick House, a Beaux-Arts mansion designed for Henry Clay Frick. The Frick also houses the Frick Art Reference Library, an art history research center established by Frick's daughter Helen Clay Frick in 1920, which contains sales catalogs, books, periodicals, and photographs.\n", "The museum dates to 1920, when the trustees of Frick's estate formed the Frick Collection Inc. to care for his art collection, which he had bequeathed for public use. After Frick's wife Adelaide Frick died in 1931, John Russell Pope converted the Frick House into a museum, which opened on December 16, 1935. The museum acquired additional works of art over the years, and it expanded the house in 1977 to accommodate increasing visitation. Following fundraising campaigns in the 2000s, a further expansion was announced in the 2010s. The museum was temporarily relocated to 945 Madison Avenue from 2021 to 2024, during the renovation of the Frick House.\n", "The Frick has about 1,500 pieces in its collection as of 2021. Artists with works in the collection have included Bellini, Fragonard, Goya, Holbein, Rembrandt, Titian, Turner, Vel\u00e1zquez, Vermeer, and Thomas Gainsborough. The museum has gradually acquired additional pieces over the years to supplement the paintings in Frick's original collection. In addition to its permanent collection, the museum has hosted small temporary exhibitions on narrowly defined topics, as well as  academic symposiums, concerts, classes, and concerts. The Frick Collection typically accommodates up to 300,000 annual visitors and has an endowment fund to support its programming. Commentary on the museum over the years has been largely positive, particularly with relation to the works themselves and their juxtaposition of the Frick House.\n", "Henry Clay Frick was a coke and steel magnate,[3][4] as early as 1870, had hung pictures throughout his house in Broadford, Pennsylvania.[5] Frick acquired the first painting in his permanent collection, Luis Jim\u00e9nez's In the Louvre, in 1880,[6] after moving to Pittsburgh.[5] He did not begin buying paintings in large numbers until the mid-1890s,[7][8] and he began devoting significant amounts of time to his collection.[9] This made Frick one of several prominent American businessmen who also collected art, along with figures such as Henry Havemeyer and J. P. Morgan.[10] In explaining why he collected art, Frick said, \"I can make money... I cannot make pictures.\"[11] He curated his collection with the help of Joseph Duveen, 1st Baron Duveen.[12][13]\n"], "Q555946": ["The Kupferstichkabinett, or Museum of Prints and Drawings, is a prints museum in Berlin, Germany.  It is part of the Berlin State Museums, and is located in the Kulturforum on Potsdamer Platz.  It is the largest museum of graphic art in Germany,[1] with more than 500,000 prints and around 110,000 individual works on paper (drawings, pastels, watercolours, oil sketches).[2]\n", "The Kupferstichkabinett was officially founded in 1831, with a collection of drawings and watercolours acquired by Frederick William I in 1652 at its core.[3]  It was first housed in the Altes Museum beside the collections of Old Master paintings and Classical sculpture from ancient Greece and Rome, as exemplars of \"High Art\". The collection grew throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, with the addition of Medieval, Renaissance and later works, including drawings by Albrecht D\u00fcrer and Matthias Gr\u00fcnewald, Sandro Botticelli's illustrations of Dante's Divine Comedy (purchased in 1882), and the estate of Adolph Menzel.[3] Prominent members of former staff include Max Lehrs.\n", "In 1986 the Kupferstichkabinett took over the graphics collection of the National Gallery of Berlin, whose emphasis was on 20th-century prints, including Expressionist works that the Nazis had classified as \"degenerate\" and confiscated.  In 1994 it opened in a new building in the Kulturforum, reuniting the parts of the collection that had been split between East and West Berlin together with the National Gallery's collection.\n", "The emphasis is on European drawings and printed graphics from the Middle Ages to the present, as well as illuminated manuscripts, sketchbooks, topographical drawings and printing plates.  The older artists include D\u00fcrer, Gr\u00fcnewald, Botticelli and Menzel, as well as Altdorfer, Bosch, Bruegel, Chodowiecki, Friedrich, Mantegna, Rembrandt, Schinkel, and Tiepolo. More recent artists include Kirchner, Munch and Picasso, Pop Artists (Warhol, Hamilton, Johns, Stella) conceptual artists, minimalists, and contemporary artists working in Berlin.[1] The collection of the Kupferstichkabinett also includes Friedrich Gilly's plan for a monument to Frederick II of Prussia from 1796.[4]\n"]}

data/text_file_v1_1230.json

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+{"Q5827": ["Pietro Perugino (US: /\u02ccp\u025br\u0259\u02c8d\u0292i\u02d0no\u028a, -ru\u02d0\u02c8-/ PERR-\u0259-JEE-noh, -\u2060oo-,[1][2][3] Italian: [\u02c8pj\u025b\u02d0tro peru\u02c8d\u0292i\u02d0no]; born Pietro Vannucci; c.\u20091446/1452 \u2013 1523) was an Italian Renaissance painter of the Umbrian school, who developed some of the qualities that found classic expression in the High Renaissance. Raphael was his most famous pupil.\n", "Pietro Vannucci was born in Citt\u00e0 della Pieve, Umbria, the son of Cristoforo Maria Vannucci. His nickname characterizes him as from Perugia, the chief city of Umbria. Scholars continue to dispute the socioeconomic status of the Vannucci family. While certain academics maintain that Vannucci worked his way out of poverty, others argue that his family was among the wealthiest in the town.[4] His exact date of birth is not known, but based on his age at death that was mentioned by Vasari and Giovanni Santi, it is believed that he was born between 1446 and 1452.[4]\n", "Pietro most likely began studying painting in local workshops in Perugia such as those of Bartolomeo Caporali or Fiorenzo di Lorenzo.[4] The date of the first Florentine sojourn is unknown; some make it as early as 1466-1470, others push the date to 1479.[4] According to Vasari, he was apprenticed to the workshop of Andrea del Verrocchio alongside Leonardo da Vinci, Domenico Ghirlandaio, Lorenzo di Credi, Filippino Lippi, and others. Piero della Francesca is thought to have taught him perspective form. In 1472, he must have completed his apprenticeship since he was enrolled as a master in the Confraternity of St Luke. Pietro, although very talented, was not extremely enthusiastic about his work.[5]\n", "Perugino was one of the earliest Italian practitioners of oil painting. Some of his early works were extensive frescoes for the convent of the Ingessati fathers, destroyed during the Siege of Florence; he produced many cartoons for them also, which they executed with brilliant effect in stained glass. A good specimen of his early style in tempera is the tondo (circular picture) in the Mus\u00e9e du Louvre of the Virgin and Child Enthroned between Saints.\n"], "Q8511": ["Lorenzo di Credi (1456/59 \u2013 January 12, 1537) was an Italian Renaissance painter and sculptor best known for his paintings of religious subjects. He is most famous for having worked in the studio of Andrea del Verrocchio at the same time as the young Leonardo da Vinci.\n", "Lorenzo was born in Florence in 1456 or 1459 to a goldsmith named Andrea d' Oderigo. He was apprenticed to Andrea del Verrocchio, probably in the mid-1470s. He eventually became Verrocchio's primary assistant and inherited his workshop on Verrocchio's death in 1488. On Verrocchio's behalf he completed the famous Madonna di Piazza for the cathedral of Pistoia, commissioned to Verrocchio in 1475 but executed by Lorenzo between 1485 and 1491.\n", "Lorenzo's earliest independent works include an Annunciation in the Uffizi, two panels of the Madonna and Child at the Galleria Sabauda in Turin, another at the National Gallery in London and Adoration of the Child at the Pinacoteca Querini Stampalia in Venice. From his maturity date the Madonna and Child with Saints Julian and Nicholas (1493) for the Mascalonzi chapel at the Cestello, Florence (Paris, Louvre), the Adoration of the Shepherds (1487) for Santa Chiara (now at the Uffizi) and the Baptism of Christ for the Chiostro dello Scalzo (now Fiesole, San Domenico). In 1501 he remade parts of Fra Angelico's high altarpiece for San Domenico, Fiesole. Later works include an altarpiece (1510\u201312) for the Ospedale del Ceppo, Pistoia (now in that town's Museo Civico) and many small religious panels, including an unfinished Crucifixion at G\u00f6ttingen University and an Annunciation dated 1508 at the Harvard University Art Museums.\n", " Lorenzo was also a painter of portraits. His most famous is the Portrait of Caterina Sforza, called La dama dei gelsomini, at the Pinacoteca in Forl\u00ed. Caterina Sforza was the Lady of Forl\u00ec and Imola in the Romagna and later a prisoner of Cesare Borgia. Lorenzo's portrait of her has been the subject of recent attention because of the sitter's resemblance to the Mona Lisa by Leonardo da Vinci. Another portrait by Lorenzo, perhaps of his brother's widow is the panel now at the Metropolitan Museum of Art. The composition of this work is often compared to Leonardo's Ginevra de' Benci at the National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.[2]\n"], "Q13376": ["Pistoia (US: /p\u026a\u02c8st\u0254\u026a\u0259, pi\u02d0\u02c8sto\u028aj\u0251\u02d0/,[3][4] Italian: [pis\u02c8to\u02d0ja] \u24d8[5]) is a city and comune in the Italian region of Tuscany, the capital of a province of the same name, located about 30 kilometres (19\u00a0mi) west and north of Florence and is crossed by the Ombrone Pistoiese, a tributary of the River Arno. It is a typical Italian medieval city, and it attracts many tourists, especially in the summer. The city is famous throughout Europe for its plant nurseries.\n", "Pistoria (in Latin other possible forms are Pistorium or Pistoriae) was a centre of Gallic, Ligurian and Etruscan settlements before becoming a Roman colony in the 6th century BC, along the important road Via Cassia: in 62 BC the demagogue Catiline and his fellow conspirators were slain nearby. From the 5th century the city was a bishopric, and during the Lombardic kingdom it was a royal city and had several privileges. Pistoia's most splendid age began in 1177 when it proclaimed itself a free commune: in the following years it became an important political centre, erecting walls and several public and religious buildings.\n", "In 1254 the Ghibelline town of Pistoia was conquered by the Guelph Florence; this did not pacify the town, but led to marked civil violence between \"Black\" and \"White\" Guelph factions, pitting different noble families against one another. In the Inferno of Dante, we encounter a particularly violent member of the Black faction of Pistoia, Vanni Fucci, tangled up in a knot of snakes while cursing God, who states: (I am a) beast and Pistoia my worthy lair. Pistoia remained a Florentine holding except for a brief period in the 14th century, when a former abbott, Ormanno Tedici, became Lord of the city. This did not last long, since his nephew Filippo sold the town to Castruccio Castracani of Lucca. The town was officially annexed to Florence in 1530.\n", "One of the most famous families of the city was that of the Rospigliosi, owners of agricultural estates and wool merchants; the Rospigliosi provided a pope in 1667 with Giulio Rospigliosi, who briefly reigned as Clement IX (1667\u201369), and gave several cardinals to the church.\n"], "Q40446": ["Nudity is the state of being in which a human is without clothing. While estimates vary, for the first 90,000 years of pre-history, anatomically modern humans were naked, having lost their body hair and living in hospitable climates. As humans became behaviorally modern, body adornments such as jewelry, tattoos, body paint and scarification became part of non-verbal communications, indicating a person's social and individual characteristics. Indigenous peoples in warm climates used clothing for decorative, symbolic or ceremonial purposes but were often nude, having neither the need to protect the body from the elements nor any conception of nakedness being shameful. In many societies, both ancient and contemporary, children might be naked until the beginning of puberty. Women may not cover their breasts, being associated with nursing babies more than with sexuality.\n", "In the ancient civilizations of the Mediterranean, from Mesopotamia to the Roman Empire, proper attire was required to maintain social standing. The lower classes might possess a single piece of cloth that was wrapped or tied to cover the lower body; the lowest classes including slaves might be naked. However, through much of Western history until the late modern period, people of any status were also unclothed by necessity or convenience when engaged in labor and athletics; or when bathing or swimming. Such functional nudity occurred in groups that were usually but not always segregated by sex. Although improper dress might be socially embarrassing, the association of nudity with sin regarding sexuality began with Judeo-Christian societies, spreading through Europe in the post-classical period. Traditional clothing in temperate regions worldwide also reflect concerns for maintaining social status and order, as well as by necessity due to the colder climate. However, societies such as Japan and Finland maintain traditions of communal nudity based upon the use of baths and saunas that provided alternatives to sexualization. \n", "The spread of Western concepts of modest dress is part of colonialism, and continues today with globalization. Contemporary social norms regarding nudity reflect cultural ambiguity towards the body and sexuality, and differing conceptions of what constitutes public versus private spaces. Norms relating to nudity are different for men than they are for women. Individuals may intentionally violate norms relating to nudity; those without power may use nudity as a form of protest, and those with power may impose nakedness on others as a form of punishment.\n", "While the majority of contemporary societies require clothing in public, some recognize non-sexual nudity as being appropriate for some recreational, social or celebratory activities, and appreciate nudity in the arts as representing positive values. A minority within many countries assert the benefits of social nudity, while other groups continue to disapprove of nudity not only in public but also in private based upon religious beliefs. Norms are codified to varying degrees by laws defining proper dress and indecent exposure.\n"], "Q1568434": ["The Yale University Art Gallery (YUAG) is the oldest university art museum in the Western Hemisphere.[1] It houses a major encyclopedic collection of art in several interconnected buildings on the campus of Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut. Although it embraces all cultures and periods, the gallery emphasizes early Italian Renaissance painting, African sculpture, and modern art.\n", "The gallery was founded in 1832 when patriot artist John Trumbull donated over 100 paintings of the American Revolution to Yale College and designed the original picture gallery.[2][3] This building on the university's Old Campus was razed in 1901.[4]\n", "Street Hall, designed by Peter Bonnett Wight, was opened as the Yale School of the Fine Arts in 1866, and included exhibition galleries on the second floor. The exterior was in a neo-Gothic style, with an appearance influenced by 13th-century Venetian palaces. These spaces are the oldest ones still in use as part of the Yale University Art Gallery.[2]\n", "A Tuscan romanesque building, designed by Yale University architect Egerton Swartwout, was completed in 1928. This building had cornices, a pitched slate roof, and large windows set within stone arches, and was connected to Street Hall by an enclosed bridge over High Street. It was ultimately known as the \"Old Yale Art Gallery\" to contrast it with the modernist expansion added a couple of decades later.[2]\n"], "Q639669": ["\nA musician is a person who composes, conducts, or performs music.[1] According to the United States Employment Service, \"musician\" is a general term used to designate one who follows music as a profession.[2] Musicians include songwriters who write both music and lyrics for songs, conductors who direct a musical performance, or performers who perform for an audience. A music performer is generally either a singer who provides vocals or an instrumentalist who plays a musical instrument. Musicians may perform on their own or as part of a group, band or orchestra. Musicians can specialize in a musical genre, though a good number of musicians play a variety of different styles depending on cultures and backgrounds. A musician who records and releases music can be known as a recording artist.[3]\n", "A composer is a musician who creates musical compositions. The title is principally used for those who write classical music or film music. Those who write the music for popular songs may be called songwriters. Those who mainly write the words for songs may be referred to as lyricists.\n", "A conductor directs a musical performance; conducting has been defined as \"the art of directing the simultaneous performance of several players or singers by the use of gesture\". The conductor stands on a raised podium and communicates with the musicians through hand gestures or eye contact.\n", "Examples of performers include, but are not limited to, instrumentalists and singers who perform for an audience. A musician can perform as a solo artist or as a part of an ensemble (e.g. an orchestra, a choir or a pop group).\n"], "Q191423": ["Domenico di Tommaso Curradi di Doffo Bigordi (2 June 1448\u00a0\u2013 11 January 1494), professionally known as Domenico Ghirlandaio (also spelt as Ghirlandajo),[a] was an Italian Renaissance painter born in Florence. Ghirlandaio was part of the so-called \"third generation\" of the Florentine Renaissance, along with Verrocchio, the Pollaiolo brothers and Sandro Botticelli. Ghirlandaio led a large and efficient workshop that included his brothers  Davide Ghirlandaio and Benedetto Ghirlandaio, his brother-in-law Bastiano Mainardi from San Gimignano, and later his son Ridolfo Ghirlandaio.[4] Many apprentices passed through Ghirlandaio's workshop, including the famous Michelangelo.[4] His particular talent lay in his ability to posit depictions of contemporary life and portraits of contemporary people within the context of religious narratives, bringing him great popularity and many large commissions.[5]\n", "Ghirlandaio was born Domenico di Tommaso di Currado di Doffo Bigordi. He was the eldest of six children born to Tommaso Bigordi by his first wife Antonia di ser Paolo Paoli; of these, only Domenico and his brothers and collaborators Davide and Benedetto Ghirlandaio survived childhood. Tommaso had two more children by his second wife, also named Antonia, whom he married in 1464. Domenico's half-sister Alessandra (b.\u00a01475) married the painter Bastiano Mainardi in 1494.[6] Both Ghirlandaio's father and his uncle, Antonio, were setaiuolo a minuto (dealers of silks and related objects in small quantities).[citation needed]\n", "Giorgio Vasari reported that Domenico was at first apprenticed to his father, who was a goldsmith. The nickname \"Il Ghirlandaio\" (garland-maker) came to Domenico from his father, who was famed for creating the metallic garland-like headdresses worn by Florentine women.[4] According to Vasari, Domenico made portraits of the passers-by and visitors to the shop: \"when he painted the country people or anyone who passed through his studio he immediately captured their likeness\".[4] He was eventually apprenticed to Alesso Baldovinetti to study painting and mosaic.[7] According to the art historian G\u00fcnter Passavent, he was apprenticed in Florence to Andrea del Verrocchio.[8] He maintained a close association with other Florentine painters including Botticelli and with the Umbrian painter Perugino.[9]\n", "Ghirlandaio excelled in the painting of frescos and it is for his fresco cycles that he is best known. An early commission came to him in the 1470s from the Commune of San Gimignano to decorate the Chapel of Santa Fina in the Collegiate Church of that city. The frescos, executed from 1477 to 1478, depict two miraculous events associated with the death of Saint Fina.[10]\n"], "Q1165526": ["The Mus\u00e9e Jacquemart-Andr\u00e9 (English: Jacquemart-Andr\u00e9 Museum) is a private museum located at 158 Boulevard Haussmann in the 8th arrondissement of Paris. The museum was created from the private home of \u00c9douard Andr\u00e9 (1833\u20131894) and N\u00e9lie Jacquemart (1841\u20131912) to display the art they collected during their lives.[1][2]\n", "\u00c9douard Andr\u00e9, the scion of a Protestant banking family, devoted his considerable fortune to buying works of art. He then exhibited them in his new mansion built in 1869 by the architect Henri Parent,  and completed in 1875.\n", "He married a well-known society painter, N\u00e9lie Jacquemart, who had painted his portrait 10 years earlier. Every year, the couple would travel in Italy, amassing one of the finest collections of Italian art in France. When Edouard Andr\u00e9 died, N\u00e9lie Jacquemart completed the decoration of the Italian Museum and travelled in the Orient to add more precious works to the collection. Faithful to the plan agreed with her husband, she bequeathed the mansion and its collections to the Institut de France as a museum, and it opened to the public in 1913.\n", "The Italian museum:\nthe Sculpture Gallery houses collections of 15th- and 16th-century Italian sculpture, with masterpieces by Francesco Laurana, Donatello, Luca Della Robbia and others. The Florentine Gallery is both a place of worship, containing works on religious themes \u2014 choir stalls, reredos and funerary monuments \u2014 and a picture gallery focusing on the Florentine school, with works by Botticelli, Francesco Botticini and Perugino, and Ucello's celebrated St George and the Dragon. The Venetian Gallery attests to the Andr\u00e9s' love of 15th-century Venetian artists. Dominated by a coffer ceiling attributed to Mocetto, paintings by Mantegna, Bellini or Carpaccio recreate the typical setting of a Venetian Palazzo.\n"], "Q866498": ["The Palazzo Pitti (Italian: [pa\u02c8lattso \u02c8pitti]), in English sometimes called the Pitti Palace, is a vast, mainly Renaissance, palace in Florence, Italy.  It is situated on the south side of the River Arno, a short distance from the Ponte Vecchio. The core of the present palazzo dates from 1458 and was originally the town residence of Luca Pitti,[1] an ambitious Florentine banker.\n", "The palace was bought by the Medici family in 1549 and became the chief residence of the ruling families of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany. It grew as a great treasure house as later generations amassed paintings, plates, jewelry and luxurious possessions.\n", "In the late 18th century, the palazzo was used as a power base by Napoleon and later served for a brief period as the principal royal palace of the newly united Italy. The palace and its contents were donated to the Italian people by King Victor Emmanuel III in 1919.\n", "The palazzo is now the largest museum complex in Florence. The principal palazzo block, often in a building of this design known as the corps de logis, is 32,000 square metres.[2] It is divided into several principal galleries or museums detailed below.\n"], "Q37562": ["Donato di Niccol\u00f2 di Betto Bardi (c.\u20091386 \u2013 13 December 1466), known mononymously as Donatello (English: /\u02ccd\u0252n\u0259\u02c8t\u025blo\u028a/[2] Italian: [dona\u02c8t\u025bllo]), was an Italian sculptor of the Renaissance period.[3] Born in Florence, he studied classical sculpture and used his knowledge to develop an Early Renaissance style of sculpture. He spent time in other cities, where he worked on commissions and taught others; his periods in Rome, Padua, and Siena introduced to other parts of Italy the techniques he had developed in the course of a long and productive career.  His David was the first freestanding nude male sculpture since antiquity; like much of his work it was commissioned by the Medici family.\n", "He worked with stone, bronze, wood, clay, stucco, and wax, and used glass in inventive ways. He had several assistants, with four perhaps being a typical number.Ref.\u00a0? Although his best-known works are mostly statues executed in the round, he developed a new, very shallow, type of bas-relief for small works, and a good deal of his output was architectural reliefs for pulpits, altars and tombs, as well as Madonna and Childs for homes.\n", "Broad, overlapping, phases can be seen in his style, beginning with the development of expressiveness and classical monumentality in statues, then developing energy and charm, mostly in smaller works. Early on he veered away from the International Gothic style he learned from Lorenzo Ghiberti, with classically informed pieces, and further on a number of stark, even brutal pieces. The sensuous eroticism of his most famous work, the bronze David, is very rarely seen in other pieces.\n", "All accounts describe Donatello as amiable and well-liked, but rather poor at the business side of his career.[4] Like (not only) Michelangelo in the next century, he tended to accept more commissions than he could handle,[5] and many works were either completed some years late, handed to other sculptors to finish, or never produced. Again like Michelangelo, he enjoyed steady support and patronage from the Medici family.\n"]}

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+{"Q170022": ["The House of Medici (English: /\u02c8m\u025bd\u026at\u0283i/ MED-i-chee,[4] Italian: [\u02c8m\u025b\u02d0dit\u0283i]) was an Italian banking family and political dynasty that first consolidated power in the Republic of Florence under Cosimo de' Medici, during the first half of the 15th century. The family originated in the Mugello region of Tuscany, and prospered gradually until it was able to fund the Medici Bank. This bank was the largest in Europe during the 15th century and facilitated the Medicis' rise to political power in Florence, although they officially remained citizens rather than monarchs until the 16th century.\n", "The Medici produced four popes of the Catholic Church\u2014Pope Leo X (1513\u20131521), Pope Clement VII (1523\u20131534), Pope Pius IV (1559\u20131565)[5] and Pope Leo XI (1605)\u2014and two queens of France\u2014Catherine de' Medici (1547\u20131559) and Marie de' Medici (1600\u20131610).[6] In 1532, the family acquired the hereditary title Duke of Florence. In 1569, the duchy was elevated to the Grand Duchy of Tuscany after territorial expansion. The Medici ruled the Grand Duchy from its inception until 1737, with the death of Gian Gastone de' Medici. The grand duchy witnessed degrees of economic growth under the early grand dukes, but was bankrupt by the time of Cosimo III de' Medici (r. 1670\u20131723).\n", "The Medicis' wealth and influence was initially derived from the textile trade guided by the wool guild of Florence, the Arte della Lana. Like other families ruling in Italian signorie, the Medici dominated their city's government, were able to bring Florence under their family's power, and created an environment in which art and humanism flourished. They and other families of Italy inspired the Italian Renaissance, such as the Visconti and Sforza in Milan, the Este in Ferrara, the Borgia and Della Rovere in Rome, and the Gonzaga in Mantua.\n", "The Medici Bank, from when it was created in 1397 to its fall in 1494, was one of the most prosperous and respected institutions in Europe, and the Medici family was considered the wealthiest in Europe for a time. From this base, they acquired political power initially in Florence and later in wider Italy and Europe. They were among the earliest businesses to use the general ledger system of accounting through the development of the double-entry bookkeeping system for tracking credits and debits.\n"], "Q211423": ["A goldsmith is a metalworker who specializes in working with gold and other precious metals. Nowadays they mainly specialize in jewelry-making but historically, goldsmiths have also made silverware, platters, goblets, decorative and serviceable utensils, and ceremonial or religious items.\n", "Goldsmiths must be skilled in forming metal through filing, soldering, sawing, forging, casting, and polishing. The trade has very often included jewelry-making skills, as well as the very similar skills of the silversmith. Traditionally, these skills had been passed along through apprenticeships; more recently jewelry arts schools, specializing in teaching goldsmithing and a multitude of skills falling under the jewelry arts umbrella, are available. Many universities and junior colleges also offer goldsmithing, silversmithing, and metal arts fabrication as a part of their fine arts curriculum.\n", "Compared to other metals, gold is malleable, ductile, rare, and it is the only solid metallic element with a yellow color. It may easily be melted, fused, and cast without the problems of oxides and gas that are problematic with other metals such as bronzes, for example. It is fairly easy to \"pressure weld\", wherein, similarly to clay, two small pieces may be pounded together to make one larger piece. Gold is classified as a noble metal\u2014because it does not react with most elements. It usually is found in its native form, lasting indefinitely without oxidization and tarnishing!\n", "Gold has been worked by humans in all cultures where the metal is available, either indigenously or imported, and the history of these activities is extensive. Superbly made objects from the ancient cultures of Africa, Asia, Europe, India, North America, Mesoamerica, and South America grace museums and collections throughout the world. The Copper Age Varna culture (Bulgaria) from the 5th millennium BC is credited with inventing goldsmith (gold metallurgy).[1][2] The associated Varna Necropolis treasure contains the oldest golden jewellery in the world with an approximate age of over 6,000 years.[3][4]\n"], "Q5669": ["Alessandro di Mariano di Vanni Filipepi (c.\u20091445[1] \u2013 May 17, 1510), better known as Sandro Botticelli (/\u02ccb\u0252t\u026a\u02c8t\u0283\u025bli/ BOT-ih-CHEL-ee, Italian: [\u02c8sandro botti\u02c8t\u0283\u025blli]) or simply Botticelli, was an Italian painter of the Early Renaissance. Botticelli's posthumous reputation suffered until the late 19th century, when he was rediscovered by the Pre-Raphaelites who stimulated a reappraisal of his work. Since then, his paintings have been seen to represent the linear grace of late Italian Gothic and some Early Renaissance painting, even though they date from the latter half of the Italian Renaissance period.\n", "In addition to the mythological subjects for which he is best known today, Botticelli painted a wide range of religious subjects (including dozens of renditions of the Madonna and Child, many in the round tondo shape) and also some portraits. His best-known works are The Birth of Venus and Primavera, both in the Uffizi in Florence, which holds many of Botticelli's works.[5] Botticelli lived all his life in the same neighbourhood of Florence; his only significant times elsewhere were the months he spent painting in Pisa in 1474 and the Sistine Chapel in Rome in 1481\u201382.[6]\n", "Only one of Botticelli's paintings, the Mystic Nativity (National Gallery, London) is inscribed with a date (1501), but others can be dated with varying degrees of certainty on the basis of archival records, so the development of his style can be traced with some confidence.  He was an independent master for all the 1470s, which saw his reputation soar. The 1480s were his most successful decade, the one in which his large mythological paintings were completed along with many of his most famous Madonnas.  By the 1490s, his style became more personal and to some extent mannered. His last works show him moving in a direction opposite to that of Leonardo da Vinci (seven years his junior) and the new generation of painters creating the High Renaissance style, and instead returning to a style that many have described as more Gothic or \"archaic\".\n", "Botticelli was born in the city of Florence in a house on the street still called Borgo Ognissanti. He lived in the same area all his life and was buried in his neighbourhood church called Ognissanti (\"All Saints\").  Sandro was one of several children to the tanner Mariano di Vanni d'Amedeo Filipepi and his wife Smeralda Filipepi, and the youngest of the four who survived into adulthood.[7][5] The date of his birth is not known, but his father's tax returns in following years give his age as two in 1447 and thirteen in 1458, meaning he must have been born between 1444 and 1446.[8]\n"], "Q3647660": [], "Q2415504": [], "Q9312623": [], "Q954917": ["He came from a family of stone carvers and stonemasons in Settignano, near Florence. Although his work shows the influence of Donatello, specifically in his use of low reliefs, it is most likely that he received his training in the large Florentine workshop run by Bernardo and Antonio Rossellino.[1]  Desiderio matriculated into the Arte dei Maestri di Pietra e Legname, Florence's guild of Stone and Woodworkers, in 1453[2] and shortly thereafter already was supplying cherub head medallions for the frieze running across the front of the Pazzi Chapel in the second cloisteryard of the Basilica of Santa Croce.\n", "It is rather surprising that he would have received such an important commission as the monumental tomb of Carlo Marsuppini so early in his career. Apparently, his design capabilities and sensitivity to the tactile qualities of marble had already been recognized. In composing this wall tomb for the Basilica of Santa Croce, Desiderio relied upon the precedent set only a few years earlier in Bernardo Rossellino's Tomb of Leonardo Bruni. This seems quite appropriate since Marsuppini had succeeded Bruni in the position of Florentine State Chancellor and had been mentored by him just as Desiderio had received his training from Bernardo Rossellini. In fact, in his design for the tomb, Desiderio was paying homage to Bernardo's example in much the same fashion as Marsuppini did when he had composed the epitaph for the Bruni Tomb. Desiderio took over the essential compositional scheme of an elevated triumphal arch containing a sarcophagus and effigy bier from the Bruni monument but transformed the sobriety of the earlier memorial into a work of heightened decorative fancy. In the Marsuppini tomb, Desiderio placed standing children holding heraldic shields on either side of the sarcophagus, draped long festoons from an ornate candelabra which surmounts the arch of the lunette, and positioned running youths above the pilasters which frame the funeral niche. \n", "In the niche itself, he ignored the symbolism of the Trinity by using four instead of three panels as the backdrop for the sarcophagus. To increase the visibility of the deceased scholar and statesman, he tilted Marsuppini's effigy forward toward the viewer and carved elaborate floral decorations on the rounded corners of the lion-footed sarcophagus. The motifs used are all somewhat classical in inspiration and the total effect is light and charming, even joyous, if somewhat unfocused.\n", "In 1461 he finished a tabernacle intended for installation either in the Sacrament Chapel in San Lorenzo, dedicated to the Medici family saints, Cosmas and Damien, located in the left transept of the church; or, more likely, it was first installed in the main chapel choir.[3]\n"], "Q50001": ["Italians (Italian: italiani, Italian: [ita\u02c8lja\u02d0ni]) are a nation and ethnic group native to the Italian geographical region.[44] Italians share a common culture, history, ancestry and usage of Italian language. Their predecessors differ regionally, but generally include native populations such as the Etruscans, the Rhaetians, the Ligurians, the Adriatic Veneti, and the Italic peoples, including the Latins, from which the Romans emerged and helped create and evolve the modern Italian identity.[45][46][47][48] Foreign influences include the ancient Greeks in Magna Graecia, and the Phoenicians, who had a presence in Sicily and Sardinia, the Celts, who settled in parts of the north, the Germanics and the Slavs. Legally, Italian nationals are citizens of Italy, regardless of ancestry or nation of residence (in effect, however, Italian nationality is largely based on jus sanguinis) and may be distinguished from ethnic Italians in general or from people of Italian descent without Italian citizenship and ethnic Italians living in territories adjacent to the Italian peninsula without Italian citizenship.[49][50] The Latin equivalent of the term Italian had been in use for natives of the geographical region since antiquity.[51]\n", "The majority of Italian nationals are native speakers of the country's official language, Italian, a Romance language of the Indo-European language family that evolved from the Vulgar Latin, or a variety thereof, that is regional Italian. However, many of them also speak a regional or minority language native to Italy, the existence of which predates the national language.[52][53] Although there is disagreement on the total number, according to UNESCO, there are approximately 30 languages native to Italy, although many are often misleadingly referred to as \"Italian dialects\".[54][47][55][56]\n", "Since 2017, in addition to the approximately 55 million Italians in Italy (91% of the Italian national population),[1][57] Italian-speaking autonomous groups are found in neighboring nations; about a half million are in Switzerland,[58] as well as in France,[59] the entire population of San Marino. In addition, there are also clusters of Italian speakers in the former Yugoslavia, primarily in Istria, located between in modern Croatia and Slovenia (see: Istrian Italians), and Dalmatia, located in present-day Croatia and Montenegro (see: Dalmatian Italians). Due to the wide-ranging diaspora following Italian unification in 1861, World War I and World War II, (with over 5 million Italian citizens that live outside of Italy)[60] over 80 million people abroad claim full or partial Italian ancestry.[61] This includes about 60% of Argentina's population (Italian Argentines),[62][63] 44% of Uruguayans (Italian Uruguayans),[18] 15% of Brazilians (Italian Brazilians, the largest Italian community outside Italy),[64] more than 18 million Italian Americans, and people in other parts of Europe (e.g. Italians in Germany, Italians in France and Italians in the United Kingdom), the American Continent (such as Italian Venezuelans, Italian Canadians, Italian Colombians and Italians in Paraguay, among others), Australasia (Italian Australians and Italian New Zealanders), and to a lesser extent in the Middle East (Italians in the United Arab Emirates).\n", "Italians have influenced and contributed to fields like arts and music, science, technology, fashion, cinema, cuisine, restaurants, sports, jurisprudence, banking and business.[65][66][67][68][69] Furthermore, Italian people are generally known for their attachment to their locale, expressed in the form of either regionalism or municipalism.[70]\n"], "Q501204": [], "Q473237": ["The Equestrian statue of Bartolomeo Colleoni is a Renaissance sculpture in Campo Santi Giovanni e Paolo, Venice, Italy, created by Andrea del Verrocchio in 1480\u20131488. Portraying the condottiero Bartolomeo Colleoni (who served for a long time under the Republic of Venice), it has a height of 395 cm excluding the pedestal. It is the second major equestrian statue of the Italian Renaissance, after Donatello's equestrian statue of Gattamelata (1453).\n", "In 1475, the Condottiero Colleoni, a former Captain General of the Republic of Venice, died and by his will left a substantial part of his estate to the Republic on condition that a statue of himself should be commissioned and set up in the Piazza San Marco. In 1479 the Republic announced that it would accept the legacy, but that (as statues were not permitted  in the Piazza) the statue would be placed in the open space in front of the Scuola of San Marco. A competition was arranged to enable a sculptor to be selected. Three sculptors competed for the contract, Verrocchio from Florence, Alessandro Leopardi from Venice and Bartolomeo Vellano from Padua. Verrocchio made a model of his proposed sculpture using wood and black leather, while the others made models of wax and terracotta. The three models were exhibited in Venice in 1483 and the contract was awarded to Verrocchio. He then opened a workshop in Venice and made the final wax model which was ready to be cast in bronze, but he died in 1488, before this was done. \n", "He had asked that his pupil Lorenzo di Credi, who was then in charge of his workshop in Florence,  should be entrusted with the finishing of the statue, but the Venetian state after considerable delay commissioned Alessandro Leopardi to do this. In 1496, the statue was erected on a pedestal made by Leopardi in the Campo SS. Giovanni e Paolo, where it stands today.[1][2]\n", "Verrocchio based the sculpture on Donatello's statue of Gattamelata, as well as on  the ancient statue of Marcus Aurelius in  Rome, the St. Mark's Horses in Venice, the Regisole (a late antiquity work in Pavia, now lost), and the frescoes of the Funerary Monument to Sir John Hawkwood by Paolo Uccello and of the  Equestrian Monument of Niccol\u00f2 da Tolentino by Andrea del Castagno.\n"]}

data/text_file_v1_1250.json

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+{"Q18683108": [], "Q55584936": [], "Q28803089": [], "Q16875712": ["The OED dates the first express use of the term \"animal painter\" to the mid-18th century: by English physician, naturalist and writer John Berkenhout (1726-1791).[2] From the early 20th century, wildlife artist became a more usual term for contemporary animal painters.[3]\n", "Especially in the 17th century, animal painters would often collaborate with other artists, who would either paint the main subject in a historical or mythological piece, or the landscape background in a decorative one. Frans Snyders, a founder of the Baroque animal painting tradition, often provided the animals, and also still lifes of food, for Peter Paul Rubens; a different landscape specialist might provide the background.[4]  The paintings by Snyders and his workshop alone typically lack humans, except in kitchen scenes, and usually show a number of animals of different species (or breeds of dog).  There are about equal numbers of paintings of dead animals, usually in a kitchen setting or as hunting trophies in a landscape, and of live ones, often in ferocious combat.\n", "In the Dutch Golden Age such specialists tended to produce smaller genre paintings concentrating on their specialism.[5] Animal painters came lower down in the hierarchy of genres, but the best painters could make a very good living; many royal and aristocratic patrons were more interested in their subject matter than that of the more prestigious genres. Mainly in England, there were still more specialised painters from the 18th century who produced portraits of racehorses and prize specimens of livestock,[6] whereas in France animal subjects continued to be decorative capriccios often set around garden statuary.\n", "Animalier, as a collective plural noun, is a term used in antiques for small-scale sculptures of animals in particular (animalier bronzes), but also paintings of animals. Large numbers of these were produced - often mass-produced - in the 19th century in France and elsewhere. Many earlier examples can be found, but animalier sculpture became more popular, and reputable, in early 19th century Paris, with the works of Antoine-Louis Barye (1795-1875) - for whom the term was coined, decisively, by critics in 1831[8] - and Christopher Fratin (1801-1864).[9] By the mid 19th-century, a taste for animal subjects was widespread among the middle-classes.[10]\n"], "Q18177306": ["The name derives from the Greek word \u1f00\u03bd\u03ae\u03c1 (an\u0113r), genitive \u1f00\u03bd\u03b4\u03c1\u03cc\u03c2 (andr\u00f3s), that refers to man as opposed to woman (whereas man in the sense of human being is \u1f04\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03c2, \u00e1nthropos). The original male Greek name, Andr\u00e9as, represents the hypocoristic, with endearment functions, of male Greek names composed with the andr- prefix, like Androgeos (man of the earth), Androcles (man of glory), Andronikos (man of victory).\n", "In the year 2006, it was the third most popular name in Italy with 3.1% of newborns.[1] It is one of the Italian male names ending in a, with others being Elia (Elias), Enea (Aeneas), Luca (Lucas), Mattia (Matthias), Nicola (Nicholas), Tobia (Tobias). In recent and past times it has also been used on occasion as a female name in Italy and in Spain, where it is considered the legitimate feminine form of Andr\u00e9s/Andreo/Andreu (Andrew).[citation needed] Outside of Italy, the name is generally considered a female name.\n"], "Q1059211": [], "Q1635039": ["Tobias and the Angel is the title given to paintings and other artworks depicting a scene from the Book of Tobit in which Tobias, son of Tobit, meets an angel without realising he is an angel (5.5\u20136) and is then instructed by the angel what to do with a giant fish he catches (6.2\u20139).\n"], "Q983275": ["\nFrancesco Botticini (real name Francesco di Giovanni, 1446 \u2013 16 January 1498[1]) was an Italian painter of the  Early Renaissance. He was born in Florence, where he remained active until his death in 1498. Although there are only few documented works by Botticini, a considerable corpus has been confidently attributed to him on the basis of style including a number of altarpieces, dozens of small-scale religious panels and a few portraits.[2][3]\n", "\nBotticini was born in Florence in 1446. His father was Giovanni di Domenico di Piero, a naibaio, or painter of playing cards, from whom he probably received his initial artistic training. By 22 July 1459 was a salaried assistant in the workshop of Neri di Bicci. Botticini left Neri's workshop in 24 July 1460. He eventually came into contact with Andrea del Verrocchio, in whose workshop he would have met Leonardo da Vinci, Lorenzo di Credi, Domenico Ghirlandaio, and Pietro Perugino. Though Botticini's presence in Verrocchio's studio is not documented, it is often inferred on the basis of style. Botticini opened his own workshop by 1469, as reported in an arbitration document from that year.[4][2][5] He remained close with his father, who oversaw his working contracts until 1475, when he filed for emancipation. The emancipation was granted in 1477, according to legal records.[4] ", "Botticini's earliest works include the Saint Nicholas and Four Female Saints at the National Museum of Western Art, Tokyo, a Saint Sebastian at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York,[6] and a Madonna adoring the Child at the Birmingham Museum of Art in Alabama.[7] His earliest dated work is an altarpiece of the Madonna and Child with Saints Sebastian, Pancras, Sebastian and Peter (1471) at the Mus\u00e9e Jacquemart-Andr\u00e9, Paris, which is painted under the strong influence of Verrocchio. The Saint Monica Enthroned with Augustinian Nuns in Santo Spirito, Florence, is usually dated-also dated-to this year, as is the famous Three Archangels with the Young Tobias at the Uffizi.\n", "\nBy 1475 Botticini had developed a more personal style, which he first expressed in his most famous work, the large Assumption of the Virgin at the National Gallery, London.[8] Wrongly attributed Botticelli in Giorgio Vasari's Lives of the Artists, this painting has been unanimously attributed to Botticini since the early twentieth century. The attribution is corroborated by extant documents, which state how the painting was begun in 1475 and completed in 1477.[9][4]  The picture was commissioned by the poet Matteo Palmieri and his wife Niccolosa, presumably for their burial chapel in the now-destroyed church of San Pier Maggiore, Florence. However, some scholars believe it was instead intended for Palmieri's chapel in the Badia Fiesolana (outside Florence) because the dimensions are almost the same as Hans Memling's Last Judgment, a work initially intended for the Badia but later stolen and taken to Gdansk, Poland. Several preparatory drawings for Botticini's altarpiece survive in various collections.[10]"], "Q40749908": [], "Q1840507": []}

data/text_file_v1_1260.json

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+{"Q29527347": [], "Q124324280": [], "Q124355862": [], "Q99355047": [], "Q42864939": [], "Q36387": ["Medieval Greek (also known as Middle Greek, Byzantine Greek, or Romaic) is the stage of the Greek language between the end of classical antiquity in the 5th\u20136th centuries and the end of the Middle Ages, conventionally dated to the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453.\n", "From the 7th century onwards, Greek was the only language of administration and government in the Byzantine Empire. This stage of language is thus described as Byzantine Greek. The study of the Medieval Greek language and literature is a branch of Byzantine studies, the study of the history and culture of the Byzantine Empire.\n", "The beginning of Medieval Greek is occasionally dated back to as early as the 4th century, either to 330 AD, when the political centre of the Roman Empire was moved to Constantinople, or to 395 AD, the division of the empire. However, this approach is rather arbitrary as it is more an assumption of political, as opposed to cultural and linguistic, developments. Indeed, by this time the spoken language, particularly pronunciation, had already shifted towards modern forms.[1]\n", "The conquests of Alexander the Great, and the ensuing Hellenistic period, had caused Greek to spread to peoples throughout Anatolia and the Eastern Mediterranean, altering the spoken language's pronunciation and structure.\n"], "Q397": ["Latin (lingua Latina, Latin: [\u02c8l\u026a\u014b\u0261\u02b7a \u026ba\u02c8ti\u02d0na], or Latinum, Latin: [\u026ba\u02c8ti\u02d0n\u028a\u0303]) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Considered a dead language, Latin was originally spoken in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area around Rome.[1] Through the expansion of the Roman Republic it became the dominant language in the Italian Peninsula and subsequently throughout the Roman Empire. Even after the fall of Western Rome, Latin remained the common language of international communication, science, scholarship and academia in Europe until well into the 18th century, when regional vernaculars (including its own descendants, the Romance languages) supplanted it in common academic and political usage. For most of the time it was used, it would be considered a dead language in the modern linguistic definition; that is, it lacked native speakers, despite being used extensively and actively.\n", "Latin is a highly inflected language, with three distinct genders (masculine, feminine, and neuter), seven noun cases (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, ablative, vocative, and vestigial locative), five declensions, four verb conjugations, six tenses (present, imperfect, future, perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect), three persons, three moods, two voices (passive and active), two or three aspects, and two numbers (singular and plural). The Latin alphabet is directly derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets.\n", "By the late Roman Republic (75 BC), Old Latin had evolved into standardized Classical Latin. Vulgar Latin was the colloquial register with less prestigious variations attested in inscriptions and some literary works such as those of the comic playwrights Plautus and Terence[2] and author Petronius. Late Latin is the literary language from the 3rd century AD onwards, and Vulgar Latin's various regional dialects had developed by the 6th to 9th centuries into the ancestors of the modern Romance languages.\n", "In Latin's usage beyond the early medieval period, it lacked native speakers. Medieval Latin was used across Western and Catholic Europe during the Middle Ages as a working and literary language from the 9th century to the Renaissance, which then developed a classicizing form, called Renaissance Latin. This was the basis for Neo-Latin which evolved during the early modern period. In these periods Latin was used productively and generally taught to be written and spoken, at least until the late seventeenth century, when spoken skills began to erode. It then became increasingly taught only to be read.\n"], "Q12544": ["The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire centered in Constantinople during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages. The eastern half of the Empire survived the conditions that caused the fall of the West in the 5th century AD, and continued to exist until the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453. During most of its existence, the empire remained the most powerful economic, cultural, and military force in the Mediterranean world. The term \"Byzantine Empire\" was only coined following the empire's demise; its citizens referred to the polity as the \"Roman Empire\" and to themselves as \"Romans\".[a] Due to the imperial seat's move from Rome to Byzantium, the adoption of state Christianity, and the predominance of Greek instead of Latin, modern historians continue to make a distinction between the earlier \"Roman Empire\" and the later \"Byzantine Empire\".\n", "During the earlier Pax Romana period, the western parts of the empire became increasingly Latinised, while the eastern parts largely retained their preexisting Hellenistic culture. This created a dichotomy between the Greek East and Latin West. These cultural spheres continued to diverge after Constantine I (r.\u2009324\u2013337) moved the capital to Constantinople and legalised Christianity. Under Theodosius I (r.\u2009379\u2013395), Christianity became the state religion, and other religious practices were proscribed. Greek gradually replaced Latin for official use as Latin fell into disuse.\n", "The empire experienced several cycles of decline and recovery throughout its history, reaching its greatest extent after the fall of the west during the reign of Justinian I (r.\u2009527\u2013565), who briefly reconquered much of Italy and the western Mediterranean coast. The appearance of plague and a devastating war with Persia exhausted the empire's resources; the early Muslim conquests that followed saw the loss of the empire's richest provinces\u2014Egypt and Syria\u2014to the Rashidun Caliphate. In 698, Africa was lost to the Umayyad Caliphate, but the empire subsequently stabilised under the Isaurian dynasty. The empire was able to expand once more under the Macedonian dynasty, experiencing a two-century-long renaissance. This came to an end in 1071, with the defeat by the Seljuk Turks at the Battle of Manzikert. Thereafter, periods of civil war and Seljuk incursion resulted in the loss of most of Asia Minor. The empire recovered during the Komnenian restoration, and Constantinople would remain the largest and wealthiest city in Europe until the 13th century.\n", "The empire was dissolved in 1204, following the sack of Constantinople by Latin armies at the end of the Fourth Crusade; its former territories were then divided into competing Greek and Latin realms. Despite the eventual recovery of Constantinople in 1261, the reconstituted empire would wield only regional power during its final two centuries of existence. Its remaining territories were progressively annexed by the Ottomans in perennial wars fought throughout the 14th and 15th centuries. The fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453 ultimately brought the empire to an end. Many refugees who had fled the city after its capture settled in Italy and throughout Europe, helping to ignite the Renaissance. The fall of Constantinople is sometimes used to mark the dividing line between the Middle Ages and the early modern period.\n"], "Q9592": ["The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.378\u00a0billion baptized Catholics worldwide as of 2021.[update][4][7] It is among the world's oldest and largest international institutions, and has played a prominent role in the history and development of Western civilization.[8][9][10][11] The church consists of 24 sui iuris churches, including the Latin Church and 23 Eastern Catholic Churches, which comprise almost 3,500[12] dioceses and eparchies located around the world. The pope, who is the bishop of Rome, is the chief pastor of the church.[13] The Diocese of Rome, known as the Holy See, is the central governing authority of the church. The administrative body of the Holy See, the Roman Curia, has its principal offices in Vatican City, a small independent city-state and enclave within the Italian capital city of Rome, of which the pope is head of state.\n", "The core beliefs of Catholicism are found in the Nicene Creed. The Catholic Church teaches that it is the one, holy, catholic and apostolic church founded by Jesus Christ in his Great Commission,[14][15][note 1] that its bishops are the successors of Christ's apostles, and that the pope is the successor to Saint Peter, upon whom primacy was conferred by Jesus Christ.[18] It maintains that it practises the original Christian faith taught by the apostles, preserving the faith infallibly through scripture and sacred tradition as authentically interpreted through the magisterium of the church.[19] The Roman Rite and others of the Latin Church, the Eastern Catholic liturgies, and institutes such as mendicant orders, enclosed monastic orders and third orders reflect a variety of theological and spiritual emphases in the church.[20][21]\n", "Of its seven sacraments, the Eucharist is the principal one, celebrated liturgically in the Mass.[22] The church teaches that through consecration by a priest, the sacrificial bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ. The Virgin Mary is venerated as the Perpetual Virgin, Mother of God, and Queen of Heaven; she is honoured in dogmas and devotions.[23] Catholic social teaching emphasizes voluntary support for the sick, the poor, and the afflicted through the corporal and spiritual works of mercy. The Catholic Church operates tens of thousands of Catholic schools, universities and colleges, hospitals, and orphanages around the world, and is the largest non-government provider of education and health care in the world.[24] Among its other social services are numerous charitable and humanitarian organizations.\n", "The Catholic Church has profoundly influenced Western philosophy, culture, art, literature, music, and science.[11] Catholics live all over the world through missions, colonization, diaspora, and conversions. Since the 20th century, the majority have resided in the Southern Hemisphere, partially due to secularization in Europe and increased persecution in the Middle East. The Catholic Church shared communion with the Eastern Orthodox Church until the East\u2013West Schism in 1054, disputing particularly the authority of the pope. Before the Council of Ephesus in AD 431, the Church of the East also shared in this communion, as did the Oriental Orthodox Churches before the Council of Chalcedon in AD 451; all separated primarily over differences in Christology. The Eastern Catholic Churches, who have a combined membership of approximately 18 million, represent a body of Eastern Christians who returned or remained in communion with the pope during or following these schisms for a variety of historical circumstances. In the 16th century, the Reformation led to Protestantism also breaking away.  From the late 20th century, the Catholic Church has been criticized for its teachings on sexuality, its doctrine against ordaining women, and its handling of sexual abuse cases involving clergy.\n"], "Q35497": ["Ancient Greek includes the forms of the Greek language used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around 1500 BC to 300 BC. It is often roughly divided into the following periods: Mycenaean Greek (c.\u20091400\u20131200 BC), Dark Ages (c.\u20091200\u2013800 BC), the Archaic or Epic period (c.\u2009800\u2013500 BC), and the Classical period (c.\u2009500\u2013300 BC).[1]\n", "Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of fifth-century Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers. It has contributed many words to English vocabulary and has been a standard subject of study in educational institutions of the Western world since the Renaissance. This article primarily contains information about the Epic and Classical periods of the language, which are the best-attested periods and considered most typical of Ancient Greek.\n", "From the Hellenistic period (c.\u2009300 BC), Ancient Greek was followed by Koine Greek, which is regarded as a separate historical stage, though its earliest form closely resembles Attic Greek, and its latest form approaches Medieval Greek. There were several regional dialects of Ancient Greek; Attic Greek developed into Koine.\n", "Ancient Greek was a pluricentric language, divided into many dialects. The main dialect groups are Attic and Ionic, Aeolic, Arcadocypriot, and Doric, many of them with several subdivisions. Some dialects are found in standardized literary forms in literature, while others are attested only in inscriptions.\n"]}

data/text_file_v1_1270.json

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+{"Q9129": [], "Q34178": ["Theology is the study of religious belief from a religious perspective. More narrowly it is the study of the nature of the divine. It is taught as an academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries.[1] It occupies itself with the unique content of analyzing the supernatural, but also deals with religious epistemology, asks and seeks to answer the question of revelation. Revelation pertains to the acceptance of God, gods, or deities, as not only transcendent or above the natural world, but also willing and able to interact with the natural world and to reveal themselves to humankind.\n", "Theologians use various forms of analysis and argument (experiential, philosophical, ethnographic, historical, and others) to help understand, explain, test, critique, defend or promote any myriad of religious topics. As in philosophy of ethics and case law, arguments often assume the existence of previously resolved questions, and develop by making analogies from them to draw new inferences in new situations.\n", "The study of theology may help a theologian more deeply understand their own religious tradition,[2] another religious tradition,[3] or it may enable them to explore the nature of divinity without reference to any specific tradition. Theology may be used to propagate,[4] reform,[5] or justify a religious tradition; or it may be used to compare,[6] challenge (e.g. biblical criticism), or oppose (e.g. irreligion) a religious tradition or worldview. Theology might also help a theologian address some present situation or need through a religious tradition,[7] or to explore possible ways of interpreting the world.[8]\n", "The term derives from the Greek theologia (\u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03af\u03b1), a combination of theos (\u0398\u03b5\u03cc\u03c2, 'god') and logia (\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03af\u03b1, 'utterances, sayings, oracles')\u2014the latter word relating to Greek logos (\u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2, 'word, discourse, account, reasoning').[9][10] The term would pass on to Latin as theologia, then French as th\u00e9ologie, eventually becoming the English theology.\n"], "Q192374": ["Marsilio Ficino (Italian: [mar\u02c8si\u02d0ljo fi\u02c8t\u0283i\u02d0no]; Latin name: Marsilius Ficinus; 19 October 1433\u20131 October 1499) was an Italian scholar and Catholic priest who was one of the most influential humanist philosophers of the early Italian Renaissance. He was an astrologer, a reviver of Neoplatonism in touch with the major academics of his day, and the first translator of Plato's complete extant works into Latin.[2] His Florentine Academy, an attempt to revive Plato's Academy, influenced the direction and tenor of the Italian Renaissance and the development of European philosophy.\n", "Ficino was born at Figline Valdarno. His father, Diotifeci d'Agnolo, was a physician under the patronage of Cosimo de' Medici, who took the young man into his household and became the lifelong patron of Marsilio, who was made tutor to his grandson, Lorenzo de' Medici. Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, the Italian humanist philosopher and scholar, was another of his students.[citation needed]\n", "During the sessions at Florence of the Council of Ferrara-Florence in 1438\u20131445, during the failed attempts to heal the schism of the Eastern (Orthodox) and Western (Catholic) churches, Cosimo de' Medici and his intellectual circle had made acquaintance with the Neoplatonic philosopher George Gemistos Plethon, whose discourses upon Plato and the Alexandrian mystics so fascinated the humanists of Florence that they named him the second Plato. In 1459 John Argyropoulos was lecturing on Greek language and literature at Florence, and Ficino became his pupil.[3]\n", "When Cosimo decided to refound Plato's Academy at Florence, he chose Ficino as its head. In 1462, Cosimo supplied Ficino with Greek manuscripts of Plato's work, whereupon Ficino started translating the entire corpus into Latin[4] (draft translation of the dialogues finished 1468\u20139;[5] published 1484). Ficino also produced a translation of a collection of Hellenistic Greek documents found by Leonardo da Pistoia later called Hermetica,[6] and the writings of many of the Neoplatonists, including Porphyry, Iamblichus, and Plotinus.\n"], "Q81009": ["Rhetoric (/\u02c8r\u025bt\u0259r\u026ak/) is the art of persuasion. It is one of the three ancient arts of discourse (trivium) along with grammar and logic/dialectic. As an academic discipline within the humanities, rhetoric aims to study the techniques that speakers or writers use to inform, persuade, and motivate their audiences.[1] Rhetoric also provides heuristics for understanding, discovering, and developing arguments for particular situations.\n", "Aristotle defined rhetoric as \"the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion\", and since mastery of the art was necessary for victory in a case at law, for passage of proposals in the assembly, or for fame as a speaker in civic ceremonies, he called it \"a combination of the science of logic and of the ethical branch of politics\".[2] Aristotle also identified three persuasive audience appeals: logos, pathos, and ethos. The five canons of rhetoric, or phases of developing a persuasive speech, were first codified in classical Rome: invention, arrangement, style, memory, and delivery.\n", "Scholars have debated the scope of rhetoric since ancient times. Although some have limited rhetoric to the specific realm of political discourse, to many modern scholars it encompasses every aspect of culture. Contemporary studies of rhetoric address a much more diverse range of domains than was the case in ancient times. While classical rhetoric trained speakers to be effective persuaders in public forums and in institutions such as courtrooms and assemblies, contemporary rhetoric investigates human discourse writ large. Rhetoricians have studied the discourses of a wide variety of domains, including the natural and social sciences, fine art, religion, journalism, digital media, fiction, history, cartography, and architecture, along with the more traditional domains of politics and the law.[5]\n", "Because the ancient Greeks valued public political participation, rhetoric emerged as an important curriculum for those desiring to influence politics. Rhetoric is still associated with its political origins. However, even the original instructors of Western speech\u2014the Sophists\u2014disputed this limited view of rhetoric. According to Sophists like Gorgias, a successful rhetorician could speak convincingly on a topic in any field, regardless of his experience in that field. This suggested rhetoric could be a means of communicating any expertise, not just politics. In his Encomium to Helen, Gorgias even applied rhetoric to fiction by seeking, for his amusement, to prove the blamelessness of the mythical Helen of Troy in starting the Trojan War.[6]\n"], "Q16869": ["Constantinople[a] (see other names) became the capital of the Roman Empire during the reign of Constantine the Great in 330. Following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the late 5th century, Constantinople remained the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire (also known as the Byzantine Empire; 330\u20131204 and 1261\u20131453), the Latin Empire (1204\u20131261), and the Ottoman Empire (1453\u20131922). Following the Turkish War of Independence, the Turkish capital then moved to Ankara. Officially renamed Istanbul in 1930, the city is today the largest city in Europe, straddling the Bosporus strait and lying in both Europe and Asia, and the financial centre of Turkey.\n", "In 324, after the Western and Eastern Roman Empires were reunited, the ancient city of Byzantium was selected to serve as the new capital of the Roman Empire, and the city was renamed Nova Roma, or 'New Rome', by Emperor Constantine the Great. On 11 May 330, it was renamed Constantinople and dedicated to Constantine.[6] Constantinople is generally considered to be the center and the \"cradle of Orthodox Christian civilization\".[7][8] From the mid-5th century to the early 13th century, Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest city in Europe.[9] The city became famous for its architectural masterpieces, such as Hagia Sophia, the cathedral of the Eastern Orthodox Church, which served as the seat of the Ecumenical Patriarchate; the sacred Imperial Palace, where the emperors lived; the Hippodrome; the Golden Gate of the Land Walls; and opulent aristocratic palaces. The University of Constantinople was founded in the 5th century and contained artistic and literary treasures before it was sacked in 1204 and 1453,[10] including its vast Imperial Library which contained the remnants of the Library of Alexandria and had 100,000 volumes.[11] The city was the home of the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople and guardian of Christendom's holiest relics such as the Crown of thorns and the True Cross.\n", "Constantinople was famous for its massive and complex fortifications, which ranked among the most sophisticated defensive architecture of antiquity. The Theodosian Walls consisted of a double wall lying about 2 kilometres (1.2\u00a0mi) to the west of the first wall and a moat with palisades in front.[12] Constantinople's location between the Golden Horn and the Sea of Marmara reduced the land area that needed defensive walls. The city was built intentionally to rival Rome, and it was claimed that several elevations within its walls matched Rome's 'seven hills'.[13] The impenetrable defenses enclosed magnificent palaces, domes, and towers, the result of prosperity Constantinople achieved as the gateway between two continents (Europe and Asia) and two seas (the Mediterranean and the Black Sea). Although besieged on numerous occasions by various armies, the defenses of Constantinople proved impenetrable for nearly nine hundred years.\n", "In 1204, however, the armies of the Fourth Crusade took and devastated the city, and for several decades, its inhabitants resided under Latin occupation in a dwindling and depopulated city. In 1261 the Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos liberated the city, and after the restoration under the Palaiologos dynasty, it enjoyed a partial recovery. With the advent of the Ottoman Empire in 1299, the Byzantine Empire began to lose territories, and the city began to lose population. By the early 15th century, the Byzantine Empire was reduced to just Constantinople and its environs, along with Morea in Greece, making it an enclave inside the Ottoman Empire. The city was finally besieged and conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1453, remaining under its control until the early 20th century, after which it was renamed Istanbul under the Empire's successor state, Turkey.\n"], "Q13418253": ["Philology (from Ancient Greek  \u03c6\u03b9\u03bb\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03af\u03b1 (philolog\u00eda)\u00a0'love of word') is the study of language in oral and written historical sources; it is the intersection of textual criticism, literary criticism, history, and linguistics with strong ties to etymology.[1][2][3] Philology is also defined as the study of literary texts and oral and written records, the establishment of their authenticity and their original form, and the determination of their meaning. A person who pursues this kind of study is known as a philologist. In older usage, especially British, philology is more general, covering comparative and historical linguistics.[4][5]\n", "Classical philology studies classical languages. Classical philology principally originated from the Library of Pergamum and the Library of Alexandria[6] around the fourth century BC, continued by Greeks and Romans throughout the Roman and Byzantine Empire. It was eventually resumed by European scholars of the Renaissance, where it was soon joined by philologies of other European (Germanic, Celtic), Eurasian (Slavistics, etc.), Asian (Arabic, Persian, Sanskrit, Chinese, etc.), and African (Egyptian, Nubian, etc.) languages. Indo-European studies involve the comparative philology of all Indo-European languages.\n", "Philology, with its focus on historical development (diachronic analysis), is contrasted with linguistics due to Ferdinand de Saussure's insistence on the importance of synchronic analysis. While the contrast continued with the emergence of structuralism and the emphasis of Noam Chomsky on syntax, research in historical linguistics often relies on philological materials and findings.\n", "The term philology is derived from the Greek \u03c6\u03b9\u03bb\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03af\u03b1 (philolog\u00eda),[7] from the terms \u03c6\u03af\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 (ph\u00edlos) 'love, affection, loved, beloved, dear, friend' and \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 (l\u00f3gos) 'word, articulation, reason', describing a love of learning, of literature, as well as of argument and reasoning, reflecting the range of activities included under the notion of \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2. The term changed little with the Latin philologia, and later entered the English language in the 16th century, from the Middle French philologie, in the sense of 'love of literature'.\n"], "Q61067": ["Johann Reuchlin (German: [\u02c8jo\u02d0han \u02c8\u0281\u0254\u028f\u00e7l\u026an]; 29 January 1455 \u2013 30 June 1522), sometimes called Johannes, was a German Catholic humanist and a scholar of Greek and Hebrew, whose work also took him to modern-day Austria, Switzerland, Italy, and France. Most of Reuchlin's career centered on advancing German knowledge of Greek and Hebrew.\n", "Johann Reuchlin was born at Pforzheim in the Black Forest in 1455, where his father was an official of the Dominican monastery.[2]  According to the fashion of the time, his name was graecized by his Italian friends into Capnion (\u039a\u03b1\u03c0\u03bd\u03af\u03c9\u03bd), a nickname which Reuchlin used as a sort of transparent mask when he introduced himself as an interlocutor in the De Verbo Mirifico. He remained fond of his home town; he constantly calls himself Phorcensis, and in the De Verbo he ascribes to Pforzheim his inclination towards literature.[2]\n", "Here he began his Latin studies in the monastery school, and, though in 1470 he was for a short time at Freiburg, that university seems to have taught him little.[2] Reuchlin's career as a scholar appears to have turned almost on an accident; his fine voice gained him a place in the household of Charles I, Margrave of Baden, and soon, having some reputation as a Latinist, he was chosen to accompany Frederick, the third son of the prince, to the University of Paris.[citation needed] Frederick was some years his junior, and was destined for an ecclesiastical career. This new connection did not last long, but it determined the course of Reuchlin's life. He now began to learn Greek, which had been taught in the French capital since 1470, and he also attached himself to the leader of the Paris realists, Jean \u00e0 Lapide (d. 1496), a worthy and learned man, whom he followed to the vigorous young University of Basel in 1474.[2]\n", "At Basel Reuchlin took his master's degree (1477), and began to lecture with success, teaching a more classical Latin than was then common in German schools, and explaining Aristotle in Greek.[2] His studies in this language had been continued at Basel under Andronicus Contoblacas.[3] In Basel he made the acquaintance of the bookseller Johann Amerbach, for whom he prepared a Latin lexicon (Vocabularius Breviloquus, 1st ed, 1475\u201376), which ran through many editions. This first publication, and Reuchlin's account of his teaching at Basel in a letter to Cardinal Adrian (Adriano Castellesi) in February 1518, show that he had already found his life's work. He was a born teacher, and this work was not to be done mainly from the professor's chair.\n"], "Q356513": ["Jacques Lef\u00e8vre d'\u00c9taples (Latinized as Jacobus Faber Stapulensis; c. 1455 \u2013 c. 1536) was a French theologian and a leading figure in French humanism. He was a precursor of the Protestant movement in France. The \"d'\u00c9taples\" was not part of his name as such, but used to distinguish him from Jacques Lef\u00e8vre of Deventer, a less significant contemporary who was a friend and correspondent of Erasmus.  Both are also sometimes called by the German version of their name, Jacob/Jakob Faber.  He himself had a sometimes tense relationship with Erasmus, whose work on Biblical translation and in theology closely paralleled his own.[1]\n", "Although he anticipated some ideas that were important to the Protestant Reformation, Lef\u00e8vre remained a Roman Catholic throughout his life, and sought to reform the Church without separating from it. Several of his books were condemned as heretical, and he spent some time in exile. He was, however, a favorite of the King of France, Francis I, and enjoyed his protection.\n", "He was born of humble parents at \u00c9taples, in Picardy, but appears later to have been possessed of considerable means. He had already been ordained a priest when he entered the University of Paris for higher education. Hermonymus of Sparta was his master in Greek.[2]\n", "He visited Italy before 1486, for he heard the lectures of John Argyropoulos, who died in that year; he formed a friendship with Paulus Aemilius of Verona. In 1492 he again travelled in Italy, studying in Florence, Rome and Venice, making himself familiar with the writings of Aristotle, though greatly influenced by the Platonic philosophy.[2] Returning to the University of Paris, he became the director of the Coll\u00e8ge du Cardinal Lemoine.[3] Among his famous pupils were Beatus Rhenanus,[3] Fran\u00e7ois Vatable, Charles de Bovelles, and Guillaume Farel; his connection with the last drew him closer to the Calvinistic side of the movement of reform.[2] Farel joined Lef\u00e8vre at Meaux to help in the training of preachers, before Farel left for Switzerland where he was one of the founders of the Reformed churches.\n"], "Q220313": ["Georgios Gemistos Plethon (Greek: \u0393\u03b5\u03ce\u03c1\u03b3\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2 \u0393\u03b5\u03bc\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2 \u03a0\u03bb\u03ae\u03b8\u03c9\u03bd; Latin: Georgius Gemistus Pletho c.\u20091355/1360 \u2013 1452/1454), commonly known as Gemistos Plethon, was a Greek scholar[4] and one of the most renowned philosophers of the late Byzantine era.[5] He was a chief pioneer of the revival of Greek scholarship in Western Europe.[6] As revealed in his last literary work, the Nomoi or Book of Laws, which he circulated only among close friends, he rejected Christianity in favour of a return to the worship of the classical Hellenic gods, mixed with ancient wisdom based on Zoroaster and the Magi.[7]\n", "In 1438\u20131439 he reintroduced Plato's ideas to Western Europe during the Council of Florence, in a failed attempt to reconcile the East\u2013West schism. There,[8] Plethon met and influenced Cosimo de' Medici to found a new Platonic Academy, which, under Marsilio Ficino, proceeded to translate into Latin all of Plato's works, the Enneads of Plotinus, and various other Neoplatonist works.\n", "Plethon also formulated his political vision in several speeches throughout his life. The boast in one of the speeches that \"We are Hellenes by race and culture\" and his proposal of a reborn Byzantine Empire following a utopian Hellenic system of government centered in Mystras, have generated discussion about Byzantine and modern Greek identity.[9] In this regard, Plethon has been labelled both \"the last Hellene\"[10] and \"the first modern Greek\".[11]\n", "Georgios Gemistos Plethon was born in Constantinople in 1355/1360.[12] Raised in a family of well-educated Orthodox Christians,[13] he studied in Constantinople and Adrianople, before returning to Constantinople and establishing himself as a teacher of philosophy.[14] Adrianople, the Ottoman capital following its capture by the Ottoman Sultan Murad I in 1365, was a centre of learning modelled by Murad on the caliphates of Cairo and Baghdad.[12] Plethon admired Plato (Greek: Pl\u00e1t\u014dn) so much that late in life he took the similar-meaning name Plethon.[15] Some time before 1410, Emperor Manuel II Paleologos sent him to Mystra in the Despotate of Morea in the southern Peloponnese,[16] which remained his home for the rest of his life. In Constantinople, he had been a senator, and he continued to fulfil various public functions, such as being a judge, and was regularly consulted by rulers of Morea. Despite suspicions of heresy from the Church, he was held in high Imperial favour.[14]\n"], "Q20056508": []}

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+{"Q193510": ["The University of Padua (Italian: Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Padova, UNIPD) is an Italian public research university in Padua, Italy. It was founded in 1222 by a group of students and teachers from the University of Bologna,[2] who previously settled in Vicenza, thus, it is the second-oldest university in Italy, as well as the world's fifth-oldest surviving university.[3]\n", "The University of Padua was one of the most prominent universities in early modern Europe, known particularly for the rigor of its Aristotelean logic and science.[4] Together with the University of Bologna, Padua had a central role in the italian renaissance, housing and educating a number of italian renaissance mathemathicians, amongst them Nicolaus Copernicus. \n", "Today, it is made up of 32 departments and eight schools.[5] Padua is part a network of historical research universities known as the Coimbra Group.[6] In 2021, the university had approximately 72,000 students including undergraduates, postgraduates, and doctoral students.[7]\n", "The university is conventionally said to have been founded in 1222 when a large group of students and professors left the University of Bologna in search of more academic freedom ('Libertas scholastica').  Although it is certain that schools of law and medicine with students from various nations existed near Padua for a few years before 1222, more precisely in Vicenza.  In reality, the first place where this group of students and professors from Bologna settled was at the University of Vicenza, where they were welcomed. Due to various vicissitudes the headquarters was permanently moved to Padua for various reasons. The first subjects to be taught were law and theology. The curriculum expanded rapidly, and by 1399 the institution had divided in two: a Universitas Iuristarum for civil law and Canon law, and a Universitas Artistarum which taught astronomy, dialectic, philosophy, grammar, medicine, and rhetoric. There was also a Universitas Theologorum, established in 1373 by Urban V.\n"], "Q115144005": [], "Q115160303": [], "Q64968842": [], "Q299446": ["Bessarion (Greek: \u0392\u03b7\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u03c1\u03af\u03c9\u03bd; 2 January 1403\u00a0\u2013 18 November 1472) was a Byzantine Greek Renaissance humanist, theologian, Catholic cardinal and one of the famed Greek scholars who contributed to the so-called great revival of letters in the 15th century.[1]\n", "He was educated by Gemistus Pletho in Neoplatonic philosophy and later served as the titular Latin Patriarch of Constantinople. He eventually was named a cardinal and was twice considered for the papacy.[2]\n", "His baptismal name was Basil (Greek: \u0392\u03b1\u03c3\u03af\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2,[3] Basileios[4] or Basilios[5]). The name Bessarion he took when entering the monastery.[6] He has been mistakenly known also as Johannes Bessarion (Italian: Giovanni Bessarione) due to an erroneous interpretation of Gregory III Mammas.\n", "Bessarion was born in Trebizond, the Black Sea port in northeastern Anatolia that was the heart of Pontic Greek culture and civilization during the Byzantine and Ottoman periods. The year of his birth has been given as 1389, 1395 or 1403.[7]\n"], "Q1358738": ["Constantine Lascaris (Greek: \u039a\u03c9\u03bd\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u1fd6\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u039b\u03ac\u03c3\u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03c2 Kostantinos L\u00e1skaris; 1434 \u2013 15 August 1501) was a Greek scholar and grammarian, one of the promoters of the revival of Greek learning in Italy during the Renaissance, born in Constantinople.\n", "Constantine Lascaris was born in Constantinople, where he was educated by the scholar John Argyropoulos, Gemistus Pletho's friend and pupil. After the fall of Constantinople in 1453, he took refuge in Rhodes and then in Italy, where Francesco Sforza, Duke of Milan, appointed him Greek tutor to his daughter Hippolyta. Here was published his Grammatica Graeca, sive compendium octo orationis partium, remarkable as being probably the first book entirely in Greek issued from the printing press, in 1476.[1]\n", "After leaving Milan in 1465, Lascaris taught in Rome and in Naples, to which he had been summoned by Ferdinand I to deliver a course of lectures on Greece. In the following year, on the invitation of the inhabitants, and especially of Ludovico Saccano, he settled in Messina (Sicily). On the recommendation of Cardinal Bessarion, he was appointed to succeed Andronikos Galaziotes to teach Greek to the Basilian monks of the island.  He continued to work in Messina until his death, teaching many pupils who came on purpose to Sicily, from all over Italy, to learn grammar and Greek culture from him.\n", "Among his numerous pupils in Milan was Giorgio Valla and, in Messina, Pietro Bembo, Angelo Gabrieli, Urbano Valeriani, Cola Bruno, Bernardino Rizzo, Francesco Faraone, Antonio Maurolico (the father of Francesco Maurolico), Francesco Giannelli and Crist\u00f3bal Escobar. Lascaris bequeathed his library of valuable manuscripts of philosophy, science and magic to the Senate of Messina; the collection, after the Messina revolt (1674-1678), was confiscated and carried to Spain and is now in the Spanish National Library in Madrid.[1] In the second half of the sixteenth century his tomb in Messina was totally destroyed during the repression of the Counter-Reformation.[2] He was a typical Renaissance humanist, with polymathic interests, but especially in Neoplatonism combined with Pythagoreanism (which was dear to many contemporary Byzantine scholars).[3] Through his pupils Antonio Maurolico, Francesco Faraone and Giacomo Notese-Genovese his knowledge reached the scientist Francesco Maurolico.[4]\n"], "Q1529833": ["Early in 1571 he went to Rome and in the spring of 1575 he went to Venice. In 1571 he married his first cousin Eleonora di Garzia di Toledo, whom he accused of adultery and strangled with a dog leash in July 1576 at the Villa Medici at Cafaggiolo. He also had her supposed lover Bernardino Antinori imprisoned and killed.\n", "At the end of 1577, he went for the first of many stays at the Spanish court. He remained in Spain until the end of 1578. During this visit he gained a reputation as a spendthrift and a rake. He left Tuscany in October 1579 to bring Italian troops to Spain and lead them during the mission to Portugal. He stayed in Lisbon until the end of 1582 when he returned to Spain where his presence is documented in 1583 and 1584.\n", "His correspondence proves that he had serious money problems. He came to Italy in July 1584 to ask his brothers to cover his debts, incurring their disapproval for living with a woman with a questionable reputation. The Medici court tried to arrange a marriage for Pietro. In July 1586 he went back to Spain, where he continued to accumulate debts. He came back to Italy in November 1587 after Francesco I de' Medici's death and stayed until September 1589, when he went back to Spain.\n", "His marriage to Dona Beatriz de Lara, daughter of Manuel de Menezes, the Portuguese Duke of Vila Real, in 1593 did little to stabilize him economically and emotionally. Pietro continued to see his lover Antonia de Carvajal who gave him five children out of wedlock. He also had an illegitimate son with Maria della Ribera.\n"], "Q1519411": ["Chortasmenos is first attested as a notary of the patriarchal chancery in 1391. He continued to occupy this position until c.\u20091415. At some point he became a monk, with the monastic name Ignatios. Eventually he was raised to metropolitan bishop of Selymbria, a post he held by 1431.[1]\n", "An ardent bibliophile, Chortasmenos is notable both as a writer as well as a teacher, counting scholars Mark of Ephesus, Bessarion and Gennadius Scholarius among his pupils.[1] He was the author of philological, historical and philosophical works, as well as at least 56 surviving letters to various literati and to Emperor Manuel II Palaiologos.[1] He wrote a hagiography of Constantine the Great and Helena of Constantinople, commentaries on John Chrysostomos and Aristotle, a treatise on hyphenation, as well as poems.[1]\n", "It has been suggested that he wrote a historical work, now lost, covering the period between the end of the history of Emperor John VI Kantakouzenos and the early 15th century, when the historians who wrote after the Fall of Constantinople started their works with.[1] Herbert Hunger attributed to him an anonymous account of the Ottoman siege of Constantinople in 1394\u20131402, but this was rejected by Paul Gautier.[1]\n", "At least 24 surviving manuscripts are known to have belonged to Chortasmenos' library.[1] Among the more notable is the Juliana Anicia Codex of Dioscurides, which he had restored, rebound, and a table of contents and extensive scholia added in Byzantine Greek minuscule in 1406.[2] Beside the same problem in Diophantus' manuscript[3] next to which Fermat would later write his famous marginalia (Fermat's Last Theorem), Chortasmenos wrote, \"Thy soul, Diophantus, be with Satan because of the difficulty of your other theorems and particularly of the present theorem.\"[4] In 2013, Italian Philologist and historian of Mathematics Fabio Acerbi showed that Chortasmenos wasn't cursing Diophantus because of the same passage next to which Fermat wrote his theorem (II.8), but because of the far more difficult II.7.[5]\n"], "Q3184679": ["Joseph Bryennios (Greek: \u1f38\u03c9\u03c3\u03ae\u03c6 \u0392\u03c1\u03c5\u03ad\u03bd\u03bd\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2; 1350 \u2013 1431/38)) was a learned Byzantine monk of the 15th century. He was a monk at the Monastery of Stoudios. He wrote many important works of scholarship in support of Orthodoxy, and against the Union of Churches. He died sometime between 1431 and 1438.[1][2]\n"], "Q2313213": ["Language education \u2013 the process and practice of teaching a second or foreign language \u2013 is primarily a branch of applied linguistics, but can be an interdisciplinary field.[1][2] There are four main learning categories for language education: communicative competencies, proficiencies, cross-cultural experiences, and multiple literacies.[3]\n", "Increasing globalization has created a great need for people in the workforce who can communicate in multiple languages. Common languages are used in areas such as trade, tourism, diplomacy, technology, media, translation, interpretation and science. Many countries such as Korea (Kim Yeong-seo, 2009), Japan (Kubota, 1998) and China (Kirkpatrick & Zhichang, 2002) frame education policies to teach at least one foreign language at the primary and secondary school levels. However, some countries such as India, Singapore, Malaysia, Pakistan, and the Philippines use a second official language in their governments. According to GAO (2010), China has recently been putting enormous importance on foreign language learning, especially the English language.\n", "Ancient learners seem to have started by reading, memorising and reciting little stories and dialogues that provided basic vocabulary and grammar in naturalistic contexts. These texts (and they seem to have always been coherent texts, never isolated sentences such as modern learners often practise on) covered topics such as getting dressed in the morning (and how to manage the slaves who helped with that task), going to school (and evading punishment for not having been there yesterday), visiting a sick friend (and how to find an individual unit in a Roman apartment block), trading insults (and how to concede a fight gracefully), or getting a new job (a piece of cake if you have studied with me, an ancient teacher assured his students mendaciously). The texts were presented bilingually in two narrow columns, the language you were learning on the left and the one you already knew on the right, with the columns matching line for line: each line was effectively a glossary, while each column was a text.[4]\n", "Although the need to learn foreign languages is almost as old as human history itself, the origins of modern language education are in the study and teaching of Latin in the 17th century. In the Ancient Near East, Akkadian was the language of diplomacy, as in the Amarna letters.[5] For many centuries, Latin had been the dominant language of education, commerce, religion, and government in much of the Western world. By the end of the 16th century, it had largely been displaced by French, Italian, and English. John Amos Comenius was one of many people who tried to reverse this trend. He composed a complete course for learning Latin, covering the entire school curriculum, culminating in his Opera Didactica Omnia, 1657.\n"]}

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+{"Q820887": ["The University of Florence (Italian: Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Firenze, UniFI) is an Italian public research university located in Florence, Italy. It comprises 12 schools and has around 50,000 students enrolled.\n", "The first university in Florence was the Studium Generale, which was established by the Florentine Republic in 1321. The Studium was recognized by Pope Clement VI in 1349, and authorized to grant regular degrees. The Pope also established that the first Italian faculty of theology would be in Florence. The Studium became an imperial university in 1364, but was moved to Pisa in 1473 when Lorenzo the Magnificent gained control of Florence. Charles VIII moved it back from 1497 to 1515, but it was moved to Pisa again when the Medici family returned to power.\n", "The modern university dates from 1859, when a group of disparate higher-studies institutions grouped together in the Istituto di Studi Pratici e di Perfezionamento, which a year later was recognized as a full-fledged university by the government of newly unified Italy. In 1923, the Istituto was officially denominated as University by the Italian Parliament.\n", "The university is subdivided into 12 schools, which are: Agriculture; Architecture; Arts; Economics; Education; Engineering; Law; Mathematics, Physics and Natural Sciences; Medicine and Surgery; Pharmacology; Political Science; and Psychology.\n"], "Q1240697": ["Donato Acciaioli (15 March 1428[1]\u00a0\u2013 28 August 1478) was an Italian scholar and statesman. He was known for his learning, especially in Greek and mathematics, and for his services to his native state, the Republic of Florence.[2]\n", "He was born in Florence, Italy. He was educated under the patronage or guidance of Jacopo Piccolomini-Ammannati (1422\u20131479), who subsequently was named cardinal. He also putatively gained his knowledge of the classics from Lionardo and Carlo Marsuppini (1399\u20131453)[3] and from the refugee scholar from Byzantium, Giovanni Argiropolo.[4]\n", "Having previously been entrusted with several important embassies, in 1473 he became Gonfalonier of Florence, one of the nine citizens selected by drawing lots every two months, who formed the government. He died at Milan in 1478, when on his way to Paris to ask the aid of Louis XI on behalf of the Florentines against Pope Sixtus IV. His body was taken back to Florence and buried in the church of the Carthusian order at the public expense, and his daughters were endowed by his fellow-citizens, since he had little in terms of wealth.[2]\n", "He wrote Latin translations of some of Plutarch's Lives (Florence, 1478); Commentaries on Aristotle's Ethics, Politics, Physics, and De anima;[5]  the lives of Hannibal, Scipio and Charlemagne as well as the biography of the grand seneschal of the Kingdom of Naples, Niccol\u00f2 Acciaioli by Matteo Palmieri. In the work on Aristotle he had the cooperation of his master John Argyropulus.[2]\n"], "Q3976287": [], "Q58827213": [], "Q37226": ["Informally the role of teacher may be taken on by anyone (e.g. when showing a colleague how to perform a specific task). \nIn some countries, teaching young people of school age may be carried out in an informal setting, such as within the family (homeschooling), rather than in a formal setting such as a school or college. \nSome other professions may involve a significant amount of teaching (e.g. youth worker, pastor).\n", "In most countries, formal teaching of students is usually carried out by paid professional teachers. This article focuses on those who are employed, as their main role, to teach others in a formal education context, such as at a school or other place of initial formal education or training.\n", "A teacher's professional duties may extend beyond formal teaching. Outside of the classroom teachers may accompany students on field trips, supervise study halls, help with the organization of school functions, and serve as supervisors for extracurricular activities. They also have the legal duty to protect students from harm,[2] such as that which may result from bullying,[3] sexual harassment, racism or abuse.[4]\nIn some education systems, teachers may be responsible for student discipline.\n", "Teaching is a highly complex activity.[5]\nThis is partially because teaching is a social practice, that takes place in a specific context (time, place, culture, socio-political-economic situation etc.) and therefore is shaped by the values of that specific context.[6] Factors that influence what is expected (or required) of teachers include history and tradition, social views about the purpose of education, accepted theories about learning, etc.[7]\n"], "Q483394": ["Genre (from French  genre\u00a0'kind, or sort')[1] is any style or form of communication in any mode (written, spoken, digital, artistic, etc.) with socially-agreed-upon conventions developed over time.[2] In popular usage, it normally describes a category of literature, music, or other forms of art or entertainment, based on some set of stylistic criteria[3] Often, works fit into multiple genres by way of borrowing and recombining these conventions. Stand-alone texts, works, or pieces of communication may have individual styles, but genres are amalgams of these texts based on agreed-upon or socially inferred conventions. Some genres may have rigid, strictly adhered-to guidelines, while others may show great flexibility.\n", "Genre began[clarification needed] as an absolute classification system for ancient Greek literature, as set out in Aristotle's Poetics.[4] For Aristotle, poetry (odes, epics, etc.), prose, and performance each had specific design features that supported appropriate content of each genre. Speech patterns for comedy would not be appropriate for tragedy, for example, and even actors were restricted to their genre under the assumption that a type of person could tell one type of story best.\n", "Genres proliferate and develop beyond Aristotle's classifications\u2014 in response to changes in audiences and creators.[5] Genre has become a dynamic tool to help the public make sense out of unpredictability through artistic expression. Given that art is often a response to a social state, in that people write, paint, sing, dance, and otherwise produce art about what they know about, the use of genre as a tool must be able to adapt to changing meanings.\n", "The term genre is much used in the history and criticism of visual art, but in art history has meanings that overlap rather confusingly. Genre painting is a term for paintings where the main subject features human figures to whom no specific identity attaches\u00a0\u2013 in other words, figures are not portraits, characters from a story, or allegorical personifications. These are distinguished from staffage: incidental figures in what is primarily a landscape or architectural painting. Genre painting may also be used as a wider term covering genre painting proper, and other specialized types of paintings such as still-life, landscapes, marine paintings and animal paintings.\n"], "Q1799072": ["Method (Ancient Greek: \u03bc\u03ad\u03b8\u03bf\u03b4\u03bf\u03c2, methodos, from \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03ac/meta \"in pursuit or quest of\" + \u1f41\u03b4\u03cc\u03c2/hodos \"a method, system; a way or manner\" of doing, saying, etc.), literally means a pursuit of knowledge, investigation, mode of prosecuting such inquiry, or system. In recent centuries it more often means a prescribed process for completing a task.\n"], "Q36649": ["The visual arts are art forms such as painting, drawing, printmaking, sculpture, ceramics, photography, video, filmmaking, comics, design, crafts, and architecture. Many artistic disciplines, such as performing arts, conceptual art, and textile arts, also involve aspects of the visual arts as well as arts of other types. Also included within the visual arts[1] are the applied arts,[2] such as industrial design, graphic design, fashion design, interior design, and decorative art.[3]\n", "Current usage of the term \"visual arts\" includes fine art as well as applied or decorative arts and crafts, but this was not always the case. Before the Arts and Crafts Movement in Britain and elsewhere at the turn of the 20th century, the term 'artist' had for some centuries often been restricted to a person working in the fine arts (such as painting, sculpture, or printmaking) and not the decorative arts, crafts, or applied visual arts media. The distinction was emphasized by artists of the Arts and Crafts Movement, who valued vernacular art forms as much as high forms.[4] Art schools made a distinction between the fine arts and the crafts, maintaining that a craftsperson could not be considered a practitioner of the arts.\n", "The increasing tendency to privilege painting, and to a lesser degree sculpture, above other arts has been a feature of Western art as well as East Asian art. In both regions, painting has been seen as relying to the highest degree on the imagination of the artist and being the furthest removed from manual labour \u2013 in Chinese painting, the most highly valued styles were those of \"scholar-painting\", at least in theory practiced by gentleman amateurs. The Western hierarchy of genres reflected similar attitudes.\n", "Training in the visual arts has generally been through variations of the apprentice and workshop systems. In Europe, the Renaissance movement to increase the prestige of the artist led to the academy system for training artists, and today most of the people who are pursuing a career in the arts train in art schools at tertiary levels. Visual arts have now become an elective subject in most education systems.[5][6]\n"], "Q56055944": [], "Q1914636": []}

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+{"Q236122": ["Renaissance architecture is the European architecture of the period between the early 15th and early 16th centuries in different regions, demonstrating a conscious revival and development of certain elements of ancient Greek and Roman thought and material culture. Stylistically, Renaissance architecture followed Gothic architecture and was succeeded by Baroque architecture. Developed first in Florence, with Filippo Brunelleschi as one of its innovators, the Renaissance style quickly spread to other Italian cities. The style was carried to other parts of Europe at different dates and with varying degrees of impact.\n", "Renaissance style places emphasis on symmetry, proportion, geometry and the regularity of parts, as demonstrated in the architecture of classical antiquity and in particular ancient Roman architecture, of which many examples remained. Orderly arrangements of columns, pilasters and lintels, as well as the use of semicircular arches, hemispherical domes, niches and aediculae replaced the more complex proportional systems and irregular profiles of medieval buildings.\n", "The word \"Renaissance\" derives from the term rinascita, which means rebirth, first appeared in Giorgio Vasari's Le vite de' pi\u00f9 eccellenti pittori, scultori e architettori (Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects, 1550).\n", "Although the term Renaissance was used first by the French historian Jules Michelet, it was given its more lasting definition from the Swiss historian Jacob Burckhardt, whose book Die Kultur der Renaissance in Italien, 1860 (The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, 1860, English translation, by SGC Middlemore, in 2 vols., London, 1878) was influential in the development of the modern interpretation of the Italian Renaissance. The folio of measured drawings \u00c9difices de Rome moderne; ou, Recueil des palais, maisons, \u00e9glises, couvents et autres monuments (The Buildings of Modern Rome), first published in 1840 by Paul Letarouilly, also played an important part in the revival of interest in this period. Erwin Panofsky, Renaissance and Renascences in Western Art, (New York: Harper and Row, 1960) The Renaissance style was recognized by contemporaries in the term \"all'antica\", or \"in the ancient manner\" (of the Romans).\n"], "Q6619709": ["This template's initial visibility currently defaults to autocollapse, meaning that if there is another collapsible item on the page (a navbox, sidebar, or table with the collapsible attribute), it is hidden apart from its title bar; if not, it is fully visible.\n"], "Q81096": ["Engineers, as practitioners of engineering, are professionals who invent, design, analyze, build and test machines, complex systems, structures, gadgets and materials to fulfill functional objectives and requirements while considering the limitations imposed by practicality, regulation, safety and cost.[1][2] The word engineer (Latin ingeniator,[3] the origin of the Ir. in the title of engineer in countries like Belgium and The Netherlands) is derived from the Latin words ingeniare (\"to contrive, devise\") and ingenium (\"cleverness\").[4][5] The foundational qualifications of a licensed professional engineer typically include a four-year bachelor's degree in an engineering discipline, or in some jurisdictions, a master's degree in an engineering discipline plus four to six years of peer-reviewed professional practice (culminating in a project report or thesis) and passage of engineering board examinations.\n", "A professional engineer is competent by virtue of his/her fundamental education and training to apply the scientific method and outlook to the analysis and solution of engineering problems. He/she is able to assume personal responsibility for the development and application of engineering science and knowledge, notably in research, design, construction, manufacturing, superintending, managing, and in the education of the engineer. His/her work is predominantly intellectual and varied and not of a routine mental or physical character. It requires the exercise of original thought and judgment and the ability to supervise the technical and administrative work of others. His/her education will have been such as to make him/her capable of closely and continuously following progress in his/her branch of engineering science by consulting newly published works on a worldwide basis, assimilating such information, and applying it independently. He/she is thus placed in a position to make contributions to the development of engineering science or its applications. His/her education and training will have been such that he/she will have acquired a broad and general appreciation of the engineering sciences as well as thorough insight into the special features of his/her own branch. In due time he/she will be able to give authoritative technical advice and assume responsibility for the direction of important tasks in his/her branch.", "Engineers develop new technological solutions. During the engineering design process, the responsibilities of the engineer may include defining problems, conducting and narrowing research, analyzing criteria, finding and analyzing solutions, and making decisions. Much of an engineer's time is spent on researching, locating, applying, and transferring information.[7] Indeed, research suggests engineers spend 56% of their time engaged in various information behaviours, including 14% actively searching for information.[8]\n", "Engineers must weigh different design choices on their merits and choose the solution that best matches the requirements and needs. Their crucial and unique task is to identify, understand, and interpret the constraints on a design in order to produce a successful result.\n"], "Q2055046": ["Physiology (/\u02ccf\u026azi\u02c8\u0252l\u0259d\u0292i/; from Ancient Greek  \u03c6\u03cd\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 (ph\u00fasis)\u00a0'nature, origin', and  -\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03af\u03b1 (-log\u00eda)\u00a0'study of')[1] is the scientific study of functions and mechanisms in a living system.[2][3] As a subdiscipline of biology, physiology focuses on how organisms, organ systems, individual organs, cells, and biomolecules carry out chemical and physical functions in a living system.[4] According to the classes of organisms, the field can be divided into medical physiology, animal physiology, plant physiology, cell physiology, and comparative physiology.[4]\n", "Central to physiological functioning are biophysical and biochemical processes, homeostatic control mechanisms, and communication between cells.[5] Physiological state is the condition of normal function. In contrast, pathological state refers to abnormal conditions, including human diseases.\n", "Because physiology focuses on the functions and mechanisms of living organisms at all levels, from the molecular and cellular level to the level of whole organisms and populations, its foundations span a range of key disciplines:\n", "Although there are differences between animal, plant, and microbial cells, the basic physiological functions of cells can be divided into the processes of cell division, cell signaling, cell growth, and cell metabolism.[citation needed]\n"], "Q205375": ["An invention is a unique or novel device, method, composition, idea or process. An invention may be an improvement upon a machine, product, or process for increasing efficiency or lowering cost. It may also be  an entirely new concept. If an idea is unique enough either as a stand-alone invention or as a significant improvement over the work of others, it can be patented. A patent, if granted, gives the inventor a proprietary interest in the patent over a specific period of time, which can be licensed for financial gain.\n", "An inventor creates or discovers an invention. The word inventor comes from the Latin verb invenire, invent-, to find.[1][2] Although inventing is closely associated with science and engineering, inventors are not necessarily engineers or scientists.[3] Due to advances in artificial intelligence, the term \"inventor\" no longer exclusively applies to an occupation (see human computers).[4]\n", "Some inventions can be patented.  The system of patents was established to encourage inventors by granting limited-term, limited monopoly on inventions determined to be sufficiently novel, non-obvious, and useful. A patent legally protects the intellectual property rights of the inventor and legally recognizes that a claimed invention is actually an invention. The rules and requirements for patenting an invention vary by country and the process of obtaining a patent is often expensive.\n", "Another meaning of invention is cultural invention, which is an innovative set of useful social behaviours adopted by people and passed on to others.[5] The Institute for Social Inventions collected many such ideas in magazines and books.[6] Invention is also an important component of artistic and design creativity. Inventions often extend the boundaries of human knowledge, experience or capability.\n"], "Q812285": ["The Bavarian State Painting Collections (German: Bayerische Staatsgem\u00e4ldesammlungen), based in Munich, Germany, oversees artwork held by the Free State of Bavaria. It was established in 1799 as Centralgem\u00e4ldegaleriedirektion.[1] Artwork includes paintings, sculptures, photographs, video art and installation art. Pieces are on display in numerous galleries and museums throughout Bavaria.\n", "In 2012, the Bavarian State Paintings Collections announced the restitution of a painting from the workshop of Jan Brueghel the Elder to the heirs of Julius Kien of Vienna. Bavaria had acquired it from the collection of Fritz Thyssen.[2][3]\n", "In 2013, the Bavarian State Painting Collections agreed to return two watercolours by Max Pechstein to the heirs of Professor Curt Glaser, confirming that the auction of his art collection and library were entirely due to Nazi persecution.[4][5]\n", "In 2016, the heirs of Alfred Flechtheim, a German-Jewish art dealer and collector, sued the German state of Bavaria, arguing in court papers that it has refused to turn over works of art that the heirs say were looted by the Nazis before World War II.[6][7]\n"], "Q772890": ["Painters exhibited in the museum include Beato Angelico, Fra Angelico, Canaletto, Ludovico Carracci (The Funeral of the Virgin Mary), Agostino Carracci (Madonna and Child with Saints), Correggio, Leonardo da Vinci, Sebastiano del Piombo, Guercino (Susannah and the Elders), Parmigianino (Mystic Marriage of Saint Catherine), Tintoretto, and others.\n", "Later, the remaining collection was increased with the addition of Greco-Roman findings, donations, and with the restitution of some of the works that had been taken to Naples, as well as, through new acquisitions under Duke Ferdinand (1758).\n", "During the French occupation of Parma (1803\u20131814), the works were moved to Paris, returning in 1816. Duchess Marie Louise reordered the collections in the Palazzo della Pilotta and built the hall that now bears her name. She also acquired several noble collections in the duchy to avoid their dispersal.\n"], "Q815611": ["The Biblioteca Ambrosiana is a historic library in Milan, Italy, also housing the Pinacoteca Ambrosiana, the Ambrosian art gallery. Named after Ambrose, the patron saint of Milan, it was founded in 1609 by Cardinal Federico Borromeo, whose agents scoured Western Europe and even Greece and Syria for books and manuscripts. Some major acquisitions of complete libraries were the manuscripts of the Benedictine monastery of Bobbio (1606) and the library of the Paduan Vincenzo Pinelli, whose more than 800 manuscripts filled 70 cases when they were sent to Milan and included the famous Iliad, the Ilias Picta.\n", "During Cardinal Borromeo's sojourns in Rome, 1585\u201395 and 1597\u20131601, he envisioned developing this library in Milan as one open to scholars and that would serve as a bulwark of Catholic scholarship in the service of the Counter-Reformation against the treatises issuing from Protestant presses. To house the cardinal's 15,000 manuscripts and twice that many printed books, construction began in 1603 under designs and direction of Lelio Buzzi and Francesco Maria Richini. When its first reading room, the Sala Fredericiana, opened to the public on 8 December 1609 it was one of the earliest public libraries. One innovation was that its books were housed in cases ranged along the walls, rather than chained to reading tables, the latter a medieval practice seen still today in the Laurentian Library of Florence. A printing press was attached to the library, and a school for instruction in the classical languages.\n", "Constant acquisitions, soon augmented by bequests, required enlargement of the space. Borromeo intended an academy (which opened in 1625) and a collection of pictures, for which a new building was initiated in 1611\u201318 to house the Cardinal's paintings and drawings, the nucleus of the Pinacoteca.\n", "Cardinal Borromeo gave his collection of paintings and drawings to the library, too. Shortly after the cardinal's death, his library acquired twelve manuscripts of Leonardo da Vinci, including the Codex Atlanticus. The library now contains some 12,000 drawings by European artists, from the 14th through the 19th centuries, which have come from the collections of a wide range of patrons and artists, academicians, collectors, art dealers, and architects. Prized manuscripts, including the Leonardo codices, were requisitioned by the French during the Napoleonic occupation, and only partly returned after 1815.\n"], "Q1848918": [], "Q1536471": ["The Walker Art Gallery's collection dates from 1819 when the Liverpool Royal Institution acquired 37 paintings from the collection of William Roscoe, who had to sell his collection following the failure of his banking business, though it was saved from being broken up by his friends and associates.\n", "In 1843, the Royal Institution's collection was displayed in a purpose-built gallery next to the Institution's main premises. In 1850 negotiations by an association of citizens to take over the Institution's collection, for display in a proposed art gallery, library and museum, came to nothing.\n", "The collection grew over the following decades: in 1851 Liverpool Town Council bought Liverpool Academy's diploma collection and further works were acquired from the Liverpool Society for the Fine Arts, founded in 1858. The competition between the academy and society eventually led to both collapsing.\n", "William Brown Library and Museum opened in 1860, named after a Liverpool merchant whose generosity enabled the Town Council to act upon an 1852 Act of Parliament which allowed the establishment of a public library, museum and art gallery, and in 1871 the council organised the first Liverpool Autumn Exhibition, held at the new library and museum.\n"]}

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+{"Q93184": ["Drawing is a visual art that uses an instrument to mark paper or another two-dimensional surface. The instrument might be pencils, crayons, pens with inks, brushes with paints, or combinations of these, and in more modern times, computer styluses with graphics tablets.\n", "A drawing instrument releases a small amount of material onto a surface, leaving a visible mark. The most common support for drawing is paper, although other materials, such as cardboard, vellum, wood, plastic, leather, canvas, and board, have been used. Temporary drawings may be made on a blackboard or whiteboard. Drawing has been a popular and fundamental means of public expression throughout human history. It is one of the simplest and most efficient means of communicating ideas.[1] The wide availability of drawing instruments makes drawing one of the most common artistic activities.\n", "In addition to its more artistic forms, drawing is frequently used in commercial illustration, animation, architecture, engineering, and technical drawing. A quick, freehand drawing, usually not intended as a finished work, is sometimes called a sketch. An artist who practices or works in technical drawing may be called a drafter, draftsman, or draughtsman.[2]\n", "Drawing is one of the oldest forms of human expression within the visual arts. It is generally concerned with the marking of lines and areas of tone onto paper/other material, where the accurate representation of the visual world is expressed upon a plane surface.[3] Traditional drawings were monochrome, or at least had little colour,[4] while modern colored-pencil drawings may approach or cross a boundary between drawing and painting. In Western terminology, drawing is distinct from painting, even though similar media often are employed in both tasks. Dry media, normally associated with drawing, such as chalk, may be used in pastel paintings. Drawing may be done with a liquid medium, applied with brushes or pens. Similar supports likewise can serve both: painting generally involves the application of liquid paint onto prepared canvas or panels, but sometimes an underdrawing is drawn first on that same support.\n"], "Q1768721": ["The Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China (or the Gujin Tushu Jicheng) is a vast encyclopedic work written in China during the reigns of the Qing dynasty emperors Kangxi and Yongzheng. It was begun in 1700 and completed in 1725. The work was headed and compiled mainly by scholar Chen Menglei (\u9673\u5922\u96f7). Later on the Chinese painter Jiang Tingxi helped work on it as well.\n", "The encyclopaedia contained 10,000 volumes. Sixty-four imprints were made of the first edition, known as the Wu-ying Hall edition. The encyclopaedia consisted of 6 series, 32 divisions, and 6,117 sections.[1] It contained 800,000 pages and over 100 million Chinese characters,[2] making it the largest leishu ever printed. Topics covered included natural phenomena, geography, history, literature and government. The work was printed in 1726 using copper movable type printing. It spanned around 10 thousand rolls (\u5377). To illustrate the huge size of the Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China, it is estimated to have contained 3 to 4 times the amount of material in the Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica Eleventh Edition.[3]\n", "In 1908, the Guangxu Emperor of China presented a set of the encyclopaedia in 5,000 fascicles to the China Society of London, which has deposited it on loan to Cambridge University Library.[4] Another one of the three extant copies of the encyclopedia outside of China is located at the C.V. Starr East Asian Library at Columbia University. A complete copy in Japan was destroyed in the 1923 Great Kant\u014d earthquake.\n", "The Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China is known as the Gujin Tushu Jicheng (traditional Chinese: \u53e4\u4eca\u5716\u66f8\u96c6\u6210; simplified Chinese: \u53e4\u4eca\u56fe\u4e66\u96c6\u6210; pinyin: G\u01d4j\u012bn T\u00fash\u016b J\u00edch\u00e9ng; Wade\u2013Giles: Ku-chin t'u-shu chi-ch'eng; lit. 'complete collection of illustrations and books from the earliest period to the present') or Qinding Gujin Tushu Jicheng (Chinese: \u6b3d\u5b9a\u53e4\u4eca\u5716\u66f8\u96c6\u6210)[5] in Chinese, also translated as the Imperial Encyclopaedia, the Complete Collection of Ancient and Modern Illustrations and Texts, the Complete Collection of Ancient and Modern Writings and Charts, or the Complete Collection of Illustrations and Writings from the Earliest to Current Times.\n"], "Q5898147": [], "Q6068437": ["Painting is a visual art, which is characterized by the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a solid surface (called the \"matrix\" or \"support\"). The medium is commonly applied to the base with a brush, but other implements, such as knives, sponges, and airbrushes, can be used.\n", "In art, the term \"painting\" describes both the act and the result of the action (the final work is called \"a painting\"). The support for paintings includes such surfaces as walls, paper, canvas, wood, glass, lacquer, pottery, leaf, copper and concrete, and the painting may incorporate multiple other materials, including sand, clay, paper, plaster, gold leaf, and even whole objects.\n", "Painting is an important form of visual art, bringing in elements such as drawing, composition, gesture, narration, and abstraction. Paintings can be naturalistic and representational (as in still life and landscape painting), photographic, abstract, narrative, symbolistic (as in Symbolist art), emotive (as in Expressionism) or political in nature (as in Artivism).\n", "A portion of the history of painting in both Eastern and Western art is dominated by religious art. Examples of this kind of painting range from artwork depicting mythological figures on pottery, to Biblical scenes on the Sistine Chapel ceiling, to scenes from the life of Buddha (or other images of Eastern religious origin). (Full article...)\n"], "Q5303685": ["Doxastic attitudes are epistemic attitudes which a person can hold towards a proposition.[1] The most commonly discussed doxastic attitude is belief (holding something to be true). Other doxastic attitudes include disbelief (holding something to be false) and suspension of judgment (withholding assent to a proposition without judging it to be true or judging it to be false).[1]\n", "The term doxastic is derived from the ancient Greek word \u03b4\u03cc\u03be\u03b1 (or doxa), which means \"belief\". Thus, doxastic attitudes include beliefs and other psychological attitudes which resemble beliefs.[1][2] Doxastic attitudes in many ways resemble propositional attitudes, although the two concepts are distinct from one another.\n", "Other terms which are commonly used to refers to beliefs, such as \"judgment\" and \"opinion\", can also be classified as doxastic attitudes. More broadly, the term \"doxastic attitude\" can also refer to states sufficiently similar to beliefs, such as psychological certainty and credence.\n"], "Q49447": ["A worldview or a world-view or Weltanschauung is the fundamental cognitive orientation of an individual or society encompassing the whole of the individual's or society's knowledge, culture, and point of view.[1]  A worldview can include natural philosophy; fundamental, existential, and normative postulates; or themes, values, emotions, and ethics.[2]\n", "The term worldview is a calque of the German word Weltanschauung [\u02c8v\u025blt\u0294an\u02cc\u0283a\u028a.\u028a\u014b] \u24d8, composed of Welt ('world') and Anschauung ('perception' or 'view').[3] The German word is also used in English. It is a concept fundamental to German philosophy, especially epistemology and refers to a wide world perception. Additionally, it refers to the framework of ideas and beliefs forming a global description through which an individual, group or culture watches and interprets the world and interacts with it as a social reality.\n", "Within cognitive philosophy and the cognitive sciences is the German concept of Weltanschauung. This expression is used to refer to the \"wide worldview\" or \"wide world perception\" of a people, family, or person. The Weltanschauung of a people originates from the unique world experience of a people, which they experience over several millennia. The language of a people reflects the Weltanschauung of that people in the form of its syntactic structures and untranslatable connotations and its denotations.[4][5]\n", "The term Weltanschauung is often wrongly attributed to Wilhelm von Humboldt, the founder of German ethnolinguistics. However, Humboldt's key concept was Weltansicht.[6] Weltansicht was used by Humboldt to refer to the overarching conceptual and sensorial apprehension of reality shared by a linguistic community (Nation). On the other hand, Weltanschauung, first used by Immanuel Kant and later popularized by Hegel, was always used in German and later in English to refer more to philosophies, ideologies and cultural or religious perspectives, than to linguistic communities and their mode of apprehending reality.\n"], "Q2915955": [], "Q58721": ["Irreligion takes many forms, ranging from the casual and unaware to full-fledged philosophies such as secular humanism and antitheism. Social scientists[who?] tend to define irreligion as a purely naturalist worldview that excludes a belief in anything supernatural. The broadest and loosest definition, serving as an upper limit, is the lack of religious identification, though many non-identifiers express metaphysical and even religious beliefs. The narrowest and strictest is subscribing to positive atheism.\n", "According to the Pew Research Center's 2012 global study of 230 countries and territories, 16% of the world's population does not identify with any religion.[1] The population of the religiously unaffiliated, sometimes referred to as \"nones\", has grown significantly in recent years.[2] Measurement of irreligiosity requires great cultural sensitivity, especially outside the West, where the concepts of \"religion\" or \"the secular\" are not always rooted in local culture.[3]\n", "The term irreligion is a combination of the noun religion and the ir- form of the prefix in-, signifying \"not\" (similar to irrelevant). It was first attested in French as irr\u00e9ligion in 1527, then in English as irreligion in 1598. It was borrowed into Dutch as irreligie in the 17th century, though it is not certain from which language.[4]\n", "Irreligion is defined as a rejection of religion, but whether  it  is distinct from lack of religion is disputed. \nThe Encyclopedia of religion and society defines it as the \"rejection of religion in general or any of its more specific organized forms, as distinct from absence of religion\";[5] while the Oxford English dictionary defines it as want of religion; hostility to or disregard of religious principles; irreligious conduct;[6] and the  Merriam Webster dictionary defines it as \"neglectful\u00a0of\u00a0religion:\u00a0lacking\u00a0religious\u00a0emotions,\u00a0doctrines, or\u00a0practices\".[7]\n"], "Q288928": ["Agnosticism is the view or belief that the existence of God, of the divine or the supernatural is unknown or unknowable.[1][2][3] Another definition provided is the view that \"human reason is incapable of providing sufficient rational grounds to justify either the belief that God exists or the belief that God does not exist.\"[2]\n", "The English biologist Thomas Henry Huxley coined the word agnostic in 1869, and said \"It simply means that a man shall not say he knows or believes that which he has no scientific grounds for professing to know or believe.\" Earlier thinkers, however, had written works that promoted agnostic points of view, such as Sanjaya Belatthiputta, a 5th-century BCE Indian philosopher who expressed agnosticism about any afterlife;[4][5][6] and Protagoras, a 5th-century BCE Greek philosopher who expressed agnosticism about the existence of \"the gods\".[7][8][9]\n", "[The agnostic] principle may be stated in various ways, but they all amount to this: that it is wrong for a man to say that he is certain of the objective truth of any proposition unless he can produce evidence which logically justifies that certainty. This is what Agnosticism asserts; and, in my opinion, it is all that is essential to Agnosticism.[10]", "Agnosticism, in fact, is not a creed, but a method, the essence of which lies in the rigorous application of a single principle\u00a0... Positively the principle may be expressed: In matters of the intellect, follow your reason as far as it will take you, without regard to any other consideration. And negatively: In matters of the intellect do not pretend that conclusions are certain which are not demonstrated or demonstrable.[11][12][13]"], "Q620834": ["Apatheism (/\u02cc\u00e6p\u0259\u02c8\u03b8i\u02d0\u026az\u0259m/; a portmanteau of apathy and theism) is the attitude of apathy toward the existence or non-existence of God(s). It is more of an attitude rather than a belief, claim, or belief system.[1][2][3] The term was coined by Robert Nash, theology professor at Mercer University,[4] in 2001.[5]\n", "An apatheist is someone who is not interested in accepting or rejecting any claims that gods exist or do not exist. The existence of a god or gods is not rejected, but may be designated irrelevant. One of the first recorded apatheists was arguably Denis Diderot (1713\u20131784), who wrote: \"It is very important not to mistake hemlock for parsley; but not at all so to believe or not in God.\"\n", "Philosopher Trevor Hedberg has called apatheism \"uncharted territory in the philosophy of religion\".[1] Political theorist and constitutional law scholar, Adam Scott Kunz, has further defined apatheism as \"the philosophical attitude of indifference, both public and private, to (1) the question of the existence of a deity, (2) the metaphysical and practical value of loyalty to that deity, and/or (3) the interaction of that deity with the natural world\".[3]\n", "There is a common misconception that journalist Jonathon Rauch coined the word apatheism in his 2003 essay \"Let It Be\" (though Roach in the essay does not claim to invent the word).[6] Apatheism was first coined by Canadian sociologist Stuart Johnson in his study of indifference to religion amid secularization.[7]\n"]}

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+{"Q620805": ["Theism is broadly defined as the belief in the existence of at least one deity.[1][2] In common parlance, or when contrasted with deism, the term often describes the philosophical conception of God that is found in classical theism\u2014or conception found in monotheism\u2014or gods found in polytheistic religions\u2014or a belief in God or gods without the rejection of revelation as is characteristic of deism.[3][4]\n", "Atheism is commonly understood as non-acceptance or outright rejection of theism in the broadest sense of the term (i.e., non-acceptance or rejection of belief in God or gods).[5][6] Related (but separate) is the claim that the existence of any deity is unknown or unknowable; a stance known as agnosticism.[7][8] Agnostic theism is a personal belief in one or more deities along with acceptance that the existence or non-existence of the deity or deities is fundamentally unknowable.\n", "The term theism derives from the Greek \u03b8\u03b5\u03cc\u03c2[9] (the\u00f3s) or theoi meaning \"god\" or \"gods\". The term theism was first used by Ralph Cudworth (1617\u20131688).[10] In Cudworth's definition, they are \"strictly and properly called Theists, who affirm, that a perfectly conscious understanding being, or mind, existing of itself from eternity, was the cause of all other things\".[11]\n", "Classical theism is the form of theism that describes God as the Absolute Being. Central insights of classical theistic theology includes emanationism and divine simplicity.[12][13] Classical theistic traditions can be observed in major religions and philosophies; such as Sufism in Islam, Vaishnavism in Hinduism, Sikhism in general, and Platonism. \n"], "Q1186975": ["Marxist\u2013Leninist atheism, also known as Marxist\u2013Leninist scientific atheism, is the antireligious element of Marxism\u2013Leninism.[1][2] Based upon a dialectical-materialist understanding of humanity's place in nature, Marxist\u2013Leninist atheism proposes that religion is the opium of the people; thus, Marxism\u2013Leninism advocates atheism, rather than religious belief.[3][4][5]\n", "To support those ideological premises, Marxist\u2013Leninist atheism proposes an explanation for origin of religion and explains methods for the scientific criticism of religion.[6] The philosophic roots of Marxist\u2013Leninist atheism are in the works of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770\u20131831) and of  Ludwig Feuerbach (1804\u20131872), of Karl Marx (1818\u20131883) and of Vladimir Lenin (1870\u20131924).[7]\n", "Marxist\u2013Leninist atheism informed public policy in various nations, such as the Soviet Union and People's Republic of China for example.[8][9] Some non-Soviet Marxists opposed this antireligious stance, and in certain forms of Marxist thinking, such as the liberation theology movements in Latin America, Marxist\u2013Leninist atheism was rejected entirely.[10]\n", "In training as a philosopher in the early 19th century, Karl Marx participated in debates about the philosophy of religion, specifically about the interpretations presented in Hegelianism, i.e. \"What is rational is real; and what is real is rational.\"[11] In those debates about reason and reality, the Hegelians considered philosophy an intellectual enterprise in service to the insights of Christian religious comprehension, which Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel had elaborately rationalized in The Phenomenology of Spirit (1807). Although critical of contemporary religion, as a 19th-century intellectual, Hegel pursued the ontology and the epistemology of Christianity, as a personal interest compatible with Christian theological explanations of Dasein \u2014 explanations of the questions of existence and of being \u2014 which he clarified, systematized, and justified in his philosophy.[12]\n"], "Q1277049": ["Atheism \u2013 rejection of belief in the existence of deities.[1] In a narrower sense, atheism is specifically the position that there are no deities.[2][3] Most inclusively, atheism is simply the absence of belief that any deities exist.[3][4]\nAtheism is contrasted with theism,[5][6]\nwhich in its most general form is the belief that at least one deity exists.[6][7]\n"], "Q3347105": ["The term New Atheism describes the positions of some atheist academics, writers, scientists, and philosophers of the 20th and 21st centuries.[1][2] New Atheism advocates the view that superstition, religion, and irrationalism should not simply be tolerated. Instead, they advocate the antitheist view that the various forms of theism should be criticised, countered, examined, and challenged by rational argument, especially when they exert strong influence on the broader society, such as in government, education, and politics.[3][4] Major figures of New Atheism include Richard Dawkins, Sam Harris, Christopher Hitchens and Daniel Dennett, collectively referred to as the \"four horsemen\" of the movement, as well as Ayaan Hirsi Ali[5] until her conversion to Christianity in 2023.[6]\n", "The 2004 publication of The End of Faith: Religion, Terror, and the Future of Reason by Sam Harris, a bestseller in the United States, was joined over the next couple years by a series of popular best-sellers by atheist authors.[9][10] Harris was motivated by the events of 11 September 2001, for which he blamed Islam, while also directly criticizing Christianity and Judaism.[11] Two years later, Harris followed up with Letter to a Christian Nation, which was a severe criticism of Christianity.[12] Also in 2006, following his television documentary series The Root of All Evil?, Richard Dawkins published The God Delusion, which was on the New York Times best-seller list for 51 weeks.[13]\n", "In 2010, Tom Flynn, then editor of Free Inquiry, stated that the only thing new about \"New Atheism\" was the wider publication of atheist material by big-name publishers, books that appeared on bestseller lists and were read by millions.[14] Mitchell Landsberg, covering a gathering held by the Council for Secular Humanism in 2010, said that religious skeptics in attendance were at odds between \"new atheists\" who preferred to \"encourage open confrontation with the devout\" and \"accommodationists\" who preferred \"a subtler, more tactical approach.\"[15] Paul Kurtz was ousted from the Center for Inquiry in the late 2000's.[15][8] This was in part due to a perception that Kurtz was \"on the mellower end of the spectrum\", according to Flynn.[15]\n", "In November 2015, The New Republic published an article entitled, \"Is the New Atheism dead?\"[16] The atheist and evolutionary biologist David Sloan Wilson wrote in 2016, \"The world appears to be tiring of the New Atheism movement.\"[17] In 2017, PZ Myers who formerly considered himself a new atheist, publicly renounced the New Atheism movement.[18]\n"], "Q5933886": [], "Q8809006": ["Atheism is either the general lack of belief in the existence of deities or a specified disbelief in specified deities. Atheism is contrasted with theism, which in its most general form is the belief that at least one deity exists\n"], "Q13211738": ["Atheism, in the broadest sense, is an absence of belief in the existence of deities. Less broadly, atheism is a rejection of the belief that any deities exist. In an even narrower sense, atheism is specifically the position that there are no deities. Atheism is contrasted with theism, which in its most general form is the belief that at least one deity exists.\n", "Historically, evidence of atheistic viewpoints can be traced back to classical antiquity and early Indian philosophy. In the Western world, atheism declined as Christianity gained prominence. The 16th century and the Age of Enlightenment marked the resurgence of atheistic thought in Europe. Atheism achieved a significant position in the 20th century with legislation protecting freedom of thought. According to 2003 estimates, there are at least 500 million atheists in the world.[1][needs update]\n", "Atheist organizations have defended the autonomy of science, secular ethics and secularism. Arguments for atheism range from philosophical to social and historical approaches. Rationales for not believing in deities include the lack of evidence,[2][3] the problem of evil, the argument from inconsistent revelations, the rejection of concepts that cannot be falsified, and the argument from nonbelief.[2][4] Nonbelievers contend that atheism is a more parsimonious position than theism and that everyone is born without beliefs in deities;[5] therefore, they argue that the burden of proof lies not on the atheist to disprove the existence of gods but on the theist to provide a rationale for theism.[6]\n", "Writers disagree on how best to define and classify atheism,[7] contesting what supernatural entities are considered gods, whether atheism is a philosophical position in its own right or merely the absence of one, and whether it requires a conscious, explicit rejection. However the norm is to define atheism in terms of an explicit stance against theism.[8][9][10]\n"], "Q23705356": [], "Q15303501": ["Secularity, also the secular or secularness (from Latin saeculum, \"worldly\" or \"of a generation\"), is the state of being unrelated or neutral in regards to religion. Origins of secularity can be traced to the Bible itself and fleshed out through Christian history into the modern era.[1] In the medieval period there were even secular clergy.[2][3][4] Furthermore, secular and religious entities were not separated in the medieval period, but coexisted and interacted naturally.[5][6]\n", "Today, anything that does not have an explicit reference to religion, either negatively or positively, may be considered secular.[7] Secularity is best understood, not as being \"anti-religious\", but as being \"religiously neutral\" since many activities in religious bodies are secular themselves, and though there are multiple types of secularity or secularization, most do not lead to irreligiosity.[8] Linguistically, a process by which anything becomes secular is named secularization, though the term is mainly reserved for the secularization of society; and any concept or ideology promoting the secular may be termed secularism, a term generally applied to the ideology dictating no religious influence on the public sphere. Scholars recognize that secularity is structured by Protestant models of Christianity, shares a parallel language to religion, and intensifies Protestant features such as iconoclasm, skepticism towards rituals, and emphasizes beliefs.[9] In doing so, secularism perpetuates Christian traits under a different name.[9]\n", "Most cultures around the world do not have tension or dichotomous views of religion and secularity.[10] Since religion and secular are both Western concepts that were formed under the influence of Christian theology, other cultures do not necessarily have words or concepts that resemble or are equivalent to them.[11]\n", "Historically, the word secular was not related or linked to religion, but was a freestanding term in Latin that would relate to any mundane endeavour.[12] However, the term, saecula saeculorum (saecul\u014drum being the genitive plural of saeculum) as found in the New Testament in the Vulgate translation (c.\u2009410) of the original Koine Greek phrase \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03b1\u1f30\u1ff6\u03bd\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b1\u1f30\u03ce\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd (eis to\u00f9s aionas ton ai\u1e53n\u014dn), e.g. at Galatians 1:5, was used in the early Christian church (and is still used today), in the doxologies, to denote the coming and going of the ages, the grant of eternal life, and the long duration of created things from their beginning to forever and ever.[13] Secular and secularity derive from the Latin word saeculum which meant \"of a generation, belonging to an age\" or denoted a period of about one hundred years.[12] The Christian doctrine that God exists outside time led medieval Western culture to use secular to indicate separation from specifically religious affairs and involvement in temporal ones.[citation needed]\n"], "Q19211082": []}

data/text_file_v1_1320.json

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+{"Q9253865": [], "Q16547842": ["A belief is a subjective attitude that a proposition is true or a state of affairs is the case. A subjective attitude is a mental state of having some stance, take, or opinion about something.[1] In epistemology, philosophers use the term \"belief\" to refer to attitudes about the world which can be either true or false.[2] To believe something is to take it to be true; for instance, to believe that snow is white is comparable to accepting the truth of the proposition \"snow is white\". However, holding a belief does not require active introspection. For example, few individuals carefully consider whether or not the sun will rise tomorrow, simply assuming that it will. Moreover, beliefs need not be occurrent (e.g. a person actively thinking \"snow is white\"), but can instead be dispositional (e.g. a person who if asked about the color of snow would assert \"snow is white\").[2]\n", "There are various ways that contemporary philosophers have tried to describe beliefs, including as representations of ways that the world could be (Jerry Fodor), as dispositions to act as if certain things are true (Roderick Chisholm), as interpretive schemes for making sense of someone's actions (Daniel Dennett and Donald Davidson), or as mental states that fill a particular function (Hilary Putnam).[2] Some have also attempted to offer significant revisions to our notion of belief, including eliminativists about belief who argue that there is no phenomenon in the natural world which corresponds to our folk psychological concept of belief (Paul Churchland) and formal epistemologists who aim to replace our bivalent notion of belief (\"either we have a belief or we don't have a belief\") with the more permissive, probabilistic notion of credence (\"there is an entire spectrum of degrees of belief, not a simple dichotomy between belief and non-belief\").[2][3]\n", "Beliefs are the subject of various important philosophical debates. Notable examples include: \"What is the rational way to revise one's beliefs when presented with various sorts of evidence?\", \"Is the content of our beliefs entirely determined by our mental states, or do the relevant facts have any bearing on our beliefs (e.g. if I believe that I'm holding a glass of water, is the non-mental fact that water is H2O part of the content of that belief)?\", \"How fine-grained or coarse-grained are our beliefs?\", and \"Must it be possible for a belief to be expressible in language, or are there non-linguistic beliefs?\"[2]\n", "Various conceptions of the essential features of beliefs have been proposed, but there is no consensus as to which is the right one. Representationalism is the traditionally dominant position. Its most popular version maintains that attitudes toward representations, which are typically associated with propositions, are mental attitudes that constitute beliefs.These attitudes are part of the internal constitution of the mind holding the attitude. This view contrasts with functionalism, which defines beliefs not in terms of the internal constitution of the mind but in terms of the function or the causal role played by beliefs. According to dispositionalism, beliefs are identified with dispositions to behave in certain ways. This view can be seen as a form of functionalism, defining beliefs in terms of the behavior they tend to cause. Interpretationism constitutes another conception, which has gained popularity in contemporary philosophy. It holds that the beliefs of an entity are in some sense dependent on or relative to someone's interpretation of this entity. Representationalism tends to be associated with a mind-body-dualism. Naturalist considerations against this dualism are among the motivations for choosing one of the alternative conceptions.[4]\n"], "Q124288119": ["John the Baptist[note 1] (c.\u20091st century BC \u2013 c.\u2009AD 30) was a Judaean preacher active in the area of the Jordan River in the early 1st century AD.[19][20] He is also known as Saint John the Forerunner in Eastern Orthodoxy, John the Immerser in some Baptist Christian traditions,[21] Saint John by certain Catholic churches, and Prophet Yahya in Islam. He is sometimes alternatively referred to as John the Baptiser.[22][23][24]\n", "John is mentioned by the Roman Jewish historian Josephus[25] and he is revered as a major religious figure[26] in Christianity, Islam, the Bah\u00e1\u02bc\u00ed faith,[27] the Druze faith, and Mandaeism, the latter in which he is considered to be the final and most vital prophet. He is considered to be a prophet of God by all of the aforementioned faiths, and is honoured as a saint in many Christian denominations. According to the New Testament, John anticipated a messianic figure greater than himself,[28] and the Gospels portray John as the precursor or forerunner of Jesus.[29] According to the Gospel of Matthew, Jesus himself identifies John as \"Elijah who is to come\",[30] which is a direct reference to the Book of Malachi (Malachi 4:5),[31] as confirmed by the angel who announced John's birth to his father, Zechariah.[32] According to the Gospel of Luke, John and Jesus were relatives.[33][34]\n", "\nSome scholars maintain that John belonged to the Essenes, a semi-ascetic Jewish sect who expected a messiah and practised ritual baptism.[35][36] John used baptism as the central symbol or sacrament[37] of his pre-messianic movement. Most biblical scholars agree that John baptized Jesus,[38][39] and several New Testament accounts report that some of Jesus's early followers had previously been followers of John.[40] According to the New Testament, John was sentenced to death and subsequently beheaded by Herod Antipas around AD 30 after John rebuked him for divorcing his wife Phasaelis and then unlawfully wedding Herodias, the wife of his brother Herod Philip I. Josephus also mentions John in the Antiquities of the Jews and states that he was executed by order of Herod Antipas in the fortress at Machaerus.[41]", "Followers of John existed well into the 2nd century AD, and some proclaimed him to be the Messiah awaited by Jews.[42] In modern times, the followers of John the Baptist are the Mandaeans, an ancient ethnoreligious group who believe that he is their greatest and final prophet.[43][44] In the Roman martyrology, apart from Jesus and the Virgin Mary, John is the only saint whose birth and death are both commemorated.[45]\n"], "Q103934": ["Everhard or Eberhard Jabach (10 July 1618 \u2013 9 March 1695) was a French businessman, art collector, and director of the French East India Company. He was born in Cologne in the Holy Roman Empire but later naturalised as a French subject.\n", "His father had expanded the family fortune and founded a bank in Antwerp, then in the Spanish Netherlands. Everhard himself settled in France in 1638 and was naturalised as a French subject in 1647. In 1648, he married Anna Maria de Groote in Cologne; she was the daughter of one of the city's senators, and he had four children with her. Francis Haskell called him \"an opulent banker\", associated with a trading company based in Amsterdam and one of the directors of the French East India Company, managing the 'factory' at Corbeil. In 1671, his fortune was valued at 2 million livres. Now lost, his town house, or 'h\u00f4tel particulier, was on rue Neuve-Saint-Merri; he put on plays there, whose audiences included Voltaire, before it became the base of the \"Caisse Jabach\" Comptoir commercial.\n", "Jabach is most notable as a famous collector of drawings, paintings, sculptures, objets d'art, bronzes, and prints by Raphael, the Caracci brothers, Rubens, Paul Bril, Durer, Le Brun, and Poussin. They came from the Ludovisi collection in Italy, from the sales in the Netherlands of the collections of the Earl of Arundel after the death of his widow in 1654 and those in London of Charles I of England in 1650\u20131653, from other collections in Germany, and from the dispersal of Rubens' estate. Some of his drawings originated in Vasari's noted Libro de' Disegni portfolio. In 1661\u201362 and 1671, he ceded much of his collection to Louis XIV\u2014a total of 5,000 drawings in the second sale, now in the Louvre's Cabinet des dessins.\n", "\nIn 1741, Pierre-Jean Mariette stated that \"in selling the King his paintings and drawings, [Jabach] held back some of the drawings, and certainly not the least beautiful ones\". At his death, he left behind another collection of 4,000 drawings in 26 portfolios; the Louvre's d\u00e9partement des Arts graphiques conducted an inventory of them after his death and published it in 2002. In 2013, one aspect of Jabach's collection was the subject of an exhibition at the Louvre called \"A German at the Court of Louis XIV; From D\u00fcrer to Van Dyck: the Everhard Jabach collection of Northern Art\".[1]"], "Q122387429": [], "Q106857709": [], "Q7742": ["Louis\u00a0XIV (Louis-Dieudonn\u00e9; 5 September 1638\u00a0\u2013 1 September 1715), also known as Louis the Great (Louis le Grand) or the Sun King (le Roi Soleil), was King of France from 1643 until his death in 1715. His verified reign of 72 years and 110 days is the longest of any sovereign.[1][a] Although Louis\u00a0XIV's France was emblematic of the Age of Absolutism in Europe,[3] the King surrounded himself with a variety of significant political, military, and cultural figures, such as Bossuet, Colbert, Louvois, Le Brun, Le N\u00f4tre, Lully, Mazarin, Moli\u00e8re, Racine, Turenne, Cond\u00e9, and Vauban.\n", "Louis began his personal rule of France in 1661, after the death of his chief minister Cardinal Mazarin, when the King famously declared that he would take over the job himself.[4] An adherent of the divine right of kings, Louis continued his predecessors' work of creating a centralised state governed from the capital. He sought to eliminate the remnants of feudalism persisting in parts of France; by compelling many members of the nobility to reside at his lavish Palace of Versailles, he succeeded in pacifying the aristocracy, many of whom had participated in the Fronde rebellions during his minority. He thus became one of the most powerful French monarchs and consolidated a system of absolute monarchy in France that endured until the French Revolution. Louis also enforced uniformity of religion under the Catholic Church. His revocation of the Edict of Nantes abolished the rights of the Huguenot Protestant minority and subjected them to a wave of dragonnades, effectively forcing Huguenots to emigrate or convert, virtually destroying the French Protestant community.\n", "During Louis's long reign, France emerged as the leading European power and regularly asserted its military strength. A conflict with Spain marked his entire childhood, while during his personal rule, Louis fought three major continental conflicts, each against powerful foreign alliances: the Franco-Dutch War, the Nine Years' War, and the War of the Spanish Succession. In addition, France also contested shorter wars, such as the War of Devolution and the War of the Reunions. Warfare defined Louis's foreign policy and his personal ambition shaped his approach. Impelled by \"a mix of commerce, revenge, and pique\", he sensed that war was the ideal way to enhance his glory. His wars strained France's resources to the utmost, while in peacetime, he concentrated on preparing for the next war. He taught his diplomats that their job was to create tactical and strategic advantages for the French military.[5] Upon his death in 1715, Louis\u00a0XIV left his great-grandson and successor, Louis\u00a0XV, a powerful kingdom, albeit in major debt after the War of the Spanish Succession that had raged on since 1701.\n", "Significant achievements during Louis\u00a0XIV's reign which would go on to have a wide influence on the early modern period, well into the Industrial Revolution and until today, include the construction of the Canal du Midi, the patronage of artists, and the founding of the French Academy of Sciences.\n"], "Q942467": ["The Christ Child, also known as Divine Infant, Baby Jesus, Infant Jesus, the Divine Child, Child Jesus,  the Holy Child, Divino Ni\u00f1o, and Santo Ni\u00f1o in Hispanic nations, refers to Jesus Christ from his nativity until age 12.\n", "From about the third or fourth century onwards, the child Jesus is frequently shown in paintings, and sculpture. Commonly these are nativity scenes showing the birth of Jesus, with his mother Mary, and her husband Joseph.\n", "Depictions as a baby with the Virgin Mary, known as Madonna and Child, are iconographical types in Eastern and Western traditions. Other scenes from his time as a baby, of his circumcision, presentation at the temple, the adoration of the Magi, and the flight into Egypt, are common.[1]  Scenes showing his developing years are more rare but not unknown.\n", "Saint Joseph, Anthony of Padua, and Saint Christopher are often depicted holding the Christ Child. The Christian mystics Saint Teresa of \u00c1vila, Saint Th\u00e9r\u00e8se of Lisieux, along with the devotees of Divino Ni\u00f1o such as Mother Angelica and Father Giovanni Rizzo claim to have had apparitions of Jesus as a toddler.\n"], "Q563707": ["The Virgin and Child with Saint Anne[1][2] or Madonna and Child with Saint Anne[3][4] is a subject in Christian art showing Saint Anne with her daughter, the Virgin Mary, and her grandson Jesus.[5] This depiction has been popular in Germany and neighboring countries since the 14th century.\n", "In the 13th century, Jacobus de Voragine incorporated apocryphal accounts from the Protoevangelium of James regarding the parents of the Blessed Virgin Mary in his Golden Legend. The cult of St. Anne spread rapidly and she became one of the most popular saints of the Latin Church. Saint Anne was recognized as the patroness of grandparents, women in labor, and of miners, Christ being compared to gold, and Mary to silver.[10] Inscriptions on some medieval church bells indicate that Saint Anne was invoked for protection against thunderstorms.[11]\n", "The subject of Saint Anne and the Virgin and Child was a popular subject in both painting and sculpture. This was due in part to its universality \"\u2014the love and tension between generations and also between humanity and the divine.\"[12] The Anna Selbdritt style, popular in northern Germany in the 1500s, demonstrates the medieval focus on the humanity of Jesus.[13] St. Anne's motherhood of Mary was viewed as mirroring Mary motherhood of Jesus.[14] In 1497, the German Benedictine abbot Johannes Trithemius, in his De purissima et immaculate conception virginis Marie et de festivitate sancta Annematris eius linked the Immaculate Conception of Mary to the devotion to her mother. While the matter of the Immaculate Conception remained a subject of debate between philosophers and theologians, the depiction of Joachim and Anne Meeting at the Golden Gate was sometimes interpreted as a symbolic representation of the conception of Mary. Saint Anne was revered as the avia Christi (\"grandmother of Christ\"), matriarch of the Holy Kinship and exemplary mother.[14]\n", "Fourteenth-century images of Saint Anne with the Virgin and Child were often modeled on the earlier seat of Wisdom motif.[15] Mary was often shown as a much smaller figure than her mother.[16] As devotion to St. Anne developed 14th century, sometimes a statue of the Madonna and Child was modified to include the additional figure of St. Anne.[14] Anne's traditional colors are green and red, although often she is shown wearing the more sober colors of an older woman.[17]\n"], "Q345": ["Mary[b] was a first-century Jewish woman of Nazareth,[6] the wife of Joseph and the mother of Jesus. She is a central figure of Christianity, venerated under various titles such as virgin or queen, many of them mentioned in the Litany of Loreto. The Eastern and Oriental Orthodox, Church of the East, Catholic, Anglican, and Lutheran churches believe that Mary, as mother of Jesus, is the Mother of God. Other Protestant views on Mary vary, with some holding her to have lesser status.\n", "The synoptic Gospels name Mary as the mother of Jesus. The gospels of Matthew and Luke describe Mary as a virgin[c] who was chosen by God to conceive Jesus through the Holy Spirit. After giving birth to Jesus in Bethlehem, she raised him in the city of Nazareth in Galilee, and was in Jerusalem at his crucifixion and with the apostles after his ascension. Although her later life is not accounted in the Bible, Catholic, Eastern Christian, and some Protestant traditions believe that her body was raised into heaven at the end of her earthly life, which is known in Western Christianity as the Assumption of Mary and in Eastern Christianity as the Dormition of the Mother of God.\n", "Mary has been venerated since early Christianity,[10][11] and is often considered to be the holiest and greatest saint. There is a certain diversity in the Mariology and devotional practices of major Christian traditions. The Catholic Church holds distinctive Marian dogmas, namely her Immaculate Conception and her bodily Assumption into heaven.[12] Many Protestants hold less exalted views of Mary's role, often based on a perceived lack of biblical support for many traditional Christian dogmas pertaining to her.[13] She is mentioned numerous times in the Quran, including in a chapter named after her, and has the highest position in Islam among all women.[14][15][16]\n", "The multiple forms of Marian devotions include various prayers and hymns, the celebration of several Marian feast days in liturgy, the veneration of images and relics, the construction of churches dedicated to her and pilgrimages to Marian shrines. Many Marian apparitions and miracles attributed to her intercession have been reported by believers over the centuries. She has been a traditional subject in arts, notably in Byzantine art, medieval art and Renaissance art.\n"]}

data/text_file_v1_1330.json

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+{"Q4575936": [], "Q7560": ["A mother is the female parent of a child. A woman may be considered a mother by virtue of having given birth, by raising a child who may or may not be her biological offspring, or by supplying her ovum for fertilisation in the case of gestational surrogacy.\n", "A biological mother is the female genetic contributor to the creation of the infant, through sexual intercourse or egg donation. A biological mother may have legal obligations to a child not raised by her, such as an obligation of monetary support. An adoptive mother is a female who has become the child's parent through the legal process of adoption. A putative mother is a female whose biological relationship to a child is alleged but has not been established. A stepmother is a non-biological female parent married to a child's preexisting parent, and may form a family unit but generally does not have the legal rights and responsibilities of a parent in relation to the child.\n", "A father is the male counterpart of a mother. Women who are pregnant may be referred to as expectant mothers or mothers-to-be, though such appellations are less readily applied to (biological) fathers or adoptive parents.[1][2] The process of becoming a mother has been referred to as \"matrescence\".[3]\n", "The adjective \"maternal\" refers to a mother and comparatively to \"paternal\" for a father. The verb \"to mother\" means to procreate or to sire a child, or to provide care for a child, from which also derives the noun \"mothering\".[4] Related terms of endearment are mom (mama, mommy), mum (mummy), mumsy, mamacita (ma, mam) and mammy. A female role model that children can look up to is sometimes referred to as a mother-figure.\n"], "Q12269950": [], "Q18560520": [], "Q16672500": ["The Renaissance (UK: /r\u026a\u02c8ne\u026as\u0259ns/ rin-AY-s\u0259nss, US: /\u02c8r\u025bn\u0259s\u0251\u02d0ns/ \u24d8 REN-\u0259-sahnss)[1][a] is a period in history and a cultural movement marking the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity, covering the 15th and 16th centuries and characterized by an effort to revive and surpass the ideas and achievements of classical antiquity; it was associated with great social change in most fields and disciplines, including art, architecture, politics, literature, exploration and science. It began in the Republic of Florence.\n", "The Renaissance's intellectual basis was its version of humanism, derived from the concept of Roman humanitas and the rediscovery of classical Greek philosophy, such as that of Protagoras, who said that \"man is the measure of all things\". Early examples were the development of perspective in oil painting and the revived knowledge of how to make concrete. Although the invention of metal movable type sped the dissemination of ideas from the later 15th century, the changes of the Renaissance were not uniform across Europe: the first traces appear in Italy as early as the late 13th century, in particular with the writings of Dante and the paintings of Giotto.\n", "As a cultural movement, the Renaissance encompassed innovative flowering of Latin and vernacular literatures, beginning with the 14th-century resurgence of learning based on classical sources, which contemporaries credited to Petrarch; the development of linear perspective and other techniques of rendering a more natural reality in painting; and gradual but widespread educational reform. In politics, the Renaissance contributed to the development of the customs and conventions of diplomacy, and in science to an increased reliance on observation and inductive reasoning. Although the Renaissance saw revolutions in many intellectual and social scientific pursuits, as well as the introduction of modern banking and the field of accounting,[3] it is perhaps best known for its artistic developments and the contributions of such polymaths as Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo, who inspired the term \"Renaissance man\".[4][5]\n", "The term rinascita (\"rebirth\") first appeared in Giorgio Vasari's Lives of the Artists (c.\u20091550), the corresponding French word, renaissance, was adopted into English as the term for this period during the 1830s.[6][b]\n"], "Q164294": ["According to apocrypha, as well as Christian and Islamic tradition, Saint Anne was the mother of Mary, the wife of Joachim and the maternal grandmother of Jesus. Mary's mother is not named in the Bible's canonical gospels. In writing, Anne's name and that of her husband Joachim come only from New Testament apocrypha, of which the Gospel of James (written perhaps around 150 AD) seems to be the earliest that mentions them.\nThe mother of Mary is mentioned but not named in the Quran.\n", "The story is similar to that of Samuel, whose mother Hannah (Hebrew: \u05d7\u05b7\u05e0\u05b8\u05bc\u05d4\u200e \u1e24ann\u0101h \"favour, grace\"; etymologically the same name as Anne) had also been childless. The Immaculate Conception was eventually made dogma by the Catholic Church following an increased devotion to Anne in the twelfth century.[4] Dedications to Anne in Eastern Christianity occur as early as the sixth century.[5] In the Eastern Orthodox tradition, Anne and Joachim are ascribed the title Ancestors of God,[6] and both the Nativity of Mary and the Presentation of Mary are celebrated as two of the twelve Great Feasts of the Orthodox Church. The Dormition of Anne is also a minor feast in Eastern Christianity. In Lutheran Protestantism, it is held that Martin Luther chose to enter religious life as an Augustinian friar after invoking St. Anne while endangered by lightning.[7]\n", "Anne (Arabic: \u062d\u0646\u0629, romanized:\u00a0\u1e24annah) is also revered in Islam, recognized as a highly spiritual woman and as the mother of Mary. She is not named in the Quran, where she is referred to as \"the wife of Imran\". The Quran describes her remaining childless until her old age. One day, Anne saw a bird feeding its young while sitting in the shade of a tree, which awakened her desire to have children of her own. She prayed for a child and eventually conceived; her husband, Imran, died before the child was born. Expecting the child to be male, Anne vowed to dedicate him to isolation and service in the Second Temple.[N 1][8][9]\n", "\nHowever, Anne bore a daughter instead, and named her Mary. Her words upon delivering Mary reflect her status as a great mystic, realising that while she had wanted a son, this daughter was God's gift to her:[8][9]"], "Q26702": ["Armand Jean du Plessis, 1st Duke of Richelieu (French: [a\u0281m\u0251\u0303 \u0292\u0251\u0303 dy pl\u025bsi]; 9 September 1585 \u2013 4 December 1642), known as Cardinal Richelieu,[a] was a French statesman and prelate of the Catholic Church. He became known as l'\u00c9minence rouge, or \"the Red Eminence\", a term derived from the title \"Eminence\" applied to  cardinals and from the red robes that they customarily wear.\n", "Consecrated a bishop in 1607, Richelieu was appointed Foreign Secretary in 1616. He continued to rise through the hierarchy of both the Catholic Church and the French government, becoming a cardinal in 1622 and chief minister to King Louis XIII of France in 1624. He retained that office until his death in 1642, when he was succeeded by Cardinal Mazarin, whose career he had fostered. Richelieu became engaged in a bitter dispute with Marie de M\u00e9dici, the king's mother, and formerly his close ally.\n", "Richelieu sought to consolidate royal power and restrained the power of the nobility in order to transform France into a strong centralized state. In foreign policy, his primary objectives were to check the power of the Habsburg dynasty (reigning notably in  Spain and Austria) and to ensure French dominance in the Thirty Years' War of 1618\u20131648 after that conflict engulfed Europe. Despite suppressing the Huguenot rebellions of the 1620s, he made alliances with Protestant states like the Kingdom of England and the Dutch Republic to help him achieve his goals. However, although he was a powerful political figure in his own right, events such as the Day of the Dupes (French: Journ\u00e9e des Dupes) in 1630 showed that Richelieu's power still depended on the king's confidence.\n", "An alumnus of the University of Paris and headmaster of the College of Sorbonne, Richelieu renovated and extended the institution. He became famous for his patronage of the arts and founded the Acad\u00e9mie Fran\u00e7aise, the learned society responsible for matters pertaining to the French language. As an advocate for Samuel de Champlain and New France, he founded (1627) the Compagnie des Cent-Associ\u00e9s; he also negotiated the 1632 Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye under which Quebec City returned to French rule after English privateers took it in 1629. He was created Duke of Richelieu in 1629.\n"], "Q11472": ["Paper is a thin sheet material produced by mechanically or chemically processing cellulose fibres derived from wood, rags, grasses, or other vegetable sources in water, draining the water through a fine mesh leaving the fibre evenly distributed on the surface, followed by pressing and drying. Although paper was originally made in single sheets by hand, almost all is now made on large machines\u2014some making reels 10 metres wide, running at 2,000 metres per minute and up to 600,000 tonnes a year. It is a versatile material with many uses, including printing, painting, graphics, signage, design, packaging, decorating, writing, and cleaning. It may also be used as filter paper, wallpaper, book endpaper, conservation paper, laminated worktops, toilet tissue, currency, and security paper, or in a number of industrial and construction processes.\n", "The papermaking process developed in east Asia, probably China, at least as early as 105 CE,[1] by the Han court eunuch Cai Lun, although the earliest archaeological fragments of paper derive from the 2nd century BCE in China.[2] The modern pulp and paper industry is global, with China leading its production and the United States following.\n", "The oldest known archaeological fragments of the immediate precursor to modern paper date to the 2nd century BCE in China. The pulp papermaking process is ascribed to Cai Lun, a 2nd-century CE Han court eunuch.[2]\n", "It has been said that knowledge of papermaking was passed to the Islamic world after the Battle of Talas in 751 CE when two Chinese papermakers were captured as prisoners. Although the veracity of this story is uncertain, paper started to be made in Samarkand soon after.[3] In the 13th century, the knowledge and uses of paper spread from the Middle East to medieval Europe, where the first water-powered paper mills were built.[4] Because paper was introduced to the West through the city of Baghdad, it was first called bagdatikos.[5] In the 19th century, industrialization greatly reduced the cost of manufacturing paper. In 1844, the Canadian inventor Charles Fenerty and the German inventor Friedrich Gottlob Keller independently developed processes for pulping wood fibres.[6]\n"], "Q116887": ["Cleavage is the narrow depression or hollow between the breasts of a woman. The superior portion of cleavage may be accentuated by clothing such as a low-cut neckline that exposes the division, and often the term is used to describe the low neckline itself, instead of the term d\u00e9colletage. Joseph Breen, head of the U.S. film industry's Production Code Administration, coined the term in its current meaning when evaluating the 1943 film The Outlaw, starring Jane Russell. The term was explained in Time magazine on August 5, 1946. It is most commonly used in the parlance of Western female fashion to refer to necklines that reveal or emphasize d\u00e9colletage (display of the upper breast area).\n", "The visible display of cleavage can provide erotic pleasure for those who are sexually attracted to women, though this does not occur in all cultures. Explanations for this effect have included[according to whom?] evolutionary psychology, a patriarchal revolution, and dissociation from breastfeeding. Since at least the 15th century, women in the Western world have used their cleavage to flirt, attract, make political statements (such as in the Topfreedom movement), and assert power. In several parts of the world, the advent of Christianity and Islam saw a sharp decline in the amount of cleavage which was considered socially acceptable. In many cultures today,[clarification needed] cleavage exposure is considered unwelcome or is banned legally. In some areas like European beaches and among many indigenous populations across the world, cleavage exposure is acceptable; conversely, even in the Western world it is often discouraged in daywear or in public spaces. In some cases, exposed cleavage can be a target for unwanted voyeuristic photography or sexual harassment.\n", "Cleavage-revealing clothes started becoming popular in the Christian West as it came out of the Early Middle Ages and enjoyed significant prevalence during Mid-Tang-era China, Elizabethan era England, and France over many centuries, particularly after the French Revolution. But in Victorian era England and during the flapper period of Western fashion, it was suppressed. Cleavage came vigorously back to Western fashion in the 1950s, particularly through Hollywood celebrities and lingerie brands. The consequent fascination with cleavage was most prominent in the U.S., and countries heavily influenced by the U.S. With the advent of push-up and underwired bras that replaced corsets of the past, the cleavage fascination was propelled by these lingerie manufacturers. By the early 2020s, dramatization of cleavage started to lose popularity along with the big lingerie brands. At the same time cleavage was sometimes replaced with other types of presentation of clothed breasts, like sideboobs and underboobs.\n", "Many women enhance their cleavage through the use of things like brassi\u00e8res, falsies and corsetry, as well as surgical breast augmentation using saline or silicone implants and hormone therapy. Workouts, yoga, skin care, makeup, jewelry, tattoos and piercings are also used to embellish the cleavage. Male cleavage (also called heavage), accentuated by low necklines or unbuttoned shirts, is a film trend in Hollywood and Bollywood. Some men also groom their chests.\n"], "Q467": ["Typically, women inherit a pair of X chromosomes, one from each parent, and are capable of pregnancy and giving birth from puberty until menopause. More generally, sex differentiation of the female fetus is governed by the lack of a present, or functioning, SRY-gene on either one of the respective sex chromosomes.[5] Female anatomy is distinguished from male anatomy by the female reproductive system, which includes the ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, and vulva. An adult woman generally has a wider pelvis, broader hips, and larger breasts than an adult man. Women typically have less facial and other body hair, have a higher body fat composition, and are on average shorter and less muscular than men.\n", "Throughout human history, traditional gender roles have often defined and limited women's activities and opportunities, resulting in gender inequality; many religious doctrines and legal systems stipulate certain rules for women. With restrictions loosening during the 20th century in many societies, women have gained wider access to careers and the ability to pursue higher education. Violence against women, whether within families or in communities, has a long history and is primarily committed by men. Some women are denied reproductive rights. The movements and ideologies of feminism have a shared goal of achieving gender equality.\n", "Trans women have a gender identity that does not align with their sex assignment at birth as male,[6] while intersex women may have sex characteristics that do not fit typical notions of female biology.[7][8]\n", "The spelling of \"woman\" in English has progressed over the past millennium from w\u012bfmann[9] to w\u012bmmann to wumman, and finally, the modern spelling woman.[10] In Old English, w\u012bfmann meant 'woman' (literally 'woman-person'), whereas wermann meant 'man'. Mann had a gender-neutral meaning of 'human', corresponding to Modern English 'person' or 'someone'; however, subsequent to the Norman Conquest, man began to be used more in reference to 'male human', and by the late 13th century it had begun to eclipse usage of the older term wer.[11] The medial labial consonants f and m in w\u012bfmann coalesced into the modern form \"woman\", while the initial element w\u012bf, which had also meant 'woman', underwent semantic narrowing to the sense of a married woman ('wife').\n"]}

data/text_file_v1_1340.json

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+{"Q200539": ["A dress (also known as a frock or a gown) is a garment traditionally worn by women or girls consisting of a skirt with an attached bodice (or a matching bodice giving the effect of a one-piece garment).[1] It consists of a top piece that covers the torso and hangs down over the legs. A dress can be any one-piece garment containing a skirt of any length, and can be formal or casual.\n", "Dresses are outer garments made up of a bodice and a skirt and can be made in one or more pieces.[3][4] Dresses are generally suitable for both formal wear and casual wear in the West for women and girls.[4]\n", "In the 11th century, women in Europe wore dresses that were similar to men's tunics and were loose, with a hemline reaching to below the knees or lower.[8] By the end of the century, these dresses featured a tighter fit on the arms and women's upper bodies.[8] Dresses were made snug by featuring slits on the sides of the dress that were pulled tight in order to fit a woman's figure.[9]\n", "Starting in the 1550s, middle- and upper-class women in Europe wore dresses which included a smock, stays, kirtle, gown, forepart, sleeves, ruff and a partlet.[5] Undergarments were not worn underneath.[5] In England, Queen Elizabeth dictated what kinds of dresses women were allowed to wear.[10] French women were inspired by Spanish-style bodices and also wore ruffs.[10] French dresses were known as marlottes.[11] In Italy, dresses were known as ropa and semarra.[11] Dresses in the 16th century also displayed surface decoration such as embroidery, with blackwork being especially popular.[12]\n"], "Q189085": ["A pastel (US: /p\u00e6\u02c8st\u025bl/) is an art medium that consist of powdered pigment and a binder. It can exist in a variety of forms, including a stick, a square, a pebble, or a pan of color, though other forms are possible. The pigments used in pastels are similar to those used to produce some other colored visual arts media, such as oil paints; the binder is of a neutral hue and low saturation. The color effect of pastels is closer to the natural dry pigments than that of any other process.[1]\n", "Pastel sticks or crayons consist of powdered pigment combined with a binder. The exact composition and characteristics of an individual pastel stick depend on the type of pastel and the type and amount of binder used. It also varies by individual manufacturer.\n", "Dry pastels have historically used binders such as gum arabic and gum tragacanth. Methyl cellulose was introduced as a binder in the 20th century. Often a chalk or gypsum component is present. They are available in varying degrees of hardness, the softer varieties being wrapped in paper. Some pastel brands use pumice in the binder to abrade the paper and create more tooth.\n", "There has been some debate within art societies as to what exactly qualifies as a pastel. The Pastel Society within the UK (the oldest pastel society) states the following are acceptable media for its exhibitions: \"Pastels, including Oil pastel, Charcoal, Pencil, Cont\u00e9, Sanguine, or any dry media\". The emphasis appears to be on \"dry media\" but the debate continues.\n"], "Q593626": ["She was a patron of the arts as well as a leader of fashion and her innovative style of dressing was emulated by many women. The poet Ariosto labeled her as the \"liberal and magnanimous Isabella\",[1] while author Matteo Bandello described her as \"supreme among women\".[1] Diplomat Niccol\u00f2 da Correggio went even further by hailing her as \"The First Lady of the world\".[1]\n", "She served as the regent of Mantua during the absence of her husband Francesco II Gonzaga and during the minority of her son Federico. She was a prolific letter-writer and maintained a lifelong correspondence with her sister-in-law Elisabetta Gonzaga. Isabella grew up in a cultured family in the city-state of Ferrara. She received a fine classical education and she met many famous humanist scholars and artists. Due to the vast amount of extant correspondence between Isabella and her family and friends, her life is extremely well documented.[2]\n", "Isabella was born on Tuesday, 19 May 1474 at nine o'clock in the evening [3] Isabella's mother, Eleanor of Naples, wrote a letter to her friend Barbara Gonzaga describing the details of Isabella's birth[4] in Ferrara.[5] Eleanor was the daughter of Ferdinand I, the Aragonese King of Naples, and Isabella of Clermont. [3]\n", "One year later, on 29 June 1475, her sister Beatrice was born, and in 1476 and 1477 two brothers, Alfonso and Ferrante, were born. In 1479 and 1480 two more brothers were born; Ippolito and Sigismondo. Of all the children born into the family, Isabella is believed to have been the favourite.[6]\n"], "Q217106": ["Croquis drawing is quick and sketchy drawing of usually a live nude model. Croquis drawings are usually made in a few minutes, after which the model changes pose or leaves and another croquis is drawn. The word croquis comes from French and means simply \"sketch\". A croquis is often an outline silhouette, for use by a designer.[1]\n", "The short duration of the pose benefits models because they do not need to keep still for a long time; this also benefits the artists because it helps them concentrate on the essential elements of the pose, or the most important parts of the drawing. An artist does not have time to draw all the details, so they learn to concentrate on the important elements. Croquis is also a good method of drawing subjects that generally do not stand still and pose, such as insects, animals, and children.\n", "In fashion, the term refers to a quick sketch of a figure (typically nine heads tall as this is the accepted proportions for fashion illustration) with a loose drawing of the clothes that are being designed. Often a large number of croquis drawings will be created for one finished look, which is fully drawn and finished.\n"], "Q901944": ["Sanguine (/\u02c8s\u00e6\u014b\u0261w\u026an/) or red chalk is chalk of a reddish-brown color, so called because it resembles the color of dried blood.  It has been popular for centuries for drawing (where white chalk only works on colored paper). The word comes via French from the Italian sanguigna and originally from the Latin \"sanguis\".\n", "Sanguine lends itself naturally to sketches, life drawings, and rustic scenes. It is ideal for rendering modeling and volume, and human flesh. In the form of wood-cased pencils and manufactured sticks, sanguine may be used similarly to charcoal and pastel. As with pastel, a mid-toned paper may be put to good use. A fixative may be applied to preserve the finished state of the drawing. The pigment used in sanguine sticks comes from red earths such as red ochre.[1] Sanguines are also available in several other tones such as orange, tan, brown, beige.\n"], "Q14130": [], "Q1424515": ["Charcoal is a lightweight black carbon residue produced by strongly heating wood (or other animal and plant materials) in minimal oxygen to remove all water and volatile constituents. In the traditional version of this pyrolysis process, called charcoal burning, often by forming a charcoal kiln, the heat is supplied by burning part of the starting material itself, with a limited supply of oxygen. The material can also be heated in a closed retort. Modern \"charcoal\" briquettes used for outdoor cooking may contain many other additives, e.g. coal.\n", "This process happens naturally when combustion is incomplete, and is sometimes used in radiocarbon dating. It also happens inadvertently while burning wood, as in a fireplace or wood stove. The visible flame in these is due to combustion of the volatile gases exuded as the wood turns into charcoal. The soot and smoke commonly given off by wood fires result from incomplete combustion of those volatiles. Charcoal burns at a higher temperature than wood, with hardly a visible flame, and releases almost nothing except heat, water, and carbon dioxide.\n", "The production of wood charcoal in locations where there is an abundance of wood dates back to ancient times.  It generally begins with piling billets of wood on their ends to form a conical pile.  Openings are left at the bottom to admit air, with a central shaft serving as a flue. The whole pile is covered with turf or moistened clay. The firing is begun at the bottom of the flue, and gradually spreads outward and upward. The success of the operation depends upon the rate of the combustion. Under average conditions wood yields about 60% charcoal by volume, or 25% by weight;[1] small-scale production methods often yield only about 50% by volume, while large-scale methods enabled higher yields of about 90% by the 17th century. \n", "The operation is so delicate that it was generally left to colliers (professional charcoal burners). They often lived alone in small huts to tend their wood piles. For example, in the Harz Mountains of Germany, charcoal burners lived in conical huts called K\u00f6ten which are extant today.[when?]\n"], "Q2647254": [], "Q5078274": [], "Q4382010": []}

data/text_file_v1_1350.json

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+{"Q3393683": ["A silverpoint drawing is made by dragging a silver rod or wire across a surface, often prepared with gesso or Chinese white ground. Silverpoint is one of several types of metalpoint used by scribes, craftsmen and artists since ancient times. Metalpoint styli were used for writing on soft surfaces (wax or bark), ruling and underdrawing on parchment, and drawing on prepared paper and panel supports. For drawing purposes, the essential metals used were lead, tin and silver. The softness of these metals made them effective drawing instruments.[1] Goldsmiths also used metalpoint drawings to prepare their detailed, meticulous designs. Albrecht D\u00fcrer's father was one such craftsman who later taught his young son to draw in metalpoint, to such good effect that his 1484 Self-Portrait at the Age of 13 is still considered a masterpiece.\n", "In the late Gothic/early Renaissance era, silverpoint emerged as a fine line drawing technique. Not blunting as easily as lead or tin, and rendering precise detail, silverpoint was especially favored in Florentine and Flemish workshops. Silverpoint drawings of this era include model books and preparatory sheets for paintings. Artists who worked in silverpoint include Jan van Eyck, Leonardo da Vinci, Albrecht D\u00fcrer and Raphael. Cennino Cennini's Il Libro dell'Arte provides a window on the practice of silver and leadpoint drawing, as well as preparing metalpoint grounds, in the late 14th century.[2][3] Susan Dorothea White's book Draw Like da Vinci describes the silverpoint technique of Leonardo da Vinci.[4]\n", "As noted by Francis Ames-Lewis, drawing styles changed at the end of the 16th century, resulting in a decline for metalpoint. The discovery of graphite deposits at Seathwaite in Borrowdale, Cumbria, England, in the early 1500s, and its increasing availability to artists in a pure, soft (and erasable) form hastened silverpoint's eclipse. Artists sought more gestural qualities, for which graphite, red and black chalk were better suited. Ink and wash drawings are also prevalent in the period. In addition, these other drawing techniques required less effort and were more forgiving than silver, which resists erasure and leaves a fainter line. Furthermore, the preparation of silverpoint supports, usually with hide glue with finely ground bone ash, was labor-intensive. Modern practitioners use zinc, pre-prepared acrylic-based grounds or titanium white tempera or marble dust as a ground. Natural chalks and charcoal have the advantage of producing immediate results on uncoated papers.[5]\n", "Dutch artists Hendrick Goltzius and Rembrandt maintained the silverpoint tradition into the 17th century, as it declined in other parts of Europe. Rembrandt made several silverpoints on prepared vellum, the best-known being the portrait of his wife Saskia, 1633.[6] Botanical artists and architects continued to use metalpoint because of its exact lines. However, artists who continued this tradition of fine line drawing, such as Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, turned to graphite, which gradually improved in quality and availability throughout Europe since the 17th century. Silverpoint was for practical purposes rendered obsolete by the 18th century.[7] There has however been a contemporary art revival among European and American artists and academies because the medium imposes considerable discipline in draughtsmanship since drawings cannot be erased or altered.\n"], "Q2412125": [], "Q7737": [], "Q34266": ["The Russian Empire, also known as Imperial Russia or simply Russia,[e][f] was a vast realm that spanned most of northern Eurasia in 1618 from its proclamation in November 1721 until its dissolution in March 1917. At its height in the late 19th century, it covered an area of approximately 22,800,000 square kilometres (8,800,000\u00a0sq\u00a0mi), roughly one-sixth of the world's landmass, making it the third-largest empire in history, surpassed only by the British and Mongol empires; it also held colonies in North America between 1799 and 1867. The Russian Empire had a population of 125.6 million in 1897\u2014per the only census conducted during the entire imperial period\u2014which featured considerable ethnic, linguistic, religious, and socioeconomic diversity. \n", "The rise of the Russian Empire coincided with the decline of neighbouring rival powers, namely the Swedish Empire, the Polish\u2013Lithuanian Commonwealth, Qajar Iran, the Ottoman Empire, and Qing China. From the 10th to 17th centuries, the Russians were ruled by a noble class known as the boyars, above whom was an absolute monarch titled the tsar. The groundwork of the Russian Empire was laid by Ivan III (r.\u20091462\u20131505), who greatly expanded his domain, established a centralized Russian national state, and secured independence against the Tatars. His grandson, Ivan IV (r.\u20091533\u20131584), was the first Russian monarch to be crowned \"tsar of all Russia\" in 1547. Between 1550 and 1700, the Russian state grew by an average of 35,000 square kilometres (14,000\u00a0sq\u00a0mi) per year. Major events during this period include the transition from the Rurik to the Romanov dynasties, the conquest of Siberia, and the reign of Peter I (r.\u20091682\u20131725) who transformed the tsardom into an empire.[8]\n", "Peter I fought numerous wars that expanded an already vast empire into a major European power. He moved the Russian capital from Moscow to the new model city of Saint Petersburg, which marked the birth of the imperial era, and led a cultural revolution that introduced a modern, scientific, rationalist, and Western-oriented system. Catherine II (r.\u20091762\u20131796) presided over further expansion of the Russian state by conquest, colonization, and diplomacy, while continuing Peter I's policy of modernization towards a Western model. Alexander I (r.\u20091801\u20131825) played a major role in defeating the militaristic ambitions of Napoleon and subsequently constituting the Holy Alliance, which aimed to restrain the rise of secularism and liberalism across Europe. Russia further expanded to the west, south, and east, strengthening its position as a European power. Its victories in the Russo-Turkish Wars were later checked by defeat in the Crimean War (1853\u20131856), leading to a period of reform and intensified expansion into Central Asia.[9] Alexander II (r.\u20091855\u20131881) initiated numerous reforms, most notably the 1861 emancipation of all 23 million serfs. His official policy saw Russia assume responsibility over the protection of Eastern Orthodox Christians under Ottoman rule; this was one of the factors that later led to the Russian entry into World War I.\n", "From 1721 until 1762, the Russian Empire was ruled by the House of Romanov; its matrilineal branch of patrilineal German descent, the House of Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov, ruled from 1762 until 1917. By the start of the 19th century, Russian territory extended from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Black Sea in the south, and from the Baltic Sea in the west to Alaska, Hawaii, and California in the east. By the end of the 19th century, Russia had expanded its control over the Caucasus, most of Central Asia and parts of Northeast Asia. Notwithstanding its extensive territorial gains and great power status, the empire entered the 20th century in a perilous state. A devastating famine in 1891\u20131892 killed millions and led to popular discontent. As the last remaining absolute monarchy in Europe, the empire saw rapid political radicalization and the growing popularity of revolutionary ideas such as communism.[10] After the 1905 revolution, Nicholas II authorized the creation of a national parliament, the State Duma, although he still retained absolute political power. \n"], "Q117360567": [], "Q47461344": ["Writing is the act of creating a persistent representation of human language. A writing system uses a set of symbols and rules to encode aspects of spoken language, such as its lexicon and syntax. However, written language may take on characteristics distinct from those of any spoken language.[1]\n", "Writing is a cognitive and social activity involving neuropsychological and physical processes. The outcome of this activity, also called \"writing\", and sometimes a \"text\", is a series of physically inscribed, mechanically transferred, or digitally represented symbols. The interpreter or activator of a text is called a \"reader\".[2]\n", "In general, writing systems do not constitute languages in and of themselves, but rather a means of encoding language such that it can be read by others across time and space.[3][4]  While not all languages use a writing system, those that do can complement and extend the capacities of spoken language by creating durable forms of language that can be transmitted across space (e.g. written correspondence) and stored over time (e.g. libraries or other public records).[5] Writing can also have knowledge-transforming effects, since it allows humans to externalize their thinking in forms that are easier to reflect on, elaborate on, reconsider, and revise.[6][7][8]\n", "Any instance of writing involves a complex interaction among available tools, intentions, cultural customs, cognitive routines, genres, tacit and explicit knowledge, and the constraints and limitations of the writing system(s) deployed.[9] Inscriptions have been made with fingers, styluses, quills, ink brushes, pencils, pens, and many styles of lithography; surfaces used for these inscriptions include stone tablets, clay tablets, bamboo slats, papyrus, wax tablets, vellum, parchment, paper, copperplate, slate, porcelain, and other enameled surfaces. The Incas used knotted cords known as quipu (or khipu) for keeping records.[10] Countless writing tools and surfaces have been improvised throughout history (as the cases of graffiti, tattooing, and impromptu aides-memoire illustrate).\n"], "Q975413": ["An encyclopedic dictionary typically includes many short listings, arranged alphabetically, and discussing a wide range of topics.[1] Encyclopedic dictionaries can be general, containing articles on topics in many different fields; or they can specialize in a particular field, such as art, biography, law, medicine, or philosophy. They may also be organized around a particular academic, cultural, ethnic, or national perspective.\n", "Historically, the term has been used to refer to any encyclopedic reference book (that is, one comprehensive in scope), which was organized alphabetically, as with the familiar dictionary (the term dictionary preceded encyclopedia in common usage by about two centuries). To convey their alphabetic method of organization and to contrast that method with other systems for classifying knowledge, many early encyclopedias were titled or sub-titled \"a dictionary of arts and sciences\" or something similar.\n", "Compared to a dictionary, the encyclopedic dictionary offers a more complete description and a choice of entries selected to convey a range of knowledge. Compared to an encyclopedia, the encyclopedic dictionary offers ease of use, through summarized entries and in some cases more entries of separate terms; and often reduced size, and the reduced publishing and purchase cost that implies.\n", "The question of how to structure the entries, and how much information to include, are among the core issues in organizing reference books. As different approaches are better suited to different uses or users, all three approaches have been in wide use since the end of the 18th century.\n"], "Q24717970": [], "Q19908137": [], "Q43200476": []}

data/text_file_v1_1360.json

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+{"Q43200228": [], "Q43200221": [], "Q43200234": [], "Q43200238": [], "Q43200225": [], "Q649": ["Moscow (/\u02c8m\u0252sko\u028a/ MOS-koh, US chiefly /\u02c8m\u0252ska\u028a/ MOS-kow;[12][13] Russian: \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0432\u0430, tr. Moskva, IPA: [m\u0250sk\u02c8va] \u24d8) is the capital and largest city of Russia. The city stands on the Moskva River in Central Russia, with a population estimated at 13.0\u00a0million residents within the city limits,[6] over 18.8\u00a0million residents in the urban area,[7] and over 21.5\u00a0million residents in the metropolitan area.[14] The city covers an area of 2,511 square kilometers (970\u00a0sq\u00a0mi), while the urban area covers 5,891 square kilometers (2,275\u00a0sq\u00a0mi),[7] and the metropolitan area covers over 26,000 square kilometers (10,000\u00a0sq\u00a0mi).[14] Moscow is among the world's largest cities, being the most populous city entirely in Europe, the largest urban and metropolitan area in Europe,[7][14] and the largest city by land area on the European continent.[15]\n", "First documented in 1147, Moscow grew to become a prosperous and powerful city that served as the capital of the Grand Duchy of Moscow. When the Tsardom of Russia was proclaimed, Moscow remained the political and economic center for most of its history. Under the reign of Peter the Great, the Russian capital was moved to the newly founded city of Saint Petersburg in 1712, diminishing Moscow's influence. Following the Russian Revolution and the establishment of the Russian SFSR, the capital was moved back to Moscow in 1918, where it later became the political center of the Soviet Union.[16] In the aftermath of the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Moscow remained the capital city of the newly established Russian Federation.\n", "The northernmost and coldest megacity in the world, Moscow is governed as a federal city,[17] where it serves as the political, economic, cultural, and scientific center of Russia and Eastern Europe. As an alpha world city,[18] Moscow has one of the world's largest urban economies.[19] The city is one of the fastest-growing tourist destinations in the world,[20] and is one of Europe's most visited cities. Moscow is home to the sixth-highest number of billionaires of any city in the world.[21] The Moscow International Business Center is one of the largest financial centers in Europe and the world, and features the majority of Europe's tallest skyscrapers. Moscow was the host city of the 1980 Summer Olympics, and one of the host cities of the 2018 FIFA World Cup.[22]\n", "As the historic core of Russia, Moscow serves as the home of numerous Russian artists, scientists, and sports figures due to the presence of its various museums, academic and political institutions, and theaters. The city is home to several UNESCO World Heritage Sites and is well known for its display of Russian architecture, particularly its historic Red Square, and buildings such as the Saint Basil's Cathedral and the Moscow Kremlin, of which the latter serves as the seat of power of the Government of Russia. Moscow is home to many Russian companies in numerous industries and is served by a comprehensive transit network, which includes four international airports, ten railway terminals, a tram system, a monorail system, and most notably the Moscow Metro, the busiest metro system in Europe, and one of the largest rapid transit systems in the world. The city has over 40 percent of its territory covered by greenery, making it one of the greenest cities in the world.[15][23]\n"], "Q43200388": [], "Q234535": ["The Great Soviet Encyclopedia (GSE; Russian: \u0411\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0430\u0301\u044f \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0301\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u044d\u043d\u0446\u0438\u043a\u043b\u043e\u043f\u0435\u0301\u0434\u0438\u044f, \u0411\u0421\u042d, tr. Bolj\u0161aja sovjetskaja enciklopjedija, BSE) is the largest Soviet Russian-language encyclopedia,[1] published in the Soviet Union from 1926 to 1990. After 2002, the encyclopedia's data was partially included into the later Bolj\u0161aja rossijskaja enciklopjedija (or Great Russian Encyclopedia) in an updated and revised form. The GSE claimed to be \"the first Marxist\u2013Leninist general-purpose encyclopedia\".[2]\n", "The idea of the Great Soviet Encyclopedia emerged in 1923 on the initiative of Otto Schmidt, a member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. In early 1924 Schmidt worked with a group which included Mikhail Pokrovsky, (rector of the Institute of Red Professors), Nikolai Meshcheryakov (Former head of the Glavit, the State Administration of Publishing Affairs), Valery Bryusov (poet), Veniamin Kagan (mathematician) and Konstantin Kuzminsky to draw up a proposal which was agreed to in April 1924. Also involved was Anatoly Lunacharsky, People's Commissar of Education (Narkompros), who had previously been involved with a proposal by Alexander Bogdanov and Maxim Gorky to produce a Workers' Encyclopedia.\n", "There were three editions. The first edition of 65 volumes (65,000 entries, plus a supplementary volume about the Soviet Union) was published during 1926\u20131947, the chief editor being Otto Schmidt (until 1941). The second edition of 50 volumes (100,000 entries, plus a supplementary volume) was published in 1950\u20131958; chief editors: Sergei Vavilov (until 1951) and Boris Vvedensky (until 1969); two index volumes to this edition were published in 1960. The third edition of 1969\u20131978 contains 30 volumes (100,000 entries, plus an index volume issued in 1981). Volume 24 is in two books, one being a full-sized book about the USSR,  all with about 21 million words,[3] and the chief editor being Alexander Prokhorov (since 1969). In the third edition, much attention was paid to the philosophical problems of natural sciences, physical and chemical sciences, and mathematical methods in various branches of knowledge.[4]\n", "The foreword to the first volume of the GSE (2nd ed.) proclaims \"The Soviet Union has become the center of the civilized world.\"[7] The GSE, along with all other books and other media and communications with the public, was directed toward the \"furtherance of the aims of the party and the state.\"[7] The 1949 decree issued for the production of the second edition of the GSE directed:\n"], "Q28841897": [], "Q28841889": []}

data/text_file_v1_1370.json

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+{"Q43200256": [], "Q43200281": [], "Q43200252": [], "Q43200273": [], "Q43200298": [], "Q43200248": [], "Q43200258": [], "Q43200264": [], "Q43200262": [], "Q43200284": []}

data/text_file_v1_1380.json

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+{"Q43200266": [], "Q43200271": [], "Q43200275": [], "Q43200290": [], "Q43200295": [], "Q43200243": [], "Q43200241": [], "Q43200260": [], "Q167997": ["Otto Yulyevich Shmidt[a] (born Otto Friedrich Julius Schmidt; 30 September\u00a0[O.S. 18 September]\u00a01891 \u2013 7 September 1956), better known as Otto Schmidt, was a Soviet scientist, mathematician, astronomer, geophysicist, statesman, and academician.\n", "He was born in the town of Mogilev in the Russian Empire, in what is now Belarus. His father was a descendant of German settlers in Courland, while his mother was a Latvian.[1] In 1912\u201313 while in university he published a number of mathematical works on group theory which laid foundation for Krull\u2013Schmidt theorem.[2]\n", "In 1913, Schmidt married Vera Yanitskaia and graduated from the Saint Vladimir Imperial University of Kiev, where he worked as a privat-docent starting from 1916. In 1918 he became a member of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (internationallists) which was later dissolved in to the Russian Communist Party (b). After the October Revolution of 1917, he was a board member at several People's Commissariats (narkomats)\u00a0\u2013 such as Narkomprod from 1918 to 1920 (Narodnyi Komissariat Prodovolstviya, or People's Commissariat for Supplies), People's Commissariat for Finance from 1921 to 1922 (Narodnyi Komissariat Finansov, or People's Commissariat for Finances). Schmidt was one of the chief proponents of developing the higher education system, publishing, and science in Soviet Russia.\n", "He worked at Narkompros (People's Commissariat for Education), the State Scientific Board at the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR, and the Communist Academy. He was Chair of the Foreign Literature Committee from October 1921.[3] Following the Litkens Commission Schmidt was also employed as the director of the State Publishing House (Gosizdat) from 1921 to 1924, and chief editor of the Great Soviet Encyclopedia from 1924 to 1941. From 1923 he was a professor at the Second Moscow State University and later at the Moscow State University, and from 1930 to 1932, Schmidt was the head of the Arctic Institute. During this time he coined the term for the double bond rule.[4]\n"], "Q3331189": []}

data/text_file_v1_1390.json

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+{"Q43200216": [], "Q43200213": [], "Q5061737": [], "Q9056": [], "Q8096": ["A lexicon (plural: lexicons, rarely lexica) is the vocabulary of a language or branch of knowledge (such as nautical or medical).  In linguistics, a lexicon is a language's inventory of lexemes. The word lexicon derives from Greek word \u03bb\u03b5\u03be\u03b9\u03ba\u03cc\u03bd (lexikon), neuter of \u03bb\u03b5\u03be\u03b9\u03ba\u03cc\u03c2 (lexikos) meaning 'of or for words'.[1]\n", "Linguistic theories generally regard human languages as consisting of two parts: a lexicon, essentially a catalogue of a language's words (its wordstock); and a grammar, a system of rules which allow for the combination of those words into meaningful sentences. The lexicon is also thought to include bound morphemes, which cannot stand alone as words (such as most affixes).[2] In some analyses, compound words and certain classes of idiomatic expressions, collocations and other phrases are also considered to be part of the lexicon. Dictionaries are lists of the lexicon, in alphabetical order, of a given language; usually, however, bound morphemes are not included.\n", "Items in the lexicon are called lexemes, lexical items, or word forms. Lexemes are not atomic elements but contain both phonological and morphological components. When describing the lexicon, a reductionist approach is used, trying to remain general while using a minimal description. To describe the size of a lexicon, lexemes are grouped into lemmas. A lemma is a group of lexemes generated by inflectional morphology. Lemmas are represented in dictionaries by headwords that list the citation forms and any irregular forms, since these must be learned to use the words correctly. Lexemes derived from a word by derivational morphology are considered new lemmas. The lexicon is also organized according to open and closed categories. Closed categories, such as determiners or pronouns, are rarely given new lexemes; their function is primarily syntactic. Open categories, such as nouns and verbs, have highly active generation mechanisms and their lexemes are more semantic in nature.\n", "A central role of the lexicon is the documenting of established lexical norms and conventions. Lexicalization is the process by which new words, having gained widespread usage, enter the lexicon. Since lexicalization[3] may modify lexemes phonologically and morphologically, it is possible that a single etymological source may be inserted into a single lexicon in two or more forms. These pairs, called a doublet, are often close semantically. Two examples are aptitude versus attitude and employ versus imply.[4]\n"], "Q188": [], "Q1206012": ["German Reich (lit. German Realm, German Empire, from German: Deutsches Reich, pronounced [\u02ccd\u0254\u028ft\u0283\u0259s \u02c8\u0281a\u026a\u00e7] \u24d8) was the constitutional name for the German nation state as it existed from 11 August 1871 to 5 June 1945. The Reich became understood as deriving its authority and sovereignty entirely from a continuing unitary German Volk (\"national people\"), with that authority and sovereignty being exercised at any one time over a unitary German \"state territory\" with variable boundaries and extent. Although commonly translated as \"German Empire\", the word Reich here better translates as \"realm\" or territorial \"reach\", in that the term does not in itself have monarchical connotations.\n", "The Federal Republic of Germany asserted, following its establishment on 23 May 1949, that within its boundaries it was the sole legal continuation of the German Reich, and consequently not a successor state. Nevertheless, the Federal Republic did not maintain the specific title German Reich, and so consistently replaced the prefix Reichs- in all official titles and designations with Bundes- (\"Federal\"). Hence, for instance, the Reichskanzler became the Bundeskanzler. Following German reunification on 3 October 1990, the expanded Federal Republic describes itself as \"United Germany\", emphasizing that it does not now recognize any territories once included in the former German Reich outside its boundaries as having a valid claim to be a part of Germany as a whole.\n", "In referring to the entire period between 1871 and 1945, the partially translated English phrase \"German Reich\" (/-\u02c8ra\u026ak/) is applied by historians in formal contexts;[1] although in common English usage this state was and is known simply as Germany, the English term \"German Empire\" is reserved to denote the German state between 1871 and 1918.\n", "However the term Deutsches Reich dates back earlier than all of this. It was occasionally applied in contemporary maps to the Holy Roman Empire (962\u20131806), also called the \"Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation\" from 1512. The Holy Roman Empire however was not exclusively German-speaking but constituted a supranational entity extending beyond the frontiers of the German language area (Sprachraum). The first attempt to re-establish a \"German Empire\" during the 1848 March Revolution by the Frankfurt Constitution ultimately failed: it was aborted by the monarchs of the German Confederation, especially by the Prussian aristocracy and the King of Prussia himself, which opposed German nationalism, as then was associated with the idea of popular sovereignty.\n"], "Q2079": ["Leipzig (/\u02c8la\u026aps\u026a\u0261, -s\u026ax/ LYPE-sig, -\u2060sikh,[4][5][6][7] German: [\u02c8la\u026apts\u026a\u00e7] \u24d8; Upper Saxon: Leibz'sch), with a population of 628,718 inhabitants as of 2023,[8] is the most populous city in the German state of Saxony, the second-most populous city in the area of the former East Germany after (East) Berlin, and Germany's eighth-most populous. Leipzig/Halle Airport is situated in Schkeuditz, between Leipzig and Halle (Saale). The name of the city and those of many of its districts are of Slavic origin.\n", "Leipzig is located about 150\u00a0km (90\u00a0mi) southwest of Berlin, in the southernmost part of the North German Plain (the Leipzig Bay), at the confluence of the White Elster and its tributaries Plei\u00dfe and Parthe, that form an extensive inland delta in the city known as \"Leipziger Gew\u00e4sserknoten\u00a0[de]\"), along which Leipzig Riverside Forest, Europe's largest intra-city riparian forest has developed. Leipzig is at the centre of Neuseenland (new lake district), consisting of several artificial lakes created from former lignite open-pit mines. \n", "Leipzig has been a trade city since at least the time of the Holy Roman Empire.[9] The city sits at the intersection of the Via Regia and the Via Imperii, two important medieval trade routes. Leipzig's trade fair dates back to 1190. Between 1764 and 1945, the city was a centre of publishing.[10] After the Second World War and during the period of the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) Leipzig remained a major urban centre in East Germany, but its cultural and economic importance declined.[10]\n", "Events in Leipzig in 1989 played a significant role in precipitating the fall of communism in Central and Eastern Europe, mainly through demonstrations starting from St. Nicholas Church. The immediate effects of the reunification of Germany included the collapse of the local economy (which had come to depend on highly polluting heavy industry), severe unemployment, and urban blight. By the early 2000s the trend had reversed, and since then Leipzig has undergone some significant changes, including urban and economic rejuvenation, and modernisation of the transport infrastructure.[11][12]\n"], "Q1138512": ["Meyers Konversations-Lexikon or Meyers Lexikon was a major encyclopedia in the German language that existed in various editions, and by several titles, from 1839 to 1984, when it merged with the Brockhaus Enzyklop\u00e4die.\n", "Joseph Meyer (1796\u20131856), who had founded the publishing house Bibliographisches Institut in 1826, intended to issue a universal encyclopaedia meant for a broad public: people having a general knowledge as well as businessmen, technicians and scholars, considering contemporary works like those of Pierer and Brockhaus to be superficial or obsolete.\n", "The first part of Das Grosse Conversations-Lexikon f\u00fcr die gebildeten St\u00e4nde (\"Great encyclopaedia for the educated classes\") appeared in October 1839. In contrast to its contemporaries, it contained maps and illustrations with the text.\n", "There is no indication of the planned number of volumes or a time limit for this project, but little headway had been made by the otherwise dynamic Meyer. After six years, 14 volumes had appeared, covering only one fifth of the alphabet. Another six years passed before the last (46th) volume was published. Six supplementary volumes finally finished the work in 1855. Ultimately numbering 52 volumes, Das Grosse Conversations-Lexikon f\u00fcr die gebildeten St\u00e4nde was the most comprehensive completed German encyclopedia of the 19th century, also called \"der Wunder-Meyer\" (The marvellous Meyer). The complete set was reprinted 1858\u201359.[1]\n"], "Q112814157": []}

data/text_file_v1_140.json

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+{"Q1650436": [], "Q1976985": ["The Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art is an art museum in Kansas City, Missouri, known for its encyclopedic collection of art from nearly every continent and culture, and especially for its extensive collection of Asian art.\n", "On September 1, 2010, Juli\u00e1n Zugazagoitia (b. 1964) became the museum's fifth Director.[2] Zugazagoitia had previously served for seven years as the Director and CEO of El Museo del Barrio in New York City.\n", "The museum was built on the grounds of Oak Hall, the home of Kansas City Star publisher William Rockhill Nelson (1841\u20131915).[3] When he died in 1915, his will provided that upon the deaths of his wife and daughter, the proceeds of his entire estate would go to purchasing artwork for public enjoyment. This bequest was augmented by additional funds from the estates of Nelson's daughter, son-in-law and attorney.[4]\n", "In 1911, former schoolteacher Mary McAfee Atkins (1836\u20131911), widow of real estate speculator James Burris Atkins, bequeathed $300,000 to establish an art museum. Through sound management of the estate and a booming economy, this amount grew to $700,000 by 1927. Original plans called for two art museums based on the separate bequests[5] (with the Atkins Museum to be located in Penn Valley Park). However, trustees of the two estates decided to combine the two bequests along with smaller bequests from others to make a single major art institution.\n"], "Q1700481": ["The Minneapolis Institute of Art (Mia) is an arts museum located in Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States. Home to more than 90,000 works of art representing 5,000 years of world history, Mia is one of the largest art museums in the United States. Its permanent collection spans about 20,000 years and represents the world's diverse cultures across six continents. The museum has seven curatorial areas: Arts of Africa & the Americas; Contemporary Art; Decorative Arts, Textiles & Sculpture; Asian Art; Paintings; Photography and New Media; and Prints and Drawings.\n", "Mia is one of the largest arts educators in Minnesota. More than a half-million people visit the museum each year, and a hundred thousand more are reached through the museum's Art Adventure program for elementary schoolchildren. The museum's has a free general admission policy, as well as public programs, classes for children and adults, and interactive media programs.[2]\n", "The Minneapolis Society of Fine Arts was established in 1883 to bring the arts into the life of the community. This group, made up of business and professional leaders, organized art exhibits throughout the decade. In 1889, the Society, now known as the Minneapolis Institute of Art, moved into its first permanent space, inside the newly built Minneapolis Public Library.\n", "The institute received gifts from Clinton Morrison and William Hood Dunwoody, among others, for its building fund. In 1911, Morrison donated the land, formerly occupied by his family's Villa Rosa mansion, in memory of his father, Dorilus Morrison, contingent on the institute's raising the $500,000 needed for the building. A few days later, the institute received a letter from Dunwoody, who got the ball rolling: \"Put me down for $100,000.\" A fundraising dinner a few days later brought in $335,500, donated in 90 minutes.[3]\n"], "Q2864737": ["Religious art is a visual representation of religious ideologies and their relationship with humans. Sacred art directly relates to religious art in the sense that its purpose is for worship and religious practices. According to one set of definitions, artworks that are inspired by religion but are not considered traditionally sacred remain under the umbrella term of religious art, but not sacred art.[1]\n", "Other terms often used for art of various religions are cult image, usually for the main image in a place of worship, icon in its more general sense (not restricted to Eastern Orthodox images), and \"devotional image\" usually meaning a smaller image for private prayer or worship. Images can often be divided into \"iconic images\", just showing one or more figures, and \"narrative images\" showing moments from an episode or story involving sacred figures.\n", "Buddhist art originated on the Indian subcontinent following the historical life of Siddhartha Gautama, 6th to 5th century BC, and thereafter evolved by contact with other cultures as it spread throughout Asia and the world.\n", "Buddhist art followed believers as the dharma spread, adapted, and evolved in each new host country. It developed to the north through Central Asia and into Eastern Asia to form the Northern branch of Buddhist art.\n"], "Q2414609": ["Religious art is a visual representation of religious ideologies and their relationship with humans. Sacred art directly relates to religious art in the sense that its purpose is for worship and religious practices. According to one set of definitions, artworks that are inspired by religion but are not considered traditionally sacred remain under the umbrella term of religious art, but not sacred art.[1]\n", "Other terms often used for art of various religions are cult image, usually for the main image in a place of worship, icon in its more general sense (not restricted to Eastern Orthodox images), and \"devotional image\" usually meaning a smaller image for private prayer or worship. Images can often be divided into \"iconic images\", just showing one or more figures, and \"narrative images\" showing moments from an episode or story involving sacred figures.\n", "Buddhist art originated on the Indian subcontinent following the historical life of Siddhartha Gautama, 6th to 5th century BC, and thereafter evolved by contact with other cultures as it spread throughout Asia and the world.\n", "Buddhist art followed believers as the dharma spread, adapted, and evolved in each new host country. It developed to the north through Central Asia and into Eastern Asia to form the Northern branch of Buddhist art.\n"], "Q1474884": ["In art history, the High Renaissance was a short period of the most exceptional artistic production in the Italian states, particularly Rome, capital of the Papal States, and in Florence, during the Italian Renaissance. Most art historians state that the High Renaissance started between 1490 and 1500, and ended in 1520 with the death of Raphael, although some say the High Renaissance ended about 1525, or in 1527 with the Sack of Rome by the mutinous army of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, or about 1530. The best-known exponents of painting, sculpture and architecture of the High Renaissance include Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael, and Bramante. In the 21st century, the use of the term has been frequently criticized by some academic art historians for oversimplifying artistic developments, ignoring historical context, and focusing only on a few iconic works.[1]\n", "The art historian Jill Burke was the first to trace the historical origins of the term High Renaissance. It was first coined in German by Jacob Burckhardt in German (Hochrenaissance) in 1855 and has its origins in the \"High Style\" of painting and sculpture of the time period around the early 16th century described by Johann Joachim Winckelmann in 1764.[2]  Extending the general rubric of Renaissance culture, the visual arts of the High Renaissance were marked by a renewed emphasis upon the classical tradition, the expansion of networks of patronage, and a gradual attenuation of figural forms into the style later termed Mannerism.\n", "Alexander Raunch in The Art of the High Renaissance and Mannerism in Rome and Central Italy, 2007,[3] states the High Renaissance began in 1490, while Marilyn Stokstad in Art History, 2008, states it began in the 1490s.[4] Frederick Hartt states that Leonardo's The Last Supper, the painting of which began in 1495 and concluded in 1498, makes a complete break with the Early Renaissance and created the world in which Michelangelo and Raphael worked,[5] while Christoph Luitpold Frommel, in his 2012 article \"Bramante and the Origins of the High Renaissance,\" states The Last Supper is the first High Renaissance work but adds that the peak period of the High Renaissance was actually 1505 to 1513.[6] David Piper in The Illustrated History of Art, 1991, also cites The Last Supper writing the work announced the High Renaissance and was one of the most influential paintings of the High Renaissance, but contradictorily states that the High Renaissance began just after 1500.[7]  Burchkardt stated the High Renaissance started at the close of the 15th century,[8] while Franz Kugler, who wrote the first \"modern\" survey text, Handbook of Art History in 1841, and Hugh Honour and John Fleming in The Visual Arts: A History, 2009, state the High Renaissance started at the beginning of the 16th century.[9][10]  Another seminal work of art which was created in the 1495\u20131500 timeframe was Michelangelo's Piet\u00e0, housed in St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican City, which was executed in 1498\u201399.\n", "In contrast to most of the other art historians, Manfred Wurdram, in Masterpieces of Western Art, 2007, actually states that the dawn of the High Renaissance was heralded by Leonardo's Adoration of the Magi of 1481, for which only the underpainting was completed.[11]\n"], "Q4964182": ["Philosophy (\u03c6\u03b9\u03bb\u03bf\u03c3\u03bf\u03c6\u03af\u03b1, 'love of wisdom', in Ancient Greek) is a systematic study of general and fundamental questions concerning topics like existence, reason, knowledge, value, mind, and language. It is a rational and critical inquiry that reflects on its own methods and assumptions.\n", "Historically, many of the individual sciences, such as physics and psychology, formed part of philosophy. However, they are considered separate academic disciplines in the modern sense of the term. Influential traditions in the history of philosophy include Western, Arabic\u2013Persian, Indian, and Chinese philosophy. Western philosophy originated in Ancient Greece and covers a wide area of philosophical subfields. A central topic in Arabic\u2013Persian philosophy is the relation between reason and revelation. Indian philosophy combines the spiritual problem of how to reach enlightenment with the exploration of the nature of reality and the ways of arriving at knowledge. Chinese philosophy focuses principally on practical issues in relation to right social conduct, government, and self-cultivation.\n", "Major branches of philosophy are epistemology, ethics, logic, and metaphysics. Epistemology studies what knowledge is and how to acquire it. Ethics investigates moral principles and what constitutes right conduct. Logic is the study of correct reasoning and explores how good arguments can be distinguished from bad ones. Metaphysics examines the most general features of reality, existence, objects, and properties. Other subfields are aesthetics, philosophy of language, philosophy of mind, philosophy of religion, philosophy of science, philosophy of mathematics, philosophy of history, and political philosophy. Within each branch, there are competing schools of philosophy that promote different principles, theories, or methods.\n", "Philosophers use a great variety of methods to arrive at philosophical knowledge. They include conceptual analysis, reliance on common sense and intuitions, use of thought experiments, analysis of ordinary language, description of experience, and critical questioning. Philosophy is related to many other fields, including the sciences, mathematics, business, law, and journalism. It provides an interdisciplinary perspective and studies the scope and fundamental concepts of these fields. It also investigates their methods and ethical implications.\n"], "Q3658608": [], "Q3905124": ["Inaugurated in 1878, the gallery displays over 230 artworks, which include masterpieces by Titian, Andrea Mantegna, Canaletto, Antonello da Messina, Pisanello, Vincenzo Foppa, Giovanni Bellini, Correggio, Bernardino Luini, Lorenzo Lotto, Tintoretto and others. The complete collection of the museum, enriched in the last two centuries by donations of illustrious citizens and collectors, now has more than 1,500 artworks.\n", "The first rooms of the Pinacoteca are dedicated to religious paintings of the 15th and 16th centuries, with artworks by Vincenzo Foppa, Bergognone, Bramantino, Carlo Crivelli, Bernardino Luini and other Lombard and Italian Renaissance painters. This part of the museum includes the Trivulzio Madonna by Andrea Mantegna, dating from 1497. (Another Trivulzio Madonna by Filippo Lippi is also in the museum.)\n", "The second half of the Pinacoteca displays artworks from the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. This includes both secular and religious works from artists such as Canaletto, Giambattista Tiepolo, Bernardo Bellotto, Titian and Tintoretto.\n"], "Q3756440": []}

data/text_file_v1_1400.json

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+{"Q314219": ["The German publishing company Bibliographisches Institut was founded 1826 in Gotha by Joseph Meyer, moved 1828 to Hildburghausen and 1874 to Leipzig.[1] Its production over the years includes such well-known titles as Meyers Lexikon (encyclopaedias, since 1839, see Meyers Konversations-Lexikon), Brehms Tierleben (animal life, 1863\u20131869, 4th ed. 1911\u20131918); Duden (dictionaries on every aspect of the language, since 1880); Meyers Reiseb\u00fccher (guide books, 1862\u20131936); Meyers Klassiker (home and foreign literature); atlases (Meyers Handatlas, Der Grosse Weltatlas), newspapers (Koloniale Zeitschrift)[2] and others.\n", "The buildings of the company were completely destroyed by the bombing raids on Leipzig 1943/1944; the company itself expropriated by the communist regime of East Germany in 1946 and turned into a Volkseigener Betrieb. The shareholders moved the company to Mannheim in West Germany in 1953 (Bibliographisches Institut AG). Titles like Meyers (Enzyklop\u00e4disches) Lexikon, Der Gro\u00dfe Duden, Schlag Nach! and Meyers Gro\u00dfer Weltatlas appeared again. In Leipzig remained the VEB Bibliographisches Institut, operating in the same field, publishing Meyers Neues Lexikon\", Duden etc.\n", "In 1984 Bibliographisches Institut AG amalgamated with its biggest competitor in the market of reference works, F. A. Brockhaus of Wiesbaden to Bibliographisches Institut & F. A. Brockhaus AG,[3] having their seat in Mannheim. After the German reunification the company regained its former properties in Leipzig in 1991.[4]\n"], "Q29044160": [], "Q56547107": [], "Q49773": ["A social movement is a loosely organized effort by a large group of people to achieve a particular goal, typically a social or political one.[1][2] This may be to carry out a social change, or to resist or undo one. It is a type of group action and may involve individuals, organizations, or both.[3] Social movements have been described as \"organizational structures and strategies that may empower oppressed populations to mount effective challenges and resist the more powerful and advantaged elites\".[4] They represent a method of social change from the bottom within nations.[4] On the other hand, some social movements do not aim to make society more egalitarian, but to maintain or amplify existing power relationships. For example, scholars have described fascism as a social movement.[5]\n", "Political science and sociology have developed a variety of theories and empirical research on social movements. For example, some research in political science highlights the relation between popular movements and the formation of new political parties[6] as well as discussing the function of social movements in relation to agenda setting and influence on politics.[7] Sociologists distinguish between several types of social movement examining things such as scope, type of change, method of work, range, and time frame.\n", "Some scholars have argued that modern Western social movements became possible through education (the wider dissemination of literature) and increased mobility of labor due to the industrialization and urbanization of 19th-century societies.[8] It is sometimes argued that the freedom of expression, education and relative economic independence prevalent in the modern Western culture are responsible for the unprecedented number and scope of various contemporary social movements. Many of the social movements of the last hundred years grew up, like the Mau Mau in Kenya, to oppose Western colonialism. Social movements have been and continue to be closely connected with democratic political systems. Occasionally, social movements have been involved in democratizing nations, but more often they have flourished after democratization. Over the past 200 years, they have become part of a popular and global expression of dissent.[9]\n", "Modern movements often use technology and the internet to mobilize people globally. Adapting to communication trends is a common theme among successful movements.[10] Research is beginning to explore how advocacy organizations linked to social movements in the U.S.[10] and Canada[11] use social media to facilitate civic engagement and collective action.[12]\n"], "Q32090": [], "Q181138": ["Veganism is the practice of abstaining from the use of animal products\u2014particularly in diet\u2014and an associated philosophy that rejects the commodity status of animals.[c] A person who follows the diet or philosophy is known as a vegan.\n", "Distinctions may be made between several categories of veganism. Dietary vegans, also known as \"strict vegetarians\", refrain from consuming meat, eggs, dairy products, and any other animal-derived substances.[d] An ethical vegan is someone who not only excludes animal products from their diet but also tries to avoid using animals,[19] animal products,[e] and animal-tested products[22] when practical.[23] Another term is \"environmental veganism\", which refers to the avoidance of animal products on the grounds that the industrial farming of animals is environmentally damaging and unsustainable.[24] Another motivation for veganism is concern about animal welfare.\n", "Vegan diets tend to be higher in dietary fiber, magnesium, folic acid, vitamin C, vitamin E, iron, and phytochemicals, and lower in dietary energy, saturated fat, cholesterol, omega-3 fatty acid, vitamin D, calcium, zinc, and vitamin B12.[f] As a result of the elimination of all animal products, a poorly planned vegan diet can lead to nutritional deficiencies that counteract its beneficial effects and cause serious health issues,[25][26][27] some of which can only be prevented with fortified foods or dietary supplements.[25][28] Vitamin B12 supplementation is important because its deficiency can cause blood disorders and potentially irreversible neurological damage; this danger is also one of the most common in poorly planned non-vegan diets.[27][29][30]\n", "The term \"vegetarian\" has been in use since around 1839 to refer to what was previously called a vegetable regimen or diet.[32] Its origin is an irregular compound of vegetable[33] and the suffix -arian (in the sense of \"supporter, believer\" as in humanitarian).[34] The earliest known written use is attributed to actress, writer and abolitionist Fanny Kemble, in her Journal of a Residence on a Georgian plantation in 1838\u20131839.[g]\n"], "Q638022": ["Vegetarian cuisine includes consumption of foods containing vegetable protein, vitamin B12, and other nutrients.[2][3] Food regarded as suitable for all vegetarians (including vegans) typically includes:\n", "Vegetarians by definition cannot consume meat or animal tissue products, with no other universally adopted change in their diet. However, in practice, compared to non-vegetarians, vegetarians on average have an increased consumption of:\n", "This difference is observed, but is not required to be vegetarian. Nevertheless, it is relevant when considering research into the health effects of adopting a vegetarian diet. A diet consisting only of sugar candies, for example, while technically also vegetarian, would be expected to have a much different outcome for health compared to what is called \"a vegetarian diet\" culturally and what is most commonly adopted by vegetarians.[4] It is also important to note that overeating occurs because of a misconception of hunger. By changing your perspective on calories verses nutrients, it becomes much easier to adapt to the healthier lifestyle of vegetarianism.[5]\n", "Most desserts, including pies, cobblers, cakes, brownies, cookies, truffles, Rice Krispie treats (from gelatin-free marshmallows or marshmallow fluff), peanut butter treats, pudding, rice pudding, ice cream, cr\u00e8me brul\u00e9e, etc., are free of meat and fish and are suitable for ovo-lacto vegetarians. Eastern confectionery and desserts, such as halva and Turkish delight, are mostly vegan, while others such as baklava (which often contains butter) are lacto vegetarian. Indian desserts and sweets are mostly vegetarian like peda, barfi, gulab jamun, shrikhand, basundi, kaju katri, rasgulla, cham cham, rajbhog, etc. Indian sweets are mostly made from milk products and are thus lacto vegetarian; dry fruit-based sweets are vegan.\n"], "Q2464040": ["A flexitarian diet, also called a semi-vegetarian diet,[1] is one that is centered on plant foods with limited or occasional inclusion of meat.[2][3][4][5] For example, a flexitarian might eat meat only some days each week. Flexitarian is a portmanteau of the words flexible and vegetarian, signifying its followers' less strict diet pattern when compared to vegetarian pattern diets.[1]\n", "Different definitions of flexitarianism are used. According to the Dutch environmental organisation Natuur & Milieu, a flexitarian eats no meat, fish or lunch meat for at least one day a week.[6] The Dutch research agency I&O Research calls people flexitarian when they do not eat meat one or more days a week. The Dutch Food Health authority Voedingscentrum states that flexitarians do not eat meat (but do eat fish) three or more days a week in between or with a hot meal.[7]\n", "Vegetarianism is the strict practice of abstaining from consuming meat or any other animal tissue. Flexitarianism is a neoteric term that gained a considerable increase in usage in both science and public sectors in the 2010s.[1] Flexitarian was listed in the mainstream Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary in 2012.[8] In 2003, the American Dialect Society voted flexitarian as the year's most useful word.[9]\n", "In 2015, according to the Voedingscentrum, 55% of Dutch people were flexitarians.[13] According to Natuur & Milieu, in 2016, 67% of the Dutch were flexitarian.[6] According to research by Wageningen University & Research, the number of Dutch people who call themselves flexitarians increased from 14% in 2011 to 43% in 2019. However, the number of days that self-proclaimed flexitarians ate meat increased over that period from 2.9 days a week to 3.7 days. The researchers suspected that this was mainly due to the inflation of this term among the Dutch.[14]\n"], "Q474191": [], "Q118612017": ["An individual's diet is the sum of food and drink that one habitually consumes. Dieting is the practice of attempting to achieve or maintain a certain weight through diet.[1] People's dietary choices are often affected by a variety of factors, including ethical and religious beliefs, clinical need, or a desire to control weight.\n", "Not all diets are considered healthy. Some people follow unhealthy diets through habit, rather than through a conscious choice to eat unhealthily. Terms applied to such eating habits include \"junk food diet\" and \"Western diet\". Many diets are considered by clinicians to pose significant health risks and minimal long-term benefit. This is particularly true of \"crash\" or \"fad\" diets \u2013 short-term, weight-loss plans that involve drastic changes to a person's normal eating habits.\n", "A desire to lose weight is a common motivation to change dietary habits, as is a desire to maintain an existing weight. Many weight loss diets are considered by some to entail varying degrees of health risk, and some are not widely considered to be effective. This is especially true of \"crash\" or \"fad\" diets.[15]\n", "Crash diets are very-low-calorie diets used for the purpose of very fast weight loss.[32][33][34] They describe diet plans that involve making extreme, rapid changes to food consumption, but are also used as disparaging terms for common eating habits which are considered unhealthy. This diet is dangerous and can lead to sudden death when not done in a medically supervised setting.[35][36] Several diets listed here are weight-loss diets which would also fit into other sections of this list. Where this is the case, it will be noted in that diet's entry.\n"]}

data/text_file_v1_1410.json

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+{"Q19679809": [], "Q7472978": [], "Q7918284": ["Vegan nutrition refers to the nutritional and human health aspects of vegan diets. A well-planned, balanced vegan diet is suitable to meet all recommendations for nutrients in every stage of human life.[1] Vegan diets tend to be higher in dietary fiber, magnesium, folic acid, vitamin C, vitamin E, and phytochemicals; and lower in calories, saturated fat, iron, cholesterol, long-chain omega-3 fatty acids, vitamin D, calcium, zinc, and vitamin B12.[2]\n", "The American Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics and Dietitians of Canada state that properly planned vegan diets are appropriate for all life stages, including pregnancy, lactation, infancy, childhood, and adolescence.[4][5] The Australian National Health and Medical Research Council similarly recognizes a well-planned vegan diet as viable for any age,[6][7] as does the Victoria Department of Health,[8] British Dietetic Association,[9] British National Health Service,[10] British Nutrition Foundation,[11] Mayo Clinic,[12] Finnish Food Safety Authority,[13] Heart and Stroke Foundation of Canada,[14] Italian Society of Human Nutrition,[15] Norwegian Directorate for Health,[16] and the Portuguese Directorate-General of Health.[17]\n", "The British National Health Service's Eatwell Plate allows for an entirely plant-based diet,[18] as does the United States Department of Agriculture's (USDA) MyPlate.[19][20] The USDA allows tofu to replace meat in the National School Lunch Program.[21] The American Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics adds that well-planned vegan diets are also appropriate for older adults and athletes.[1]\n", "In 2016, the German Society for Nutrition cautioned against a vegan diet for babies, children, and adolescents, and during pregnancy and breastfeeding, due to insufficient data.[22] In 2020, the German Society for Nutrition issued an update stating that they do not recommend a vegan diet for babies, children and adolescents, or for pregnancy or breastfeeding, citing insufficient data for these subpopulations.[23]\n"], "Q18338317": ["Vegetarianism is the practice of abstaining from the consumption of meat (red meat, poultry, seafood, insects, and the flesh of any other animal). It may also include abstaining from eating all by-products of animal slaughter.[1][2]\n", "Vegetarianism may be adopted for various reasons. Many people object to eating meat out of respect for sentient animal life. Such ethical motivations have been codified under various religious beliefs as well as animal rights advocacy. Other motivations for vegetarianism are health-related, political, environmental, cultural, aesthetic, economic, taste-related, or relate to other personal preferences.\n", "There are many variations of the vegetarian diet: an ovo-lacto vegetarian diet includes both eggs and dairy products, an ovo-vegetarian diet includes eggs but not dairy products, and a lacto-vegetarian diet includes dairy products but not eggs. As the strictest of vegetarian diets, a vegan diet excludes all animal products, and can be accompanied by abstention from the use of animal-derived products, such as leather shoes.\n", "Vegetarian diets pose some difficulties. For vitamin B12, depending on the presence or absence of eggs and dairy products in the diet or other reliable B12 sources, vegetarians may incur a nutritional deficiency.[3] Packaged and processed foods may contain minor quantities of animal ingredients.[2][4] While some vegetarians scrutinize product labels for such ingredients, others do not object to consuming them, or are unaware of their presence.[2][5][6]\n"], "Q15615001": ["The figures tabulated below do not represent per capita amounts of meat eaten by humans.  Instead, they represent FAO figures for carcass mass availability (with \"carcass mass\" for poultry estimated as ready-to-cook mass),[2] divided by population.  The amount eaten by humans differs from carcass mass availability because the latter does not account for losses, which include bones, losses in retail and food service or home preparation  (including trim and cooking), spoilage and \"downstream\" waste, and amounts consumed by pets (compare dressed weight).[3][4][5]  As an example of the difference, for 2002, when the FAO figure for US per capita meat consumption was 124.48\u00a0kg (274\u00a0lb 7\u00a0oz), the USDA estimate of US per capita loss-adjusted meat consumption was 62.6\u00a0kg (138\u00a0lb).[6]\n", "Additionally, the 2002 FAO study was potentially misleading for countries with high levels of meat export compared to their population, as it relied on production data using full carcass mass availability, whereas exports generally contain less bones, cartilage and other things not typically used for human consumption. For example, the FAO (2002) figure for Denmark, which has one of the highest meat export rates compared to its population, was 145.9\u00a0kg (322\u00a0lb) (highest in the world). More recent FAO figures (2009) have taken the earlier discrepancy into account, resulting in a significantly lower 95.2\u00a0kg (210\u00a0lb) for Denmark (13th in the world).[7][8] When further adjusted for loss, calculations by DTU F\u00f8devareinstituttet suggest the actual consumption was 48\u00a0kg (106\u00a0lb) per adult.[8]\n"], "Q9439": [], "Q41176": ["A building or edifice is an enclosed structure with a roof and walls, usually standing permanently in one place,[1] such as a house or factory.[1] Buildings come in a variety of sizes, shapes, and functions, and have been adapted throughout history for numerous factors, from building materials available, to weather conditions, land prices, ground conditions, specific uses, prestige, and aesthetic reasons. To better understand the concept, see Nonbuilding structure for contrast.\n", "Buildings serve several societal needs \u2013 occupancy, primarily as shelter from weather, security, living space, privacy, to store belongings, and to comfortably live and work. A building as a shelter represents a physical separation of the human habitat (a place of comfort and safety) from the outside (a place that may be harsh and harmful at times).\n", "Ever since the first cave paintings, buildings have been objects or canvasses of much artistic expression. In recent years, interest in sustainable planning and building practices has become an intentional part of the design process of many new buildings and other structures, usually green buildings.\n", "A building is 'a structure that has a roof and walls and stands more or less permanently in one place';[1] \"there was a three-storey building on the corner\"; \"it was an imposing edifice\". In the broadest interpretation a fence or wall is a building.[2] However, the word structure is used more broadly than building, to include natural and human-made formations[3] and ones that do not have walls; structure is more often used for a fence. Sturgis' Dictionary included that \"[building] differs from architecture in excluding all idea of artistic treatment; and it differs from construction in the idea of excluding scientific or highly skilful treatment.\"[4]\n"], "P3929": [], "P6764": [], "Q152245": ["Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (Franz August Karl Albert Emanuel;[1] 26 August 1819 \u2013 14 December 1861) was the husband and consort of the British monarch, Queen Victoria. They were married from 10 February 1840 until his death in 1861.\n", "Albert was born in the Saxon duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld to a family connected to many of Europe's ruling monarchs. At the age of 20, he married Victoria, his cousin, with whom he went on to have nine children. Initially, he felt constrained by his role as consort, which did not afford him power or responsibilities. He gradually developed a reputation for supporting public causes, such as educational reform and the abolition of slavery worldwide, and he was entrusted with running the Queen's household, office and estates. He was heavily involved with the organisation of the Great Exhibition of 1851, which was a resounding success.\n", "Victoria came to depend more and more on Albert's support and guidance. He aided the development of Britain's constitutional monarchy by persuading his wife to be less partisan in her dealings with the British Parliament, but he actively disagreed with the interventionist foreign policy pursued during Lord Palmerston's tenure as Foreign Secretary. Albert died in 1861 at age 42, devastating Victoria so much that she entered into a deep state of mourning and wore black for the rest of her life. On her death in 1901, their eldest son succeeded as Edward VII, the first British monarch of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, named after the ducal house to which Albert belonged.\n", "Prince Albert was born on 26 August 1819 at Schloss Rosenau, near Coburg, Germany, the second son of Ernest III, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, and his first wife, Louise of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg.[2] His first cousin and future wife, Victoria, had been born earlier in the same year with the assistance of the same midwife, Charlotte von Siebold.[3] He was baptised into the Lutheran Evangelical Church on 19 September 1819 in the Marble Hall at Schloss Rosenau, with water taken from the local river, the Itz.[4] His godparents were his paternal grandmother, the Dowager Duchess of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld; his maternal grandfather, the Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg; the Emperor of Austria; the Duke of Teschen; and Emanuel, Count of Mensdorff-Pouilly.[5] In 1825, Albert's great-uncle, Frederick IV, Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg, died, which led to a realignment of the Saxon duchies the following year; and Albert's father became the first reigning duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha.[6]\n"]}

data/text_file_v1_1420.json

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+{"Q519759": [], "Q188801": ["The Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea (often shortened RBKC) is an Inner London borough with royal status. It is the smallest borough in London and the second smallest district in England; it is one of the most densely populated administrative regions in the United Kingdom. It includes affluent areas such as Notting Hill, Kensington, South Kensington, Chelsea, and Knightsbridge.\n", "The borough is immediately west of the City of Westminster and east of the London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham. It contains major museums and universities in Albertopolis, department stores such as Harrods, Peter Jones and Harvey Nichols, and embassies in Belgravia, Knightsbridge and Kensington Gardens. The borough is home to the Notting Hill Carnival, Europe's largest, and contains many of the most expensive residential properties in the world, as well as Kensington Palace, a British royal residence.\n", "The local authority is Kensington and Chelsea London Borough Council. Its motto, adapted from the opening words of Psalm 133, is Quam bonum in unum habitare, which translates roughly as 'How good it is to dwell in unity'.[1]\n", "The borough was formed by the merger of the Royal Borough of Kensington and the Metropolitan Borough of Chelsea, under the London Government Act 1963, which reorganised 86 boroughs and urban districts into 32 London boroughs on 1 April 1965 together with the creation of the Greater London Council.\n"], "Q750098": ["Sir Aston Webb, GCVO, CB, RA, FRIBA (22 May 1849 \u2013 21 August 1930) was a British architect who designed the principal facade of Buckingham Palace and the main building of the Victoria and Albert Museum, among other major works around England, many of them in partnership with Ingress Bell. He was President of the Royal Academy from 1919 to 1924. He was also the founding Chairman of the London Society.\n", "The son of a watercolourist (and former pupil of the landscape artist David Cox), Edward Webb, Aston Webb was born in Clapham, South London, on 22 May 1849[1] and received his initial architectural training articled in the firm of Banks and Barry from 1866 to 1871, after which he spent a year travelling in Europe and Asia. He returned to London in 1874 to set up his own practice.\n", "From the early 1880s, he joined the Royal Institute of British Architects (1883) and began working in partnership with Ingress Bell (1836\u20131914). Their first major commission was a winning design for the Victoria Law Courts in Birmingham (1886), the first of numerous public building schemes the pair designed over the next 23 years. Towards the end of his career Webb was assisted by his sons, Maurice and Philip. Ralph Knott, who designed London's County Hall, began his work as an apprentice to Webb executing the drawings for his competition entries.\n", "He served as RIBA President (1902\u20131904) and, having been elected as a full member of the Royal Academy in 1903, served as acting president from 1919 to 1924. He received the Royal Gold Medal for Architecture in 1905 and was the first recipient of the American Institute of Architects Gold Medal in 1907. He was the first chairman of the London Society in 1912.[5]\n"], "Q691064": ["Tristram Julian William Hunt, FRHistS (born 31 May 1974) is a British historian, broadcast journalist and former politician who has been Director of the Victoria and Albert Museum since 2017. He served as the Labour Member of Parliament (MP) for Stoke-on-Trent Central from 2010 to 2017, and Shadow Secretary of State for Education from 2013 to 2015.[1]\n", "Hunt was born in Cambridge,[4] the son of Julian Hunt, a meteorologist and leader of the Labour Party group on Cambridge City Council in 1972\u201373, who in 2000 was awarded a life peerage as Baron Hunt of Chesterton, and the grandson of Roland Hunt, a British diplomat.[5] The Hunt family were goldsmiths and silversmiths in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries; John Samuel Hunt (1785-1865) being in business with his uncle-by-marriage, Paul Storr; also descended from John Samuel Hunt was John Hunt, Baron Hunt of Fawley.[6][7]\n", "Hunt is the great-grandson of Maxwell Garnett, barrister and educationist, and great-great-grandson of William Garnett, an academic and professor in physics.[8] As such he is a cousin of Virginia Bottomley, Baroness Bottomley of Nettlestone, and of Peter Jay, former son-in-law of the late Labour Prime Minister James Callaghan. Through Bottomley, he is related by marriage to Sir Peter Bottomley and former Labour MP and economist Kitty Ussher.[9]\n", "Tristram Hunt was educated at University College School, an all-boys' private school in Hampstead, north London. There, he achieved two As (History and Latin) and a B (English Literature) at A-Level. He took a First in History at Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1995.[10]\n"], "Q644281": ["Young V&A, formerly the V&A Museum of Childhood, is a branch of the Victoria and Albert Museum (the \"V&A\"), which is the United Kingdom's national museum of applied arts. It is in Bethnal Green in the East End of London, and specialises in objects by and for children.\n", "The museum was founded in 1872[2] as the Bethnal Green Museum. The iron structure reused a prefabricated building from Albertopolis which was replaced with some early sections of the modern V&A complex. The exterior of the building was designed by James William Wild[3] in red brick in a Rundbogenstil (round-arched) style very similar to that in contemporary Germany.\n", "The building was used to display a variety of collections at different times. In the 19th century, it contained food and animal products, and various pieces of art including the works which can now be seen at the Wallace Collection.[4] It was remodelled as an art museum following World War I, with a children's section which subsequently grew in size. In 1974 the director of the V&A, Sir Roy Strong, defined it as a specialist museum of childhood.[3]\n", "The mission of the museum is \"To enable everyone, especially the young, to explore and enjoy the designed world, in particular objects made for and made by children.\" It has extensive collections of toys, childhood equipment and costumes, and stages a programme of temporary exhibitions.\n"], "Q1200701": ["A design museum is a museum with a focus on product, industrial, graphic, fashion and architectural design.\nMany design museums were founded as museums for applied arts or decorative arts and started only in the late 20th century to collect design.\n", "The first museum of this kind was the Victoria and Albert Museum in London.[citation needed] In Germany the first museum of decorative arts was the Deutsches-Gewerbe-Museum zu Berlin (now Kunstgewerbemuseum), founded in 1868 in Berlin.[1]\n", "Also some museums of contemporary or modern art have important design collections, like the MoMA in New York, the Centre Pompidou in Paris. \nA special concept has been realised in the Pinakothek der Moderne in Munich, in which four independent museums cooperate, one of them being Die Neue Sammlung \u2013 the largest design museum in the world.\n"], "Q92342636": [], "Q96150986": [], "Q17000320": [], "Q115916185": []}