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+Some high mountain villages are car-free either because of inaccessibility or by choice. Wengen, and Zermatt (in Switzerland) are accessible only by cable car or cog-rail trains. Avoriaz (in France), is car-free, with other Alpine villages considering becoming car-free zones or limiting the number of cars for reasons of sustainability of the fragile Alpine terrain.
+
+The lower regions and larger towns of the Alps are well-served by motorways and main roads, but higher mountain passes and byroads, which are amongst the highest in Europe, can be treacherous even in summer due to steep slopes. Many passes are closed in winter. Several airports around the Alps (and some within), as well as long-distance rail links from all neighbouring countries, afford large numbers of travellers easy access.
+
+Notes
+
+References
+
+Works cited 
+
+ Alpine Convention. (2010). The Alps: People and pressures in the mountains, the facts at a glance
+ Allaby, Michael et al. The Encyclopedia of Earth. (2008). Berkeley: University of California Press. 
+ Beattie, Andrew. (2006). The Alps: A Cultural History. New York: Oxford University Press. 
+ Benniston, Martin, et al. (2011). "Impact of Climatic Change on Water and Natural Hazards in the Alps". Environmental Science and Policy. Volume 30. 1–9
+ Cebon, Peter, et al. (1998). Views from the Alps: Regional Perspectives on Climate Change. Cambridge MA: MIT Press. 
+ Chatré, Baptiste, et al. (2010). The Alps: People and Pressures in the Mountains, the Facts at a Glance. Permanent Secretariat of the Alpine Convention (alpconv.org). Retrieved August 4, 2012. 
+ 
+ De Graciansky, Pierre-Charles et al. (2011). The Western Alps, From Rift to Passive Margin to Orogenic Belt. Amsterdam: Elsevier. 
+ Feuer, A.B. (2006). Packs On!: Memoirs of the 10th Mountain Division in World War II. Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books. 
+ Fleming, Fergus. (2000). Killing Dragons: The Conquest of the Alps. New York: Grove. 
+ Gerrard, AJ. (1990) Mountain Environments: An Examination of the Physical Geography of Mountains. Boston: MIT Press. 
+ Halbrook, Stephen P. (1998). Target Switzerland: Swiss Armed Neutrality in World War II. Rockville Center, NY: Sarpedon. 
+ Halbrook, Stephen P. (2006). The Swiss and the Nazis: How the Alpine Republic Survived in the Shadow of the Third Reich. Havertown, PA: Casemate. 
+ Hudson, Simon. (2000). Snow Business: A Study of the International Ski Industry. New York: Cengage 
+ Körner, Christian. (2003). Alpine Plant Life. New York: Springer Verlag. 
+ Lancel, Serge. (1999). Hannibal. Oxford: Blackwell. 
+ Mitchell, Arthur H. (2007). Hitler's Mountain. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. 
+ Prevas, John. (2001). Hannibal Crosses The Alps: The Invasion Of Italy And The Punic Wars. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press. 
+ Reynolds, Kev. (2012) The Swiss Alps. Cicerone Press. 
+ Roth, Philipe. (2007). Minerals first Discovered in Switzerland. Lausanne, CH: Museum of Geology. 
+ Schmid, Stefan M. (2004). "Regional tectonics: from the Rhine graben to the Po plain, a summary of the tectonic evolution of the Alps and their forelands". Basel: Geologisch-Paläontologisches Institut
+ Sharp, Hilary. (2002). Trekking and Climbing in the Western Alps. London: New Holland. 
+ 
+ Shoumatoff, Nicholas and Nina. (2001). The Alps: Europe's Mountain Heart. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. 
+ Viazzo, Pier Paolo. (1980). Upland Communities: Environment, Population and Social Structure in the Alps since the Sixteenth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
+
+External links 
+ 17, 2005 Satellite photo of the Alps, taken on August 31, 2005, by MODIS aboard Terra
+ Official website of the Alpine Space Programme This EU-co-funded programme co-finances transnational projects in the Alpine region
+
+ 
+Geography of Europe
+Mountain ranges of Austria
+Mountain ranges of France
+Mountain ranges of Germany
+Mountain ranges of Hungary
+Mountain ranges of Italy
+Mountain ranges of Liechtenstein
+Mountain ranges of Monaco
+Mountain ranges of Slovenia
+Mountain ranges of Switzerland
+Physiographic provinces
+Albert Camus ( ,  ; ; 7 November 1913 – 4 January 1960) was an Algerian-French  philosopher, author, dramatist, journalist, and political activist. He was the recipient of the 1957 Nobel Prize in Literature at the age of 44, the second-youngest recipient in history. His works include The Stranger, The Plague, The Myth of Sisyphus, The Fall, and The Rebel.
+
+Camus was born in French Algeria to Pieds Noirs parents. He spent his childhood in a poor neighbourhood and later studied philosophy at the University of Algiers. He was in Paris when the Germans invaded France during World War II in 1940. Camus tried to flee but finally joined the French Resistance where he served as editor-in-chief at Combat, an outlawed newspaper. After the war, he was a celebrity figure and gave many lectures around the world. He married twice but had many extramarital affairs. Camus was politically active; he was part of the left that opposed Joseph Stalin and the Soviet Union because of their totalitarianism. Camus was a moralist and leaned towards anarcho-syndicalism. He was part of many organisations seeking European integration. During the Algerian War (1954–1962), he kept a neutral stance, advocating for a multicultural and pluralistic Algeria, a position that was rejected by most parties.
+
+Philosophically, Camus's views contributed to the rise of the philosophy known as absurdism. Some consider Camus's work to show him to be an existentialist, even though he himself firmly rejected the term throughout his lifetime.
+
+Life
+
+Early years and education
+
+Albert Camus was born on 7 November 1913 in a working-class neighbourhood in Mondovi (present-day Dréan), in French Algeria. His mother, Catherine Hélène Camus (née Sintès), was French with Balearic Spanish ancestry. He never knew his father, Lucien Camus, a poor French agricultural worker killed in action while serving with Zouaves, in October 1914, during World War I. Camus, his mother and other relatives lived without many basic material possessions during his childhood in the Belcourt section of Algiers. Camus was a second-generation French inhabitant of Algeria, a French territory from 1830 until 1962. His paternal grandfather, along with many others of his generation, had moved to Algeria for a better life during the first decades of the 19th century. Hence, he was called —a slang term for people of French and other European descent born in Algeria. His identity and poor background had a substantial effect on his later life. Nevertheless, Camus was a French citizen and enjoyed more rights than Arab and Berber Algerians under indigénat. During his childhood, he developed a love for football and swimming.
+
+Under the influence of his teacher Louis Germain, Camus gained a scholarship in 1924 to continue his studies at a prestigious lyceum (secondary school) near Algiers. In 1930, at the age of 17, he was diagnosed with tuberculosis. Because it is a transmitted disease, he moved out of his home and stayed with his uncle Gustave Acault, a butcher, who influenced the young Camus. It was at that time he turned to philosophy, with the mentoring of his philosophy teacher Jean Grenier. He was impressed by ancient Greek philosophers and Friedrich Nietzsche. During that time, he was only able to study part-time. To earn money, he took odd jobs: as a private tutor, car parts clerk, and assistant at the Meteorological Institute.
+
+In 1933, Camus enrolled at the University of Algiers and completed his licence de philosophie (BA) in 1936; after presenting his thesis on Plotinus. Camus developed an interest in early Christian philosophers, but Nietzsche and Arthur Schopenhauer had paved the way towards pessimism and atheism. Camus also studied novelist-philosophers such as Stendhal, Herman Melville, Fyodor Dostoyevsky, and Franz Kafka. In 1933, he also met Simone Hié, then a partner of a friend of Camus, who would become his first wife.
+
+Camus played goalkeeper for the Racing Universitaire d'Alger junior team from 1928 to 1930. The sense of team spirit, fraternity, and common purpose appealed to him enormously. In match reports, he was often praised for playing with passion and courage. Any football ambitions, however, disappeared when he contracted tuberculosis. Camus drew parallels among football, human existence, morality, and personal identity. For him, the simplistic morality of football contradicted the complicated morality imposed by authorities such as the state and Church.
+
+Formative years
+In 1934, aged 20, Camus was in a relationship with Simone Hié. Simone had an addiction to morphine, a drug she used to ease her menstrual pains. His uncle Gustave did not approve of the relationship, but Camus married Hié to help her fight her addiction. He subsequently discovered she was in a relationship with her doctor at the same time and the couple later divorced.
+
+Camus joined the French Communist Party (PCF) in early 1935. He saw it as a way to "fight inequalities between Europeans and 'natives' in Algeria," even though he was not a Marxist. He explained: "We might see communism as a springboard and asceticism that prepares the ground for more spiritual activities." Camus left the PCF a year later. In 1936, the independence-minded Algerian Communist Party (PCA) was founded, and Camus joined it after his mentor Grenier advised him to do so. Camus's main role within the PCA was to organise the Théâtre du Travail ("Workers' Theatre"). Camus was also close to the Parti du Peuple Algérien (Algerian People's Party (PPA)), which was a moderate anti-colonialist/nationalist party. As tensions in the interwar period escalated, the Stalinist PCA and PPA broke ties. Camus was expelled from the PCA for refusing to toe the party line. This series of events sharpened his belief in human dignity. Camus's mistrust of bureaucracies that aimed for efficiency instead of justice grew. He continued his involvement with theatre and renamed his group Théâtre de l'Equipe ("Theatre of the Team"). Some of his scripts were the basis for his later novels.
+
+In 1938, Camus began working for the leftist newspaper Alger républicain (founded by Pascal Pia) as he had strong anti-fascist feelings, and the rise of fascist regimes in Europe was worrying him. By then, Camus had developed strong feelings against authoritative colonialism as he witnessed the harsh treatment of the Arabs and Berbers by French authorities. Alger républicain was banned in 1940 and Camus flew to Paris to take a new job at Paris-Soir as editor-in-chief. In Paris, he almost completed his "first cycle" of works dealing with the absurd and the meaningless—the novel L'Étranger (The Outsider (UK), or The Stranger (US)), the philosophical essay Le Mythe de Sisyphe (The Myth of Sisyphus) and the play Caligula. Each cycle consisted of a novel, an essay and a theatrical play.
+
+World War II, Resistance and Combat
+Soon after Camus moved to Paris, the outbreak of World War II began to affect France. Camus volunteered to join the army but was not accepted because he once had tuberculosis. As the Germans were marching towards Paris, Camus fled. He was laid off from Paris-Soir and ended up in Lyon, where he married pianist and mathematician Francine Faure on 3 December 1940. Camus and Faure moved back to Algeria (Oran) where he taught in primary schools. Because of his tuberculosis, he moved to the French Alps on medical advice. There he began writing his second cycle of works, this time dealing with revolt—a novel La Peste (The Plague) and a play Le Malentendu (The Misunderstanding). By 1943 he was known because of his earlier work. He returned to Paris where he met and became friends with Jean-Paul Sartre. He also became part of a circle of intellectuals including Simone de Beauvoir, André Breton, and others. Among them was the actress María Casares, who would later have an affair with Camus.
+
+Camus took an active role in the underground resistance movement against the Germans during the French Occupation. Upon his arrival in Paris, he started working as a journalist and editor of the banned newspaper Combat. He continued writing for the paper after the liberation of France. Camus used a pseudonym for his Combat articles and used false ID cards to avoid being captured. During that period he composed four Lettres à un Ami Allemand (Letters to a German Friend), explaining why resistance was necessary.
+
+Post–World War II
+
+After the War, Camus lived in Paris with Faure, who gave birth to twins, Catherine and Jean, in 1945. Camus was now a celebrated writer known for his role in the Resistance. He gave lectures at various universities in the United States and Latin America during two separate trips. He also visited Algeria once more, only to leave disappointed by the continued oppressive colonial policies, which he had warned about many times. During this period he completed the second cycle of his work, with the essay L'Homme révolté (The Rebel). Camus attacked totalitarian communism while advocating libertarian socialism and anarcho-syndicalism. Upsetting many of his colleagues and contemporaries in France with his rejection of communism, the book brought about the final split with Sartre. His relations with the Marxist Left deteriorated further during the Algerian War.
+
+Camus was a strong supporter of European integration in various marginal organisations working towards that end. In 1944, he founded the Comité français pour la féderation européenne—(CFFE (French Committee for the European Federation))—declaring that Europe "can only evolve along the path of economic progress, democracy, and peace if the nation-states become a federation." In 1947–48, he founded the Groupes de Liaison Internationale (GLI) a trade union movement in the context of revolutionary syndicalism (syndicalisme révolutionnaire). His main aim was to express the positive side of surrealism and existentialism, rejecting the negativity and the nihilism of André Breton. Camus also raised his voice against the Soviet invasion of Hungary and the totalitarian tendencies of Franco's regime in Spain.
+
+Camus had numerous affairs, particularly an irregular and eventually public affair with the Spanish-born actress María Casares, with whom he had extensive correspondence. Faure did not take this affair lightly. She had a mental breakdown and needed hospitalisation in the early 1950s. Camus, who felt guilty, withdrew from public life and was slightly depressed for some time.
+
+In 1957, Camus received the news that he was to be awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature. This came as a shock to him. He was anticipating André Malraux would win the prestigious award. At age 44, he was the second-youngest recipient of the prize, after Rudyard Kipling, who was 42. After this he began working on his autobiography Le Premier Homme (The First Man) in an attempt to examine "moral learning". He also turned to the theatre once more. Financed by the money he received with his Nobel Prize, he adapted and directed for the stage Dostoyevsky's novel Demons. The play opened in January 1959 at the Antoine Theatre in Paris and was a critical success.
+
+ 
+
+During these years, he published posthumously the works of the philosopher Simone Weil, in the series "Espoir" ("Hope") which he had founded for Éditions Gallimard. Weil had great influence on his philosophy, since he saw her writings as an "antidote" to nihilism. Camus described her as "the only great spirit of our times".
+
+Death 
+  
+
+Camus died on 4 January 1960 at the age of 46, in a car accident near Sens, in Le Grand Fossard in the small town of Villeblevin. He had spent the New Year's holiday of 1960 at his house in Lourmarin, Vaucluse with his family, and his publisher Michel Gallimard of Éditions Gallimard, along with Gallimard's wife, Janine, and daughter. Camus's wife and children went back to Paris by train on 2 January, but Camus decided to return in Gallimard's luxurious Facel Vega FV2. The car crashed into a plane tree on a long straight stretch of the Route nationale 5 (now the RN 6 or D606). Camus, who was in the passenger seat, died instantly. Gallimard died five days later, although his wife and daughter were unharmed.
+
+144 pages of a handwritten manuscript entitled Le premier Homme (The First Man) were found in the wreckage. Camus had predicted that this unfinished novel based on his childhood in Algeria would be his finest work. Camus was buried in the Lourmarin Cemetery, Vaucluse, France, where he had lived. His friend Sartre read a eulogy, paying tribute to Camus's heroic "stubborn humanism". William Faulkner wrote his obituary, saying, "When the door shut for him he had already written on this side of it that which every artist who also carries through life with him that one same foreknowledge and hatred of death is hoping to do: I was here."
+
+Literary career
+
+Camus's first publication was a play called Révolte dans les Asturies (Revolt in the Asturias) written with three friends in May 1936. The subject was the 1934 revolt by Spanish miners that was brutally suppressed by the Spanish government resulting in 1,500 to 2,000 deaths. In May 1937 he wrote his first book, L'Envers et l'Endroit (Betwixt and Between, also translated as The Wrong Side and the Right Side). Both were published by Edmond Charlot's small publishing house.
+ 
+Camus separated his work into three cycles. Each cycle consisted of a novel, an essay, and a play. The first was the cycle of the absurd consisting of L'Étranger, Le Mythe de Sysiphe, and Caligula. The second was the cycle of the revolt which included La Peste (The Plague), L'Homme révolté (The Rebel), and Les Justes (The Just Assassins). The third, the cycle of the love, consisted of Nemesis. Each cycle was an examination of a theme with the use of a pagan myth and including biblical motifs.
+
+The books in the first cycle were published between 1942 and 1944, but the theme was conceived earlier, at least as far back as 1936. With this cycle, Camus aims to pose a question on the human condition, discuss the world as an absurd place, and warn humanity of the consequences of totalitarianism.
+
+Camus began his work on the second cycle while he was in Algeria, in the last months of 1942, just as the Germans were reaching North Africa. In the second cycle, Camus used Prometheus, who is depicted as a revolutionary humanist, to highlight the nuances between revolution and rebellion. He analyses various aspects of rebellion, its metaphysics, its connection to politics, and examines it under the lens of modernity, of historicity and the absence of a God.
+
+After receiving the Nobel Prize, Camus gathered, clarified, and published his pacifist leaning views at Actuelles III: Chronique algérienne 1939–1958 (Algerian Chronicles). He then decided to distance himself from the Algerian War as he found the mental burden too heavy. He turned to theatre and the third cycle which was about love and the goddess Nemesis, the Greek and Roman goddess of Revenge.
+
+Two of Camus's works were published posthumously. The first entitled La mort heureuse (A Happy Death) (1970), features a character named Patrice Mersault, comparable to The Strangers Meursault. There is scholarly debate about the relationship between the two books. The second was an unfinished novel, Le Premier homme (The First Man) (1995), which Camus was writing before he died. It was an autobiographical work about his childhood in Algeria and its publication in 1994 sparked a widespread reconsideration of Camus's allegedly unrepentant colonialism.
+
+Political stance
+Camus was a moralist; he claimed morality should guide politics. While he did not deny that morals change over time, he rejected the classical Marxist view that historical material relations define morality.
+
+Camus was also strongly critical of Marxism-Leninism, especially in the case of the Soviet Union, which he considered totalitarian. Camus rebuked those sympathetic to the Soviet model and their "decision to call total servitude freedom". A proponent of libertarian socialism, he claimed the USSR was not socialist, and the United States was not liberal. His critique of the USSR caused him to clash with others on the political left, most notably with his on-again, off-again friend Jean-Paul Sartre.
+
+Active in the French Resistance to the Nazi occupation of France during World War II, Camus wrote for and edited the Resistance journal Combat. Of the French collaboration with the German occupiers, he wrote: "Now the only moral value is courage, which is useful here for judging the puppets and chatterboxes who pretend to speak in the name of the people." After France's liberation, Camus remarked, "This country does not need a Talleyrand, but a Saint-Just." The reality of the postwar tribunals soon changed his mind: Camus publicly reversed himself and became a lifelong opponent of capital punishment.
+
+Camus had anarchist sympathies, which intensified in the 1950s, when he came to believe that the Soviet model was morally bankrupt. Camus was firmly against any kind of exploitation, authority, property, the State, and centralization. He, however, opposed revolution, separating the rebel from the revolutionary and believing that the belief in "absolute truth", most often assuming the guise of history or reason, inspires the revolutionary and leads to tragic results. He believed that rebellion is spurred by our outrage over the world's lack of transcendent significance, while political rebellion is our response to attacks against the dignity and autonomy of the individual. Camus opposed political violence, tolerating it only in rare and very narrowly defined instances, as well as revolutionary terror which he accused of sacrificing innocent lives on the altar of history.
+
+Philosophy professor David Sherman considers Camus an anarcho-syndicalist. Graeme Nicholson considers Camus an existentialist anarchist.
+
+The anarchist André Prudhommeaux first introduced him at a meeting of the Cercle des Étudiants Anarchistes ("Anarchist Student Circle") in 1948 as a sympathiser familiar with anarchist thought. Camus wrote for anarchist publications such as Le Libertaire (The Libertarian), La Révolution prolétarienne (The Proletarian Revolution), and Solidaridad Obrera ("Workers' Solidarity"), the organ of the anarcho-syndicalist Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT) ("National Confederation of Labor").
+
+Camus kept a neutral stance during the Algerian Revolution (1954–62). While he was against the violence of the National Liberation Front (FLN) he acknowledged the injustice and brutalities imposed by colonialist France. He was supportive of Pierre Mendès France's Unified Socialist Party (PSU) and its approach to the crisis; Mendes France advocated reconciliation. Camus also supported a like-minded Algerian militant, Aziz Kessous. Camus traveled to Algeria to negotiate a truce between the two belligerents but was met with distrust by all parties. In one, often misquoted incident, Camus confronted an Algerian critic during his 1957 Nobel Prize acceptance speech in Stockholm, rejecting the false equivalence of justice with revolutionary terrorism: "People are now planting bombs in the tramways of Algiers. My mother might be on one of those tramways. If that is justice, then I prefer my mother." Camus's critics have labelled the response as reactionary and a result of a colonialist attitude.
+
+He was sharply critical of the proliferation of nuclear weapons and the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. In the 1950s, Camus devoted his efforts to human rights. In 1952, he resigned from his work for UNESCO when the UN accepted Spain, under the leadership of the caudillo General Francisco Franco, as a member. Camus maintained his pacifism and resisted capital punishment anywhere in the world. He wrote an essay against capital punishment in collaboration with Arthur Koestler, the writer, intellectual, and founder of the League Against Capital Punishment entitled Réflexions sur la peine capitale (Reflections on capital punishment), published by Calmann-Levy in 1957.
+
+Along with Albert Einstein, Camus was one of the sponsors of the Peoples' World Convention (PWC), also known as Peoples' World Constituent Assembly (PWCA), which took place in 1950-51 at Palais Electoral, Geneva, Switzerland.
+
+Role in Algeria
+
+Born in Algeria to French parents, Camus was familiar with the institutional racism of France against Arabs and Berbers, but he was not part of a rich elite. He lived in very poor conditions as a child but was a citizen of France and as such was entitled to citizens' rights; members of the country's Arab and Berber majority were not.
+
+Camus was a vocal advocate of the "new Mediterranean Culture". This was his vision of embracing the multi-ethnicity of the Algerian people, in opposition to "Latiny", a popular pro-fascist and antisemitic ideology among other Pieds-Noirs—or French or Europeans born in Algeria. For Camus, this vision encapsulated the Hellenic humanism which survived among ordinary people around the Mediterranean Sea. His 1938 address on "The New Mediterranean Culture" represents Camus's most systematic statement of his views at this time. Camus also supported the Blum–Viollette proposal to grant Algerians full French citizenship in a manifesto with arguments defending this assimilative proposal on radical egalitarian grounds. In 1939, Camus wrote a stinging series of articles for the Alger républicain on the atrocious living conditions of the inhabitants of the Kabylie highlands. He advocated for economic, educational and political reforms as a matter of emergency.
+
+In 1945, following the Sétif and Guelma massacre after Arab revolts against French mistreatment, Camus was one of only a few mainland journalists to visit the colony. He wrote a series of articles reporting on conditions, and advocating for French reforms and concessions to the demands of the Algerian people.
+
+When the Algerian War began in 1954, Camus was confronted with a moral dilemma. He identified with the Pieds-Noirs such as his own parents and defended the French government's actions against the revolt. He argued the Algerian uprising was an integral part of the "new Arab imperialism" led by Egypt, and an "anti-Western" offensive orchestrated by Russia to "encircle Europe" and "isolate the United States". Although favoring greater Algerian autonomy or even federation, though not full-scale independence, he believed the Pieds-Noirs and Arabs could co-exist. During the war, he advocated a civil truce that would spare the civilians. It was rejected by both sides who regarded it as foolish. Behind the scenes, he began working for imprisoned Algerians who faced the death penalty. His position drew much criticism from the left and later postcolonial literary critics, such as Edward Said, who were opposed to European imperialism, and charged that Camus's novels and short stories are plagued with colonial depictions – or conscious erasures – of Algeria's Arab population. In their eyes, Camus was no longer the defender of the oppressed.
+
+Camus once said that the troubles in Algeria "affected him as others feel pain in their lungs."
+
+Philosophy
+
+Existentialism
+Even though Camus is mostly connected to absurdism, he is routinely categorized as an existentialist, a term he rejected on several occasions.
+
+Camus himself said his philosophical origins lay in ancient Greek philosophy, Nietzsche, and 17th-century moralists whereas existentialism arises from 19th- and early 20th-century philosophy such as Kierkegaard, Karl Jaspers, and Heidegger. He also said his work, The Myth of Sisyphus, was a criticism of various aspects of existentialism. Camus was rejecting existentialism as a philosophy, but his critique was mostly focused on Sartrean existentialism, and to a lesser extent on religious existentialism. He thought that the importance of history held by Marx and Sartre was incompatible with his belief in human freedom. David Sherman and others also suggest the rivalry between Sartre and Camus also played a part in his rejection of existentialism. David Simpson argues further that his humanism and belief in human nature set him apart from the existentialist doctrine that existence precedes essence.
+
+On the other hand, Camus focused most of his philosophy around existential questions. The absurdity of life, the inevitable ending (death) is highlighted in his acts. His belief was that the absurd—life being void of meaning, or man's inability to know that meaning if it were to exist—was something that man should embrace. His anti-Christianity, his commitment to individual moral freedom and responsibility are only a few of the similarities with other existential writers. More importantly, Camus addressed one of the fundamental questions of existentialism: the problem of suicide. He wrote: "There is only one really serious philosophical question, and that is suicide."
+Camus viewed the question of suicide as arising naturally as a solution to the absurdity of life.
+
+Absurdism
+Many existentialist writers have addressed the Absurd, each with their own interpretation of what it is and what makes it important. Kierkegaard explains that the absurdity of religious truths prevents us from reaching God rationally. Sartre recognizes the absurdity of individual experience. Camus's thoughts on the Absurd begin with his first cycle of books and the literary essay The Myth of Sisyphus, (Le Mythe de Sisyphe), his major work on the subject. In 1942, he published the story of a man living an absurd life in The Stranger. He also wrote a play about the Roman emperor Caligula, pursuing an absurd logic, which was not performed until 1945. His early thoughts appeared in his first collection of essays, L'Envers et l'Endroit (Betwixt and Between) in 1937. Absurd themes were expressed with more sophistication in his second collection of essays, Noces (Nuptials) in 1938. In these essays, Camus reflects on the experience of the Absurd. Aspects of the notion of the Absurd can be found in The Plague.
+
+Camus follows Sartre's definition of the Absurd: "That which is meaningless. Thus man's existence is absurd because his contingency finds no external justification". The Absurd is created because man, who is placed in an unintelligent universe, realises that human values are not founded on a solid external component; or as Camus himself explains, the Absurd is the result of the "confrontation between human need and the unreasonable silence of the world." Even though absurdity is inescapable, Camus does not drift towards nihilism. But the realization of absurdity leads to the question: Why should someone continue to live? Suicide is an option that Camus firmly dismisses as the renunciation of human values and freedom. Rather, he proposes we accept that absurdity is a part of our lives and live with it.
+
+The turning point in Camus's attitude to the Absurd occurs in a collection of four letters to an anonymous German friend, written between July 1943 and July 1944. The first was published in the Revue Libre in 1943, the second in the Cahiers de Libération in 1944, and the third in the newspaper Libertés, in 1945. The four letters were published as Lettres à un ami allemand (Letters to a German Friend) in 1945, and were included in the collection Resistance, Rebellion, and Death.
+
+Camus regretted the continued reference to himself as a "philosopher of the absurd". He showed less interest in the Absurd shortly after publishing Le Mythe de Sisyphe. To distinguish his ideas, scholars sometimes refer to the Paradox of the Absurd, when referring to "Camus's Absurd".
+
+Revolt
+Camus articulated the case for revolting against any kind of oppression, injustice, or whatever disrespects the human condition. He is cautious enough, however, to set the limits on the rebellion. L'Homme révolté (The Rebel) explains in detail his thoughts on the issue. There, he builds upon the absurd (described in The Myth of Sisyphus) but goes further. In the introduction, where he examines the metaphysics of rebellion, he concludes with the phrase "I revolt, therefore we exist" implying the recognition of a common human condition. Camus also delineates the difference between revolution and rebellion and notices that history has shown that the rebel's revolution might easily end up as an oppressive regime; he therefore places importance on the morals accompanying the revolution. Camus poses a crucial question: Is it possible for humans to act in an ethical and meaningful manner, in a silent universe? According to him the answer is yes, as the experience and awareness of the Absurd creates the moral values and also sets the limits of our actions. Camus separates the modern form of rebellion into two modes. First, there is the metaphysical rebellion, which is "the movement by which man protests against his condition and against the whole of creation." The other mode, historical rebellion, is the attempt to materialize the abstract spirit of metaphysical rebellion and change the world. In this attempt, the rebel must balance between the evil of the world and the intrinsic evil which every revolt carries, and not cause any unjustifiable suffering.
+
+Legacy
+Camus's novels and philosophical essays are still influential. After his death, interest in Camus followed the rise (and diminution) of the New Left. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, interest in his alternative road to communism resurfaced. He is remembered for his skeptical humanism and his support for political tolerance, dialogue, and civil rights.
+
+Although Camus has been linked to anti-Soviet communism, reaching as far as anarcho-syndicalism, some neo-liberals have tried to associate him with their policies; for instance, the French President Nicolas Sarkozy suggested that his remains be moved to the Panthéon, an idea that was criticised by Camus's surviving family and angered many on the Left.
+
+American heavy metal band Avenged Sevenfold has stated their album Life Is But A Dream... is inspired by the work of Camus.
+
+Albert Camus also served as the inspiration for the Aquarius Gold Saint Camus in the classic anime and manga Saint Seiya.
+
+Tributes
+ In Tipasa (Algeria), inside the Roman ruins, facing the sea and Mount Chenoua, a stele was erected in 1961 in honor of Albert Camus with this phrase in French extracted from his work Noces à Tipasa: "I understand here what is called glory: the right to love beyond measure " (« Je comprends ici ce qu'on appelle gloire : le droit d'aimer sans mesure. »).
+ The French Post published a stamp with his effigy on 26 June 1967.
+
+Works
+The works of Albert Camus include:
+
+Novels
+ A Happy Death (La Mort heureuse) (written 1936–38, published 1971)
+ The Stranger (L'Étranger, often translated as The Outsider. An alternate meaning of "l'étranger" is "foreigner" ) (1942)
+ The Plague (La Peste) (1947)
+ The Fall (La Chute) (1956)
+ The First Man (Le premier homme) (incomplete, published 1994)
+
+Short stories
+ Exile and the Kingdom (L'exil et le royaume) (collection, 1957), containing the following short stories:
+ "The Adulterous Woman" (La Femme adultère)
+ "The Renegade or a Confused Spirit" (Le Renégat ou un esprit confus)
+ "The Silent Men" (Les Muets)
+ "The Guest" (L'Hôte)
+ "Jonas, or the Artist at Work" (Jonas, ou l'artiste au travail)
+ "The Growing Stone" (La Pierre qui pousse)
+
+Academic theses
+ Christian Metaphysics and Neoplatonism (Métaphysique chrétienne et néoplatonisme) (1935): the thesis that enabled Camus to teach in secondary schools in France
+
+Non-fiction
+ Betwixt and Between (L'envers et l'endroit, also translated as The Wrong Side and the Right Side) (collection, 1937)
+ Nuptials (Noces) (1938)
+ The Myth of Sisyphus (Le Mythe de Sisyphe) (1942)
+ The Rebel (L'Homme révolté) (1951)
+ Algerian Chronicles (Chroniques algériennes) (1958, first English translation published 2013)
+ Resistance, Rebellion, and Death (collection, 1961) 
+ Notebooks 1935–1942 (Carnets, mai 1935 — fevrier 1942) (1962)
+ Notebooks 1942–1951 (Carnets II: janvier 1942-mars 1951) (1965)
+ Lyrical and Critical Essays (collection, 1968)
+ American Journals (Journaux de voyage) (1978)
+ Notebooks 1951–1959 (2008). Published as Carnets Tome III: Mars 1951 – December 1959 (1989)
+ Correspondence (1944–1959) The correspondence of Albert Camus and María Casares, with a preface by his daughter, Catherine Camus (2017)
+
+Plays
+ Caligula (performed 1945, written 1938)
+ The Misunderstanding (Le Malentendu) (1944)
+ The State of Siege (L'État de Siège) (1948)
+ The Just Assassins (Les Justes) (1949)
+ Requiem for a Nun (Requiem pour une nonne, adapted from William Faulkner's novel by the same name) (1956)
+ The Possessed (Les Possédés, adapted from Fyodor Dostoyevsky's novel Demons) (1959)
+
+Essays
+ The Crisis of Man (Lecture at Columbia University) (28 March 1946)
+ Neither Victims nor Executioners (Series of essays in Combat) (1946)
+ Why Spain? (Essay for the theatrical play L'Etat de Siège) (1948)
+ Summer (L'Été) (1954)
+ Reflections on the Guillotine (Réflexions sur la guillotine) (Extended essay, 1957)
+ Create Dangerously (Essay on Realism and Artistic Creation, lecture at the University of Uppsala in Sweden) (1957)
+
+References
+
+Footnotes
+
+Sources
+
+Further reading
+
+Selected biographies
+
+External links
+
+Albert Camus. Selective and Cumulative Bibliography 
+Gay-Crosier Camus collection at University of Florida Library
+Albert Camus Society UK
+ 
+ 
+
+ 
+1913 births
+1960 deaths
+20th-century atheists
+20th-century French dramatists and playwrights
+20th-century French essayists
+20th-century French journalists
+20th-century French male writers
+20th-century French novelists
+20th-century French philosophers
+20th-century short story writers
+Absurdist writers
+Anarcho-syndicalists
+Anti-Stalinist left
+Atheist philosophers
+Communist members of the French Resistance
+Existentialists
+French anarchists
+French anti-capitalists
+French anti–death penalty activists
+French anti-fascists
+French atheists
+French Communist Party members
+French humanists
+French male essayists
+French Nobel laureates
+French pacifists
+French people of Spanish descent
+French socialists
+French syndicalists
+Legion of Honour refusals
+Libertarian socialists
+Modernist writers
+Nobel laureates in Literature
+People from Dréan
+People of French Algeria
+Philosophers of death
+Philosophers of pessimism
+Pieds-Noirs
+Road incident deaths in France
+University of Algiers alumni
+Dame Agatha Mary Clarissa Christie, Lady Mallowan,  (; 15 September 1890 – 12 January 1976) was an English writer known for her 66 detective novels and 14 short story collections, particularly those revolving around fictional detectives Hercule Poirot and Miss Marple. She also wrote the world's longest-running play, the murder mystery The Mousetrap, which has been performed in the West End since 1952. A writer during the "Golden Age of Detective Fiction", Christie has been called the "Queen of Crime". She also wrote six novels under the pseudonym Mary Westmacott. In 1971, she was made a Dame (DBE) by Queen Elizabeth II for her contributions to literature. Guinness World Records lists Christie as the best-selling fiction writer of all time, her novels having sold more than two billion copies.
+
+Christie was born into a wealthy upper-middle-class family in Torquay, Devon, and was largely home-schooled. She was initially an unsuccessful writer with six consecutive rejections, but this changed in 1920 when The Mysterious Affair at Styles, featuring detective Hercule Poirot, was published. Her first husband was Archibald Christie; they married in 1914 and had one child before divorcing in 1928. Following the breakdown of her marriage and the death of her mother in 1926 she made international headlines by going missing for eleven days. During both World Wars, she served in hospital dispensaries, acquiring a thorough knowledge of the poisons that featured in many of her novels, short stories, and plays. Following her marriage to archaeologist Max Mallowan in 1930, she spent several months each year on digs in the Middle East and used her first-hand knowledge of this profession in her fiction.
+
+According to UNESCO's Index Translationum, she remains the most-translated individual author. Her novel And Then There Were None is one of the top-selling books of all time, with approximately 100 million copies sold. Christie's stage play The Mousetrap holds the world record for the longest initial run. It opened at the Ambassadors Theatre in the West End on 25 November 1952, and by 2018 there had been more than 27,500 performances. The play was temporarily closed in 2020 because of COVID-19 lockdowns in London before it reopened in 2021.
+
+In 1955, Christie was the first recipient of the Mystery Writers of America's Grand Master Award. Later that year, Witness for the Prosecution received an Edgar Award for best play. In 2013, she was voted the best crime writer and The Murder of Roger Ackroyd the best crime novel ever by 600 professional novelists of the Crime Writers' Association. In 2015, And Then There Were None was named the "World's Favourite Christie" in a vote sponsored by the author's estate. Many of Christie's books and short stories have been adapted for television, radio, video games, and graphic novels. More than 30 feature films are based on her work.
+
+Life and career
+
+Childhood and adolescence: 1890–1907 
+
+Agatha Mary Clarissa Miller was born on 15 September 1890, into a wealthy upper middle class family in Torquay, Devon. She was the youngest of three children born to Frederick Alvah Miller, "a gentleman of substance", and his wife Clarissa Margaret "Clara" Miller, née Boehmer.
+
+Christie's mother Clara was born in Dublin in 1854 to British Army officer Frederick Boehmer and his wife Mary Ann Boehmer (née West). Boehmer died in Jersey in 1863, leaving his widow to raise Clara and her brothers on a meagre income. Two weeks after Boehmer's death, Mary's sister Margaret West married widowed dry goods merchant Nathaniel Frary Miller, a US citizen. To assist Mary financially, they agreed to foster nine-year-old Clara; the family settled in Timperley, Cheshire. Margaret and Nathaniel had no children together, but Nathaniel had a 17-year-old son, Fred Miller, from his previous marriage. Fred was born in New York City and travelled extensively after leaving his Swiss boarding school. He and Clara were married in London in 1878. Their first child, Margaret Frary ("Madge"), was born in Torquay in 1879. The second, Louis Montant ("Monty"), was born in Morristown, New Jersey, in 1880, while the family was on an extended visit to the United States.
+
+When Fred's father died in 1869, he left Clara £2,000 (approximately ); in 1881 they used this to buy the leasehold of a villa in Torquay named Ashfield. It was here that their third and last child, Agatha, was born in 1890. She described her childhood as "very happy". The Millers lived mainly in Devon but often visited her step-grandmother/great-aunt Margaret Miller in Ealing and maternal grandmother Mary Boehmer in Bayswater. A year was spent abroad with her family, in the French Pyrenees, Paris, Dinard, and Guernsey. Because her siblings were so much older, and there were few children in their neighbourhood, Christie spent much of her time playing alone with her pets and imaginary companions. She eventually made friends with other girls in Torquay, noting that "one of the highlights of my existence" was her appearance with them in a youth production of Gilbert and Sullivan's The Yeomen of the Guard, in which she played the hero, Colonel Fairfax.
+
+According to Christie, Clara believed she should not learn to read until she was eight; thanks to her curiosity, she was reading by the age of four. Her sister had been sent to a boarding school, but their mother insisted that Christie receive her education at home. As a result, her parents and sister supervised her studies in reading, writing and basic arithmetic, a subject she particularly enjoyed. They also taught her music, and she learned to play the piano and the mandolin.
+
+Christie was a voracious reader from an early age. Among her earliest memories were of reading children's books by Mrs Molesworth and Edith Nesbit. When a little older, she moved on to the surreal verse of Edward Lear and Lewis Carroll. As an adolescent, she enjoyed works by Anthony Hope, Walter Scott, Charles Dickens, and Alexandre Dumas. In April 1901, aged 10, she wrote her first poem, "The Cow Slip".
+
+By 1901, her father's health had deteriorated, because of what he believed were heart problems. Fred died in November 1901 from pneumonia and chronic kidney disease. Christie later said that her father's death when she was 11 marked the end of her childhood.
+
+The family's financial situation had, by this time, worsened. Madge married the year after their father's death and moved to Cheadle, Cheshire; Monty was overseas, serving in a British regiment. Christie now lived alone at Ashfield with her mother. In 1902, she began attending Miss Guyer's Girls' School in Torquay but found it difficult to adjust to the disciplined atmosphere. In 1905, her mother sent her to Paris, where she was educated in a series of  (boarding schools), focusing on voice training and piano playing. Deciding she lacked the temperament and talent, she gave up her goal of performing professionally as a concert pianist or an opera singer.
+
+Early literary attempts, marriage, literary success: 1907–1926 
+
+After completing her education, Christie returned to England to find her mother ailing. They decided to spend the northern winter of 1907–1908 in the warm climate of Egypt, which was then a regular tourist destination for wealthy Britons. They stayed for three months at the Gezirah Palace Hotel in Cairo. Christie attended many dances and other social functions; she particularly enjoyed watching amateur polo matches. While they visited some ancient Egyptian monuments such as the Great Pyramid of Giza, she did not exhibit the great interest in archaeology and Egyptology that developed in her later years. Returning to Britain, she continued her social activities, writing and performing in amateur theatrics. She also helped put on a play called The Blue Beard of Unhappiness with female friends.
+
+At 18, Christie wrote her first short story, "The House of Beauty", while recovering in bed from an illness. It consisted of about 6,000 words about "madness and dreams", subjects of fascination for her. Her biographer Janet Morgan has commented that, despite "infelicities of style", the story was "compelling". (The story became an early version of her story "The House of Dreams".) Other stories followed, most of them illustrating her interest in spiritualism and the paranormal. These included "The Call of Wings" and "The Little Lonely God". Magazines rejected all her early submissions, made under pseudonyms (including Mac Miller, Nathaniel Miller, and Sydney West); some submissions were later revised and published under her real name, often with new titles.
+
+Around the same time, Christie began work on her first novel, Snow Upon the Desert. Writing under the pseudonym Monosyllaba, she set the book in Cairo and drew upon her recent experiences there. She was disappointed when the six publishers she contacted declined the work. Clara suggested that her daughter ask for advice from the successful novelist Eden Phillpotts, a family friend and neighbour, who responded to her enquiry, encouraged her writing, and sent her an introduction to his own literary agent, Hughes Massie, who also rejected Snow Upon the Desert but suggested a second novel.
+
+Meanwhile, Christie's social activities expanded, with country house parties, riding, hunting, dances, and roller skating. She had short-lived relationships with four men and an engagement to another. In October 1912, she was introduced to Archibald "Archie" Christie at a dance given by Lord and Lady Clifford at Ugbrooke, about  from Torquay. The son of a barrister in the Indian Civil Service, Archie was a Royal Artillery officer who was seconded to the Royal Flying Corps in April 1913. The couple quickly fell in love. Three months after their first meeting, Archie proposed marriage, and Agatha accepted.
+
+With the outbreak of World War I in August 1914, Archie was sent to France to fight. They married on Christmas Eve 1914 at Emmanuel Church, Clifton, Bristol, close to the home of his mother and stepfather, when Archie was on home leave. Rising through the ranks, he was posted back to Britain in September 1918 as a colonel in the Air Ministry. Christie involved herself in the war effort as a member of the Voluntary Aid Detachment of the British Red Cross. From October 1914 to May 1915, then from June 1916 to September 1918, she worked 3,400 hours in the Town Hall Red Cross Hospital, Torquay, first as a nurse (unpaid) then as a dispenser at £16 (approximately ) a year from 1917 after qualifying as an apothecary's assistant. Her war service ended in September 1918 when Archie was reassigned to London, and they rented a flat in St. John's Wood.
+
+Christie had long been a fan of detective novels, having enjoyed Wilkie Collins's The Woman in White and The Moonstone, and Arthur Conan Doyle's early Sherlock Holmes stories. She wrote her first detective novel, The Mysterious Affair at Styles, in 1916. It featured Hercule Poirot, a former Belgian police officer with "magnificent moustaches" and a head "exactly the shape of an egg", who had taken refuge in Britain after Germany invaded Belgium. Christie's inspiration for the character came from Belgian refugees living in Torquay, and the Belgian soldiers she helped to treat as a volunteer nurse during the First World War. Her original manuscript was rejected by Hodder & Stoughton and Methuen. After keeping the submission for several months, John Lane at The Bodley Head offered to accept it, provided that Christie change how the solution was revealed. She did so, and signed a contract committing her next five books to The Bodley Head, which she later felt was exploitative. It was published in 1920.
+
+Christie settled into married life, giving birth to her only child, Rosalind Margaret Clarissa (later Hicks), in August 1919 at Ashfield. Archie left the Air Force at the end of the war and began working in the City financial sector on a relatively low salary. They still employed a maid. Her second novel, The Secret Adversary (1922), featured a new detective couple Tommy and Tuppence, again published by The Bodley Head. It earned her £50 (approximately ). A third novel, Murder on the Links, again featured Poirot, as did the short stories commissioned by Bruce Ingram, editor of The Sketch magazine, from 1923. She now had no difficulty selling her work.
+
+In 1922, the Christies joined an around-the-world promotional tour for the British Empire Exhibition, led by Major Ernest Belcher. Leaving their daughter with Agatha's mother and sister, in 10 months they travelled to South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, Hawaii, and Canada. They learned to surf prone in South Africa; then, in Waikiki, they were among the first Britons to surf standing up, and extended their time there by three months to practise.  She is remembered at the British Surfing Museum as having said  about surfing, "Oh it was heaven! Nothing like rushing through the water at what seems to you a speed of about two hundred miles an hour. It is one of the most perfect physical pleasures I have known."
+
+When they returned to England, Archie resumed work in the city, and Christie continued to work hard at her writing. After living in a series of apartments in London, they bought a house in Sunningdale, Berkshire, which they renamed Styles after the mansion in Christie's first detective novel.
+
+Christie's mother, Clarissa Miller, died in April 1926. They had been exceptionally close, and the loss sent Christie into a deep depression. In August 1926, reports appeared in the press that Christie had gone to a village near Biarritz to recuperate from a "breakdown" caused by "overwork".
+
+Disappearance: 1926 
+
+In August 1926, Archie asked Agatha for a divorce. He had fallen in love with Nancy Neele, a friend of Major Belcher. On 3December 1926, the pair quarrelled after Archie announced his plan to spend the weekend with friends, unaccompanied by his wife. Late that evening, Christie disappeared from their home in Sunningdale. The following morning, her car, a Morris Cowley, was discovered at Newlands Corner in Surrey, parked above a chalk quarry with an expired driving licence and clothes inside. It was feared that she might have drowned herself in the Silent Pool, a nearby beauty spot.
+
+The disappearance quickly became a news story, as the press sought to satisfy their readers' "hunger for sensation, disaster, and scandal". Home Secretary William Joynson-Hicks pressured police, and a newspaper offered a £100 reward (). More than a thousand police officers, 15,000 volunteers, and several aeroplanes searched the rural landscape. Sir Arthur Conan Doyle gave a spirit medium one of Christie's gloves to find her. Christie's disappearance made international headlines, including featuring on the front page of The New York Times. Despite the extensive manhunt, she was not found for another 10 days. On 14 December 1926, she was located at the Swan Hydropathic Hotel in Harrogate, Yorkshire,  north of her home in Sunningdale, registered as "Mrs Tressa Neele" (the surname of her husband's lover) from " S.A." (South Africa). The next day, Christie left for her sister's residence at Abney Hall, Cheadle, where she was sequestered "in guarded hall, gates locked, telephone cut off, and callers turned away".
+
+Christie's autobiography makes no reference to the disappearance. Two doctors diagnosed her with "an unquestionable genuine loss of memory", yet opinion remains divided over the reason for her disappearance. Some, including her biographer Morgan, believe she disappeared during a fugue state. The author Jared Cade concluded that Christie planned the event to embarrass her husband but did not anticipate the resulting public melodrama. Christie biographer Laura Thompson provides an alternative view that Christie disappeared during a nervous breakdown, conscious of her actions but not in emotional control of herself. Public reaction at the time was largely negative, supposing a publicity stunt or an attempt to frame her husband for murder.
+
+Second marriage and later life: 1927–1976 
+
+In January 1927, Christie, looking "very pale", sailed with her daughter and secretary to Las Palmas, Canary Islands, to "complete her convalescence", returning three months later. Christie petitioned for divorce and was granted a decree nisi against her husband in April 1928, which was made absolute in October 1928. Archie married Nancy Neele a week later. Christie retained custody of their daughter, Rosalind, and kept the Christie surname for her writing.
+
+Reflecting on the period in her autobiography, Christie wrote, "So, after illness, came sorrow, despair and heartbreak. There is no need to dwell on it."
+
+In 1928, Christie left England and took the (Simplon) Orient Express to Istanbul and then to Baghdad. In Iraq, she became friends with archaeologist Leonard Woolley and his wife, who invited her to return to their dig in February 1930. On that second trip, she met archaeologist Max Mallowan, 13 years her junior. In a 1977 interview, Mallowan recounted his first meeting with Christie, when he took her and a group of tourists on a tour of his expedition site in Iraq. Christie and Mallowan married in Edinburgh in September 1930. Their marriage lasted until Christie's death in 1976. She accompanied Mallowan on his archaeological expeditions, and her travels with him contributed background to several of her novels set in the Middle East. Other novels (such as Peril at End House) were set in and around Torquay, where she was raised. Christie drew on her experience of international train travel when writing her 1934 novel Murder on the Orient Express. The Pera Palace Hotel in Istanbul, the eastern terminus of the railway, claims the book was written there and maintains Christie's room as a memorial to the author.
+
+Christie and Mallowan first lived in Cresswell Place in Chelsea, and later in Sheffield Terrace, Holland Park, Kensington. Both properties are now marked by blue plaques. In 1934, they bought Winterbrook House in Winterbrook, a hamlet near Wallingford. This was their main residence for the rest of their lives and the place where Christie did much of her writing. This house also bears a blue plaque. Christie led a quiet life despite being known in Wallingford; from 1951 to 1976 she served as president of the local amateur dramatic society.
+
+The couple acquired the Greenway Estate in Devon as a summer residence in 1938; it was given to the National Trust in 2000. Christie frequently stayed at Abney Hall, Cheshire, which was owned by her brother-in-law, James Watts, and based at least two stories there: a short story, "The Adventure of the Christmas Pudding", in the story collection of the same name and the novel After the Funeral. One Christie compendium notes that "Abney became Agatha's greatest inspiration for country-house life, with all its servants and grandeur being woven into her plots. The descriptions of the fictional Chimneys, Stonygates, and other houses in her stories are mostly Abney Hall in various forms."
+
+During World War II, Christie moved to London and lived in a flat at the Isokon in Hampstead, whilst working in the pharmacy at University College Hospital (UCH), London, where she updated her knowledge of poisons. Her later novel The Pale Horse was based on a suggestion from Harold Davis, the chief pharmacist at UCH. In 1977, a thallium poisoning case was solved by British medical personnel who had read Christie's book and recognised the symptoms she described.
+
+The British intelligence agency MI5 investigated Christie after a character called Major Bletchley appeared in her 1941 thriller N or M?, which was about a hunt for a pair of deadly fifth columnists in wartime England. MI5 was concerned that Christie had a spy in Britain's top-secret codebreaking centre, Bletchley Park. The agency's fears were allayed when Christie told her friend, the codebreaker Dilly Knox, "I was stuck there on my way by train from Oxford to London and took revenge by giving the name to one of my least lovable characters."
+
+Christie was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of Literature in 1950. In honour of her many literary works, Christie was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 1956 New Year Honours. She was co-president of the Detection Club from 1958 to her death in 1976. In 1961, she was awarded an honorary Doctor of Literature degree by the University of Exeter. In the 1971 New Year Honours, she was promoted to Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE), three years after her husband had been knighted for his archaeological work. After her husband's knighthood, Christie could also be styled Lady Mallowan.
+
+From 1971 to 1974, Christie's health began to fail, but she continued to write. Her last novel was Postern of Fate in 1973. Textual analysis suggested that Christie may have begun to develop Alzheimer's disease or other dementia at about this time.
+
+Personal qualities 
+
+In 1946, Christie said of herself: "My chief dislikes are crowds, loud noises, gramophones and cinemas. I dislike the taste of alcohol and do not like smoking. I do like sun, sea, flowers, travelling, strange foods, sports, concerts, theatres, pianos, and doing embroidery."
+
+Christie was a lifelong, "quietly devout" member of the Church of England, attended church regularly, and kept her mother's copy of The Imitation of Christ by her bedside. After her divorce, she stopped taking the sacrament of communion.
+
+The Agatha Christie Trust For Children was established in 1969, and shortly after Christie's death a charitable memorial fund was set up to "help two causes that she favoured: old people and young children".
+
+Christie's obituary in The Times notes that "she never cared much for the cinema, or for wireless and television." Further,
+
+Death and estate
+
+Death and burial 
+
+Christie died peacefully on 12 January 1976 at age 85 from natural causes at her home at Winterbrook House. Upon her death, two West End theatresthe St. Martin's, where The Mousetrap was playing, and the Savoy, which was home to a revival of Murder at the Vicaragedimmed their outside lights in her honour. She was buried in the nearby churchyard of St Mary's, Cholsey, in a plot she had chosen with her husband 10 years previously. The simple funeral service was attended by about 20 newspaper and TV reporters, some having travelled from as far away as South America. Thirty wreaths adorned Christie's grave, including one from the cast of her long-running play The Mousetrap and one sent "on behalf of the multitude of grateful readers" by the Ulverscroft Large Print Book Publishers.
+
+Mallowan, who remarried in 1977, died in 1978 and was buried next to Christie.
+
+Estate and subsequent ownership of works 
+
+Christie was unhappy about becoming "an employed wage slave", and for tax reasons set up a private company in 1955, Agatha Christie Limited, to hold the rights to her works. In about 1959 she transferred her 278-acre home, Greenway Estate, to her daughter, Rosalind Hicks. In 1968, when Christie was almost 80, she sold a 51% stake in Agatha Christie Limited (and the works it owned) to Booker Books (better known as Booker Author's Division), which by 1977 had increased its stake to 64%. Agatha Christie Limited still owns the worldwide rights for more than 80 of Christie's novels and short stories, 19 plays, and nearly 40 TV films.
+
+In the late 1950s, Christie had reputedly been earning around £100,000 (approximately ) per year. Christie sold an estimated 300 million books during her lifetime. At the time of her death in 1976, "she was the best-selling novelist in history."
+One estimate of her total earnings from more than a half-century of writing is $20 million (approximately $ million in ). As a result of her tax planning, her will left only £106,683 (approximately ) net, which went mostly to her husband and daughter along with some smaller bequests. Her remaining 36% share of Agatha Christie Limited was inherited by Hicks, who passionately preserved her mother's works, image, and legacy until her own death 28 years later. The family's share of the company allowed them to appoint 50% of the board and the chairman, and retain a veto over new treatments, updated versions, and republications of her works.
+
+In 2004, Hicks' obituary in The Telegraph noted that she had been "determined to remain true to her mother's vision and to protect the integrity of her creations" and disapproved of "merchandising" activities. Upon her death on 28 October 2004, the Greenway Estate passed to her son Mathew Prichard. After his stepfather's death in 2005, Prichard donated Greenway and its contents to the National Trust.
+
+Christie's family and family trusts, including great-grandson James Prichard, continue to own the 36% stake in Agatha Christie Limited, and remain associated with the company. In 2020, James Prichard was the company's chairman. Mathew Prichard also holds the copyright to some of his grandmother's later literary works including The Mousetrap. Christie's work continues to be developed in a range of adaptations.
+
+In 1998, Booker sold its shares in Agatha Christie Limited (at the time earning £2,100,000, approximately  annual revenue) for £10,000,000 (approximately ) to Chorion, whose portfolio of authors' works included the literary estates of Enid Blyton and Dennis Wheatley. In February 2012, after a management buyout, Chorion began to sell off its literary assets. This included the sale of Chorion's 64% stake in Agatha Christie Limited to Acorn Media UK. In 2014, RLJ Entertainment Inc. (RLJE) acquired Acorn Media UK, renamed it Acorn Media Enterprises, and incorporated it as the RLJE UK development arm.
+
+In late February 2014, media reports stated that the BBC had acquired exclusive TV rights to Christie's works in the UK (previously associated with ITV) and made plans with Acorn's co-operation to air new productions for the 125th anniversary of Christie's birth in 2015. As part of that deal, the BBC broadcast Partners in Crime and And Then There Were None, both in 2015. Subsequent productions have included The Witness for the Prosecution but plans to televise Ordeal by Innocence at Christmas 2017 were delayed because of controversy surrounding one of the cast members. The three-part adaptation aired in April 2018. A three-part adaptation of The A.B.C. Murders starring John Malkovich and Rupert Grint began filming in June 2018 and was first broadcast in December 2018. A two-part adaptation of The Pale Horse was broadcast on BBC1 in February 2020. Death Comes as the End will be the next BBC adaptation.
+
+Since 2020, reissues of Christie's Miss Marple and Hercule Poirot novels by HarperCollins have removed "passages containing descriptions, insults or references to ethnicity".
+
+Works
+
+Works of fiction
+
+Hercule Poirot and Miss Marple 
+
+Christie's first published book, The Mysterious Affair at Styles, was released in 1920 and introduced the detective Hercule Poirot, who appeared in 33 of her novels and more than 50 short stories.
+
+Over the years, Christie grew tired of Poirot, much as Doyle did with Sherlock Holmes. By the end of the 1930s, Christie wrote in her diary that she was finding Poirot "insufferable", and by the 1960s she felt he was "an egocentric creep". Thompson believes Christie's occasional antipathy to her creation is overstated, and points out that "in later life she sought to protect him against misrepresentation as powerfully as if he were her own flesh and blood". Unlike Doyle, she resisted the temptation to kill her detective off while he was still popular. She married off Poirot's "Watson", Captain Arthur Hastings, in an attempt to trim her cast commitments.
+
+Miss Jane Marple was introduced in a series of short stories that began publication in December 1927 and were subsequently collected under the title The Thirteen Problems. Marple was a genteel, elderly spinster who solved crimes using analogies to English village life. Christie said, "Miss Marple was not in any way a picture of my grandmother; she was far more fussy and spinsterish than my grandmother ever was", but her autobiography establishes a firm connection between the fictional character and Christie's step-grandmother Margaret Miller ("Auntie-Grannie") and her "Ealing cronies". Both Marple and Miller "always expected the worst of everyone and everything, and were, with almost frightening accuracy, usually proved right". Marple appeared in 12 novels and 20 stories.
+
+During the Second World War, Christie wrote two novels, Curtain and Sleeping Murder, featuring Hercule Poirot and Miss Marple, respectively. Both books were sealed in a bank vault, and she made over the copyrights by deed of gift to her daughter and her husband to provide each with a kind of insurance policy. Christie had a heart attack and a serious fall in 1974, after which she was unable to write. Her daughter authorised the publication of Curtain in 1975, and Sleeping Murder was published posthumously in 1976. These publications followed the success of the 1974 film version of Murder on the Orient Express.
+
+Shortly before the publication of Curtain, Poirot became the first fictional character to have an obituary in The New York Times, which was printed on page one on 6 August 1975.
+
+Christie never wrote a novel or short story featuring both Poirot and Miss Marple. In a recording discovered and released in 2008, Christie revealed the reason for this: "Hercule Poirot, a complete egoist, would not like being taught his business or having suggestions made to him by an elderly spinster lady. Hercule Poirota professional sleuthwould not be at home at all in Miss Marple's world."
+
+In 2013, the Christie family supported the release of a new Poirot story, The Monogram Murders, written by British author Sophie Hannah. Hannah later published three more Poirot mysteries, Closed Casket in 2016, The Mystery of Three Quarters in 2018., and The Killings at Kingfisher Hill in 2020.
+
+Formula and plot devices 
+
+Christie has been called the "Duchess of Death", the "Mistress of Mystery", and the "Queen of Crime". Early in her career, a reporter noted that "her plots are possible, logical, and always new." According to Hannah, "At the start of each novel, she shows us an apparently impossible situation and we go mad wondering 'How can this be happening?' Then, slowly, she reveals how the impossible is not only possible but the only thing that could have happened."
+
+Christie developed her storytelling techniques during what has been called the "Golden Age" of detective fiction. Author Dilys Winn called Christie "the doyenne of Coziness", a sub-genre which "featured a small village setting, a hero with faintly aristocratic family connections, a plethora of red herrings and a tendency to commit homicide with sterling silver letter openers and poisons imported from Paraguay". At the end, in a Christie hallmark, the detective usually gathers the surviving suspects into one room, explains the course of their deductive reasoning, and reveals the guilty party; but there are exceptions where it is left to the guilty party to explain all (such as And Then There Were None and Endless Night).
+
+Christie did not limit herself to quaint English villagesthe action might take place on a small island (And Then There Were None), an aeroplane (Death in the Clouds), a train (Murder on the Orient Express), a steamship (Death on the Nile), a smart London flat (Cards on the Table), a resort in the West Indies (A Caribbean Mystery), or an archaeological dig (Murder in Mesopotamia)but the circle of potential suspects is usually closed and intimate: family members, friends, servants, business associates, fellow travellers. Stereotyped characters abound (the , the stolid policeman, the devoted servant, the dull colonel), but these may be subverted to stymie the reader; impersonations and secret alliances are always possible. There is always a motivemost often, money: "There are very few killers in Christie who enjoy murder for its own sake."
+
+Professor of Pharmacology Michael C. Gerald noted that "in over half her novels, one or more victims are poisoned, albeit not always to the full satisfaction of the perpetrator." Guns, knives, garrottes, tripwires, blunt instruments, and even a hatchet were also used, but "Christie never resorted to elaborate mechanical or scientific means to explain her ingenuity," according to John Curran, author and literary adviser to the Christie estate. Many of her clues are mundane objects: a calendar, a coffee cup, wax flowers, a beer bottle, a fireplace used during a heat wave.
+
+According to crime writer P. D. James, Christie was prone to making the unlikeliest character the guilty party. Alert readers could sometimes identify the culprit by identifying the least likely suspect. Christie mocked this insight in her foreword to Cards on the Table: "Spot the person least likely to have committed the crime and in nine times out of ten your task is finished. Since I do not want my faithful readers to fling away this book in disgust, I prefer to warn them beforehand that this is not that kind of book."
+
+On BBC Radio 4's Desert Island Discs in 2007, Brian Aldiss said Christie had told him she wrote her books up to the last chapter, then decided who the most unlikely suspect was, after which she would go back and make the necessary changes to "frame" that person. Based upon a study of her working notebooks, Curran describes how Christie would first create a cast of characters, choose a setting, and then produce a list of scenes in which specific clues would be revealed; the order of scenes would be revised as she developed her plot. Of necessity, the murderer had to be known to the author before the sequence could be finalised and she began to type or dictate the first draft of her novel. Much of the work, particularly dialogue, was done in her head before she put it on paper.
+
+In 2013, the 600 members of the Crime Writers' Association chose The Murder of Roger Ackroyd as "the best whodunit... ever written". Author Julian Symons observed, "In an obvious sense, the book fits within the conventions... The setting is a village deep within the English countryside, Roger Ackroyd dies in his study; there is a butler who behaves suspiciously... Every successful detective story in this period involved a deceit practised upon the reader, and here the trick is the highly original one of making the murderer the local doctor, who tells the story and acts as Poirot's Watson." Critic Sutherland Scott stated, "If Agatha Christie had made no other contribution to the literature of detective fiction she would still deserve our grateful thanks" for writing this novel.
+
+In September 2015, to mark her 125th birthday, And Then There Were None was named the "World's Favourite Christie" in a vote sponsored by the author's estate. The novel is emblematic of both her use of formula and her willingness to discard it. "And Then There Were None carries the 'closed society' type of murder mystery to extreme lengths," according to author Charles Osborne. It begins with the classic set-up of potential victim(s) and killer(s) isolated from the outside world, but then violates conventions. There is no detective involved in the action, no interviews of suspects, no careful search for clues, and no suspects gathered together in the last chapter to be confronted with the solution. As Christie herself said, "Ten people had to die without it becoming ridiculous or the murderer being obvious." Critics agreed she had succeeded: "The arrogant Mrs. Christie this time set herself a fearsome test of her own ingenuity... the reviews, not surprisingly, were without exception wildly adulatory."
+
+Character stereotypes and racism 
+
+Christie included stereotyped descriptions of characters in her work, especially before 1945 (when such attitudes were more commonly expressed publicly), particularly in regard to Italians, Jews, and non-Europeans. For example, she described "men of Hebraic extraction, sallow men with hooked noses, wearing rather flamboyant jewellery" in the short story "The Soul of the Croupier" from the collection The Mysterious Mr Quin. In 1947, the Anti-Defamation League in the US sent an official letter of complaint to Christie's American publishers, Dodd, Mead and Company, regarding perceived antisemitism in her works. Christie's British literary agent later wrote to her US representative, authorising American publishers to "omit the word 'Jew' when it refers to an unpleasant character in future books."
+
+In The Hollow, published in 1946, one of the characters is described by another as "a Whitechapel Jewess with dyed hair and a voice like a corncrake ... a small woman with a thick nose, henna red and a disagreeable voice". To contrast with the more stereotyped descriptions, Christie portrayed some "foreign" characters as victims, or potential victims, at the hands of English malefactors, such as, respectively, Olga Seminoff (Hallowe'en Party) and Katrina Reiger (in the short story "How Does Your Garden Grow?"). Jewish characters are often seen as un-English (such as Oliver Manders in Three Act Tragedy), but they are rarely the culprits.
+
+In 2023, the Telegraph reported that several Agatha Christie novels have been edited to remove potentially offensive language, including insults and references to ethnicity. Poirot and Miss Marple mysteries written between 1920 and 1976 have had passages reworked or removed in new editions published by HarperCollins, in order to strip them of language and descriptions that modern audiences find offensive, especially those involving the characters Christie’s protagonists encounter outside the UK. Sensitivity readers had made the edits, which were evident in digital versions of the new editions, including the entire Miss Marple run and selected Poirot novels set to be released or that have been released since 2020.
+
+Other detectives 
+
+In addition to Hercule Poirot and Miss Marple, Christie also created amateur detectives Thomas (Tommy) Beresford and his wife, Prudence "Tuppence" née Cowley, who appear in four novels and one collection of short stories published between 1922 and 1974. Unlike her other sleuths, the Beresfords were only in their early twenties when introduced in The Secret Adversary, and were allowed to age alongside their creator. She treated their stories with a lighter touch, giving them a "dash and verve" which was not universally admired by critics. Their last adventure, Postern of Fate, was Christie's last novel.
+
+Harley Quin was "easily the most unorthodox" of Christie's fictional detectives. Inspired by Christie's affection for the figures from the Harlequinade, the semi-supernatural Quin always works with an elderly, conventional man called Satterthwaite. The pair appear in 14 short stories, 12 of which were collected in 1930 as The Mysterious Mr. Quin. Mallowan described these tales as "detection in a fanciful vein, touching on the fairy story, a natural product of Agatha's peculiar imagination". Satterthwaite also appears in a novel, Three Act Tragedy, and a short story, "Dead Man's Mirror", both of which feature Poirot.
+
+Another of her lesser-known characters is Parker Pyne, a retired civil servant who assists unhappy people in an unconventional manner. The 12 short stories which introduced him, Parker Pyne Investigates (1934), are best remembered for "The Case of the Discontented Soldier", which features Ariadne Oliver, "an amusing and satirical self-portrait of Agatha Christie". Over the ensuing decades, Oliver reappeared in seven novels. In most of them she assists Poirot.
+
+Plays 
+
+In 1928, Michael Morton adapted The Murder of Roger Ackroyd for the stage under the name of Alibi. The play enjoyed a respectable run, but Christie disliked the changes made to her work and, in future, preferred to write for the theatre herself. The first of her own stage works was Black Coffee, which received good reviews when it opened in the West End in late 1930. She followed this up with adaptations of her detective novels: And Then There Were None in 1943, Appointment with Death in 1945, and The Hollow in 1951.
+
+In the 1950s, "the theatre ... engaged much of Agatha's attention." She next adapted her short radio play into The Mousetrap, which premiered in the West End in 1952, produced by Peter Saunders and starring Richard Attenborough as the original Detective Sergeant Trotter. Her expectations for the play were not high; she believed it would run no more than eight months. The Mousetrap has long since made theatrical history as the world's longest-running play, staging its 27,500th performance in September 2018. The play temporarily closed in March 2020, when all UK theatres shut due to the coronavirus pandemic, before it re-opened on 17 May 2021.
+
+In 1953, she followed this with Witness for the Prosecution, whose Broadway production won the New York Drama Critics' Circle award for best foreign play of 1954 and earned Christie an Edgar Award from the Mystery Writers of America. Spider's Web, an original work written for actress Margaret Lockwood at her request, premiered in the West End in 1954 and was also a hit. Christie became the first female playwright to have three plays running simultaneously in London: The Mousetrap, Witness for the Prosecution and Spider's Web. She said, "Plays are much easier to write than books, because you can see them in your mind's eye, you are not hampered by all that description which clogs you so terribly in a book and stops you from getting on with what's happening." In a letter to her daughter, Christie said being a playwright was "a lot of fun!"
+
+As Mary Westmacott 
+
+Christie published six mainstream novels under the name Mary Westmacott, a pseudonym which gave her the freedom to explore "her most private and precious imaginative garden". These books typically received better reviews than her detective and thriller fiction. Of the first, Giant's Bread published in 1930, a reviewer for The New York Times wrote, "...her book is far above the average of current fiction, in fact, comes well under the classification of a 'good book'. And it is only a satisfying novel that can claim that appellation." It was publicized from the very beginning that "Mary Westmacott" was a pen name of a well-known author, although the identity behind the pen name was kept secret; the dust jacket of Giant's Bread mentions that the author had previously written "under her real name...half a dozen books that have each passed the thirty thousand mark in sales."  (In fact, though this was technically true, it disguised Christie's identity through understatement.  By the publication of Giant's Bread, Christie had published 10 novels and two short story collections, all of which had sold considerably more than 30,000 copies.)  After Christie's authorship of the first four Westmacott novels was revealed by a journalist in 1949, she wrote two more, the last in 1956.
+
+The other Westmacott titles are: Unfinished Portrait (1934), Absent in the Spring (1944), The Rose and the Yew Tree (1948), A Daughter's a Daughter (1952), and The Burden (1956).
+
+Non-fiction works 
+
+Christie published a few non-fiction works. Come, Tell Me How You Live, about working on an archaeological dig, was drawn from her life with Mallowan. The Grand Tour: Around the World with the Queen of Mystery is a collection of correspondence from her 1922 Grand Tour of the British Empire, including South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and Canada. Agatha Christie: An Autobiography was published posthumously in 1977 and adjudged the Best Critical/Biographical Work at the 1978 Edgar Awards.
+
+Titles 
+
+Many of Christie's works from 1940 onward have titles drawn from literature, with the original context of the title typically printed as an epigraph.
+
+The inspirations for some of Christie's titles include:
+ William Shakespeare's works: Sad Cypress, By the Pricking of My Thumbs, There is a Tide..., Absent in the Spring, and The Mousetrap, for example. Osborne notes that "Shakespeare is the writer most quoted in the works of Agatha Christie";
+ The Bible: Evil Under the Sun, The Burden, and The Pale Horse;
+ Other works of literature: The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side (from Tennyson's "The Lady of Shalott"), The Moving Finger (from Edward FitzGerald's translation of the Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám), The Rose and the Yew Tree (from T. S. Eliot's Four Quartets), Postern of Fate (from James Elroy Flecker's "Gates of Damascus"), Endless Night (from William Blake's "Auguries of Innocence"), N or M? (from the Book of Common Prayer), and Come, Tell Me How You Live (from Lewis Carroll's Through the Looking-Glass).
+
+Christie biographer Gillian Gill said, "Christie's writing has the sparseness, the directness, the narrative pace, and the universal appeal of the fairy story, and it is perhaps as modern fairy stories for grown-up children that Christie's novels succeed." Reflecting a juxtaposition of innocence and horror, numerous Christie titles were drawn from well-known children's nursery rhymes: And Then There Were None (from "Ten Little Niggers", a rhyme also published as "Ten Little Indians", both of which were also used for the book's title in some printings), One, Two, Buckle My Shoe (from "One, Two, Buckle My Shoe"), Five Little Pigs (from "This Little Piggy"), Crooked House (from "There Was a Crooked Man"), A Pocket Full of Rye (from "Sing a Song of Sixpence"), Hickory Dickory Dock (from "Hickory Dickory Dock"), and Three Blind Mice (from "Three Blind Mice").
+
+Critical reception 
+
+Christie is regularly referred to as the "Queen of Crime"—which is now trademarked by the Christie estate—or "Queen of Mystery", and is considered a master of suspense, plotting, and characterisation. In 1955, she became the first recipient of the Mystery Writers of America's Grand Master Award. She was named "Best Writer of the Century" and the Hercule Poirot series of books was named "Best Series of the Century" at the 2000 Bouchercon World Mystery Convention. In 2013, she was voted "best crime writer" in a survey of 600 members of the Crime Writers' Association of professional novelists. However, the writer Raymond Chandler criticised the artificiality of her books, as did writer Julian Symons. The literary critic Edmund Wilson described her prose as banal and her characterisations as superficial.
+
+In 2011, Christie was named by the digital crime drama TV channel Alibi as the second most financially successful crime writer of all time in the United Kingdom, after James Bond author Ian Fleming, with total earnings around £100 million. In 2012, Christie was among the people selected by the artist Peter Blake to appear in a new version of his most famous work, the Beatles' Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band album cover, "to celebrate the British cultural figures he most admires". On the record-breaking longevity of Christie's The Mousetrap which had marked its 60th anniversary in 2012, Stephen Moss in The Guardian wrote, "the play and its author are the stars".
+
+In 2015, marking the 125th anniversary of her birth date, 25 contemporary mystery writers and one publisher gave their views on Christie's works. Many of the authors had read Christie's novels first, before other mystery writers, in English or in their native language, influencing their own writing, and nearly all still viewed her as the "Queen of Crime" and creator of the plot twists used by mystery authors. Nearly all had one or more favourites among Christie's mysteries and found her books still good to read nearly 100 years after her first novel was published. Just one of the 25 authors held with Wilson's views.
+
+Book sales 
+
+In her prime, Christie was rarely out of the bestseller list. She was the first crime writer to have 100,000 copies of 10 of her titles published by Penguin on the same day in 1948. , Guinness World Records listed Christie as the best-selling fiction writer of all time. , her novels had sold more than two billion copies in 44 languages. Half the sales are of English-language editions, and half are translations. According to Index Translationum, , she was the most-translated individual author. 
+
+Christie is one of the most-borrowed authors in UK libraries. She is also the UK's best-selling spoken-book author. In 2002, 117,696 Christie audiobooks were sold, in comparison to 97,755 for J. K. Rowling, 78,770 for Roald Dahl and 75,841 for J. R. R. Tolkien. In 2015, the Christie estate claimed And Then There Were None was "the best-selling crime novel of all time", with approximately 100 million sales, also making it one of the highest-selling books of all time. More than two million copies of her books were sold in English in 2020.
+
+Legacy 
+
+In 2016, the Royal Mail marked the centenary of Christie's first detective story by issuing six first-class postage stamps of her works: The Mysterious Affair at Styles, The Murder of Roger Ackroyd, Murder on the Orient Express, And Then There Were None, The Body in the Library, and A Murder is Announced. The Guardian reported that, "Each design incorporates microtext, UV ink and thermochromic ink. These concealed clues can be revealed using either a magnifying glass, UV light or body heat and provide pointers to the mysteries' solutions." 
+
+Her characters and her face appeared on the stamps of many countries like Dominica and the Somali Republic. In 2020, Christie was commemorated on a £2 coin by the Royal Mint for the first time to mark the centenary of her first novel, The Mysterious Affair at Styles.
+
+In 2023 a life-size bronze statue of Christie sitting on a park bench holding a book was unveiled in Wallingford.
+
+Adaptations 
+
+Christie's works have been adapted for cinema and television. The first was the 1928 British film The Passing of Mr. Quin. Poirot's first film appearance was in 1931 in Alibi, which starred Austin Trevor as Christie's sleuth. Margaret Rutherford played Marple in a series of films released in the 1960s. Christie liked her acting, but considered the first film "pretty poor" and thought no better of the rest.
+She felt differently about the 1974 film Murder on the Orient Express, directed by Sidney Lumet, which featured major stars and high production values; her attendance at the London premiere was one of her last public outings. In 2017, a new film version was released, directed by Kenneth Branagh, who also starred, wearing "the most extravagant mustache moviegoers have ever seen".
+
+The television adaptation Agatha Christie's Poirot (1989–2013), with David Suchet in the title role, ran for 70 episodes over 13 series. It received nine BAFTA award nominations and won four BAFTA awards in 1990–1992. The television series Miss Marple (1984–1992), with Joan Hickson as "the BBC's peerless Miss Marple", adapted all 12 Marple novels. The French television series  (2009–2012, 2013–2020), adapted 36 of Christie's stories.
+
+Christie's books have also been adapted for BBC Radio, a video game series, and graphic novels.
+
+Interests and influences
+
+Pharmacology 
+
+During the First World War, Christie took a break from nursing to train for the Apothecaries Hall Examination. While she subsequently found dispensing in the hospital pharmacy monotonous, and thus less enjoyable than nursing, her new knowledge provided her with a background in potentially toxic drugs. Early in the Second World War, she brought her skills up to date at Torquay Hospital.
+
+As Michael C. Gerald puts it, her "activities as a hospital dispenser during both World Wars not only supported the war effort but also provided her with an appreciation of drugs as therapeutic agents and poisons... These hospital experiences were also likely responsible for the prominent role physicians, nurses, and pharmacists play in her stories." There were to be many medical practitioners, pharmacists, and scientists, naïve or suspicious, in Christie's cast of characters; featuring in Murder in Mesopotamia, Cards on the Table, The Pale Horse, and Mrs. McGinty's Dead, among many others.
+
+Gillian Gill notes that the murder method in Christie's first detective novel, The Mysterious Affair at Styles, "comes right out of Agatha Christie's work in the hospital dispensary". In an interview with journalist Marcelle Bernstein, Christie stated, "I don't like messy deaths... I'm more interested in peaceful people who die in their own beds and no one knows why." With her expert knowledge, Christie had no need of poisons unknown to science, which were forbidden under Ronald Knox's "Ten Rules for Detective Fiction". Arsenic, aconite, strychnine, digitalis, nicotine, thallium, and other substances were used to dispatch victims in the ensuing decades.
+
+Archaeology 
+
+In her youth, Christie showed little interest in antiquities. After her marriage to Mallowan in 1930, she accompanied him on annual expeditions, spending three to four months at a time in Syria and Iraq at excavation sites at Ur, Nineveh, Tell Arpachiyah, Chagar Bazar, Tell Brak, and Nimrud. The Mallowans also took side trips whilst travelling to and from expedition sites, visiting Italy, Greece, Egypt, Iran, and the Soviet Union, among other places. Their experiences travelling and living abroad are reflected in novels such as Murder on the Orient Express, Death on the Nile, and Appointment with Death.
+
+For the 1931 digging season at Nineveh, Christie bought a writing table to continue her own work; in the early 1950s, she paid to add a small writing room to the team's house at Nimrud. She also devoted time and effort each season in "making herself useful by photographing, cleaning, and recording finds; and restoring ceramics, which she especially enjoyed". She also provided funds for the expeditions.
+
+Many of the settings for Christie's books were inspired by her archaeological fieldwork in the Middle East; this is reflected in the detail with which she describes themfor instance, the temple of Abu Simbel as depicted in Death on the Nilewhile the settings for They Came to Baghdad were places she and Mallowan had recently stayed. Similarly, she drew upon her knowledge of daily life on a dig throughout Murder in Mesopotamia. Archaeologists and experts in Middle Eastern cultures and artefacts featured in her works include Dr Eric Leidner in Murder in Mesopotamia and Signor Richetti in Death on the Nile.
+
+After the Second World War, Christie chronicled her time in Syria in Come, Tell Me How You Live, which she described as "small beera very little book, full of everyday doings and happenings". From 8November 2001 to March 2002, The British Museum presented a "colourful and episodic exhibition" called Agatha Christie and Archaeology: Mystery in Mesopotamia which illustrated how her activities as a writer and as the wife of an archaeologist intertwined.
+
+In popular culture 
+Some of Christie's fictional portrayals have explored and offered accounts of her disappearance in 1926. The film Agatha (1979), with Vanessa Redgrave, has Christie sneaking away to plan revenge against her husband; Christie's heirs sued unsuccessfully to prevent the film's distribution. The Doctor Who episode "The Unicorn and the Wasp" (17 May 2008) stars Fenella Woolgar as Christie, and explains her disappearance as being connected to aliens. The film Agatha and the Truth of Murder (2018) sends her undercover to solve the murder of Florence Nightingale's goddaughter, Florence Nightingale Shore. A fictionalised account of Christie's disappearance is also the central theme of a Korean musical, Agatha. The Christie Affair, a Christie-like mystery story of love and revenge by author Nina de Gramont, was a 2022 novel loosely based on Christie's disappearance.
+
+Other portrayals, such as the Hungarian film Kojak Budapesten (1980), create their own scenarios involving Christie's criminal skills. In the TV play Murder by the Book (1986), Christie (Dame Peggy Ashcroft) murders one of her fictional-turned-real characters, Poirot. Christie features as a character in Gaylord Larsen's Dorothy and Agatha and The London Blitz Murders by Max Allan Collins. The American television program Unsolved Mysteries devoted a segment to her famous disappearance, with Agatha portrayed by actress Tessa Pritchard. A young Agatha is depicted in the Spanish historical television series Gran Hotel (2011) in which she finds inspiration to write her new novel while aiding local detectives. In the alternative history television film Agatha and the Curse of Ishtar (2018), Christie becomes involved in a murder case at an archaeological dig in Iraq. In 2019, Honeysuckle Weeks portrayed Christie in an episode, "No Friends Like Old Friends", in a Canadian drama, Frankie Drake Mysteries. 
+
+In 2020, Heather Terrell, under the pseudonym of Marie Benedict, published The Mystery of Mrs. Christie, a fictional reconstruction of Christie's December 1926 disappearance. The novel was on the USA Today and The New York Times Best Seller lists. In December 2020, Library Reads named Terrell a Hall of Fame author for the book.
+Andrew Wilson has written four novels featuring Agatha Christie as a detective: A Talent For Murder (2017), A Different Kind of Evil (2018), Death In A Desert Land (2019) and I Saw Him Die (2020). Christie was portrayed by Shirley Henderson in the 2022 comedy/mystery film See How They Run.
+
+See also 
+ Agatha Christie indult (an oecumenical request to which Christie was signatory seeking permission for the occasional use of the Tridentine (Latin) mass in England and Wales)
+ Agatha Awards (literary awards for mystery and crime writers)
+ Agatha Christie Award (Japan) (literary award for unpublished mystery novels)
+ List of solved missing person cases
+
+Notes
+
+References
+
+Further reading 
+
+ .
+ 
+ Bernthal, J.C. (2022). Agatha Christie: A Companion to the Mystery Fiction. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. .
+ Curran, John (2009). Agatha Christie's Secret Notebooks: Fifty Years of Mysteries in the Making. London: HarperCollins. .
+ Curran, John (2011). Agatha Christie: Murder in the Making. London: HarperCollins. .
+ Curran, John. "75 facts about Christie". The Home of Agatha Christie. Agatha Christie Limited. Retrieved 21 July 2017.
+ Gerald, Michael C. (1993). The Poisonous Pen of Agatha Christie. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press. .
+ .
+ 
+ .
+ .
+ Morgan, Janet P. (1984). Agatha Christie: A Biography. London: HarperCollins. . Retrieved 8 March 2015.
+ Prichard, Mathew (2012). The Grand Tour: Around The World With The Queen Of Mystery. New York, NY: HarperCollins. .
+ 
+ 
+ .
+ Thompson, Laura (2008), Agatha Christie: An English Mystery, London: Headline Review, .
+
+External links 
+
+ 
+ A Christie reading list (on official website)
+ 
+ 
+ 
+ 
+ 
+ Agatha Christie/Sir Max Mallowan's blue plaque at Cholsey
+ Agatha Christie profile on PBS.org
+ Agatha Christie profile on FamousAuthors.org
+ Agatha Christie recording, oral history at the Imperial War Museum
+ Agatha Christie business papers at the University of Exeter
+ "Shocking Real Murders" (book released to mark the 125th anniversary of Christie's birth)
+ Hercule Poirot Central
+
+ 
+1890 births
+1976 deaths
+20th-century English novelists
+20th-century English dramatists and playwrights
+20th-century English women writers
+20th-century British short story writers
+20th-century English memoirists
+Anthony Award winners
+Booker authors' division
+British autobiographers
+British detective fiction writers
+British women in World War I
+British women short story writers
+Burials in Oxfordshire
+Cozy mystery writers
+Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire
+Ghost story writers
+Edgar Award winners
+English people of American descent
+English crime fiction writers
+English mystery writers
+English short story writers
+English women dramatists and playwrights
+English women novelists
+Fellows of the Royal Society of Literature
+Female nurses in World War I
+Female wartime nurses
+Formerly missing people
+Members of the Detection Club
+Missing person cases in England
+People from Cholsey
+People from Sunningdale
+Pseudonymous women writers
+Temporary disappearances
+Wives of knights
+Women mystery writers
+British women memoirists
+Women historical novelists
+Writers of historical mysteries
+Writers from Torquay
+20th-century pseudonymous writers
+The Plague () is a 1947 absurdist novel by Albert Camus. It tells the story from the point of view of a narrator in the midst of a plague sweeping the French Algerian city of Oran. The narrator remains unknown until the start of the last chapter. The novel presents a snapshot of life in Oran as seen through the author's distinctive absurdist point of view.
+
+Camus used as source material the cholera epidemic that killed a large proportion of Oran's population in 1849, but situated the novel in the 1940s. Oran and its surroundings were struck by disease several times before Camus published his novel. According to an academic study, Oran was decimated by the bubonic plague in 1556 and 1678, but all later outbreaks (in 1921: 185 cases; 1931: 76 cases; and 1944: 95 cases) were very far from the scale of the epidemic described in the novel.
+
+The Plague is considered an existentialist classic despite Camus' objection to the label. The novel stresses the powerlessness of the individual characters to affect their destinies. The narrative tone is similar to Kafka's, especially in The Trial, whose individual sentences potentially have multiple meanings; the material often pointedly resonating as stark allegory of phenomenal consciousness and the human condition.
+
+Major characters
+Dr. Bernard Rieux: Dr. Bernard Rieux is described as a man about age 35, of moderate height, dark-skinned, with close-cropped black hair. At the beginning of the novel, Rieux's wife, who has been ill for a year, leaves for a sanatorium. It is Rieux who treats the first victim of plague and first uses the word plague to describe the disease. He urges the authorities to take action to stop the spread of the epidemic. However, at first, along with everyone else, the danger the town faces seems unreal to him. He feels uneasy but does not realise the gravity of the situation. Within a short while, he grasps what is at stake and warns the authorities that unless steps are taken immediately, the epidemic could kill off half the town's population of two hundred thousand within a couple of months.During the epidemic, Rieux heads an auxiliary hospital and works long hours treating the victims. He injects serum and lances the abscesses, but there is little more that he can do, and his duties weigh heavily upon him. He never gets home until late, and he has to distance himself from the natural pity that he feels for the victims; otherwise, he would not be able to go on. It is especially hard for him when he visits a victim in the person's home because he knows that he must immediately call for an ambulance and have the person removed from the house. Often, the relatives plead with him not to do so since they know they may never see the person again.Rieux works to combat the plague simply because he is a doctor and his job is to relieve human suffering. He does not do it for any grand, religious purpose, like Paneloux (Rieux does not believe in God), or as part of a high-minded moral code, like Tarrou. He is a practical man, doing what needs to be done without any fuss, but he knows that the struggle against death is something that he can never win.
+Jean Tarrou: Jean Tarrou arrived in Oran some weeks before the plague broke out for unknown reasons. He is not there on business since he appears to have private means. Tarrou is a good-natured man who smiles a lot. Before the plague came, he liked to associate with the Spanish dancers and musicians in the city. He also keeps a diary, full of his observations of life in Oran, which the Narrator incorporates into the narrative.It is Tarrou who first comes up with the idea of organising teams of volunteers to fight the plague. He wants to do so before the authorities begin to conscript people, and he does not like the official plan to get prisoners to do the work. He takes action, prompted by his own code of morals; he feels that the plague is everybody's responsibility and that everyone should do their duty. What interests him, he tells Rieux, is how to become a saint even though he does not believe in God.Later in the novel, Tarrou tells Rieux, with whom he has become friends, the story of his life. His father, although a kind man in private, was also an aggressive prosecuting attorney who tried death penalty cases, arguing strongly for the death penalty to be imposed. As a young boy, Tarrou attended one day of a criminal proceeding in which a man was on trial for his life. However, the idea of capital punishment disgusted him. After he left home before 18, his main interest in life was his opposition to the death penalty, which he regarded as state-sponsored murder. However, years of activism have left him disillusioned.When the plague epidemic is virtually over, Tarrou becomes one of its last victims but puts up a heroic struggle before dying.
+Raymond Rambert: Raymond Rambert is a journalist who is visiting Oran to research a story on the standards of living in the Arab colony of Oran. When the plague strikes, he finds himself trapped in a city with which he feels he has no connection. He misses his girlfriend who is in Paris and uses all his ingenuity and resourcefulness to persuade the city bureaucracy to allow him to leave. When that fails, he contacts smugglers, who agree to help him escape for a fee of ten thousand francs. However, there is a hitch in the arrangements, and by the time another escape plan is arranged, Rambert has changed his mind. He decides to stay in the city and continue to help fight the plague, saying that he would feel ashamed of himself if he pursued a merely private happiness. He now feels that he belongs in Oran, and that the plague is everyone's business, including his.
+Joseph Grand: Joseph Grand is a fifty-year-old clerk for the city government. He is tall and thin. Poorly paid, he lives an austere life, but he is capable of deep affection. In his spare time, Grand polishes up his Latin, and he is also writing a book, but he is such a perfectionist that he continually rewrites the first sentence and can get no further. One of his problems in life is that he can rarely find the correct words to express what he means. Grand tells Rieux that he married while still in his teens, but overwork and poverty took their toll (Grand did not receive the career advancement that he had been promised), and his wife Jeanne left him. He tried but failed to write a letter to her, and he still grieves for his loss.Grand is a neighbor of Cottard, and it is he who calls Rieux for help, when Cottard tries to commit suicide. When the plague takes a grip on the town, Grand joins the team of volunteers, acting as general secretary, recording all the statistics. Rieux regards him as "the true embodiment of the quiet courage that inspired the sanitary groups." Grand catches the plague himself and asks Rieux to burn his manuscript, but then makes an unexpected recovery. At the end of the novel, Grand says he is much happier; he has written to Jeanne and made a fresh start on his book.
+Cottard: Cottard lives in the same building as Grand. He does not appear to have a job and is described as having private means although he describes himself as "a traveling salesman in wines and spirits." Cottard is an eccentric figure, silent and secretive, who tries to hang himself in his room. He is anxious for Rieux not to report the incident, as he is under investigation by the authorities for an unstated crime. In an offhand reference to the plot of The Outsider, Cottard reacts by a sudden exit from the tobacconist shop when she mentions an arrest in Algiers of a man for killing an Arab on a beach. Cottard's personality changes after the outbreak of plague. Whereas he was aloof and mistrustful before, he now becomes agreeable and tries hard to make friends. He appears to relish the coming of the plague, and Tarrou thinks it is because he finds it easier to live with his own fears now that everyone else is in a state of fear, too. Cottard also avoids arrest by the police during the chaos caused by the plague. Cottard takes advantage of the crisis to make money by selling contraband cigarettes and inferior liquor.As the quarantine of the city comes to an end, Cottard anticipates being arrested after life returns to normal. He experiences severe mood swings; sometimes he is sociable, but at other times, he shuts himself up in his room. On the day the city gates are reopened, he shoots at random at people on the street, wounding some and killing a dog. The police arrest him.
+Father Paneloux: Father Paneloux is a learned, well-respected Jesuit priest. He is well known for having given a series of lectures in which he championed a pure form of Christian doctrine and chastised his audience about their laxity. During the first stage of the plague outbreak, Paneloux preaches a sermon at the cathedral. He has a powerful way of speaking, and he insists to the congregation that the plague is a scourge sent by God to those who have hardened their hearts against Him. However, Paneloux also claims that God is present to offer succor and hope. Later, Paneloux attends at the bedside of Othon's stricken son and prays that the boy may be spared. After the boy's death, Paneloux tells Rieux that although the death of an innocent child in a world ruled by a loving God cannot be rationally explained, it should nonetheless be accepted. Paneloux joins the team of volunteer workers and preaches another sermon saying that the death of the innocent child is a test of faith. Since God willed the child's death, so the Christian should will it, too. A few days after preaching this sermon, Paneloux is taken ill. He refuses to call for a doctor, trusting in God alone, and dies. Since his symptoms did not seem to resemble those of the plague, Rieux records his death as a "doubtful case."
+
+Minor characters
+
+The Narrator: the narrator presents himself at the outset of the book as witness to the events and privy to documents, but does not identify himself until the ending of the novel.
+The Prefect: The Prefect believes at first that the talk of plague is a false alarm, but on the advice of his medical association, he authorizes limited measures to combat it. When they do not work, he tries to avoid responsibility, saying he will ask the government for orders. Then, he takes responsibility for tightening up the regulations relating to the plague and issues the order to close the town.
+Dr. Castel: Dr. Castel is one of Rieux's medical colleagues and is much older than Rieux. He realizes after the first few cases that the disease is bubonic plague and is aware of the seriousness of the situation. He works hard to make an antiplague serum, but as the epidemic continues, he shows increasing signs of wear and tear.
+M. Othon: M. Othon is a magistrate in Oran. He is tall and thin and, as Tarrou observes in his journal, "his small, beady eyes, narrow nose, and hard, straight mouth make him look like a well-brought-up owl." Othon treats his wife and children unkindly, but after his son dies of the plague, his character softens. After he finishes his time at the isolation camp, where he is sent because his son is infected, he wants to return there because it would make him feel closer to his lost son. However, before Othon can do this, he contracts the plague and dies.
+Jacques Othon: Philippe Othon is M. Othon's young son. When he contracts the plague, he is the first to receive Dr. Castel's antiplague serum. But the serum is ineffective, and the boy dies after a long and painful struggle.
+Mme. Rieux: Mme. Rieux is Dr. Rieux's mother, who comes to stay with him when his sick wife goes to the sanatorium. She is a serene woman who, after taking care of the housework, sits quietly in a chair. She says that at her age, there is nothing much left to fear.
+Dr. Richard: Dr. Richard is chairman of the Oran Medical Association. He is slow to recommend any action to combat the plague for fear of public alarm. He does not want even to admit that the disease is the plague, referring instead to a "special type of fever."
+M. Michel: M. Michel is the concierge of the building in which Rieux lives. An old man, he is the first victim of the plague.
+Raoul: Raoul is the man who agrees, for a fee of ten thousand francs, to arrange for Rambert to escape. He introduces Rambert to Gonzales.
+Gonzales: Gonzales is the smuggler who makes the arrangements for Rambert's escape and bonds with him over football.
+Asthma Patient: the asthma patient receives regular visits from Dr. Rieux. He is a seventy-five-year-old Spaniard with a rugged face, who comments on events in Oran that he hears about on the radio and in the newspapers. He sits in his bed all day and measures the passing of time by putting peas from one jug into another.
+Louis: Louis is one of the sentries who take part in the plan for Rambert to escape.
+Marcel: Marcel, Louis's brother, is also a sentry who is part of the escape plan for Rambert.
+Garcia: Garcia is a man who knows the group of smugglers in Oran. He introduces Rambert to Raoul.
+
+Plot summary
+The book begins with an epigraph quoting Daniel Defoe, author of A Journal of the Plague Year.
+
+Part one
+
+In the town of Oran, thousands of rats, initially unnoticed by the populace, begin to die in the streets. Hysteria develops soon afterward, causing the local newspapers to report the incident. Authorities responding to public pressure order the collection and cremation of the rats, unaware that the collection itself was the catalyst for the spread of the bubonic plague.
+
+The main character, Dr. Bernard Rieux, lives comfortably in an apartment building when strangely the building's concierge, M. Michel, a confidante, dies from a fever. Dr. Rieux consults his colleague, Dr. Castel, about the illness until they come to the conclusion that a plague is sweeping the town. They both approach fellow doctors and town authorities about their theory but are eventually dismissed on the basis of one death. However, as more deaths quickly ensue, it becomes apparent that there is an epidemic. Meanwhile, Rieux's wife has been sent to a sanatorium in another city, to be treated for an unrelated chronic illness.
+
+Authorities, including the Prefect, are slow to accept that the situation is serious and quibble over the appropriate action to take.  Official notices enacting control measures are posted, but the language used is optimistic and downplays the seriousness of the situation. A "special ward" is opened at the hospital, but its 80 beds are filled within three days. As the death toll begins to rise, more desperate measures are taken. Homes are quarantined; corpses and burials are strictly supervised. A supply of plague serum finally arrives, but there is enough to treat only existing cases, and the country's emergency reserves are depleted. When the daily number of deaths jumps to 30, the town is sealed, and an outbreak of plague is officially declared.
+
+Part two
+The town is sealed off. The town gates are shut, rail travel is prohibited, and all mail service is suspended. The use of telephone lines is restricted only to "urgent" calls, leaving short telegrams as the only means of communicating with friends or family outside the town. The separation affects daily activity and depresses the spirit of the townspeople, who begin to feel isolated and introverted, and the plague begins to affect various characters.
+
+One character, Raymond Rambert, devises a plan to escape the city to join his wife in Paris after city officials refused his request to leave.  He befriends some underground criminals so that they may smuggle him out of the city.  Another character, Father Paneloux, uses the plague as an opportunity to advance his stature in the town by suggesting that the plague was an act of God punishing the citizens' sinful nature. His diatribe falls on the ears of many citizens of the town, who turned to religion in droves, but would not have done so under normal circumstances. Cottard, a criminal remorseful enough to attempt suicide but fearful of being arrested, becomes wealthy as a major smuggler. Meanwhile, Jean Tarrou, a vacationer; Joseph Grand, a civil engineer; and Dr. Rieux, exhaustively treat patients in their homes and in the hospital.
+
+Rambert informs Tarrou of his escape plan, but when Tarrou tells him that there are others in the city, including Dr. Rieux, who have loved ones outside the city whom they are not allowed to see, Rambert becomes sympathetic and offers to help Rieux fight the epidemic until he leaves town.
+
+Part three
+In mid-August, the situation continues to worsen. People try to escape the town, but some are shot by armed sentries. Violence and looting break out on a small scale, and the authorities respond by declaring martial law and imposing a curfew. Funerals are conducted with more speed, no ceremony and little concern for the feelings of the families of the deceased. The inhabitants passively endure their increasing feelings of exile and separation. Despondent, they waste away emotionally as well as physically.
+
+Part four
+In September and October, the town remains at the mercy of the plague. Rieux hears from the sanatorium that his wife's condition is worsening. He also hardens his heart regarding the plague victims so that he can continue to do his work. Cottard, on the other hand, seems to flourish during the plague because it gives him a sense of being connected to others, since everybody faces the same danger. Cottard and Tarrou attend a performance of Gluck's opera Orpheus and Eurydice, but the actor portraying Orpheus collapses with plague symptoms during the performance.
+
+After extended negotiations with guards, Rambert finally has a chance to escape, but he decides to stay, saying that he would feel ashamed of himself if he left.
+
+Towards the end of October, Castel's new antiplague serum is tried for the first time, but it cannot save the life of Othon's young son, who suffers greatly, as Paneloux, Rieux, and Tarrou tend to his bedside in horror.
+
+Paneloux, who has joined the group of volunteers fighting the plague, gives a second sermon. He addresses the problem of an innocent child's suffering and says it is a test of a Christian's faith since it requires him either to deny everything or believe everything. He urges the congregation not to give up the struggle but to do everything possible to fight the plague.
+
+A few days after the sermon, Paneloux is taken ill. His symptoms do not conform to those of the plague, but the disease still proves fatal.
+
+Tarrou and Rambert visit one of the isolation camps, where they meet Othon. When Othon's period of quarantine ends, he chooses to stay in the camp as a volunteer because this will make him feel less separated from his dead son. Tarrou tells Rieux the story of his life and, to take their mind off the epidemic, the two men go swimming together in the sea. Grand catches the plague and instructs Rieux to burn all his papers. However, Grand makes an unexpected recovery, and deaths from the plague start to decline.
+
+Part five
+By late January the plague is in full retreat, and the townspeople begin to celebrate the imminent opening of the town gates. Othon, however, does not escape death from the disease. Cottard is distressed by the ending of the epidemic from which he has profited by shady dealings. Two government employees approach him, and he flees. Despite the epidemic's ending, Tarrou contracts the plague and dies after a heroic struggle. Rieux is later informed via telegram that his wife has also died.
+
+In February, the town gates open and people are reunited with their loved ones from other cities. Rambert is reunited with his wife. Cottard goes mad and shoots at people from his home, and is soon arrested after a brief skirmish with the police. Grand begins working on his novel again. The narrator of the chronicle says that he  is Dr. Rieux and states that he tried to present an objective view of the events. He reflects on the epidemic and declares he wrote the chronicle "to simply say what we learn in the midst of plagues: there are more things to admire in men than to despise".
+
+Critical analysis
+Germaine Brée has characterised the struggle of the characters against the plague as "undramatic and stubborn", and in contrast to the ideology of "glorification of power" in the novels of André Malraux, whereas Camus' characters "are obscurely engaged in saving, not destroying, and this in the name of no ideology". Lulu Haroutunian has discussed Camus' own medical history, including a bout with tuberculosis, and how it informs the novel. Marina Warner notes its larger philosophical themes of "engagement", "paltriness and generosity", "small heroism and large cowardice", and "all kinds of profoundly humanist problems, such as love and goodness, happiness and mutual connection".
+
+Thomas L Hanna and John Loose have separately discussed themes related to Christianity in the novel, with particular respect to Father Paneloux and Dr Rieux. Louis R Rossi briefly discusses the role of Tarrou in the novel, and the sense of philosophical guilt behind his character. Elwyn Sterling has analysed the role of Cottard and his final actions at the end of the novel. Father Paneloux has been subject to several literary analyses in the context of faith faced with great suffering.
+
+Dr Rieux has been described as a classic example of an idealist doctor. He has also been an inspiration to the life and career of the French doctor , and also to the fictional character of Jeanne Dion, starring in the movie trilogy directed by Bernard Émond (beginning with The Novena).
+
+Medically trained readers are sometimes upset that Dr. Rieux and Dr. Castel make no effort to get their patients sulfa drugs, which were available and known to be effective against plague.  Instead the doctors waste time and effort attempting to obtain plague antiserum, which was much less effective and, in fact, was rapidly being abandoned during the 1940s.
+
+In the popular press
+The novel has been read as an allegorical treatment of the French resistance to Nazi occupation during World War II.
+
+The novel became a bestseller during the worldwide COVID-19 pandemic of 2020 to the point that its British publisher Penguin Classics reported struggling to keep up with demand. The prescience of the fictional cordon sanitaire of Oran with real-life COVID-19 lockdowns worldwide brought revived popular attention. Sales in Italy tripled and it became a top-ten bestseller during its nationwide lockdown. Penguin Classics' editorial director said "it couldn’t be more relevant to the current moment" and Camus' daughter Catherine said that the message of the novel had newfound relevance in that "we are not responsible for coronavirus but we can be responsible in the way we respond to it".
+
+Adaptations
+ 1965: La Peste, a cantata composed by Roberto Gerhard
+ 1970 Yesterday, Today, Tomorrow, a Hong Kong film directed by Patrick Lung
+ 1992: La Peste, a film directed by Luis Puenzo
+ 2017: The Plague, a play adapted by Neil Bartlett.  Bartlett substitutes a black woman for the male doctor, Rieux, and a black man for Tarrou.
+ 2020: The Plague, an adaptation for radio of Neil Bartlett's 2017 play. Premiered on 26 July on BBC Radio 4 during the COVID-19 pandemic. The play was recorded at home by actors during the quarantine period. With Sara Powell as Doctor Rieux, Billy Postlethwaite as Raymond Rambert, Joe Alessi as Mr Cottard, Jude Aduwudike as Jean Tarrou and Colin Hurley as Mr Grand.
+
+Publication history
+As early as April 1941, Camus had been working on the novel, as evidenced in his diaries in which he wrote down a few ideas on "the redeeming plague". On 13 March 1942, he informed André Malraux that he was writing "a novel on the plague", adding  "Said like that it might sound strange, […] but this subject seems so natural to me."
+
+ 1947, La Peste (French), Paris: Gallimard
+ 1948, translated by Stuart Gilbert, London: Hamish Hamilton
+ 1960, translated by Stuart Gilbert, London: Penguin, 
+ 2001, translated by Robin Buss, London: Allen Lane, 
+ 2021, translated by Laura Marris, New York: Knopf,
+
+See also
+
+ The Decameron
+ The Masque of the Red Death
+ The Betrothed
+
+References
+
+External links
+  La Peste, Les Classiques des sciences sociales; Word, PDF, RTF formats, public domain in Canada
+  La Peste, ebooksgratuits.com; HTML format, public domain in Canada
+
+1947 French novels
+Absurdist fiction
+Books with atheism-related themes
+Éditions Gallimard books
+Existentialist novels
+French novels adapted into films
+Novels by Albert Camus
+Novels set in the 1940s
+Novels set in Algeria
+Plague (disease)
+Oran
+Health in Algeria
+Novels about diseases and disorders
+Novels about viral outbreaks
+French novels adapted into plays
+First-person narrative novels
+Applied ethics is the practical aspect of moral considerations. It is ethics with respect to real-world actions and their moral considerations in private and public life, the professions, health, technology, law, and leadership. For example, bioethics is concerned with identifying the best approach to moral issues in the life sciences, such as euthanasia, the allocation of scarce health resources, or the use of human embryos in research. Environmental ethics is concerned with ecological issues such as the responsibility of government and corporations to clean up pollution. Business ethics includes the duties of whistleblowers to the public and to their employers.
+
+History 
+Applied ethics has expanded the study of ethics beyond the realms of academic philosophical discourse. The field of applied ethics, as it appears today, emerged from debate surrounding rapid medical and technological advances in the early 1970s and is now established as a subdiscipline of moral philosophy. However, applied ethics is, by its very nature, a multi-professional subject because it requires specialist understanding of the potential ethical issues in fields like medicine, business or information technology. Nowadays, ethical codes of conduct exist in almost every profession.
+
+An applied ethics approach to the examination of moral dilemmas can take many different forms but one of the most influential and most widely utilised approaches in bioethics and health care ethics is the four-principle approach developed by Tom Beauchamp and James Childress. The four-principle approach, commonly termed principlism, entails consideration and application of four prima facie ethical principles: autonomy, non-maleficence, beneficence, and justice.
+
+Underpinning theory
+Applied ethics is distinguished from normative ethics, which concerns standards for right and wrong behavior, and from meta-ethics, which concerns the nature of ethical properties, statements, attitudes, and judgments.
+
+Whilst these three areas of ethics appear to be distinct, they are also interrelated. The use of an applied ethics approach often draws upon these normative ethical theories:
+
+ Consequentialist ethics, which hold that the rightness of acts depends only on their consequences. The paradigmatic consequentialist theory is Utilitarianism, which classically holds that whether an act is morally right depends on whether it maximizes net aggregated psychological wellbeing. This theory's main developments came from Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill who distinguished between Act and Rule utilitarianism. Notable later developments were made by Henry Sidgwick who introduced the significance of motive or intent, and R. M. Hare who introduced the significance of preference in utilitarian decision-making. Other forms of consequentialism include Prioritarianism.
+ Deontological ethics, which hold that acts have an inherent rightness or wrongness regardless of their context or consequences. This approach is epitomized by Immanuel Kant's notion of the categorical imperative, which was the centre of Kant's ethical theory based on duty. Another key deontological theory is natural law, which was heavily developed by Thomas Aquinas and is an important part of the Catholic Church's teaching on morals. Threshold deontology holds that rules ought to govern up to a point despite adverse consequences; but when the consequences become so dire that they cross a stipulated threshold, consequentialism takes over.
+ Virtue ethics, derived from Aristotle's and Confucius' notions, which asserts that the right action will be that chosen by a suitably 'virtuous' agent.
+
+Normative ethical theories can clash when trying to resolve real-world ethical dilemmas. One approach attempting to overcome the divide between consequentialism and deontology is case-based reasoning, also known as casuistry. Casuistry does not begin with theory, rather it starts with the immediate facts of a real and concrete case. While casuistry makes use of ethical theory, it does not view ethical theory as the most important feature of moral reasoning. Casuists, like Albert Jonsen and Stephen Toulmin (The Abuse of Casuistry, 1988), challenge the traditional paradigm of applied ethics. Instead of starting from theory and applying theory to a particular case, casuists start with the particular case itself and then ask what morally significant features (including both theory and practical considerations) ought to be considered for that particular case. In their observations of medical ethics committees, Jonsen and Toulmin note that a consensus on particularly problematic moral cases often emerges when participants focus on the facts of the case, rather than on ideology or theory. Thus, a Rabbi, a Catholic priest, and an agnostic might agree that, in this particular case, the best approach is to withhold extraordinary medical care, while disagreeing on the reasons that support their individual positions. By focusing on cases and not on theory, those engaged in moral debate increase the possibility of agreement.
+
+Applied ethics was later distinguished from the nascent applied epistemology, which is also under the umbrella of applied philosophy. While the former was concerned with the practical application of moral considerations, the latter focuses on the application of epistemology in solving practical problems.
+
+See also
+
+Bioethics
+Business ethics
+Effective altruism
+Ethical codes
+Ethics
+Medical ethics
+Outline of ethics
+Philosophy
+Precautionary principle
+Master of Applied Ethics
+
+References
+
+Further reading
+ 
+  (monograph)
+
+External links
+
+ 
+ 
+
+ 
+Ethics
+In mathematics, the absolute value or modulus of a real number ,  is the non-negative value  without regard to its sign. Namely,  if  is a positive number, and  if  is negative (in which case negating  makes  positive), and  For example, the absolute value of 3  and the absolute value of −3 is  The absolute value of a number may be thought of as its distance from zero.
+
+Generalisations of the absolute value for real numbers occur in a wide variety of mathematical settings. For example, an absolute value is also defined for the complex numbers, the quaternions, ordered rings, fields and vector spaces. The absolute value is closely related to the notions of magnitude, distance, and norm in various mathematical and physical contexts.
+
+Terminology and notation
+In 1806, Jean-Robert Argand introduced the term module, meaning unit of measure in French, specifically for the complex absolute value, and it was borrowed into English in 1866 as the Latin equivalent modulus. The term absolute value has been used in this sense from at least 1806 in French and 1857 in English. The notation , with a vertical bar on each side, was introduced by Karl Weierstrass in 1841. Other names for absolute value include numerical value and magnitude. In programming languages and computational software packages, the absolute value of  is generally represented by abs(x), or a similar expression.
+
+The vertical bar notation also appears in a number of other mathematical contexts: for example, when applied to a set, it denotes its cardinality; when applied to a matrix, it denotes its determinant.  Vertical bars denote the absolute value only for algebraic objects for which the notion of an absolute value is defined, notably an element of a normed division algebra, for example a real number, a complex number, or a quaternion.  A closely related but distinct notation is the use of vertical bars for either the Euclidean norm or sup norm of a vector  although double vertical bars with subscripts   respectively) are a more common and less ambiguous notation.
+
+Definition and properties
+
+Real numbers
+For any  the absolute value or modulus  is denoted , with a vertical bar on each side of the quantity, and is defined as
+
+The absolute value  is thus always either a positive number or zero, but never negative. When  itself is negative  then its absolute value is necessarily positive 
+
+From an analytic geometry point of view, the absolute value of a real number is that number's distance from zero along the real number line, and more generally the absolute value of the difference of two real numbers (their absolute difference) is the distance between them. The notion of an abstract distance function in mathematics can be seen to be a generalisation of the absolute value of the difference (see "Distance" below).
+
+Since the square root symbol represents the unique positive square root, when applied to a positive number, it follows that
+
+This is equivalent to the definition above, and may be used as an alternative definition of the absolute value of real numbers.
+
+The absolute value has the following four fundamental properties (,  are real numbers), that are used for generalization of this notion to other domains:
+
+Non-negativity, positive definiteness, and multiplicativity are readily apparent from the definition.  To see that subadditivity holds, first note that   with its sign chosen to make the result positive. Now, since   it follows that, whichever of  is the value  one has  for all  Consequently, , as desired.
+
+Some additional useful properties are given below.  These are either immediate consequences of the definition or implied by the four fundamental properties above.
+
+Two other useful properties concerning inequalities are:
+
+These relations may be used to solve inequalities involving absolute values. For example:
+
+The absolute value, as "distance from zero", is used to define the absolute difference between arbitrary real numbers, the standard metric on the real numbers.
+
+Complex numbers
+
+Since the complex numbers are not ordered, the definition given at the top for the real absolute value cannot be directly applied to complex numbers. However, the geometric interpretation of the absolute value of a real number as its distance from 0 can be generalised. The absolute value of a complex number is defined by the Euclidean distance of its corresponding point in the complex plane from the origin.  This can be computed using the Pythagorean theorem: for any complex number
+
+where  and  are real numbers, the absolute value or modulus  is  and is defined by
+
+the Pythagorean addition of  and , where  and  denote the real and imaginary parts  respectively.  When the  is zero, this coincides with the definition of the absolute value of the 
+
+When a complex number  is expressed in its polar form  its absolute value 
+
+Since the product of any complex number  and its  with the same absolute value, is always the non-negative real number  the absolute value of a complex number  is the square root  which is therefore called the absolute square or squared modulus 
+
+This generalizes the alternative definition for reals: 
+
+The complex absolute value shares the four fundamental properties given above for the real absolute value. The identity  is a special case of multiplicativity that is often useful by itself.
+
+Absolute value function
+
+The real absolute value function is continuous everywhere. It is differentiable everywhere except for .  It is monotonically decreasing on the interval  and monotonically increasing on the interval . Since a real number and its opposite have the same absolute value, it is an even function, and is hence not invertible. The real absolute value function is a piecewise linear, convex function.
+
+For both real and complex numbers the absolute value function is idempotent (meaning that the absolute value of any absolute value is itself).
+
+Relationship to the sign function
+The absolute value function of a real number returns its value irrespective of its sign, whereas the sign (or signum) function returns a number's sign irrespective of its value. The following equations show the relationship between these two functions:
+
+or
+
+and for ,
+
+Relationship to the max and min functions
+Let , then
+
+and
+
+Derivative
+The real absolute value function has a derivative for every , but is not differentiable at . Its derivative for  is given by the step function:
+
+The real absolute value function is an example of a continuous function that achieves a global minimum where the derivative does not exist.
+
+The subdifferential of  at  is the interval .
+
+The complex absolute value function is continuous everywhere but complex differentiable nowhere because it violates the Cauchy–Riemann equations.
+
+The second derivative of  with respect to  is zero everywhere except zero, where it does not exist. As a generalised function, the second derivative may be taken as two times the Dirac delta function.
+
+Antiderivative
+The antiderivative (indefinite integral) of the real absolute value function is
+
+where  is an arbitrary constant of integration. This is not a complex antiderivative because complex antiderivatives can only exist for complex-differentiable (holomorphic) functions, which the complex absolute value function is not.
+
+Derivatives of compositions 
+The following two formulae are special cases of the chain rule:
+
+if the absolute value is inside a function, and
+
+if another function is inside the absolute value. In the first case, the derivative is always discontinuous at  in the first case and where  in the second case.
+
+Distance
+
+The absolute value is closely related to the idea of distance. As noted above, the absolute value of a real or complex number is the distance from that number to the origin, along the real number line, for real numbers, or in the complex plane, for complex numbers, and more generally, the absolute value of the difference of two real or complex numbers is the distance between them.
+
+The standard Euclidean distance between two points
+
+and
+
+in Euclidean -space is defined as:
+
+This can be seen as a generalisation, since for  and  real, i.e. in a 1-space, according to the alternative definition of the absolute value,
+
+and for  and  complex numbers, i.e. in a 2-space,
+ 
+{|
+|-
+|
+|
+|-
+|
+|
+|-
+|
+|
+|}
+
+The above shows that the "absolute value"-distance, for real and complex numbers, agrees with the standard Euclidean distance, which they inherit as a result of considering them as one and two-dimensional Euclidean spaces, respectively.
+
+The properties of the absolute value of the difference of two real or complex numbers: non-negativity, identity of indiscernibles, symmetry and the triangle inequality given above, can be seen to motivate the more general notion of a distance function as follows:
+
+A real valued function  on a set  is called a metric (or a distance function) on , if it satisfies the following four axioms:
+{|
+|-
+|style="width:250px" | 
+|Non-negativity
+|-
+|
+|Identity of indiscernibles
+|-
+|
+|Symmetry
+|-
+|
+|Triangle inequality
+|}
+
+Generalizations
+
+Ordered rings
+The definition of absolute value given for real numbers above can be extended to any ordered ring. That is, if  is an element of an ordered ring R, then the absolute value of , denoted by , is defined to be:
+
+where  is the additive inverse of , 0 is the additive identity, and < and ≥ have the usual meaning with respect to the ordering in the ring.
+
+Fields
+
+The four fundamental properties of the absolute value for real numbers can be used to generalise the notion of absolute value to an arbitrary field, as follows.
+
+A real-valued function  on a field  is called an absolute value (also a modulus, magnitude, value, or valuation) if it satisfies the following four axioms:
+
+{| cellpadding=10
+|-
+|
+|Non-negativity
+|-
+|
+|Positive-definiteness
+|-
+|
+|Multiplicativity
+|-
+|
+|Subadditivity or the triangle inequality
+|}
+
+Where 0 denotes the additive identity of . It follows from positive-definiteness and multiplicativity that , where 1 denotes the multiplicative identity of . The real and complex absolute values defined above are examples of absolute values for an arbitrary field.
+
+If  is an absolute value on , then the function  on , defined by , is a metric and the following are equivalent:
+
+  satisfies the ultrametric inequality  for all , ,  in .
+  is bounded in R.
+  for every .
+  for all .
+  for all .
+
+An absolute value which satisfies any (hence all) of the above conditions is said to be non-Archimedean, otherwise it is said to be Archimedean.
+
+Vector spaces
+
+Again the fundamental properties of the absolute value for real numbers can be used, with a slight modification, to generalise the notion to an arbitrary vector space.
+
+A real-valued function on a vector space  over a field , represented as , is called an absolute value, but more usually a norm, if it satisfies the following axioms:
+
+For all  in , and ,  in ,
+
+{| cellpadding=10
+|-
+|
+|Non-negativity
+|-
+|
+|Positive-definiteness
+|-
+|
+|Positive homogeneity or positive scalability
+|-
+|
+|Subadditivity or the triangle inequality
+|}
+
+The norm of a vector is also called its length or magnitude.
+
+In the case of Euclidean space , the function defined by
+
+is a norm called the Euclidean norm. When the real numbers  are considered as the one-dimensional vector space , the absolute value is a norm, and is the -norm (see Lp space) for any . In fact the absolute value is the "only" norm on , in the sense that, for every norm  on , .
+
+The complex absolute value is a special case of the norm in an inner product space, which is identical to the Euclidean norm when the complex plane is identified as the Euclidean plane .
+
+Composition algebras
+
+Every composition algebra A has an involution x → x* called its conjugation. The product in A of an element x and its conjugate x* is written N(x) = x x* and called the norm of x.
+
+The real numbers , complex numbers , and quaternions  are all composition algebras with norms given by definite quadratic forms. The absolute value in these division algebras is given by the square root of the composition algebra norm.
+
+In general the norm of a composition algebra may be a quadratic form that is not definite and has null vectors. However, as in the case of division algebras, when an element x has a non-zero norm, then x has a multiplicative inverse given by x*/N(x).
+
+See also
+Least absolute values
+
+Notes
+
+References
+ Bartle; Sherbert; Introduction to real analysis (4th ed.), John Wiley & Sons, 2011 .
+ Nahin, Paul J.; An Imaginary Tale; Princeton University Press; (hardcover, 1998). .
+ Mac Lane, Saunders, Garrett Birkhoff, Algebra, American Mathematical Soc., 1999. .
+ Mendelson, Elliott, Schaum's Outline of Beginning Calculus, McGraw-Hill Professional, 2008. .
+ O'Connor, J.J. and Robertson, E.F.; "Jean Robert Argand".
+ Schechter, Eric; Handbook of Analysis and Its Foundations, pp. 259–263, "Absolute Values", Academic Press (1997) .
+
+External links
+ 
+ 
+ 
+
+Special functions
+Real numbers
+Norms (mathematics)
+An analog signal is any continuous-time signal representing some other quantity, i.e., analogous to another quantity. For example, in an analog audio signal, the instantaneous signal voltage varies continuously with the pressure of the sound waves.
+
+In contrast, a digital signal represents the original time-varying quantity as a sampled sequence of quantized values. Digital sampling imposes some bandwidth and dynamic range constraints on the representation and adds quantization error.
+
+The term analog signal usually refers to electrical signals; however, mechanical, pneumatic, hydraulic, and other systems may also convey or be considered analog signals.
+
+Representation
+An analog signal uses some property of the medium to convey the signal's information. For example, an aneroid barometer uses rotary position as the signal to convey pressure information. In an electrical signal, the voltage, current, or frequency of the signal may be varied to represent the information.
+   
+Any information may be conveyed by an analog signal; such a signal may be a measured response to changes in a physical variable, such as sound, light, temperature, position, or pressure. The physical variable is converted to an analog signal by a transducer. For example, sound striking the diaphragm of a microphone induces corresponding fluctuations in the current produced by a coil in an electromagnetic microphone or the voltage produced by a condenser microphone. The voltage or the current is said to be an analog of the sound.
+
+Noise
+
+An analog signal is subject to electronic noise and distortion introduced by communication channels, recording and signal processing operations, which can progressively degrade the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). As the signal is transmitted, copied, or processed, the unavoidable noise introduced in the signal path will accumulate as a generation loss, progressively and irreversibly degrading the SNR, until in extreme cases, the signal can be overwhelmed. Noise can show up as hiss and intermodulation distortion in audio signals, or snow in video signals. Generation loss is irreversible as there is no reliable method to distinguish the noise from the signal.
+
+Converting an analog signal to digital form introduces a low-level quantization noise into the signal due to finite resolution of digital systems. Once in digital form, the signal can be transmitted, stored, and processed without introducing additional noise or distortion using error detection and correction.
+
+Noise accumulation in analog systems can be minimized by electromagnetic shielding, balanced lines, low-noise amplifiers and high-quality electrical components.
+
+See also
+
+ Amplifier
+ Analog computer
+ Analog device
+ Analog signal processing
+ Magnetic tape
+ Preamplifier
+
+References
+
+Analog circuits
+Electronic design
+Television terminology
+Video signal
+Arecales is an order of flowering plants. The order has been widely recognised only for the past few decades; until then, the accepted name for the order including these plants was Principes.
+
+Taxonomy
+The APG IV system of 2016 places Dasypogonaceae in this order, after studies showing Dasypogonaceae as sister to Arecaceae. However, this decision has been called into question.
+
+Historical taxonomical systems 
+The Cronquist system of 1981 assigned the order to the subclass Arecidae in the class Liliopsida (= monocotyledons).
+
+The Thorne system (1992) and the Dahlgren system assigned the order to the superorder Areciflorae, also called Arecanae in the subclass Liliidae (= monocotyledons), with the single family Arecaceae.
+
+The APG II system of 2003 recognised the order and placed it in the clade commelinids in the monocots and uses this circumscription:
+
+ order Arecales
+ family Arecaceae, alternative name Palmae
+
+This was unchanged from the APG system of 1998, although it used the spelling "commelinoids" instead of commelinids.
+
+Principes 
+In plant taxonomy, Principes is a botanical name, meaning "the first". It was used in the Engler system for an order in the Monocotyledones and later in the Kubitzki system. This order included one family only, the Palmae (alternate name Arecaceae). As the rules for botanical nomenclature provide for the use of such descriptive botanical names above the rank of family it is quite allowed to use this name even today, but in practice most systems prefer the name Arecales.
+
+Following this, Principes became the name of the journal of the International Palm Society, becoming Palms in 1999.
+
+References
+
+External links
+
+ NCBI Taxonomy Browser
+
+ 
+Angiosperm orders
+Late Cretaceous plants
+Extant Campanian first appearances
+
+es:Arecales
+Hercule Poirot (, ) is a fictional Belgian detective created by British writer Agatha Christie. Poirot is one of Christie's most famous and long-running characters, appearing in 33 novels, two plays (Black Coffee and Alibi), and 51 short stories published between 1920 and 1975.
+
+Poirot has been portrayed on radio, in film and on television by various actors, including Austin Trevor, John Moffatt, Albert Finney, Peter Ustinov, Ian Holm, Tony Randall, Alfred Molina, Orson Welles, David Suchet, Kenneth Branagh, and John Malkovich.
+
+Overview
+
+Influences 
+
+Poirot's name was derived from two other fictional detectives of the time: Marie Belloc Lowndes' Hercule Popeau and Frank Howel Evans' Monsieur Poiret, a retired French police officer living in London. Evans' Jules Poiret "was small and rather heavyset, hardly more than five feet, but moved with his head held high. The most remarkable features of his head were the stiff military moustache. His apparel was neat to perfection, a little quaint and frankly dandified." He was accompanied by Captain Harry Haven, who had returned to London from a Colombian business venture ended by a civil war. 
+
+A more obvious influence on the early Poirot stories is that of Arthur Conan Doyle. In An Autobiography, Christie states, "I was still writing in the Sherlock Holmes tradition – eccentric detective, stooge assistant, with a Lestrade-type Scotland Yard detective, Inspector Japp". For his part, Conan Doyle acknowledged basing his detective stories on the model of Edgar Allan Poe's C. Auguste Dupin and his anonymous narrator, and basing his character Sherlock Holmes on Joseph Bell, who in his use of "ratiocination" prefigured Poirot's reliance on his "little grey cells". Poirot also bears a striking resemblance to A. E. W. Mason's fictional detective Inspector Hanaud of the French Sûreté, who first appeared in the 1910 novel At the Villa Rose and predates the first Poirot novel by 10 years.
+
+Christie's Poirot was clearly the result of her early development of the detective in her first book, written in 1916 and published in 1920. The large number of refugees in the country who had fled the German invasion of Belgium in August to November 1914 served as a plausible explanation of why such a skilled detective would be available to solve mysteries at an English country house. At the time of Christie's writing, it was considered patriotic to express sympathy towards the Belgians, since the invasion of their country had constituted Britain's casus belli for entering World War I, and British wartime propaganda emphasised the "Rape of Belgium".
+
+Popularity 
+
+Poirot first appeared in The Mysterious Affair at Styles (published in 1920) and exited in Curtain (published in 1975). Following the latter, Poirot was the only fictional character to receive an obituary on the front page of The New York Times.
+
+By 1930, Agatha Christie found Poirot "insufferable", and by 1960 she felt that he was a "detestable, bombastic, tiresome, ego-centric little creep". Despite this, Poirot remained an exceedingly popular character with the general public. Christie later stated that she refused to kill him off, claiming that it was her duty to produce what the public liked.
+
+Appearance and proclivities 
+
+Captain Arthur Hastings's first description of Poirot:
+
+Agatha Christie's initial description of Poirot in Murder on the Orient Express:
+
+In the later books, his limp is not mentioned, suggesting it may have been a temporary wartime injury. (In Curtain, Poirot admits he was wounded when he first came to England.) Poirot has green eyes that are repeatedly described as shining "like a cat's" when he is struck by a clever idea, and dark hair, which he dyes later in life. In Curtain, he admits to Hastings that he wears a wig and a false moustache. However, in many of his screen incarnations, he is bald or balding.
+
+Frequent mention is made of his patent leather shoes, damage to which is frequently a source of misery for him, but comical for the reader. Poirot's appearance, regarded as fastidious during his early career, later falls hopelessly out of fashion.
+
+Among Poirot's most significant personal attributes is the sensitivity of his stomach:
+
+He suffers from sea sickness, and, in Death in the Clouds, he states that his air sickness prevents him from being more alert at the time of the murder. Later in his life, we are told:
+
+Poirot is extremely punctual and carries a pocket watch almost to the end of his career. He is also particular about his personal finances, preferring to keep a bank balance of 444 pounds, 4 shillings, and 4 pence. Actor David Suchet, who portrayed Poirot on television, said "there's no question he's obsessive-compulsive". Film portrayer Kenneth Branagh said that he "enjoyed finding the sort of obsessive-compulsive" in Poirot.
+
+As mentioned in Curtain and The Clocks, he is fond of classical music, particularly Mozart and Bach.
+
+Methods 
+
+In The Mysterious Affair at Styles, Poirot operates as a fairly conventional, clue-based and logical detective; reflected in his vocabulary by two common phrases: his use of "the little grey cells" and "order and method". Hastings is irritated by the fact that Poirot sometimes conceals important details of his plans, as in The Big Four. In this novel, Hastings is kept in the dark throughout the climax. This aspect of Poirot is less evident in the later novels, partly because there is rarely a narrator to mislead.
+
+In Murder on the Links, still largely dependent on clues himself, Poirot mocks a rival "bloodhound" detective who focuses on the traditional trail of clues established in detective fiction (e.g., Sherlock Holmes depending on footprints, fingerprints, and cigar ash). From this point on, Poirot establishes his psychological bona fides. Rather than painstakingly examining crime scenes, he enquires into the nature of the victim or the psychology of the murderer. He predicates his actions in the later novels on his underlying assumption that particular crimes are committed by particular types of people.
+
+Poirot focuses on getting people to talk. In the early novels, he casts himself in the role of "Papa Poirot", a benign confessor, especially to young women. In later works, Christie made a point of having Poirot supply false or misleading information about himself or his background to assist him in obtaining information. In The Murder of Roger Ackroyd, Poirot speaks of a non-existent mentally disabled nephew to uncover information about homes for the mentally unfit. In Dumb Witness, Poirot invents an elderly invalid mother as a pretence to investigate local nurses. In The Big Four, Poirot pretends to have (and poses as) an identical twin brother named Achille: however, this brother was mentioned again in The Labours of Hercules.
+
+"If I remember rightly – though my memory isn't what it was – you also had a brother called Achille, did you not?" Poirot's mind raced back over the details of Achille Poirot's career. Had all that really happened? "Only for a short space of time," he replied.
+
+Poirot is also willing to appear more foreign or vain in an effort to make people underestimate him. He admits as much:
+
+It is true that I can speak the exact, the idiomatic English. But, my friend, to speak the broken English is an enormous asset. It leads people to despise you. They say – a foreigner – he can't even speak English properly. ... Also I boast! An Englishman he says often, "A fellow who thinks as much of himself as that cannot be worth much." ... And so, you see, I put people off their guard.
+
+He also has a tendency to refer to himself in the third person.
+
+In later novels, Christie often uses the word mountebank when characters describe Poirot, showing that he has successfully passed himself off as a charlatan or fraud.
+
+Poirot's investigating techniques assist him solving cases; "For in the long run, either through a lie, or through truth, people were bound to give themselves away..." At the end, Poirot usually reveals his description of the sequence of events and his deductions to a room of suspects, often leading to the culprit's apprehension.
+
+Life
+
+Origins
+Christie was purposely vague about Poirot's origins, as he is thought to be an elderly man even in the early novels. In An Autobiography, she admitted that she already imagined him to be an old man in 1920. At the time, however, she did not know that she would write works featuring him for decades to come.
+
+A brief passage in The Big Four provides original information about Poirot's birth or at least childhood in or near the town of Spa, Belgium: "But we did not go into Spa itself. We left the main road and wound into the leafy fastnesses of the hills, till we reached a little hamlet and an isolated white villa high on the hillside." Christie strongly implies that this "quiet retreat in the Ardennes" near Spa is the location of the Poirot family home.
+ 
+An alternative tradition holds that Poirot was born in the village of Ellezelles (province of Hainaut, Belgium). A few memorials dedicated to Hercule Poirot can be seen in the centre of this village. There appears to be no reference to this in Christie's writings, but the town of Ellezelles cherishes a copy of Poirot's birth certificate in a local memorial 'attesting' Poirot's birth, naming his father and mother as Jules-Louis Poirot and Godelieve Poirot.
+
+Christie wrote that Poirot is a Catholic by birth, but not much is described about his later religious convictions, except sporadic references to his "going to church" and occasional invocations of "le bon Dieu". Christie provides little information regarding Poirot's childhood, only mentioning in Three Act Tragedy that he comes from a large family with little wealth, and has at least one younger sister. Apart from French and English, Poirot is also fluent in German.
+
+Policeman 
+
+Gustave ... was not a policeman. I have dealt with policemen all my life and I know. He could pass as a detective to an outsider but not to a man who was a policeman himself.
+
+ — Hercule Poirot 
+
+Hercule Poirot was active in the Brussels police force by 1893. Very little mention is made about this part of his life, but in "The Nemean Lion" (1939) Poirot refers to a Belgian case of his in which "a wealthy soap manufacturer ... poisoned his wife in order to be free to marry his secretary". As Poirot was often misleading about his past to gain information, the truthfulness of that statement is unknown; it does, however, scare off a would-be wife-killer.
+
+In the short story "The Chocolate Box" (1923), Poirot reveals to Captain Arthur Hastings an account of what he considers to be his only failure. Poirot admits that he has failed to solve a crime "innumerable" times:
+
+I have been called in too late. Very often another, working towards the same goal, has arrived there first. Twice I have been struck down with illness just as I was on the point of success.
+
+Nevertheless, he regards the 1893 case in "The Chocolate Box", as his only failure through his fault only. Again, Poirot is not reliable as a narrator of his personal history and there is no evidence that Christie sketched it out in any depth. During his police career, Poirot shot a man who was firing from a roof into the public below. In Lord Edgware Dies, Poirot reveals that he learned to read writing upside down during his police career. Around that time he met Xavier Bouc, director of the Compagnie Internationale des Wagons-Lits.
+
+Inspector Japp offers some insight into Poirot's career with the Belgian police when introducing him to a colleague:
+
+You've heard me speak of Mr Poirot? It was in 1904 he and I worked together – the Abercrombie forgery case – you remember he was run down in Brussels. Ah, those were the days Moosier. Then, do you remember "Baron" Altara? There was a pretty rogue for you! He eluded the clutches of half the police in Europe. But we nailed him in Antwerp – thanks to Mr. Poirot here.
+
+In The Double Clue, Poirot mentions that he was Chief of Police of Brussels, until "the Great War" (World War I) forced him to leave for England.
+
+Private detective 
+
+I had called in at my friend Poirot's rooms to find him sadly overworked. So much had he become the rage that every rich woman who had mislaid a bracelet or lost a pet kitten rushed to secure the services of the great Hercule Poirot. 
+
+During World War I, Poirot left Belgium for England as a refugee, although he returned a few times. On 16 July 1916 he again met his lifelong friend, Captain Arthur Hastings, and solved the first of his cases to be published, The Mysterious Affair at Styles. It is clear that Hastings and Poirot are already friends when they meet in Chapter 2 of the novel, as Hastings tells Cynthia that he has not seen him for "some years" (Agatha Christie's Poirot has Hastings reveal that they met on a shooting case where Hastings was a suspect). Particulars such as the date of 1916 for the case and that Hastings had met Poirot in Belgium, are given in Curtain: Poirot's Last Case, Chapter 1.  After that case, Poirot apparently came to the attention of the British secret service and undertook cases for the British government, including foiling the attempted abduction of the Prime Minister. Readers were told that the British authorities had learned of Poirot's keen investigative ability from certain members of Belgium's royal family.
+
+After the war, Poirot became a private detective and began undertaking civilian cases. He moved into what became both his home and work address, Flat 203 at 56B Whitehaven Mansions. Hastings first visits the flat when he returns to England in June 1935 from Argentina in The A.B.C. Murders, Chapter 1. The TV programmes place this in Florin Court, Charterhouse Square, in the wrong part of London.  According to Hastings, it was chosen by Poirot "entirely on account of its strict geometrical appearance and proportion" and described as the "newest type of service flat". (The Florin Court building was actually built in 1936, decades after Poirot fictionally moved in.) His first case in this period was "The Affair at the Victory Ball", which allowed Poirot to enter high society and begin his career as a private detective.
+
+Between the world wars, Poirot travelled all over Europe and the Middle East investigating crimes and solving murders. Most of his cases occurred during this time and he was at the height of his powers at this point in his life. In The Murder on the Links, the Belgian pits his grey cells against a French murderer. In the Middle East, he solved the cases Death on the Nile and Murder in Mesopotamia with ease and even survived An Appointment with Death. As he passed through Eastern Europe on his return trip, he solved The Murder on the Orient Express. However, he did not travel to Africa or Asia, probably to avoid seasickness.
+
+It is this villainous sea that troubles me! The mal de mer – it is horrible suffering!
+
+It was during this time he met the Countess Vera Rossakoff, a glamorous jewel thief. The history of the countess is, like Poirot's, steeped in mystery. She claims to have been a member of the Russian aristocracy before the Russian Revolution and suffered greatly as a result, but how much of that story is true is an open question. Even Poirot acknowledges that Rossakoff offered wildly varying accounts of her early life. Poirot later became smitten with the woman and allowed her to escape justice.
+
+It is the misfortune of small, precise men always to hanker after large and flamboyant women. Poirot had never been able to rid himself of the fatal fascination that the countess held for him.
+
+Although letting the countess escape was morally questionable, it was not uncommon. In The Nemean Lion, Poirot sided with the criminal, Miss Amy Carnaby, allowing her to evade prosecution by blackmailing his client Sir Joseph Hoggins, who, Poirot discovered, had plans to commit murder. Poirot even sent Miss Carnaby two hundred pounds as a final payoff prior to the conclusion of her dog kidnapping campaign. In The Murder of Roger Ackroyd, Poirot allowed the murderer to escape justice through suicide and then withheld the truth to spare the feelings of the murderer's relatives. In The Augean Stables, he helped the government to cover up vast corruption. In Murder on the Orient Express, Poirot allowed the murderers to go free after discovering that twelve different people participated in the murder, each one stabbing the victim in a darkened carriage after drugging him into unconsciousness so that there was no way for anyone to definitively determine which of them actually delivered the killing blow. The victim had committed a disgusting crime which led to the deaths of at least five people, and there was no question of his guilt, but he had been acquitted in America in a miscarriage of justice. Considering it poetic justice that twelve jurors had acquitted him and twelve people had stabbed him, Poirot produced an alternative sequence of events to explain the death involving an unknown additional passenger on the train, with the medical examiner agreeing to doctor his own report to support this theory.
+
+After his cases in the Middle East, Poirot returned to Britain. Apart from some of the so-called Labours of Hercules (see next section) he very rarely went abroad during his later career. He moved into Styles Court towards the end of his life.
+
+While Poirot was usually paid handsomely by clients, he was also known to take on cases that piqued his curiosity, although they did not pay well.
+
+Poirot shows a love of steam trains, which Christie contrasts with Hastings' love of autos: this is shown in The Plymouth Express, The Mystery of the Blue Train, Murder on the Orient Express, and The ABC Murders (in the TV series, steam trains are seen in nearly all of the episodes).
+
+Retirement 
+
+That's the way of it. Just a case or two, just one case more – the Prima Donna's farewell performance won't be in it with yours, Poirot.
+
+Confusion surrounds Poirot's retirement. Most of the cases covered by Poirot's private detective agency take place before his retirement to attempt to grow larger marrows, at which time he solves The Murder of Roger Ackroyd. It has been said that the twelve cases related in The Labours of Hercules (1947) must refer to a different retirement, but the fact that Poirot specifically says that he intends to grow marrows indicates that these stories also take place before Roger Ackroyd, and presumably Poirot closed his agency once he had completed them. There is specific mention in "The Capture of Cerberus" of the twenty-year gap between Poirot's previous meeting with Countess Rossakoff and this one. If the Labours precede the events in Roger Ackroyd, then the Ackroyd case must have taken place around twenty years later than it was published, and so must any of the cases that refer to it. One alternative would be that having failed to grow marrows once, Poirot is determined to have another go, but this is specifically denied by Poirot himself. Also, in "The Erymanthian Boar", a character is said to have been turned out of Austria by the Nazis, implying that the events of The Labours of Hercules took place after 1937. Another alternative would be to suggest that the Preface to the Labours takes place at one date but that the labours are completed over a matter of twenty years. None of the explanations is especially attractive.
+
+In terms of a rudimentary chronology, Poirot speaks of retiring to grow marrows in Chapter 18 of The Big Four (1927) which places that novel out of published order before Roger Ackroyd. He declines to solve a case for the Home Secretary because he is retired in Chapter One of Peril at End House (1932). He has certainly retired at the time of Three Act Tragedy (1935) but he does not enjoy his retirement and repeatedly takes cases thereafter when his curiosity is engaged. He continues to employ his secretary, Miss Lemon, at the time of the cases retold in Hickory Dickory Dock and Dead Man's Folly, which take place in the mid-1950s. It is, therefore, better to assume that Christie provided no authoritative chronology for Poirot's retirement but assumed that he could either be an active detective, a consulting detective, or a retired detective as the needs of the immediate case required.
+
+One consistent element about Poirot's retirement is that his fame declines during it so that in the later novels he is often disappointed when characters (especially younger characters) recognise neither him nor his name:
+
+"I should, perhaps, Madame, tell you a little more about myself. I am Hercule Poirot."
+
+The revelation left Mrs Summerhayes unmoved.
+
+"What a lovely name," she said kindly. "Greek, isn't it?"
+
+Post–World War II 
+
+Poirot is less active during the cases that take place at the end of his career. Beginning with Three Act Tragedy (1934), Christie had perfected during the inter-war years a subgenre of Poirot novel in which the detective himself spent much of the first third of the novel on the periphery of events. In novels such as Taken at the Flood, After the Funeral, and Hickory Dickory Dock, he is even less in evidence, frequently passing the duties of main interviewing detective to a subsidiary character. In Cat Among the Pigeons, Poirot's entrance is so late as to be almost an afterthought. Whether this was a reflection of his age or of Christie's distaste for him, is impossible to assess. Crooked House (1949) and Ordeal by Innocence (1957), which could easily have been Poirot novels, represent a logical endpoint of the general diminution of his presence in such works.
+
+Towards the end of his career, it becomes clear that Poirot's retirement is no longer a convenient fiction.  He assumes a genuinely inactive lifestyle during which he concerns himself with studying famous unsolved cases of the past and reading detective novels. He even writes a book about mystery fiction in which he deals sternly with Edgar Allan Poe and Wilkie Collins.  In the absence of a more appropriate puzzle, he solves such inconsequential domestic riddles as the presence of three pieces of orange peel in his umbrella stand. 
+
+Poirot (and, it is reasonable to suppose, his creator) becomes increasingly bemused by the vulgarism of the up-and-coming generation's young people. In Hickory Dickory Dock, he investigates the strange goings-on in a student hostel, while in Third Girl (1966) he is forced into contact with the smart set of Chelsea youths. In the growing drug and pop culture of the sixties, he proves himself once again but has become heavily reliant on other investigators (especially the private investigator, Mr. Goby) who provide him with the clues that he can no longer gather for himself.
+
+Notably, during this time his physical characteristics also change dramatically, and by the time Arthur Hastings meets Poirot again in Curtain, he looks very different from his previous appearances, having become thin with age and with obviously dyed hair.
+
+Death 
+
+On the ITV television series, Poirot died in October 1949 from complications of a heart condition at the end of Curtain: Poirot's Last Case. This took place at Styles Court, the scene of his first English case in 1916. In Christie's novels, he lived into the early 1970s, perhaps even until 1975 when Curtain was published. In both the novel and the television adaptation, he had moved his amyl nitrite pills out of his own reach, possibly because of guilt. He thereby became the murderer in Curtain, although it was for the benefit of others. Poirot himself noted that he wanted to kill his victim shortly before his own death so that he could avoid succumbing to the arrogance of the murderer, concerned that he might come to view himself as entitled to kill those whom he deemed necessary to eliminate.
+
+The "murderer" that he was hunting had never actually killed anyone, but he had manipulated others to kill for him, subtly and psychologically manipulating the moments where others desire to commit murder so that they carry out the crime when they might otherwise dismiss their thoughts as nothing more than a momentary passion. Poirot thus was forced to kill the man himself, as otherwise he would have continued his actions and never been officially convicted, as he did not legally do anything wrong. It is revealed at the end of Curtain that he fakes his need for a wheelchair to fool people into believing that he is suffering from arthritis, to give the impression that he is more infirm than he is. His last recorded words are "Cher ami!", spoken to Hastings as the Captain left his room. (The TV adaptation adds that as Poirot is dying alone, he whispers out his final prayer to God in these words: "Forgive me... forgive...") Poirot was buried at Styles, and his funeral was arranged by his best friend Hastings and Hastings' daughter Judith. Hastings reasoned, "Here was the spot where he had lived when he first came to this country. He was to lie here at the last."
+
+Poirot's actual death and funeral occurred in Curtain, years after his retirement from the active investigation, but it was not the first time that Hastings attended the funeral of his best friend. In The Big Four (1927), Poirot feigned his death and subsequent funeral to launch a surprise attack on the Big Four.
+
+Recurring characters
+
+Captain Arthur Hastings 
+
+Hastings, a former British Army officer, meets Poirot during Poirot's years as a police officer in Belgium and almost immediately after they both arrive in England. He becomes Poirot's lifelong friend and appears in many cases. Poirot regards Hastings as a poor private detective, not particularly intelligent, yet helpful in his way of being fooled by the criminal or seeing things the way the average man would see them and for his tendency to unknowingly "stumble" onto the truth. Hastings marries and has four children – two sons and two daughters. As a loyal, albeit somewhat naïve companion, Hastings is to Poirot what Watson is to Sherlock Holmes.
+
+Hastings is capable of great bravery and courage, facing death unflinchingly when confronted by The Big Four and displaying unwavering loyalty towards Poirot. However, when forced to choose between Poirot and his wife in that novel, he initially chooses to betray Poirot to protect his wife. Later, though, he tells Poirot to draw back and escape the trap.
+
+The two are an airtight team until Hastings meets and marries Dulcie Duveen, a beautiful music hall performer half his age, after investigating the Murder on the Links. They later emigrated to Argentina, leaving Poirot behind as a "very unhappy old man". However, Poirot and Hastings reunite during the novels The Big Four, Peril at End House, The ABC Murders, Lord Edgware Dies, and Dumb Witness, when Hastings arrives in England for business, with Poirot noting in ABC Murders that he enjoys having Hastings over because he feels that he always has his most interesting cases with Hastings. The two collaborate for the final time in Curtain: Poirot's Last Case when the seemingly-crippled Poirot asks Hastings to assist him in his final case. When the killer they are tracking nearly manipulates Hastings into committing murder, Poirot describes this in his final farewell letter to Hastings as the catalyst that prompted him to eliminate the man himself, as Poirot knew that his friend was not a murderer and refused to let a man capable of manipulating Hastings in such a manner go on.
+
+Mrs Ariadne Oliver 
+
+Detective novelist Ariadne Oliver is Agatha Christie's humorous self-caricature. Like Christie, she is not overly fond of the detective whom she is most famous for creating–in Ariadne's case, Finnish sleuth Sven Hjerson. We never learn anything about her husband, but we do know that she hates alcohol and public appearances and has a great fondness for apples until she is put off them by the events of Hallowe'en Party. She also has a habit of constantly changing her hairstyle, and in every appearance by her much is made of her clothes and hats. Her maid Maria prevents the public adoration from becoming too much of a burden on her employer but does nothing to prevent her from becoming too much of a burden on others.
+
+She has authored more than 56 novels and greatly dislikes people modifying her characters. She is the only one in Poirot's universe to have noted that "It's not natural for five or six people to be on the spot when B is murdered and all have a motive for killing B." She first met Poirot in the story Cards on the Table and has bothered him ever since.
+
+Miss Felicity Lemon 
+Poirot's secretary, Miss Felicity Lemon, has few human weaknesses. The only mistakes she makes within the series are a typing error during the events of Hickory Dickory Dock and the mis-mailing of an electricity bill, although she was worried about strange events surrounding her sister who worked at a student hostel at the time. Poirot described her as being "Unbelievably ugly and incredibly efficient. Anything that she mentioned as worth consideration usually was worth consideration." She is an expert on nearly everything and plans to create the perfect filing system. She also worked for the government statistician-turned-philanthropist Parker Pyne. Whether this was during one of Poirot's numerous retirements or before she entered his employment is unknown. In The Agatha Christie Hour, she was portrayed by Angela Easterling, while in Agatha Christie's Poirot she was portrayed by Pauline Moran (where she was shown to be efficient, prim and modest, but not remotely "unbelievably ugly".)  On a number of occasions, she joins Poirot in his inquiries or seeks out answers alone at his request.
+
+Chief Inspector James Harold Japp 
+
+Japp is a Scotland Yard Inspector and appears in many of the stories trying to solve cases that Poirot is working on. Japp is outgoing, loud, and sometimes inconsiderate by nature, and his relationship with the refined Belgian is one of the stranger aspects of Poirot's world. He first met Poirot in Belgium in 1904, during the Abercrombie Forgery. Later that year they joined forces again to hunt down a criminal known as Baron Altara. They also meet in England where Poirot often helps Japp and lets him take credit in return for special favours. These favours usually entail Poirot being supplied with other interesting cases. In Agatha Christie's Poirot, Japp was portrayed by Philip Jackson. In the film, Thirteen at Dinner (1985), adapted from Lord Edgware Dies, the role of Japp was taken by the actor David Suchet, who would later star as Poirot in the ITV adaptations.
+
+Major novels 
+
+The Poirot books take readers through the whole of his life in England, from the first book (The Mysterious Affair at Styles), where he is a refugee staying at Styles, to the last Poirot book (Curtain), where he visits Styles before his death. In between, Poirot solves cases outside England as well, including his most famous case, Murder on the Orient Express (1934).
+
+Hercule Poirot became famous in 1926 with the publication of The Murder of Roger Ackroyd, whose surprising solution proved controversial. The novel is still among the most famous of all detective novels: Edmund Wilson alludes to it in the title of his well-known attack on detective fiction, "Who Cares Who Killed Roger Ackroyd?" Aside from Roger Ackroyd, the most critically acclaimed Poirot novels appeared from 1932 to 1942, including Murder on the Orient Express (1934); The ABC Murders (1935); Cards on the Table (1936); and Death on the Nile (1937), a tale of multiple murders upon a Nile steamer. Death on the Nile was judged by the famed detective novelist John Dickson Carr to be among the ten greatest mystery novels of all time.
+
+The 1942 novel Five Little Pigs (a.k.a. Murder in Retrospect), in which Poirot investigates a murder committed sixteen years before by analysing various accounts of the tragedy, has been called "the best Christie of all" by critic and mystery novelist Robert Barnard.
+
+In 2014, the Poirot canon was added to by Sophie Hannah, the first author to be commissioned by the Christie estate to write an original story. The novel was called The Monogram Murders, and was set in the late 1920s, placing it chronologically between The Mystery of the Blue Train and Peril at End House. A second Hannah-penned Poirot came out in 2016, called Closed Casket, and a third, The Mystery of Three Quarters, in 2018.
+
+Portrayals
+
+Stage 
+
+The first actor to portray Poirot was Charles Laughton. He appeared on the West End in 1928 in the play Alibi which had been adapted by Michael Morton from the novel The Murder of Roger Ackroyd. 
+In 1932, the play was performed as The Fatal Alibi on Broadway. Another Poirot play, Black Coffee opened in London at the Embassy Theatre on 8 December 1930 and starred Francis L. Sullivan as Poirot. Another production of Black Coffee ran in Dublin, Ireland from 23 to 28 June 1931, starring Robert Powell. American playwright Ken Ludwig adapted Murder on the Orient Express into a play, which premiered at the McCarter Theatre in Princeton, New Jersey on 14 March 2017. It starred Allan Corduner in the role of Hercule Poirot.
+
+Film
+
+Austin Trevor 
+
+Austin Trevor debuted the role of Poirot on screen in the 1931 British film Alibi. The film was based on the stage play. Trevor reprised the role of Poirot twice, in Black Coffee and Lord Edgware Dies. Trevor said once that he was probably cast as Poirot simply because he could do a French accent. Notably, Trevor's Poirot did not have a moustache. Leslie S. Hiscott directed the first two films, and Henry Edwards took over for the third.
+
+Tony Randall 
+
+Tony Randall portrayed Poirot in The Alphabet Murders, a 1965 film also known as The ABC Murders. This was more a satire of Poirot than a straightforward adaptation and was greatly changed from the original. Much of the story, set in modern times, was played for comedy, with Poirot investigating the murders while evading the attempts by Hastings (Robert Morley) and the police to get him out of England and back to Belgium.
+
+Albert Finney 
+
+Albert Finney played Poirot in 1974 in the cinematic version of Murder on the Orient Express. As of now, Finney is the only actor to receive an Academy Award nomination for playing Poirot, though he did not win.
+
+Peter Ustinov 
+
+Peter Ustinov played Poirot six times, starting with Death on the Nile (1978). He reprised the role in Evil Under the Sun (1982) and Appointment with Death (1988).
+
+Christie's daughter Rosalind Hicks observed Ustinov during a rehearsal and said, "That's not Poirot! He isn't at all like that!" Ustinov overheard and remarked "He is now!"
+
+He appeared again as Poirot in three television films: Thirteen at Dinner (1985), Dead Man's Folly (1986), and Murder in Three Acts (1986). Earlier adaptations were set during the time in which the novels were written, but these television films were set in the contemporary era. The first of these was based on Lord Edgware Dies and was made by Warner Bros. It also starred Faye Dunaway, with David Suchet as Inspector Japp, just before Suchet began to play Poirot. David Suchet considers his performance as Japp to be "possibly the worst performance of [his] career".
+
+Kenneth Branagh 
+Kenneth Branagh played Poirot in film adaptations of Murder on the Orient Express in 2017, Death on the Nile in 2022, and A Haunting in Venice, based on the novel Hallowe'en Party, in 2023. Branagh directed all three and co-produced them alongside Ridley Scott. They were written by Michael Green.
+
+Other 
+
+ Anatoly Ravikovich, Zagadka Endkhauza (End House Mystery) (1989; based on "Peril at End House")
+
+Television
+
+David Suchet 
+
+David Suchet starred as Poirot in the ITV series Agatha Christie's Poirot from 1989 until June 2013, when he announced that he was bidding farewell to the role. "No one could've guessed then that the series would span a quarter-century or that the classically trained Suchet would complete the entire catalogue of whodunits featuring the eccentric Belgian investigator, including 33 novels and dozens of short stories." His final appearance in the show was in an adaptation of Curtain: Poirot's Last Case, aired on 13 November 2013.
+
+The writers of the "Binge!" article of Entertainment Weekly Issue #1343–44 (26 December 2014 – 3 January 2015) picked Suchet as "Best Poirot" in the "Hercule Poirot & Miss Marple" timeline.
+
+The episodes were shot in various locations in the UK and abroad (for example "Triangle at Rhodes" and "Problem at Sea"), whilst other scenes were shot at Twickenham Studios.
+
+Other 
+
+ Heini Göbel, (1955; an adaptation of Murder on the Orient Express for the West German television series Die Galerie der großen Detektive)
+ José Ferrer, Hercule Poirot (1961; Unaired TV Pilot, MGM; adaptation of "The Disappearance of Mr. Davenheim")
+ Martin Gabel, General Electric Theater (4/1/1962; adaptation of "The Disappearance of Mr. Davenheim")
+ Horst Bollmann, Black Coffee 1973
+ Ian Holm, Murder by the Book, 1986
+ Arnolds Liniņš, Slepkavība Stailzā (The Mysterious Affair at Styles), 1990
+ Hugh Laurie, Spice World, 1997
+ Alfred Molina, Murder on the Orient Express, 2001
+ Konstantin Raikin, Neudacha Puaro (Poirot's Failure) (2002; based on "The Murder of Roger Ackroyd")
+ Anthony O'Donnell, Agatha Christie: A Life in Pictures, 2004
+ Shirō Itō (Takashi Akafuji), Meitantei Akafuji Takashi (The Detective Takashi Akafuji), 2005
+ Mansai Nomura (Takeru Suguro), Orient Kyūkō Satsujin Jiken (Murder on the Orient Express), 2015; Kuroido Goroshi (The Murder of Kuroido), 2018 (based on "The Murder of Roger Ackroyd"); Shi to no Yakusoku, 2021 (based on Appointment with Death) 
+ John Malkovich was Poirot in the 2018 BBC adaptation of The ABC Murders.
+
+Anime 
+
+In 2004, the Japanese public broadcaster NHK produced a 39-episode anime series titled Agatha Christie's Great Detectives Poirot and Marple, as well as a manga series under the same title released in 2005. The series, adapting several of the best-known Poirot and Marple stories, ran from 4 July 2004 through 15 May 2005, and in repeated reruns on NHK and other networks in Japan. Poirot was voiced by Kōtarō Satomi and Miss Marple was voiced by Kaoru Yachigusa.
+
+Radio 
+From 1985 to 2007, BBC Radio 4 produced a series of twenty-seven adaptations of Poirot novels and short stories, adapted by Michael Bakewell and directed by Enyd Williams. Twenty five starred John Moffatt as Poirot; Maurice Denham and Peter Sallis played Poirot on BBC Radio 4 in the first two adaptations, The Mystery of the Blue Train and in Hercule Poirot's Christmas respectively.
+
+In 1939, Orson Welles and the Mercury Players dramatised Roger Ackroyd on CBS's Campbell Playhouse.
+
+On 6 October 1942, the Mutual radio series Murder Clinic broadcast "The Tragedy at Marsden Manor" starring Maurice Tarplin as Poirot.
+
+A 1945 radio series of at least 13 original half-hour episodes (none of which apparently adapt any Christie stories) transferred Poirot from London to New York and starred character actor Harold Huber, perhaps better known for his appearances as a police officer in various Charlie Chan films. On 22 February 1945, "speaking from London, Agatha Christie introduced the initial broadcast of the Poirot series via shortwave".
+
+An adaptation of Murder in the Mews was broadcast on the BBC Light Programme in March 1955 starring Richard Bebb as Poirot; this program was thought lost, but was discovered in the BBC archives in 2015.
+
+Other audio 
+
+In 2017, Audible released an original audio adaptation of Murder on the Orient Express starring Tom Conti as Poirot. The cast included Jane Asher as Mrs. Hubbard, Jay Benedict as Monsieur Bouc, Ruta Gedmintas as Countess Andrenyi, Sophie Okonedo as Mary Debenham, Eddie Marsan as Ratchett, Walles Hamonde as Hector MacQueen, Paterson Joseph as Colonel Arbuthnot, Rula Lenska as Princess Dragimiroff and Art Malik as the Narrator.  According to the Publisher's Summary on Audible.com, "sound effects [were] recorded on the Orient Express itself."
+
+In 2021, L.A. Theatre Works produced an adaptation of The Murder on the Links, dramatised by Kate McAll. Alfred Molina starred as Poirot, with Simon Helberg as Hastings.
+
+Video games 
+The video game Agatha Christie - Hercule Poirot: The First Cases has Poirot voice acted by Will De Renzy-Martin.
+
+Parodies and references 
+
+Parodies of Hercule Poirot have appeared in a number of movies, including Revenge of the Pink Panther, where Poirot makes a cameo appearance in a mental asylum, portrayed by Andrew Sachs and claiming to be "the greatest detective in all of France, the greatest in all the world"; Neil Simon's Murder by Death, where "Milo Perrier" is played by American actor James Coco; the 1977 film The Strange Case of the End of Civilization as We Know It (1977); the film Spice World, where Hugh Laurie plays Poirot; and in Sherlock Holmes: The Awakened, Poirot appears as a young boy on the train transporting Holmes and Watson. Holmes helps the boy in opening a puzzle-box, with Watson giving the boy advice about using his "little grey cells".
+
+In the book series Geronimo Stilton, the character Hercule Poirat is inspired by Hercule Poirot.
+
+The Belgian brewery Brasserie Ellezelloise makes a stout called Hercule with a moustachioed caricature of Hercule Poirot on the label.
+
+In season 2, episode 4 of TVFPlay's Indian web series Permanent Roommates, one of the characters refers to Hercule Poirot as her inspiration while she attempts to solve the mystery of the cheating spouse. Throughout the episode, she is mocked as Hercule Poirot and Agatha Christie by the suspects. TVFPlay also telecasted a spoof of Indian TV suspense drama CID as "Qissa Missing Dimaag Ka: C.I.D Qtiyapa". In the first episode, when Ujjwal is shown to browse for the best detectives of the world, David Suchet appears as Poirot in his search.
+
+See also 
+
+Poirot Investigates
+Tropes in Agatha Christie's novels
+
+Footnotes
+
+References
+
+Literature
+
+Works
+
+Reviews 
+ 
+ Goddard, John (2018), Agatha Christie’s Golden Age: An Analysis of Poirot’s Golden Age Puzzles, Stylish Eye Press, 
+ 
+.
+
+External links 
+
+ Official Agatha Christie website
+ 
+ Hercule Poirot on IMDb
+ 
+ Listen to Orson Welles in "The Murder of Roger Ackroyd"
+ Listen to the 1945 Hercule Poirot radio program
+ Wiktionary definition of Edgar Allan Poe's "ratiocination"
+
+ 
+Characters in British novels of the 20th century
+Fictional Belgian police officers
+Fictional Belgian police detectives
+Fictional Christians
+Fictional characters from Wallonia
+Fictional contract bridge players
+Fictional criminologists
+Fictional illeists
+Fictional private investigators
+Agatha Christie characters
+Hercule Poirot characters
+Literary characters introduced in 1920
+Male characters in literature
+Series of books
+Hercule Poirot
+Hercule Poirot
+Hercule Poirot
+Hercule Poirot
+Hercule Poirot
+Miss Jane Marple is a fictional character in Agatha Christie's crime novels and short stories. Miss Marple lives in the village of St. Mary Mead and acts as an amateur consulting detective. Often characterized as an elderly spinster, she is one of Christie's best-known characters and has been portrayed numerous times on screen. Her first appearance was in a short story published in The Royal Magazine in December 1927, "The Tuesday Night Club", which later became the first chapter of The Thirteen Problems (1932). Her first appearance in a full-length novel was in The Murder at the Vicarage in 1930, and her last appearance was in Sleeping Murder in 1976.
+
+Origins
+The character of Miss Marple is based on friends of Christie's step grandmother/aunt (Margaret Miller, née West). Christie attributed the inspiration for the character to multiple sources, stating that Miss Marple was "the sort of old lady who would have been rather like some of my step grandmother's Ealing cronies – old ladies whom I have met in so many villages where I have gone to stay as a girl". Christie also used material from her fictional creation, spinster Caroline Sheppard, who appeared in The Murder of Roger Ackroyd. When Michael Morton adapted the novel for the stage, he replaced the character of Caroline with a young girl. This change saddened Christie and she determined to give old maids a voice: Miss Marple was born.
+
+Christie is popularly believed to have taken the name from Marple railway station, through which she passed, though a letter she wrote to a fan appears to prove that the name was inspired by a visit to a sale at Marple Hall in the same town, near her sister Margaret Watts' home at Abney Hall.
+
+Character
+The character of Jane Marple in the first Miss Marple book, The Murder at the Vicarage, is quite different from how she appears in later books. This early version of Miss Marple is a gleeful gossip and not an especially nice woman. The residents of St. Mary Mead like her but are often tired of her nosy nature and the fact she seems to expect the worst of everyone. In later books, she becomes a kinder person.
+
+Miss Marple solves difficult crimes thanks to her shrewd intelligence, and St. Mary Mead, over her lifetime, has given her seemingly infinite examples of the negative side of human nature. Crimes always remind her of a previous incident, although acquaintances may be bored by analogies that often lead her to a deeper realisation about the true nature of a crime. She also has a remarkable ability to latch onto a casual comment and connect it to the case at hand. In several stories, she is able to rely on her acquaintance with Sir Henry Clithering, a retired commissioner of the Metropolitan Police, for official information when required.
+
+Miss Marple never married and has no close living relatives. Her nephew, the "well-known author" Raymond West, appears in some stories, including The Thirteen Problems, Sleeping Murder, and Ingots of Gold (which also feature his wife, Joyce Lemprière). Raymond overestimates himself and underestimates his aunt's mental acuity. Miss Marple employs young women (including Clara, Emily, Alice, Esther, Gwenda, and Amy) from a nearby orphanage, whom she trains for service as general housemaids after the retirement of her long-time maid-housekeeper, faithful Florence. She was briefly looked after by her irritating companion, Miss Knight. In her later years, companion Cherry Baker, first introduced in The Mirror Crack'd From Side to Side, lives in.
+
+Miss Marple has never worked for her living and is of independent means, although she benefits in her old age from the financial support of her nephew Raymond. She is not from the aristocracy or landed gentry, but is quite at home among them; as a gentlewoman, Miss Marple may thus be considered a female version of the gentleman detective, a staple of British detective fiction. She demonstrates a remarkably thorough education, including some art courses that involved the study of human anatomy using human cadavers. In They Do It with Mirrors (1952), it is revealed that Miss Marple grew up in a cathedral close, and that she studied at an Italian finishing school with American sisters Ruth Van Rydock and Caroline "Carrie" Louise Serrocold.
+
+While Miss Marple is described as "an old lady" in many of the stories, her age is rarely mentioned and is not consistently presented. In At Bertram's Hotel, published in 1965, it is said she visited the hotel when she was 14 and almost 60 years have passed since then, implying that she is nearly 75 years old; but in 4:50 from Paddington, published almost a decade earlier in 1957, she says she will be "90 next year."
+
+Excluding Sleeping Murder, 41 years passed between the first and last-written novels, and many characters grow and age. An example would be the Vicar's nephew: in The Murder at the Vicarage, the Reverend Mr Clement's nephew Dennis is a teenager; in The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side, it is mentioned that the nephew is now an adult and has a successful career. The effects of ageing are seen on Miss Marple, such as needing a holiday after illness in A Caribbean Mystery, but she is if anything more agile in Nemesis, set only 16 months later.
+
+Miss Marple's background is described in some detail, albeit in glimpses across the novels and short stories in which she appears. She has a very large family, including a sister, the mother of Raymond, and Mabel Denham, a young woman who was accused of poisoning her husband Geoffrey (The Thumb Mark of St. Peter).
+
+Bibliography
+Agatha Christie wrote 12 novels and 20 short stories featuring Miss Marple.
+
+Miss Marple series
+ The Murder at the Vicarage (1930, Novel)
+ The Body in the Library (1942, Novel)
+ The Moving Finger (1943, Novel)
+ A Murder Is Announced (1950, Novel)
+ They Do It with Mirrors (1952, Novel) - also published in the United States as Murder With Mirrors
+ A Pocket Full of Rye (1953, Novel)
+ 4.50 from Paddington (1957, Novel) - also published in the United States as What Mrs. McGillicuddy Saw!
+ The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side (1962, Novel)
+ A Caribbean Mystery (1964, Novel)
+ At Bertram's Hotel (1965, Novel)
+ Nemesis (1971, Novel)
+ Sleeping Murder (1976, Novel)
+
+Miss Marple short story collections
+ The Thirteen Problems (1932 short story collection featuring Miss Marple, also published as The Tuesday Club Murders)
+The Regatta Mystery and Other Stories (1939, Collection)
+ Three Blind Mice and Other Stories (1950, Collection)
+ The Adventure of the Christmas Pudding (1960, Collection)
+ Double Sin and Other Stories (1961, Collection)
+ Miss Marple's Final Cases and Two Other Stories (short stories collected posthumously, also published as Miss Marple's Final Cases, but only six of the eight stories actually feature Miss Marple) (written between 1939 and 1954, published 1979)
+ Miss Marple: The Complete Short Stories, published 1985, includes 20 from 4 sets: The Thirteen Problems, The Regatta Mystery, Three Blind Mice and Other Stories, and Double Sin and Other Stories.
+
+Miss Marple also appears in "Greenshaw's Folly", a short story included as part of the Poirot collection The Adventure of the Christmas Pudding (1960). Four stories in the Three Blind Mice collection (1950) feature Miss Marple: "Strange Jest", "Tape-Measure Murder", "The Case of the Caretaker", and "The Case of the Perfect Maid".
+
+The Autograph edition of Miss Marple's Final Cases includes the eight in the original plus "Greenshaw's Folly".
+
+Continuations not by Christie
+ Marple: Twelve New Mysteries, collection with stories written by Naomi Alderman, Leigh Bardugo, Alyssa Cole, Lucy Foley, Elly Griffiths, Natalie Haynes, Jean Kwok, Val McDermid, Karen M. McManus, Dreda Say Mitchell, Kate Mosse, and Ruth Ware (published 2022)
+
+Books about Miss Marple
+ The Life and Times of Miss Jane Marple – a biography by Anne Hart
+
+Stage
+A stage adaptation of Murder at the Vicarage, by Moie Charles and Barbara Toy, was first seen at Northampton on 17 October 1949; it was directed by Reginald Tate, starred the 35-year-old Barbara Mullen as Miss Marple, and after touring, reached the Playhouse Theatre in London's West End on 14 December. Having run till late March 1950, it then went on tour again.
+
+In July 1974, Mullen (by then 60) returned to the role in another national tour of the same play, culminating 12 months later when the show opened at London's Savoy Theatre on 28 July 1975. At the end of March 1976, the Miss Marple role was taken over by Avril Angers, after which the production transferred to the Fortune Theatre on 5 July. The role then passed to Muriel Pavlow in June 1977 and to Gabrielle Hamilton late the following year; the production finally closed in October 1979.
+
+On 21 September 1977, while Murder at the Vicarage was still running at the Fortune, a stage adaptation by Leslie Darbon of A Murder Is Announced opened at the Vaudeville Theatre, with Dulcie Gray as Miss Marple. The show ran to the end of September 1978 and then toured.
+
+Films
+
+Margaret Rutherford
+Margaret Rutherford played Miss Marple in four films directed by George Pollock between 1961 and 1964. These were successful light comedies, but Christie herself  was disappointed with them. Nevertheless, Agatha Christie dedicated the novel The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side to Rutherford.
+
+Rutherford presented the character as a bold and eccentric old lady, different from the prim and birdlike character Christie created in her novels. As penned by Christie, Miss Marple has never worked for a living, but the character as portrayed by Margaret Rutherford briefly works as a cook-housekeeper, a stage actress, a sailor and criminal reformer, and is offered the chance to run a riding establishment-cum-hotel. Her education and genteel background are hinted at when she mentions her awards at marksmanship, fencing, and equestrianism (although these hints are played for comedic value).
+
+Murder, She Said (1961) was the first of the four British MGM productions starring Rutherford. This film was based on the 1957 novel 4:50 from Paddington (U.S. title, What Mrs. McGillicuddy Saw!), and the changes made in the plot were typical of the series. In the film, Mrs. McGillicuddy is cut from the plot. Miss Marple herself sees an apparent murder committed on a train running alongside hers. Actress Joan Hickson, who played Marple in the 1984–1992 television adaptations, has a role as a housekeeper in this movie.
+
+Murder at the Gallop (1963), based on the 1953 Hercule Poirot novel After the Funeral (in this film, she is identified as Miss JTV Marple, though there was no indication as to what the extra initials might stand for).
+
+Murder Most Foul (1964), based on the 1952 Poirot novel Mrs McGinty's Dead.
+
+Murder Ahoy! (1964). The last film is not based on any Christie work but displays a few plot elements from They Do It With Mirrors (viz., the ship is used as a reform school for wayward boys and one of the teachers uses them as a crime force), and there is a kind of salute to The Mousetrap.
+
+The music to all four films was composed and conducted by Ron Goodwin. The same theme is used on all four films with slight variations in each. The score was written within a couple of weeks by Goodwin who was approached by Pollock after Pollock had heard about him from Stanley Black. Black had worked with Pollock on Stranger in Town in 1957 and had previously hired Goodwin as his orchestrator.
+
+Rutherford, who was 68 years old when the first film was shot in February 1961, insisted that she wear her own clothes during the filming of the movie, as well as having her husband, Stringer Davis, appear alongside her as the character Mr Stringer. The Rutherford films are frequently repeated on television in Germany, and in that country Miss Marple is generally identified with Rutherford's quirky portrayal.
+
+Rutherford also appeared briefly as Miss Marple in the parodic Hercule Poirot adventure The Alphabet Murders (1965).
+
+Angela Lansbury
+In 1980, Angela Lansbury played Miss Marple in The Mirror Crack'd (EMI, directed by Guy Hamilton), based on Christie's 1962 novel. The film featured an all-star cast that included Elizabeth Taylor, Rock Hudson, Geraldine Chaplin, Tony Curtis, and Kim Novak. Edward Fox appeared as Inspector Craddock, who did Miss Marple's legwork. Lansbury's Marple was a crisp, intelligent woman who moved stiffly and spoke in clipped tones. Unlike most incarnations of Miss Marple, this one smoked cigarettes. Lansbury was later cast as Jessica Fletcher in Murder, She Wrote, a similar role.
+
+Ita Ever
+In 1983, Estonian stage and film actress Ita Ever starred in the Russian language Mosfilm adaptation of Agatha Christie's novel A Pocket Full of Rye (using the Russian edition's translated title, The Secret of the Blackbirds) as the character of Miss Marple. Ever has also portrayed the character of Miss Marple in the Eesti Televisioon (ETV) series Miss Marple Stories in 1990, and onstage at the Tallinn City Theatre in a production of The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side in 2005.
+
+Television
+The first on-screen portrayal of Miss Marple was British actress and singer Gracie Fields, playing her in a 1956 episode of the American series Goodyear TV Playhouse based on A Murder Is Announced, the 1950 Christie novel.
+
+In 1970, the character of Miss Marple was portrayed by  in a West German television adaptation of The Murder at the Vicarage  (Mord im Pfarrhaus).
+
+Helen Hayes
+American stage and screen actress Helen Hayes portrayed Miss Marple in two American television films near the end of her decades-long acting career, both for CBS: A Caribbean Mystery (1983) and Murder with Mirrors (1985). Sue Grafton contributed to the screenplay of the former. Hayes's Marple was benign and chirpy. She had earlier appeared in a television film adaptation of the non-Marple Christie story Murder Is Easy, playing an elderly lady somewhat similar to Miss Marple.
+
+Joan Hickson
+
+From 1984 to 1992, the BBC adapted all of the original Miss Marple novels as a series titled Miss Marple. Joan Hickson played the lead role. In the 1940s, she had appeared on stage in an Agatha Christie play, Appointment with Death, which was seen by Christie who wrote in a note to her, "I hope one day you will play my dear Miss Marple". She portrayed a maid in the 1937 film, Love from a Stranger, which starred Ann Harding and Basil Rathbone, another Agatha Christie play adaptation. As well as portraying Miss Marple on television, Hickson narrated Miss Marple stories for audio books. In the "Binge!" article of Entertainment Weekly Issue #1343–1344 (26 December 2014 – 3 January 2015), the writers picked Hickson as "Best Marple" in the "Hercule Poirot & Miss Marple" timeline.
+
+Listing of the TV series featuring Joan Hickson:
+ The Body in the Library (1984)
+ The Moving Finger (1985)
+ A Murder Is Announced (1985)
+ A Pocket Full of Rye (1985)
+ The Murder at the Vicarage (1986) – BAFTA nomination
+ Sleeping Murder (1987)
+ At Bertram's Hotel (1987)
+ Nemesis (1987) – BAFTA nomination
+ 4.50 from Paddington (1987)
+ A Caribbean Mystery (1989)
+ They Do It With Mirrors (1991)
+ The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side (1992)
+
+Geraldine McEwan (2004–2008)/Julia McKenzie (2009–2013)
+
+Beginning in 2004, ITV broadcast a series of adaptations of Agatha Christie's books under the title Agatha Christie's Marple, usually referred to as Marple. Geraldine McEwan starred in the first three series. Julia McKenzie took over the role in the fourth season.
+
+The adaptations change the plots and characters of the original books (e.g. incorporating lesbian affairs, changing the identities of some killers, renaming or removing significant characters, and even using stories from other books in which Miss Marple did not originally feature). In the Geraldine McEwan series it is revealed that when she was young (portrayed by Julie Cox in a flashback), Miss Marple had an affair with a married soldier, Captain Ainsworth, who was killed in action in World War I, in December 1915. It is also said (in A Murder Is Announced) that she served as an ambulance driver during World War I.
+
+Listing of the TV series featuring Geraldine McEwan and Julia McKenzie:
+ The Body in the Library (2004)
+ The Murder at the Vicarage (2004)
+ 4.50 from Paddington (2004)
+ A Murder Is Announced (2005)
+ Sleeping Murder (2005)
+ The Moving Finger (2006)
+ By the Pricking of My Thumbs (2006)
+ The Sittaford Mystery (2006)
+ At Bertram's Hotel (2007)
+ Ordeal by Innocence (2007)
+ Towards Zero (2008)
+ Nemesis (2008)
+ A Pocket Full of Rye (2009)
+ Murder Is Easy (2009)
+ They Do It with Mirrors (2010)
+ Why Didn't They Ask Evans? (2011)
+ The Pale Horse (2010)
+ The Secret of Chimneys (2010)
+ The Blue Geranium (2010)
+ The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side (2011)
+ A Caribbean Mystery (2013)
+ Greenshaw's Folly (2013)
+ Endless Night (2013)
+
+In 2015, CBS planned a "much younger" version of the character, a granddaughter who takes over a California bookstore.
+
+In 2018, Miss Marple was portrayed by Yunjin Kim in the South Korean television series Ms. Ma, Nemesis.
+
+Anime
+
+From 2004 to 2005, Japanese TV network NHK produced a 39 episode anime series titled Agatha Christie's Great Detectives Poirot and Marple, which features both Miss Marple and Hercule Poirot. Miss Marple's voice is provided by Kaoru Yachigusa. Episodes adapted both short stories and novels.
+
+The anime series dramatised the following Miss Marple stories:
+ Strange Jest (EP 3)
+ The Case of the Perfect Maid (EP 4)
+ The Tape-Measure Murder (EP 13)
+ Ingots of Gold (EP 14)
+ The Blue Geranium (EP 15)
+ 4.50 from Paddington (EP 21–24)
+ Motive versus Opportunity (EP 27)
+ Sleeping Murder (EP 30–33)
+
+Radio
+
+June Whitfield starred as Miss Marple in Michael Bakewell's adaptations of all twelve novels, broadcast on BBC Radio 4 between 1993 and 2001.
+
+Three short stories with Whitfield ("Tape-Measure Murder", "The Case of the Perfect Maid" and "Sanctuary") were later broadcast under the collective title Miss Marple's Final Cases weekly 16 – 30 September 2015.
+
+Other appearances
+
+Marple was highlighted in volume 20 of the Case Closed manga's edition of "Gosho Aoyama's Mystery Library", a section of the graphic novels (usually the last page) where the author introduces a different detective (or occasionally, a villain) from mystery literature, television, or other media.
+
+In the 1976 Neil Simon spoof Murder by Death, Miss Marple is parodied as "Miss Marbles" by Elsa Lanchester.
+
+See also
+
+ List of female detective characters
+
+References
+
+External links
+ Miss Marple at the official Agatha Christie website
+ Miss Marple on IMDb
+ 
+ 
+
+ 
+Book series introduced in 1930
+British novels adapted into films
+British novels adapted into plays
+Characters in British novels of the 20th century
+Detective television series
+Agatha Christie characters
+Female characters in literature
+Fictional amateur detectives
+Literary characters introduced in 1927
+Fictional English people
+Novel series
+Novels adapted into radio programs
+British novels adapted into television shows
+April is the fourth month of the year in the Gregorian and Julian calendars. It is the first of four months to have a length of 30 days, and the second of five months to have a length of less than 31 days.
+
+April is commonly associated with the season of spring in the Northern Hemisphere, and autumn in the Southern Hemisphere, where it is the seasonal equivalent to October in the Northern Hemisphere and vice versa.
+
+History 
+
+The Romans gave this month the Latin name Aprilis but the derivation of this name is uncertain. The traditional etymology is from the verb aperire, "to open", in allusion to its being the season when trees and flowers begin to "open", which is supported by comparison with the modern Greek use of άνοιξη (ánixi) (opening) for spring. Since some of the Roman months were named in honor of divinities, and as April was sacred to the goddess Venus, her Veneralia being held on the first day, it has been suggested that Aprilis was originally her month Aphrilis, from her equivalent Greek goddess name Aphrodite (Aphros), or from the Etruscan name Apru. Jacob Grimm suggests the name of a hypothetical god or hero, Aper or Aprus.
+
+April was the second month of the earliest Roman calendar, before Ianuarius and Februarius were added by King Numa Pompilius about 700 BC. It became the fourth month of the calendar year (the year when twelve months are displayed in order) during the time of the decemvirs about 450 BC, when it was 29 days long. The 30th day was added back during the reform of the calendar undertaken by Julius Caesar in the mid-40s BC, which produced the Julian calendar.
+
+The Anglo-Saxons called April ēastre-monaþ. The Venerable Bede says in The Reckoning of Time that this month ēastre is the root of the word Easter. He further states that the month was named after a goddess Eostre whose feast was in that month. It is also attested by Einhard in his work, Vita Karoli Magni.
+
+St George's day is the twenty-third of the month; and St Mark's Eve, with its superstition that the ghosts of those who are doomed to die within the year will be seen to pass into the church, falls on the twenty-fourth.
+
+In China the symbolic ploughing of the earth by the emperor and princes of the blood took place in their third month, which frequently corresponds to April. In Finnish April is huhtikuu, meaning slash-and-burn moon, when gymnosperms for beat and burn clearing of farmland were felled.
+
+In Slovene, the most established traditional name is mali traven, meaning the month when plants start growing. It was first written in 1466 in the Škofja Loka manuscript.
+
+The month Aprilis originally had 30 days; Numa Pompilius made it 29 days long; finally, Julius Caesar's calendar reform made it 30 days long again, which was not changed in the calendar revision of Augustus Caesar in 8 BC. 
+
+In Ancient Rome, the festival of Cerealia was held for seven days from mid-to-late April, but exact dates are uncertain. Feriae Latinae was also held in April, with the date varying. Other ancient Roman observances include Veneralia (April 1), Megalesia (April 10–16), Fordicidia (April 15), Parilia (April 21), Vinalia Urbana (April 23), Robigalia (April 25), and Serapia (April 25). Floralia was held April 27 during the Republican era, or April 28 on the Julian calendar, and lasted until May 3. However, these dates do not correspond to the modern Gregorian calendar.
+
+The Lyrids meteor shower appears on April 16 – April 26 each year, with the peak generally occurring on April 22. The Eta Aquariids meteor shower also appears in April. It is visible from about April 21 to about May 20 each year with peak activity on or around May 6. The Pi Puppids appear on April 23, but only in years around the parent comet's perihelion date. The Virginids also shower at various dates in April.
+
+The "Days of April" (journées d'avril) is a name assigned in French history to a series of insurrections at Lyons, Paris and elsewhere, against the government of Louis Philippe in 1834, which led to violent repressive measures, and to a famous trial known as the procès d'avril.
+
+Symbols 
+April's birthstone is the diamond. The birth flower is the common daisy (Bellis perennis) or the sweet pea. The zodiac signs are Aries (until April 19) and Taurus (April 20 onward).
+
+Observances 
+This list does not necessarily imply either official status nor general observance.
+
+Month-long 
+
+ In Catholic, Protestant and Orthodox tradition, April is the Month of the Resurrection of the Lord. April and March are the months in which is celebrated the moveable Feast of Easter Sunday.
+ National Pet Month (United Kingdom)
+
+United States 
+ Arab American Heritage Month
+ Autism Awareness Month
+ Cancer Control Month
+ Community College Awareness Month
+ Confederate History Month (Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, Texas, Virginia)
+ Financial Literacy Month
+ Jazz Appreciation Month
+ Mathematics and Statistics Awareness Month
+ Month of the Military Child
+ National Poetry Month
+ National Poetry Writing Month
+ Occupational Therapy Month
+ National Prevent Child Abuse Month
+ National Volunteer Month
+ Parkinson's Disease Awareness Month
+ Rosacea Awareness Month
+ Sexual Assault Awareness Month
+
+United States food months 
+ Fresh Florida Tomato Month
+ National Food Month
+ National Grilled Cheese Month
+ National Pecan Month
+ National Soft Pretzel Month
+ National Soyfoods Month
+
+Non-Gregorian 
+(All Baha'i, Islamic, and Jewish observances begin at the sundown prior to the date listed, and end at sundown of the date in question unless otherwise noted.)
+ List of observances set by the Bahá'í calendar
+ List of observances set by the Chinese calendar
+ List of observances set by the Hebrew calendar
+ List of observances set by the Islamic calendar
+ List of observances set by the Solar Hijri calendar
+
+Movable
+
+Variable; 2021 dates shown 
+ Youth Homelessness Matters Day
+ National Health Day (Kiribati): April 6
+ Oral, Head and Neck Cancer Awareness Week (United States): April 13–19
+ National Park Week (United States): April 18–26
+ Crime Victims' Rights Week (United States): April 19–25
+ National Volunteer Week: April 19–25
+ European Immunization Week: April 20–26
+ Day of Silence (United States): April 24
+ Pay It Forward Day: April 28 (International observance)
+ Denim Day: April 29 (International observance)
+ Day of Dialogue (United States)
+ Vaccination Week In The Americas
+ See: List of movable Western Christian observances
+ See: List of movable Eastern Christian observances
+
+First Wednesday 
+ National Day of Hope (United States)
+
+First Saturday 
+ Ulcinj Municipality Day (Ulcinj, Montenegro)
+
+First Sunday 
+ Daylight saving time ends (Australia and New Zealand)
+ Geologists Day (former Soviet Union countries)
+ Kanamara Matsuri (Kawasaki, Japan)
+ Opening Day (United States)
+
+First full week 
+ National Library Week (United States)
+ National Library Workers Day (United States) (Tuesday of National Library week, April 4)
+ National Bookmobile Day (Wednesday of National Library week, April 5)
+ National Public Health Week (United States)
+ National Public Safety Telecommunicators Week (United States)
+
+Second Wednesday 
+ International Day of Pink
+
+Second Thursday 
+ National Former Prisoner of War Recognition Day (United States)
+
+Second Friday 
+ Fast and Prayer Day (Liberia)
+ Air Force Day (Russia)
+ Kamakura Matsuri at Tsurugaoka Hachiman (Kamakura, Japan), lasts until third Sunday.
+
+Second Sunday 
+ Children's Day (Peru)
+
+Week of April 14 
+ Pan-American Week (United States)
+
+Third Wednesday 
+ Administrative Professionals' Day (New Zealand)
+
+Third Thursday 
+ National High Five Day (United States)
+
+Third Saturday 
+ Record Store Day (International observance)
+
+Last full week of April 
+ Administrative Professionals Week (Malaysia, North America)
+ World Immunization Week
+
+Week of April 23 
+ Canada Book Week (Canada)
+
+Week of the New Moon 
+ National Dark-Sky Week (United States)
+
+Third Monday 
+ Patriots' Day (Massachusetts, Maine, United States)
+ Queen's Official Birthday (Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha)
+ Sechseläuten (Zürich, Switzerland)
+
+Wednesday of last full week of April 
+ Administrative Professionals' Day (Hong Kong, North America)
+
+First Thursday after April 18 
+ First Day of Summer (Iceland)
+
+Fourth Thursday 
+ Take Our Daughters And Sons To Work Day (United States)
+
+Last Friday 
+ Arbor Day (United States)
+ Día de la Chupina (Rosario, Argentina)
+
+Last Friday in April to first Sunday in May 
+ Arbour Week in Ontario
+
+Last Saturday 
+ Children's Day (Colombia)
+ National Rebuilding Day (United States)
+ National Sense of Smell Day (United States)
+ World Tai Chi and Qigong Day
+
+Last Sunday 
+ Flag Day (Åland, Finland)
+ Turkmen Racing Horse Festival (Turkmenistan)
+
+April 27 (April 26 if April 27 is a Sunday) 
+ Koningsdag (Netherlands)
+
+Last Monday 
+ Confederate Memorial Day (Alabama, Georgia (U.S. state), and Mississippi, United States)
+
+Last Wednesday 
+ International Noise Awareness Day
+
+Fixed 
+ April 1
+ April Fools' Day
+ Arbor Day (Tanzania)
+ Civil Service Day (Thailand)
+ Cyprus National Day (Cyprus)
+ Edible Book Day
+ Fossil Fools Day
+ Kha b-Nisan (Assyrian people)
+ National Civil Service Day (Thailand)
+ Odisha Day (Odisha, India)
+ Start of Testicular Cancer Awareness week (United States), April 1–7
+ Season for Nonviolence January 30 – April 4
+ April 2
+ International Children's Book Day (International observance)
+ Malvinas Day (Argentina)
+ National Peanut Butter and Jelly Day (United States)
+ Thai Heritage Conservation Day (Thailand)
+ Unity of Peoples of Russia and Belarus Day (Belarus)
+ World Autism Awareness Day (International observance)
+ April 3
+ April 4
+ Children's Day (Hong Kong, Taiwan)
+ Independence Day (Senegal)
+ International Day for Mine Awareness and Assistance in Mine Action
+ Peace Day (Angola)
+ April 5
+ Children's Day (Palestinian territories)
+ National Caramel Day (United States)
+ Sikmogil (South Korea)
+ April 6
+ Chakri Day (Thailand)
+ National Beer Day (United Kingdom)
+ New Beer's Eve (United States)
+ Tartan Day (United States & Canada)
+ April 7
+ Flag Day (Slovenia)
+ Genocide Memorial Day (Rwanda), and its related observance:
+ International Day of Reflection on the 1994 Rwanda Genocide (United Nations)
+ Motherhood and Beauty Day (Armenia)
+ National Beer Day (United States)
+ No Housework Day
+ Sheikh Abeid Amani Karume Day (Tanzania)
+ Women's Day (Mozambique)
+ World Health Day (International observance)
+ April 8
+ Buddha's Birthday (Japan only, other countries follow different calendars)
+ Feast of the First Day of the Writing of the Book of the Law (Thelema)
+ International Romani Day (International observance)
+ Trading Cards for Grown-ups Day
+ April 9
+ Anniversary of the German Invasion of Denmark (Denmark)
+ Baghdad Liberation Day (Iraqi Kurdistan)
+ Constitution Day (Kosovo)
+ Day of National Unity (Georgia)
+ Day of the Finnish Language (Finland)
+ Day of Valor or Araw ng Kagitingan (Philippines)
+ Feast of the Second Day of the Writing of the Book of the Law (Thelema)
+ International Banshtai Tsai Day
+ Martyr's Day (Tunisia)
+ National Former Prisoner of War Recognition Day (United States)
+ Remembrance for Haakon Sigurdsson (The Troth)
+ Vimy Ridge Day (Canada)
+ April 10
+ Day of the Builder (Azerbaijan)
+ Feast of the Third Day of the Writing of the Book of the Law (Thelema)
+ Siblings Day (International observance)
+ April 11
+ Juan Santamaría Day, anniversary of his death in the Second Battle of Rivas. (Costa Rica)
+ International Louie Louie Day
+ National Cheese Fondue Day (United States)
+ World Parkinson's Day
+ April 12
+ Children's Day (Bolivia and Haiti)
+ Commemoration of first human in space by Yuri Gagarin:
+ Cosmonautics Day (Russia)
+ International Day of Human Space Flight
+ Yuri's Night (International observance)
+ Halifax Day (North Carolina)
+ National Grilled Cheese Sandwich Day (United States)
+ National Redemption Day (Liberia)
+ Walk on Your Wild Side Day
+ April 13
+ Jefferson's Birthday (United States)
+ Katyn Memorial Day (Poland)
+ Teacher's Day (Ecuador)
+ First day of Thingyan (Myanmar) (April 13–16)
+ Unfairly Prosecuted Persons Day (Slovakia)
+ April 14
+ ʔabusibaree (Okinawa Islands, Japan)
+ Ambedkar Jayanti (India)
+ Black Day (South Korea)
+ Commemoration of Anfal Genocide Against the Kurds (Iraqi Kurdistan)
+ Dhivehi Language Day (Maldives)
+ Day of Mologa (Yaroslavl Oblast, Russia)
+ Day of the Georgian language (Georgia (country))
+ Season of Emancipation (April 14 to August 23) (Barbados)
+ N'Ko Alphabet Day (Mande speakers)
+ Pohela Boishakh (Bangladesh)
+ Pana Sankranti (Odisha, India)
+ Puthandu (Tamils) (India, Malaysia, Singapore, Sri Lanka)
+ Second day of Songkran (Thailand) (Thailand)
+ Pan American Day (several countries in the Americas)
+ The first day of Takayama Spring Festival (Takayama, Gifu, Japan)
+ Vaisakh (Punjab (region)), (India and Pakistan)
+ Youth Day (Angola)
+ April 15
+ Day of the Sun (North Korea).
+ Hillsborough Disaster Memorial (Liverpool, England)
+ Jackie Robinson Day (United States)
+ Pohela Boishakh (West Bengal, India) (Note: celebrated on April 14 in Bangladesh)
+ Last day of Songkran (Thailand) (Thailand)
+ Tax Day, the official deadline for filing an individual tax return (or requesting an extension). (United States, Philippines)
+ Universal Day of Culture
+ World Art Day
+ April 16
+ Birthday of José de Diego (Puerto Rico, United States)
+ Birthday of Queen Margrethe II (Denmark)
+ Emancipation Day (Washington, D.C., United States)
+ Foursquare Day (International observance)
+ Memorial Day for the Victims of the Holocaust (Hungary)
+ National Healthcare Decisions Day (United States)
+ Remembrance of Chemical Attack on Balisan and Sheikh Wasan (Iraqi Kurdistan)
+ World Voice Day
+ April 17
+ Blah Blah Blah Day
+ Evacuation Day (Syria)
+ FAO Day (Iraq)
+ Flag Day (American Samoa)
+ Malbec World Day
+ National Cheeseball Day (United States)
+ National Espresso Day (Italy)
+ Women's Day (Gabon)
+ World Hemophilia Day
+ April 18
+ Anniversary of the Victory over the Teutonic Knights in the Battle of the Ice, 1242 (Russia)
+ Army Day (Iran)
+ Coma Patients' Day (Poland)
+ Friend's Day (Brazil)
+ Independence Day (Zimbabwe)
+ International Day For Monuments and Sites
+ Invention Day (Japan)
+ Pet Owner's Independence Day
+ April 19
+ Army Day (Brazil)
+ Beginning of the Independence Movement (Venezuela)
+ Bicycle Day
+ Dutch-American Friendship Day (United States)
+ Holocaust Remembrance Day (Poland)
+ Indigenous Peoples Day (Brazil)
+ King Mswati III's birthday (Eswatini)
+ Landing of the 33 Patriots Day (Uruguay)
+ National Garlic Day (United States)
+ National Rice Ball Day (United States)
+ Primrose Day (United Kingdom)
+ April 20
+ 420 (cannabis culture) (International)
+ UN Chinese Language Day (United Nations)
+ April 21
+ A&M Day (Texas A&M University)
+ Civil Service Day (India)
+ Day of Local Self-Government (Russia)
+ Grounation Day (Rastafari movement)
+ Heroic Defense of Veracruz (Mexico)
+ Kang Pan-sok's Birthday (North Korea)
+ Kartini Day (Indonesia)
+ Local Self Government Day (Russia)
+ National Tree Planting Day (Kenya)
+ San Jacinto Day (Texas)
+ Queen's Official Birthday (Falkland Islands)
+ Tiradentes' Day (Brazil)
+ Vietnam Book Day (Vietnam)
+ April 22
+ Discovery Day (Brazil)
+ Earth Day (International observance) and its related observance:
+ International Mother Earth Day
+ Holocaust Remembrance Day (Serbia)
+ National Jelly Bean Day (United States)
+ April 23
+ Castile and León Day (Castile and León, Spain)
+ German Beer Day (Germany)
+ Independence Day (Conch Republic, Key West, Florida)
+ International Pixel-Stained Technopeasant Day
+ Khongjom Day (Manipur, India)
+ National Sovereignty and Children's Day (Turkey and Northern Cyprus)
+ Navy Day (China)
+ St George's Day (England) and its related observances:
+ Canada Book Day (Canada)
+ La Diada de Sant Jordi (Catalonia, Spain)
+ World Book Day
+ UN English Language Day (United Nations)
+ April 24
+ Armenian Genocide Remembrance Day (Armenia)
+ Concord Day (Niger)
+ Children's Day (Zambia)
+ Democracy Day (Nepal)
+ Fashion Revolution Day
+ Flag Day (Ireland)
+ International Sculpture Day
+ Kapyong Day (Australia)
+ Labour Safety Day (Bangladesh)
+ National Panchayati Raj Day (India)
+ National Pigs in a Blanket Day (United States)
+ Republic Day (The Gambia)
+ St Mark's Eve (Western Christianity)
+ World Day for Laboratory Animals
+ April 25
+ Anniversary of the First Cabinet of Kurdish Government (Iraqi Kurdistan)
+ Anzac Day (Australia, New Zealand)
+ Arbor Day (Germany)
+ DNA Day
+ Feast of Saint Mark (Western Christianity)
+ Flag Day (Faroe Islands)
+ Flag Day (Eswatini)
+ Freedom Day (Portugal)
+ Liberation Day (Italy)
+ Major Rogation (Western Christianity)
+ Military Foundation Day (North Korea)
+ National Zucchini Bread Day (United States)
+ Parental Alienation Awareness Day
+ Red Hat Society Day
+ Sinai Liberation Day (Egypt)
+ World Malaria Day
+ April 26
+ Chernobyl disaster related observances:
+ Memorial Day of Radiation Accidents and Catastrophes (Russia)
+ Day of Remembrance of the Chernobyl tragedy (Belarus)
+ Confederate Memorial Day (Florida, United States)
+ Hug A Friend Day
+ Hug an Australian Day
+ Lesbian Visibility Day
+ National Pretzel Day (United States)
+ Old Permic Alphabet Day
+ Union Day (Tanzania)
+ World Intellectual Property Day
+ April 27
+ Day of Russian Parliamentarism (Russia)
+ Day of the Uprising Against the Occupying Forces (Slovenia)
+ Flag Day (Moldova)
+ Freedom Day (South Africa)
+ UnFreedom Day
+ Independence Day (Sierra Leone)
+ Independence Day (Togo)
+ National Day (Mayotte)
+ National Day (Sierra Leone)
+ National Prime Rib Day (United States)
+ National Veterans' Day (Finland)
+ April 28
+ Lawyers' Day (Orissa, India)
+ Mujahideen Victory Day (Afghanistan)
+ National Day (Sardinia, Italy)
+ National Heroes Day (Barbados)
+ Restoration of Sovereignty Day (Japan)
+ Workers' Memorial Day and World Day for Safety and Health at Work (international)
+ National Day of Mourning (Canada)
+ April 29
+ Day of Remembrance for all Victims of Chemical Warfare (United Nations)
+ International Dance Day (UNESCO)
+ Princess Bedike's Birthday (Denmark)
+ National Shrimp Scampi Day (United States)
+ Shōwa Day, traditionally the start of the Golden Week holiday period, which is April 29 and May 3–5. (Japan)
+ April 30
+ Armed Forces Day (Georgia (country))
+ Birthday of the King (Sweden)
+ Camarón Day (French Foreign Legion)
+ Children's Day (Mexico)
+ Consumer Protection Day (Thailand)
+ Honesty Day (United States)
+ International Jazz Day (UNESCO)
+ Martyr's Day (Pakistan)
+ May Eve, the eve of the first day of summer in the Northern hemisphere (see May 1):
+ Beltane begins at sunset in the Northern hemisphere, Samhain begins at sunset in the Southern hemisphere. (Neo-Druidic Wheel of the Year)
+ Carodejnice (Czech Republic and Slovakia)
+ Walpurgis Night (Central and Northern Europe)
+ National Persian Gulf Day (Iran)
+ Reunification Day (Vietnam)
+ Russian State Fire Service Day (Russia)
+ Tax Day (Canada)
+ Teachers' Day (Paraguay)
+
+See also 
+ Germanic calendar
+ List of historical anniversaries
+ Sinking of the RMS Titanic
+
+References
+
+External links 
+
+ National Arbor Day Foundation
+
+ 
+04
+August is the eighth month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars, and the fifth of seven months to have a length of 31 days.
+
+In the Southern Hemisphere, August is the seasonal equivalent of February in the Northern Hemisphere. In the Northern Hemisphere, August falls in the season of summer. In the Southern Hemisphere, the month falls during the season of winter. In many European countries, August is the holiday month for most workers. Numerous religious holidays occurred during August in ancient Rome.
+
+Certain meteor showers take place in August. The Kappa Cygnids take place in August, with the dates varying each year. The Alpha Capricornids meteor shower takes place as early as July 10 and ends at around August 10, and the  Southern Delta Aquariids take  place from mid-July to mid-August, with the peak usually around July 28–29. The Perseids, a major meteor shower, typically takes place between July 17 and August 24, with the days of the peak varying yearly. The star cluster of Messier 30 is best observed around August.
+
+Among the aborigines of the Canary Islands, especially among the Guanches of Tenerife, the month of August received in the name of Beñesmer or Beñesmen, which was also the harvest festival held this month.
+
+The month was originally named Sextilis in Latin because it was the 6th month in the original ten-month Roman calendar under Romulus in 753 BC, with March being the first month of the year. About 700 BC, it became the eighth month when January and February were added to the year before March by King Numa Pompilius, who also gave it 29 days. Julius Caesar added two days when he created the Julian calendar in , giving it its modern length of 31 days.
+
+In 8 BC, the month was renamed in honor of Emperor Augustus. According to a Senatus consultum quoted by Macrobius, he chose this month because it was the time of several of his great triumphs, including the conquest of Egypt. Commonly repeated lore has it that August has 31 days because Augustus wanted his month to match the length of Julius Caesar's July, but this is an invention of the 13th century scholar Johannes de Sacrobosco. Sextilis in fact had 31 days before it was renamed, and it was not chosen for its length.
+
+Symbols 
+
+  August's birthstones are the peridot, sardonyx, and spinel. Its birth flower is the gladiolus or poppy, meaning beauty, strength of character, love, marriage and family. The Western zodiac signs are Leo (until August 22) and Virgo (from August 23 onward).
+
+Observances 
+This list does not necessarily imply either official status or general observance.
+
+Non-Gregorian:  dates 
+(All Baha'i, Islamic, and Jewish observances begin at the sundown prior to the date listed, and end at sundown of the date in question unless otherwise noted.)
+ List of observances set by the Bahá'í calendar
+ List of observances set by the Chinese calendar
+ List of observances set by the Hebrew calendar
+ List of observances set by the Islamic calendar
+ List of observances set by the Solar Hijri calendar
+
+Month-long 
+ American Adventures Month (celebrating vacationing in the Americas)
+ Children's Eye Health and Safety Month
+ Digestive Tract Paralysis (DTP) Month
+ Get Ready for Kindergarten Month
+ Happiness Happens Month
+ Month of Philippine Languages or Buwan ng Wika (Philippines)
+ Neurosurgery Outreach Month
+ Psoriasis Awareness Month
+ Spinal Muscular Atrophy Awareness Month
+ What Will Be Your Legacy Month
+
+United States month-long 
+ National Black Business Month
+ National Children's Vision and Learning Month
+ National Immunization Awareness Month
+ National Princess Peach Month
+ National Water Quality Month
+ National Win with Civility Month
+
+Food months in the United States 
+ National Catfish Month
+ National Dippin' Dots Month
+ Family Meals Month
+ National Goat Cheese Month.
+ National Panini Month
+ Peach Month
+ Sandwich Month
+
+Moveable Gregorian 
+ National Science Week (Australia)
+ See also Movable Western Christian observances
+ See also Movable Eastern Christian observances
+
+Second to last Sunday in July and the following two weeks 
+ Construction Holiday (Quebec)
+
+1st Saturday 
+ Food Day (Canada)
+ Mead Day (United States)
+ National Mustard Day (United States)
+
+1st Sunday 
+ Air Force Day (Ukraine)
+ American Family Day (Arizona, United States)
+ Children's Day (Uruguay)
+ Friendship Day (United States)
+ International Forgiveness Day
+ Railway Workers' Day (Russia)
+
+First full week of August 
+ National Farmer's Market Week (United States)
+
+1st Monday 
+ August Public Holiday (Ireland)
+ Children's Day (Tuvalu)
+ Civic Holiday (Canada)
+ British Columbia Day (British Columbia, Canada)
+ Natal Day (Nova Scotia, Canada)
+ New Brunswick Day (New Brunswick, Canada)
+ Saskatchewan Day (Saskatchewan, Canada
+ Terry Fox Day (Manitoba, Canada)
+ Commerce Day (Iceland)
+ Emancipation Day (Anguilla, Antigua, The Bahamas, British Virgin Islands, Dominica, Grenada, Saint Kitts and Nevis)
+ Farmer's Day (Zambia)
+ Kadooment Day (Barbados)
+ Labor Day (Samoa)
+ National Day (Jamaica)
+ Picnic Day (Northern Territory, Australia)
+ Somers' Day (Bermuda)
+ Youth Day (Kiribati)
+
+1st Tuesday 
+ National Night Out (United States)
+
+1st Friday 
+ International Beer Day
+
+2nd Saturday 
+ Sports Day (Russia)
+
+Sunday on or closest to August 9
+ National Peacekeepers' Day (Canada)
+
+2nd Sunday 
+ Children's Day (Argentina, Chile, Uruguay)
+ Father's Day (Brazil, Samoa)
+ Melon Day (Turkmenistan)
+ Navy Day (Bulgaria)
+ National Day (Singapore)
+
+2nd Monday 
+ Heroes' Day (Zimbabwe)
+ Victory Day (Hawaii and Rhode Island, United States)
+
+2nd Tuesday 
+ Defence Forces Day (Zimbabwe)
+
+3rd Saturday 
+ National Honey Bee Day (United States)
+
+3rd Sunday 
+ Children's Day (Argentina, Peru)
+ Grandparents Day (Hong Kong)
+
+3rd Monday 
+ Discovery Day (Yukon, Canada)
+ Day of Hearts (Haarlem and Amsterdam, Netherlands)
+ National Mourning Day (Bangladesh)
+
+3rd Friday 
+ Hawaii Admission Day (Hawaii, United States)
+
+Last Thursday 
+ National Burger Day (United Kingdom)
+
+Last Sunday 
+ Coal Miner's Day (some former Soviet Union countries)
+ National Grandparents Day (Taiwan)
+
+Last Monday 
+ Father's Day (South Sudan)
+ National Heroes' Day (Philippines)
+ Liberation Day (Hong Kong)
+ Late Summer Bank Holiday (England, Northern Ireland and Wales)
+
+Fixed Gregorian 
+ Season of Emancipation (Barbados) (April 14 to August 23)
+ International Clown Week (August 1–7)
+ World Breastfeeding Week (August 1–7)
+ August 1
+ Armed Forces Day (China)
+ Armed Forces Day (Lebanon)
+ Azerbaijani Language and Alphabet Day (Azerbaijan)
+ Emancipation Day (Barbados, Guyana, Jamaica, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, St. Lucia, Trinidad and Tobago, Turks and Caicos Islands)
+ Imbolc (Neopaganism, Southern Hemisphere only)
+ Lammas (England, Scotland, Neopaganism, Northern Hemisphere only)
+ Lughnasadh (Gaels, Ireland, Scotland, Neopaganism, Northern Hemisphere only)
+ Minden Day (United Kingdom)
+ National Day (Benin)
+ National Milkshake Day (United States)
+ Official Birthday and Coronation Day of the King of Tonga (Tonga)
+ Pachamama Raymi (Quechua people in Ecuador and Peru)
+ Parents' Day (Democratic Republic of the Congo)
+ Procession of the Cross and the beginning of Dormition Fast (Eastern Orthodoxy)
+ Statehood Day (Colorado)
+ Swiss National Day (Switzerland)
+ Victory Day (Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam)
+ World Scout Scarf Day
+ Yorkshire Day (Yorkshire, England)
+ August 2
+ Airmobile Forces Day (Ukraine)
+ Day of Azerbaijani cinema (Azerbaijan)
+ Our Lady of the Angels Day (Costa Rica)
+ Paratroopers Day (Russia)
+ Republic Day (North Macedonia)
+ August 3
+ Anniversary of the Killing of Pidjiguiti (Guinea-Bissau)
+ Armed Forces Day (Equatorial Guinea)
+ Esther Day (United States)
+ Flag Day (Venezuela)
+ Independence Day (Niger)
+ Arbor Day (Niger)
+ National Guard Day (Venezuela)
+ National Watermelon Day (United States)
+ National White Wine Day (United States)
+ August 4
+ Coast Guard Day (United States)
+ Constitution Day (Cook Islands)
+ Matica slovenská Day (Slovakia)
+ Revolution Day (Burkina Faso)
+ August 5
+ Dedication of the Basilica of St Mary Major (Catholic Church)
+ Independence Day (Burkina Faso)
+ National Underwear Day (United States)
+ Victory and Homeland Thanksgiving Day and the Day of Croatian defenders (Croatia)
+ August 6
+ Feast of the Transfiguration
+ Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan's Accession Day. (United Arab Emirates)
+ Hiroshima Peace Memorial Ceremony (Hiroshima, Japan)
+ Independence Day (Bolivia)
+ Independence Day (Jamaica)
+ Russian Railway Troops Day (Russia)
+ August 7
+ Assyrian Martyrs Day (Assyrian community)
+ Battle of Boyacá Day (Colombia)
+ Emancipation Day (Saint Kitts and Nevis)
+ Independence Day (Ivory Coast)
+ Republic Day (Ivory Coast)
+ Youth Day (Kiribati)
+ August 8
+ Ceasefire Day (Iraqi Kurdistan)
+ Father's Day (Taiwan)
+ Happiness Happens Day (International observance)
+ International Cat Day
+ Namesday of Queen Silvia of Sweden, (Sweden)
+ Nane Nane Day (Tanzania)
+ Signal Troops Day (Ukraine)
+ August 9
+ Battle of Gangut Day (Russia)
+ International Day of the World's Indigenous People (United Nations)
+ National Day (Singapore)
+ National Women's Day (South Africa)
+ Remembrance for Radbod, King of the Frisians (The Troth)
+ August 10
+ Argentine Air Force Day (Argentina)
+ Constitution Day (Anguilla)
+ Declaration of Independence of Quito (Ecuador)
+ International Biodiesel Day
+ National S'more Day (United States)
+ August 11
+ Flag Day (Pakistan)
+ Independence Day (Chad)
+ Mountain Day (Japan)
+ August 12
+ Glorious Twelfth (United Kingdom)
+ HM the Queen's Birthday and National Mother's Day (Thailand)
+ International Youth Day (United Nations)
+ Russian Railway Troops Day (Russia)
+ Sea Org Day (Scientology)
+ World Elephant Day
+ August 13
+ Independence Day (Central African Republic)
+ International Lefthanders Day
+ National Filet Mignon Day (United States)
+ Women's Day (Tunisia)
+ August 14
+ Anniversary Day (Tristan da Cunha)
+ Commemoration of Wadi al-Dahab (Morocco)
+ Day of the Defenders of the Fatherland (Abkhazia)
+ Engineer's Day (Dominican Republic)
+ Falklands Day (Falkland Islands)
+ Independence Day (Pakistan)
+ National Creamsicle Day (United States)
+ Pramuka Day (Indonesia)
+ August 15
+ Feast Day of the Assumption of Mary (Catholic holy days of obligation, a public holiday in many countries.
+ Ferragosto (Italy)
+ Māras (Latvia)
+ Mother's Day (Antwerp and Costa Rica)
+ National Acadian Day (Acadians)
+ Virgin of Candelaria, patron of the Canary Islands. (Tenerife, Spain)
+ Feast of the Dormition of the Theotokos (Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches)
+ Navy Day (Romania)
+ Armed Forces Day (Poland)
+ The first day of Flooding of the Nile, or Wafaa El-Nil (Egypt and Coptic Church)
+ The main day of Bon Festival (Japan), and its related observances:
+ Awa Dance Festival (Tokushima Prefecture)
+ Constitution Day (Equatorial Guinea)
+ End-of-war Memorial Day, when the National Memorial Service for War Dead is held. (Japan)
+ Founding of Asunción (Paraguay)
+ Independence Day (Korea)
+ Gwangbokjeol (South Korea)
+ Jogukhaebangui nal, "Fatherland Liberation Day" (North Korea)
+ Independence Day (India)
+ Independence Day (Republic of the Congo)
+ National Day (Liechtenstein)
+ National Mourning Day (Bangladesh)
+ Victory over Japan Day (United Kingdom)
+ National Lemon Meringue Pie Day (United States)
+ August 16
+ Bennington Battle Day (Vermont, United States)
+ Children's Day (Paraguay)
+ Gozan no Okuribi (Kyoto, Japan)
+ The first day of the Independence Days (Gabon)
+ National Airborne Day (United States)
+ National Rum Day (United States)
+ Restoration Day (Dominican Republic)
+ August 17
+ The Birthday of Marcus Garvey (Rastafari)
+ Engineer's Day (Colombia)
+ Flag Day (Bolivia)
+ Independence Day (Indonesia)
+ Independence Days (Gabon)
+ National Vanilla Custard Day (United States)
+ Prekmurje Union Day (Slovenia)
+ San Martin Day (Argentina)
+ August 18
+ Arbor Day (Pakistan)
+ Armed Forces Day (North Macedonia)
+ Bad Poetry Day
+ Birthday of Virginia Dare (Roanoke Island)
+ Constitution Day (Indonesia)
+ Long Tan Day (Australia)
+ National Science Day (Thailand)
+ August 19
+ Feast of the Transfiguration (Julian calendar), and its related observances:
+ Buhe (Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church)
+ Saviour's Transfiguration, popularly known as the "Apples Feast" (Russian Orthodox Church and Georgian Orthodox Church)
+ Afghan Independence Day (Afghanistan)
+ August Revolution Commemoration Day (Vietnam)
+ Birthday of Crown Princess Mette-Marit (Norway)
+ Manuel Luis Quezón Day (Quezon City and other places in The Philippines named after Manuel L. Quezon)
+ National Aviation Day (United States)
+ National Potato Day (United States)
+ World Humanitarian Day
+ August 20
+ Indian Akshay Urja Day (India)
+ Restoration of Independence Day (Estonia)
+ Revolution of the King and People (Morocco)
+ Saint Stephen's Day (Hungary)
+ World Mosquito Day
+ August 21
+ Ninoy Aquino Day (Philippines)
+ Youth Day/King Mohammed VI's Birthday (Morocco)
+ August 22
+ Feast of the Coronation of Mary
+ Flag Day (Russia)
+ Madras Day (Chennai and Tamil Nadu, India)
+ National Eat a Peach Day (United States)
+ National Pecan Torte Day (United States)
+ Southern Hemisphere Hoodie-Hoo Day (Chase's Calendar of Events, Southern Hemisphere)
+ August 23
+ Battle of Kursk Day (Russia)
+ Day of the National Flag (Ukraine)
+ European Day of Remembrance for Victims of Stalinism and Nazism or Black Ribbon Day (European Union and other countries), and related observances:
+ Liberation from Fascist Occupation Day (Romania)
+ International Day for the Remembrance of the Slave Trade and its Abolition
+ Umhlanga Day (Eswatini)
+ August 24
+ Flag Day (Liberia)
+ Independence Day of Ukraine
+ International Strange Music Day
+ National Waffle Day (United States)
+ Nostalgia Night (Uruguay)
+ Willka Raymi (Cusco, Peru)
+ August 25
+ Day of Songun (North Korea)
+ Independence Day (Uruguay)
+ Liberation Day (France)
+ National Banana Split Day (United States)
+ National Whiskey Sour Day (United States)
+ Soldier's Day (Brazil)
+ August 26
+ Herero Day (Namibia)
+ Heroes' Day (Namibia)
+ Repentance Day (Papua New Guinea)
+ Women's Equality Day (United States)
+ August 27
+ Film and Movies Day (Russia)
+ Independence Day of the Republic of Moldova
+ Lyndon Baines Johnson Day (Texas, United States)
+ National Banana Lovers Day (United States)
+ National Pots De Creme Day (United States)
+ August 28
+ Assumption of Mary (Eastern Orthodox Church (Public holiday in North Macedonia, Serbia, and Georgia (country))
+ Crackers of the Keyboard Day
+ Race Your Mouse Around the Icons Day
+ National Cherry Turnover Day (United States)
+ August 29
+ International Day against Nuclear Tests
+ Miners' Day (Ukraine)
+ More Herbs, Less Salt Day
+ National Lemon Juice Day (United States)
+ National Chop Suey Day (United States)
+ National Sports Day (India)
+ Slovak National Uprising Anniversary (Slovakia)
+ Telugu Language Day (India)
+ August 30
+ Constitution Day (Kazakhstan)
+ Constitution Day  (Turks and Caicos Islands)
+ Independence Day (Tatarstan, Russia, unrecognized)
+ International Day of the Disappeared (International)
+ Popular Consultation Day (East Timor)
+ Saint Rose of Lima's Day (Peru)
+ Victory Day (Turkey)
+ August 31
+ Baloch-Pakhtun Unity Day (Balochs and Pashtuns, International observance)
+ Day of Solidarity and Freedom (Poland)
+ Independence Day (Federation of Malaya, Malaysia)
+ Independence Day (Kyrgyzstan)
+ Independence Day (Trinidad and Tobago)
+ Love Litigating Lawyers Day
+ National Trail Mix Day (United States)
+ North Borneo Self-government Day (Sabah, Borneo)
+ Romanian Language Day (Romania, Moldova)
+
+References
+
+Further reading 
+
+ 
+
+ 
+08
+Augustus
+According to Abrahamic religions, Aaron (  or  ) was a prophet, a high priest, and the elder brother of Moses. Information about Aaron comes exclusively from religious texts such as the Hebrew Bible, the New Testament (Luke, Acts, and Hebrews), and the Quran.
+
+The Hebrew Bible relates that, unlike Moses, who grew up in the Egyptian royal court, Aaron and his elder sister Miriam remained with their kinsmen in the northeastern region of the Nile Delta. When Moses first confronted the Egyptian king about the enslavement of the Israelites, Aaron served as his brother's spokesman to the Pharaoh (). Part of the Law given to Moses at Sinai granted Aaron the priesthood for himself and his male descendants, and he became the first High Priest of the Israelites. Levitical priests or kohanim are traditionally believed and halakhically required to be of direct patrilineal descent from Aaron.
+
+According to the Book of Numbers, Aaron died at 123 years of age, on Mount Hor, in the fortieth year after the Israelites had come out of the land of Egypt. Deuteronomy, however, places these events at Moseroth.
+
+Biblical narrative
+
+According to the Book of Exodus, Aaron first functioned as Moses' assistant. Because Moses complained that he could not speak well, God appointed Aaron as Moses' "prophet" (). At the command of Moses, he let his rod turn into a snake. Then he stretched out his rod in order to bring on the first three plagues. After that, Moses tended to act and speak for himself.
+
+During the journey in the wilderness, Aaron was not always prominent or active. At the battle with Amalek, he was chosen with Hur to support the hand of Moses that held the "rod of God". When the revelation was given to Moses at Mount Sinai, he headed the elders of Israel who accompanied Moses on the way to the summit. While Joshua went with Moses to the top, however, Aaron and Hur remained below to look after the people. From here on in Exodus, Leviticus and Numbers, Joshua appears in the role of Moses' assistant while Aaron functions instead as the first high priest.
+
+High Priest
+
+The books of Exodus, Leviticus and Numbers maintain that Aaron received from God a monopoly over the priesthood for himself and his male descendants. The family of Aaron had the exclusive right and responsibility to make offerings on the altar to Yahweh. The rest of his tribe, the Levites, were given subordinate responsibilities within the sanctuary. Moses anointed and consecrated Aaron and his sons to the priesthood, and arrayed them in the robes of office. He also related to them God's detailed instructions for performing their duties while the rest of the Israelites listened. Aaron and his successors as high priest were given control over the Urim and Thummim by which the will of God could be determined. God commissioned the Aaronide priests to distinguish the holy from the common and the clean from the unclean, and to teach the divine laws (the Torah) to the Israelites. The priests were also commissioned to bless the people. When Aaron completed the altar offerings for the first time and, with Moses, "blessed the people: and the glory of the  appeared unto all the people: And there came a fire out from before the , and consumed upon the altar the burnt offering and the fat [which] when all the people saw, they shouted, and fell on their faces". In this way, the institution of the Aaronide priesthood was established.
+
+In later books of the Hebrew Bible, Aaron and his kin are not mentioned very often except in literature dating to the Babylonian captivity and later. The books of Judges, Samuel and Kings mention priests and Levites, but do not mention the Aaronides in particular. The Book of Ezekiel, which devotes much attention to priestly matters, calls the priestly upper class the Zadokites after one of King David's priests. It does reflect a two-tier priesthood with the Levites in subordinate position. A two-tier hierarchy of Aaronides and Levites appears in Ezra, Nehemiah and Chronicles. As a result, many historians think that Aaronide families did not control the priesthood in pre-exilic Israel. What is clear is that high priests claiming Aaronide descent dominated the Second Temple period. Most scholars think the Torah reached its final form early in this period, which may account for Aaron's prominence in Exodus, Leviticus and Numbers.
+
+Conflicts
+Aaron plays a leading role in several stories of conflicts during Israel's wilderness wanderings. During the prolonged absence of Moses on Mount Sinai, the people provoked Aaron to make a golden calf. This incident nearly caused God to destroy the Israelites. Moses successfully intervened, but then led the loyal Levites in executing many of the culprits; a plague afflicted those who were left. Aaron, however, escaped punishment for his role in the affair, because of the intercession of Moses according to Deuteronomy 9:20. Later retellings of this story almost always excuse Aaron for his role. For example, in rabbinic sources and in the Quran, Aaron was not the idol-maker and upon Moses' return begged his pardon because he felt mortally threatened by the Israelites.
+
+On the day of Aaron's consecration, his oldest sons, Nadab and Abihu, were burned up by divine fire because they offered "strange" incense. Most interpreters think this story reflects a conflict between priestly families some time in Israel's past. Others argue that the story simply shows what can happen if the priests do not follow God's instructions given through Moses.
+
+The Torah generally depicts the siblings, Moses, Aaron, and Miriam, as the leaders of Israel after the Exodus, a view also reflected in the biblical Book of Micah. Numbers 12, however, reports that on one occasion, Aaron and Miriam complained about Moses' exclusive claim to be the 's prophet. Their presumption was rebuffed by God who affirmed Moses' uniqueness as the one with whom the  spoke face to face. Miriam was punished with a skin disease (tzaraath) that turned her skin white. Aaron pleaded with Moses to intercede for her, and Miriam, after seven days' quarantine, was healed. Aaron once again escaped any retribution.
+
+According to Numbers 16–17, a Levite named Korah led many in challenging Aaron's exclusive claim to the priesthood. When the rebels were punished by being swallowed up by the earth, Eleazar, the son of Aaron, was commissioned to take charge of the censers of the dead priests. And when a plague broke out among the people who had sympathized with the rebels, Aaron, at the command of Moses, took his censer and stood between the living and the dead until the plague abated (), atoning in the process.
+
+To emphasize the validity of the Levites' claim to the offerings and tithes of the Israelites, Moses collected a rod from the leaders of each tribe in Israel and laid the twelve rods overnight in the tent of meeting. The next morning, Aaron's rod was found to have budded and blossomed and produced ripe almonds. The following chapter then details the distinction between Aaron's family and the rest of the Levites: while all the Levites (and only Levites) were devoted to the care of the sanctuary, charge of its interior and the altar was committed to the Aaronites alone.
+
+Death
+Aaron, like Moses, was not permitted to enter Canaan with the Israelites when Moses brought water out of a rock to quench the people's thirst. Although they had been commanded to speak to the rock, Moses struck it with the staff twice, which was construed as displaying a lack of deference to the .
+
+There are two accounts of the death of Aaron in the Torah. Numbers says that soon after the incident at Meribah, Aaron with his son Eleazar and Moses ascended Mount Hor. There Moses stripped Aaron of his priestly garments and transferred them to Eleazar. Aaron died on the summit of the mountain, and the people mourned him for thirty days. The other account is found in Deuteronomy 10:6, where Aaron died at Moserah and was buried. There is a significant amount of travel between these two points, as the itinerary in Numbers 33:31–37 records seven stages between Moseroth (Mosera) and Mount Hor. Aaron died on the 1st of Av and was 123 at the time of his death.
+
+Descendants
+
+Aaron married Elisheba, daughter of Amminadab and sister of Nahshon of the tribe of Judah. The sons of Aaron were Nadab, Abihu, Eleazar and Itamar; only the latter two had progeny. A descendant of Aaron is an Aaronite, or Kohen, meaning Priest. Any non-Aaronic Levite—i.e., descended from Levi but not from Aaron—assisted the Levitical priests of the family of Aaron in the care of the tabernacle; later of the temple.
+
+The Gospel of Luke records that both Zechariah and Elizabeth and therefore their son John the Baptist were descendants of Aaron.
+
+Family tree
+
+Historicity
+
+In religious traditions
+
+Jewish rabbinic literature
+The older prophets and prophetical writers beheld in their priests the representatives of a religious form inferior to the prophetic truth; men without the spirit of God and lacking the will-power requisite to resist the multitude in its idolatrous proclivities. Thus Aaron, the first priest, ranks below Moses: he is his mouthpiece, and the executor of the will of God revealed through Moses, although it is pointed out that it is said fifteen times in the Torah that "the Lord spoke to Moses and Aaron."
+
+Under the influence of the priesthood that shaped the destinies of the nation under Persian rule, a different ideal of the priest was formed, according to Malachi 2:4-7, and the prevailing tendency was to place Aaron on a footing equal with Moses. "At times Aaron, and at other times Moses, is mentioned first in Scripture—this is to show that they were of equal rank," says the Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael, which strongly implies this when introducing in its record of renowned men the glowing description of Aaron's ministration.
+
+In fulfillment of the promise of peaceful life, symbolized by the pouring of oil upon his head, Aaron's death, as described in the aggadah, was of a wonderful tranquility. Accompanied by Moses, his brother, and by Eleazar, his son, Aaron went to the summit of Mount Hor, where the rock suddenly opened before him and a beautiful cave lit by a lamp presented itself to his view. Moses said, "Take off thy priestly raiment and place it upon thy son Eleazar!" said Moses; "and then follow me." Aaron did as commanded; and they entered the cave, where was prepared a bed around which angels stood. "Go lie down upon thy bed, my brother," Moses continued; and Aaron obeyed without a murmur. Then his soul departed as if by a kiss from God. The cave closed behind Moses as he left; and he went down the hill with Eleazar, with garments rent, and crying: "Alas, Aaron, my brother! thou, the pillar of supplication of Israel!" When the Israelites cried in bewilderment, "Where is Aaron?" angels were seen carrying Aaron's bier through the air. A voice was then heard saying: "The law of truth was in his mouth, and iniquity was not found on his lips: he walked with me in righteousness, and brought many back from sin." He died on the first of Av. The pillar of cloud which proceeded in front of Israel's camp disappeared at Aaron's death. The seeming contradiction between Numbers 20:22 et seq. and Deuteronomy 10:6 is solved by the rabbis in the following manner: Aaron's death on Mount Hor was marked by the defeat of the people in a war with the king of Arad, in consequence of which the Israelites fled, marching seven stations backward to Mosera, where they performed the rites of mourning for Aaron; wherefore it is said: "There [at Mosera] died Aaron."
+
+The rabbis particularly praise the brotherly sentiment between Aaron and Moses. When Moses was appointed ruler and Aaron high priest, neither betrayed any jealousy; instead they rejoiced in each other's greatness. When Moses at first declined to go to Pharaoh, saying: "O my Lord, send, I pray, by the hand of him whom you will send", he was unwilling to deprive Aaron of the high position the latter had held for so many years; but the Lord reassured him, saying: "Behold, when he sees you, he will be glad in his heart." Indeed, Aaron was to find his reward, says Shimon bar Yochai; for that heart which had leaped with joy over his younger brother's rise to glory greater than his was decorated with the Urim and Thummim, which were to "be upon Aaron's heart when he goeth in before the Lord". Moses and Aaron met in gladness of heart, kissing each other as true brothers, and of them it is written: "Behold how good and how pleasant [it is] for brethren to dwell together in unity!" Of them it is said: "Mercy and truth are met together; righteousness and peace have kissed [each other]"; for Moses stood for righteousness and Aaron for peace. Again, mercy was personified in Aaron, according to Deuteronomy 33:8, and truth in Moses, according to Numbers 12:7.
+
+When Moses poured the oil of anointment upon the head of Aaron, Aaron modestly shrank back and said: "Who knows whether I have not cast some blemish upon this sacred oil so as to forfeit this high office." Then the Shekhinah spoke the words: "Behold the precious ointment upon the head, that ran down upon the beard of Aaron, that even went down to the skirts of his garment, is as pure as the dew of Hermon."
+
+According to Tanhuma, Aaron's activity as a prophet began earlier than that of Moses. Hillel held Aaron up as an example, saying: "Be of the disciples of Aaron, loving peace and pursuing peace; love your fellow creatures and draw them nigh unto the Law!" This is further illustrated by the tradition that Aaron was an ideal priest of the people, far more beloved for his kindly ways than was Moses. While Moses was stern and uncompromising, brooking no wrong, Aaron went about as peacemaker, reconciling man and wife when he saw them estranged, or a man with his neighbor when they quarreled, and winning evil-doers back into the right way by his friendly intercourse. As a result, Aaron's death was more intensely mourned than Moses': when Aaron died the whole house of Israel wept, including the women, while Moses was bewailed by "the sons of Israel" only. Even in the making of the Golden Calf the rabbis find extenuating circumstances for Aaron. His fortitude and silent submission to the will of God on the loss of his two sons are referred to as an excellent example to men how to glorify God in the midst of great affliction. Especially significant are the words represented as being spoken by God after the princes of the Twelve Tribes had brought their dedication offerings into the newly reared Tabernacle: "Say to thy brother Aaron: Greater than the gifts of the princes is thy gift; for thou art called upon to kindle the light, and, while the sacrifices shall last only as long as the Temple lasts, thy light shall last forever."
+
+Christianity
+
+In the Eastern Orthodox and Maronite churches, Aaron is venerated as a saint whose feast day is shared with his brother Moses and celebrated on September 4. (Those churches that follow the traditional Julian calendar celebrate this day on September 17 of the modern Gregorian calendar). Aaron is also commemorated with other Old Testament saints on the Sunday of the Holy Fathers, the Sunday before Christmas.
+
+In Eastern Orthodox Church he is commemorated on 20 July, 12 March, Sunday of the Forefathers, Sunday of the Fathers and on April 14 with all saint Sinai monks.
+
+Aaron is commemorated as one of the Holy Forefathers in the Calendar of Saints of the Armenian Apostolic Church on July 30. He is commemorated on July 1 in the modern Latin calendar and in the Syriac Calendar.
+
+The Moses and Aaron Church (), in the Waterlooplein neighborhood of Amsterdam, is one of the most well-known Catholic churches in the city.
+
+One version of the Bible has an encyclopedia that describes Aaron's role in Scripture as the "spokesman for Moses".
+
+Mormonism
+In the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the Aaronic priesthood is the lesser order of priesthood under the higher order of the Melchizedek priesthood. Those ordained to this priesthood have the authority to act in God's name in certain responsibilities in the church such as the administration of the sacrament and baptism.
+
+In the Community of Christ, the Aaronic order of priesthood is regarded as an appendage to the Melchisedec order, and consists of the priesthood offices of deacon, teacher, and priest. While differing in responsibilities, these offices, along with those of the Melchisidec order, are regarded as equal before God.
+
+Islam
+
+Aaron (Arabic: هارون, Hārūn) is mentioned in the Quran as a prophet of God. The Quran praises Aaron repeatedly, calling him a "believing servant" as well as one who was "guided" and one of the "victors". Aaron is important in Islam for his role in the events of the Exodus, in which, according to the Quran and Islamic belief, he preached with his elder brother, Moses to the Pharaoh of the Exodus.
+
+Aaron's significance in Islam, however, is not limited to his role as the helper of Moses. Islamic tradition also accords Aaron the role of a patriarch, as tradition records that the priestly descent came through Aaron's lineage, which included the entire House of Amran.
+
+Baháʼí Faith
+In the Baháʼí Faith, although his father is described as both an apostle and a prophet, Aaron is merely described as a prophet. The Kitáb-i-Íqán describes Imran as his father.
+
+In art
+Aaron appears paired with Moses frequently in Jewish and Christian art, especially in the illustrations of manuscript and printed Bibles. He can usually be distinguished by his priestly vestments, especially his turban or miter and jeweled breastplate. He frequently holds a censer or, sometimes, his flowering rod. Aaron also appears in scenes depicting the wilderness Tabernacle and its altar, as already in the third-century frescos in the synagogue at Dura-Europos in Syria. An eleventh-century portable silver altar from Fulda, Germany depicts Aaron with his censor, and is located in the Musée de Cluny in Paris. This is also how he appears in the frontispieces of early printed Passover Haggadot and occasionally in church sculptures. Aaron has rarely been the subject of portraits, such as those by Anton Kern [1710–1747] and by Pier Francesco Mola []. Christian artists sometimes portray Aaron as a prophet holding a scroll, as in a twelfth-century sculpture from the Cathedral of Noyon in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York and often in Eastern Orthodox icons. Illustrations of the Golden Calf story usually include him as well – most notably in Nicolas Poussin's The Adoration of the Golden Calf (–34, National Gallery, London). Finally, some artists interested in validating later priesthoods have painted the ordination of Aaron and his sons (Leviticus 8). Harry Anderson's realistic portrayal is often reproduced in the literature of the Latter Day Saints.
+
+See also
+ Harun
+ Moses in rabbinic literature
+ Y-chromosomal Aaron
+
+Notes
+
+Footnotes
+
+References
+
+Further reading
+ 
+ 
+ 
+ 
+  which cites
+ Numbers Rabbah 9
+ Leviticus Rabbah 10
+ Midrash Peṭirat Aharon in Jellinek's Bet ha-Midrash, 1:91–95
+ Yalḳuṭ Numbers 764
+ 
+ 
+ 
+ 
+ 
+ 
+
+References in the Qur'an
+ Aaron's prophecy: , ,
+ Aaron is made helper of Moses: , , , , 
+ Aaron and Moses sent to Pharaoh: , , , 
+ Praise for Aaron: , , , , , 
+ The Golden Calf: ,
+
+External links 
+ 
+ 
+ 
+ 
+ English-Ingles.com - Etymology of Aaron
+ MFnames.com - Origin and Meaning of Aaron
+ "Aaron" at the Christian Iconography website
+
+ 
+High Priests of Israel
+Ancient Egyptian Jews
+Book of Deuteronomy
+Book of Exodus people
+Christian saints from the Old Testament
+Moses
+15th-century BC clergy
+People whose existence is disputed
+Tribe of Levi
+15th-century BC people
+
+
+Events
+
+Pre–1600
+46 BC – Julius Caesar defeats Caecilius Metellus Scipio and Marcus Porcius Cato (Cato the Younger) at the Battle of Thapsus.
+ 402 – Stilicho defeats the Visigoths under Alaric in the Battle of Pollentia.
+1320 – The Scots reaffirm their independence by signing the Declaration of Arbroath.
+1453 – Mehmed II begins his siege of Constantinople. The city falls on May 29, and is renamed Istanbul.
+1580 – One of the largest earthquakes recorded in the history of England, Flanders, or Northern France, takes place.
+
+1601–1900
+1652 – At the Cape of Good Hope, Dutch sailor Jan van Riebeeck establishes a resupply camp that eventually becomes Cape Town.
+1712 – The New York Slave Revolt of 1712 begins near Broadway.
+1776 – American Revolutionary War: Ships of the Continental Navy fail in their attempt to capture a Royal Navy dispatch boat.
+1782 – King Buddha Yodfa Chulaloke (Rama I) of Siam (modern day Thailand) establishes the Chakri dynasty.
+1793 – During the French Revolution, the Committee of Public Safety becomes the executive organ of the republic.
+1800 – The Treaty of Constantinople establishes the Septinsular Republic, the first autonomous Greek state since the Fall of the Byzantine Empire. (Under the Old Style calendar then still in use in the Ottoman Empire, the treaty was signed on 21 March.)
+1808 – John Jacob Astor incorporates the American Fur Company, that would eventually make him America's first millionaire.
+1812 – British forces under the command of the Duke of Wellington assault the fortress of Badajoz. This would be the turning point in the Peninsular War against Napoleon-led France.
+1814 – Nominal beginning of the Bourbon Restoration; anniversary date that Napoleon abdicates and is exiled to Elba.
+1830 – Church of Christ, the original church of the Latter Day Saint movement, is organized by Joseph Smith and others at either Fayette or Manchester, New York.
+1841 – U.S. President John Tyler is sworn in, two days after having become president upon William Henry Harrison's death.
+1860 – The Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, later renamed Community of Christ, is organized by Joseph Smith III and others at Amboy, Illinois.
+1862 – American Civil War: The Battle of Shiloh begins: In Tennessee, forces under Union General Ulysses S. Grant meet Confederate troops led by General Albert Sidney Johnston.
+1865 – American Civil War: The Battle of Sailor's Creek: Confederate General Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia fights and loses its last major battle while in retreat from Richmond, Virginia, during the Appomattox Campaign.
+1866 – The Grand Army of the Republic, an American patriotic organization composed of Union veterans of the American Civil War, is founded. It lasts until 1956.
+1896 – In Athens, the opening of the first modern Olympic Games is celebrated, 1,500 years after the original games are banned by Roman emperor Theodosius I.
+
+1901–present
+1909 – Robert Peary and Matthew Henson become the first people to reach the North Pole; Peary's claim has been disputed because of failings in his navigational ability.
+1911 – During the Battle of Deçiq, Dedë Gjon Luli Dedvukaj, leader of the Malësori Albanians, raises the Albanian flag in the town of Tuzi, Montenegro, for the first time after George Kastrioti (Skanderbeg).
+1917 – World War I: The United States declares war on Germany.
+1918 – Finnish Civil War: The battle of Tampere ends.
+1926 – Varney Airlines makes its first commercial flight (Varney is the root company of United Airlines).
+1929 – Huey P. Long, Governor of Louisiana, is impeached by the Louisiana House of Representatives.
+1930 – At the end of the Salt March, Gandhi raises a lump of mud and salt and declares, "With this, I am shaking the foundations of the British Empire."
+1936 – Tupelo–Gainesville tornado outbreak: Another tornado from the same storm system as the Tupelo tornado hits Gainesville, Georgia, killing 203.
+1941 – World War II: Nazi Germany launches Operation 25 (the invasion of Kingdom of Yugoslavia) and Operation Marita (the invasion of Greece).
+1945 – World War II: Sarajevo is liberated from German and Croatian forces by the Yugoslav Partisans.
+  1945   – World War II: The Battle of Slater's Knoll on Bougainville comes to an end.
+1947 – The first Tony Awards are presented for theatrical achievement.
+1957 – The flag carrier airline of Greece for decades, Olympic Airways, is founded by Aristotle Onassis following the acquisition of "TAE - Greek National Airlines".
+1958 – Capital Airlines Flight 67 crashes into Saginaw Bay near Freeland, Michigan, killing 47.
+1965 – Launch of Early Bird, the first commercial communications satellite to be placed in geosynchronous orbit.
+1968 – In the downtown district of Richmond, Indiana, a double explosion kills 41 and injures 150.
+  1968   – Pierre Elliott Trudeau wins the Liberal Party leadership election, and becomes Prime Minister of Canada soon afterward.
+1970 – Newhall massacre: Four California Highway Patrol officers are killed in a shootout.
+1972 – Vietnam War: Easter Offensive: American forces begin sustained air strikes and naval bombardments.
+1973 – Launch of Pioneer 11 spacecraft.
+  1973   – The American League of Major League Baseball begins using the designated hitter.
+1984 – Members of Cameroon's Republican Guard unsuccessfully attempt to overthrow the government headed by Paul Biya.
+1985 – Sudanese President Gaafar Nimeiry is ousted from power in a coup d'état led by Field Marshal Abdel Rahman Swar al-Dahab.
+1992 – The Bosnian War begins.
+1994 – The Rwandan genocide begins when the aircraft carrying Rwandan president Juvénal Habyarimana and Burundian president Cyprien Ntaryamira is shot down.
+1997 – In Greene County, Tennessee, the Lillelid murders occur.
+1998 – Nuclear weapons testing: Pakistan tests medium-range missiles capable of reaching India.
+2004 – Rolandas Paksas becomes the first president of Lithuania to be peacefully removed from office by impeachment.
+2005 – Kurdish leader Jalal Talabani becomes Iraqi president; Shiite Arab Ibrahim al-Jaafari is named premier the next day.
+2008 – The 2008 Egyptian general strike starts led by Egyptian workers later to be adopted by April 6 Youth Movement and Egyptian activists.
+2009 – A 6.3 magnitude earthquake strikes near L'Aquila, Italy, killing 307.
+2010 – Maoist rebels kill 76 CRPF officers in Dantewada district, India.
+2011 – In San Fernando, Tamaulipas, Mexico, over 193 victims of Los Zetas were exhumed from several mass graves.
+2012 – Azawad declares itself independent from the Republic of Mali.
+2017 – U.S. military launches 59 Tomahawk cruise missiles at an air base in Syria. Russia describes the strikes as an "aggression", adding they significantly damage US-Russia ties.
+2018 – A bus carrying the Humboldt Broncos junior ice hockey team collides with a semi-truck in Saskatchewan, Canada, killing 16 people and injuring 13 others.
+
+Births
+
+Pre–1600
+1135 – Maimonides, Jewish philosopher, Torah scholar, physician and astronomer (March 30 also proposed, d. 1204)
+1342 – Infanta Maria, Marchioness of Tortosa
+1573 – Margaret of Brunswick-Lüneburg, German noble (d. 1643)
+
+1601–1900
+1632 – Maria Leopoldine of Austria (d. 1649)
+1651 – André Dacier, French scholar and academic (d. 1722)
+1660 – Johann Kuhnau, German organist and composer (d. 1722)
+1664 – Arvid Horn, Swedish general and politician, Governor of Västerbotten County (d. 1742)
+1671 – Jean-Baptiste Rousseau, French poet and playwright (d. 1741)
+1672 – André Cardinal Destouches, French composer (d. 1749)
+1706 – Louis de Cahusac, French playwright and composer (d. 1759)
+1708 – Johann Georg Reutter, Austrian organist and composer (d. 1772)
+1725 – Pasquale Paoli, French soldier and politician (d. 1807)
+1726 – Gerard Majella, Italian saint (d. 1755)
+1741 – Nicolas Chamfort, French author and playwright (d. 1794)
+1766 – Wilhelm von Kobell, German painter and educator (d. 1853)
+1773 – James Mill, Scottish historian, economist, and philosopher (d. 1836)
+1787 – Celestina Cordero, Puerto Rican educator (d. 1862)
+1810 – Philip Henry Gosse, English biologist and academic (d. 1888)
+1812 – Alexander Herzen, Russian philosopher and author (d. 1870)
+1815 – Robert Volkmann, German organist, composer, and conductor (d. 1883)
+1818 – Aasmund Olavsson Vinje, Norwegian journalist and poet (d. 1870)
+1820 – Nadar, French photographer, journalist, and author (d. 1910)
+1823 – Joseph Medill, Canadian-American publisher and politician, 26th Mayor of Chicago (d. 1899)
+1824 – George Waterhouse, English-New Zealand politician, 7th Prime Minister of New Zealand (d. 1906)
+1826 – Gustave Moreau, French painter and academic (d. 1898)
+1844 – William Lyne, Australian politician, 13th Premier of New South Wales (d. 1913)
+1851 – Guillaume Bigourdan, French astronomer and academic (d. 1932)
+1852 – Will Crooks, English trade unionist and politician (d. 1921)
+1855 – Charles Huot, Canadian painter and illustrator (d. 1930)
+1857 – Arthur Wesley Dow, American painter and photographer (d. 1922)
+1860 – René Lalique, French sculptor and jewellery designer (d. 1945)
+1861 – Stanislas de Guaita, French poet and author (d. 1897)
+1864 – William Bate Hardy, English biologist and academic (d. 1934)
+1866 – Felix-Raymond-Marie Rouleau, Canadian cardinal (d. 1931)
+1869 – Levon Shant, Armenian author, poet, and playwright (d. 1951)
+1878 – Erich Mühsam, German author, poet, and playwright (d. 1934)
+1881 – Karl Staaf, Swedish pole vaulter and hammer thrower (d. 1953)
+1884 – J. G. Parry-Thomas, Welsh race car driver and engineer (d. 1927)
+1886 – Athenagoras I of Constantinople (d. 1972)
+  1886   – Walter Dandy, American physician and neurosurgeon (d. 1946)
+  1886   – Osman Ali Khan, Asaf Jah VII, Indian ruler (d. 1967)
+1888 – Hans Richter, Swiss painter, illustrator, and director (d. 1976)
+  1888   – Gerhard Ritter, German historian and academic (d. 1967)
+1890 – Anthony Fokker, Dutch engineer and businessman, founded Fokker Aircraft Manufacturer (d. 1939)
+1892 – Donald Wills Douglas, Sr., American businessman, founded the Douglas Aircraft Company (d. 1981)
+  1892   – Lowell Thomas, American journalist and author (d. 1981)
+1895 – Dudley Nichols, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1960)
+1898 – Jeanne Hébuterne, French painter and author (d. 1920) 
+1900 – Leo Robin, American composer and songwriter (d. 1984)
+
+1901–present
+1901 – Pier Giorgio Frassati, Italian activist (d. 1925)
+1902 – Julien Torma, French author, poet, and playwright (d. 1933)
+1903 – Mickey Cochrane, American baseball player and manager (d. 1962)
+  1903   – Harold Eugene Edgerton, American engineer and academic (d. 1990)
+1904 – Kurt Georg Kiesinger, German lawyer, politician and Chancellor of Germany (d. 1988)
+  1904   – Erwin Komenda, Austrian car designer and engineer (d. 1966)
+1908 – Marcel-Marie Desmarais, Canadian preacher, missionary, and author (d. 1994)
+  1908   – Ernie Lombardi, American baseball player (d. 1977)
+1909 – William M. Branham, American minister and theologian (d. 1965)
+  1909   – Hermann Lang, German race car driver (d. 1987)
+1910 – Barys Kit, Belarusian-American rocket scientist (d. 2018)
+1911 – Feodor Felix Konrad Lynen, German biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1979)
+1913 – Shannon Boyd-Bailey McCune, American geographer and academic (d. 1993)
+1915 – Tadeusz Kantor, Polish director, painter, and set designer (d. 1990)
+1916 – Phil Leeds, American actor (d. 1998)
+  1916   – Vincent Ellis McKelvey, American geologist and author (d. 1987)
+1917 – Leonora Carrington, English-Mexican painter and author (d. 2011)
+1918 – Alfredo Ovando Candía, Bolivian general and politician, 56th President of Bolivia (d. 1982)
+1919 – Georgios Mylonas, Greek politician, 11th Greek Minister of Culture (d. 1998)
+1920 – Jack Cover, American pilot and physicist, invented the Taser gun (d. 2009)
+  1920   – Edmond H. Fischer, Swiss-American biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2021)
+1921 – Wilbur Thompson, American shot putter (d. 2013)
+1922 – Gordon Chater, English-Australian comedian and actor (d. 1999)
+1923 – Herb Thomas, American race car driver (d. 2000)
+1926 – Sergio Franchi, Italian-American singer and actor (d. 1990)
+  1926   – Gil Kane, Latvian-American author and illustrator (d. 2000)
+  1926   – Ian Paisley, Northern Irish evangelical minister and politician, 2nd First Minister of Northern Ireland (d. 2014)
+  1926   – Randy Weston, American jazz pianist and composer (d. 2018)
+1927 – Gerry Mulligan, American saxophonist, clarinet player, and composer (d. 1996)
+  1928   – James Watson, American biologist, geneticist, and zoologist, Nobel Prize laureate
+1929 – Willis Hall, English playwright and author (d. 2005)
+  1929   – Joi Lansing, American model, actress and nightclub singer (d. 1972)
+  1929   – André Previn, American pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 2019)
+  1929   – Christos Sartzetakis, Greek jurist, supreme justice and President of Greece (d. 2022) 
+1931 – Ram Dass, American author and educator (d. 2019)
+  1931   – Ivan Dixon, American actor, director, and producer (d. 2008)
+1932 – Connie Broden, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2013)
+  1932   – Helmut Griem, German actor and director (d. 2004)
+1933 – Roy Goode, English lawyer and academic
+  1933   – Tom C. Korologos, American journalist and diplomat, United States Ambassador to Belgium
+  1933   – Eduardo Malapit, American lawyer and politician, Mayor of Kauai (d. 2007)
+1934 – Enrique Álvarez Félix, Mexican actor (d. 1996)
+  1934   – Anton Geesink, Dutch martial artist and wrestler (d. 2010)
+  1934   – Guy Peellaert, Belgian painter, illustrator, and photographer (d. 2008)
+1935 – Douglas Hill, Canadian author and critic (d. 2007)
+1936 – Helen Berman, Dutch-Israeli painter and illustrator
+  1936   – Jean-Pierre Changeux, French neuroscientist, biologist, and academic
+1937 – Merle Haggard, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2016)
+  1937   – Tom Veivers, Australian cricketer and politician
+  1937   – Billy Dee Williams, American actor, singer, and writer
+1938 – Paul Daniels, English magician and television host (d. 2016)
+1938 – Roy Thinnes, American television and film actor
+1939 – André Ouellet, Canadian lawyer and politician, 1st Canadian Minister of Foreign Affairs
+  1939   – John Sculley, American businessman, co-founded Zeta Interactive
+1940 – Homero Aridjis, Mexican journalist, author, and poet
+  1940   – Pedro Armendáriz, Jr., Mexican-American actor and producer (d. 2011)
+1941 – Christopher Allsopp, English economist and academic
+  1941   – Phil Austin, American comedian, actor, and screenwriter (d. 2015)
+  1941   – Hans W. Geißendörfer, German director and producer
+  1941   – Angeliki Laiou, Greek-American Byzantinist and politician (d. 2008) 
+  1941   – Don Prudhomme, American race car driver and manager
+  1941   – Gheorghe Zamfir, Romanian flute player and composer
+1942 – Barry Levinson, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter
+  1942   – Anita Pallenberg, Italian-English model, actress, and fashion designer (d. 2017)
+1943 – Max Clifford, English journalist and publicist (d. 2017)
+  1943   – Roger Cook, New Zealand-English journalist and academic 
+  1943   – Ian MacRae, New Zealand rugby player
+  1943   – Mitchell Melton, American lawyer and politician (d. 2013)
+1944 – Felicity Palmer, English operatic soprano
+1945 – Rodney Bickerstaffe, English trade union leader (d. 2017)
+  1945   – Peter Hill, English journalist
+1946 – Paul Beresford, New Zealand-English dentist and politician
+1947 – John Ratzenberger, American actor and director
+  1947   – André Weinfeld, French-American director, producer, and screenwriter
+  1947   – Mike Worboys, English mathematician and computer scientist
+1949 – Alyson Bailes, English academic and diplomat (d. 2016)
+  1949   – Patrick Hernandez, French singer-songwriter
+  1949   – Ng Ser Miang, Singaporean athlete, entrepreneur and diplomat
+  1949   – Horst Ludwig Störmer, German physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate
+1950 – Claire Morissette, Canadian cycling activist (d. 2007)
+  1950   – Cleo Odzer, American anthropologist and author (d. 2001)
+1951 – Bert Blyleven, Dutch-American baseball player and sportscaster
+  1951   – Jean-Marc Boivin, French skier, mountaineer, and pilot (d. 1990)
+  1951   – Pascal Rogé, French pianist
+1952 – Udo Dirkschneider, German singer-songwriter 
+  1952   – Marilu Henner, Greek-Polish American actress and author
+  1952   – Michel Larocque, Canadian ice hockey player and manager (d. 1992)
+1953 – Patrick Doyle, Scottish actor and composer
+  1953   – Christopher Franke, German-American drummer and songwriter 
+1955 – Rob Epstein, American director and producer
+  1955   – Michael Rooker, American actor, director, and producer
+  1955   – Cathy Jones, Canadian actress, comedian, and writer
+1956 – Michele Bachmann, American lawyer and politician
+  1956   – Normand Corbeil, Canadian composer (d. 2013)
+  1956   – Mudassar Nazar, Pakistani cricketer
+  1956   – Lee Scott, English politician
+  1956   – Sebastian Spreng, Argentinian-American painter and journalist
+  1956   – Dilip Vengsarkar, Indian cricketer and coach
+1957 – Giorgio Damilano, Italian race walker and coach
+  1957   – Maurizio Damilano, Italian race walker and coach
+  1957   – Jaroslava Maxová, Czech soprano and educator
+  1957   – Paolo Nespoli, Italian soldier, engineer, and astronaut
+1958 – Graeme Base, Australian author and illustrator
+1959 – Gail Shea, Canadian politician
+1960 – Warren Haynes, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
+  1960   – Richard Loe, New Zealand rugby player 
+  1960   – John Pizzarelli, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
+1961 – Rory Bremner, Scottish impressionist and comedian
+  1961   – Peter Jackson, English footballer and manager
+1962 – Iris Häussler, German sculptor and academic
+  1962   – Marco Schällibaum, Swiss footballer, coach, and manager
+1963 – Rafael Correa, Ecuadorian economist and politician, 54th President of Ecuador
+1964 – David Woodard, American conductor and writer
+1965 – Black Francis, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 
+  1965   – Sterling Sharpe, American football player and sportscaster
+1966 – Vince Flynn, American author (d. 2013)
+  1966   – Young Man Kang, South Korean-American director and producer
+1967 – Julian Anderson, English composer and educator
+  1967   – Kathleen Barr, Canadian voice actress and singer
+  1967   – Tanya Byron, English psychologist and academic
+  1967   – Jonathan Firth, English actor
+1968 – Archon Fung, American political scientist, author, and academic
+  1968   – Affonso Giaffone, Brazilian race car driver
+1969 – Bret Boone, American baseball player and manager
+  1969   – Bison Dele, American basketball player (d. 2002)
+  1969   – Philipp Peter, Austrian race car driver
+  1969   – Paul Rudd, American actor
+  1969   – Spencer Wells, American geneticist and anthropologist
+1970 – Olaf Kölzig, South African-German ice hockey player and coach
+  1970   – Roy Mayorga, American drummer, songwriter, and producer 
+  1970   – Huang Xiaomin, Chinese swimmer
+1972 – Anders Thomas Jensen, Danish director and screenwriter
+  1972   – Dickey Simpkins, American basketball player and sportscaster
+1973 – Donnie Edwards, American football player
+  1973   – Randall Godfrey, American football player
+  1973   – Rie Miyazawa, Japanese model and actress
+  1973   – Sun Wen, Chinese footballer
+1975 – Zach Braff, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter
+  1975   – Hal Gill, American ice hockey player
+1976 – Candace Cameron Bure, American actress and talk show panelist
+  1976   – James Fox, Welsh singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor
+  1976   – Chris Hoke, American football player
+  1976   – Georg Hólm, Icelandic bass player 
+  1976   – Hirotada Ototake, Japanese author and educator
+1977 – Ville Nieminen, Finnish ice hockey player
+  1977   – Andy Phillips, American baseball player and coach
+1978 – Imani Coppola, American singer-songwriter and violinist 
+  1978   – Robert Glasper, American singer-songwriter, pianist, and producer
+  1978   – Tim Hasselbeck, American football player and sportscaster
+  1978   – Myleene Klass, Austrian/Filipino-English singer, pianist, and model 
+  1978   – Martín Méndez, Uruguayan bass player and songwriter 
+  1978   – Blaine Neal, American baseball player
+  1978   – Igor Semshov, Russian footballer
+1979 – Lord Frederick Windsor, English journalist and financier
+  1979   – Clay Travis, American sports journalist, blogger, and broadcaster
+1980 – Tommi Evilä, Finnish long jumper
+  1980   – Tanja Poutiainen, Finnish skier 
+  1980   – Antonio Thomas, American wrestler
+1981 – Robert Earnshaw, Welsh footballer
+  1981   – Jeff Faine, American football player
+  1981   – Lucas Licht, Argentine footballer
+  1981   – Alex Suarez, American bass player 
+1982 – Travis Moen, Canadian ice hockey player
+  1982   – Miguel Ángel Silvestre, Spanish actor
+1983 – Mehdi Ballouchy, Moroccan footballer
+  1983   – Jerome Kaino, New Zealand rugby player
+  1983   – Mitsuru Nagata, Japanese footballer
+  1983   – Remi Nicole, English singer-songwriter and actress
+  1983   – James Wade, English darts player
+  1983   – Katie Weatherston, Canadian ice hockey player
+1984 – Max Bemis, American singer-songwriter 
+  1984   – Michaël Ciani, French footballer
+  1984   – Siboniso Gaxa, South African footballer
+  1984   – Diana Matheson, Canadian soccer player
+1985 – Clarke MacArthur, Canadian ice hockey player
+  1985   – Frank Ongfiang, Cameroonian footballer
+  1985   – Sinqua Walls, American basketball player and actor
+1986 – Nikolas Asprogenis, Cypriot footballer
+  1986   – Aaron Curry, American football player
+  1986   – Goeido Gotaro, Japanese sumo wrestler
+  1986   – Ryota Moriwaki, Japanese footballer
+1987 – Benjamin Corgnet, French footballer
+  1987   – Heidi Mount, American model
+  1987   – Juan Adriel Ochoa, Mexican footballer
+  1987   – Levi Porter, English footballer
+  1987   – Hilary Rhoda, American model
+1988 – Jucilei, Brazilian footballer
+  1988   – Leigh Adams, Australian footballer
+  1988   – Daniele Gasparetto, Italian footballer
+  1988   – Carlton Mitchell, American football player
+  1988   – Fabrice Muamba, Congolese-English footballer
+  1988   – Ivonne Orsini, Puerto Rican model and television host, Miss World Puerto Rico 2008
+1990 – Lachlan Coote, Australian rugby league player
+  1990   – Charlie McDermott, American actor
+  1990   – Andrei Veis, Estonian footballer
+1992 – Ken, South Korean singer
+  1992   – Julie Ertz, American soccer player
+1994 – Adrián Alonso, Mexican actor
+1995 – Darya Lebesheva, Belarusian tennis player
+1998 – Peyton List, American actress and model
+  1998   – Spencer List, American actor
+2000 – Shaheen Afridi, Pakistani cricketer 
+2002 – Andrea Botez, Canadian-American chess player, commentator, Twitch streamer and YouTuber
+  2002   – Leyre Romero Gormaz, Spanish tennis player
+2009 – Shaylee Mansfield, deaf American actress and YouTuber
+  2009   – Valentina Tronel, French child singer
+
+Deaths
+
+Pre–1600
+ 861 – Prudentius, bishop of Troyes 
+ 885 – Saint Methodius, Byzantine missionary and saint (b. 815)
+ 887 – Pei Che, chancellor of the Tang Dynasty
+ 943 – Liu Churang, Chinese general and chief of staff (b. 881)
+   943   – Nasr II, ruler (amir) of the Samanid Empire (b. 906)
+1147 – Frederick II, duke of Swabia (b. 1090)
+1199 – Richard I, king of England (b. 1157)
+1231 – William Marshal, 2nd Earl of Pembroke
+1250 – Guillaume de Sonnac, Grand Master of the Knights Templar
+1252 – Peter of Verona, Italian priest and saint (b. 1206)
+1340 – Basil, emperor of Trebizond (Turkey)
+1362 – James I, count of La Marche (b. 1319)
+1376 – Preczlaw of Pogarell, Cardinal and Bishop of Wrocław (b. 1310)
+1490 – Matthias Corvinus, King of Hungary and Croatia from 1458 to 1490 (b. 1443)
+1520 – Raphael, Italian painter and architect (b. 1483)
+1523 – Henry Stafford, 1st Earl of Wiltshire, English nobleman (b. 1479)
+1528 – Albrecht Dürer, German painter, engraver, and mathematician (b. 1471)
+1551 – Joachim Vadian, Swiss scholar and politician (b. 1484)
+1571 – John Hamilton, Scottish archbishop and academic (b. 1512)
+1590 – Francis Walsingham, English politician and diplomat, Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster (b. 1532)
+1593 – Henry Barrowe, English Puritan and separatist (b. 1550)
+
+1601–1900
+1605 – John Stow, English historian and author (b. 1525)
+1621 – Edward Seymour, 1st Earl of Hertford (b. 1539)
+1641 – Domenico Zampieri (Domenichino), Italian painter (b. 1581)
+1655 – David Blondel, French minister, historian, and scholar (b. 1591)
+1670 – Leonora Baroni, Italian composer (b. 1611)
+1676 – John Winthrop the Younger, English politician, 1st Governor of Connecticut (b. 1606)
+1686 – Arthur Annesley, 1st Earl of Anglesey, Irish-English politician (b. 1614)
+1707 – Willem van de Velde the Younger, Dutch-English painter (b. 1633)
+1755 – Richard Rawlinson, English minister and historian (b. 1690)
+1790 – Louis IX, Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt (b. 1719)
+1825 – Vladimir Borovikovsky, Ukrainian-Russian painter and educator (b. 1757)
+1827 – Nikolis Apostolis, Greek naval commander during the Greek War of Independence (b. 1770) 
+1829 – Niels Henrik Abel, Norwegian mathematician and theorist (b. 1802)
+1833 – Adamantios Korais, Greek philosopher and scholar (b. 1748)
+1838 – José Bonifácio de Andrada, Brazilian poet, academic, and politician (b. 1763)
+1860 – James Kirke Paulding, American author and politician, 11th United States Secretary of the Navy (b. 1778)
+1862 – Albert Sidney Johnston, American general (b. 1803)
+1883 – Benjamin Wright Raymond, American merchant and politician, 3rd Mayor of Chicago (b. 1801)
+1886 – William Edward Forster, English businessman, philanthropist, and politician, Chief Secretary for Ireland (b. 1818)
+1899 – Alvan Wentworth Chapman, American physician and botanist (b. 1809)
+
+1901–present
+1906 – Alexander Kielland, Norwegian author, playwright, and politician, 6th County Governor of Møre og Romsdal (b. 1849)
+1913 – Somerset Lowry-Corry, 4th Earl Belmore (b. 1835)
+1927 – Florence Earle Coates, American poet (b. 1850)
+1935 – Edwin Arlington Robinson, American poet and playwright (b. 1869)
+1944 – Rose O'Neill, American cartoonist, illustrator, artist, and writer (b. 1874)
+1947 – Herbert Backe, German agronomist and politician (b. 1896)
+1950 – Louis Wilkins, American pole vaulter (b. 1882)
+1953 – Idris Davies, Welsh poet and author (b. 1905)
+1959 – Leo Aryeh Mayer, Polish-Israeli scholar and academic (b. 1895)
+1961 – Jules Bordet, Belgian microbiologist and immunologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1870)
+1963 – Otto Struve, Ukrainian-American astronomer and academic (b. 1897)
+1970 – Maurice Stokes, American basketball player (b. 1933)
+1971 – Igor Stravinsky, Russian-American pianist, composer, and conductor (b. 1882)
+1974 – Willem Marinus Dudok, Dutch architect (b. 1884)
+  1974   – Hudson Fysh, Australian pilot and businessman, co-founded Qantas Airways Limited (b. 1895)
+1977 – Kōichi Kido, Japanese politician, 13th Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal of Japan (b. 1889)
+1979 – Ivan Vasilyov, Bulgarian architect, designed the SS. Cyril and Methodius National Library (b. 1893)
+1983 – Jayanto Nath Chaudhuri, Indian General who served as the Chief of Army Staff of the Indian Army from 1962 to 1966 and the Military Governor of Hyderabad State from 1948 to 1949. (b. 1908)
+1992 – Isaac Asimov, American science fiction writer (b. 1920)
+1994 – Juvénal Habyarimana, Rwandan banker and politician, 3rd President of Rwanda (b. 1937)
+  1994   – Cyprien Ntaryamira, Burundian politician, 5th President of Burundi (b. 1955)
+1995 – Ioannis Alevras, Greek banker and politician, President of Greece (b. 1912)
+1996 – Greer Garson, English-American actress (b. 1904)
+1998 – Norbert Schmitz, German footballer (b. 1958)
+  1998   – Tammy Wynette, American singer-songwriter (b. 1942)
+1999 – Red Norvo, American vibraphone player and composer (b. 1908)
+2000 – Habib Bourguiba, Tunisian politician, 1st President of Tunisia (b. 1903)
+2001 – Charles Pettigrew, American singer-songwriter (b. 1963)
+2003 – David Bloom, American journalist (b. 1963)
+  2003   – Anita Borg, American computer scientist and educator; founded Anita Borg Institute for Women and Technology (b. 1949)
+  2003   – Gerald Emmett Carter, Canadian cardinal (b. 1912)
+  2003   – Babatunde Olatunji, Nigerian drummer, educator, and activist (b. 1927)
+  2003   – Dino Yannopoulos, Greek stage director of the Metropolitan Opera (b. 1919) 
+2004 – Lou Berberet, American baseball player (b. 1929)
+  2004   – Larisa Bogoraz, Russian linguist and activist (b. 1929)
+2005 – Rainier III, Prince of Monaco (b. 1923)
+  2005   – Anthony F. DePalma, American orthopedic surgeon and professor (b. 1904)
+2006 – Maggie Dixon, American basketball player and coach (b. 1977)
+  2006   – Francis L. Kellogg, American soldier and diplomat (b. 1917)
+  2006   – Stefanos Stratigos, Greek actor and director (b. 1926)
+2007 – Luigi Comencini, Italian director and producer (b. 1916)
+2009 – J. M. S. Careless, Canadian historian and academic (b. 1919)
+  2009   – Shawn Mackay, Australian rugby player and coach (b. 1982)
+2010 – Wilma Mankiller, American tribal leader (b. 1945)
+  2010   – Corin Redgrave, English actor (b. 1939)
+2011 – Gerald Finnerman, American director and cinematographer (b. 1931)
+2012 – Roland Guilbault, American admiral (b. 1934)
+  2012   – Thomas Kinkade, American painter and illustrator (b. 1958)
+  2012   – Fang Lizhi, Chinese astrophysicist and academic (b. 1936)
+  2012   – Sheila Scotter, Australian fashion designer and journalist (b. 1920)
+  2012   – Reed Whittemore, American poet and critic (b. 1919)
+2013 – Hilda Bynoe, Grenadian physician and politician, 2nd Governor of Grenada (b. 1921)
+  2013   – Bill Guttridge, English footballer and manager (b. 1931)
+  2013   – Bigas Luna, Spanish director and screenwriter (b. 1946)
+  2013   – Ottmar Schreiner, German lawyer and politician (b. 1946)
+2014 – Mary Anderson, American actress (b. 1918)
+  2014   – Jacques Castérède, French pianist and composer (b. 1926)
+  2014   – Liv Dommersnes, Norwegian actress (b. 1922)
+  2014   – Mickey Rooney, American soldier, actor, and dancer (b. 1920)
+  2014   – Chuck Stone, American soldier, journalist, and academic (b. 1924)
+  2014   – Massimo Tamburini, Italian motorcycle designer, co-founded Bimota (b. 1943)
+2015 – Giovanni Berlinguer, Italian lawyer and politician (b. 1924)
+  2015   – James Best, American actor, director, and screenwriter (b. 1926)
+  2015   – Ray Charles, American singer-songwriter and conductor (b. 1918)
+  2015   – Dollard St. Laurent, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1929)
+2016 – Merle Haggard, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1937)
+2017 – Don Rickles, American actor and comedian (b. 1926)
+2019 – Michael O'Donnell, British physician, journalist, author and broadcaster (b. 1928) 
+2020 – Al Kaline, American baseball player, broadcaster and executive (b.1934)
+2021 – Hans Küng, Swiss Catholic priest, theologian, and author (b. 1928)
+2022 – Vladimir Zhirinovsky, Russian and Soviet politician (b. 1946)
+  2022   – Jill Knight, British politician (b. 1923)
+
+Holidays and observances
+Chakri Day, commemorating the establishment of the Chakri dynasty. (Thailand)
+Christian feast day:
+Albrecht Dürer and Lucas Cranach (Lutheran Church).
+Brychan
+Eutychius of Constantinople (Eastern Orthodox Church)
+Marcellinus of Carthage
+Pope Sixtus I
+April 6 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
+International Day of Sport for Development and Peace
+National Fisherman Day (Indonesia)
+New Beer's Eve (United States)
+Tartan Day (United States & Canada)
+Waltzing Matilda Day (Australia)
+International Asexuality Day
+
+Other
+ April 6 Youth Movement
+  (starts 6April)
+
+References
+
+External links
+
+ BBC: On This Day
+ 
+ Historical Events on April 6
+
+Days of the year
+April
+
+
+Events
+
+Pre-1600
+ 240 – Shapur I becomes co-emperor of the Sasanian Empire with his father Ardashir I.
+ 467 – Anthemius is elevated to Emperor of the Western Roman Empire.
+ 627 – King Edwin of Northumbria is converted to Christianity by Paulinus, bishop of York.
+1012 – Duke Oldřich of Bohemia deposes and blinds his brother Jaromír, who flees to Poland.
+1204 – The Crusaders of the Fourth Crusade breach the walls of Constantinople and enter the city, which they completely occupy the following day.
+
+1601–1900
+1606 – The Union Flag is adopted as the flag of English and Scottish ships.
+1776 – American Revolution: With the Halifax Resolves, the North Carolina Provincial Congress authorizes its Congressional delegation to vote for independence from Britain.
+1807 – The Froberg mutiny on Malta ends when the remaining mutineers blow up the magazine of Fort Ricasoli.
+1820 – Alexander Ypsilantis is declared leader of Filiki Eteria, a secret organization to overthrow Ottoman rule over Greece.
+1831 – Soldiers marching on the Broughton Suspension Bridge in Manchester, England, cause it to collapse.
+1861 – American Civil War: Battle of Fort Sumter. The war begins with Confederate forces firing on Fort Sumter, in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina.
+1862 – American Civil War: The Andrews Raid (the Great Locomotive Chase) occurs, starting from Big Shanty, Georgia (now Kennesaw).
+1864 – American Civil War: The Battle of Fort Pillow: Confederate forces kill most of the African American soldiers that surrendered at Fort Pillow, Tennessee.
+1865 – American Civil War: Mobile, Alabama, falls to the Union Army.
+1877 – The United Kingdom annexes the Transvaal.
+1900 – One day after its enactment by the Congress, President William McKinley signs the Foraker Act into law, giving Puerto Rico limited self-rule.
+
+1901–present
+1910 – , one of the last pre-dreadnought battleships built by the Austro-Hungarian Navy, is launched.
+1917 – World War I: Canadian forces successfully complete the taking of Vimy Ridge from the Germans.
+1927 – Shanghai massacre of 1927: Chiang Kai-shek orders the Chinese Communist Party members executed in Shanghai, ending the First United Front.
+  1927   – Rocksprings, Texas is hit by an F5 tornado that destroys 235 of the 247 buildings in the town, kills 72 townspeople and injures 205; third deadliest tornado in Texas history.
+1928 – The Bremen, a German Junkers W 33 type aircraft, takes off for the first successful transatlantic aeroplane flight from east to west.
+1934 – The strongest surface wind gust in the world at the time of 231 mph, is measured on the summit of Mount Washington, New Hampshire. It has since been surpassed.
+  1934   – The U.S. Auto-Lite strike begins, culminating in a five-day melee between Ohio National Guard troops and 6,000 strikers and picketers.
+1937 – Sir Frank Whittle ground-tests the first jet engine designed to power an aircraft, at Rugby, England.
+1945 – U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt dies in office; Vice President Harry S. Truman becomes President upon Roosevelt's death.
+  1945   – World War II: The U.S. Ninth Army under General William H. Simpson crosses the Elbe River astride Magdeburg, and reaches Tangermünde—only 50 miles from Berlin.
+1955 – The polio vaccine, developed by Dr. Jonas Salk, is declared safe and effective.
+1961 – Space Race: The Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin becomes the first human to travel into outer space and perform the first crewed orbital flight, Vostok 1.
+1963 – The Soviet nuclear-powered submarine K-33 collides with the Finnish merchant vessel M/S Finnclipper in the Danish straits.
+1970 – Soviet submarine K-8, carrying four nuclear torpedoes, sinks in the Bay of Biscay four days after a fire on board.
+1980 – The Americo-Liberian government of Liberia is violently deposed.
+  1980   – Transbrasil Flight 303, a Boeing 727, crashes on approach to Hercílio Luz International Airport, in Florianópolis, Brazil. Fifty-five out of the 58 people on board are killed.
+  1980   – Canadian runner and athlete, Terry Fox begins his Marathon of Hope Run in St. John's, NF
+1981 – The first launch of a Space Shuttle (Columbia) takes place: The STS-1 mission.
+1983 – Harold Washington is elected as the first black mayor of Chicago.
+1990 – Jim Gary's "Twentieth Century Dinosaurs" exhibition opens at the Smithsonian Institution National Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C. He is the only sculptor ever invited to present a solo exhibition there. 
+1990    – Widerøe Flight 839 crashes after takeoff from Værøy Airport in Norway, killing five people. 
+1992 – The Euro Disney Resort officially opens with its theme park Euro Disneyland; the resort and its park's name are subsequently changed to Disneyland Paris.
+1999 – United States President Bill Clinton is cited for contempt of court for giving "intentionally false statements" in a civil lawsuit; he is later fined and disbarred.
+2002 – A suicide bomber blows herself up at the entrance to Jerusalem's Mahane Yehuda Market, killing seven people and wounding 104.
+2007 – A suicide bomber penetrates the Green Zone and detonates in a cafeteria within a parliament building, killing Iraqi MP Mohammed Awad and wounding more than twenty other people.
+2009 – Zimbabwe officially abandons the Zimbabwean dollar as its official currency.
+2010 – Merano derailment: A rail accident in South Tyrol kills nine people and injures a further 28.
+2013 – Two suicide bombers kill three Chadian soldiers and injure dozens of civilians at a market in Kidal, Mali.
+2014 – The Great Fire of Valparaíso ravages the Chilean city of Valparaíso, killing 16 people, displacing nearly 10,000, and destroying over 2,000 homes.
+
+Births
+
+Pre-1600
+ 811 – Muhammad al-Jawad, the ninth Imam of Shia Islam (d. 835)
+ 959 – En'yū, emperor of Japan (d. 991)
+1116 – Richeza of Poland, queen of Sweden and Grand Princess of Minsk (d. 1156)
+1432 – Anne of Austria, Landgravine of Thuringia (d. 1462)
+1484 – Antonio da Sangallo the Younger, Italian architect, designed the Apostolic Palace and St. Peter's Basilica (d. 1546)
+  1484   – Maharana Sangram Singh, Rana of Mewar (d. 1527)
+1500 – Joachim Camerarius, German scholar and translator (d. 1574)
+1526 – Muretus, French philosopher and author (d. 1585)
+1550 – Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford, English courtier and politician, Lord Great Chamberlain (d. 1604)
+1577 – Christian IV of Denmark (d. 1648)
+
+1601–1900
+1612 – Simone Cantarini, Italian painter and engraver (d. 1648)
+1639 – Martin Lister, English naturalist and physician (d. 1712)
+1656 – Benoît de Maillet, French diplomat and natural historian (d. 1738)
+1705 – William Cookworthy, English minister and pharmacist (d. 1780)
+1710 – Caffarelli, Italian actor and singer (d. 1783)
+1713 – Guillaume Thomas François Raynal, French historian and author (d. 1796)
+1716 – Felice Giardini, Italian violinist and composer (d. 1796)
+1722 – Pietro Nardini, Italian violinist and composer (d. 1793)
+1724 – Lyman Hall, American physician, clergyman, and politician, 16th Governor of Georgia (d. 1790)
+1748 – Antoine Laurent de Jussieu, French botanist and author (d. 1836)
+1777 – Henry Clay, American lawyer and politician, 9th United States Secretary of State (d. 1852)
+1792 ��� John Lambton, 1st Earl of Durham, English soldier and politician, Lord Privy Seal (d. 1840)
+1794 – Germinal Pierre Dandelin, Belgian mathematician and engineer (d. 1847)
+1796 – George N. Briggs, American lawyer and politician, 19th Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1861)
+1799 – Henri Druey, Swiss lawyer and politician, 2nd President of the Swiss Confederation (d. 1855)
+1801 – Joseph Lanner, Austrian composer and conductor (d. 1843)
+1816 – Charles Gavan Duffy, Irish-Australian politician, 8th Premier of Victoria (d. 1903)
+1823 – Alexander Ostrovsky, Russian playwright and translator (d. 1886)
+1839 – Nikolay Przhevalsky, Russian geographer and explorer (d. 1888)
+1845 – Gustaf Cederström, Swedish painter (d. 1933)
+1851 – José Gautier Benítez, Puerto Rican soldier and poet (d. 1880)
+  1851   – Edward Walter Maunder, English astronomer and author (d. 1928)
+1852 – Ferdinand von Lindemann, German mathematician and academic (d. 1939)
+1856 – Martin Conway, 1st Baron Conway of Allington, English mountaineer, cartographer, and politician (d. 1937)
+1863 – Raul Pompeia, Brazilian writer (d. 1895)
+1868 – Akiyama Saneyuki, Japanese admiral (d. 1918)
+1869 – Henri Désiré Landru, French serial killer (d. 1922) 
+1871 – Ioannis Metaxas, Greek general and politician, 130th Prime Minister of Greece (d. 1941)
+1874 – William B. Bankhead, American lawyer and politician, 47th Speaker of the United States House of Representatives (d. 1940)
+1880 – Addie Joss, American baseball player and journalist (d. 1911)
+1883 – Imogen Cunningham, American photographer and educator (d. 1976)
+  1883   – Dally Messenger, Australian rugby player, cricketer, and sailor (d. 1959)
+1884 – Tenby Davies, Welsh runner (d. 1932)
+  1884   – Otto Meyerhof, German physician and biochemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1951)
+1885 – Robert Delaunay, French painter (d. 1941)
+1887 – Harold Lockwood, American actor and director (d. 1918)
+1888 – Dan Ahearn, Irish-American long jumper and police officer (d. 1942)
+  1888   – Cecil Kimber, English automobile engineer (d. 1945)
+1892 – Henry Darger, American writer and artist (d. 1973)
+1894 – Dorothy Cumming, Australian-American actress (d. 1983)
+
+  1894   – Francisco Craveiro Lopes, Portuguese field marshal and politician, 13th President of Portugal (d. 1964)
+1898 – Lily Pons, French-American soprano and actress (d. 1976)
+
+1901–present
+1901 – Lowell Stockman, American farmer and politician (d. 1962)
+1902 – Louis Beel, Dutch academic and politician, 36th Prime Minister of the Netherlands (d. 1977)
+1903 – Jan Tinbergen, Dutch economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1994)
+1907 – Zawgyi, Burmese poet, author, literary historian, critic, scholar and academic (d. 1990)
+  1907   – Felix de Weldon, Austrian-American sculptor, designed the Marine Corps War Memorial (d. 2003)
+1908 – Ida Pollock, English author and painter (d. 2013)
+  1908   – Robert Lee Scott, Jr., American pilot and general (d. 2006)
+1910 – Gillo Dorfles, Italian art critic, painter and philosopher (d. 2018)
+  1910   – Irma Rapuzzi, French politician (d. 2018)
+1911 – Mahmoud Younis, Egyptian engineer (d. 1976)
+1912 – Frank Dilio, Canadian businessman (d. 1997)
+  1912   – Hamengkubuwono IX, Indonesian politician, 2nd Vice President of Indonesia (d. 1988)
+  1912   – Hound Dog Taylor, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1975)
+1913 – Keiko Fukuda, Japanese-American martial artist (d. 2013)
+1914 – Armen Alchian, American economist and academic (d. 2013)
+1916 – Beverly Cleary, American author (d. 2021)
+  1916   – Russell Garcia, American-New Zealander composer and conductor (d. 2011)
+  1916   – Benjamin Libet, American neuropsychologist and academic (d. 2007)
+1917 – Helen Forrest, American singer and actress (d. 1999)
+  1917   – Vinoo Mankad, Indian cricketer (d. 1978)
+  1917   – Robert Manzon, French racing driver (d. 2015)
+1919 – István Anhalt, Hungarian-Canadian composer and educator (d. 2012)
+  1919   – Billy Vaughn, American musician and bandleader (d. 1991)
+1921 – Robert Cliche, Canadian lawyer, judge, and politician (d. 1978)
+1922 – Simon Kapwepwe, Zambian politician, 2nd Vice President of Zambia (d. 1980)
+1923 – Ann Miller, American actress, singer, and dancer (d. 2004)
+1924 – Raymond Barre, French economist and politician, Prime Minister of France (d. 2007)
+  1924   – Peter Safar, Austrian physician and academic (d. 2003)
+  1924   – Curtis Turner, American race car driver (d. 1970)
+1925 – Evelyn Berezin, American computer scientist and engineer (d. 2018)
+  1925   – Ned Miller, American country music singer and songwriter (d. 2016)
+  1925   – Oliver Postgate, English animator, puppeteer, and screenwriter (d. 2008)
+1926 – Jane Withers, American actress (d. 2021) 
+1927 – Thomas Hemsley, English baritone (d. 2013)
+  1927   – Alvin Sargent, American screenwriter (d. 2019)
+1928 – Hardy Krüger, German actor (d. 2022)
+  1928   – Jean-François Paillard, French conductor (d. 2013)
+1929 – Elspet Gray, Scottish actress (d. 2013)
+  1929   – Mukhran Machavariani, Georgian poet and educator (d. 2010)
+1930 – John Landy, Australian runner and politician, 26th Governor of Victoria (d. 2022)
+  1930   – Bryan Magee, English philosopher and politician (d. 2019)
+  1930   – Manuel Neri, American sculptor and painter (d. 2021)
+  1930   – Pythagoras Papastamatiou, Greek lyricist and playwright (d. 1979) 
+  1930   – Michał Życzkowski, Polish technician and educator (d. 2006)
+1931 – Leonid Derbenyov, Russian poet and songwriter (d. 1995)
+1932 – Lakshman Kadirgamar, Sri Lankan lawyer and politician, 5th Sri Lankan Minister of Foreign Affairs (d. 2005)
+  1932   – Jean-Pierre Marielle, French actor (d. 2019)
+  1932   – Tiny Tim, American singer and ukulele player (d. 1996)
+1933 – Montserrat Caballé, Spanish soprano and actress (d. 2018)
+1934 – Heinz Schneiter, Swiss footballer and manager (d. 2017)
+1935 – Jimmy Makulis, Greek singer (d. 2007) 
+1936 – Tony Earl, American politician, 40th Governor of Wisconsin (d. 2023)
+  1936   – Charles Napier, American actor (d. 2011)
+  1936   – Kennedy Simmonds, Kittitian politician, 4th Prime Minister of Saint Kitts and Nevis
+1937 – Dennis Banks, American author and activist (d. 2017)
+  1937   – Igor Volk, Ukrainian-Russian colonel, pilot, and astronaut (d. 2017)
+1939 – Alan Ayckbourn, English director and playwright
+  1939   – Johnny Raper, Australian rugby league player and coach (d. 2022)
+1940 – Woodie Fryman, American baseball player (d. 2011)
+  1940   – Herbie Hancock, American pianist, composer, and bandleader 
+1941 – Bobby Moore, English footballer and manager (d. 1993)
+1942 – Bill Bryden, Scottish actor, director, and screenwriter
+  1942   – Carlos Reutemann, Argentinian race car driver and politician (d. 2021)
+  1942   – Jacob Zuma, South African politician, 4th President of South Africa
+1943 – Sumitra Mahajan, Indian politician, 16th Speaker of the Lok Sabha
+1944 – Lisa Jardine, English historian, author, and academic (d. 2015)
+  1944   – John Kay, German-Canadian singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer
+1945 – Lee Jong-wook, South Korean physician and diplomat (d. 2006)
+1946 – John Dunsworth, Canadian actor and comedian (d. 2017)
+  1946   – Ed O'Neill, American actor and comedian
+  1946   – George Robertson, Baron Robertson of Port Ellen, Scottish politician and diplomat, 10th Secretary General of NATO
+1947 – Roy M. Anderson, English epidemiologist, zoologist, and academic
+  1947   – Martin Brasier, English palaeontologist, biologist, and academic (d. 2014)
+  1947   – Tom Clancy, American historian and author (d. 2013) 
+  1947   – David Letterman, American comedian and talk show host
+1948 – Jeremy Beadle, English television host and producer (d. 2008)
+  1948   – Joschka Fischer, German academic and politician
+  1948   – Christos Iakovou, Greek weightlifter 
+  1948   – Marcello Lippi, Italian footballer, manager, and coach
+1949 – Scott Turow, American lawyer and author
+1950 – Flavio Briatore, Italian businessman
+  1950   – David Cassidy, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2017)
+  1950   – Joyce Banda, Malawian politician, 4th president of Malawi
+  1950   – Nicholas Sackman, English composer and educator
+1951 – Tom Noonan, American actor
+1952 – Reuben Gant, American football player
+  1952   – Leicester Rutledge, New Zealand rugby player
+  1952   – Gary Soto, American poet, novelist, and memoirist
+  1952   – Ralph Wiley, American journalist (d. 2004)
+1953 – Tanino Liberatore, Italian author and illustrator
+1954 – John Faulkner, Australian educator and politician, 52nd Australian Minister for Defence
+  1954   – Steve Stevaert, Belgian businessman and politician (d. 2015)
+  1954   – Pat Travers, Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist
+1955 – Fabian Hamilton, English graphic designer, engineer, and politician
+1956 – Andy Garcia, Cuban-American actor, director, and producer
+  1956   – Herbert Grönemeyer, German singer-songwriter and actor
+1957 – Greg Child, Australian mountaineer and author
+  1957   – Vince Gill, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 
+  1957   – Tama Janowitz, American novelist and short story writer
+1958 – Will Sergeant, English guitarist 
+  1958   – Klaus Tafelmeier, German javelin thrower
+  1958   – Ginka Zagorcheva, Bulgarian hurdler
+1960 – David Thirdkill, American basketball player
+1961 – Corrado Fabi, Italian racing driver
+  1961   – Charles Mann, American football player and sportscaster
+  1961   – Magda Szubanski, English-Australian actress, comedian and writer
+1962 – Art Alexakis, American singer-songwriter and musician
+  1962   – Carlos Sainz, Spanish racing driver
+  1962   – Nobuhiko Takada, Japanese mixed martial artist and wrestler, founded Hustle
+1963 – Lydia Cacho, Mexican journalist and author
+1964 – Chris Fairclough, English footballer and coach
+  1964   – Amy Ray, American folk-rock singer-songwriter, musician, and music producer 
+1965 – Kim Bodnia, Danish actor and director
+  1965   – Chi Onwurah, English politician
+  1965   – Gervais Rufyikiri, Burundian politician 
+  1965   – Mihai Stoica, Romanian footballer and manager
+1966 – Nils-Olav Johansen, Norwegian guitarist and singer 
+  1966   – Lorenzo White, American football player
+1967 – Sarah Cracknell, English singer-songwriter 
+1968 – Alicia Coppola, American actress
+  1968   – Toby Gad, German songwriter and producer
+  1968   – Adam Graves, Canadian ice hockey player
+1969 – Jörn Lenz, German footballer and manager
+  1969   – Lucas Radebe, South African footballer and sportscaster
+  1969   – Michael Jackson, American football player and politician (d. 2017)
+1970 – Sylvain Bouchard, Canadian speed skater
+1971 – Nicholas Brendon, American actor 
+  1971   – Shannen Doherty, American actress, director, and producer
+1972 – Paul Lo Duca, American baseball player and sportscaster
+1973 – J. Scott Campbell, American author and illustrator
+  1973   – Ryan Kisor, American trumpet player and composer
+  1973   – Antonio Osuna, Mexican-American baseball player
+  1973   – Christian Panucci, Italian footballer and manager
+1974 – Belinda Emmett, Australian actress (d. 2006)
+  1974   – Bryan Fletcher, Australian rugby league player and sportscaster
+  1974   – Roman Hamrlík, Czech ice hockey player
+  1974   – Marley Shelton, American actress
+1974 – Sylvinho, Brazilian footballer and manager
+1976 – Olga Kotlyarova, Russian runner
+  1976   – Brad Miller, American basketball player
+1977 – Giovanny Espinoza, Ecuadorian footballer
+  1977   – Sarah Monahan, Australian actress
+  1977   – Jason Price, Welsh footballer
+  1977   – Glenn Rogers, Australian-Scottish cricketer
+1978 – Guy Berryman, Scottish bassist (Coldplay)
+  1978   – Scott Crary, American director, producer, and screenwriter
+  1978   – Svetlana Lapina, Russian high jumper
+  1978   – Robin Walker, English businessman and politician
+1979 – Claire Danes, American actress 
+  1979   – Elena Grosheva, Russian gymnast
+  1979   – Mateja Kežman, Serbian footballer
+  1979   – Jennifer Morrison, American actress 
+  1979   – Cristian Ranalli, Italian footballer
+  1979   – Lee Soo-young, South Korean singer
+1980 – Sara Head, Welsh Paralympic table tennis champion
+  1980   – Brian McFadden, Irish singer-songwriter 
+1981 – Yuriy Borzakovskiy, Russian runner
+  1981   – Nicolás Burdisso, Argentinian footballer
+  1981   – Tulsi Gabbard, American politician
+  1981   – Grant Holt, English footballer and professional wrestler
+  1981   – Hisashi Iwakuma, Japanese baseball pitcher
+1983 – Jelena Dokic, Serbian-Australian tennis player
+  1983   – Luke Kibet, Kenyan runner
+1984 – Aleksey Dmitrik, Russian high jumper
+1985 – Brennan Boesch, American baseball player
+  1985   – Hitomi Yoshizawa, Japanese singer 
+1986 – Brad Brach, American baseball pitcher  
+  1986   – Blerim Džemaili, Swiss footballer
+  1986   – Marcel Granollers, Spanish tennis player
+  1986   – Jonathan Pitroipa, Burkinabé footballer
+1987 – Brooklyn Decker, American model and actress
+  1987   – Shawn Gore, Canadian football player
+  1987   – Josh McCrone, Australian rugby league player
+  1987   – Luiz Adriano, Brazilian professional footballer
+  1987   – Brendon Urie, American singer, songwriter, musician and multi-instrumentalist
+1988 – Ricky Álvarez, Argentinian footballer
+  1988   – Stephen Brogan, English footballer
+  1988   – Amedeo Calliari, Italian footballer
+  1988   – Jessie James Decker, American singer-songwriter
+  1988   – Moamen Zakaria, Egyptian footballer
+1989 – Bethan Dainton, Welsh rugby union player
+  1989   – Miguel Ángel Ponce, American-Mexican footballer
+  1989   – Ádám Hanga, Hungarian basketball player
+  1989   – Kaitlyn Weaver, Canadian-American ice dancer
+  1989   – Valentin Stocker, Swiss footballer
+1990 – Francesca Halsall, English swimmer
+  1990   – Hiroki Sakai, Japanese footballer
+1991 – Torey Krug, American ice hockey player
+  1991   – Lionel Carole, French professional footballer 
+  1991   – Oliver Norwood, English born Northern Irish international footballer
+  1991   – Magnus Pääjärvi, Swedish ice hockey player
+  1991   – Jazz Richards, Welsh international footballer
+1992 – Chad le Clos, South African swimmer
+1993 – Robin Anderson, American tennis player
+  1993   – Jordan Archer, English-Scottish footballer
+  1993   – Ryan Nugent-Hopkins, Canadian ice hockey player
+1994 – Isabelle Drummond, Brazilian actress and singer
+  1994   – Saoirse Ronan, American-born Irish actress
+  1994   – Oh Sehun, South Korean musician
+  1994   – Eric Bailly, Ivorian professional footballer
+  1994   – Guido Rodríguez, Argentine footballer 
+1995 – Pedro Cachin, Argentine tennis player
+1996 – Matteo Berrettini, Italian tennis player
+  1996   – Elizaveta Kulichkova, Russian tennis player
+
+Deaths
+
+Pre-1600
+45 BC – Gnaeus Pompeius, Roman general and politician (b. 75 BC)
+ 352 – Julius I, pope of the Catholic Church
+ 434 – Maximianus, archbishop of Constantinople
+ 901 – Eudokia Baïana, Byzantine empress and wife of Leo VI
+1125 – Vladislaus I, Duke of Bohemia (b. 1065)
+1167 – Charles VII, king of Sweden (b. c. 1130)
+1256 – Margaret of Bourbon, Queen of Navarre, regent of Navarre (b. c. 1217)
+1443 – Henry Chichele, English archbishop (b. 1364)
+1500 – Leonhard of Gorizia, Count of Gorz (b. 1440)
+1530 – Joanna La Beltraneja, Princess of Castile (b. 1462)
+1550 – Claude, Duke of Guise (b. 1496)
+1555 – Joanna, Queen of Castile and Aragon (b. 1479)
+
+1601–1900
+1675 – Richard Bennett, English politician, colonial Governor of Virginia (b. 1609)
+1684 – Nicola Amati, Italian instrument maker (b. 1596)
+1687 – Ambrose Dixon, English-American soldier (b. 1619)
+1704 – Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet, French bishop and theologian (b. 1627)
+1748 – William Kent, English architect, designed Holkham Hall and Chiswick House (b. 1685)
+1782 – Metastasio, Italian-Austrian poet and composer (b. 1698)
+1788 – Carlo Antonio Campioni, French-Italian composer (b. 1719)
+1795 – Johann Kaspar Basselet von La Rosée, Bavarian general (b. 1710)
+1814 – Charles Burney, English composer and historian (b. 1726)
+1817 – Charles Messier, French astronomer and academic (b. 1730)
+1850 – Adoniram Judson, American lexicographer and missionary (b. 1788)
+1866 – Peter Hesketh-Fleetwood, English politician, founded Fleetwood (b. 1801)
+1872 – Nikolaos Mantzaros, Greek composer and theorist (b. 1795)
+1878 – William M. Tweed, American lawyer and politician (b. 1823)
+1879 – Richard Taylor, Confederate general (b. 1826)
+1885 – William Crowther, Dutch-Australian politician, 14th Premier of Tasmania (b. 1817)
+1898 – Elzéar-Alexandre Taschereau, Canadian cardinal (b. 1820)
+
+1901–present
+1902 – Marie Alfred Cornu, French physicist and academic (b. 1842)
+1906 – Mahesh Chandra Nyayratna Bhattacharyya, Indian scholar, academic, and philanthropist (b. 1836)
+1912 – Clara Barton, American nurse and humanitarian, founded the American Red Cross (b. 1821)
+1933 – Adelbert Ames, American general and politician, 30th Governor of Mississippi (b. 1835)
+1937 – Abdülhak Hâmid Tarhan, Turkish playwright and poet (b. 1852)
+1938 – Feodor Chaliapin, Russian opera singer (b. 1873)
+1943 – Viktor Puskar, Estonian colonel (b. 1889)
+1945 – Franklin D. Roosevelt, American lawyer and politician, 32nd President of the United States (b. 1882)
+1953 – Lionel Logue, Australian actor and therapist (b. 1880)
+1962 – Ron Flockhart, Scottish racing driver (b. 1923)
+1966 – Sydney Allard, English racing driver and founder of the Allard car company (b. 1910)
+1968 – Heinrich Nordhoff, German engineer (b. 1899)
+1971 – Ed Lafitte, American baseball player and dentist (b. 1886)
+1973 – Arthur Freed, American songwriter and producer (b. 1894)
+1975 – Josephine Baker, French actress, activist, and humanitarian (b. 1906)
+1976 – Christos Kakkalos, Greek mountain guide (b. 1882) 
+1977 – Philip K. Wrigley, American businessman, co-founded Lincoln Park Gun Club (b. 1894)
+1980 – William R. Tolbert, Jr., Liberian politician, 20th President of Liberia (b. 1913)
+1981 – Prince Yasuhiko Asaka of Japan (b. 1887)
+  1981   – Joe Louis, American boxer and wrestler (b. 1914)
+1983 – Jørgen Juve, Norwegian football player and journalist (b. 1906)
+  1983   – Carl Morton, American baseball player (b. 1944)
+1984 – Edwin T. Layton, American admiral and cryptanalyst (b. 1903)
+1986 – Valentin Kataev, Russian author and playwright (b. 1897)
+1988 – Colette Deréal, French singer and actress (b. 1927)
+  1988   – Alan Paton, South African historian and author (b. 1903)
+1989 – Abbie Hoffman, American activist, co-founded Youth International Party (b. 1936)
+  1989   – Sugar Ray Robinson, American boxer (b. 1921)
+1992 – Ilario Bandini, Italian racing driver and businessman (b. 1911)
+1997 – George Wald, American neurologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1906)
+1998 – Robert Ford, Canadian poet and diplomat (b. 1915)
+1999 – Boxcar Willie, American singer-songwriter (b. 1931)
+2001 – Harvey Ball, American illustrator, created the smiley (b. 1921)
+2002 – George Shevelov, Ukrainian-American linguist and philologist (b. 1908)
+2004 – Moran Campbell, Canadian physician and academic, invented the venturi mask (b. 1925)
+2006 – William Sloane Coffin, American minister and activist (b. 1924)
+2007 – Kevin Crease, Australian journalist (b. 1936)
+2008 – Cecilia Colledge, English-American figure skater and coach (b. 1920)
+  2008   – Patrick Hillery, Irish physician and politician, 6th President of Ireland (b. 1923)
+  2008   – Jerry Zucker, Israeli-American businessman and philanthropist (b. 1949)
+2010 – Michel Chartrand, Canadian trade union leader (b. 1916)
+  2010   – Werner Schroeter, German director and screenwriter (b. 1945)
+2011 – Karim Fakhrawi, Bahraini journalist, co-founded Al-Wasat (b. 1962)
+2012 – Mohit Chattopadhyay, Indian poet and playwright (b. 1934)
+  2012   – Rodgers Grant, American pianist and composer (b. 1935)
+2013 – Robert Byrne, American chess player and author (b. 1928)
+  2013   – Johnny du Plooy, South African boxer (b. 1964)
+  2013   – Michael France, American screenwriter (b. 1962)
+  2013   – Brennan Manning, American priest and author (b. 1934)
+  2013   – Annamária Szalai, Hungarian journalist and politician (b. 1961)
+  2013   – Ya'akov Yosef, Israeli rabbi and politician (b. 1946)
+2014 – Pierre Autin-Grenier, French author and poet (b. 1947)
+  2014   – Pierre-Henri Menthéour, French cyclist (b. 1960)
+  2014   – Maurício Alves Peruchi, Brazilian footballer (b. 1990)
+  2014   – Hal Smith, American baseball player and coach (b. 1931)
+  2014   – Billy Standridge, American race car driver (b. 1953)
+2015 – Paulo Brossard, Brazilian jurist and politician (b. 1924)
+  2015   – Patrice Dominguez, Algerian-French tennis player and trainer (b. 1950)
+  2015   – Alfred Eick, German commander (b. 1916)
+  2015   – André Mba Obame, Gabonese politician (b. 1957)
+2016 – Anne Jackson, American actress (b. 1925)
+2016 – Mohammad Al Gaz, Emirati politician & diplomat (b. 1930) 
+2017 – Charlie Murphy, American actor and comedian (b. 1959)
+2020 – Tarvaris Jackson, American football player (b. 1983)
+2021 – Joseph Siravo, American actor and producer (b. 1955)
+2022 – Gilbert Gottfried, American comedian, actor, and singer (b. 1955)
+
+Holidays and observances 
+ Children's Day (Bolivia)
+ Christian feast day:
+ Adoniram Judson (Episcopal Church)
+ Alferius
+ Blessed Angelo Carletti di Chivasso
+ Erkembode
+ Pope Julius I
+ Teresa of the Andes
+ Zeno of Verona
+ April 12 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
+ Commemoration of first human in space by Yuri Gagarin:
+ Cosmonautics Day (Russia)
+ International Day of Human Space Flight
+ Yuri's Night (International observance)
+ Halifax Day (North Carolina)
+ National Redemption Day (Liberia)
+
+References
+
+External links
+
+ BBC: On This Day
+ 
+ Historical Events on April 12
+
+Days of the year
+April
+
+
+Events
+
+Pre-1600
+ 769 – The Lateran Council ends by condemning the Council of Hieria and anathematizing its iconoclastic rulings.
+1071 – Bari, the last Byzantine possession in southern Italy, is surrendered to Robert Guiscard.
+1450 – Battle of Formigny: Toward the end of the Hundred Years' War, the French attack and nearly annihilate English forces, ending English domination in Northern France.
+
+1601–1900
+1632 – Battle of Rain: Swedes under Gustavus Adolphus defeat the Holy Roman Empire during the Thirty Years' War.
+1642 – Irish Confederate Wars: A Confederate Irish militia is routed in the Battle of Kilrush when it attempts to halt the progress of a Royalist Army.
+1715 – The Pocotaligo Massacre triggers the start of the Yamasee War in colonial South Carolina.
+1736 – Foundation of the short-lived Kingdom of Corsica.
+1738 – Serse, an Italian opera by George Frideric Handel, receives its premiere performance in London, England.
+1755 – Samuel Johnson's A Dictionary of the English Language is published in London.
+1817 – Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet and Laurent Clerc found the American School for the Deaf (then called the Connecticut Asylum for the Education and Instruction of Deaf and Dumb Persons), the first American school for deaf students, in Hartford, Connecticut.
+1861 – President Abraham Lincoln calls for 75,000 Volunteers to quell the insurrection that soon became the American Civil War.
+1865 – President Abraham Lincoln dies after being shot the previous evening by actor John Wilkes Booth. Three hours later, Vice President Andrew Johnson is sworn in as President.
+1892 – The General Electric Company is formed.
+1896 – Closing ceremony of the Games of the I Olympiad in Athens, Greece.
+1900 – Philippine–American War: Filipino guerrillas launch a surprise attack on U.S. infantry and begin a four-day siege of Catubig, Philippines.
+
+1901–present
+1912 – The British passenger liner  sinks in the North Atlantic at 2:20 a.m., two hours and forty minutes after hitting an iceberg. Only 710 of 2,224 passengers and crew on board survive.
+1920 – Two security guards are murdered during a robbery in South Braintree, Massachusetts. Anarchists Sacco and Vanzetti would be convicted of and executed for the crime, amid much controversy.
+1922 – U.S. Senator John B. Kendrick of Wyoming introduces a resolution calling for an investigation of a secret land deal, which leads to the discovery of the Teapot Dome scandal.
+1923 – Insulin becomes generally available for use by people with diabetes.
+  1923   – Racially motivated Nihon Shōgakkō fire lit by a serial arsonist kills 10 children in Sacramento, California.
+1936 – First day of the Arab revolt in Mandatory Palestine.
+1941 – In the Belfast Blitz, two hundred bombers of the German Luftwaffe attack Belfast, killing around one thousand people.
+1942 – The George Cross is awarded "to the island fortress of Malta" by King George VI.
+1945 – Bergen-Belsen concentration camp is liberated.
+1947 – Jackie Robinson debuts for the Brooklyn Dodgers, breaking baseball's color line.
+1952 – First flight of the Boeing B-52 Stratofortress.
+1955 – McDonald's restaurant dates its founding to the opening of a franchised restaurant by Ray Kroc, in Des Plaines, Illinois.
+1960 – At Shaw University in Raleigh, North Carolina, Ella Baker leads a conference that results in the creation of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, one of the principal organizations of the civil rights movement in the 1960s.
+1969 – The EC-121 shootdown incident: North Korea shoots down a United States Navy aircraft over the Sea of Japan, killing all 31 on board.
+1970 – During the Cambodian Civil War, massacre of the Vietnamese minority results in 800 bodies flowing down the Mekong river into South Vietnam.
+1986 – The United States launches Operation El Dorado Canyon, its bombing raids against Libyan targets in response to a discotheque bombing in West Germany that killed two U.S. servicemen.
+1989 – Hillsborough disaster: A human crush occurs at Hillsborough Stadium, home of Sheffield Wednesday, in the FA Cup Semi-final, resulting in the deaths of 97 Liverpool fans.
+  1989   – Upon Hu Yaobang's death, the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 begin in China.
+1994 – Marrakesh Agreement relating to foundation of World Trade Organization is adopted.
+2002 – Air China Flight 129 crashes on approach to Gimhae International Airport in Busan, South Korea, killing 129 people.
+2013 – Two bombs explode near the finish line at the Boston Marathon in Boston, Massachusetts, killing three people and injuring 264 others.
+  2013   – A wave of bombings across Iraq kills at least 75 people.
+2014 – In the worst massacre of the South Sudanese Civil War, at least 200 civilians are gunned down after seeking refuge in houses of worship as well as hospitals.
+2019 – The cathedral of Notre-Dame de Paris in France is seriously damaged by a large fire.
+2021 – A mass shooting occurred at a Fedex Ground facility in Indianapolis, Indiana, killing nine and injuring seven.
+
+Births
+
+Pre-1600
+68 BC – Gaius Maecenas, Roman politician (d. 8 BC)
+1282 – Frederick IV, Duke of Lorraine (d. 1329)
+1442 – John Paston, English noble (d. 1479)
+1452 – Leonardo da Vinci, Italian painter, sculptor, and architect (d. 1519)
+1469 – Guru Nanak, the first Sikh guru (d. 1539)
+1552 – Pietro Cataldi, Italian mathematician and astronomer (d. 1626)
+1563 – Guru Arjan Dev, fifth Sikh leader (d. 1606)
+1588 – Claudius Salmasius, French author and scholar (d. 1653)
+1592 – Francesco Maria Brancaccio, Catholic cardinal (d. 1675)
+
+1601–1900
+1641 – Robert Sibbald, Scottish physician and geographer (d. 1722)
+1642 – Suleiman II, Ottoman sultan (d. 1691)
+1646 – Christian V of Denmark (d. 1699)
+1684 – Catherine I of Russia (d. 1727)
+1688 – Johann Friedrich Fasch, German violinist and composer (d. 1758)
+1707 – Leonhard Euler, Swiss mathematician and physicist (d. 1783)
+1710 – William Cullen, Scottish physician and chemist (d. 1790)
+1741 – Charles Willson Peale, American painter and soldier (d. 1827)
+1771 – Nicolas Chopin, French-Polish educator (d. 1844)
+1772 – Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, French biologist and zoologist (d. 1844)
+1793 – Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve, German astronomer and academic (d. 1864)
+1795 – Maria Schicklgruber, mother of Alois Hitler and the paternal grandmother of Adolf Hitler (d.1847)
+1800 – James Clark Ross, English captain and explorer (d. 1862)
+1808 – William Champ, English-Australian politician, 1st Premier of Tasmania (d. 1892)
+1809 – Hermann Grassmann, German linguist and mathematician (d. 1877)
+1817 – William Crowther, Dutch-Australian politician, 14th Premier of Tasmania (d. 1885)
+1828 – Jean Danjou, French captain (d. 1863)
+1832 – Wilhelm Busch, German poet, painter, and illustrator (d. 1908)
+1841 – Mary Grant Roberts, Australian zoo owner (d. 1921)
+  1841   – Joseph E. Seagram, Canadian businessman and politician, founded the Seagram Company Ltd (d. 1919)
+1843 – Henry James, American novelist, short story writer, and critic (d. 1916)
+1856 – Jean Moréas, Greek poet and critic (d. 1910)
+1858 – Émile Durkheim, French sociologist, psychologist, and philosopher (d. 1917)
+1861 – Bliss Carman, Canadian-British poet and playwright (d. 1929)
+1863 – Ida Freund, Austrian-born chemist and educator (d. 1914)
+1874 – George Harrison Shull, American botanist and geneticist (d. 1954)
+  1874   – Johannes Stark, German physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1957)
+1875 – James J. Jeffries, American boxer and promoter (d. 1953)
+1877 – Georg Kolbe, German sculptor (d. 1947)
+1877 – William David Ross, Scottish philosopher (d. 1971)
+1878 – Robert Walser, Swiss author and playwright (d. 1956)
+1879 – Melville Henry Cane, American lawyer and poet (d. 1980)
+1883 – Stanley Bruce, Australian captain and politician, 8th Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1967)
+1885 – Tadeusz Kutrzeba, Polish general (d. 1947)
+1886 – Nikolay Gumilyov, Russian poet and critic (d. 1921)
+1887 – Felix Pipes, Austrian tennis player (d. 1983)
+  1887   – William Forgan Smith, Scottish-Australian politician, 24th Premier of Queensland (d. 1953)
+1888 – Maximilian Kronberger, German poet and author (d. 1904)
+1889 – Thomas Hart Benton, American painter and educator (d. 1975)
+  1889   – A. Philip Randolph, American activist (d. 1979)
+1890 – Percy Shaw, English businessman, invented the cat's eye (d. 1976)
+1892 – Theo Osterkamp, German general and pilot (d. 1975)
+  1892   – Corrie ten Boom, Dutch-American clocksmith, Nazi resister, and author (d. 1983)
+1894 – Nikita Khrushchev, Russian general and politician, 7th Premier of the Soviet Union (d. 1971)
+  1894   – Bessie Smith, African-American singer and actress (d. 1937)
+1895 – Clark McConachy, New Zealand snooker player (d. 1980)
+  1895   – Abigail Mejia, Dominican feminist activist, nationalist, literary critic and educator (d. 1941)
+1896 – Nikolay Semyonov, Russian physicist and chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1986)
+1898 – Harry Edward, Guyanese-English sprinter (d. 1973)
+1900 – Ramón Iribarren, Spanish civil engineer (d. 1967)
+
+1901–present
+1901 – Joe Davis, English snooker player (d. 1978)
+  1901   – Ajoy Mukherjee, Indian politician, Chief Minister of West Bengal (d. 1986)
+  1901   – René Pleven, French businessman and politician, Prime Minister of France (d. 1993)
+1902 – Fernando Pessa, Portuguese journalist (d. 2002)
+1903 – John Williams, English-American actor (d. 1983)
+1904 – Arshile Gorky, Armenian-American painter and illustrator (d. 1948)
+1907 – Nikolaas Tinbergen, Dutch-English ethologist and ornithologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1988)
+1908 – eden ahbez, Scottish-American songwriter and recording artist (d. 1995)
+  1908   – Lita Grey, American actress (d. 1995)
+1909 – Robert Edison Fulton Jr., American inventor and adventurer (d. 2004)
+1910 – Sulo Bärlund, Finnish shot putter (d. 1986)
+  1910   – Miguel Najdorf, Polish-Argentinian chess player and theoretician (d. 1997)
+1912 – William Congdon, American-Italian painter and sculptor (d. 1998)
+  1912   – Kim Il Sung, North Korean general and politician, 1st Supreme Leader of North Korea (d. 1994)
+1915 – Elizabeth Catlett, African-American sculptor and illustrator (d. 2012)
+1916 – Alfred S. Bloomingdale, American businessman (d. 1982)
+  1916   – Helene Hanff, American author and screenwriter (d. 1997)
+1917 – Hans Conried, American actor (d. 1982)
+  1917   – Elmer Gedeon, American baseball player and bomber pilot (d. 1944)
+  1917   – James Kee, American lawyer and politician (d. 1989)
+1918 – Hans Billian, German film director, screenwriter, and actor (d. 2007)
+1919 – Alberto Breccia, Uruguayan-Argentinian author and illustrator (d. 1993)
+1920 – Godfrey Stafford, English-South African physicist and academic (d. 2013)
+  1920   – Thomas Szasz, Hungarian-American psychiatrist and academic (d. 2012)
+  1920   – Richard von Weizsäcker, German soldier and politician, 6th President of Germany (d. 2015)
+1921 – Georgy Beregovoy, Ukrainian-Russian general, pilot, and astronaut (d. 1995)
+  1921   – Angelo DiGeorge, American physician and endocrinologist (d. 2009)
+1922 – Michael Ansara, Syrian-American actor (d. 2013)
+  1922   – Hasrat Jaipuri, Indian poet and songwriter (d. 1999)
+  1922   – Harold Washington, American lawyer and politician, 51st Mayor of Chicago (d. 1987)
+  1922   – Graham Whitehead, English racing driver (d. 1981)
+1923 – Artur Alliksaar, Estonian poet and author (d. 1966)
+  1923   – Robert DePugh, American activist, founded the Minutemen (an anti-Communist organization) (d. 2009)
+1924 – M. Canagaratnam, Sri Lankan politician (d. 1980)
+  1924   – Rikki Fulton, Scottish comedian (d. 2004)
+  1924   – Neville Marriner, English violinist and conductor (d. 2016)
+1926 – Jurriaan Schrofer, Dutch sculptor, designer, and educator (d. 1990)
+1927 – Robert Mills, American physicist and academic (d. 1999)
+1929 – Gérald Beaudoin, Canadian lawyer and politician (d. 2008)
+  1929   – Adrian Cadbury, English rower and businessman (d. 2015)
+1930 – Georges Descrières, French actor (d. 2013)
+  1930   – Vigdís Finnbogadóttir, Icelandic educator and politician, 4th President of Iceland
+1931 – Kenneth Bloomfield, Northern Irish civil servant
+  1931   – Tomas Tranströmer, Swedish poet, translator, and psychologist Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2015)
+1933 – Roy Clark, American musician and television personality (d. 2018)
+  1933   – David Hamilton, English-French photographer and director (d. 2016)
+  1933   – Elizabeth Montgomery, American actress and producer (d. 1995)
+1935 – Stavros Paravas, Greek actor and producer (d. 2008)
+1936 – Raymond Poulidor, French cyclist (d. 2019)
+1937 – Bob Luman, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1978)
+  1937   – Robert W. Gore, American engineer and businessman, co-inventor of Gore-Tex (d. 2020)
+1938 – Claudia Cardinale, Italian actress
+  1938   – Hso Khan Pha, Burmese-Canadian geologist and politician (d. 2016)
+1939 – Marty Wilde, English singer-songwriter and actor
+  1939   – Desiré Ecaré, Ivorian filmmaker (d. 2009)
+1940 – Jeffrey Archer, English author, playwright, and politician
+  1940   – Penelope Coelen, South African actress, model, beauty queen and 1958 Miss World
+  1940   – Willie Davis, American baseball player and actor (d. 2010)
+  1940   – Robert Lacroix, Canadian economist and academic
+  1940   – Robert Walker, American actor (d. 2019)
+1941 – Howard Berman, American lawyer and politician
+1942 – Francis X. DiLorenzo, American bishop (d. 2017)
+  1942   – Walt Hazzard, American basketball player and coach (d. 2011)
+  1942   – Kenneth Lay, American businessman and criminal(d. 2006)
+  1942   – Tim Lankester, English economist and academic
+1943 – Pınar Kür, Turkish author, playwright, and academic
+  1943   – Robert Lefkowitz, American physician and biochemist, Nobel Prize laureate
+  1943   – Veronica Linklater, Baroness Linklater, English politician
+  1943   – Hugh Thompson, Jr., American soldier and pilot (d. 2006)
+1944 – Dave Edmunds, Welsh singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 
+1946 – John Lloyd, Scottish journalist and author
+  1946   – Pete Rouse, American politician, White House Chief of Staff
+1947 – Linda Bloodworth-Thomason, American screenwriter and producer
+  1947   – Martin Broughton, English businessman
+  1947   – Lois Chiles, American model and actress
+  1947   – David Omand, English civil servant and academic
+  1947   – Cristina Husmark Pehrsson, Swedish nurse and politician, Swedish Minister for Social Security
+1948 – Christopher Brown, English historian, curator, and academic
+  1948   – Michael Kamen, American composer and conductor (d. 2003)
+  1948   – Phil Mogg, English singer-songwriter and musician
+1949 – Alla Pugacheva, Russian singer-songwriter and actress
+  1949   – Craig Zadan, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2018)
+1950 – Josiane Balasko, French actress, director, and screenwriter
+  1950   – Amy Wright, American actress
+  1950   – Karel Kroupa, Czech football player
+1951 – Heloise, American journalist and author
+  1951   – John L. Phillips, American captain and astronaut
+  1951   – Stuart Prebble, English journalist and producer
+  1951   – Marsha Ivins, American engineer and astronaut
+1952 – Kym Gyngell, Australian actor, comedian, and screenwriter
+  1952   – Brian Muir, English sculptor and set designer
+  1952   – Avital Ronell, Czech-American philosopher and academic
+  1952   – Glenn Shadix, American actor, (d. 2010)
+1955 – Dodi Fayed, Egyptian film producer (d. 1997) 
+  1955   – Joice Mujuru, Zimbabwean politician  
+1956 – Michael Cooper, American basketball player and coach
+1957 – Evelyn Ashford, American runner and coach
+1958 – Keith Acton, Canadian ice hockey player and coach
+  1958   – John Bracewell, New Zealand cricketer
+  1958   – Memos Ioannou, Greek basketball player and coach
+  1958   – Benjamin Zephaniah, English actor, author, poet, and playwright
+1959 – Fruit Chan, Chinese director, producer, and screenwriter
+  1959   – Kevin Lowe, Canadian ice hockey player, coach, and manager
+  1959   – Emma Thompson, English actress, comedian, author, activist and screenwriter
+1960 – Pierre Aubry, Canadian ice hockey player
+  1960   – Susanne Bier, Danish director and screenwriter
+  1960   – Pedro Delgado, Spanish cyclist and sportscaster
+  1960   – Tony Jones, English snooker player
+1961 – Neil Carmichael, English academic and politician
+  1961   – Carol W. Greider, American molecular biologist
+  1961   – Dawn Wright, American geographer and oceanographer
+1962 – Nawal El Moutawakel, Moroccan athlete and politician
+  1962   – Tom Kane, American voice actor
+1963 – Alex Crawford, Nigerian-South African journalist
+  1963   – Manzoor Elahi, Pakistani cricketer
+  1963   – Manoj Prabhakar, Indian cricketer and sportscaster
+1964 – Andre Joubert, South African rugby player
+  1964   – Lee Kernaghan, Australian singer-songwriter and guitarist 
+1965 – Soichi Noguchi, Japanese engineer and astronaut
+  1965   – Linda Perry, American singer-songwriter, musician and record producer
+  1965   – Kevin Stevens, American ice hockey player
+1966 – Samantha Fox, English singer-songwriter and actress
+  1966   – Mott Green, American businessman (d. 2013)
+1967 – Frankie Poullain, Scottish bass player and songwriter 
+  1967   – Dara Torres, American swimmer and journalist
+1968 – Ben Clarke, English rugby player and coach
+  1968   – Brahim Lahlafi, Moroccan-French runner
+  1968   – Ed O'Brien, English guitarist 
+1969 – Jeromy Burnitz, American baseball player
+  1969   – Kaisa Roose, Estonian pianist and conductor
+  1969   – Jimmy Waite, Canadian-German ice hockey player and coach
+1970 – Chris Huffins, American decathlete and coach
+1971 – Philippe Carbonneau, French rugby player
+  1971   – Finidi George, Nigerian footballer 
+  1971   – Jason Sehorn, American football player 
+  1971   – Josia Thugwane, South African runner
+  1971   – Karl Turner, English lawyer and politician
+1972 – Arturo Gatti, Italian-Canadian boxer (d. 2009)
+  1972   – Lou Romano, American animator and voice actor
+1974 – Kim Min-kyo, South Korean actor and director
+  1974   – Danny Pino, American actor and screenwriter
+  1974   – Mike Quinn, American football player
+  1974   – Douglas Spain, American actor, director, and producer
+  1974   – Tim Thomas, American ice hockey player
+1975 – Sarah Teichmann, German-American biophysicist and immunologist
+1976 – Jason Bonsignore, Canadian ice hockey player and coach
+  1976   – Darius Regelskis, Lithuanian footballer
+  1976   – Kęstutis Šeštokas, Lithuanian basketball player
+  1976   – Steve Williams, English rower
+1977 – Sudarsan Pattnaik, Indian sculptor
+  1977   – Brian Pothier, American ice hockey player
+1978 – Milton Bradley, American baseball player
+  1978   – Tim Corcoran, American baseball player
+  1978   – Luis Fonsi, Puerto Rican-American singer-songwriter and dancer
+  1978   – Chris Stapleton, American country singer-songwriter and guitarist 
+1979 – Luke Evans, Welsh actor and singer
+1980 – Patrick Carney, American drummer, musician, and producer
+  1980   – James Foster, English cricketer
+  1980   – Raül López, Spanish basketball player
+  1980   – Willie Mason, New Zealand-Australian rugby league player
+  1980   – Aida Mollenkamp, American chef and author
+  1980   – Billy Yates, American football player
+1981 – Andrés D'Alessandro, Argentinian footballer
+1982 – Michael Aubrey, American baseball player
+  1982   – Anthony Green, American singer-songwriter 
+  1982   – Seth Rogen, Canadian-American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter
+1983 – Alice Braga, Brazilian actress
+  1983   – Matt Cardle, English singer-songwriter and guitarist 
+  1983   – Dudu Cearense, Brazilian footballer
+  1983   – Andreas Fransson, Swedish skier (d. 2014)
+  1983   – Ilya Kovalchuk, Russian ice hockey player
+  1983   – Martin Pedersen, Danish cyclist
+1984 – Antonio Cromartie, American football player
+  1984   – Cam Janssen, American ice hockey player
+  1984   – Daniel Paille, Canadian ice hockey player
+1985 – Ryan Hamilton, Canadian ice hockey player
+1986 – Tom Heaton, English footballer
+  1986   – Sylvain Marveaux, French footballer
+1988 – Blake Ayshford, Australian rugby league player
+  1988   – Steven Defour, Belgian footballer
+  1988   – Chris Tillman, American baseball pitcher
+1989 – Darren Nicholls, Australian rugby league player
+1990 – Emma Watson, English actress
+1991 – Daiki Arioka, Japanese idol, singer, and actor
+  1991   – Javier Fernández López, Spanish figure skater
+1992 – Jeremy McGovern, Australian rules football player
+1994 – Brodie Grundy, Australian rules football player
+  1994   – Shaunae Miller-Uibo, Bahamian sprinter
+1995 – Leander Dendoncker, Belgian footballer
+1997 – Ashleigh Gardner, Australian cricketer 
+  1997   – Maisie Williams, English actress
+1999 – Denis Shapovalov, Canadian tennis player
+2001 – Shanti Dope, Filipino rapper
+
+Deaths
+
+Pre-1600
+ 628 – Suiko, emperor of Japan (b. 554)
+ 943 – Liu Bin, emperor of Southern Han (b. 920)
+ 956 – Lin Yanyu, Chinese court official and eunuch
+1053 – Godwin, Earl of Wessex (b. 1001)
+1136 – Richard Fitz Gilbert de Clare (b. 1094)
+1220 – Adolf of Altena, German archbishop (b. 1157)
+1237 – Richard Poore, English ecclesiastic
+1415 – Manuel Chrysoloras, Greek philosopher and translator (b. 1355)
+1446 – Filippo Brunelleschi, Italian sculptor and architect (b. 1377)
+1502 – John IV of Chalon-Arlay, Prince of Orange (b. 1443)
+1558 – Roxelana, wife of Suleiman the Magnificent (b. c. 1500)
+1578 – Wolrad II, Count of Waldeck-Eisenberg, German nobleman (b. 1509)
+
+1601–1900
+1610 – Robert Persons, English Jesuit priest, insurrectionist, and author (b. 1546)
+1632 – George Calvert, 1st Baron Baltimore, English politician, English Secretary of State (b. 1580)
+1652 – Patriarch Joseph of Moscow, Russian patriarch
+1659 – Simon Dach, German poet and hymnwriter (b. 1605)
+1719 – Françoise d'Aubigné, Marquise de Maintenon, French wife of Louis XIV of France (b. 1635)
+1754 – Jacopo Riccati, Italian mathematician and academic (b. 1676)
+1757 – Rosalba Carriera, Italian painter (b. 1673)
+1761 – Archibald Campbell, 3rd Duke of Argyll, Scottish lawyer and politician, Lord President of the Court of Session (b. 1682)
+  1761   – William Oldys, English historian and author (b. 1696)
+1764 – Peder Horrebow, Danish astronomer and mathematician (b. 1679)
+  1764   – Madame de Pompadour, mistress of King Louis XV (b. 1721)
+1765 – Mikhail Lomonosov, Russian chemist and physicist (b. 1711)
+1788 – Giuseppe Bonno, Austrian composer (b. 1711)
+1793 – Ignacije Szentmartony, Croatian priest, mathematician, and astronomer (b. 1718)
+1854 – Arthur Aikin, English chemist and mineralogist (b. 1773)
+1861 – Sylvester Jordan, Austrian-German lawyer and politician (b. 1792)
+1865 – Abraham Lincoln, 16th President of the United States (b. 1809)
+1888 – Matthew Arnold, English poet and critic (b. 1822)
+1889 – Father Damien, Belgian priest and saint (b. 1840)
+1898 – Te Keepa Te Rangihiwinui, New Zealand commander and politician
+
+1901–present
+1912 – Victims of the Titanic disaster:
+                Thomas Andrews, Irish shipbuilder (b. 1873)
+                John Jacob Astor IV, American colonel, businessman, and author (b. 1864)
+                Archibald Butt, American general and journalist (b. 1865)
+                Jacques Futrelle, American journalist and author (b. 1875)
+                Benjamin Guggenheim, American businessman (b. 1865)
+                Henry B. Harris, American producer and manager (b. 1866)
+                Wallace Hartley, English violinist and bandleader (b. 1878)
+                Charles Melville Hays, American businessman (b. 1856)
+                James Paul Moody, English Sixth Officer (b. 1887)
+                William McMaster Murdoch, Scottish First Officer (b. 1873)
+                Jack Phillips, English telegraphist (b. 1887)
+                Edward Smith, English Captain (b. 1850)
+                William Thomas Stead, English journalist (b. 1849)
+                Ida Straus, German-American businesswoman (b. 1849)
+                Isidor Straus, German-American businessman and politician (b. 1845)
+                John B. Thayer, American business and sportsman (b. 1862)
+                Henry Tingle Wilde, English chief officer (b. 1872)
+1917 – János Murkovics, Slovene author, poet, and educator (b. 1839)
+1927 – Gaston Leroux, French journalist and author (b. 1868)
+1938 – César Vallejo, Peruvian journalist, poet, and playwright (b. 1892)
+1942 – Robert Musil, Austrian-Swiss author and playwright (b. 1880)
+1943 – Aristarkh Lentulov, Russian painter and set designer (b. 1882)
+1944 – Nikolai Fyodorovich Vatutin, Russian general (b. 1901)
+1945 – Hermann Florstedt, German SS officer (b. 1895)
+1948 – Radola Gajda, Montenegrin-Czech general and politician (b. 1892)
+1949 – Wallace Beery, American actor, director, and screenwriter (b. 1885)
+1962 – Clara Blandick, American actress (b. 1880)
+  1962   – Arsenio Lacson, Filipino journalist and politician, Mayor of Manila (b. 1912)
+1963 – Edward Greeves, Jr., Australian footballer (b. 1903)
+1966 – Habibullah Bahar Chowdhury, Bengali politician, writer, journalist, first health minister of East Pakistan
+1967 – Totò, Italian comedian (b. 1898)
+1971 – Gurgen Boryan, Armenian poet and playwright (b. 1915)
+  1971   – Friedebert Tuglas, Estonian author and critic (b. 1886)
+1979 – David Brand, Australian politician, 19th Premier of Western Australia (b. 1912)
+1980 – Raymond Bailey, American actor and soldier (b. 1904)
+  1980   – Jean-Paul Sartre, French philosopher and author, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1905)
+1982 – Arthur Lowe, English actor (b. 1915)
+1984 – Tommy Cooper, Welsh comedian and magician (b. 1921)
+1986 – Jean Genet, French novelist, poet, and playwright (b. 1910)
+1988 – Kenneth Williams, English actor and screenwriter (b. 1926)
+1989 – Hu Yaobang, Chinese soldier and politician, former General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party (b. 1915)
+1990 – Greta Garbo, Swedish-American actress (b. 1905)
+1993 – Leslie Charteris, English author and screenwriter (b. 1907)
+  1993   – John Tuzo Wilson, Canadian geophysicist and geologist (b. 1908)
+1998 – William Congdon, American-Italian painter and sculptor (b. 1912)
+  1998   – Pol Pot, Cambodian general and politician, 29th Prime Minister of Cambodia (b. 1925)
+1999 – Harvey Postlethwaite, English engineer (b. 1944)
+2000 – Edward Gorey, American poet and illustrator (b. 1925)
+2001 – Joey Ramone, American singer-songwriter (b. 1951)
+2002 – Damon Knight, American author and critic (b. 1922)
+  2002   – Byron White, American football player, lawyer, and jurist, 4th United States Deputy Attorney General (b. 1917)
+2004 – Mitsuteru Yokoyama, Japanese illustrator (b. 1934)
+2007 – Brant Parker, American illustrator (b. 1920)
+2008 – Krister Stendahl, Swedish bishop, theologian, and scholar (b. 1921)
+2009 – Clement Freud, German-English journalist, academic, and politician (b. 1924)
+  2009   – László Tisza, Hungarian-American physicist and academic (b. 1907)
+  2009   – Salih Neftçi, Turkish economist and author (b. 1947)
+2010 – Jack Herer, American author and activist (b. 1939)
+  2010   – Michael Pataki, American actor and director (b. 1938)
+2011 – Vittorio Arrigoni, Italian journalist, author, and activist (b. 1975)
+2012 – Paul Bogart, American director and producer (b. 1919)
+  2012   – Dwayne Schintzius, American basketball player (b. 1968)
+2013 – Benjamin Fain, Ukrainian-Israeli physicist and academic (b. 1930)
+  2013   – Richard LeParmentier, American-English actor and screenwriter (b. 1946)
+  2013   – Jean-François Paillard, French conductor (b. 1928)
+2014 – John Houbolt, American engineer and academic (b. 1919)
+  2014   – Eliseo Verón, Argentinian sociologist and academic (b. 1935)
+2015 – Jonathan Crombie, Canadian-American actor and screenwriter (b. 1966)
+  2015   – Surya Bahadur Thapa, Nepalese politician, 24th Prime Minister of Nepal (b. 1928)
+2017 – Clifton James, American actor (b. 1920)
+  2017   – Emma Morano, Italian supercentenarian, last person verified born in the 1800s (b. 1899)
+2018 – R. Lee Ermey, American actor (b. 1944) 
+  2018   – Vittorio Taviani, Italian film director and screenwriter (b. 1929)
+2022 – Bilquis Edhi, Pakistani philanthropist and wife of Abdul Sattar Edhi (b. 1947)
+  2022   – Henry Plumb, British politician and farmer (b. 1925)
+  2022   – Liz Sheridan, American actress (b. 1929)
+
+Holidays and observances
+Christian feast day:
+Abbo II of Metz
+Father Damien (The Episcopal Church)
+Hunna
+Paternus of Avranches
+April 15 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
+Day of the Sun (North Korea)
+Father Damien Day (Hawaii)
+Hillsborough Disaster Memorial (Liverpool, England)
+Jackie Robinson Day (United States)
+National American Sign Language Day (United States)
+Pohela Boishakh (Bengali New Year; India)
+Tax Day, the official deadline for filing an individual tax return (or requesting an extension). (United States, Philippines)
+Universal Day of Culture 
+World Art Day
+
+References
+
+External links
+
+ BBC: On This Day
+ 
+ Historical Events on April 15
+
+Days of the year
+April
+
+
+Events
+
+Pre-1600
+311 – The Diocletianic Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire ends.
+1315 – Enguerrand de Marigny is hanged at the instigation of Charles, Count of Valois.
+1492 – Spain gives Christopher Columbus his commission of exploration. He is named admiral of the ocean sea, viceroy and governor of any territory he discovers. 
+1513 – Edmund de la Pole, Yorkist pretender to the English throne, is executed on the orders of Henry VIII.
+1557 – Mapuche leader Lautaro is killed by Spanish forces at the Battle of Mataquito in Chile.
+1598 – Juan de Oñate begins the conquest of Santa Fe de Nuevo México.
+  1598   – Henry IV of France issues the Edict of Nantes, allowing freedom of religion to the Huguenots.
+
+1601–1900
+1636 – Eighty Years' War: Dutch Republic forces recapture a strategically important fort from Spain after a nine-month siege.
+1789 – On the balcony of Federal Hall on Wall Street in New York City, George Washington takes the oath of office to become the first President of the United States.
+1803 – Louisiana Purchase: The United States purchases the Louisiana Territory from France for $15 million, more than doubling the size of the young nation.
+1812 – The Territory of Orleans becomes the 18th U.S. state under the name Louisiana.
+1838 – Nicaragua declares independence from the Central American Federation.
+1863 – A 65-man French Foreign Legion infantry patrol fights a force of nearly 2,000 Mexican soldiers to nearly the last man in Hacienda Camarón, Mexico.
+1871 – The Camp Grant massacre takes place in Arizona Territory.
+1885 – Governor of New York David B. Hill signs legislation creating the Niagara Reservation, New York's first state park, ensuring that Niagara Falls will not be devoted solely to industrial and commercial use.
+1897 – J. J. Thomson of the Cavendish Laboratory announces his discovery of the electron as a subatomic particle, over 1,800 times smaller than a proton (in the atomic nucleus), at a lecture at the Royal Institution in London.
+1900 – Hawaii becomes a territory of the United States, with Sanford B. Dole as governor.
+
+1901–present
+1905 – Albert Einstein completes his doctoral thesis at the University of Zurich.
+1925 – Automaker Dodge Brothers, Inc is sold to Dillon, Read & Co. for US$146 million plus $50 million for charity.
+1927 – The Federal Industrial Institute for Women opens in Alderson, West Virginia, as the first women's federal prison in the United States.
+1937 – The Commonwealth of the Philippines holds a plebiscite for Filipino women on whether they should be extended the right to suffrage; over 90% would vote in the affirmative.
+1939 – The 1939–40 New York World's Fair opens.
+  1939   – NBC inaugurates its regularly scheduled television service in New York City, broadcasting President Franklin D. Roosevelt's N.Y. World's Fair opening day ceremonial address.
+1943 – World War II: The British submarine  surfaces near Huelva to cast adrift a dead man dressed as a courier and carrying false invasion plans.
+1945 – World War II: Führerbunker: Adolf Hitler and Eva Braun commit suicide after being married for less than 40 hours. Soviet soldiers raise the Victory Banner over the Reichstag building.
+  1945   – World War II: Stalag Luft I prisoner-of-war camp near Barth, Germany is liberated by Soviet soldiers, freeing nearly 9,000 American and British airmen.
+1947 – In Nevada, Boulder Dam is renamed Hoover Dam.
+1948 – In Bogotá, Colombia, the Organization of American States is established.
+1956 – Former Vice President and Democratic Senator Alben Barkley dies during a speech in Virginia.
+1957 – Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery entered into force.
+1961 – K-19, the first Soviet nuclear submarine equipped with nuclear missiles, is commissioned.
+1963 – The Bristol Bus Boycott is held in Bristol to protest the Bristol Omnibus Company's refusal to employ Black or Asian bus crews, drawing national attention to racial discrimination in the United Kingdom.
+1973 – Watergate scandal: U.S. President Richard Nixon fires White House Counsel John Dean; other top aides, most notably H. R. Haldeman and John Ehrlichman, resign.
+1975 – Fall of Saigon: Communist forces gain control of Saigon. The Vietnam War formally ends with the unconditional surrender of South Vietnamese president Dương Văn Minh.
+1980 – Beatrix is inaugurated as Queen of the Netherlands following the abdication of Juliana.
+  1980   – The Iranian Embassy siege begins in London.
+1982 – The Bijon Setu massacre occurs in Calcutta, India.
+1993 – CERN announces World Wide Web protocols will be free.
+1994 – Formula One racing driver Roland Ratzenberger is killed in a crash during the qualifying session of the San Marino Grand Prix run at Autodromo Enzo e Dino Ferrari outside Imola, Italy.
+1999 – Neo-Nazi David Copeland carries out the last of his three nail bombings in London at the Admiral Duncan gay pub, killing three people and injuring 79 others.
+2000 – Canonization of Faustina Kowalska in the presence of 200,000 people and the first Divine Mercy Sunday celebrated worldwide.
+2004 – U.S. media release graphic photos of American soldiers committing war crimes against Iraqi prisoners at Abu Ghraib prison.
+2008 – Two skeletal remains found near Yekaterinburg, Russia are confirmed by Russian scientists to be the remains of Alexei and Anastasia, two of the children of the last Tsar of Russia, whose entire family was executed at Yekaterinburg by the Bolsheviks.
+2009 – Chrysler files for Chapter 11 bankruptcy.
+  2009   – Seven civilians and the perpetrator are killed and another ten injured at a Queen's Day parade in Apeldoorn, Netherlands in an attempted assassination on Queen Beatrix.
+2012 – An overloaded ferry capsizes on the Brahmaputra River in India killing at least 103 people.
+2013 – Willem-Alexander is inaugurated as King of the Netherlands following the abdication of Beatrix.
+2014 – A bomb blast in Ürümqi, China kills three people and injures 79 others.
+2021 – Forty-five men and boys are killed in the Meron stampede in Israel.
+
+Births
+
+Pre-1600
+1310 – King Casimir III of Poland (d. 1368)
+1331 – Gaston III, Count of Foix (d. 1391)
+1383 – Anne of Gloucester, English countess, granddaughter of King Edward III of England (d. 1438)
+1425 – William III, Landgrave of Thuringia (d. 1482)
+1504 – Francesco Primaticcio, Italian painter (d. 1570)
+1553 – Louise of Lorraine (d. 1601)
+
+1601–1900
+1623 – François de Laval, French-Canadian bishop and saint (d. 1708)
+1651 – Jean-Baptiste de La Salle, French priest and saint (d. 1719)
+1662 – Mary II of England (d. 1694)
+1664 – François Louis, Prince of Conti (d. 1709)
+1710 – Johann Kaspar Basselet von La Rosée, Bavarian general (d. 1795)
+1723 – Mathurin Jacques Brisson, French zoologist and philosopher (d. 1806)
+1758 – Emmanuel Vitale, Maltese commander and politician (d. 1802)
+1770 – David Thompson, English-Canadian cartographer and explorer (d. 1857)
+1777 – Carl Friedrich Gauss, German mathematician and physicist (d. 1855)
+1799 – Joseph Dart, American businessman and entrepreneur (d. 1879)
+1803 – Albrecht von Roon, Prussian soldier and politician, 10th Minister President of Prussia (d. 1879)
+1829 – Ferdinand von Hochstetter, Austrian geologist and academic (d. 1884)
+1848 – Eugène Simon, French naturalist (d. 1924)
+1857 – Eugen Bleuler, Swiss psychiatrist and eugenicist (d. 1940)
+  1857   – Walter Simon, German banker and philanthropist (d. 1920)
+1865 – Max Nettlau, German historian and academic (d. 1944)
+1866 – Mary Haviland Stilwell Kuesel, American pioneer dentist (d. 1936)
+1869 – Hans Poelzig, German architect, designed the IG Farben Building and Großes Schauspielhaus (d. 1936)
+1870 – Franz Lehár, Hungarian composer (d. 1948)
+  1870   – Dadasaheb Phalke, Indian director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1944)
+1874 – Cyriel Verschaeve, Flemish priest and author (d. 1949)
+1876 – Orso Mario Corbino, Italian physicist and politician (d. 1937)
+1877 – Léon Flameng, French cyclist (d. 1917)
+  1877   – Alice B. Toklas, American memoirist (d. 1967)
+1878 – Władysław Witwicki, Polish psychologist, philosopher, translator, historian (of philosophy and art) and artist (d. 1948)
+1879 – Richárd Weisz, Hungarian Olympic champion wrestler (d. 1945) 
+1880 – Charles Exeter Devereux Crombie, Scottish cartoonist (d. 1967)
+1883 – Jaroslav Hašek, Czech soldier and author (d. 1923)
+  1883   – Luigi Russolo, Italian painter and composer (d. 1947)
+1884 – Olof Sandborg, Swedish actor (d. 1965)
+1888 – John Crowe Ransom, American poet, critic, and academic (d. 1974)
+1893 – Harold Breen, Australian public servant (d. 1966)
+  1893   – Joachim von Ribbentrop, German soldier and politician, 14th German Reich Minister for Foreign Affairs (d. 1946)
+1895 – Philippe Panneton, Canadian physician, academic, and diplomat (d. 1960)
+1896 – Reverend Gary Davis, American singer and guitarist (d. 1972)
+  1896   – Hans List, Austrian scientist and businessman, founded the AVL Engineering Company (d. 1996)
+1897 – Humberto Mauro, Brazilian director and screenwriter (d. 1983)
+1900 – Erni Krusten, Estonian author and poet (d. 1984)
+
+1901–present
+1901 – Simon Kuznets, Belarusian-American economist, statistician, and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1985)
+1902 – Theodore Schultz, American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1998)
+1905 – Sergey Nikolsky, Russian mathematician and academic (d. 2012)
+1908 – Eve Arden, American actress (d. 1990)
+  1908   – Bjarni Benediktsson, Icelandic professor of law and politician, 13th Prime Minister of Iceland (d. 1970)
+  1908   – Frank Robert Miller, Canadian air marshal and politician (d. 1997)
+1909 – F. E. McWilliam, Irish sculptor and educator (d. 1992)
+  1909   – Juliana of the Netherlands (d. 2004)
+1910 – Levi Celerio, Filipino pianist, violinist, and composer (d. 2002)
+1914 – Charles Beetham, American middle-distance runner (d. 1997)
+  1914   – Dorival Caymmi, Brazilian singer-songwriter, actor, and painter (d. 2008)
+1916 – Paul Kuusberg, Estonian journalist and author (d. 2003)
+  1916   – Claude Shannon, American mathematician and engineer (d. 2001)
+  1916   – Robert Shaw, American conductor (d. 1999)
+1917 – Bea Wain, American singer (d. 2017)
+1920 – Duncan Hamilton, Irish-English race car driver and pilot (d. 1994)
+  1920   – Gerda Lerner, Austrian-American historian and woman's history author (d. 2013)
+  1920   – Tom Moore, British army officer and fundraiser (d. 2021)
+1921 – Roger L. Easton, American scientist, co-invented the GPS (d. 2014)
+1922 – Anton Murray, South African cricketer (d. 1995)
+1923 – Percy Heath, American bassist (d. 2005)
+  1923   – Kagamisato Kiyoji, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 42nd Yokozuna (d. 2004)
+1924 – Sheldon Harnick, American lyricist (d. 2023)
+  1924   – Uno Laht, Estonian KGB officer and author (d. 2008)
+1925 – Corinne Calvet, French actress (d. 2001)
+  1925   – Johnny Horton, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1960)
+1926 – Shrinivas Khale, Indian composer (d. 2011)
+  1926   – Cloris Leachman, American actress and comedian (d. 2021)
+1928 – Hugh Hood, Canadian author and academic (d. 2000)
+  1928   – Orlando Sirola, Italian tennis player (d. 1995)
+1930 – Félix Guattari, French psychotherapist and philosopher (d. 1992)
+1933 – Charles Sanderson, Baron Sanderson of Bowden, English politician
+1934 – Jerry Lordan, English singer-songwriter (d. 1995)
+  1934   – Don McKenney, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 2022)
+1937 – Tony Harrison, English poet and playwright
+1938 – Gary Collins, American actor and talk show host (d. 2012)
+  1938   – Juraj Jakubisko, Slovak director and screenwriter (d. 2023)
+  1938   – Larry Niven, American author and screenwriter
+1940 – Jeroen Brouwers, Dutch journalist and writer
+  1940   – Michael Cleary, Australian rugby player and politician
+  1940   – Ülo Õun, Estonian sculptor (d. 1988)
+  1940   – Burt Young, American actor and painter (d. 2023)
+1941 – Stavros Dimas, Greek lawyer and politician, Greek Minister of Foreign Affairs
+  1941   – Max Merritt, New Zealand-Australian singer-songwriter (d. 2020)
+1942 – Sallehuddin of Kedah, Sultan of Kedah
+1943 – Frederick Chiluba, Zambian politician, 2nd President of Zambia (d. 2011)
+  1943   – Bobby Vee, American pop singer-songwriter (d. 2016)
+1944 – Jon Bing, Norwegian author, scholar, and academic (d. 2014)
+  1944   – Jill Clayburgh, American actress (d. 2010)
+1945 – J. Michael Brady, British radiologist
+  1945   – Annie Dillard, American novelist, essayist, and poet
+  1945   – Mimi Fariña, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and activist (d. 2001)
+  1945   – Michael J. Smith, American pilot, and astronaut (d. 1986)
+1946 – King Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden
+  1946   – Bill Plympton, American animator, producer, and screenwriter
+  1946   – Don Schollander, American swimmer
+1947 – Paul Fiddes, English theologian and academic
+  1947   – Finn Kalvik, Norwegian singer-songwriter and guitarist
+  1947   – Tom Køhlert, Danish footballer and manager
+  1947   – Mats Odell, Swedish economist and politician, Swedish Minister for Financial Markets
+1948 – Wayne Kramer, American guitarist and singer-songwriter
+  1948   – Pierre Pagé, Canadian ice hockey player and coach
+  1948   – Margit Papp, Hungarian athlete
+1949 – Phil Garner, American baseball player and manager
+  1949   – António Guterres, Portuguese academic and politician, 114th Prime Minister of Portugal and 9th Secretary-General of the United Nations
+  1949   – Karl Meiler, German tennis player (d. 2014)
+1952 – Jacques Audiard, French director and screenwriter
+  1952   – Jack Middelburg, Dutch motorcycle racer (d. 1984)
+1953 – Merrill Osmond, American singer and bass player
+1954 – Jane Campion, New Zealand director, producer, and screenwriter
+  1954   – Kim Darroch, English diplomat, UK Permanent Representative to the European Union
+  1954   – Frank-Michael Marczewski, German footballer
+1955 – Nicolas Hulot, French journalist and environmentalist
+  1955   – David Kitchin, English lawyer and judge
+  1955   – Pradeep Sarkar, Indian director and screenwriter (d. 2023)
+  1955   – Zlatko Topčić, Bosnian writer and screenwriter
+1956 – Lars von Trier, Danish director and screenwriter
+1957 – Wonder Mike, American rapper and songwriter 
+1958 – Charles Berling, French actor, director, and screenwriter
+1959 – Stephen Harper, Canadian economist and politician, 22nd Prime Minister of Canada
+1960 – Geoffrey Cox, English lawyer and politician
+  1960   – Kerry Healey, American academic and politician, 70th Lieutenant Governor of Massachusetts
+1961 – Arnór Guðjohnsen, Icelandic footballer 
+  1961   – Isiah Thomas, American basketball player, coach, and sportscaster
+1963 – Andrew Carwood, English tenor and conductor
+  1963   – Michael Waltrip, American race car driver and sportscaster
+1964 – Tony Fernandes, Malaysian-Indian businessman, co-founded Tune Group
+  1964   – Ian Healy, Australian cricketer, coach, and sportscaster
+  1964   – Lorenzo Staelens, Belgian footballer and manager
+  1964   – Abhishek Chatterjee, Indian actor
+1965 – Daniela Costian, Romanian-Australian discus thrower
+  1965   – Adrian Pasdar, American actor
+1966 – Jeff Brown, Canadian ice hockey player and coach
+  1966   – Dave Meggett, American football player and coach
+1967 – Phil Chang, Taiwanese singer-songwriter and actor
+  1967   – Philipp Kirkorov, Bulgarian-born Russian singer, composer and actor
+  1967   – Turbo B, American rapper 
+1969 – Warren Defever, American bass player and producer 
+  1969   – Justine Greening, English accountant and politician, Secretary of State for International Development
+  1969   – Paulo Jr., Brazilian bass player
+1972 – Takako Tokiwa, Japanese actress
+1973 – Leigh Francis, English comedian and actor
+1974 – Christian Tamminga, Dutch athlete 
+1975 – Johnny Galecki, American actor
+1976 – Davian Clarke, Jamaican sprinter
+  1976   – Amanda Palmer, American singer-songwriter and pianist 
+  1976   – Daniel Wagon, Australian rugby league player
+  1976   – Victor J. Glover, American astronaut
+1977 – Jeannie Haddaway, American politician
+  1977   – Meredith L. Patterson, American technologist, journalist, and author
+1978 – Liljay, Taiwanese singer
+1979 – Gerardo Torrado, Mexican footballer
+1980 – Luis Scola, Argentinian basketball player
+  1980   – Jeroen Verhoeven, Dutch footballer
+1981 – Nicole Kaczmarski, American basketball player
+  1981   – John O'Shea, Irish footballer
+  1981   – Kunal Nayyar, British-Indian actor
+  1981   – Justin Vernon, American singer-songwriter, multi-instrumentalist, and producer 
+1982 – Kirsten Dunst, American actress
+  1982   – Drew Seeley, Canadian-American singer-songwriter, dancer, and actor
+1983 – Chris Carr, American football player
+  1983   – Tatjana Hüfner, German luger
+  1983   – Marina Tomić, Slovenian hurdler
+  1983   – Troy Williamson, American football player
+1984 – Seimone Augustus, American basketball player
+  1984   – Shawn Daivari, American wrestler and manager
+  1984   – Risto Mätas, Estonian javelin thrower
+  1984   – Lee Roache, English footballer
+1985 – Brandon Bass, American basketball player
+  1985   – Gal Gadot, Israeli actress and model
+  1985   – Ashley Alexandra Dupré, American journalist, singer, and prostitute
+1986 – Dianna Agron, American actress and singer
+  1986   – Martten Kaldvee, Estonian biathlete
+1987 – Alipate Carlile, Australian footballer
+  1987   – Chris Morris, South African cricketer
+  1987   – Rohit Sharma, Indian cricketer
+1988 – Andy Allen, Australian chef
+  1988   – Sander Baart, Dutch field hockey player 
+  1988   – Ana de Armas, Cuban actress
+  1988   – Liu Xijun, Chinese singer
+  1988   – Oh Hye-ri, South Korean taekwondo athlete
+1989 – Jang Wooyoung, South Korean singer and actor
+1990 – Jonny Brownlee, English triathlete
+  1990   – Mac DeMarco, Canadian singer-songwriter
+  1990   – Kaarel Kiidron, Estonian footballer
+  1990   – Paula Ribó, Spanish singer-songwriter and actress
+1991 – Chris Kreider, American ice hockey player
+1991 – Travis Scott, American rapper and producer
+  1992   – Marc-André ter Stegen, German footballer
+1993 – Dion Dreesens, Dutch swimmer
+  1993   – Martin Fuksa, Czech canoeist
+1994 – Chae Seo-jin, South Korean actress
+  1994   – Wang Yafan, Chinese tennis player
+1996 – Luke Friend, English singer
+1997 – Adam Ryczkowski, Polish footballer
+1998 – Georgina Amorós, Spanish actress
+1999 – Jorden van Foreest, Dutch chess grandmaster
+  1999   – Krit Amnuaydechkorn, Thai actor and singer
+2000 – Yui Hiwatashi, Japanese singer
+2002 – Anna Cramling, Spanish-Swedish chess player
+  2002   – Teden Mengi, English footballer
+2003 – Emily Carey, British actress
+  2003   – Jung Yun-seok, South Korean actor
+
+Deaths
+
+Pre-1600
+AD 65 – Lucan, Roman poet (b. 39)
+125 – An, Chinese emperor (b. 94)
+ 535 – Amalasuntha, Ostrogothic queen and regent
+ 783 – Hildegard of the Vinzgau, Frankish queen
+1002 – Eckard I, German nobleman
+1030 – Mahmud of Ghazni, Ghaznavid emir (b. 971)
+1063 – Ren Zong, Chinese emperor (b. 1010)
+1131 – Adjutor, French knight and saint
+1305 – Roger de Flor, Italian military adventurer (b. 1267)
+1341 – John III, duke of Brittany (b. 1286)
+1439 – Richard de Beauchamp, 13th Earl of Warwick, English commander (b. 1382)
+1524 – Pierre Terrail, seigneur de Bayard, French soldier (b. 1473)
+1544 – Thomas Audley, 1st Baron Audley of Walden, English lawyer and judge, Lord Chancellor of England (b. 1488)
+1550 – Tabinshwehti, Burmese king (b. 1516)
+
+1601–1900
+1632 – Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly, Bavarian general (b. 1559)
+  1632   – Sigismund III Vasa, Swedish-Polish son of John III of Sweden (b. 1566)
+1637 – Niwa Nagashige, Japanese daimyō (b. 1571)
+1655 – Eustache Le Sueur, French painter (b. 1617)
+1660 – Petrus Scriverius, Dutch historian and scholar (b. 1576)
+1672 – Marie of the Incarnation, French-Canadian nun and saint, founded the Ursulines of Quebec (b. 1599)
+1696 – Robert Plot, English chemist and academic (b. 1640)
+1712 – Philipp van Limborch, Dutch theologian and author (b. 1633)
+1733 – Rodrigo Anes de Sá Almeida e Meneses, 1st Marquis of Abrantes, Portuguese diplomat (b. 1676)
+1736 – Johann Albert Fabricius, German scholar and author (b. 1668)
+1758 – François d'Agincourt, French organist and composer (b. 1684)
+1792 – John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich, English politician, Secretary of State for the Northern Department (b. 1718)
+1795 – Jean-Jacques Barthélemy, French archaeologist and author (b. 1716)
+1806 – Onogawa Kisaburō, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 5th Yokozuna (b. 1758)
+1841 – Peter Andreas Heiberg, Danish philologist and author (b. 1758)
+1847 – Charles, Austrian commander and duke of Teschen (b. 1771)
+1863 – Jean Danjou, French captain (b. 1828)
+1865 – Robert FitzRoy, English admiral, meteorologist, and politician, 2nd Governor of New Zealand (b. 1805)
+1870 – Thomas Cooke, Canadian bishop and missionary (b. 1792)
+1875 – Jean-Frédéric Waldeck, French explorer, lithographer, and cartographer (b. 1766)
+1879 – Emma Smith, American religious leader (b. 1804)
+1883 – Édouard Manet, French painter (b. 1832)
+1891 – Joseph Leidy, American paleontologist and author (b. 1823)
+1900 – Casey Jones, American railroad engineer (b. 1864)
+
+1901–present
+1903 – Emily Stowe, Canadian physician and activist (b. 1831)
+1910 – Jean Moréas, Greek poet and critic (b. 1856)
+1926 – Bessie Coleman, American pilot (b. 1892)
+1936 – A. E. Housman, English poet and scholar (b. 1859)
+1939 – Frank Haller, American boxer (b. 1883)
+1943 – Eddy Hamel, American footballer (b. 1902)
+  1943   – Otto Jespersen, Danish linguist and academic (b. 1860)
+  1943   – Beatrice Webb, English sociologist and economist (b. 1858) 
+
+1945 – Eva Braun, German photographer and office and lab assistant, wife of Adolf Hitler (b. 1912)
+  1945   – Adolf Hitler, Austrian-German politician and author, dictator of Nazi Germany (b. 1889)
+1953 – Jacob Linzbach, Estonian linguist and author (b. 1874)
+1956 – Alben W. Barkley, American lawyer and politician, 35th Vice President of the United States (b. 1877)
+1970 – Jacques Presser, Dutch historian, writer and poet (b. 1899)
+  1970   – Inger Stevens, Swedish-American actress (b. 1934)
+1972 – Gia Scala, English-American model and actress (b. 1934)
+1973 – Václav Renč, Czech poet and playwright (b. 1911)
+1974 – Agnes Moorehead, American actress (b. 1900)
+1980 – Luis Muñoz Marín, Puerto Rican journalist and politician, 1st Governor of Puerto Rico (b. 1898)
+1982 – Lester Bangs, American journalist and author (b. 1949)
+1983 – George Balanchine, Russian dancer and choreographer (b. 1904)
+  1983   – Muddy Waters, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and bandleader (b. 1913)
+  1983   – Edouard Wyss-Dunant, Swiss physician and mountaineer (b. 1897)
+1986 – Robert Stevenson, English director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1905)
+1989 – Sergio Leone, Italian director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1929)
+1993 – Tommy Caton, English footballer (b. 1962)
+1994 – Roland Ratzenberger, Austrian race car driver (b. 1960)
+  1994   – Richard Scarry, American author and illustrator (b. 1919)
+1995 – Maung Maung Kha, Burmese colonel and politician, 8th Prime Minister of Burma (b. 1920)
+1998 – Nizar Qabbani, Syrian-English poet, publisher, and diplomat (b. 1926)
+2000 – Poul Hartling, Danish politician, 36th Prime Minister of Denmark (b. 1914)
+2002 – Charlotte von Mahlsdorf, German philanthropist, founded the Gründerzeit Museum (b. 1928)
+2003 – Mark Berger, American economist and academic (b. 1955)
+  2003   – Possum Bourne, New Zealand race car driver (b. 1956)
+2005 – Phil Rasmussen, American lieutenant and pilot (b. 1918)
+2006 – Jean-François Revel, French philosopher (b. 1924)
+  2006   – Pramoedya Ananta Toer, Indonesian author and academic (b. 1925)
+2007 – Kevin Mitchell, American football player (b. 1971)
+  2007   – Tom Poston, American actor, comedian, and game show panelist (b. 1921)
+  2007   – Gordon Scott, American film and television actor (b. 1926)
+2008 – Juancho Evertsz, Dutch Antillean politician (b. 1923)
+2009 – Henk Nijdam, Dutch cyclist (b. 1935)
+2011 – Dorjee Khandu, Indian politician, 6th Chief Minister of Arunachal Pradesh (b. 1955)
+  2011   – Evald Okas, Estonian painter (b. 1915)
+  2011   – Ernesto Sabato, Argentinian physicist, author, and painter (b. 1911)
+2012 – Tomás Borge, Nicaraguan poet and politician, co-founded the Sandinista National Liberation Front (b. 1930)
+  2012   – Alexander Dale Oen, Norwegian swimmer (b. 1985) 
+  2012   – Giannis Gravanis, Greek footballer (b. 1958)
+  2012   – Benzion Netanyahu, Russian-Israeli historian and academic (b. 1910)
+2013 – Roberto Chabet, Filipino painter and sculptor (b. 1937)
+  2013   – Shirley Firth, Canadian skier (b. 1953)
+  2013   – Viviane Forrester, French author and critic (b. 1925)
+2014 – Khaled Choudhury, Indian painter and set designer (b. 1919)
+  2014   – Julian Lewis, English biologist and academic (b. 1946)
+  2014   – Carl E. Moses, American businessman and politician (b. 1929)
+  2014   – Ian Ross, Australian journalist (b. 1940)
+2015 – Ben E. King, American singer-songwriter and producer (b. 1938)
+2016 – Daniel Berrigan, American priest and activist (b. 1921)
+  2016   – Harry Kroto, English chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1939)
+2017 – Belchior, Brazilian singer and composer (b. 1946)
+2019 – Peter Mayhew, English-American actor (b. 1944)
+2020 – Tony Allen, Nigerian drummer and composer (b. 1940)
+  2020   – Rishi Kapoor, Indian actor, film director and producer (b. 1952)
+2021 – Anthony Payne, English composer (b. 1936)
+2022 – Naomi Judd, American singer-songwriter and actress (b. 1946)
+  2022   – Mino Raiola, Italian football agent (b. 1967)
+2023 – Jock Zonfrillo, Scottish television presenter and chef (b. 1976)
+
+Holidays and observances
+Armed Forces Day (Georgia)
+Camarón Day (French Foreign Legion)
+Children's Day (Mexico)
+Christian feast day:
+Adjutor
+Aimo
+Amator, Peter and Louis
+Donatus of Evorea
+Eutropius of Saintes
+Marie Guyart (Anglican Church of Canada)
+Marie of the Incarnation (Ursuline)
+Maximus of Rome
+Blessed Miles Gerard
+Pomponius of Naples
+Pope Pius V
+Quirinus of Neuss
+Sarah Josepha Hale (Episcopal Church)
+Suitbert the Younger 
+April 30 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
+Consumer Protection Day (Thailand)
+Honesty Day (United States)
+International Jazz Day (UNESCO)
+Martyrs' Day (Pakistan)
+May Eve, the eve of the first day of summer in the Northern hemisphere (see May 1):
+Beltane begins at sunset in the Northern hemisphere, Samhain begins at sunset in the Southern hemisphere. (Neo-Druidic Wheel of the Year)
+Carodejnice (Czech Republic and Slovakia)
+Walpurgis Night (Central and Northern Europe)
+National Persian Gulf Day (Iran)
+Reunification Day (Vietnam)
+Rincon Day (Bonaire)
+Russian State Fire Service Day (Russia)
+Teachers' Day (Paraguay)
+
+References
+
+External links
+
+ BBC: On This Day
+ 
+ Historical Events on April 30
+
+Days of the year
+April
+
+
+Events
+
+Pre-1600
+ 392 – Arbogast has Eugenius elected Western Roman Emperor.
+ 851 – Battle of Jengland: Erispoe defeats Charles the Bald near the Breton town of Jengland.
+1138 – Battle of the Standard between Scotland and England.
+1485 – The Battle of Bosworth Field occurs; Richard III dies, marking the end of the House of Plantagenet.
+1559 – Spanish archbishop Bartolomé Carranza is arrested for heresy.
+
+1601–1900
+1614 – Fettmilch Uprising: Jews are expelled from Frankfurt, Holy Roman Empire, following the plundering of the Judengasse.
+1639 – Madras (now Chennai), India, is founded by the British East India Company on a sliver of land bought from local Nayak rulers.
+1642 – Charles I raises his standard in Nottingham, which marks the beginning of the English Civil War.
+1654 – Jacob Barsimson arrives in New Amsterdam. He is the first known Jewish immigrant to America.
+1711 – Britain's Quebec Expedition loses eight ships and almost nine hundred soldiers, sailors and women to rocks at Pointe-aux-Anglais.
+1717 – Spanish troops land on Sardinia.
+1770 – James Cook names and lands on Possession Island, and claims the east coast of Australia for Britain as New South Wales.
+1777 – British forces abandon the Siege of Fort Stanwix after hearing rumors of Continental Army reinforcements.
+1780 – James Cook's ship  returns to England (Cook having been killed on Hawaii during the voyage).
+1791 – The Haitian slave revolution begins in Saint-Domingue, Haiti.
+1798 – French troops land at Kilcummin, County Mayo, Ireland to aid the rebellion.
+1827 – José de La Mar becomes President of Peru.
+1846 – The Second Federal Republic of Mexico is established.
+1849 – Passaleão incident: João Maria Ferreira do Amaral, the governor of Portuguese Macau, is assassinated by a group of Chinese locals, triggering a military confrontation between China and Portugal at the Battle of Passaleão three days after.
+1851 – The first America's Cup is won by the yacht America.
+1864 – Twelve nations sign the First Geneva Convention, establishing the rules of protection of the victims of armed conflicts.
+1875 – The Treaty of Saint Petersburg between Japan and Russia is ratified, providing for the exchange of Sakhalin for the Kuril Islands.
+1894 – Mahatma Gandhi forms the Natal Indian Congress (NIC) in order to fight discrimination against Indian traders in Natal.
+
+1901–present
+1902 – The Cadillac Motor Company is founded.
+  1902   – Theodore Roosevelt becomes the first President of the United States to make a public appearance in an automobile.
+  1902   – At least 6,000 people are killed by the magnitude 7.7 Kashgar earthquake in the Tien Shan mountains.
+1922 – Michael Collins, Commander-in-chief of the Irish Free State Army, is shot dead in an ambush during the Irish Civil War.
+1934 – Bill Woodfull of Australia becomes the only test cricket captain to twice regain The Ashes.
+1941 – World War II: German troops begin the Siege of Leningrad.
+1942 – Brazil declares war on Germany, Japan and Italy.
+1944 – World War II: Holocaust of Kedros in Crete by German forces.
+1949 – The Queen Charlotte earthquake is Canada's strongest since the 1700 Cascadia earthquake.
+1953 – The penal colony on Devil's Island is permanently closed.
+1962 – The OAS attempts to assassinate French president Charles de Gaulle.
+1963 – X-15 Flight 91 reaches the highest altitude of the X-15 program ( (354,200 feet)).
+1966 – Labor movements NFWA and AWOC merge to become the United Farm Workers Organizing Committee (UFWOC), the predecessor of the United Farm Workers.
+1968 – Pope Paul VI arrives in Bogotá, Colombia. It is the first visit of a pope to Latin America.
+1971 – J. Edgar Hoover and John Mitchell announce the arrest of 20 of the Camden 28.
+1972 – Rhodesia is expelled by the IOC for its racist policies.
+1973 – The Congress of Chile votes in favour of a resolution condemning President Salvador Allende's government and demands that he resign or else be unseated through force and new elections.
+1978 – Nicaraguan Revolution: The FLSN seizes the National Congress of Nicaragua, along with over a thousand hostages.
+  1978   – The District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment is passed by the U.S. Congress, although it is never ratified by a sufficient number of states.
+1981 – Far Eastern Air Transport Flight 103 disintegrates in mid-air and crashes in Sanyi Township, Miaoli County, Taiwan. All 110 people on board are killed.
+1985 – British Airtours Flight 28M suffers an engine fire during takeoff at Manchester Airport. The pilots abort but due to inefficient evacuation procedures 55 people are killed, mostly from smoke inhalation.
+1989 – Nolan Ryan strikes out Rickey Henderson to become the first Major League Baseball pitcher to record 5,000 strikeouts.
+1991 – Iceland is the first nation in the world to recognize the independence of the Baltic states.
+1992 – FBI sniper Lon Horiuchi shoots and kills Vicki Weaver during an 11-day siege at her home at Ruby Ridge, Idaho.
+1999 – China Airlines Flight 642 crashes at Hong Kong International Airport, killing three people and injuring 208 more.
+2003 – Alabama Chief Justice Roy Moore is suspended after refusing to comply with a federal court order to remove a rock inscribed with the Ten Commandments from the lobby of the Alabama Supreme Court building.
+2004 – Versions of The Scream and Madonna, two paintings by Edvard Munch, are stolen at gunpoint from a museum in Oslo, Norway.
+2006 – Pulkovo Aviation Enterprise Flight 612 crashes near the Russian border over eastern Ukraine, killing all 170 people on board.
+  2006   – Grigori Perelman is awarded the Fields Medal for his proof of the Poincaré conjecture in mathematics but refuses to accept the medal.
+2007 – The Texas Rangers defeat the Baltimore Orioles 30–3, the most runs scored by a team in modern Major League Baseball history.
+2012 – Ethnic clashes over grazing rights for cattle in Kenya's Tana River District result in more than 52 deaths.
+
+Births
+
+Pre-1600
+1412 – Frederick II, Elector of Saxony (d. 1464)
+1570 – Franz von Dietrichstein, Roman Catholic archbishop and cardinal (d. 1636)
+1599 – Agatha Marie of Hanau, German noblewoman (d. 1636)
+
+1601–1900
+1601 – Georges de Scudéry, French author, poet, and playwright (d. 1667)
+1624 – Jean Regnault de Segrais, French author and poet (d. 1701)
+1647 – Denis Papin, French physicist and mathematician, developed pressure cooking (d. 1712)
+1679 – Pierre Guérin de Tencin, French cardinal (d. 1758)
+1760 – Pope Leo XII (d. 1829)
+1764 – Charles Percier, French architect and interior designer (d. 1838)
+1771 – Henry Maudslay, English engineer (d. 1831)
+1773 – Aimé Bonpland, French botanist and explorer (d. 1858)
+1778 – James Kirke Paulding, American poet, playwright, and politician, 11th United States Secretary of the Navy (d. 1860)
+1800 – Samuel David Luzzatto, Italian poet and scholar (d. 1865)
+1818 – Rudolf von Jhering, German jurist (d. 1892)
+1827 – Ezra Butler Eddy, Canadian businessman and politician (d. 1906)
+1834 – Samuel Pierpont Langley, American physicist and astronomer (d. 1906)
+1836 – Archibald Willard, American soldier and painter (d. 1918)
+1844 – George W. De Long, American Naval officer and explorer (d. 1881)
+1845 – William Lewis Douglas, American businessman and politician, 42nd Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1924)
+1847 – John Forrest, Australian politician, 1st Premier of Western Australia (d. 1918)
+1848 – Melville Elijah Stone, American publisher, founded the Chicago Daily News (d. 1929)
+1854 – Milan I of Serbia (d. 1901)
+1857 – Ned Hanlon, American baseball player and manager (d. 1937)
+1860 – Paul Gottlieb Nipkow, Polish-German technician and inventor, created the Nipkow disk (d. 1940)
+  1860   – Alfred Ploetz, German physician, biologist, and eugenicist (d. 1940)
+1862 – Claude Debussy, French pianist and composer (d. 1918)
+1867 – Maximilian Bircher-Benner, Swiss physician and nutritionist (d. 1939)
+  1867   – Charles Francis Jenkins, American inventor (d. 1934)
+1868 – Willis R. Whitney, American chemist (d. 1958)
+1873 – Alexander Bogdanov, Russian physician and philosopher (d. 1928)
+1874 – Max Scheler, German philosopher and author (d. 1928)
+1880 – Gorch Fock, German author and poet (d. 1916)
+  1880   – George Herriman, American cartoonist (d. 1944)
+1881 – James Newland, Australian soldier and policeman (d. 1949)
+1882 – Raymonde de Laroche, French pilot (d. 1919)
+1887 – Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk, German jurist and politician, German Minister of Foreign Affairs (d. 1977)
+1890 – Cecil Kellaway, South African actor (d. 1973)
+1891 – Henry Bachtold, Australian soldier and railway engineer (d. 1983)
+  1891   – Jacques Lipchitz, Lithuanian-Italian sculptor (d. 1973)
+1893 – Wilfred Kitching, English 7th General of The Salvation Army (d. 1977)
+  1893   – Dorothy Parker, American poet, short story writer, critic, and satirist (d. 1967)
+  1893   – Ernest H. Volwiler, American chemist (d. 1992)
+1895 – László Almásy, Hungarian captain, pilot, and explorer (d. 1951)
+  1895   – Paul Comtois, Canadian lawyer and politician, 21st Lieutenant Governor of Quebec (d. 1966)
+1896 – Laurence McKinley Gould, American geologist, educator, and polar explorer (d. 1995)
+1897 – Bill Woodfull, Australian cricketer and educator (d. 1965)
+1900 – Lisy Fischer, Swiss-born pianist and child prodigy (d. 1999)
+
+1901–present
+1902 – Thomas Pelly, American lawyer and politician (d. 1973)
+  1902   – Leni Riefenstahl, German actress, film director and propagandist (d. 2003)
+  1902   – Edward Rowe Snow, American historian and author (d. 1982)
+1903 – Jerry Iger, American cartoonist, co-founded Eisner & Iger (d. 1990)
+1904 – Deng Xiaoping, Chinese soldier and politician, 1st Vice Premier of the People's Republic of China (d. 1997)
+1908 – Henri Cartier-Bresson, French photographer and painter (d. 2004)
+  1908   – Erwin Thiesies, German rugby player and coach (d. 1993)
+1909 – Julius J. Epstein, American screenwriter and producer (d. 2000)
+  1909   – Mel Hein, American football player and coach (d. 1992)
+1913 – Leonard Pagliero, English businessman and pilot (d. 2008)
+  1913   – Bruno Pontecorvo, Italian physicist and academic (d. 1993)
+1914 – Jack Dunphy, American author and playwright (d. 1992)
+  1914   – Connie B. Gay, American businessman, co-founded the Country Music Hall of Fame and Museum (d. 1989)
+1915 – David Dellinger, American activist (d. 2004)
+  1915   – James Hillier, Canadian-American scientist, co-designed the electron microscope (d. 2007)
+  1915   – Edward Szczepanik, Polish economist and politician, 15th Prime Minister of the Polish Republic in Exile (d. 2005)
+1917 – John Lee Hooker, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2001)
+1918 – Mary McGrory, American journalist and author (d. 2004)
+1920 – Ray Bradbury, American science fiction writer and screenwriter (d. 2012)
+  1920   – Denton Cooley, American surgeon and scientist (d. 2016)
+1921 – Dinos Dimopoulos, Greek director and screenwriter (d. 2003)
+  1921   – Tony Pawson, English cricketer, footballer, and journalist (d. 2012)
+1922 – Roberto Aizenberg, Argentine painter and sculptor (d. 1996)
+  1922   – Theoni V. Aldredge, Greek-American costume designer (d. 2011)
+1924 – James Kirkwood, Jr., American playwright and author (d. 1989)
+  1924   – Harishankar Parsai, Indian writer, satirist and humorist (d. 1995)
+1925 – Honor Blackman, English actress and republican (d. 2020)
+1926 – Marc Bohan, French fashion designer (d. 2023)
+  1926   – Bob Flanigan, American pop singer (d. 2011)
+1928 – Tinga Seisay, Sierra Leonean academic and diplomat (d. 2015)
+  1928   – Karlheinz Stockhausen, German composer and academic (d. 2007)
+1929 – Valery Alekseyev, Russian anthropologist and author (d. 1991)
+  1929   – Ulrich Wegener, German police officer and general (d. 2017)
+1930 – Gylmar dos Santos Neves, Brazilian footballer (d. 2013)
+1932 – Gerald P. Carr, American engineer, colonel, and astronaut (d. 2020)
+1933 – Sylva Koscina, Italian actress (d. 1994)
+1934 – Norman Schwarzkopf, Jr., American general and engineer (d. 2012)
+1935 – Annie Proulx, American novelist, short story writer, and journalist
+1936 – Chuck Brown, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (d. 2012)
+  1936   – John Callaway, American journalist and producer (d. 2009)
+  1936   – Dale Hawkins, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2010)
+  1936   – Werner Stengel, German roller coaster designer and engineer, designed the Maverick roller coaster
+1938 – Jean Berkey, American businesswoman and politician (d. 2013)
+1939 – Valerie Harper, American actress (d. 2019)
+  1939   – Carl Yastrzemski, American baseball player
+1941 – Bill Parcells, American football player and coach
+1943 – Alun Michael, Welsh police commissioner and politician, inaugural First Minister of Wales
+  1943   – Masatoshi Shima, Japanese computer scientist and engineer, co-designed the Intel 4004
+1944 – Roger Cashmore, English physicist and academic
+1945 – David Chase, American screenwriter and producer
+  1945   – Ron Dante, American singer-songwriter and producer 
+1947 – Cindy Williams, American actress and producer (d. 2023)
+1948 – David Marks, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 
+1949 – Diana Nyad, American swimmer and author
+1949 – Joop Donkervoort, Dutch businessman
+1950 – Ray Burris, American baseball player and coach
+  1950   – Scooter Libby, American lawyer and politician, Chief of Staff to the Vice President of the United States
+1952 – Peter Laughner, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1977)
+1953 – Paul Ellering, American weightlifter, wrestler, and manager
+1955 – Chiranjeevi, Indian film actor, producer and politician
+1956 – Paul Molitor, American baseball player and coach
+  1956   – Peter Taylor, Australian cricketer
+1957 – Steve Davis, English snooker player, sportscaster, and author
+  1957   – Holly Dunn, American country music singer-songwriter (d. 2016)
+1958 – Colm Feore, American-Canadian actor
+  1958   – Stevie Ray, American semi-retired wrestler
+  1958   – Vernon Reid, English-born American guitarist and songwriter
+1959 – Juan Croucier, Cuban-American singer-songwriter, bass player, and producer 
+  1959   – Pia Gjellerup, Danish lawyer and politician, Danish Minister of Finance
+  1959   – Mark Williams, English actor
+1960 – Holger Gehrke, German footballer and manager
+  1960   – Collin Raye, American country music singer 
+  1960   – Regina Taylor, American actress and playwright
+1961 – Andrés Calamaro, Argentine singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 
+  1961   – Roland Orzabal, English singer and musician
+  1961   – Debbi Peterson, American singer-songwriter and drummer
+1962 – Stefano Tilli, Italian sprinter
+1963 – Tori Amos, American singer-songwriter, pianist, and producer 
+  1963   – James DeBarge, American R&B/soul singer
+  1963   – Terry Catledge, American basketball player
+1964 – Trey Gowdy, American lawyer and U.S. Representative
+  1964   – Mats Wilander, Swedish-American tennis player and coach
+1965 – Wendy Botha, South African-Australian surfer
+  1965   – David Reimer, Canadian man, born male but reassigned female and raised as a girl after a botched circumcision (d. 2004)
+1966 – GZA, American rapper and producer
+  1966   – Rob Witschge, Dutch footballer and manager
+1967 – Adewale Akinnuoye-Agbaje, English actor
+  1967   – Ty Burrell, American actor and comedian
+  1967   – Paul Colman, Australian singer-songwriter and guitarist 
+  1967   – Alfred Gough, American screenwriter and producer
+  1967   – Layne Staley, American singer-songwriter (d. 2002)
+1968 – Casper Christensen, Danish comedian, actor, and screenwriter
+  1968   – Rich Lowry, American writer and magazine editor (National Review)
+  1968   – Aleksandr Mostovoi, Russian footballer
+  1968   – Elisabeth Murdoch, Australian businesswoman
+  1968   – Horst Skoff, Austrian tennis player (d. 2008)
+1970 – Charlie Connelly, English author and broadcaster
+  1970   – Giada De Laurentiis, Italian-American chef and author
+  1970   – Tímea Nagy, Hungarian fencer
+1971 – Richard Armitage, English actor
+  1971   – Craig Finn, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 
+  1971   – Melinda Page Hamilton, American actress
+  1971   – Rick Yune, American actor
+1972 – Okkert Brits, South African pole vaulter
+  1972   – Paul Doucette, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and drummer 
+  1972   – Steve Kline, American baseball player and coach
+  1972   – Max Wilson, German-Brazilian race car driver
+1973 – Roslina Bakar, Malaysian sport shooter
+  1973   – Beenie Man, Jamaican deejay
+  1973   – Howie Dorough, American singer-songwriter and dancer
+  1973   – Kristen Wiig, American actress, comedian, and screenwriter
+  1973   – Eurelijus Žukauskas, Lithuanian basketball player
+1974 – Cory Gardner, American politician
+  1974   – Jenna Leigh Green, American actress and singer
+  1974   – Agustín Pichot, Argentinian rugby player
+1975 – Clint Bolton, Australian footballer
+  1975   – Rodrigo Santoro, Brazilian actor
+1976 – Marius Bezykornovas, Lithuanian footballer
+  1976   – Bryn Davies, American bassist, cellist, and pianist
+  1976   – Laurent Hernu, French decathlete
+  1976   – Jeff Weaver, American baseball player
+  1976   – Randy Wolf, American baseball player
+1977 – Heiðar Helguson, Icelandic footballer
+  1977   – Keren Cytter, Israeli visual artist and writer
+1978 – James Corden, English actor, comedian, writer, and television presenter 
+  1978   – Ioannis Gagaloudis, Greek basketball player
+1979 – Brandon Adams, American actor
+  1979   – Matt Walters, American football player
+1980 – Roland Benschneider, German footballer
+  1980   – Nicolas Macrozonaris, Canadian sprinter
+  1980   – Aya Sumika, American actress
+  1980   – Seiko Yamamoto, Japanese wrestler
+1981 – Alex Holmes, American football player
+  1981   – Jang Hyun-kyu, South Korean footballer (d. 2012)
+  1981   – Christina Obergföll, German athlete
+1983 – Theo Bos, Dutch cyclist
+  1983   – Jahri Evans, American football player
+1984 – Lee Camp, English footballer
+  1984   – Lawrence Quaye, Ghanaian-Qatari footballer
+1985 – Luke Russert, American journalist
+  1985   – Jey Uso, Samoan-American wrestler
+  1985   – Jimmy Uso, Samoan-American wrestler 
+  1985   – Salih Yoluç, Turkish Automobile Racer
+1986 – Stephen Ireland, Irish footballer
+  1986   – Tokushōryū Makoto, Japanese sumo wrestler
+  1986   – Pac, English wrestler
+1987 – Leonardo Moracci, Italian footballer
+  1987   – Apollo Crews, American wrestler
+1989 – Giacomo Bonaventura, Italian footballer
+1990 – Randall Cobb, American football player
+  1990   – Drew Hutchison, American baseball player
+  1990   – Robbie Rochow, Australian rugby league player
+  1990   – Adam Thielen, American football player
+1991 – Federico Macheda, Italian footballer
+  1991   – Brayden Schenn, Canadian ice hockey player
+1992 – Ema Burgić Bucko, Bosnian tennis player
+  1992   – Ari Stidham, American actor
+1993 – Dillon Danis, American mixed martial artist
+1994 – Israel Broussard, American actor
+  1994   – Olli Määttä, Finnish ice hockey player
+1995 – Dua Lipa, English singer-songwriter
+1996 – Jessica-Jane Applegate, British Paralympic swimmer
+  1996   – Jeon So-min, South Korean singer-songwriter
+1997 – Maxx Crosby, American football player
+  1997   – Lautaro Martínez, Argentine footballer
+2001 – LaMelo Ball, American basketball player
+
+Deaths
+
+Pre-1600
+ 408 – Stilicho, Roman general (b. 359)
+1155 – Emperor Konoe of Japan (b. 1139)
+1241 – Pope Gregory IX, (b. 1143)
+1280 – Pope Nicholas III (b. 1225)
+1304 – John II, Count of Holland (b. 1247)
+1338 – William II, Duke of Athens (b. 1312)
+1350 – Philip VI of France (b. 1293)
+1358 – Isabella of France (b. 1295)
+1425 – Eleanor, Princess of Asturias (b. 1423)
+1456 – Vladislav II of Wallachia
+1485 – Richard III of England (b. 1452)
+  1485   – James Harrington, Yorkist knight
+  1485   – John Howard, 1st Duke of Norfolk (b. 1430)
+  1485   – Richard Ratcliffe, supporter of Richard III
+  1485   – William Brandon, supporter of Henry VII (b. 1426)
+1532 – William Warham, Archbishop of Canterbury (b. 1450)
+1545 – Charles Brandon, 1st Duke of Suffolk, English politician and husband of Mary Tudor (b. c. 1484)
+1553 – John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland, English admiral and politician, Lord President of the Council (b. 1504)
+1572 – Thomas Percy, 7th Earl of Northumberland, English leader of the Rising of the North (b. 1528)
+1584 – Jan Kochanowski, Polish poet and playwright (b. 1530)
+1599 – Luca Marenzio, Italian singer-songwriter (b. 1553)
+
+1601–1900
+1607 – Bartholomew Gosnold, English lawyer and explorer, founded the London Company (b. 1572)
+1652 – Jacob De la Gardie, Estonian-Swedish soldier and politician, Lord High Constable of Sweden (b. 1583)
+1664 – Maria Cunitz, Polish astronomer and author (b. 1610)
+1680 – John George II, Elector of Saxony (b. 1613)
+1681 – Philippe Delano, Dutch Plymouth Colony settler (b. 1602)
+1701 – John Granville, 1st Earl of Bath, English soldier and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (b. 1628)
+1711 – Louis François, duc de Boufflers, French general (b. 1644)
+1752 – William Whiston, English mathematician, historian, and theologian (b. 1667)
+1773 – George Lyttelton, 1st Baron Lyttelton, English poet and politician, Chancellor of the Exchequer (b. 1709)
+1793 – Louis de Noailles, French general (b. 1713)
+1797 – Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser, French-Austrian field marshal (b. 1724)
+1806 – Jean-Honoré Fragonard, French painter and illustrator (b. 1732)
+1818 – Warren Hastings, English lawyer and politician, 1st Governor-General of Bengal (b. 1732)
+1828 – Franz Joseph Gall, Austrian neuroanatomist and physiologist (b. 1758)
+1850 – Nikolaus Lenau, Romanian-Austrian poet and author (b. 1802)
+1861 – Xianfeng, Emperor of China (b. 1831)
+1888 – Ágoston Trefort, Hungarian jurist and politician, Hungarian Minister of Education (b. 1817)
+1891 – Jan Neruda, Czech journalist, author, and poet (b. 1834)
+
+1901–present
+1903 – Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury, English academic and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1830)
+1904 – Kate Chopin, American novelist and poet (b. 1850)
+1909 – Henry Radcliffe Crocker, English dermatologist and author (b. 1846)
+1914 – Giacomo Radini-Tedeschi, Italian bishop and academic (b. 1859)
+1918 – Korbinian Brodmann, German neurologist and academic (b. 1868)
+1920 – Anders Zorn, Swedish artist (b. 1860)
+1922 – Michael Collins, Irish rebel, counter-intelligence and military tactician, and politician; 2nd Irish Minister of Finance (b. 1890)
+1926 – Charles William Eliot, American academic (b. 1834)
+1933 – Alexandros Kontoulis, Greek general and diplomat (b. 1858)
+1940 – Oliver Lodge, English physicist and academic (b. 1851)
+  1940   – Gerald Strickland, 1st Baron Strickland, Maltese lawyer and politician, 4th Prime Minister of Malta (b. 1861)
+1942 – Michel Fokine, Russian dancer and choreographer (b. 1880)
+1946 – Döme Sztójay, Hungarian general and politician, 35th Prime Minister of Hungary (b. 1883)
+1950 – Kirk Bryan, American geologist and academic (b. 1888)
+1951 – Jack Bickell, Canadian businessman and philanthropist (b. 1884)
+1953 – Jim Tabor, American baseball player (b. 1916)
+1958 – Roger Martin du Gard, French novelist and paleographer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1881)
+1960 – Johannes Sikkar, Estonian soldier and politician, Prime Minister of Estonia in exile (b. 1897)
+1963 – William Morris, 1st Viscount Nuffield, English businessman and philanthropist, founded Morris Motors (b. 1877)
+1967 – Gregory Goodwin Pincus, American biologist and academic, co-created the birth-control pill (b. 1903)
+1970 – Vladimir Propp, Russian philologist and scholar (b. 1895)
+1971 – Birger Nerman, Swedish archaeologist (b. 1888)
+1974 – Jacob Bronowski, Polish-English mathematician, biologist, and author (b. 1908)
+1976 – Gina Bachauer, Greek pianist and composer (b. 1913)
+  1976   – Juscelino Kubitschek, Brazilian physician and politician, 21st President of Brazil (b. 1902)
+1977 – Sebastian Cabot, English actor (b. 1918)
+  1977   – Chunseong, Korean monk, philosopher and writer (b. 1891)
+  1977   – Rex Connor, Australian politician (b. 1907)
+1978 – Jomo Kenyatta, Kenyan politician, 1st President of Kenya (b. 1894)
+1979 – James T. Farrell, American novelist, short-story writer, and poet (b. 1904)
+1980 – James Smith McDonnell, American pilot, engineer, and businessman, founded McDonnell Aircraft (b. 1899)
+1981 – Vicente Manansala, Filipino painter (b. 1910)
+1985 – Charles Gibson (historian), Historian of Mexico and its Indians, President of the American Historical Association (b. 1920)
+1986 – Celâl Bayar, Turkish lawyer and politician, 3rd President of Turkey (b. 1883)
+1987 – Joseph P. Lash, American author and journalist (b. 1909)
+1989 – Robert Grondelaers, Belgian cyclist (b. 1933)
+  1989   – Huey P. Newton, American activist, co-founded the Black Panther Party (b. 1942)
+1991 – Colleen Dewhurst, Canadian-American actress (b. 1924)
+  1991   – Boris Pugo, Russian soldier and politician, Soviet Minister of Interior (b. 1937)
+1994 – Gilles Groulx, Canadian director and screenwriter (b. 1931)
+  1994   – Allan Houser, American sculptor and painter (b. 1914)
+1995 – Johnny Carey, Irish footballer and manager (b. 1919)
+1996 – Erwin Komenda, Austrian car designer and engineer (b. 1904)
+2000 – Abulfaz Elchibey, 2nd President of Azerbaijan (b. 1938)
+2003 – Arnold Gerschwiler, Swiss figure skater and coach (b. 1914)
+2004 – Konstantin Aseev, Russian chess player and trainer (b. 1960)
+  2004   – Angus Bethune, Australian soldier and politician, 33rd Premier of Tasmania (b. 1908)
+  2004   – Daniel Petrie, Canadian director and producer (b. 1920)
+2005 – Luc Ferrari, French-Italian director and composer (b. 1929)
+  2005   – Ernest Kirkendall, American chemist and metallurgist (b. 1914)
+2007 – Grace Paley, American short story writer and poet (b. 1922)
+2008 – Gladys Powers, English-Canadian soldier (b. 1899)
+2009 – Muriel Duckworth, Canadian pacifist, feminist, and activist (b. 1908)
+  2009   – Elmer Kelton, American journalist and author (b. 1926)
+2010 – Stjepan Bobek, Croatian footballer and manager (b. 1923)
+2011 – Nick Ashford, American singer-songwriter and producer (b. 1942)
+  2011   – Jack Layton, Canadian academic and politician (b. 1950)
+  2011   – Casey Ribicoff, American philanthropist (b. 1922)
+2012 – Nina Bawden, English author (b. 1925)
+  2012   – Paul Shan Kuo-hsi, Chinese cardinal (b. 1923)
+  2012   – Jeffrey Stone, American actor and screenwriter (b. 1926)
+2013 – Paul Poberezny, American pilot and businessman, founded the Experimental Aircraft Association (b. 1921)
+  2013   – Andrea Servi, Italian footballer (b. 1984)
+2014 – U. R. Ananthamurthy, Indian author, poet, and playwright (b. 1932)
+  2014   – Emmanuel Kriaras, Greek lexicographer and philologist (b. 1906)
+  2014   – Pete Ladygo, American football player and coach (b. 1928)
+  2014   – Noella Leduc, American baseball player (b. 1933)
+  2014   – John Sperling, American businessman, founded the University of Phoenix (b. 1921)
+  2014   – John S. Waugh, American chemist and academic (b. 1929)
+2015 – Arthur Morris, Australian cricketer and journalist (b. 1922)
+  2015   – Ieng Thirith, Cambodian academic and politician (b. 1932)
+  2015   – Eric Thompson, English race car driver and book dealer (b. 1919)
+2016 – S. R. Nathan, 6th President of Singapore (b. 1924)
+  2016   – Toots Thielemans, Belgian and American jazz musician (b. 1922)
+2017 – Michael J. C. Gordon, British Computer scientist (b. 1948)
+2018 – Ed King, American musician (b. 1949)
+  2018   – Krishna Reddy, Indian printmaker, sculptor and teacher (b. 1925)
+2021 – Rod Gilbert, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1941)
+
+Holidays and observances 
+ Christian feast day:
+Fabrizio
+Guinefort, the holy greyhound, feast day traditionally.
+Immaculate Heart of Mary (Roman Catholic calendar of 1960)
+Queenship of Mary
+Symphorian and Timotheus
+August 22 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
+ Earliest day on which National Heroes' Day (Philippines) can fall, while August 28 is the latest; celebrated on the fourth Monday in August.
+Flag Day (Russia)
+Madras Day (Chennai and Tamil Nadu, India)
+End of Filseta feast in the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo and Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church
+International Day Commemorating the Victims of Acts of Violence Based on Religion or Belief (International)
+
+References
+
+External links
+
+ 
+ 
+ 
+
+Days of the year
+August
+
+
+Events
+
+Pre-1600
+ 410 – The sacking of Rome by the Visigoths ends after three days.
+1172 – Henry the Young King and Margaret of France are crowned junior king and queen of England.
+1232 – Shikken Hojo Yasutoki of the Kamakura shogunate promulgates the Goseibai Shikimoku, the first Japanese legal code governing the samurai class.
+1557 – The Battle of St. Quentin results in Emmanuel Philibert becoming Duke of Savoy.
+1593 – Pierre Barrière failed an attempt to assassinate Henry IV of France.
+1597 – Jeongyu War: Battle of Chilcheollyang: A Japanese fleet of 500 ships destroys Joseon commander Won Gyun’s fleet of 200 ships at Chilcheollyang.
+1600 – Ishida Mitsunari’s Western Army commences the Siege of Fushimi Castle, which is lightly defended by a much smaller Tokugawa garrison led by Torii Mototada.
+
+1601–1900
+1689 – The Treaty of Nerchinsk is signed by Russia and the Qing Empire (Julian calendar).
+1776 – American Revolutionary War: Members of the 1st Maryland Regiment repeatedly charged a numerically superior British force during the Battle of Long Island, allowing General Washington and the rest of the American troops to escape.
+1791 – French Revolution: Frederick William II of Prussia and Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor, issue the Declaration of Pillnitz, declaring the joint support of the Holy Roman Empire and Prussia for the French monarchy, agitating the French revolutionaries and contributing to the outbreak of the War of the First Coalition.
+1793 – French Revolutionary Wars: The city of Toulon revolts against the French Republic and admits the British and Spanish fleets to seize its port, leading to the Siege of Toulon by French Revolutionary forces.
+1798 – Wolfe Tone's United Irish and French forces clash with the British Army in the Battle of Castlebar, part of the Irish Rebellion of 1798, resulting in the creation of the French puppet Republic of Connacht.
+1810 – Napoleonic Wars: The French Navy defeats the British Royal Navy, preventing them from taking the harbour of Grand Port on Île de France.
+1813 – French Emperor Napoleon I defeats a larger force of Austrians, Russians, and Prussians at the Battle of Dresden.
+1828 – Brazil and Argentina recognize the sovereignty of Uruguay in the Treaty of Montevideo
+1832 – Black Hawk, leader of the Sauk tribe of Native Americans, surrenders to U.S. authorities, ending the Black Hawk War.
+1859 – Petroleum is discovered in Titusville, Pennsylvania, leading to the world's first commercially successful oil well.
+1881 – The Georgia hurricane makes landfall near Savannah, Georgia, resulting in an estimated 700 deaths.
+1883 – Eruption of Krakatoa: Four enormous explosions almost completely destroy the island of Krakatoa and cause years of climate change.
+1893 – The Sea Islands hurricane strikes the United States near Savannah, Georgia, killing between 1,000 and 2,000 people.
+1895 – Japanese invasion of Taiwan: Battle of Baguashan: The Empire of Japan decisively defeats a smaller Formosan army at Changhua, crippling the short-lived Republic of Formosa and leading to its surrender two months later.
+1896 – Anglo-Zanzibar War: The shortest war in world history (09:02 to 09:40), between the United Kingdom and Zanzibar.
+
+1901–present
+1908 – The Qing dynasty promulgates the Qinding Xianfa Dagang, the first constitutional document in the history of China, transforming the Qing empire into a constitutional monarchy.
+1914 – World War I: Battle of Étreux: A British rearguard action by the Royal Munster Fusiliers during the Great Retreat. 
+  1914   – World War I: Siege of Tsingtao: A Japanese fleet commanded by Vice Admiral Sadakichi Kato imposes a blockade along the whole coastline of German Tsingtao, initiating the Siege of Tsingtao.
+1915 – Attempted assassination of Bishop Patrick Heffron, bishop of the Diocese of Winona, by Rev. Louis M. Lesches.
+1916 – World War I: The Kingdom of Romania declares war on Austria-Hungary, entering the war as one of the Allied nations.
+1918 – Mexican Revolution: Battle of Ambos Nogales: U.S. Army forces skirmish against Mexican Carrancistas in the only battle of World War I fought on American soil.
+1922 – Greco-Turkish War: The Turkish army takes the Aegean city of Afyonkarahisar from the Kingdom of Greece.
+1927 – Five Canadian women file a petition to the Supreme Court of Canada, asking: "Does the word 'Persons' in Section 24 of the British North America Act, 1867, include female persons?"
+1928 – The Kellogg–Briand Pact outlawing war is signed by fifteen nations. Ultimately sixty-one nations will sign it.
+1933 – The first Afrikaans Bible is introduced during a Bible Festival in Bloemfontein.
+1939 – First flight of the turbojet-powered Heinkel He 178, the world's first jet aircraft.
+1942 – First day of the Sarny Massacre, perpetrated by Germans and Ukrainians.
+1943 – World War II: Japanese forces evacuate New Georgia Island in the Pacific Theater of Operations during World War II.
+  1943   – World War II: Aerial bombardment by the Luftwaffe razes to the ground the village of Vorizia in Crete.
+1955 – The first edition of the Guinness Book of Records is published in Great Britain.
+1956 – The nuclear power station at Calder Hall in the United Kingdom was connected to the national power grid becoming the world's first commercial nuclear power station to generate electricity on an industrial scale.
+1962 – The Mariner 2 unmanned space mission is launched to Venus by NASA.
+1963 – An explosion at the Cane Creek potash mine near Moab, Utah kills 18 miners.
+1964 – South Vietnamese junta leader Nguyễn Khánh enters into a triumvirate power-sharing arrangement with rival generals Trần Thiện Khiêm and Dương Văn Minh, who had both been involved in plots to unseat Khánh.
+1971 – An attempted coup d'état fails in the African nation of Chad. The Government of Chad accuses Egypt of playing a role in the attempt and breaks off diplomatic relations.
+1975 – The Governor of Portuguese Timor abandons its capital, Dili, and flees to Atauro Island, leaving control to a rebel group.
+1979 – The Troubles: Eighteen British soldiers are killed in an ambush by the Provisional Irish Republican Army near Warrenpoint, Northern Ireland, in the deadliest attack on British forces during Operation Banner. An IRA bomb also kills British royal family member Lord Mountbatten and three others on his boat at Mullaghmore, Republic of Ireland.
+1980 – South Korean presidential election: After successfully staging the Coup d'état of May Seventeenth, General Chun Doo-hwan, running unopposed, has the National Conference for Unification elect him President of the Fourth Republic of Korea.
+1982 – Turkish military diplomat Colonel Atilla Altıkat is shot and killed in Ottawa. Justice Commandos of the Armenian Genocide claim to be avenging the massacre of 1 million Armenians in the 1915 Armenian genocide.
+1985 – Major General Muhammadu Buhari, Chairman of the Supreme Military Council of Nigeria, is ousted from power in a coup d'état led by Major General Ibrahim Babangida.
+1991 – The European Community recognizes the independence of the Baltic states of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania.
+  1991   – Moldova declares independence from the USSR.
+2003 – Mars makes its closest approach to Earth in nearly 60,000 years, passing  distant.
+  2003   – The first six-party talks, involving South and North Korea, the United States, China, Japan and Russia, convene to find a peaceful resolution to the security concerns of the North Korean nuclear weapons program.
+2006 – Comair Flight 5191 crashes on takeoff from Blue Grass Airport in Lexington, Kentucky, bound for Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport in Atlanta. Of the passengers and crew, 49 of 50 are confirmed dead in the hours following the crash.
+2009 – Internal conflict in Myanmar: The Burmese military junta and ethnic armies begin three days of violent clashes in the Kokang Special Region.
+2011 – Hurricane Irene strikes the United States east coast, killing 47 and causing an estimated $15.6 billion in damage.
+
+Births
+
+Pre-1600
+ 865 – Rhazes, Persian polymath (d. 925)
+1407 – Ashikaga Yoshikazu, Japanese shōgun (d. 1425)
+1471 – George, Duke of Saxony (d. 1539)
+1487 – Anna of Brandenburg (d. 1514)
+1512 – Friedrich Staphylus, German theologian (d. 1564)
+1542 – John Frederick, Duke of Pomerania and Protestant Bishop of Cammin (d. 1600)
+1545 – Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma (d. 1592)
+
+1601–1900
+1624 – Koxinga, Chinese-Japanese Ming loyalist (d. 1662)
+1637 – Charles Calvert, 3rd Baron Baltimore, English politician, 2nd Proprietor of Maryland (d. 1715)
+1665 – John Hervey, 1st Earl of Bristol, English politician (d. 1751)
+1669 – Anne Marie d'Orléans, queen of Sardinia (d. 1728)
+1677 – Otto Ferdinand von Abensberg und Traun, Austrian general (d. 1748)
+1724 – John Joachim Zubly, Swiss-American pastor, planter, and politician (d. 1781)
+1730 – Johann Georg Hamann, German philosopher and author (d. 1788)
+1770 – Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, German philosopher and academic (d. 1831)
+1785 – Agustín Gamarra, Peruvian general and politician, 10th and 14th President of Peru (d. 1841)
+1795 – Giorgio Mitrovich, Maltese politician (d. 1885)
+1803 – Edward Beecher, American minister and theologian (d. 1895)
+1809 – Hannibal Hamlin, American publisher and politician, 15th Vice President of the United States (d. 1891)
+1812 – Bertalan Szemere, Hungarian poet and politician, 3rd Prime Minister of Hungary (d. 1869)
+1822 – William Hayden English, American politician, U.S. Representative from Indiana and Democratic Vice-Presidential nominee (d. 1896)
+1827 – Charles Lilley, English-Australian politician, 4th Premier of Queensland (d. 1897)
+1845 – Ödön Lechner, Hungarian architect, designed the Museum of Applied Arts and the Church of St Elisabeth (d. 1914)
+  1845   – Friedrich Martens, Estonian-Russian historian, lawyer, and diplomat (d. 1909)
+1856 – Ivan Franko, Ukrainian author and poet (d. 1916)
+1858 – Giuseppe Peano, Italian mathematician and philosopher (d. 1932)
+1864 – Hermann Weingärtner, German gymnast (d. 1919)
+1865 – James Henry Breasted, American archaeologist and historian (d. 1935)
+  1865   – Charles G. Dawes, American general and politician, 30th Vice President of the United States, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1951)
+1868 – Hong Beom-do, Korean general and activist (d. 1943)
+1870 – Amado Nervo, Mexican journalist, poet, and diplomat (d. 1919)
+1871 – Theodore Dreiser, American novelist and journalist (d. 1945)
+1874 – Carl Bosch, German chemist and engineer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1940)
+1875 – Katharine McCormick, American biologist, philanthropist, and activist (d. 1967)
+1877 – Charles Rolls, English engineer and businessman, co-founded Rolls-Royce Limited (d. 1910)
+  1877   – Ernst Wetter, Swiss lawyer and politician, 48th President of the Swiss Confederation (d. 1963)
+1878 – Pyotr Nikolayevich Wrangel, Russian general (d. 1928)
+1884 – Vincent Auriol, French lawyer and politician, President of the French Republic (d. 1966)
+  1884   – Denis G. Lillie, British biologist, member of the 1910–1913 Terra Nova Expedition (d. 1963)
+1886 – Rebecca Clarke, English viola player and composer (d. 1979)
+1890 – Man Ray, American-French photographer and painter (d. 1976)
+1895 – Andreas Alföldi, Hungarian archaeologist and historian (d. 1981)
+1896 – Kenji Miyazawa, Japanese author and poet (d. 1933)
+1898 – Gaspard Fauteux, Canadian businessman and politician, 19th Lieutenant Governor of Quebec (d. 1963)
+1899 – C. S. Forester, English novelist (d. 1966)
+
+1901–present
+1904 – Alar Kotli, Estonian architect (d. 1963)
+  1904   – Norah Lofts, English author (d. 1983)
+  1904   – John Hay Whitney, American businessman, publisher, and diplomat, founded J.H. Whitney & Company (d. 1982)
+1905 – Aris Velouchiotis, Greek soldier (d. 1945)
+1906 – Ed Gein, American murderer and body snatcher, The Butcher of Plainfield (d. 1982)
+1908 – Don Bradman, Australian cricketer and manager (d. 2001)
+  1908   – Lyndon B. Johnson, American commander and politician, 36th President of the United States (d. 1973)
+1909 – Sylvère Maes, Belgian cyclist (d. 1966)
+  1909   – Charles Pozzi, French race car driver (d. 2001)
+  1909   – Lester Young, American saxophonist and clarinet player (d. 1959)
+1911 – Kay Walsh, English actress and dancer (d. 2005)
+1912 – Gloria Guinness, Mexican journalist (d. 1980)
+1915 – Norman Foster Ramsey Jr., American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2011)
+1916 – Gordon Bashford, English engineer, co-designed the Range Rover (d. 1991)
+  1916   – Tony Harris, South African cricketer and rugby player (d. 1993)
+  1916   – Martha Raye, American actress and comedian (d. 1994)
+1917 – Peanuts Lowrey, American baseball player, coach, and manager (d. 1986)
+1918 – Jelle Zijlstra, Dutch economist and politician, Prime Minister of the Netherlands (d. 2001)
+1919 – Pee Wee Butts, American baseball player and coach (d. 1972)
+  1919   – Murray Grand, American singer-songwriter and pianist (d. 2007)
+1920 – Baptiste Manzini, American football player (d. 2008)
+  1920   – James Molyneaux, Baron Molyneaux of Killead, Northern Irish soldier and politician (d. 2015)
+1921 – Georg Alexander, Duke of Mecklenburg (d. 1996)
+  1921   – Leo Penn, American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1998)
+1922 – Roelof Kruisinga, Dutch physician and politician, Minister of Defence for The Netherlands (d. 2012)
+1923 – Jimmy Greenhalgh, English footballer and manager (d. 2013)
+1924 – David Rowbotham, Australian journalist and poet (d. 2010)
+  1924   – Rosalie E. Wahl, American lawyer and jurist (d. 2013)
+1925 – Andrea Cordero Lanza di Montezemolo, Italian cardinal (d. 2017)
+  1925   – Nat Lofthouse, English footballer and manager (d. 2011)
+  1925   – Saiichi Maruya, Japanese author and critic (d. 2012)
+  1925   – Bill Neilson, Australian politician, 34th Premier of Tasmania (d. 1989)
+  1925   – Jaswant Singh Neki, Indian poet and academic (d. 2015)
+  1925   – Carter Stanley, American bluegrass singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1966)
+1926 – George Brecht, American-German chemist and composer (d. 2008)
+  1926   – Kristen Nygaard, Norwegian computer scientist and academic (d. 2002)
+1928 – Péter Boross, Hungarian lawyer and politician, 54th Prime Minister of Hungary 
+  1928   – Mangosuthu Buthelezi, South African politician, Chief Minister of KwaZulu (d. 2023)
+  1928   – Joan Kroc, American philanthropist (d. 2003)
+1929 – Ira Levin, American novelist, playwright, and songwriter (d. 2007)
+  1929   – George Scott, Canadian-American wrestler and promoter (d. 2014)
+1930 – Gholamreza Takhti, Iranian wrestler and politician (d. 1968)
+1931 – Sri Chinmoy, Indian-American guru and poet (d. 2007)
+  1931   – Joe Cunningham, American baseball player and coach (d. 2021)
+1932 – Cor Brom, Dutch footballer and manager (d. 2008)
+  1932   – Antonia Fraser, English historian and author
+1935 – Ernie Broglio, American baseball player (d. 2019)
+  1935   – Michael Holroyd, English author
+  1935   – Frank Yablans, American screenwriter and producer (d. 2014)
+1936 – Joel Kovel, American scholar and author (d. 2018)
+  1936   – Lien Chan, Taiwanese politician,  Vice President of the Republic of China 
+1937 – Alice Coltrane, American pianist and composer (d. 2007)
+  1937   – Tommy Sands, American pop singer and actor
+1939 – William Least Heat-Moon, American travel writer and historian 
+  1939   – Edward Patten, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2005)
+1939 – Nikola Pilić, Yugoslav tennis player and coach
+1940 – Fernest Arceneaux, American singer and accordion player (d. 2008)
+  1940   – Sonny Sharrock, American guitarist (d. 1994)
+1941 – Cesária Évora, Cape Verdean singer (d. 2011)
+  1941   – János Konrád, Hungarian water polo player and swimmer (d. 2014)
+  1941   – Harrison Page, American actor
+1942 – Daryl Dragon, American keyboard player and songwriter (d. 2019)
+  1942   – Brian Peckford, Canadian educator and politician, 3rd Premier of Newfoundland and Labrador
+1943 – Chuck Girard, American singer-songwriter and pianist 
+  1943   – Bob Kerrey, American lieutenant and politician, Medal of Honor recipient, 35th Governor of Nebraska
+  1943   – Tuesday Weld, American model and actress 
+1944 – G. W. Bailey, American actor
+  1944   – Tim Bogert, American singer and bass player (d. 2021)  
+1945 – Douglas R. Campbell, Canadian lawyer and judge
+  1945   – Marianne Sägebrecht, German actress
+1946 – Tony Howard, Barbadian cricketer and manager
+1947 – Barbara Bach, American actress and model 
+  1947   – Halil Berktay, Turkish historian and academic
+  1947   – Kirk Francis, American engineer and producer
+  1947   – Peter Krieg, German director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2009)
+  1947   – John Morrison, New Zealand cricketer and politician
+  1947   – Gavin Pfuhl, South African cricketer and sportscaster (d. 2002)
+1948 – John Mehler, American drummer 
+  1948   – Sgt. Slaughter, American wrestler
+  1948   – Deborah Swallow, English historian and curator
+  1948   – Philippe Vallois, French director and screenwriter
+1949 – Jeff Cook, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2022) 
+  1949   – Leah Jamieson, American computer scientist, engineer, and academic
+  1949   – Ann Murray, Irish soprano
+1950 – Charles Fleischer, American comedian and actor 
+  1950   – Neil Murray, Scottish bass player and songwriter
+  1950   – Edmund Weiner, English lexicographer and author
+1951 – Buddy Bell, American baseball player and manager
+  1951   – Mack Brown, American football player and coach
+  1951   – Randall Garrison, American-Canadian criminologist and politician
+1952 – Paul Reubens, American actor and comedian (d. 2023)
+1953 – Tom Berryhill, American businessman and politician (d. 2020)
+  1953   – Alex Lifeson, Canadian singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 
+  1953   – Joan Smith, English journalist and author
+  1953   – Peter Stormare, Swedish actor, director, and playwright 
+1954 – John Lloyd, English tennis player and sportscaster
+  1954   – Rajesh Thakker, English physician and academic
+  1954   – Derek Warwick, English race car driver
+1955 – Robert Richardson, American cinematographer
+  1955   – Diana Scarwid, American actress
+1956 – Glen Matlock, English singer-songwriter and bass player 
+1957 – Jeff Grubb, American game designer and author
+  1957   – Bernhard Langer, German golfer 
+1958 – Sergei Krikalev, Russian engineer and astronaut 
+  1958   – Tom Lanoye, Belgian author, poet, and playwright
+  1958   – Hugh Orde, British police officer
+1959 – Daniela Romo, Mexican singer, actress and TV hostess
+  1959   – Gerhard Berger, Austrian race car driver
+  1959   – Juan Fernando Cobo, Colombian painter and sculptor 
+  1959   – Denice Denton, American engineer and academic (d. 2006)
+  1959   – Frode Fjellheim, Norwegian pianist and composer
+  1959   – András Petőcz, Hungarian author and poet
+  1959   – Jeanette Winterson, English journalist and novelist
+1961 – Yolanda Adams, American singer, producer, and actress
+  1961   – Mark Curry, English television host and actor
+  1961   – Tom Ford, American fashion designer and film director 
+  1961   – Steve McDowall, New Zealand rugby player
+  1961   – Helmut Winklhofer, German footballer
+1962 – Adam Oates, Canadian ice hockey player
+1964 – Stephan Elliott, Australian actor, director, and screenwriter
+  1964   – Paul Bernardo, Canadian serial rapist and murderer
+1965 – Scott Dibble, American lawyer and politician
+  1965   – Wayne James, Zimbabwean cricketer and coach
+  1965   – Ange Postecoglou, Greek-Australian footballer and coach
+1966 – Jeroen Duyster, Dutch rower
+  1966   – René Higuita, Colombian footballer 
+  1966   – Juhan Parts, Estonian lawyer and politician, 14th Prime Minister of Estonia
+1967 – Ogie Alcasid, Filipino singer-songwriter, producer, and actor
+  1967   – Rob Burnett, American football player and sportscaster
+1968 – Eric "Bobo" Correa, American musician
+  1968   – Daphne Koller, Israeli-American computer scientist and academic
+  1968   – Michael Long, New Zealand golfer
+  1968   – Matthew Ridge, New Zealand rugby player and sportscaster
+1969 – Mark Ealham, English cricketer
+  1969   – Cesar Millan, Mexican-American dog trainer, television personality, and author
+  1969   – Reece Shearsmith, English actor, comedian and writer
+  1969   – Chandra Wilson, American actress and director
+1970 – Andy Bichel, Australian cricketer and coach
+  1970   – Mark Ilott, English cricketer
+  1970   – Tony Kanal, British-American bass player. songwriter, and record producer
+  1970   – Jim Thome, American baseball player and manager
+  1970   – Karl Unterkircher, Italian mountaineer (d. 2008)
+1971 – Ernest Faber, Dutch footballer and manager
+  1971   – Kyung Lah, South Korean-American journalist
+  1971   – Hisayuki Okawa, Japanese runner
+  1971   – Aygül Özkan, German lawyer and politician
+1972 – Jaap-Derk Buma, Dutch field hockey player
+  1972   – Denise Lewis, English heptathlete
+  1972   – Jimmy Pop, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 
+  1972   – The Great Khali, Indian professional wrestler
+1973 – Danny Coyne, Welsh footballer
+  1973   – Dietmar Hamann, German footballer and manager
+  1973   – Burak Kut, Turkish singer-songwriter
+  1973   – Johan Norberg, Swedish historian and author
+1974 – Aaron Downey, Canadian ice hockey player and coach
+  1974   – Manny Fernandez, Canadian ice hockey player
+  1974   – Michael Mason, New Zealand cricketer
+  1974   – José Vidro, Puerto Rican-American baseball player
+  1974   – Mohammad Yousuf, Pakistani cricketer
+1975 – Blake Adams, American golfer
+  1975   – Mase, American rapper, songwriter and pastor
+  1975   – Jonny Moseley, Puerto Rican-American skier and television host
+  1975   – Mark Rudan, Australian footballer and manager
+1976 – Sarah Chalke, Canadian actress
+  1976   – Audrey C. Delsanti, French astronomer and biologist
+  1976   – Milano Collection A.T., Japanese wrestler
+  1976   – Carlos Moyá, Spanish-Swiss tennis player
+  1976   – Mark Webber, Australian race car driver
+1977 – Deco, Brazilian-Portuguese footballer  
+  1977   – Justin Miller, American baseball player (d. 2013)
+1978 – Demetria McKinney, American actress and singer
+1979 – Sarah Neufeld, Canadian violinist 
+  1979   – Aaron Paul, American actor and producer
+  1979   – Karel Rachůnek, Czech ice hockey player (d. 2011)
+  1979   – Rusty Smith, American speed skater 
+1981 – Patrick J. Adams, Canadian actor
+  1981   – Maxwell Cabelino Andrade, Brazilian footballer
+  1981   – Alessandro Gamberini, Italian footballer
+  1981   – Karla Mosley, American actress
+1983 – Joanna McGilchrist, English rugby player and physiotherapist
+1984 – David Bentley, English footballer
+  1984   – Amanda Fuller, American actress
+  1984   – Sulley Muntari, Ghanaian footballer
+1985 – Kayla Ewell, American actress 
+  1985   – Kevan Hurst, English footballer
+  1985   – Nikica Jelavić, Croatian footballer
+  1985   – Alexandra Nechita, Romanian-American painter and sculptor
+1986 – Lana Bastašić, Serbian-Bosnian author and translator
+  1986   – Sebastian Kurz, Austrian politician, 25th Chancellor of Austria
+  1986   – Mario, American singer and actor
+1987 – Joel Grant, English-Jamaican footballer
+  1987   – Darren McFadden, American football player
+1988 – Alexa PenaVega, American actress and singer
+1989 – Romain Amalfitano, French footballer
+  1989   – Juliana Cannarozzo, American figure skater and actress
+1990 – Tori Bowie, American athlete (d. 2023)
+  1990   – Luuk de Jong, Dutch footballer
+1991 – Lee Sung-yeol, South Korean actor and singer 
+1992 – Blake Jenner, American actor and singer 
+  1992   – Stephen Morris, American football player
+  1992   – Kim Petras, German singer-songwriter
+  1992   – Ayame Goriki, Japanese actress and singer
+1993 – Sarah Hecken, German figure skater
+  1993   – Olivier Le Gac, French cyclist
+1994 – Ellar Coltrane, American actor
+  1994   – Breanna Stewart, American basketball player
+1995 – Jessie Mei Li, English actress 
+  1995   – Sergey Sirotkin, Russian race car driver
+1998 – Kevin Huerter, American basketball player
+2001 – Franz Wagner, German basketball player
+
+Deaths
+
+Pre-1600
+ 542 – Caesarius of Arles, French bishop and saint (b. 470)
+ 749 – Qahtaba ibn Shabib al-Ta'i, Persian general
+ 827 – Pope Eugene II
+ 923 – Ageltrude, queen of Italy and Holy Roman Empress 
+1146 – King Eric III of Denmark
+1255 – Little Saint Hugh of Lincoln (b. 1247)
+1312 – Arthur II, Duke of Brittany (b. 1261)
+1394 – Emperor Chōkei of Japan (b. 1343)
+1450 – Reginald West, 6th Baron De La Warr, English politician (b. 1395)
+1521 – Josquin des Prez, Flemish composer (b. 1450)
+1545 – Piotr Gamrat, Polish archbishop (b. 1487)
+1576 – Titian, Italian painter and educator (b. 1488)
+1590 – Pope Sixtus V (b. 1521)
+
+1601–1900
+1611 – Tomás Luis de Victoria, Spanish composer (b. c. 1548)
+1635 – Lope de Vega, Spanish poet and playwright (b. 1562)
+1664 – Francisco de Zurbarán, Spanish painter and educator (b. 1598)
+1748 – James Thomson, Scottish poet and playwright (b. 1700)
+1782 – John Laurens, American Revolutionary and abolitionist (b. 1754)
+1828 – Eise Eisinga, Dutch astronomer and academic, built the Eisinga Planetarium (b. 1744)
+1857 – Rufus Wilmot Griswold, American anthologist, poet, and critic (b. 1815)
+1865 – Thomas Chandler Haliburton, Canadian judge and politician (b. 1796)
+1871 – William Whiting Boardman, American lawyer and politician (b. 1794)
+1875 – William Chapman Ralston, American businessman and financier, founded the Bank of California (b. 1826)
+1891 – Samuel C. Pomeroy, American businessman and politician (b. 1816)
+
+1901–present
+1903 – Kusumoto Ine, first Japanese female doctor of Western medicine (b. 1827)
+1909 – Emil Christian Hansen, Danish physiologist and mycologist (b. 1842)
+1922 – Reşat Çiğiltepe, Turkish colonel (b. 1879)
+1929 – Herman Potočnik, Croatian-Austrian engineer (b. 1892)
+1931 – Frank Harris, Irish-American journalist and author (b. 1856)
+  1931   – Willem Hubert Nolens, Dutch priest and politician (b. 1860)
+  1931   – Francis Marion Smith, American miner and businessman (b. 1846)
+1935 – Childe Hassam, American painter and academic (b. 1859)
+1944 – Georg von Boeselager, German soldier (b. 1915)
+1945 – Hubert Pál Álgyay, Hungarian engineer, designed the Petőfi Bridge (b. 1894)
+1948 – Charles Evans Hughes, American lawyer and politician, 11th Chief Justice of the United States (b. 1862)
+1950 – Cesare Pavese,  Italian author, poet, and critic (b. 1908)
+1956 – Pelageya Shajn, Russian astronomer and academic (b. 1894)
+1958 – Ernest Lawrence, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1901)
+1963 – W. E. B. Du Bois, American sociologist, historian, and activist (b. 1868)
+  1963   – Inayatullah Khan Mashriqi, Pakistani mathematician and scholar (b. 1888)
+1964 – Gracie Allen, American actress and comedian (b. 1895)
+1965 – Le Corbusier, Swiss-French architect and urban planner, designed the Philips Pavilion (b. 1887)
+1967 – Brian Epstein, English businessman and manager (b. 1934)
+1968 – Princess Marina of Greece and Denmark (b. 1906)
+1969 – Ivy Compton-Burnett, English author (b. 1884)
+  1969   – Erika Mann, German actress and author (b. 1905)
+1971 – Bennett Cerf, American publisher, co-founded Random House (b. 1898)
+  1971   – Margaret Bourke-White, American photographer and journalist  (b. 1906)
+1975 – Haile Selassie, Ethiopian emperor (b. 1892)
+1978 – Gordon Matta-Clark, American painter and illustrator (b. 1943)
+  1978   – Ieva Simonaitytė, Lithuanian author and poet (b. 1897)
+1979 – Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma, English admiral and politician, 44th Governor-General of India (b. 1900)
+1980 – Douglas Kenney, American actor, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1947)
+1981 – Valeri Kharlamov, Russian ice hockey player (b. 1948)
+1990 – Avdy Andresson, Estonian soldier and diplomat (b. 1899)
+  1990   – Stevie Ray Vaughan, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (b. 1954)
+1992 – Bengt Holbek, Danish folklorist (b. 1933)
+1994 – Frank Jeske, German footballer (b. 1960)
+1996 – Greg Morris, American actor (b. 1933)
+1998 – Essie Summers, New Zealand author (b. 1912)
+1999 – Hélder Câmara, Brazilian archbishop and theologian (b. 1909)
+2001 – Michael Dertouzos, Greek-American computer scientist and academic (b. 1936)
+  2001   – Abu Ali Mustafa, Palestinian politician (b. 1938)
+2002 – Edwin Louis Cole, American religious leader and author (b. 1922)
+2003 – Pierre Poujade, French soldier and politician (b. 1920)
+2004 – Willie Crawford, American baseball player (b. 1946)
+2005 – Giorgos Mouzakis, Greek trumpet player and composer (b. 1922)
+  2005   – Seán Purcell, Irish footballer (b. 1929)
+2006 – Hrishikesh Mukherjee, Indian director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1922)
+  2006   – Jesse Pintado, Mexican-American guitarist (b. 1969)
+2007 – Emma Penella, Spanish actress (b. 1930)
+2009 – Sergey Mikhalkov, Russian author and poet (b. 1913)
+2010 – Anton Geesink, Dutch martial artist (b. 1934)
+  2010   – Luna Vachon, Canadian-American wrestler and manager (b. 1962)
+2012 – Neville Alexander, South African linguist and activist (b. 1936)
+  2012   – Malcolm Browne, American journalist and photographer (b. 1931)
+  2012   – Art Heyman, American basketball player (b. 1941)
+  2012   – Ivica Horvat, Croatian footballer and manager (b. 1926)
+  2012   – Richard Kingsland, Australian captain and pilot (b. 1916)
+  2012   – Geliy Korzhev, Russian painter (b. 1925) 
+2013 – Chen Liting, Chinese director and playwright (b. 1910)
+  2013   – Bill Peach, Australian journalist (b. 1935)
+  2013   – Dave Thomas, Welsh golfer and architect (b. 1934)
+2014 – Jacques Friedel, French physicist and academic (b. 1921)
+  2014   – Valeri Petrov, Bulgarian poet, playwright, and screenwriter (b. 1920)
+  2014   – Benno Pludra, German author (b. 1925)
+2015 – Kazi Zafar Ahmed, Bangladeshi politician, 8th Prime Minister of Bangladesh (b. 1939)
+  2015   – Pascal Chaumeil, French director and screenwriter (b. 1961)
+  2015   – Darryl Dawkins, American basketball player and coach (b. 1957)
+2016 – Cookie, Australian Major Mitchell's cockatoo, oldest recorded parrot (b. 1933)
+
+Holidays and observances
+Christian feast day:
+Baculus of Sorrento
+Caesarius of Arles
+Decuman
+Gebhard of Constance
+Euthalia
+John of Pavia
+Lycerius (or: Glycerius, Lizier)
+Máel Ruba (or Rufus) (Scotland)
+Margaret the Barefooted
+Monica of Hippo, mother of Augustine of Hippo
+Narnus
+Our Lady of La Vang
+Phanourios of Rhodes
+Rufus and Carpophorus
+Syagrius of Autun
+Thomas Gallaudet and Henry Winter Syle (Episcopal Church)
+August 27 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
+Independence Day (Republic of Moldova), celebrates the independence of Moldova from the USSR in 1991.
+Lyndon Baines Johnson Day (Texas, United States)
+
+References
+
+External links
+
+ 
+ 
+ 
+
+Days of the year
+August
+In chemistry, an alcohol is a type of organic compound that carries at least one hydroxyl () functional group  bound to a saturated carbon atom. Alcohols range from the simple, like methanol and ethanol, to complex, like sucrose and cholesterol. The presence of an OH group strongly modifies the properties of hydrocarbons, conferring hydrophilic (water-loving) properties.  The OH group provides a site at which many reactions can occur.
+
+History
+The flammable nature of the exhalations of wine was already known to ancient natural philosophers such as Aristotle (384–322 BCE), Theophrastus (–287 BCE), and Pliny the Elder (23/24–79 CE). However, this did not immediately lead to the isolation of alcohol, even despite the development of more advanced distillation techniques in second- and third-century Roman Egypt. An important recognition, first found in one of the writings attributed to Jābir ibn Ḥayyān (ninth century CE), was that by adding salt to boiling wine, which increases the wine's relative volatility, the flammability of the resulting vapors may be enhanced. The distillation of wine is attested in Arabic works attributed to al-Kindī (–873 CE) and to al-Fārābī (–950), and in the 28th book of al-Zahrāwī's (Latin: Abulcasis, 936–1013) Kitāb al-Taṣrīf (later translated into Latin as Liber servatoris). In the twelfth century, recipes for the production of aqua ardens ("burning water", i.e., alcohol) by distilling wine with salt started to appear in a number of Latin works, and by the end of the thirteenth century it had become a widely known substance among Western European chemists.
+
+The works of Taddeo Alderotti (1223–1296) describe a method for concentrating alcohol involving repeated fractional distillation through a water-cooled still, by which an alcohol purity of 90% could be obtained. The medicinal properties of ethanol were studied by Arnald of Villanova (1240–1311 CE) and John of Rupescissa (–1366), the latter of whom regarded it as a life-preserving substance able to prevent all diseases (the aqua vitae or "water of life", also called by John the quintessence of wine).
+
+Nomenclature
+
+Etymology
+The word "alcohol" derives from the Arabic kohl (), a powder used as an eyeliner. The first part of the word () is the Arabic definite article, equivalent to the in English. The second part of the word () has several antecedents in Semitic languages, ultimately deriving from the Akkadian  (), meaning stibnite or antimony.
+
+Like its antecedents in Arabic and older languages, the term alcohol was originally used for the very fine powder produced by the sublimation of the natural mineral stibnite to form antimony trisulfide . It was considered to be the essence or "spirit" of this mineral. It was used as an antiseptic, eyeliner, and cosmetic. Later the meaning of alcohol was extended to distilled substances in general, and then narrowed again to ethanol, when "spirits" was a synonym for hard liquor.
+
+Paracelsus and Libavius both used the term alcohol to denote a fine powder, the latter speaking of an alcohol derived from antimony. At the same time Paracelsus uses the word for a volatile liquid; alcool or alcool vini occurs often in his writings.
+
+Bartholomew Traheron, in his 1543 translation of John of Vigo, introduces the word as a term used by "barbarous" authors for "fine powder." Vigo wrote: "the barbarous auctours use alcohol, or (as I fynde it sometymes wryten) alcofoll, for moost fine poudre."
+
+The 1657 Lexicon Chymicum, by William Johnson glosses the word as "antimonium sive stibium." By extension, the word came to refer to any fluid obtained by distillation, including "alcohol of wine," the distilled essence of wine. Libavius in Alchymia (1594) refers to "". Johnson (1657) glosses alcohol vini as "." The word's meaning became restricted to "spirit of wine" (the chemical known today as ethanol) in the 18th century and was extended to the class of substances so-called as "alcohols" in modern chemistry after 1850.
+
+The term ethanol was invented in 1892, blending "ethane" with the "-ol" ending of "alcohol", which was generalized as a libfix.
+
+The term alcohol originally referred to the primary alcohol ethanol (ethyl alcohol), which is used as a drug and is the main alcohol present in alcoholic drinks. 
+
+The suffix -ol appears in the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) chemical name of all substances where the hydroxyl group is the functional group with the highest priority. When a higher priority group is present in the compound, the prefix hydroxy- is used in its IUPAC name. The suffix -ol in non-IUPAC names (such as paracetamol or cholesterol) also typically indicates that the substance is an alcohol. However, some compounds that contain hydroxyl functional groups have trivial names which do not include the suffix -ol or the prefix hydroxy-, e.g. the sugars glucose and sucrose.
+
+Systematic names
+IUPAC nomenclature is used in scientific publications and where precise identification of the substance is important. In naming simple alcohols, the name of the alkane chain loses the terminal e and adds the suffix -ol, e.g., as in "ethanol" from the alkane chain name "ethane". When necessary, the position of the hydroxyl group is indicated by a number between the alkane name and the -ol: propan-1-ol for , propan-2-ol for . If a higher priority group is present (such as an aldehyde, ketone, or carboxylic acid), then the prefix hydroxy-is used, e.g., as in 1-hydroxy-2-propanone (). Compounds having more than one hydroxy group are called polyols. They are named using suffixes -diol, -triol, etc., following a list of the position numbers of the hydroxyl groups, as in propane-1,2-diol for CH3CH(OH)CH2OH (propylene glycol).
+
+In cases where the hydroxy group is bonded to an sp2 carbon on an aromatic ring, the molecule is classified separately as a phenol and is named using the IUPAC rules for naming phenols. Phenols have distinct properties and are not classified as alcohols.
+
+Common names
+In other less formal contexts, an alcohol is often called with the name of the corresponding alkyl group followed by the word "alcohol", e.g., methyl alcohol, ethyl alcohol. Propyl alcohol may be n-propyl alcohol or isopropyl alcohol, depending on whether the hydroxyl group is bonded to the end or middle carbon on the straight propane chain. As described under systematic naming, if another group on the molecule takes priority, the alcohol moiety is often indicated using the "hydroxy-" prefix.
+
+In archaic nomenclature, alcohols can be named as derivatives of methanol using "-carbinol" as the ending. For instance,  can be named trimethylcarbinol.
+
+Primary, secondary, and tertiary
+
+Alcohols are then classified into primary, secondary (sec-, s-), and tertiary (tert-, t-), based upon the number of carbon atoms connected to the carbon atom that bears the hydroxyl functional group. (The respective numeric shorthands 1°, 2°, and 3° are sometimes used in informal settings.) The primary alcohols have general formulas . The simplest primary alcohol is methanol (), for which R=H, and the next is ethanol, for which , the methyl group. Secondary alcohols are those of the form RR'CHOH, the simplest of which is 2-propanol (). For the tertiary alcohols the general form is RR'R"COH. The simplest example is tert-butanol (2-methylpropan-2-ol), for which each of R, R', and R" is . In these shorthands, R, R', and R" represent substituents, alkyl or other attached, generally organic groups.
+
+Examples
+
+Applications
+
+Alcohols have a long history of myriad uses. For simple mono-alcohols, which is the focus on this article, the following are most important industrial alcohols:
+methanol, mainly for the production of formaldehyde and as a fuel additive
+ethanol, mainly for alcoholic beverages, fuel additive, solvent
+1-propanol, 1-butanol, and isobutyl alcohol for use as a solvent and precursor to solvents
+C6–C11 alcohols used for plasticizers, e.g. in polyvinylchloride
+fatty alcohol (C12–C18), precursors to detergents
+Methanol is the most common industrial alcohol, with about 12 million tons/y produced in 1980. The combined capacity of the other alcohols is about the same, distributed roughly equally.
+
+Toxicity
+
+With respect to acute toxicity, simple alcohols have low acute toxicities. Doses of several milliliters are tolerated. For pentanols, hexanols, octanols and longer alcohols, LD50 range from 2–5 g/kg (rats, oral). Ethanol is less acutely toxic. All alcohols are mild skin irritants.
+
+The metabolism of methanol (and ethylene glycol) is affected by the presence of ethanol, which has a higher affinity for liver alcohol dehydrogenase. In this way methanol will be excreted intact in urine.
+
+Physical properties
+In general, the hydroxyl group makes alcohols polar. Those groups can form hydrogen bonds to one another and to most other compounds. Owing to the presence of the polar OH alcohols are more water-soluble than simple hydrocarbons. Methanol, ethanol, and propanol are miscible in water. Butanol, with a four-carbon chain, is moderately soluble.
+
+Because of hydrogen bonding, alcohols tend to have higher boiling points than comparable hydrocarbons and ethers. The boiling point of the alcohol ethanol is 78.29 °C, compared to 69 °C for the hydrocarbon hexane, and 34.6 °C for diethyl ether.
+
+Occurrence in nature
+Simple alcohols are found widely in nature. Ethanol is the most prominent because it is the product of fermentation, a major energy-producing pathway. Other simple alcohols, chiefly fusel alcohols, are formed in only trace amounts. More complex alcohols however are pervasive, as manifested in sugars, some amino acids, and fatty acids.
+
+Production
+
+Hydroxylation
+Many alcohols are produced by hydroxylation, i.e., the installation of a hydroxy group using oxygen or related oxidant.  Hydroxylation is the means by which the body processes many poisons, converting lipophilic compounds into hydrophilic derivatives that are more readily excreted.  Enzymes called hydroxylases and oxidases facilitate these conversions.  
+
+Many industrial alcohols, such as cyclohexanol for the production of nylon, are produced by hydroxylation.
+
+Ziegler and oxo processes
+In the Ziegler process, linear alcohols are produced from ethylene and triethylaluminium followed by oxidation and hydrolysis. An idealized synthesis of 1-octanol is shown:
+
+Al(C2H5)3 + 9 C2H4 -> Al(C8H17)3
+Al(C8H17)3 + 3O + 3 H2O -> 3 HOC8H17 + Al(OH)3
+
+The process generates a range of alcohols that are separated by distillation.
+
+Many higher alcohols are produced by hydroformylation of alkenes followed by hydrogenation. When applied to a terminal alkene, as is common, one typically obtains a linear alcohol:
+
+RCH=CH2 + H2 + CO -> RCH2CH2CHO
+RCH2CH2CHO + 3 H2 -> RCH2CH2CH2OH
+
+Such processes give fatty alcohols, which are useful for detergents.
+
+Hydration reactions
+Some low molecular weight alcohols of industrial importance are produced by the addition of water to alkenes. Ethanol, isopropanol, 2-butanol, and tert-butanol are produced by this general method. Two implementations are employed, the direct and indirect methods. The direct method avoids the formation of stable intermediates, typically using acid catalysts. In the indirect method, the alkene is converted to the sulfate ester, which is subsequently hydrolyzed. The direct hydration using ethylene (ethylene hydration) or other alkenes from cracking of fractions of distilled crude oil.
+
+Hydration is also used industrially to produce the diol ethylene glycol from ethylene oxide.
+
+Fermentation
+Ethanol is obtained by fermentation of glucose (which is often obtained from starch) in the presence of yeast.  Carbon dioxide is cogenerated. Like ethanol, butanol can be produced by fermentation processes. Saccharomyces yeast are known to produce these higher alcohols at temperatures above . The bacterium Clostridium acetobutylicum can feed on cellulose (also an alcohol) to produce butanol on an industrial scale.
+
+Substitution
+Primary alkyl halides react with aqueous NaOH or KOH to alcohols in nucleophilic aliphatic substitution. (Secondary and especially tertiary alkyl halides will give the elimination (alkene) product instead). Grignard reagents react with carbonyl groups to secondary and tertiary alcohols. Related reactions are the Barbier reaction and the Nozaki-Hiyama reaction.
+
+Reduction
+Aldehydes or ketones are reduced with sodium borohydride or lithium aluminium hydride (after an acidic workup). Another reduction by aluminiumisopropylates is the Meerwein-Ponndorf-Verley reduction. Noyori asymmetric hydrogenation is the asymmetric reduction of β-keto-esters.
+
+Hydrolysis
+Alkenes engage in an acid catalysed hydration reaction using concentrated sulfuric acid as a catalyst that gives usually secondary or tertiary alcohols. Formation of a secondary alcohol via alkene reduction and hydration is shown on the right:
+
+The hydroboration-oxidation and oxymercuration-reduction of alkenes are more reliable in organic synthesis. Alkenes react with N-bromosuccinimide and water in halohydrin formation reaction. Amines can be converted to diazonium salts, which are then hydrolyzed.
+
+Reactions
+
+Deprotonation
+With aqueous pKa values of around 16–19, they are, in general, slightly weaker acids than water. With strong bases such as sodium hydride or sodium they form salts called alkoxides, with the general formula  (where R is an alkyl and M is a metal).
+ 2 R-OH + 2 NaH -> 2 R-O-Na + 2 H2
+ 2 R-OH + 2 Na  -> 2 R-O-Na + H2
+
+The acidity of alcohols is strongly affected by solvation. In the gas phase, alcohols are more acidic than in water. In DMSO, alcohols (and water) have a pKa of around 29–32. As a consequence, alkoxides (and hydroxide) are powerful bases and nucleophiles (e.g., for the Williamson ether synthesis) in this solvent. In particular,  or  in DMSO can be used to generate significant equilibrium concentrations of acetylide ions through the deprotonation of alkynes (see Favorskii reaction).
+
+Nucleophilic substitution
+Tertiary alcohols react with hydrochloric acid to produce tertiary alkyl chloride. Primary and secondary alcohols are converted to the corresponding chlorides using thionyl chloride and various phosphorus chloride reagents.
+
+Primary and secondary alcohols, likewise, convert to alkyl bromides phosphorus tribromide, for example:
+ 3 R-OH + PBr3 -> 3 RBr + H3PO3
+
+In the Barton-McCombie deoxygenation an alcohol is deoxygenated to an alkane with tributyltin hydride or a trimethylborane-water complex in a radical substitution reaction.
+
+Dehydration
+Meanwhile, the oxygen atom has lone pairs of nonbonded electrons that render it weakly basic in the presence of strong acids such as sulfuric acid. For example, with methanol:
+
+Upon treatment with strong acids, alcohols undergo the E1 elimination reaction to produce alkenes. The reaction, in general, obeys Zaitsev's Rule, which states that the most stable (usually the most substituted) alkene is formed. Tertiary alcohols eliminate easily at just above room temperature, but primary alcohols require a higher temperature.
+
+This is a diagram of acid catalysed dehydration of ethanol to produce ethylene:
+
+A more controlled elimination reaction requires the formation of the xanthate ester.
+
+Protonolysis
+Tertiary alcohols react with strong acids to generate carbocations. The reaction is related to their dehydration, e.g. isobutylene from tert-butyl alcohol. A special kind of dehydration reaction involves triphenylmethanol and especially its amine-substituted derivatives. When treated with acid, these alcohols lose water to give stable carbocations, which are commercial dyes.
+
+Esterification
+Alcohol and carboxylic acids react in the so-called Fischer esterification. The reaction usually requires a catalyst, such as concentrated sulfuric acid:
+ R-OH + R'-CO2H -> R'-CO2R + H2O
+Other types of ester are prepared in a similar manner for example, tosyl (tosylate) esters are made by reaction of the alcohol with p-toluenesulfonyl chloride in pyridine.
+
+Oxidation
+
+Primary alcohols () can be oxidized either to aldehydes () or to carboxylic acids (). The oxidation of secondary alcohols () normally terminates at the ketone () stage. Tertiary alcohols () are resistant to oxidation.
+
+The direct oxidation of primary alcohols to carboxylic acids normally proceeds via the corresponding aldehyde, which is transformed via an aldehyde hydrate () by reaction with water before it can be further oxidized to the carboxylic acid.
+
+Reagents useful for the transformation of primary alcohols to aldehydes are normally also suitable for the oxidation of secondary alcohols to ketones. These include Collins reagent and Dess-Martin periodinane. The direct oxidation of primary alcohols to carboxylic acids can be carried out using potassium permanganate or the Jones reagent.
+
+See also
+
+ Enol
+ Ethanol fuel
+ Fatty alcohol
+ Index of alcohol-related articles
+ List of alcohols
+ Lucas test
+ Polyol
+ Rubbing alcohol
+ Sugar alcohol
+ Transesterification
+
+Notes
+
+Citations
+
+General references 
+ 
+
+ 
+ 
+Antiseptics
+Functional groups
+Achill Island (; ) is the largest of the Irish isles and lies off the west coast of Ireland in County Mayo. It has a population of 2,345. Its area is . Achill is attached to the mainland by Michael Davitt Bridge, between the villages of Achill Sound and Polranny. A bridge was first completed here in 1887. Other centres of population include the villages of Keel, Dooagh, Dooega, Dooniver, and Dugort. The parish's main Gaelic football pitch and secondary school are on the mainland at Polranny. Early human settlements are believed to have been established on Achill around 3000 BC.
+The island is 87% peat bog. The parish of Achill consists of Achill Island, Achillbeg, Inishbiggle and the Corraun Peninsula.
+
+Roughly half of the island, including the villages of Achill Sound and Bunacurry are in the Gaeltacht (traditional Irish-speaking region) of Ireland, although the vast majority of the island's population speaks English as their daily language.
+
+History
+It is believed that at the end of the Neolithic Period (around 4000 BC), Achill had a population of 500–1,000 people. The island would have been mostly forest until the Neolithic people began crop cultivation. Settlement increased during the Iron Age, and the dispersal of small promontory forts around the coast indicate the warlike nature of the times. Megalithic tombs and forts can be seen at Slievemore, along the Atlantic Drive and on Achillbeg.
+
+Overlords
+Achill Island lies in the Barony of Burrishoole, in the territory of ancient Umhall (Umhall Uactarach and Umhall Ioctarach), that originally encompassed an area extending from the County Galway/Mayo border to Achill Head.
+
+The hereditary chieftains of Umhall were the O'Malleys, recorded in the area in 814 AD when they successfully repelled an onslaught by the Vikings in Clew Bay. The Anglo-Norman invasion of Connacht in 1235 AD saw the territory of Umhall taken over by the Butlers and later by the de Burgos. The Butler Lordship of Burrishoole continued into the late 14th century when Thomas le Botiller was recorded as being in possession of Akkyll and Owyll.
+
+Immigration
+In the 17th and 18th centuries, there was much migration to Achill from other parts of Ireland, particularly Ulster, due to the political and religious turmoil of the time. For a while, there were two different dialects of Irish being spoken on Achill. This led to many townlands being recorded as having two names during the 1824 Ordnance Survey, and some maps today give different names for the same place. Achill Irish still has many traces of Ulster Irish.
+
+In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, seasonal migration of farm workers to Scotland to pick potatoes took place; these squads of 'tattie howkers' were known as Achill workers, although not all were from Achill, and were organised for potato merchants by gaffers or gangers. Squads travelled from farm to farm to harvest the crop and were allocated basic accommodation. On 15 September 1937 ten young migrant potato pickers from Achill died in a fire at Kirkintilloch.
+
+Specific historical sites and events
+
+Grace O'Malley's Castle
+Carrickkildavnet Castle is a 15th-century tower house associated with the O'Malley Clan, who were once a ruling family of Achill. Grace O' Malley, or Granuaile, the most famous of the O'Malleys, was born on Clare Island around 1530. Her father was the chieftain of the barony of Murrisk. The O'Malleys were a powerful seafaring family, who traded widely. Grace became a fearless leader and gained fame as a sea captain and pirate. She is reputed to have met with Queen Elizabeth I in 1593. She died around 1603 and is buried in the O'Malley family tomb on Clare Island.
+
+Achill Mission
+
+One of Achill's most famous historical sites is that of the Achill Mission or 'the Colony' at Dugort. In 1831, the Anglican (Church of Ireland) Rev Edward Nangle founded a mission at Dugort. The Mission included schools, cottages, an orphanage, an infirmary and a guesthouse. 
+
+The Colony gave rise to mixed assessments, particularly during the Great Famine when charges of "souperism" were leveled against Nangle. The provision of food across the Achill Mission schools - which also provided 'scriptural' religious instruction - was particularly controversial. 
+
+For almost forty years, Nangle edited a newspaper called the Achill Missionary Herald and Western Witness, which was printed in Achill. He expanded his mission into Mweelin, Kilgeever, West Achill where a school, church, rectory, cottages and a training school were built. Edward's wife, Eliza, suffered poor health in Achill and died in 1852; she is buried with six of the Nangle children on the slopes of Slievemore in North Achill. 
+
+In 1848, at the height of the Great Famine, the Achill Mission published a prospectus seeking to raise funds for the acquisition of significant additional lands from Sir Richard O'Donnell. The document gives an overview, from the Mission's perspective, of its activities in Achill over the previous decade and a half including considerable sectarian unrest. In 1851, Edward Nangle confirmed the purchase of the land which made the Achill Mission the largest landowner on the island. 
+
+The Achill Mission began to decline slowly after Nangle was moved from Achill and closed in the 1880s. When Edward Nangle died in 1883 there were opposing views on his legacy.
+
+Railway
+In 1894, the Westport – Newport railway line was extended to Achill Sound. The railway station is now a hostel. The train provided a great service to Achill, but it also is said to have fulfilled an ancient prophecy. Brian Rua O' Cearbhain had prophesied that 'carts on iron wheels' would carry bodies into Achill on their first and last journey. In 1894, the first train on the Achill railway carried the bodies of victims of the Clew Bay Drowning. This tragedy occurred when a boat overturned in Clew Bay, drowning thirty-two young people. They had been going to meet the steamer which would take them to Scotland for potato picking.
+
+The Kirkintilloch Fire in 1937 almost fulfilled the second part of the prophecy when the bodies of ten victims were carried by rail to Achill. While it was not literally the last train, the railway closed just two weeks later. These people had died in a fire in a bothy in Kirkintilloch. This term referred to the temporary accommodation provided for those who went to Scotland to pick potatoes, a migratory pattern that had been established in the early nineteenth century.
+
+Kildamhnait
+Kildamhnait on the south-east coast of Achill is named after St. Damhnait, or Dymphna, who founded a church there in the 7th century. There is also a holy well just outside the graveyard. The present church was built in the 1700s and the graveyard contains memorials to the victims of two of Achill's greatest tragedies, the Kirchintilloch Fire (1937) and the Clew Bay Drowning (1894).
+
+The Monastery
+In 1852, Dr John MacHale, Roman Catholic Archbishop of Tuam, purchased land in Bunnacurry, on which a Franciscan Monastery was established, which, for many years, provided an education for local children. The building of the monastery was marked by a conflict between the Protestants of the mission colony and the workers building the monastery. The dispute is known in the island folklore as the Battle of the Stones. 
+
+A notable monk who lived at the monastery for almost thirty years was Brother Paul Carney. He wrote a biography of James Lynchehaun who rose to either fame or infamy (depending on whom you spoke to) following his conviction for the 1894 attack on an Englishwoman named Agnes MacDonnell, which left her face disfigured, and the burning of her home, Valley House, Tonatanvally, North Achill. (The home was rebuilt and Mrs MacDonnell died there in 1923, while Lynchehaun escaped to the USA after serving 7 years and successfully resisted extradition but spent his last years in Scotland, where he died.) Brother Carney's-great grandniece, Patricia Byrne, write her own account of Mrs MacDonnell and Lynchehaun, entitled The Veiled Woman of Achill.
+
+Brother Carney also wrote accounts of his lengthy fundraising trips across the U.S. at the start of the 20th century. The ruins of this monastery are still to be seen in Bunnacurry today.
+
+Valley House
+The historic Valley House is located in Tonatanvally, "The Valley", near Dugort, in the northeast of Achill Island. The present building sits on the site of a hunting lodge built by the Earl of Cavan in the 19th century. Its notoriety arises from an incident in 1894 in which the then owner, an Englishwoman, Mrs Agnes McDonnell, was savagely beaten and the house set alight by a local man, James Lynchehaun. Lynchehaun had been employed by McDonnell as her land agent, but the two fell out and he was sacked and told to quit his accommodation on her estate. A lengthy legal battle ensued, with Lynchehaun refusing to leave. At the time, in the 1890s, the issue of land ownership in Ireland was politically charged. After the events at the Valley House in 1895, Lynchehaun would falsely claim his actions were carried out on behalf of the Irish Republican Brotherhood and motivated by politics. He escaped custody after serving seven years and fled to the United States seeking political asylum (although Michael Davitt refused to shake his hand, calling Lynchehaun a "murderer"), where he successfully defeated legal attempts by the British authorities to have him extradited to face charges arising from the attack and the burning of the Valley House. Agnes McDonnell suffered terrible injuries from the attack but survived and lived for another 23 years, dying in 1923. Lynchehaun is said to have returned to Achill on two occasions, once in disguise as an American tourist, and eventually died in Girvan, Scotland, in 1937. The Valley House is now a hostel and bar.
+
+The Deserted Village
+Close by Dugort, at the base of Slievemore mountain lies the Deserted Village. There are approximately 80 ruined houses in the village. The houses were built of unmortared stone, which means that no cement or mortar was used to hold the stones together. Each house consisted of just one room and this room was used as a kitchen, living room, bedroom and even a stable. If one looks at the fields around the Deserted Village and right up the mountain, one can see the tracks in the fields of 'lazy beds', which is the way crops like potatoes were grown. In Achill, as in many areas of Ireland, a system called 'Rundale' was used for farming. This meant that the land around a village was rented from a landlord. This land was then shared by all the villagers to graze their cattle and sheep. Each family would then have two or three small pieces of land scattered about the village, which they used to grow crops. For many years people lived in the village and then in 1845 Famine struck in Achill as it did in the rest of Ireland. Most of the families moved to the nearby village of Dooagh, which is beside the sea, while some others emigrated. Living beside the sea meant that fish and shellfish could be used for food. The village was completely abandoned which is where the name 'Deserted Village' came from.
+
+No one has lived in these houses since the time of the Famine, however, the families that moved to Dooagh and their descendants, continued to use the village as a 'booley village'. This means that during the summer season, the younger members of the family, teenage boys and girls, would take the cattle to graze on the hillside and they would stay in the houses of the Deserted Village. This custom continued until the 1940s. Boolying was also carried out in other areas of Achill, including Annagh on Croaghaun mountain and in Curraun. At Ailt, Kildownet, the remains of a similar deserted village can be found. This village was deserted in 1855 when the tenants were evicted by the local landlord so the land could be used for cattle grazing; the tenants were forced to rent holdings in Currane, Dooega and Slievemore. Others emigrated to America.
+
+Archaeology
+
+Recent archaeological research suggests the village was occupied year-round at least as early as the 19th century, though it is known to have served as a seasonally occupied 'booley village' by the first half of the 20th century. A booley village (a number of which exist in a ruined state on the island) is a village occupied only during part of the year, such as a resort community, a lake community, or (as the case on Achill) a place to live while tending flocks or herds of ruminants during winter or summer pasturing. Specifically, some of the people of Dooagh and Pollagh would migrate in the summer to Slievemore and then go back to Dooagh in the autumn. The summer 2009 field school excavated Round House 2 on Slievemore Mountain under the direction of archaeologist Stuart Rathbone.  Only the outside north wall, entrance way and inside of the Round House were completely excavated.
+
+From 2004 to 2006, the Achill Island Maritime Archaeology Project directed by Chuck Meide was sponsored by the College of William and Mary, the Institute of Maritime History, the Achill Folklife Centre (now the Achill Archaeology Centre), and the Lighthouse Archaeological Maritime Program (LAMP). This project focused on the documentation of archaeological resources related to Achill's rich maritime heritage.  Maritime archaeologists recorded a 19th-century fishing station, an ice house, boat house ruins, a number of anchors which had been salvaged from the sea, 19th-century and more recent currach pens, a number of traditional vernacular watercraft including a possibly 100-year-old Achill yawl, and the remains of four historic shipwrecks.
+
+Other places of interest
+
+The cliffs of Croaghaun on the western end of the island are the third highest sea cliffs in Europe but are inaccessible by road. Near the westernmost point of Achill, Achill Head, is Keem Bay. Keel Beach is quite popular with tourists and some locals as a surfing location. South of Keem beach is Moytoge Head, which with its rounded appearance drops dramatically down to the ocean. An old British observation post, built during World War I to prevent the Germans from landing arms for the Irish Republican Army, is still standing on Moytoge. During the Second World War this post was rebuilt by the Irish Defence Forces as a lookout post for the Coast Watching Service wing of the Defence Forces. It operated from 1939 to 1945.
+
+The mountain of Slievemore, (672 m) rises dramatically in the north of the island and the Atlantic Drive (along the south/west of the island) has some scenic views. On the slopes of Slievemore, there is an abandoned village, the "Deserted Village", traditionally thought to be a remnant village from An Gorta Mór (The Great Hunger of 1845–1849). Just west of the deserted village is an old Martello tower, again built by the British to warn of any possible French invasion during the Napoleonic Wars. The area also boasts an approximately 5000-year-old Neolithic tomb.
+
+Achillbeg (, Little Achill) is a small island just off Achill's southern tip. Its inhabitants were resettled on Achill in the 1960s. A plaque to Johnny Kilbane is situated on Achillbeg and was erected to celebrate 100 years since his first championship win. 
+
+The villages of Dooniver and Askill have picturesque scenery and the cycle route is popular with tourists.
+
+Caisleán Ghráinne, also known as Kildownet Castle, is a small tower house built in the early 1400s. It is located in Cloughmore, on the south of Achill Island. It is noted for its associations with Grace O'Malley, along with the larger Rockfleet Castle in Newport.
+
+Economy
+While a number of attempts at setting up small industrial units on the island have been made, its economy is largely dependent on tourism. Subventions from Achill people working abroad allowed many families to remain living in Achill throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. In the past, fishing was a significant activity but this aspect of the economy is small now. At one stage, the island was known for its shark fishing, basking shark in particular was fished for its valuable shark liver oil. There was a big spurt of growth in tourism in the 1960s and 1970s before which life was tough and difficult on the island. Despite healthy visitor numbers each year, the common perception is that tourism in Achill has been slowly declining since its heyday. Currently, the largest employers on Achill are two hotels.
+
+Religion
+Most people on Achill are either Roman Catholic or Anglican (Church of Ireland).
+
+Overview of the churches
+ Catholic:
+Bunnacurry Church (Saint Josephs)
+ The Valley Church; Only open for certain events.
+ Dookinella Church
+ Currane Church
+ Pollagh Church
+ Derreens Church
+ Dooega Church
+ Belfarsed Church
+ Achill Sound Church
+ Church of Ireland:
+ Dugort Church (St. Thomas's church)
+ Innisbiggle Island church
+ Other:
+ House of Prayer, Achill
+
+Artists 
+For almost two centuries, a number of artists have had a close relationship with Achill Island, including the landscape painter Paul Henry. Within the emerging Irish Free State, Paul Henry's landscapes from Achill and other areas reinforced a vision of Ireland of communities living in harmony with the land. He lived in Achill for almost a decade with his wife, artist Grace Henry and, while using similar subject-matter, the pair developed very different styles.
+
+This relationship of artists with Achill was particularly intense in the early decades of the twentieth century when Eva O'Flaherty (1874-1963) became a focal point for artistic networking on the island. A network of over 200 artists linked to Achill is charted in "Achill Painters - An Island History" and includes painters such as the Belgian Marie Howet, the American Robert Henri, the modernist painter Mainie Jellett and contemporary artist Camille Souter.
+
+The 2018 Coming Home Art & The Great Hunger exhibition, in partnership with The Great Hunger Museum of Quinnipiac University, USA, featured Achill's Deserted Village and the island lazy beds prominently in works by Geraldine O'Reilly and Alanna O'Kelly; also included was an 1873 painting, 'Cottage, Achill Island' by Alexander Williams - one of the first artists to open up the island to a wider audience.
+
+Education
+Hedge schools existed in most villages of Achill in various periods of history. A university was started by the missions to Achill in Mweelin. In the modern age, there used to be two secondary schools in Achill, Mc Hale College and Scoil Damhnait. However, in August 2011, the two schools amalgamated to form Coláiste Pobail Acla. For primary education, there are eight national schools including Bullsmouth NS, Valley NS, Bunnacurry NS, Dookinella NS, Dooagh NS, Saula NS, Achill Sound NS and Tonragee NS. National schools closed down include Dooega NS, Crumpaun NS, Ashleam NS and Currane NS.
+
+Transport
+
+Rail
+Achill railway station, still on the mainland and not on the island, was opened by the Midland Great Western Railway on 13 May 1895, the terminus of its line from Westport via Newport and Mulranny. The station, and the line, were closed by the Great Southern Railways on 1 October 1937. The Great Western Greenway, created during 2010 and 2011, follows the line's route and has proved to be very successful in attracting visitors to Achill and the surrounding areas.
+
+Road
+The R319 road is the main road onto the island.
+
+Bus
+Bus Éireann's route 450 operates several times daily to Westport and Louisburgh from the island's scattered villages. Bus Éireann also provides transport for the area's secondary school children.
+
+Cuisine
+Achill Island has several bars, cafes and restaurants. The island's Atlantic location means that seafood, including lobster, mussels, salmon, trout and winkles, are common meals. With a large sheep and cow populations, lamb and beef are popular on the island too.
+
+Sport
+Achill has a Gaelic football club which competes in the junior championship and division 1E of the Mayo League. There are also Achill Rovers which play in the Mayo Association Football League.
+
+There is a 9-hole links golf course on the island. Outdoor activities can be done through Achill Outdoor Education Centre. Achill Island's rugged landscape and the surrounding ocean offers multiple locations for outdoor adventure activities, like surfing, kite-surfing and sea kayaking. Fishing and watersports are also common. Sailing regattas featuring a local vessel type, the Achill Yawl, have been popular since the 19th century, though most present-day yawls, unlike their traditional working boat ancestors, have been structurally modified to promote greater speed under sail. The island's waters and underwater sites are occasionally visited by scuba divers, though Achill's unpredictable weather generally has precluded a commercially successful recreational diving industry.
+
+Population
+In 2016, the population was 2,594, with 5.2% claiming they spoke Irish on a daily basis outside the education system.  The island's population has declined from around 6,000 before the Great Famine of the mid-19th century.
+
+Demographics 
+The table below reports data on Achill Island's population taken from Discover the Islands of Ireland (Alex Ritsema, Collins Press, 1999) and the census of Ireland.
+
+Architecture
+
+Few inhabited houses date from before the 20th century, though there are many examples of abandoned stone structures dating to the 19th century.
+
+The best known of these earlier can be seen in the "Deserted Village" ruins near the graveyard at the foot of Slievemore. Even the houses in this village represent a relatively comfortable class of dwelling as, even as recently as a hundred years ago, some people still used "Beehive" style houses (small circular single-roomed dwellings with a hole in the ceiling to let out smoke).
+
+Many of the oldest inhabited cottages date from the activities of the Congested Districts Board for Ireland—a body set up around the turn of the 20th century in Ireland to improve the welfare of the inhabitants of small villages and towns. Most of the homes in Achill at the time were very small and tightly packed together in villages. The CDB subsidised the building of new, more spacious (though still small by modern standards) homes outside of the traditional villages.
+
+Notable people
+
+ Heinrich Böll, German writer who spent several summers with his family and later lived several months per year on the island
+ Charles Boycott (1832–1897), unpopular landowner from whom the term boycott arose
+ Nancy Corrigan, pioneer aviator, second female commercial pilot in the US.
+ Dermot Freyer (1883–1970), writer who opened a hotel on the island
+ Paul Henry, artist, stayed on the island for a number of years in the early 1900s
+ James Kilbane, singer, lives on the island
+ Johnny Kilbane, boxer
+ Saoirse McHugh, former Green Party politician
+ Danny McNamara, musician
+ Richard McNamara, musician
+ Eva O’Flaherty, Nationalist, model and milliner
+ Thomas Patten, from Dooega. Died during the Siege of Madrid in December 1936
+ Honor Tracy, author, lived there until her death in 1989
+
+Literature
+
+Heinrich Böll: Irisches Tagebuch, Berlin, 1957
+Bob Kingston The Deserted Village at Slievemore, Castlebar, 1990
+Theresa McDonald: Achill: 5000 B.C. to 1900 A.D.: Archeology History Folklore, I.A.S. Publications [1992]
+Rosa Meehan: The Story of Mayo, Castlebar, 2003
+James Carney: The Playboy & the Yellow lady, 1986 Poolbeg
+Hugo Hamilton: The Island of Talking, 2007
+Kevin Barry: Beatlebone, 2015
+Mealla Nī Ghiobúin: Dugort, Achill Island 1831–1861: The Rise and Fall of a Missionary Community, 2001
+Patricia Byrne: The Veiled Woman of Achill – Island Outrage & A Playboy Drama, 2012
+Mary J. Murphy: Achill's Eva O'Flaherty – Forgotten Island Heroine, 2011
+Patricia Byrne: The Preacher and The Prelate – The Achill Mission Colony and The Battle for Souls in Famine Ireland, 2018
+Mary J. Murphy, Achill Painters -An Island History, 2020
+Michael Gallagher, Stick on Stone, 2013
+
+In popular culture
+The island is featured throughout the film The Banshees of Inisherin in various locations on the island including Keem Bay, Cloughmore, and Purteen Pier.
+
+The film My Sailor My Love features Achill island.
+
+The island is the primary setting of the visual novel If Found....
+
+See also
+ Achillbeg
+ Innisbiggle
+ List of islands of County Mayo
+
+References
+
+External links
+
+ Colaiste Pobail Acla students project on the Achill area
+ Achill Island Maritime Archaeology Project
+ VisitAchill multilingual visitor's site
+
+ 
+Islands of County Mayo
+Gaeltacht places in County Mayo
+Irwin Allen Ginsberg (; June 3, 1926 – April 5, 1997) was an American poet and writer. As a student at Columbia University in the 1940s, he began friendships with Lucien Carr, William S. Burroughs and Jack Kerouac, forming the core of the Beat Generation. He vigorously opposed militarism, economic materialism, and sexual repression, and he embodied various aspects of this counterculture with his views on drugs, sex, multiculturalism, hostility to bureaucracy, and openness to Eastern religions.
+
+Best known for his poem "Howl", Ginsberg denounced what he saw as the destructive forces of capitalism and conformity in the United States. San Francisco police and US Customs seized copies of "Howl" in 1956, and a subsequent obscenity trial in 1957 attracted widespread publicity due to the poem's language and descriptions of heterosexual and homosexual sex at a time when sodomy laws made (male) homosexual acts a crime in every state. The poem reflected Ginsberg's own sexuality and his relationships with a number of men, including Peter Orlovsky, his lifelong partner. Judge Clayton W. Horn ruled that "Howl" was not obscene, asking: "Would there be any freedom of press or speech if one must reduce his vocabulary to vapid innocuous euphemisms?"
+
+Ginsberg was a Buddhist who extensively studied Eastern religious disciplines. He lived modestly, buying his clothing in second-hand stores and residing in apartments in New York City's East Village. One of his most influential teachers was Tibetan Buddhist Chögyam Trungpa, the founder of the Naropa Institute in Boulder, Colorado. At Trungpa's urging, Ginsberg and poet Anne Waldman started The Jack Kerouac School of Disembodied Poetics there in 1974.
+
+For decades, Ginsberg was active in political protests across a range of issues from the Vietnam War to the war on drugs. His poem "September on Jessore Road" drew attention to refugees fleeing the 1971 Bangladeshi genocide, exemplifying what literary critic Helen Vendler described as Ginsberg's persistent opposition to "imperial politics" and the "persecution of the powerless". His collection The Fall of America shared the annual National Book Award for Poetry in 1974. In 1979, he received the National Arts Club gold medal and was inducted into the American Academy of Arts and Letters. He was a Pulitzer Prize finalist in 1995 for his book Cosmopolitan Greetings: Poems 1986–1992.
+
+Biography
+
+Early life and family
+Ginsberg was born into a Jewish family in Newark, New Jersey, and grew up in nearby Paterson. He was the second son of Louis Ginsberg, also born in Newark, a schoolteacher and published poet, and the former Naomi Levy, born in Nevel (Russia) and a fervent Marxist.
+
+As a teenager, Ginsberg began to write letters to The New York Times about political issues, such as World War II and workers' rights. He published his first poems in the Paterson Morning Call. While in high school, Ginsberg became interested in the works of Walt Whitman, inspired by his teacher's passionate reading. In 1943, Ginsberg graduated from Eastside High School and briefly attended Montclair State College before entering Columbia University on a scholarship from the Young Men's Hebrew Association of Paterson.
+
+In 1945, he joined the Merchant Marine to earn money to continue his education at Columbia. While at Columbia, Ginsberg contributed to the Columbia Review literary journal, the Jester humor magazine, won the Woodberry Poetry Prize, served as president of the Philolexian Society (literary and debate group), and joined Boar's Head Society (poetry society).
+He was a resident of Hartley Hall, where other Beat Generation poets such as Jack Kerouac and Herbert Gold also lived. Ginsberg has stated that he considered his required freshman seminar in Great Books, taught by Lionel Trilling, to be his favorite Columbia course.
+
+According to The Poetry Foundation, Ginsberg spent several months in a mental institution after he pleaded insanity during a hearing. He was allegedly being prosecuted for harboring stolen goods in his dorm room. It was noted that the stolen property was not his, but belonged to an acquaintance. Ginsberg also took part in public readings at the Episcopal St. Mark's Church in-the-Bowery which would later hold a memorial service for him after his death.
+
+Relationship with his parents
+Ginsberg referred to his parents in a 1985 interview as "old-fashioned delicatessen philosophers". His mother was also an active member of the Communist Party and took Ginsberg and his brother Eugene to party meetings. Ginsberg later said that his mother "made up bedtime stories that all went something like: 'The good king rode forth from his castle, saw the suffering workers and healed them.'" Of his father Ginsberg said: "My father would go around the house either reciting Emily Dickinson and Longfellow under his breath or attacking T. S. Eliot for ruining poetry with his 'obscurantism.' I grew suspicious of both sides."
+
+Naomi Ginsberg had schizophrenia which often manifested as paranoid delusions, disordered thinking and multiple suicide attempts. She would claim, for example, that the president had implanted listening devices in their home and that her mother-in-law was trying to kill her. Her suspicion of those around her caused Naomi to draw closer to young Allen, "her little pet," as Bill Morgan says in his biography of Ginsberg, titled I Celebrate Myself: The Somewhat Private Life of Allen Ginsberg. She also tried to kill herself by slitting her wrists and was soon taken to Greystone, a mental hospital; she would spend much of Ginsberg's youth in mental hospitals. His experiences with his mother and her mental illness were a major inspiration for his two major works, "Howl" and his long autobiographical poem "Kaddish for Naomi Ginsberg (1894–1956)".
+
+When he was in junior high school, he accompanied his mother by bus to her therapist. The trip deeply disturbed Ginsberg—he mentioned it and other moments from his childhood in "Kaddish". His experiences with his mother's mental illness and her institutionalization are also frequently referred to in "Howl." For example, "Pilgrim State, Rockland, and Grey Stone's foetid halls" is a reference to institutions frequented by his mother and Carl Solomon, ostensibly the subject of the poem: Pilgrim State Hospital and Rockland State Hospital in New York and Greystone Park Psychiatric Hospital in New Jersey. This is followed soon by the line "with mother finally ******." Ginsberg later admitted the deletion was the expletive "fucked." He also says of Solomon in section three, "I'm with you in Rockland where you imitate the shade of my mother," once again showing the association between Solomon and his mother.
+
+Ginsberg received a letter from his mother after her death responding to a copy of "Howl" he had sent her. It admonished Ginsberg to be good and stay away from drugs; she says, "The key is in the window, the key is in the sunlight at the window—I have the key—Get married Allen don't take drugs—the key is in the bars, in the sunlight in the window." In a letter she wrote to Ginsberg's brother Eugene, she said, "God's informers come to my bed, and God himself I saw in the sky. The sunshine showed too, a key on the side of the window for me to get out. The yellow of the sunshine, also showed the key on the side of the window." These letters and the absence of a facility to recite kaddish inspired Ginsberg to write "Kaddish", which makes references to many details from Naomi's life, Ginsberg's experiences with her, and the letter, including the lines "the key is in the light" and "the key is in the window."
+
+New York Beats
+In Ginsberg's first year at Columbia he met fellow undergraduate Lucien Carr, who introduced him to a number of future Beat writers, including Jack Kerouac, William S. Burroughs, and John Clellon Holmes. They bonded, because they saw in one another an excitement about the potential of American youth, a potential that existed outside the strict conformist confines of post–World War II, McCarthy-era America. Ginsberg and Carr talked excitedly about a "New Vision" (a phrase adapted from Yeats' "A Vision"), for literature and America. Carr also introduced Ginsberg to Neal Cassady, for whom Ginsberg had a long infatuation. In the first chapter of his 1957 novel On the Road Kerouac described the meeting between Ginsberg and Cassady. Kerouac saw them as the dark (Ginsberg) and light (Cassady) side of their "New Vision", a perception stemming partly from Ginsberg's association with communism, of which Kerouac had become increasingly distrustful. Though Ginsberg was never a member of the Communist Party, Kerouac named him "Carlo Marx" in On the Road. This was a source of strain in their relationship.
+
+Also, in New York, Ginsberg met Gregory Corso in the Pony Stable Bar. Corso, recently released from prison, was supported by the Pony Stable patrons and was writing poetry there the night of their meeting. Ginsberg claims he was immediately attracted to Corso, who was straight, but understood homosexuality after three years in prison. Ginsberg was even more struck by reading Corso's poems, realizing Corso was "spiritually gifted." Ginsberg introduced Corso to the rest of his inner circle. In their first meeting at the Pony Stable, Corso showed Ginsberg a poem about a woman who lived across the street from him and sunbathed naked in the window. Amazingly, the woman happened to be Ginsberg's girlfriend that he was living with during one of his forays into heterosexuality. Ginsberg took Corso over to their apartment. There the woman proposed sex with Corso, who was still very young and fled in fear. Ginsberg introduced Corso to Kerouac and Burroughs and they began to travel together. Ginsberg and Corso remained lifelong friends and collaborators.
+
+Shortly after this period in Ginsberg's life, he became romantically involved with Elise Nada Cowen after meeting her through Alex Greer, a philosophy professor at Barnard College whom she had dated for a while during the burgeoning Beat generation's period of development. As a Barnard student, Elise Cowen extensively read the poetry of Ezra Pound and T. S. Eliot, when she met Joyce Johnson and Leo Skir, among other Beat players. As Cowen had felt a strong attraction to darker poetry most of the time, Beat poetry seemed to provide an allure to what suggests a shadowy side of her persona. While at Barnard, Cowen earned the nickname "Beat Alice" as she had joined a small group of anti-establishment artists and visionaries known to outsiders as beatniks, and one of her first acquaintances at the college was the beat poet Joyce Johnson who later portrayed Cowen in her books, including "Minor Characters" and Come and Join the Dance, which expressed the two women's experiences in the Barnard and Columbia Beat community. Through his association with Elise Cowen, Ginsberg discovered that they shared a mutual friend, Carl Solomon, to whom he later dedicated his most famous poem "Howl." This poem is considered an autobiography of Ginsberg up to 1955, and a brief history of the Beat Generation through its references to his relationship to other Beat artists of that time.
+
+The "Blake vision"
+In 1948, in an apartment in East Harlem, Ginsberg experienced an auditory hallucination while masturbating and reading the poetry of William Blake, which he later referred to as his "Blake vision". Ginsberg claimed to have heard the voice of God—also described as the "voice of the Ancient of Days"—or of Blake himself reading "Ah! Sun-flower", "The Sick Rose" and "The Little Girl Lost". The experience lasted several days, with him believing that he had witnessed the interconnectedness of the universe; Ginsberg recounted that after looking at latticework on the fire escape of the apartment and then at the sky, he intuited that one had been crafted by human beings, while the other had been crafted by itself. He explained that this hallucination was not inspired by drug use, but said he sought to recapture the feeling of interconnectedness later with various drugs.
+
+San Francisco Renaissance
+Ginsberg moved to San Francisco during the 1950s. Before Howl and Other Poems was published in 1956 by City Lights, he worked as a market researcher.
+
+In 1954, in San Francisco, Ginsberg met Peter Orlovsky (1933–2010), with whom he fell in love and who remained his lifelong partner. Selections from their correspondence have been published.
+
+Also in San Francisco, Ginsberg met members of the San Francisco Renaissance (James Broughton, Robert Duncan, Madeline Gleason and Kenneth Rexroth) and other poets who would later be associated with the Beat Generation in a broader sense. Ginsberg's mentor William Carlos Williams wrote an introductory letter to San Francisco Renaissance figurehead Kenneth Rexroth, who then introduced Ginsberg into the San Francisco poetry scene. There, Ginsberg also met three budding poets and Zen enthusiasts who had become friends at Reed College: Gary Snyder, Philip Whalen, and Lew Welch. In 1959, along with poets John Kelly, Bob Kaufman, A. D. Winans, and William Margolis, Ginsberg was one of the founders of the Beatitude poetry magazine.
+
+Wally Hedrick—a painter and co-founder of the Six Gallery—approached Ginsberg in mid-1955 and asked him to organize a poetry reading at the Six Gallery. At first, Ginsberg refused, but once he had written a rough draft of "Howl," he changed his "fucking mind," as he put it. Ginsberg advertised the event as "Six Poets at the Six Gallery." One of the most important events in Beat mythos, known simply as "The Six Gallery reading" took place on October 7, 1955. The event, in essence, brought together the East and West Coast factions of the Beat Generation. Of more personal significance to Ginsberg, the reading that night included the first public presentation of "Howl," a poem that brought worldwide fame to Ginsberg and to many of the poets associated with him. An account of that night can be found in Kerouac's novel The Dharma Bums, describing how change was collected from audience members to buy jugs of wine, and Ginsberg reading passionately, drunken, with arms outstretched.
+
+Ginsberg's principal work, "Howl," is well known for its opening line: "I saw the best minds of my generation destroyed by madness, starving hysterical naked [...]." "Howl" was considered scandalous at the time of its publication, because of the rawness of its language. Shortly after its 1956 publication by San Francisco's City Lights Bookstore, it was banned for obscenity. The ban became a cause célèbre among defenders of the First Amendment, and was later lifted, after Judge Clayton W. Horn declared the poem to possess redeeming artistic value. Ginsberg and Shig Murao, the City Lights manager who was jailed for selling "Howl," became lifelong friends.
+
+Biographical references in "Howl"
+Ginsberg claimed at one point that all of his work was an extended biography (like Kerouac's Duluoz Legend). "Howl" is not only a biography of Ginsberg's experiences before 1955, but also a history of the Beat Generation. Ginsberg also later claimed that at the core of "Howl" were his unresolved emotions about his schizophrenic mother. Though "Kaddish" deals more explicitly with his mother, "Howl" in many ways is driven by the same emotions. "Howl" chronicles the development of many important friendships throughout Ginsberg's life. He begins the poem with "I saw the best minds of my generation destroyed by madness", which sets the stage for Ginsberg to describe Cassady and Solomon, immortalizing them into American literature. This madness was the "angry fix" that society needed to function—madness was its disease. In the poem, Ginsberg focused on "Carl Solomon! I'm with you in Rockland", and, thus, turned Solomon into an archetypal figure searching for freedom from his "straightjacket". Though references in most of his poetry reveal much about his biography, his relationship to other members of the Beat Generation, and his own political views, "Howl," his most famous poem, is still perhaps the best place to start.
+
+To Paris and the "Beat Hotel", Tangier and India
+In 1957, Ginsberg surprised the literary world by abandoning San Francisco. After a spell in Morocco, he and Peter Orlovsky joined Gregory Corso in Paris. Corso introduced them to a shabby lodging house above a bar at 9 rue Gît-le-Cœur that was to become known as the Beat Hotel. They were soon joined by Burroughs and others. It was a productive, creative time for all of them. There, Ginsberg began his epic poem "Kaddish", Corso composed Bomb and Marriage, and Burroughs (with help from Ginsberg and Corso) put together Naked Lunch from previous writings. This period was documented by the photographer Harold Chapman, who moved in at about the same time, and took pictures constantly of the residents of the "hotel" until it closed in 1963. During 1962–1963, Ginsberg and Orlovsky travelled extensively across India, living half a year at a time in Calcutta (now Kolkata) and Benares (Varanasi). On his road to India he stayed two months in Athens ( August 29, 1961 - October 31, 1961) where he visited various cites such as Delphi, Mycines, Crete, and then he continued his journey to Israel, Kenya and finally India. Also during this time, he formed friendships with some of the prominent young Bengali poets of the time including Shakti Chattopadhyay and Sunil Gangopadhyay. Ginsberg had several political connections in India; most notably Pupul Jayakar who helped him extend his stay in India when the authorities were eager to expel him.
+
+England and the International Poetry Incarnation
+In May 1965, Ginsberg arrived in London, and offered to read anywhere for free. Shortly after his arrival, he gave a reading at Better Books, which was described by Jeff Nuttall as "the first healing wind on a very parched collective mind." Tom McGrath wrote: "This could well turn out to have been a very significant moment in the history of England—or at least in the history of English Poetry."
+
+Soon after the bookshop reading, plans were hatched for the International Poetry Incarnation, which was held at the Royal Albert Hall in London on June 11, 1965. The event attracted an audience of 7,000, who heard readings and live and tape performances by a wide variety of figures, including Ginsberg, Adrian Mitchell, Alexander Trocchi, Harry Fainlight, Anselm Hollo, Christopher Logue, George MacBeth, Gregory Corso, Lawrence Ferlinghetti, Michael Horovitz, Simon Vinkenoog, Spike Hawkins and Tom McGrath. The event was organized by Ginsberg's friend, the filmmaker Barbara Rubin.
+
+Peter Whitehead documented the event on film and released it as Wholly Communion. A book featuring images from the film and some of the poems that were performed was also published under the same title by Lorrimer in the UK and Grove Press in US.
+
+Continuing literary activity
+
+Though the term "Beat" is most accurately applied to Ginsberg and his closest friends (Corso, Orlovsky, Kerouac, Burroughs, etc.), the term "Beat Generation" has become associated with many of the other poets Ginsberg met and became friends with in the late 1950s and early 1960s. A key feature of this term seems to be a friendship with Ginsberg. Friendship with Kerouac or Burroughs might also apply, but both writers later strove to disassociate themselves from the name "Beat Generation." Part of their dissatisfaction with the term came from the mistaken identification of Ginsberg as the leader. Ginsberg never claimed to be the leader of a movement. He claimed that many of the writers with whom he had become friends in this period shared many of the same intentions and themes. Some of these friends include: David Amram, Bob Kaufman; Diane di Prima; Jim Cohn; poets associated with the Black Mountain College such as Charles Olson, Robert Creeley, and Denise Levertov; poets associated with the New York School such as Frank O'Hara and Kenneth Koch. LeRoi Jones before he became Amiri Baraka, who, after reading "Howl", wrote a letter to Ginsberg on a sheet of toilet paper. Baraka's independent publishing house Totem Press published Ginsberg's early work. Through a party organized by Baraka, Ginsberg was introduced to Langston Hughes while Ornette Coleman played saxophone.
+
+Later in his life, Ginsberg formed a bridge between the beat movement of the 1950s and the hippies of the 1960s, befriending, among others, Timothy Leary, Ken Kesey, Hunter S. Thompson, and Bob Dylan. Ginsberg gave his last public reading at Booksmith, a bookstore in the Haight-Ashbury neighborhood of San Francisco, a few months before his death. In 1993, Ginsberg visited the University of Maine at Orono to pay homage to the 90-year-old great Carl Rakosi.
+
+Buddhism and Krishna
+
+In 1950, Kerouac began studying Buddhism and shared what he learned from Dwight Goddard's Buddhist Bible with Ginsberg. Ginsberg first heard about the Four Noble Truths and such sutras as the Diamond Sutra at this time.
+
+Ginsberg's spiritual journey began early on with his spontaneous visions, and continued with an early trip to India with Gary Snyder. Snyder had previously spent time in Kyoto to study at the First Zen Institute at Daitoku-ji Monastery. At one point, Snyder chanted the Prajnaparamita, which in Ginsberg's words "blew my mind." His interest piqued, Ginsberg traveled to meet the Dalai Lama as well as the Karmapa at Rumtek Monastery. Continuing on his journey, Ginsberg met Dudjom Rinpoche in Kalimpong, who taught him: "If you see something horrible, don't cling to it, and if you see something beautiful, don't cling to it."
+
+After returning to the United States, a chance encounter on a New York City street with Chögyam Trungpa Rinpoche (they both tried to catch the same cab), a Kagyu and Nyingma Tibetan Buddhist master, led to Trungpa becoming his friend and lifelong teacher. Ginsberg helped Trungpa and New York poet Anne Waldman in founding the Jack Kerouac School of Disembodied Poetics at Naropa University in Boulder, Colorado.
+
+Ginsberg was also involved with Krishnaism. He had started incorporating chanting the Hare Krishna mantra into his religious practice in the mid-1960s. After learning that A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, the founder of the Hare Krishna movement in the Western world had rented a store front in New York, he befriended him, visiting him often and suggesting publishers for his books, and a fruitful relationship began. This relationship is documented by Satsvarupa dasa Goswami in his biographical account Srila Prabhupada Lilamrta. Ginsberg donated money, materials, and his reputation to help the Swami establish the first temple, and toured with him to promote his cause.
+
+Despite disagreeing with many of Bhaktivedanta Swami's required prohibitions, Ginsberg often sang the Hare Krishna mantra publicly as part of his philosophy and declared that it brought a state of ecstasy. He was glad that Bhaktivedanta Swami, an authentic swami from India, was now trying to spread the chanting in America. Along with other counterculture ideologists like Timothy Leary, Gary Snyder, and Alan Watts, Ginsberg hoped to incorporate Bhaktivedanta Swami and his chanting into the hippie movement, and agreed to take part in the Mantra-Rock Dance concert and to introduce the swami to the Haight-Ashbury hippie community.
+
+On January 17, 1967, Ginsberg helped plan and organize a reception for Bhaktivedanta Swami at San Francisco International Airport, where fifty to a hundred hippies greeted the Swami, chanting Hare Krishna in the airport lounge with flowers in hands. To further support and promote Bhaktivendata Swami's message and chanting in San Francisco, Allen Ginsberg agreed to attend the Mantra-Rock Dance, a musical event 1967 held at the Avalon Ballroom by the San Francisco Hare Krishna temple. It featured some leading rock bands of the time: Big Brother and the Holding Company with Janis Joplin, the Grateful Dead, and Moby Grape, who performed there along with the Hare Krishna founder Bhaktivedanta Swami and donated proceeds to the Krishna temple. Ginsberg introduced Bhaktivedanta Swami to some three thousand hippies in the audience and led the chanting of the Hare Krishna mantra.
+
+Music and chanting were both important parts of Ginsberg's live delivery during poetry readings. He often accompanied himself on a harmonium, and was often accompanied by a guitarist. It is believed that the Hindi and Buddhist poet Nagarjun had introduced Ginsberg to the harmonium in Banaras. According to Malay Roy Choudhury, Ginsberg refined his practice while learning from his relatives, including his cousin Savitri Banerjee. When Ginsberg asked if he could sing a song in praise of Lord Krishna on William F. Buckley, Jr.'s TV show Firing Line on September 3, 1968, Buckley acceded and the poet chanted slowly as he played dolefully on a harmonium. According to Richard Brookhiser, an associate of Buckley's, the host commented that it was "the most unharried Krishna I've ever heard."
+
+At the 1967 Human Be-In in San Francisco's Golden Gate Park, the 1968 Democratic National Convention in Chicago, and the 1970 Black Panther rally at Yale campus Allen chanted "Om" repeatedly over a sound system for hours on end.
+
+Ginsberg further brought mantras into the world of rock and roll when he recited the Heart Sutra in the song "Ghetto Defendant." The song appears on the 1982 album Combat Rock by British first wave punk band The Clash.
+
+Ginsberg came in touch with the Hungryalist poets of Bengal, especially Malay Roy Choudhury, who introduced Ginsberg to the three fish with one head of Indian emperor Jalaluddin Mohammad Akbar. The three fish symbolised coexistence of all thought, philosophy, and religion.
+
+In spite of Ginsberg's attraction to Eastern religions, the journalist Jane Kramer argues that he, like Whitman, adhered to an "American brand of mysticism" that was "rooted in humanism and in a romantic and visionary ideal of harmony among men."
+
+The Allen Ginsberg Estate and Jewel Heart International partnered to present "Transforming Minds: Kyabje Gelek Rimpoche and Friends", a gallery and online exhibition of images of Gelek Rimpoche by Allen Ginsberg, a student with whom he had an "indissoluble bond," in 2021 at Tibet House US in New York City. Fifty negatives from Ginsberg's Stanford University photo archive celebrated "the unique relationship between Allen and Rimpoche." The selection of never-before presented images, featuring great Tibetan masters including the Dalai Lama, Tibetologists, and students were "guided by Allen's extensive notes on the contact sheets and images he'd circled with the intention to print."
+
+Illness and death
+In 1960, he was treated for a tropical disease, and it is speculated that he contracted hepatitis from an unsterilized needle administered by a doctor, which played a role in his death 37 years later.
+Ginsberg was a lifelong smoker, and though he tried to quit for health and religious reasons, his busy schedule in later life made it difficult, and he always returned to smoking.
+
+In the 1970s, Ginsberg had two minor strokes which were first diagnosed as Bell's palsy, which gave him significant paralysis and stroke-like drooping of the muscles in one side of his face.
+
+Later in life, he also had constant minor ailments such as high blood pressure. Many of these symptoms were related to stress, but he never slowed down his schedule.
+
+Ginsberg won a 1974 National Book Award for The Fall of America (split with Adrienne Rich, Diving into the Wreck).
+
+In 1986, Ginsberg was awarded the Golden Wreath by the Struga Poetry Evenings International Festival in Macedonia, the second American poet to be so awarded since W. H. Auden. At Struga, Ginsberg met with the other Golden Wreath winners, Bulat Okudzhava and Andrei Voznesensky.
+
+In 1989, Ginsberg appeared in Rosa von Praunheim's award-winning film Silence = Death about the fight of gay artists in New York City for AIDS-education and the rights of HIV infected people.
+
+In 1993, the French Minister of Culture appointed Ginsberg a Chevalier des Arts et des Lettres.
+
+Ginsberg continued to help his friends as much as he could: he gave money to Herbert Huncke out of his own pocket, regularly supplied neighbor Arthur Russell with an extension cord to power his home recording setup, and housed a broke, drug-addicted Harry Smith.
+
+With the exception of a special guest appearance at the NYU Poetry Slam on February 20, 1997, Ginsberg gave what is thought to be his last reading at The Booksmith in San Francisco on December 16, 1996.
+
+After returning home from the hospital for the last time, where he had been unsuccessfully treated for congestive heart failure, Ginsberg continued making phone calls to say goodbye to nearly everyone in his address book. Some of the phone calls were sad and interrupted by crying, and others were joyous and optimistic. Ginsberg continued to write through his final illness, with his last poem, "Things I'll Not Do (Nostalgias)", written on March 30.
+
+He died on April 5, 1997, surrounded by family and friends in his East Village loft in Manhattan, succumbing to liver cancer via complications of hepatitis at the age of 70. Gregory Corso, Roy Lichtenstein, Patti Smith and others came by to pay their respects. He was cremated, and his ashes were buried in his family plot in Gomel Chesed Cemetery in Newark. He was survived by Orlovsky.
+
+In 1998, various writers, including Catfish McDaris read at a gathering at Ginsberg's farm to honor Allen and the Beats.
+
+Good Will Hunting (released in December 1997) was dedicated to Ginsberg, as well as Burroughs, who died four months later.
+
+Social and political activism
+
+Free speech
+Ginsberg's willingness to talk about taboo subjects made him a controversial figure during the conservative 1950s, and a significant figure in the 1960s. In the mid-1950s, no reputable publishing company would even consider publishing Howl. At the time, such "sex talk" employed in Howl was considered by some to be vulgar or even a form of pornography, and could be prosecuted under law. Ginsberg used phrases such as "cocksucker", "fucked in the ass", and "cunt" as part of the poem's depiction of different aspects of American culture. Numerous books that discussed sex were banned at the time, including Lady Chatterley's Lover. The sex that Ginsberg described did not portray the sex between heterosexual married couples, or even longtime lovers. Instead, Ginsberg portrayed casual sex. For example, in Howl, Ginsberg praises the man "who sweetened the snatches of a million girls." Ginsberg used gritty descriptions and explicit sexual language, pointing out the man "who lounged hungry and lonesome through Houston seeking jazz or sex or soup." In his poetry, Ginsberg also discussed the then-taboo topic of homosexuality. The explicit sexual language that filled Howl eventually led to an important trial on First Amendment issues. Ginsberg's publisher was brought up on charges for publishing pornography, and the outcome led to a judge going on record dismissing charges, because the poem carried "redeeming social importance," thus setting an important legal precedent. Ginsberg continued to broach controversial subjects throughout the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s. From 1970 to 1996, Ginsberg had a long-term affiliation with PEN American Center with efforts to defend free expression. When explaining how he approached controversial topics, he often pointed to Herbert Huncke: he said that when he first got to know Huncke in the 1940s, Ginsberg saw that he was sick from his heroin addiction, but at the time heroin was a taboo subject and Huncke was left with nowhere to go for help.
+
+Role in Vietnam War protests
+
+Ginsberg was a signer of the anti-war manifesto "A Call to Resist Illegitimate Authority", circulated among draft resistors in 1967 by members of the radical intellectual collective RESIST. Other signers and RESIST members included Mitchell Goodman, Henry Braun, Denise Levertov, Noam Chomsky, William Sloane Coffin, Dwight Macdonald, Robert Lowell, and Norman Mailer. In 1968, Ginsberg signed the "Writers and Editors War Tax Protest" pledge, vowing to refuse tax payments in protest against the Vietnam War, and later became a sponsor of the War Tax Resistance project, which practiced and advocated tax resistance as a form of anti-war protest.
+
+He was present the night of the Tompkins Square Park riot (1988) and provided an eyewitness account to The New York Times.
+
+Relationship to communism
+Ginsberg talked openly about his connections with communism and his admiration for past communist heroes and the labor movement at a time when the Red Scare and McCarthyism were still raging. He admired Fidel Castro and many other Marxist figures from the 20th century. In "America" (1956), Ginsberg writes: "America, I used to be a communist when I was a kid I'm not sorry". Biographer Jonah Raskin has claimed that, despite his often stark opposition to communist orthodoxy, Ginsberg held "his own idiosyncratic version of communism." On the other hand, when Donald Manes, a New York City politician, publicly accused Ginsberg of being a member of the Communist Party, Ginsberg objected: "I am not, as a matter of fact, a member of the Communist party, nor am I dedicated to the overthrow of the U.S. government or any government by violence ... I must say that I see little difference between the armed and violent governments both Communist and Capitalist that I have observed".
+
+Ginsberg travelled to several communist countries to promote free speech. He claimed that communist countries, such as China, welcomed him because they thought he was an enemy of capitalism, but often turned against him when they saw him as a troublemaker. For example, in 1965 Ginsberg was deported from Cuba for publicly protesting the persecution of homosexuals. The Cubans sent him to Czechoslovakia, where one week after being named the Král majálesu ("King of May", a students' festivity, celebrating spring and student life), Ginsberg was arrested for alleged drug use and public drunkenness, and the security agency StB confiscated several of his writings, which they considered to be lewd and morally dangerous. Ginsberg was then deported from Czechoslovakia on May 7, 1965, by order of the StB. Václav Havel points to Ginsberg as an important inspiration.
+
+Gay rights
+One contribution that is often considered his most significant and most controversial was his openness about homosexuality. Ginsberg was an early proponent of freedom for gay people. In 1943, he discovered within himself "mountains of homosexuality." He expressed this desire openly and graphically in his poetry. He also struck a note for gay marriage by listing Peter Orlovsky, his lifelong companion, as his spouse in his Who's Who entry. Subsequent gay writers saw his frank talk about homosexuality as an opening to speak more openly and honestly about something often before only hinted at or spoken of in metaphor.
+
+In writing about sexuality in graphic detail and in his frequent use of language seen as indecent, he challenged—and ultimately changed—obscenity laws. He was a staunch supporter of others whose expression challenged obscenity laws (William S. Burroughs and Lenny Bruce, for example).
+
+Association with NAMBLA
+Ginsberg was a supporter and member of the North American Man/Boy Love Association (NAMBLA), a pedophilia and pederasty advocacy organization in the United States that works to abolish age of consent laws and legalize sexual relations between adults and children. Saying that he joined the organization "in defense of free speech", Ginsberg stated: "Attacks on NAMBLA stink of politics, witchhunting for profit, humorlessness, vanity, anger and ignorance ... I'm a member of NAMBLA because I love boys too—everybody does, who has a little humanity". In 1994, Ginsberg appeared in a documentary on NAMBLA called Chicken Hawk: Men Who Love Boys (playing on the gay male slang term "Chickenhawk"), in which he read a "graphic ode to youth". He read his poem "Sweet Boy, Gimme Yr Ass" from the book Mind Breaths.
+
+In her 2002 book Heartbreak, Andrea Dworkin claimed Ginsberg had ulterior motives for allying with NAMBLA. In reference to his onetime friend Dworkin, Ginsberg stated:
+
+Demystification of drugs
+
+Ginsberg talked often about drug use. He organized the New York City chapter of LeMar (Legalize Marijuana). Throughout the 1960s he took an active role in the demystification of LSD, and, with Timothy Leary, worked to promote its common use. He remained for many decades an advocate of marijuana legalization, and, at the same time, warned his audiences against the hazards of tobacco in his Put Down Your Cigarette Rag (Don't Smoke): "Don't Smoke Don't Smoke Nicotine Nicotine No / No don't smoke the official Dope Smoke Dope Dope."
+
+CIA drug trafficking
+
+Ginsberg worked closely with Alfred W. McCoy on the latter's book The Politics of Heroin in Southeast Asia, which claimed that the CIA was knowingly involved in the production of heroin in the Golden Triangle of Burma, Thailand, and Laos. In addition to working with McCoy, Ginsberg personally confronted Richard Helms, the director of the CIA in the 1970s, about the matter, but Helms denied that the CIA had anything to do with selling illegal drugs. Ginsberg wrote many essays and articles, researching and compiling evidence of the CIA's alleged involvement in drug trafficking, but it took ten years, and the publication of McCoy's book in 1972, before anyone took him seriously. In 1978, Ginsberg received a note from the chief editor of The New York Times, apologizing for not having taken his allegations seriously. The political subject is dealt with in his song/poem "CIA Dope calypso".  The United States Department of State responded to McCoy's initial allegations stating that they were "unable to find any evidence to substantiate them, much less proof."  Subsequent investigations by the Inspector General of the CIA, United States House Committee on Foreign Affairs, and United States Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, a.k.a. the Church Committee, also found the charges to be unsubstantiated.
+
+Work
+Most of Ginsberg's very early poetry was written in formal rhyme and meter like that of his father, and of his idol William Blake. His admiration for the writing of Jack Kerouac inspired him to take poetry more seriously. In 1955, upon the advice of a psychiatrist, Ginsberg dropped out of the working world to devote his entire life to poetry. Soon after, he wrote Howl, the poem that brought him and his Beat Generation contemporaries to national attention and allowed him to live as a professional poet for the rest of his life. Later in life, Ginsberg entered academia, teaching poetry as Distinguished Professor of English at Brooklyn College from 1986 until his death.
+
+Inspiration from friends
+Ginsberg claimed throughout his life that his biggest inspiration was Kerouac's concept of "spontaneous prose." He believed literature should come from the soul without conscious restrictions. Ginsberg was much more prone to revise than Kerouac. For example, when Kerouac saw the first draft of Howl, he disliked the fact that Ginsberg had made editorial changes in pencil (transposing "negro" and "angry" in the first line, for example). Kerouac only wrote out his concepts of spontaneous prose at Ginsberg's insistence because Ginsberg wanted to learn how to apply the technique to his poetry.
+
+The inspiration for Howl was Ginsberg's friend, Carl Solomon, and Howl is dedicated to him. Solomon was a Dada and Surrealism enthusiast (he introduced Ginsberg to Artaud) who had bouts of clinical depression. Solomon wanted to commit suicide, but he thought a form of suicide appropriate to dadaism would be to go to a mental institution and demand a lobotomy. The institution refused, giving him many forms of therapy, including electroshock therapy. Much of the final section of the first part of Howl is a description of this.
+
+Ginsberg used Solomon as an example of all those ground down by the machine of "Moloch." Moloch, to whom the second section is addressed, is a Levantine god to whom children were sacrificed. Ginsberg may have gotten the name from the Kenneth Rexroth poem "Thou Shalt Not Kill," a poem about the death of one of Ginsberg's heroes, Dylan Thomas. Moloch is mentioned a few times in the Torah and references to Ginsberg's Jewish background are frequent in his work. Ginsberg said the image of Moloch was inspired by peyote visions he had of the Francis Drake Hotel in San Francisco which appeared to him as a skull; he took it as a symbol of the city (not specifically San Francisco, but all cities). Ginsberg later acknowledged in various publications and interviews that behind the visions of the Francis Drake Hotel were memories of the Moloch of Fritz Lang's film Metropolis (1927) and of the woodcut novels of Lynd Ward.  Moloch has subsequently been interpreted as any system of control, including the conformist society of post-World War II America, focused on material gain, which Ginsberg frequently blamed for the destruction of all those outside of societal norms.
+
+He also made sure to emphasize that Moloch is a part of humanity in multiple aspects, in that the decision to defy socially created systems of control—and therefore go against Moloch—is a form of self-destruction. Many of the characters Ginsberg references in Howl, such as Neal Cassady and Herbert Huncke, destroyed themselves through excessive substance abuse or a generally wild lifestyle. The personal aspects of Howl are perhaps as important as the political aspects. Carl Solomon, the prime example of a "best mind" destroyed by defying society, is associated with Ginsberg's schizophrenic mother: the line "with mother finally fucked" comes after a long section about Carl Solomon, and in Part III, Ginsberg says: "I'm with you in Rockland where you imitate the shade of my mother." Ginsberg later admitted that the drive to write Howl was fueled by sympathy for his ailing mother, an issue which he was not yet ready to deal with directly. He dealt with it directly with 1959's Kaddish, which had its first public reading at a Catholic Worker Friday Night meeting, possibly due to its associations with Thomas Merton.
+
+Inspiration from mentors and idols
+Ginsberg's poetry was strongly influenced by Modernism (most importantly the American style of Modernism pioneered by William Carlos Williams), Romanticism (specifically William Blake and John Keats), the beat and cadence of jazz (specifically that of bop musicians such as Charlie Parker), and his Kagyu Buddhist practice and Jewish background. He considered himself to have inherited the visionary poetic mantle handed down from the English poet and artist William Blake, the American poet Walt Whitman and the Spanish poet Federico García Lorca. The power of Ginsberg's verse, its searching, probing focus, its long and lilting lines, as well as its New World exuberance, all echo the continuity of inspiration that he claimed.
+
+He corresponded with William Carlos Williams, who was then in the middle of writing his epic poem Paterson about the industrial city near his home. After attending a reading by Williams, Ginsberg sent the older poet several of his poems and wrote an introductory letter. Most of these early poems were rhymed and metered and included archaic pronouns like "thee." Williams disliked the poems and told Ginsberg, "In this mode perfection is basic, and these poems are not perfect."
+
+Though he disliked these early poems, Williams loved the exuberance in Ginsberg's letter. He included the letter in a later part of Paterson. He encouraged Ginsberg not to emulate the old masters, but to speak with his own voice and the voice of the common American. From Williams, Ginsberg learned to focus on strong visual images, in line with Williams' own motto "No ideas but in things." Studying Williams' style led to a tremendous shift from the early formalist work to a loose, colloquial free verse style. Early breakthrough poems include Bricklayer's Lunch Hour and Dream Record.
+
+Carl Solomon introduced Ginsberg to the work of Antonin Artaud (To Have Done with the Judgement of God and Van Gogh: The Man Suicided by Society), and Jean Genet (Our Lady of the Flowers). Philip Lamantia introduced him to other Surrealists and Surrealism continued to be an influence (for example, sections of "Kaddish" were inspired by André Breton's Free Union). Ginsberg claimed that the anaphoric repetition of Howl and other poems was inspired by Christopher Smart in such poems as Jubilate Agno. Ginsberg also claimed other more traditional influences, such as: Franz Kafka, Herman Melville, Fyodor Dostoevsky, Edgar Allan Poe, and Emily Dickinson.
+
+Ginsberg also made an intense study of haiku and the paintings of Paul Cézanne, from which he adapted a concept important to his work, which he called the Eyeball Kick. He noticed in viewing Cézanne's paintings that when the eye moved from one color to a contrasting color, the eye would spasm, or "kick." Likewise, he discovered that the contrast of two seeming opposites was a common feature in haiku. Ginsberg used this technique in his poetry, putting together two starkly dissimilar images: something weak with something strong, an artifact of high culture with an artifact of low culture, something holy with something unholy. The example Ginsberg most often used was "hydrogen jukebox" (which later became the title of a song cycle composed by Philip Glass with lyrics drawn from Ginsberg's poems). Another example is Ginsberg's observation on Bob Dylan during Dylan's hectic and intense 1966 electric-guitar tour, fueled by a cocktail of amphetamines, opiates, alcohol, and psychedelics, as a Dexedrine Clown. The phrases "eyeball kick" and "hydrogen jukebox" both show up in Howl, as well as a direct quote from Cézanne: "Pater Omnipotens Aeterna Deus".
+
+Inspiration from music
+
+Allen Ginsberg also found inspiration in music. He frequently included music in his poetry, invariably composing his tunes on an old Indian harmonium, which he often played during his readings. He wrote and recorded music to accompany William Blake's Songs of Innocence and Songs of Experience. He also recorded a handful of other albums. To create music for Howl and Wichita Vortex Sutra, he worked with the minimalist composer, Philip Glass.
+
+Ginsberg worked with, drew inspiration from, and inspired artists such as Bob Dylan, The Clash, Patti Smith, Phil Ochs, and The Fugs. He worked with Dylan on various projects and maintained a friendship with him over many years.
+
+In 1981, Ginsberg recorded a song called "Birdbrain." He was backed by the Gluons, and the track was released as a single. In 1996, he recorded a song co-written with Paul McCartney and Philip Glass, "The Ballad of the Skeletons", which reached number 8 on the Triple J Hottest 100 for that year.
+
+Style and technique
+From the study of his idols and mentors and the inspiration of his friends—not to mention his own experiments—Ginsberg developed an individualistic style that's easily identified as Ginsbergian. Ginsberg stated that Whitman's long line was a dynamic technique few other poets had ventured to develop further, and Whitman is also often compared to Ginsberg because their poetry sexualized aspects of the male form.
+
+Many of Ginsberg's early long line experiments contain some sort of anaphora, repetition of a "fixed base" (for example "who" in Howl, "America" in America) and this has become a recognizable feature of Ginsberg's style. He said later this was a crutch because he lacked confidence; he did not yet trust "free flight." In the 1960s, after employing it in some sections of Kaddish ("caw" for example) he, for the most part, abandoned the anaphoric form. 'Latter-Day Beat' Bob Dylan is known for using anaphora, as in 'Tangled Up in Blue' where the phrase, returned to at the end of every verse, takes the place of a chorus.
+
+Several of his earlier experiments with methods for formatting poems as a whole became regular aspects of his style in later poems. In the original draft of Howl, each line is in a "stepped triadic" format reminiscent of William Carlos Williams. He abandoned the "stepped triadic" when he developed his long line although the stepped lines showed up later, most significantly in the travelogues of The Fall of America. Howl and Kaddish, arguably his two most important poems, are both organized as an inverted pyramid, with larger sections leading to smaller sections. In America, he also experimented with a mix of longer and shorter lines.
+
+Ginsberg's mature style made use of many specific, highly developed techniques, which he expressed in the "poetic slogans" he used in his Naropa teaching. Prominent among these was the inclusion of his unedited mental associations so as to reveal the mind at work ("First thought, best thought." "Mind is shapely, thought is shapely.") He preferred expression through carefully observed physical details rather than abstract statements ("Show, don't tell." "No ideas but in things.") In these he carried on and developed traditions of modernism in writing that are also found in Kerouac and Whitman.
+
+In Howl and in his other poetry, Ginsberg drew inspiration from the epic, free verse style of the 19th-century American poet Walt Whitman. Both wrote passionately about the promise (and betrayal) of American democracy, the central importance of erotic experience, and the spiritual quest for the truth of everyday existence. J. D. McClatchy, editor of the Yale Review, called Ginsberg "the best-known American poet of his generation, as much a social force as a literary phenomenon." McClatchy added that Ginsberg, like Whitman, "was a bard in the old manner—outsized, darkly prophetic, part exuberance, part prayer, part rant. His work is finally a history of our era's psyche, with all its contradictory urges." McClatchy's barbed eulogies define the essential difference between Ginsberg ("a beat poet whose writing was [...] journalism raised by combining the recycling genius with a generous mimic-empathy, to strike audience-accessible chords; always lyrical and sometimes truly poetic") and Kerouac ("a poet of singular brilliance, the brightest luminary of a 'beat generation' he came to symbolise in popular culture [...] [though] in reality he far surpassed his contemporaries [...] Kerouac is an originating genius, exploring then answering—like Rimbaud a century earlier, by necessity more than by choice—the demands of authentic self-expression as applied to the evolving quicksilver mind of America's only literary virtuoso [...]").
+
+Bibliography
+ Howl and Other Poems (1956), 
+ Kaddish and Other Poems (1961), 
+ Empty Mirror: Early Poems (1961), 
+ Reality Sandwiches (1963), 
+ The Yage Letters (1963)with William S. Burroughs
+ Planet News (1968), 
+ Indian Journals (1970), 
+ First Blues: Rags, Ballads & Harmonium Songs 1971 - 1974 (1975), 
+ The Gates of Wrath: Rhymed Poems 1948–1951 (1972), 
+ The Fall of America: Poems of These States (1973), 
+ Iron Horse (1973)
+ Allen Verbatim: Lectures on Poetry, Politics, Consciousness by Allen Ginsberg (1974), edited by Gordon Ball, 
+ Sad Dust Glories: poems during work summer in woods (1975)
+ Mind Breaths (1978), 
+ Plutonian Ode: Poems 1977–1980 (1981), 
+ Collected Poems 1947–1980 (1984), . Republished with later material added as Collected Poems 1947-1997, New York, HarperCollins, 2006
+ White Shroud Poems: 1980–1985 (1986), 
+ Cosmopolitan Greetings Poems: 1986–1993 (1994)
+ Howl Annotated (1995)
+ Illuminated Poems (1996)
+ Selected Poems: 1947–1995 (1996)
+ Death and Fame: Poems 1993–1997 (1999)
+ Deliberate Prose 1952–1995 (2000)
+ Howl & Other Poems 50th Anniversary Edition (2006), 
+ The Book of Martyrdom and Artifice: First Journals and Poems 1937-1952 (Da Capo Press, 2006)
+ The Selected Letters of Allen Ginsberg and Gary Snyder (Counterpoint, 2009)
+ I Greet You at the Beginning of a Great Career: The Selected Correspondence of Lawrence Ferlinghetti and Allen Ginsberg, 1955–1997 (City Lights, 2015)
+ The Best Minds of My Generation: A Literary History of the Beats (Grove Press, 2017)
+
+Honors
+His collection The Fall of America shared the annual U.S. National Book Award for Poetry in 1974. In 1979, he received the National Arts Club gold medal and was inducted into the American Academy and Institute of Arts and Letters. Ginsberg was a Pulitzer Prize finalist in 1995 for his book Cosmopolitan Greetings: Poems 1986–1992. In 1993, he received a John Jay Award posthumously from Columbia.
+
+In 2014, Ginsberg was one of the inaugural honorees in the Rainbow Honor Walk, a walk of fame in San Francisco's Castro neighborhood noting LGBTQ people who have "made significant contributions in their fields."
+
+See also
+
+ The Life and Times of Allen Ginsberg (film)
+ :Category:Works by Allen Ginsberg
+ Allen Ginsberg Live in London
+ Hungry generation
+ Howl (2010 film)
+ LGBT culture in New York City
+ List of LGBT people from New York City
+ Central Park Be-In
+ Trevor Carolan
+ Counterculture of the 1960s
+ Burroughs: the Movie by Howard Brookner
+ List of peace activists
+ Kill Your Darlings
+ Jewish Buddhist
+ American poetry
+
+Notes
+
+References
+
+Resources
+ The Allen Ginsberg Papers, 1937–1994 (1,330 linear ft.) are housed in the Department of Special Collections and University Archives at Stanford University Libraries
+
+Further reading
+ Boer, Charles. Charles Olson in Connecticut. North Carolina Wesleyan College Press, 1991, (1975). .
+ Bullough, Vern L. "Before Stonewall: Activists for Gay and Lesbian Rights in Historical Context." Harrington Park Press, 2002. pp 304–311.
+ Charters, Ann (ed.). The Portable Beat Reader. Penguin Books. New York. 1992.  (hc);  (pbk)
+ Clark, Thomas. "Allen Ginsberg." Writers at WorkThe Paris Review Interviews. 3.1 (1968) pp. 279–320.
+ Collins, Ronald & Skover, David. Mania: The Story of the Outraged & Outrageous Lives that Launched a Cultural Revolution (Top-Five books, March 2013)
+ Gifford, Barry (ed.). As Ever: The Collected Letters of Allen Ginsberg & Neal Cassady. Berkeley: Creative Arts Books (1977).
+ Ginsberg, Allen. Travels with Ginsberg: A Postcard Book. San Francisco: City Lights (2002). 
+ Hrebeniak, Michael. Action Writing: Jack Kerouac's Wild Form, Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois UP, 2006.
+ Kashner, Sam, When I Was Cool, My Life at the Jack Kerouac School, New York: HarperCollins Perennial, 2005. 
+ Podhoretz, Norman. "At War with Allen Ginsberg", in Ex-Friends (Free Press, 1999), 22–56. .
+ McBride, Dick: Cometh With Clouds (Memory: Allen Ginsberg) Cherry Valley Editions, 1982 
+ 
+ 
+ Morgan, Bill (ed.), I Greet You at the Beginning of a Great Career: The Selected Correspondence of Lawrence Ferlinghetti and Allen Ginsberg, 1955–1997. San Francisco: City Lights Publishers, 2015.
+ 
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+ Schumacher, Michael (ed.). Family Business: Selected Letters Between a Father and Son. Bloomsbury (2002), paperback, 448 pages, 
+ Schumacher, Michael. Dharma Lion: A Biography of Allen Ginsberg. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994.
+ Trigilio, Tony. Allen Ginsberg's Buddhist Poetics. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 2007. 
+ Trigilio, Tony. "Strange Prophecies Anew": Rereading Apocalypse in Blake, H.D., and Ginsberg. Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 2000. .
+ Tytell, John. Naked Angels: Kerouac, Ginsberg, Burroughs. Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 1976. 
+ Warner, Simon (ed.). Howl for Now: A 50th anniversary celebration of Allen Ginsberg's epic protest poem. West Yorkshire, UK: Route (2005), paperback, 144 pages, 
+ Warner, Simon. "Raising the Consciousness? Re-visiting Allen Ginsberg's 1965 trip to Liverpool", chapter in Centre of the Creative Universe: Liverpool and the Avant Garde, edited by Christoph Grunenberg and Robert Knifton. Liverpool & Chicago: Liverpool University Press & Chicago University Press, 2007,  (pbk);  (hc)
+ Young, Allen Gay Sunshine interview with Allen Ginsberg. Grey Fox Press, 1974. 
+ First Thought is Best Thought, an interview with Allen Ginsberg, in Scottish International Volume 6, September 1973, pp. 18–23
+
+External links
+
+Archives 
+ George Dowden papers on the Allen Ginsberg bibliography, 1966–1971 at Rare Book and Manuscripts Library, Columbia University Libraries
+ Materials related to Allen Ginsberg in the Robert A. Wilson collection at Special Collections, University of Delaware Library
+ Allen Ginsberg papers at Special Collections and University Archives, Stanford Libraries
+
+Audio recordings and interviews 
+ Audio recordings of Allen Ginsberg, from the Woodberry Poetry Room, Harvard University
+ Audio recordings of Allen Ginsberg, from Maryland Institute College of Art's Decker Library, Internet Archive
+ Modern American Poetry , interview
+
+Other links 
+ The Allen Ginsberg Trust
+ 
+ 
+ Case Histories: Allen Ginsberg at PEN.org honoring Ginsberg's work, from PEN American Center
+ Allen Ginsberg on Poets.org With audio clips, poems, and related essays, from the Academy of American Poets
+ "After 50 Years, Ginsberg's Howl Still Resonates" NPR October 27, 2006
+ Allen Ginsberg photographs with hand-written captions at LensCulture
+ Autobiographical Article in Shambhala Sun Magazine 
+ FBI agents were warned against interviewing Allen Ginsberg, fearing it would result in "embarrassment" from MuckRock.com
+ 
+ Allen Ginsberg materials in "Beat Visions and the Counterculture" (online exhibition) at Special Collections, University of Delaware Library
+
+1926 births
+1997 deaths
+20th-century American male writers
+20th-century American poets
+20th-century Buddhists
+Activists from New York (state)
+American anti–nuclear weapons activists
+American anti–Vietnam War activists
+American cannabis activists
+American expatriates in France
+American gay writers
+American LGBT poets
+American LGBT rights activists
+American male poets
+American pacifists
+American people of Russian-Jewish descent
+American psychedelic drug advocates
+American sailors
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+American tax resisters
+Beat Generation poets
+Brooklyn College faculty
+Columbia College (New York) alumni
+Converts to Buddhism
+Deaths from cancer in New York (state)
+Deaths from liver cancer
+Eastside High School (Paterson, New Jersey) alumni
+English-language haiku poets
+Free speech activists
+Gay academics
+Gay poets
+Harmonium players
+Industrial Workers of the World members
+Jewish American military personnel
+Jewish American poets
+LGBT Buddhists
+LGBT Jews
+LGBT people from Colorado
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+LGBT people from New York (state)
+Locust Music artists
+Military personnel from New Jersey
+Montclair State University alumni
+National Book Award winners
+Obscenity controversies in literature
+Outlaw poets
+Pedophile advocacy
+Pedophilia in the United States
+Writers from Greenwich Village
+Writers from the East Village, Manhattan
+Poets from New Jersey
+Postmodern writers
+Struga Poetry Evenings Golden Wreath laureates
+Tibetan Buddhists from the United States
+Transatlantic Records artists
+United States Merchant Mariners of World War II
+Writers from Boulder, Colorado
+Writers from Newark, New Jersey
+Writers from Paterson, New Jersey
+Yippies
+National Arts Club Medal of Honor Recipients
+In mathematics, a field  is algebraically closed if every non-constant polynomial in  (the univariate polynomial ring with coefficients in ) has a root in .
+
+Examples
+As an example, the field of real numbers is not algebraically closed, because the polynomial equation  has no solution in real numbers, even though all its coefficients (1 and 0) are real.  The same argument proves that no subfield of the real field is algebraically closed; in particular, the field of rational numbers is not algebraically closed. By contrast, the fundamental theorem of algebra states that the field of complex numbers is algebraically closed. Another example of an algebraically closed field is the field of (complex) algebraic numbers.
+
+No finite field F is algebraically closed, because if a1, a2, ..., an are the elements of F, then the polynomial (x − a1)(x − a2) ⋯ (x − an) + 1
+has no zero in F. However, the union of all finite fields of a fixed characteristic p is an algebraically closed field, which is, in fact, the algebraic closure of the field  with p elements.
+
+Equivalent properties
+Given a field F, the assertion "F is algebraically closed" is equivalent to other assertions:
+
+The only irreducible polynomials are those of degree one
+The field F is algebraically closed if and only if the only irreducible polynomials in the polynomial ring F[x] are those of degree one.
+
+The assertion "the polynomials of degree one are irreducible" is trivially true for any field. If F is algebraically closed and p(x) is an irreducible polynomial of F[x], then it has some root a and therefore p(x) is a multiple of x − a. Since p(x) is irreducible, this means that p(x) = k(x − a), for some k ∈ F \ {0}. On the other hand, if F is not algebraically closed, then there is some non-constant polynomial p(x) in F[x] without roots in F. Let q(x) be some irreducible factor of p(x). Since p(x) has no roots in F, q(x) also has no roots in F. Therefore, q(x) has degree greater than one, since every first degree polynomial has one root in F.
+
+Every polynomial is a product of first degree polynomials
+The field F is algebraically closed if and only if every polynomial p(x) of degree n ≥ 1, with coefficients in F, splits into linear factors. In other words, there are elements k, x1, x2, ..., xn of the field F such that p(x) = k(x − x1)(x − x2) ⋯ (x − xn).
+
+If F has this property, then clearly every non-constant polynomial in F[x] has some root in F; in other words, F is algebraically closed. On the other hand, that the property stated here holds for F if F is algebraically closed follows from the previous property together with the fact that, for any field K, any polynomial in K[x] can be written as a product of irreducible polynomials.
+
+Polynomials of prime degree have roots
+If every polynomial over F of prime degree has a root in F, then every non-constant polynomial has a root in F. It follows that a field is algebraically closed if and only if every polynomial over F of prime degree has a root in F.
+
+The field has no proper algebraic extension
+The field F is algebraically closed if and only if it has no proper algebraic extension.
+
+If F has no proper algebraic extension, let p(x) be some irreducible polynomial in F[x]. Then the quotient of F[x] modulo the ideal generated by p(x) is an algebraic extension of F whose degree is equal to the degree of p(x). Since it is not a proper extension, its degree is 1 and therefore the degree of p(x) is 1.
+
+On the other hand, if F has some proper algebraic extension K, then the minimal polynomial of an element in K \ F is irreducible and its degree is greater than 1.
+
+The field has no proper finite extension
+The field F is algebraically closed if and only if it has no proper finite extension because if, within the previous proof, the term "algebraic extension" is replaced by the term "finite extension", then the proof is still valid. (Finite extensions are necessarily algebraic.)
+
+Every endomorphism of Fn has some eigenvector
+The field F is algebraically closed if and only if, for each natural number n, every linear map from Fn into itself has some eigenvector.
+
+An endomorphism of Fn has an eigenvector if and only if its characteristic polynomial has some root. Therefore, when F is algebraically closed, every endomorphism of Fn has some eigenvector. On the other hand, if every endomorphism of Fn has an eigenvector, let p(x) be an element of F[x]. Dividing by its leading coefficient, we get another polynomial q(x) which has roots if and only if p(x) has roots. But if q(x) = xn + an − 1xn − 1+ ⋯ + a0, then q(x) is the characteristic polynomial of the n×n companion matrix
+
+Decomposition of rational expressions
+The field F is algebraically closed if and only if every rational function in one variable x, with coefficients in F, can be written as the sum of a polynomial function with rational functions of the form a/(x − b)n, where n is a natural number, and a and b are elements of F.
+
+If F is algebraically closed then, since the irreducible polynomials in F[x] are all of degree 1, the property stated above holds by the theorem on partial fraction decomposition.
+
+On the other hand, suppose that the property stated above holds for the field F. Let p(x) be an irreducible element in F[x]. Then the rational function 1/p can be written as the sum of a polynomial function q with rational functions of the form a/(x – b)n. Therefore, the rational expression
+
+can be written as a quotient of two polynomials in which the denominator is a product of first degree polynomials. Since p(x) is irreducible, it must divide this product and, therefore, it must also be a first degree polynomial.
+
+Relatively prime polynomials and roots
+For any field F, if two polynomials p(x),q(x) ∈ F[x] are relatively prime then they do not have a common root, for if a ∈ F was a common root, then p(x) and  q(x) would both be multiples of x − a and therefore they would not be relatively prime. The fields for which the reverse implication holds (that is, the fields such that whenever two polynomials have no common root then they are relatively prime) are precisely the algebraically closed fields.
+
+If the field F is algebraically closed, let p(x) and q(x) be two polynomials which are not relatively prime and let r(x) be their greatest common divisor. Then, since r(x) is not constant, it will have some root a, which will be then a common root of p(x) and q(x).
+
+If F is not algebraically closed, let p(x) be a polynomial whose degree is at least 1 without roots. Then p(x) and p(x) are not relatively prime, but they have no common roots (since none of them has roots).
+
+Other properties
+If F is an algebraically closed field and n is a natural number, then F contains all nth roots of unity, because these are (by definition) the n (not necessarily distinct) zeroes of the polynomial xn − 1. A field extension that is contained in an extension generated by the roots of unity is a cyclotomic extension, and the extension of a field generated by all roots of unity is sometimes called its cyclotomic closure. Thus algebraically closed fields are cyclotomically closed. The converse is not true. Even assuming that every polynomial of the form xn − a splits into linear factors is not enough to assure that the field is algebraically closed.
+
+If a proposition which can be expressed in the language of first-order logic is true for an algebraically closed field, then it is true for every algebraically closed field with the same characteristic. Furthermore, if such a proposition is valid for an algebraically closed field with characteristic 0, then not only is it valid for all other algebraically closed fields with characteristic 0, but there is some natural number N such that the proposition is valid for every algebraically closed field with characteristic p when p > N.
+
+Every field F has some extension which is algebraically closed. Such an extension is called an algebraically closed extension. Among all such extensions there is one and only one (up to isomorphism, but not unique isomorphism) which is an algebraic extension of F; it is called the algebraic closure of F.
+
+The theory of algebraically closed fields has quantifier elimination.
+
+Notes
+
+References
+
+ 
+
+ 
+ 
+ 
+
+Field (mathematics)
+
+
+Events
+
+Pre-1600
+1284 – The Republic of Pisa is defeated in the Battle of Meloria by the Republic of Genoa, thus losing its naval dominance in the Mediterranean.
+1538 – Bogotá, Colombia, is founded by Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada.
+
+1601–1900
+1661 – The Treaty of The Hague is signed by Portugal and the Dutch Republic.
+1777 – American Revolutionary War: The bloody Battle of Oriskany prevents American relief of the Siege of Fort Stanwix.
+1787 – Sixty proof sheets of the Constitution of the United States are delivered to the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
+1806 – Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor, declares the moribund empire to be dissolved, although he retains power in the Austrian Empire.
+1819 – Norwich University is founded in Vermont as the first private military school in the United States.
+1824 – Peruvian War of Independence: Patriot forces led by Simón Bolívar defeat the Spanish Royalist army in the Battle of Junín.
+1825 – The Bolivian Declaration of Independence is proclaimed.
+1861 – Britain imposes the Lagos Treaty of Cession to suppress slavery in what is now Nigeria.
+1862 – American Civil War: The Confederate ironclad  is scuttled on the Mississippi River after suffering catastrophic engine failure near Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
+1870 – Franco-Prussian War: The Battle of Spicheren is fought, resulting in a German victory.
+  1870   – Franco-Prussian War: The Battle of Wörth results in a decisive German victory.
+1890 – At Auburn Prison in New York, murderer William Kemmler becomes the first person to be executed by electric chair.
+
+1901–present
+1901 – Kiowa land in Oklahoma is opened for white settlement, effectively dissolving the contiguous reservation.
+1914 – World War I: U-boat campaign: Two days after the United Kingdom had declared war on Germany over the German invasion of Belgium, ten German U-boats leave their base in Heligoland to attack Royal Navy warships in the North Sea.
+  1914   – World War I: Serbia declares war on Germany; Austria declares war on Russia.
+1915 – World War I: Battle of Sari Bair: The Allies mount a diversionary attack timed to coincide with a major Allied landing of reinforcements at Suvla Bay.
+1917 – World War I: Battle of Mărășești between the Romanian and German armies begins.
+1926 – Gertrude Ederle becomes the first woman to swim across the English Channel.
+1940 – Estonia is annexed by the Soviet Union.
+1942 – Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands becomes the first reigning queen to address a joint session of the United States Congress.
+1944 – The Warsaw Uprising occurs on August 1. It is brutally suppressed and all able-bodied men in Kraków are detained afterwards to prevent a similar uprising, the Kraków Uprising, that was planned but never carried out.
+1945 – World War II: Hiroshima, Japan is devastated when the atomic bomb "Little Boy" is dropped by the United States B-29 Enola Gay. Around 70,000 people are killed instantly, and some tens of thousands die in subsequent years from burns and radiation poisoning.
+1956 – After going bankrupt in 1955, the American broadcaster DuMont Television Network makes its final broadcast, a boxing match from St. Nicholas Arena in New York in the Boxing from St. Nicholas Arena series.
+1958 – Law of Permanent Defense of Democracy, outlawing the Communist Party of Chile and banning 26,650 persons from the electoral lists, is repealed in Chile.
+1960 – Cuban Revolution: Cuba nationalizes American and foreign-owned property in the nation.
+1962 – Jamaica becomes independent from the United Kingdom.
+1965 – US President Lyndon B. Johnson signs the Voting Rights Act of 1965 into law.
+1986 – A low-pressure system that redeveloped off the New South Wales coast dumps a record 328 millimeters (13 inches) of rain in a day on Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.
+1990 – Gulf War: The United Nations Security Council orders a global trade embargo against Iraq in response to Iraq's invasion of Kuwait.
+1991 – Tim Berners-Lee releases files describing his idea for the World Wide Web. WWW makes its first appearance as a publicly available service on the Internet.
+  1991   – Takako Doi, chair of the Social Democratic Party, becomes Japan's first female speaker of the House of Representatives.
+1996 – NASA announces that the ALH 84001 meteorite, thought to originate from Mars, contains evidence of primitive life-forms.
+1997 – Korean Air Flight 801 crashed at Nimitz Hill, Guam, killing 229 of the 254 people on board.
+2001 – Erwadi fire incident: Twenty-eight mentally ill persons tied to a chain are burnt to death at a faith based institution at Erwadi, Tamil Nadu.
+2008 – A military junta led by Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz stages a coup d'état in Mauritania, overthrowing president Sidi Ould Cheikh Abdallahi.
+2010 – Flash floods across a large part of Jammu and Kashmir, India, damages 71 towns and kills at least 255 people.
+2011 – War in Afghanistan: A United States military helicopter is shot down, killing 30 American special forces members and a working dog, seven Afghan soldiers, and one Afghan civilian. It was the deadliest single event for the United States in the War in Afghanistan.
+2012 – NASA's Curiosity rover lands on the surface of Mars.
+2015 – A suicide bomb attack kills at least 15 people at a mosque in the Saudi city of Abha.
+
+Births
+
+Pre-1600
+1180 – Emperor Go-Toba of Japan (d. 1239)
+1504 – Matthew Parker, English archbishop (d. 1575)
+1572 – Fakhr-al-Din II, Druze emir (d. 1635)
+
+1601–1900
+1605 – Bulstrode Whitelocke, English lawyer (d. 1675)
+1609 – Richard Bennett, English-American politician, Colonial Governor of Virginia (d. 1675)
+1619 – Barbara Strozzi, Italian composer and singer-songwriter (d. 1677)
+1622 – Tjerk Hiddes de Vries, Dutch admiral (d. 1666)
+1638 – Nicolas Malebranche, French priest and philosopher (d. 1715)
+1644 – Louise de La Vallière, French mistress of Louis XIV of France (d. 1710)
+1651 – François Fénelon, French archbishop and poet (d. 1715)
+1656 – Claude de Forbin, French general (d. 1733)
+1666 – Maria Sophia of Neuburg (d. 1699)
+1667 – Johann Bernoulli, Swiss mathematician (d. 1748)
+1697 – Charles VII, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1745)
+1715 – Luc de Clapiers, marquis de Vauvenargues, French author (d. 1747)
+1765 – Petros Mavromichalis, Greek general and politician, 2nd Prime Minister of Greece (d. 1848)
+1766 – William Hyde Wollaston, English chemist and physicist (d. 1828)
+1768 – Jean-Baptiste Bessières, French general and politician (d. 1813)
+1775 – Daniel O'Connell, Irish lawyer and politician, Lord Mayor of Dublin (d. 1847)
+1809 – Alfred, Lord Tennyson, English poet (d. 1892)
+1826 – Thomas Alexander Browne, English-Australian author (d. 1915)
+1835 – Hjalmar Kiærskou, Danish botanist (d. 1900)
+1844 – Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (d. 1900)
+  1844   – James Henry Greathead, South African-English engineer (d. 1896)
+1848 – Susie Taylor, American writer and first black Army nurse (d. 1912)
+1846 – Anna Haining Bates, Canadian-American giant (d. 1888)
+1868 – Paul Claudel, French poet and playwright (d. 1955)
+1874 – Charles Fort, American author (d. 1932)
+1877 – Wallace H. White Jr., American lawyer and politician (d. 1952)
+1880 – Hans Moser, Austrian actor and singer (d. 1964)
+1881 – Leo Carrillo, American actor (d. 1961)
+  1881   – Alexander Fleming, Scottish biologist, pharmacologist, and botanist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1955)
+  1881   – Louella Parsons, American journalist (d. 1972)
+1883 – Constance Georgina Adams, South African botanist (d. 1968)
+  1883   – Scott Nearing, American economist and educator (d. 1983)
+1886 – Edward Ballantine, American composer and academic (d. 1971)
+1887 – Dudley Benjafield, English racing driver (d. 1957)
+1889 – George Kenney, Canadian-American general (d. 1977)
+  1889   – John Middleton Murry, English poet and author (d. 1957)
+1891 – William Slim, 1st Viscount Slim, English field marshal and politician, 13th Governor-General of Australia (d. 1970)
+1895 – Frank Nicklin, Australian politician, 28th Premier of Queensland (d. 1978)
+1900 – Cecil Howard Green, English-American geophysicist and businessman, co-founded Texas Instruments (d. 2003)
+
+1901–present
+1901 – Dutch Schultz, American gangster (d. 1935)
+1903 – Virginia Foster Durr, American civil rights activist (d. 1999)
+1904 – Jean Dessès, Greek-Egyptian fashion designer (d. 1970)
+  1904   – Henry Iba, American basketball player and coach (d. 1993)
+1906 – Vic Dickenson, American trombonist (d. 1984)
+1908 – Maria Ludwika Bernhard,  Polish classical archaeologist and a  member of WWII Polish resistance (d. 1998)
+  1908   – Helen Jacobs, American tennis player and commander (d. 1997)
+  1908   – Lajos Vajda, Hungarian painter and illustrator (d. 1941)
+1909 – Diana Keppel, Countess of Albemarle (d. 2013)
+1910 – Adoniran Barbosa, Brazilian musician, singer, composer, humorist, and actor (d. 1982)
+  1910   – Charles Crichton, English director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1999)
+1911 – Lucille Ball, American actress, television producer and businesswoman (d. 1989)
+  1911   – Norman Gordon, South African cricketer (d. 2014) 
+  1911   – Constance Heaven, English author and actress (d. 1995)
+1912 – Richard C. Miller, American photographer (d. 2010)
+1914 – Gordon Freeth, Australian lawyer and politician, 24th Australian Minister for Foreign Affairs (d. 2001) 
+1916 – Richard Hofstadter, American historian and academic (d. 1970)
+  1916   – Dom Mintoff, Maltese journalist and politician, 8th Prime Minister of Malta (d. 2012)
+1917 – Barbara Cooney, American author and illustrator (d. 2000)
+  1917   – Robert Mitchum, American actor (d. 1997)
+1918 – Norman Granz, American-Swiss record producer and manager (d. 2001)
+1919 – Pauline Betz, American tennis player (d. 2011)
+1920 – John Graves, American author (d. 2013)
+  1920   – Ella Raines, American actress (d. 1988)
+1922 – Freddie Laker, English businessman, founded Laker Airways (d. 2006)
+  1922   – Dan Walker, American lawyer and politician, 36th Governor of Illinois (d. 2015)
+1923 – Jess Collins, American painter (d. 2004)
+  1923   – Paul Hellyer, Canadian engineer and politician, 16th Canadian Minister of Defence (d. 2021)
+1924 – Samuel Bowers, American activist, co-founded the White Knights of the Ku Klux Klan (d. 2006)
+1926 – Elisabeth Beresford, English journalist and author (d. 2010)
+  1926   – Frank Finlay, English actor (d. 2016)
+  1926   – Clem Labine, American baseball player and manager (d. 2007)
+  1926   – János Rózsás, Hungarian author (d. 2012)
+  1926   – Norman Wexler, American screenwriter (d. 1999) 
+1928 – Herb Moford, American baseball player (d. 2005)
+  1928   – Andy Warhol, American painter, photographer and film director (d. 1987)
+1929 – Mike Elliott, Jamaican saxophonist 
+  1929   – Roch La Salle, Canadian politician, 42nd Canadian Minister of Public Works (d. 2007)
+1930 – Abbey Lincoln, American singer-songwriter and actress (d. 2010)
+1931 – Chalmers Johnson, American scholar and author (d. 2010)
+1932 – Michael Deeley, English screenwriter and producer
+  1932   – Howard Hodgkin, English painter (d. 2017)
+  1932   – Charles Wood, English playwright and screenwriter (d. 2020)
+1933 – A. G. Kripal Singh, Indian cricketer (d. 1987)
+1934 – Piers Anthony, English-American soldier and author
+  1934   – Chris Bonington, English mountaineer and author
+  1934   – Billy Boston, Welsh rugby player and soldier
+1935 – Fortunato Baldelli, Italian cardinal (d. 2012)
+  1935   – Octavio Getino, Spanish-Argentinian director and screenwriter (d. 2012)
+1937 – Baden Powell de Aquino, Brazilian guitarist and composer (d. 2000)
+  1937   – Charlie Haden, American bassist and composer (d. 2014)
+  1937   – Barbara Windsor, English actress (d. 2020)
+1938 – Paul Bartel, American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2000)  
+  1938   – Peter Bonerz, American actor and director
+  1938   – Bert Yancey, American golfer (d. 1994)
+1940 – Mukhu Aliyev, Russian philologist and politician, 2nd President of Dagestan
+  1940   – Egil Kapstad, Norwegian pianist and composer (d. 2017)
+  1940   – Louise Sorel, American actress
+1941 – Ray Culp, American baseball player
+1942 – Byard Lancaster, American saxophonist and flute player (d. 2012)
+1943 – Jon Postel, American computer scientist and academic (d. 1998)
+1944 – Inday Badiday, Filipino journalist and actress (d. 2003)
+  1944   – Michael Mingos, English chemist and academic
+  1944   – Martin Wharton, English bishop
+1945 – Ron Jones, English director and production manager (d. 1993)
+1946 – Allan Holdsworth, English guitarist, songwriter, and producer (d. 2017)
+1947 – Radhia Cousot, French computer scientist and academic (d. 2014)
+1949 – Dino Bravo, Italian-Canadian wrestler (d. 1993) 
+1950 – Dorian Harewood, American actor 
+1951 – Catherine Hicks, American actress
+  1951   – Daryl Somers, Australian television host and singer
+1952 – Pat MacDonald, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 
+  1952   – David McLetchie, Scottish lawyer and politician (d. 2013)
+  1952   – Ton Scherpenzeel, Dutch keyboard player, songwriter, and producer 
+1954 – Mark Hughes, English-Australian rugby league player
+1956 – Bill Emmott, English journalist and author
+1957 – Bob Horner, American baseball player
+  1957   – Jim McGreevey, American lawyer and politician, 52nd Governor of New Jersey
+  1958   – Randy DeBarge, American singer-songwriter and bass player 
+1959 – Rajendra Singh, Indian environmentalist 
+  1959   – Joyce Sims, American singer (d. 2022)
+1960 – Dale Ellis, American basketball player
+1961 – Mary Ann Sieghart, English journalist and radio host
+1962 – Michelle Yeoh, Malaysian-Hong Kong actress and producer
+1963 – Charles Ingram, English soldier, author, and game show contestant
+  1963   – Kevin Mitnick, American computer security consultant, author, and convicted hacker (d. 2023)
+1964 – Kemi Omololu-Olunloyo, Nigerian journalist, activist, social media expert, and pharmacist
+1965 – Stéphane Peterhansel, French racing driver
+  1965   – Yuki Kajiura, Japanese pianist and composer 
+  1965   – David Robinson, American basketball player and lieutenant
+  1965   – Vince Wells, English cricketer 
+1967 – Lorna Fitzsimons, English businesswoman and politician
+  1967   – Mike Greenberg, American journalist and sportscaster
+  1967   – Julie Snyder, Canadian talk show host and producer
+1968 – Jack de Gier, Dutch footballer
+1969 – Simon Doull, New Zealand cricketer and sportscaster
+  1969   – Elliott Smith, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2003)
+1970 – M. Night Shyamalan, Indian-American director, producer, and screenwriter 
+1972 – Geri Halliwell, English singer-songwriter, dancer, and actress 
+  1972   – Ray Lucas, American football player and sportscaster
+  1972   – Jason O'Mara, Irish actor
+1973 – Vera Farmiga, American actress
+  1973   – Stuart O'Grady, Australian cyclist 
+1974 – Ever Carradine, American actress
+  1974   – Bobby Petta, Dutch footballer
+  1974   – Luis Vizcaíno, Dominican baseball player
+  1974   – Alvin Williams, American basketball player and coach
+1975 – Jason Crump, English-Australian motorcycle racer
+  1975   – Renate Götschl, Austrian skier
+  1975   – Víctor Zambrano, Venezuelan baseball player
+1976 – Soleil Moon Frye, American actress
+  1976   – Melissa George, Australian-American actress
+1977 – Leandro Amaral, Brazilian footballer
+  1977   – Jimmy Nielsen, Danish footballer and manager
+  1977   – Luciano Zavagno, Argentinian footballer
+1978 – Marvel Smith, American football player
+1979 – Francesco Bellotti, Italian cyclist
+  1979   – Jaime Correa, Mexican footballer 
+  1979   – Travis Reed, American basketball player
+1981 – Leslie Odom Jr., American actor and singer
+  1981   – Diána Póth, Hungarian figure skater
+1983 – Robin van Persie, Dutch footballer
+1984 – Vedad Ibišević, Bosnian footballer
+  1984   – Maja Ognjenović, Serbian volleyball player
+  1984   – Jesse Ryder, New Zealand cricketer
+1985 – Mickaël Delage, French cyclist
+  1985   – Bafétimbi Gomis, French footballer
+  1985   – Garrett Weber-Gale, American swimmer
+1986 – Raphael Pyrasch, German rugby player
+1987 – Leanne Crichton, Scottish footballer
+1990 – JonBenét Ramsey, American child beauty queen and victim of prominent unsolved murder case (d. 1996) 
+1991 – Wilmer Flores, Venezuelan baseball player
+  1991   – Jiao Liuyang, Chinese swimmer
+1995 – Rebecca Peterson, Swedish tennis player
+1999 – Rebeka Masarova, Spanish-Swiss tennis player
+
+Deaths
+
+Pre-1600
+ 258 – Pope Sixtus II
+ 523 – Pope Hormisdas (b. 450)
+ 750 – Marwan II, Umayyad general and caliph (b. 688)
+1027 – Richard III, Duke of Normandy
+1162 – Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Barcelona (b. 1113)
+1195 – Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony and Bavaria (b. 1129)
+1221 – Saint Dominic, Spanish priest, founded the Dominican Order (b. 1170)
+1272 – Stephen V of Hungary (b. 1239)
+1384 – Francesco I of Lesbos
+1412 – Margherita of Durazzo, Queen consort of Charles III of Naples (b. 1347)
+1414 – Ladislaus of Naples (b. 1377)
+1458 – Pope Callixtus III (b. 1378)
+1530 – Jacopo Sannazaro, Italian poet (b. 1458)
+1553 – Girolamo Fracastoro, Italian physician (b. 1478)
+1588 – Josias I, Count of Waldeck-Eisenberg, Count of Waldeck-Eisenberg (1578-1588) (b. 1554)
+
+1601–1900
+1628 – Johannes Junius, German lawyer and politician (b. 1573)
+1637 – Ben Jonson, English poet and playwright (b. 1572)
+1645 – Lionel Cranfield, 1st Earl of Middlesex, English merchant and politician (b. 1575)
+1657 – Bohdan Khmelnytsky, Ukrainian soldier and politician, 1st Hetman of Zaporizhian Host (b. 1595)
+1660 – Diego Velázquez, Spanish painter and educator (b. 1599)
+1666 – Tjerk Hiddes de Vries, Frisian naval hero and commander (b. 1622)
+1679 – John Snell, Scottish-English soldier and philanthropist, founded the Snell Exhibition (b. 1629)
+1694 – Antoine Arnauld, French mathematician and philosopher (b. 1612)
+1695 – François de Harlay de Champvallon, French archbishop (b. 1625)
+1753 – Georg Wilhelm Richmann, Estonian-Russian physicist and academic (b. 1711)
+1757 – Ádám Mányoki, Hungarian painter (b. 1673)
+1794 – Henry Bathurst, 2nd Earl Bathurst, English lawyer and politician, Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain (b. 1714)
+1815 – James A. Bayard, American lawyer and politician (b. 1767)
+1828 – Konstantin von Benckendorff, Russian general and diplomat (b. 1785)
+1850 – Edward Walsh, Irish poet (b. 1805)
+1866 – John Mason Neale, English priest, scholar, and hymnwriter (b. 1818)
+1881 – James Springer White, American religious leader, co-founded the Seventh-day Adventist Church (b. 1821)
+1893 – Jean-Jacques Challet-Venel, Swiss lawyer and politician (b. 1811)
+
+1901–present
+1904 – Eduard Hanslick, Austrian author and critic (b. 1825)
+1906 – George Waterhouse, English-New Zealand politician, 7th Prime Minister of New Zealand (b. 1824)
+1915 – Jennie de la Montagnie Lozier, American physician (b. 1841)
+1920 – Stefan Bastyr, Polish pilot and author (b. 1890)
+1925 – Surendranath Banerjee, Indian academic and politician (b. 1848)
+  1925   – Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro, Italian mathematician (b. 1853)
+1931 – Bix Beiderbecke, American cornet player, pianist, and composer (b. 1903)
+1945 – Richard Bong, American soldier and pilot, Medal of Honor recipient (b. 1920)
+  1945   – Hiram Johnson, American lawyer and politician, 23rd Governor of California (b. 1866)
+1946 – Tony Lazzeri, American baseball player and coach (b. 1903)
+1952 – Betty Allan, Australian statistician and biometrician (b. 1905)
+1959 – Preston Sturges, American director, screenwriter, and playwright (b. 1898)
+1964 – Cedric Hardwicke, English actor and director (b. 1893)
+1969 – Theodor W. Adorno, German sociologist and philosopher (b. 1903)
+1970 – Nikos Tsiforos, Greek director and screenwriter (b. 1912)
+1973 – Fulgencio Batista, Cuban colonel and politician, 9th President of Cuba (b. 1901)
+1976 – Gregor Piatigorsky, Russian-American cellist and educator (b. 1903)
+1978 – Pope Paul VI (b. 1897)
+  1978   – Edward Durell Stone, American architect, designed Radio City Music Hall and the Kennedy Center (b. 1902)
+1979 – Feodor Felix Konrad Lynen, German biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1911)
+1983 – Klaus Nomi, German singer-songwriter and actor (b. 1944)
+1985 – Forbes Burnham, Guyanese politician, 2nd President of Guyana (b. 1923)
+1986 – Emilio Fernández, Mexican actor, director, and screenwriter (b. 1904)
+1987 – Ira C. Eaker, American general (b. 1896)
+1990 – Jacques Soustelle, French anthropologist and politician (b. 1912)
+1991 – Shapour Bakhtiar, Iranian soldier and politician, 74th Prime Minister of Iran (b. 1915)
+  1991   – Roland Michener, Canadian lawyer and politician, 20th Governor General of Canada (b. 1900)
+  1991   – Harry Reasoner, American journalist, co-created 60 Minutes (b. 1923)
+1992 – Leszek Błażyński, Polish boxer (b. 1949)
+1993 – Tex Hughson, American baseball player (b. 1916)
+1994 – Domenico Modugno, Italian singer-songwriter and politician (b. 1928)
+1997 – Shin Ki-ha, South Korean lawyer and politician (b. 1941)
+1998 – André Weil, French-American mathematician and academic (b. 1906)
+2001 – Jorge Amado, Brazilian novelist and poet (b. 1912)
+  2001   – Adhar Kumar Chatterji, Indian Naval officer (b. 1914)
+  2001   – Wilhelm Mohnke, German general (b. 1911)
+  2001   – Shan Ratnam, Sri Lankan physician and academic (b. 1928)
+  2001   – Dorothy Tutin, English actress (b. 1930)
+2002 – Edsger W. Dijkstra, Dutch physicist, computer scientist, and academic (b. 1930)
+2003 – Julius Baker, American flute player and educator (b. 1915)
+2004 – Rick James, American singer-songwriter and producer (b. 1948)
+  2004   – Donald Justice, American poet and academic (b. 1925)
+2005 – Robin Cook, Scottish educator and politician, Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs (b. 1946)
+  2005   – Creme Puff, tabby domestic cat, oldest recorded cat (b. 1967)
+2007 – Zsolt Daczi, Hungarian guitarist (b. 1969)
+2008 – Angelos Kitsos, Greek lawyer and author (b. 1934)
+2009 – Riccardo Cassin, Italian mountaineer and author (b. 1909)
+  2009   – Willy DeVille,  American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1950)
+  2009   – John Hughes,  American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1950)
+2011 – Fe del Mundo, Filipino pediatrician and educator (b. 1911)
+2012 – Richard Cragun, American-Brazilian ballet dancer and choreographer (b. 1944)
+  2012   – Marvin Hamlisch, American pianist, composer, and conductor (b. 1944)
+  2012   – Robert Hughes, Australian-American author and critic (b. 1938)
+  2012   – Bernard Lovell, English physicist and astronomer (b. 1913)
+  2012   – Mark O'Donnell, American playwright (b. 1954)
+  2012   – Ruggiero Ricci, American violinist and educator (b. 1918)
+  2012   – Dan Roundfield, American basketball player (b. 1953)
+2013 – Stan Lynde, American author and illustrator (b. 1931)
+  2013   – Mava Lee Thomas, American baseball player (b. 1929)
+  2013   – Jerry Wolman, American businessman (b. 1927)
+2014 – Ralph Bryans, Northern Irish motorcycle racer (b. 1941)
+  2014   – Ananda W.P. Guruge, Sri Lankan scholar and diplomat (b. 1928)
+  2014   – John Woodland Hastings, American biochemist and academic (b. 1927)
+2015 – Ray Hill, American football player (b. 1975)
+  2015   – Orna Porat, German-Israeli actress (b. 1924)
+2017 – Betty Cuthbert, Australian sprinter (b. 1938)
+  2017   – Darren Daulton, American baseball player (b. 1962)
+2018 – Joël Robuchon, French Chef (b. 1945)
+  2018   – Margaret Heckler, American politician (b. 1931)
+  2018   – Anya Krugovoy Silver, American poet (b. 1968)
+
+Holidays and observances
+Christian holidays and observances
+Transfiguration of Jesus
+Anna Maria Rubatto
+Hormisdas
+Justus and Pastor
+August 6 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
+Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan's Accession Day. (United Arab Emirates)
+Independence Day (Bolivia), celebrates the independence of Bolivia from Spain in 1825.
+Independence Day (Jamaica), celebrates the independence of Jamaica from the United Kingdom in 1962.
+Hiroshima Peace Memorial Ceremony (Hiroshima, Japan)
+Russian Railway Troops Day (Russia)
+
+References
+
+External links
+
+ 
+ 
+ 
+
+Days of the year
+August
+Anatoly Yevgenyevich Karpov (; born May 23, 1951) is a Russian and former Soviet chess grandmaster, former World Chess Champion, ⁣and politician. He was the 12th World Chess Champion from 1975 to 1985, a three-time FIDE World Champion (1993, 1996, 1998), twice World Chess champion as a member of the USSR team (1985, 1989), and a six-time winner of Chess Olympiads as a member of the USSR team (1972, 1974, 1980, 1982, 1986, 1988). The International Association of Chess Press awarded him nine Chess Oscars (1973–77, 1979, 1980, 1981, 1984).
+
+Karpov's chess tournament successes include over 160 first-place finishes. He had a peak Elo rating of 2780, and his 102 total months at world number one is the third-longest of all time, behind Magnus Carlsen and Garry Kasparov, since the inception of the FIDE ranking list in 1970.
+
+Karpov is also an elected Member of the State Duma in Russia. Since 2006, he has chaired the Commission for Ecological Safety and Environmental Protection of the Civic Chamber of the Russian Federation, and since 2007, he has been a member of the Public Council under the Ministry of Defence.
+
+Early life
+Karpov was born into a Russian family on May 23, 1951, in Zlatoust, in the Urals region of the former Soviet Union, and learned to play chess at the age of four. His early rise in chess was swift, as he became a candidate master by age 11. At 12, he was accepted into Mikhail Botvinnik's prestigious chess school, though Botvinnik made the following remark about the young Karpov: "The boy does not have a clue about chess, and there's no future at all for him in this profession."
+
+Karpov acknowledged that his understanding of chess theory was very confused at that time, and later wrote that the homework Botvinnik assigned greatly helped him, since it required that he consult chess books and work diligently. Karpov improved so quickly under Botvinnik's tutelage that he became the youngest Soviet master in history at the age of fifteen in 1966; this tied the record established by Boris Spassky in 1952.
+
+Career
+
+Young master
+
+Karpov finished first in his first international tournament, in Třinec, several months later, ahead of Viktor Kupreichik. In 1967, he won the annual Niemeyer Tournament in Groningen. Karpov won a gold medal for academic excellence in high school, and entered Moscow State University in 1968 to study mathematics. He later transferred to Leningrad State University, eventually graduating from there in economics. One reason for the transfer was to be closer to his coach, grandmaster Semyon Furman, who lived in Leningrad. In his writings, Karpov credits Furman as a major influence on his development as a world-class player.
+
+In 1969, Karpov became the first Soviet player since Spassky (1955) to win the World Junior Championship, scoring an undefeated 10/11 in the final A group at Stockholm. This victory earned him the International Master title. In 1970, Karpov tied for fourth and fifth places with Pal Benko at an international tournament in Caracas, Venezuela, and earned the international grandmaster title. FIDE awarded him the title during its 41st congress, held during the Chess Olympiad in Siegen, West Germany in September 1970.
+
+Grandmaster
+Karpov won the 1971 Alekhine Memorial tournament in Moscow (jointly with Leonid Stein), ahead of a star-studded field, for his first significant adult victory. His Elo rating shot from 2540 in 1971 to 2660 in 1973, during which he shared second place in the 1973 Soviet championship, one point behind Spassky, and qualified for the Leningrad Interzonal.
+
+Candidate
+Karpov's world junior championship qualified him for one of the two Interzonals, a stage in the 1975 World Championship cycle to choose the challenger to play world champion Bobby Fischer. He finished equal first in the Leningrad Interzonal, qualifying for the 1974 Candidates Matches.
+
+Karpov defeated Lev Polugaevsky by the score of +3=5 in the first Candidates' match, earning the right to face former champion Boris Spassky in the semifinal round. Karpov was on record saying that he believed Spassky would easily beat him and win the Candidates' cycle to face Fischer, and that he (Karpov) would win the following Candidates' cycle in 1977. Spassky won the first game as Black in good style, but tenacious, aggressive play from Karpov secured him overall victory by +4−1=6.
+
+The Candidates' final was played in Moscow with Victor Korchnoi. Karpov took an early lead, winning the second game against the Sicilian Dragon, then scoring another victory in the sixth game. Following ten consecutive draws, Korchnoi threw away a winning position in the seventeenth game to give Karpov a 3–0 lead. In game 19, Korchnoi succeeded in winning a long endgame, then notched a speedy victory after a blunder by Karpov two games later. Three more draws, the last agreed by Karpov when he was in a clearly better position, closed the match, with Karpov prevailing +3−2=19, entitling him to move on to challenge Fischer for the world title.
+
+Match with Fischer in 1975
+Though a world championship match between Karpov and Fischer was highly anticipated, those hopes were never realised. Fischer not only insisted that the match be the first to ten wins (draws not counting), but also that the champion retain the crown if the score was tied 9–9. FIDE, the International Chess Federation, refused to allow this proviso, and gave both players a deadline of April 1, 1975, to agree to play the match under the FIDE-approved rules. When Fischer did not agree, FIDE President Max Euwe declared on April 3, 1975, that Fischer had forfeited his title and Karpov was the new World Champion. Karpov later attempted to set up another match with Fischer, but the negotiations fell through. This thrust the young Karpov into the role of World Champion without having faced the reigning champion.
+
+Garry Kasparov argued that Karpov would have had good chances because he had beaten Spassky convincingly and was a new breed of tough professional, and indeed had higher quality games, while Fischer had been inactive for three years. This view is echoed by Karpov himself. Spassky thought that Fischer would have won in 1975, but Karpov would have qualified again and beaten Fischer in 1978.
+
+Karpov has said that if he had had the opportunity to play Fischer for the championship in his twenties, he could have been a much better player as a result.
+
+World champion
+
+Determined to prove himself a legitimate champion, Karpov participated in nearly every major tournament for the next ten years. He convincingly won the Milan tournament in 1975, and captured his first of three Soviet titles in 1976. He created a phenomenal streak of tournament wins against the strongest players in the world. Karpov held the record for most consecutive tournament victories (9) until it was shattered by Garry Kasparov (14). As a result, most chess professionals soon agreed that Karpov was a legitimate world champion.
+
+In 1978, Karpov's first title defence was against Viktor Korchnoi, the opponent he had defeated in the 1973–75 Candidates' cycle; the match was played at Baguio, Philippines, with the winner needing six victories.
+As in 1974, Karpov took an early lead, winning the eighth game after seven draws to open the match. When the score was +5−2=20 in Karpov's favour, Korchnoi staged a comeback, and won three of the next four games to draw level with Karpov. Karpov then won the very next game to retain the title (+6−5=21).
+
+Three years later, Korchnoi reemerged as the Candidates' winner against German finalist Robert Hübner to challenge Karpov in Merano, Italy. Karpov handily won this match, 11–7 (+6−2=10), in what is remembered as the "Massacre in Merano".
+
+Karpov's tournament career reached a peak at the Montreal "Tournament of Stars" tournament in 1979, where he finished joint first (+7−1=10) with Mikhail Tal ahead of a field of strong grandmasters completed by Jan Timman, Ljubomir Ljubojević, Boris Spassky, Vlastimil Hort, Lajos Portisch, Robert Hübner, Bent Larsen and Lubomir Kavalek. He dominated Las Palmas in 1977 with 13½/15. He also won the prestigious Bugojno tournament in 1978 (shared), 1980 and 1986, the Linares tournament in 1981 (shared with Larry Christiansen) and 1994, the Tilburg tournament in 1977, 1979, 1980, 1982, and 1983, and the Soviet Championship in 1976, 1983, and 1988.
+Karpov represented the Soviet Union at six Chess Olympiads, in all of which the USSR won the team gold medal. He played as the first reserve at Skopje 1972, winning the board prize with 13/15. At Nice 1974, he advanced to board one and again won the board prize with 12/14. At La Valletta 1980, he was again board one and scored 9/12. At Lucerne 1982, he scored 6½/8 on board one. At Dubai 1986, he scored 6/9 on board two. His last was Thessaloniki 1988, where on board two he scored 8/10. In Olympiad play, Karpov lost only two games out of 68 played.
+
+To illustrate Karpov's dominance over his peers as champion, his score was +13−1=22 versus Spassky, +8=19 versus Robert Hübner, +12−1=29 versus Ulf Andersson, +3−1=10 versus Vasily Smyslov, +1=19 versus Mikhail Tal, +19-7=23 versus Ljubomir Ljubojević.
+
+Rivalry with Kasparov 
+
+Karpov had cemented his position as the world's best player and world champion by the time Garry Kasparov arrived on the scene. In their first match, the World Chess Championship 1984 in Moscow, the first player to win six games would win the match. Karpov built a 4–0 lead after nine games. The next 17 games were drawn, setting a record for world title matches, and it took Karpov until game 27 to gain his fifth win. In game 31, Karpov had a winning position but failed to take advantage and settled for a draw. He lost the next game, after which 14 more draws ensued. Karpov held a solidly winning position in Game 41, but again blundered and had to settle for a draw. After Kasparov won games 47 and 48, FIDE President Florencio Campomanes unilaterally terminated the match, citing the players' health. Karpov is said to have lost 10 kg over the course of the match. The match had lasted an unprecedented five months, with five wins for Karpov, three for Kasparov, and 40 draws.
+
+A rematch was set for later in 1985, also in Moscow. The events of the so-called Marathon Match forced FIDE to return to the previous format, with a match limited to 24 games (with Karpov remaining champion if the match finished 12–12). Karpov needed to win the final game to draw the match and retain his title, but lost, surrendering the title to his opponent. The final score was 13–11 (+3−5=16) in favour of Kasparov.
+Karpov remained a formidable opponent (and the world No. 2) until the mid-1990s. He fought Kasparov in three more world championship matches in 1986 (held in London and Leningrad), 1987 (in Seville), and 1990 (in New York City and Lyon). All three matches were extremely close: the scores were 11½–12½ (+4−5=15), 12–12 (+4−4=16), and 11½–12½ (+3−4=17). In all three matches, Karpov had winning chances up to the last games. The ending of the 1987 Seville match was particularly dramatic. Karpov won the 23rd game when Kasparov miscalculated a combination. In the final game, needing only a draw to win the title, Karpov cracked under time pressure at the end of the first session of play, missed a variation leading to an almost forced draw, and allowed Kasparov to adjourn the game with an extra pawn. After a further mistake in the second session, Karpov was slowly ground down and resigned on move 64, ending the match and allowing Kasparov to keep the title.
+
+In their five world championship matches, Karpov scored 19 wins, 21 losses, and 104 draws in 144 games. Overall, Karpov played five matches against Kasparov for the title from 1984 to 1990 without ever defeating him in a match.
+
+FIDE champion again (1993–1999)
+
+In 1992, Karpov lost a Candidates Match against Nigel Short. But in the World Chess Championship 1993, Karpov reacquired the FIDE World Champion title when Kasparov and Short split from FIDE. Karpov defeated Timman – the loser of the Candidates' final against Short.
+
+The next major meeting of Kasparov and Karpov was the 1994 Linares chess tournament. The field, in eventual finishing order, was Karpov, Kasparov, Shirov, Bareev, Kramnik, Lautier, Anand, Kamsky, Topalov, Ivanchuk, Gelfand, Illescas, Judit Polgár, and Beliavsky; with an average Elo rating of 2685, the highest ever at that time. Impressed by the strength of the tournament, Kasparov had said several days before the tournament that the winner could rightly be called the world champion of tournaments. Perhaps spurred on by this comment, Karpov played the best tournament of his life. He was undefeated and earned 11 points out of 13 (the best world-class tournament winning percentage since Alekhine won San Remo in 1930), finishing 2½ points ahead of second-place Kasparov and Shirov. Many of his wins were spectacular (in particular, his win over Topalov is considered possibly the finest of his career). This performance against the best players in the world put his Elo rating tournament performance at 2985, the highest performance rating of any player in history up until 2009, when Magnus Carlsen won the category XXI Pearl Spring chess tournament with a performance of 3002. Chess statistician Jeff Sonas considers Karpov's Linares performance the best tournament result in history.
+
+Karpov defended his FIDE title against the rising star Gata Kamsky (+6−3=9) in 1996. In 1998, FIDE largely scrapped the old system of Candidates' Matches, instead having a large knockout event in which a large number of players contested short matches against each other over just a few weeks. In the first of these events, the FIDE World Chess Championship 1998, champion Karpov was seeded straight into the final, defeating Viswanathan Anand (+2−2=2, rapid tiebreak 2–0). In the subsequent cycle, the format was changed, with the champion having to qualify. Karpov refused to defend his title, and ceased to be FIDE World Champion after the FIDE World Chess Championship 1999.
+
+Towards retirement
+Karpov's classical tournament play has been seriously limited since 1997, since he prefers to be more involved in Russian politics. He had been a member of the Supreme Soviet Commission for Foreign Affairs and the president of the Soviet Peace Fund before the Soviet Union dissolved. In addition, he has been involved in several disputes with FIDE. In the September 2009 FIDE rating list, he dropped out of the world's Top 100 for the first time.
+
+Karpov usually limits his play to exhibition events, and has revamped his style to specialize in rapid chess. In 2002, he won a match against Kasparov, defeating him in a rapid time control match 2½–1½. In 2006, he tied for first with Kasparov in a blitz tournament, ahead of Korchnoi and Judit Polgár.
+
+Karpov and Kasparov played a mixed 12-game match from September 21–24, 2009, in Valencia, Spain. It consisted of four rapid (or semi-rapid) and eight blitz games and took place exactly 25 years after the two players' legendary encounter at the World Chess Championship 1984. Kasparov won the match 9–3.
+
+Karpov played a match against Yasser Seirawan in 2012 in St. Louis, Missouri, an important center of the North American chess scene, winning 8–6 (+5−3=6).
+
+In November 2012, he won the Cap d'Agde rapid tournament that bears his name (Anatoly Karpov Trophy), beating Vasyl Ivanchuk (ranked 9th in the October 2012 FIDE world rankings) in the final.
+
+Professional and political career after retirement from chess 
+
+In 2003, Karpov opened his first American chess school in Lindsborg, Kansas. On March 2, 2022, the school announced a name change to International School of Chess of the Midwest due to the Russian invasion of Ukraine.
+
+Karpov has been a member of the sixth, seventh and eighth Russian State Dumas. Since 2005, he has been a member of the Public Chamber of Russia. He has involved himself in several humanitarian causes, such as advocating the use of iodised salt. On December 17, 2012, Karpov supported the law in the Russian Parliament banning adoption of Russian orphans by U.S. citizens.
+
+Karpov expressed support of the annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation, and accused Europe of trying to demonize Putin. In August 2019, Maxim Dlugy said that Karpov had been waiting since March for the approval of a non-immigrant visa to the United States, despite frequently visiting the country since 1972. Karpov had been scheduled to teach a summer camp at the Chess Max Academy. Dlugy said that Karpov had been questioned at the US embassy in Moscow about whether he planned to communicate with American politicians. Karpov was among the Russian State Duma members placed under sanctions by the EU and UK during the Russo-Ukrainian War. In March 2022, after the start of the Russian invasion of Ukraine, the FIDE Council suspended Karpov's title of FIDE Ambassador for Life. 
+
+In November 2022, Karpov received a head injury that left him concussed; according to some sources, he was placed in an induced coma. Sources vary on the cause of the injury, including allegations that he was attacked while heavily intoxicated. Karpov's daughter Sofia claimed that he had accidentally fallen; this was echoed by the Russian Chess Federation. However, he has made a full recovery since the incident.
+
+Candidate for FIDE presidency
+In March 2010, Karpov announced that he would be a candidate for the presidency of FIDE. The election took place in September 2010 at the 39th Chess Olympiad. In May, a fundraising event took place in New York with the participation of Kasparov and Magnus Carlsen, who both supported his bid and campaigned for him. Nigel Short also supported Karpov's candidacy. On September 29, 2010, Kirsan Ilyumzhinov was reelected as president of FIDE, 95 votes to 55.
+
+Style
+Karpov's "boa constrictor" playing style is solidly positional, taking minimal risks but reacting mercilessly to the slightest error by his opponent. As a result, he is often compared to José Raúl Capablanca, the third world champion. Karpov himself describes his style as follows:Let us say the game may be continued in two ways: one of them is a beautiful tactical blow that gives rise to variations that don't yield to precise calculations; the other is clear positional pressure that leads to an endgame with microscopic chances of victory.... I would choose [the latter] without thinking twice. If the opponent offers keen play I don't object; but in such cases I get less satisfaction, even if I win, than from a game conducted according to all the rules of strategy with its ruthless logic.
+
+Notable games
+
+Viktor Korchnoi vs. Anatoly Karpov, Moscow 1973 Karpov sacrifices a pawn for a strong center and  attack.
+Anatoly Karpov vs. Gyula Sax, Linares 1983 Karpov sacrifices for an attack that wins the game 20 moves later, after another spectacular sacrifice from Karpov and counter-sacrifice from Sax. It won the tournament's first . This was not the first time Karpov used the sharp Keres Attack (6.g4) – see his win in Anatoly Karpov vs. Vlastimil Hort, Alekhine Memorial Tournament, Moscow 1971.
+Anatoly Karpov vs. Veselin Topalov, Dos Hermanas 1994 This game features a sham sacrifice of two pieces, which Karpov regains with a  variation, culminating in the win of an exchange with a technically won endgame.
+
+Hobbies
+Karpov's extensive stamp collection of Belgian philately and Belgian Congo stamps and postal history covering mail from 1742 through 1980 was sold by David Feldman's auction company between December 2011 and 2012. He is also known to have large chess stamp and chess book collections. His private chess library consists of 9,000 books.
+
+Honours and awards
+ Order of Merit for the Fatherland, 3rd class (2001) – for outstanding contribution to the implementation of charitable programmes, the strengthening of peace and friendship between the peoples
+ Order of Friendship (2011) – for his great contribution to strengthening peace and friendship between peoples and productive social activities
+ Order of Lenin (1981)
+ Order of the Red Banner of Labour (1978)
+ Order of Merit, 2nd class (Ukraine) (November 13, 2006) – for his contribution to the victims of the Chernobyl disaster
+ Order of Holy Prince Daniel of Moscow, 2nd class (1996)
+ Order of St. Sergius of Radonezh, 2nd class (2001)
+ Medal "For outstanding contribution to the Collector business in Russia"
+ Honorary member of the Soviet Philately Society (1979)
+ Diploma of the State Duma of the Russian Federation No. 1
+ Order "For outstanding achievements in sport" (Republic of Cuba)
+ Medal of Tsiolkovsky Cosmonautics Federation of Russia
+ Medal "For Strengthening the penal system", 1st and 2nd class
+ Breastplate of the 1st degree of the Interior Ministry
+ International Association of Chess Press, 9 times voted the best chess player of the year and awarded the "Chess Oscar"
+ Order of Saint Nestor the Chronicler, 1st class
+ Asteroid 90414 Karpov is named after Karpov
+ Anatoly Karpov International Chess Tournament, an annual round-robin tournament held in his honour in Poikovsky, Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug, Russia since 2000
+
+Books
+Karpov has authored or co-authored several books, most of which have been translated into English.
+ Karpov, A.E.	Ninth vertical. 1978. Moscow: Molodaya Gvardia.
+
+ (also a 1992 Simon & Schuster edition)
+
+References
+
+Further reading
+ Fine, Rueben (1983). The World's Great Chess Games. Dover. .
+ Hurst, Sarah (2002). Curse of Kirsan: Adventures in the Chess Underworld. Russell Enterprises. .
+ 
+
+ Karpov, Anatoly (2003). Anatoly Karpov's Best Games. Batsford. .
+
+ Winter, Edward G., editor (1981).World Chess Champions. Pergamon Press. .
+
+External links
+
+ Karpov's official homepage 
+ 
+ 
+ 
+ Edward Winter, "Books about Korchnoi and Karpov", Chess Notes
+ 25 minute video interview with Karpov, OnlineChessLessons.NET, June 19, 2012
+ "Anatoly Karpov tells all" (2015 interview by Sport Express, translated by ChessBase): part 1, part 2, part 3, part 4
+
+ 
+ 
+
+ 
+ 
+
+ 
+ 
+
+1951 births
+20th-century Russian male writers
+21st-century Russian male writers
+Chess grandmasters
+Chess Olympiad competitors
+Communist Party of the Soviet Union members
+Sixth convocation members of the State Duma (Russian Federation)
+Seventh convocation members of the State Duma (Russian Federation)
+Eighth convocation members of the State Duma (Russian Federation)
+Honorary Members of the Russian Academy of Arts
+Honoured Masters of Sport of the USSR
+Living people
+Members of the Civic Chamber of the Russian Federation
+People from Zlatoust
+Recipients of the Order "For Merit to the Fatherland", 2nd class
+Recipients of the Order "For Merit to the Fatherland", 3rd class
+Recipients of the Order of Holy Prince Daniel of Moscow
+Recipients of the Order of Lenin
+Recipients of the Order of Merit (Ukraine), 2nd class
+Recipients of the Order of Merit (Ukraine), 3rd class
+Recipients of the Order of the Red Banner of Labour
+Russian book and manuscript collectors
+Russian individuals subject to United Kingdom sanctions
+Russian chess players
+Russian chess writers
+Russian male journalists
+Russian male writers
+Russian philatelists
+Russian sportsperson-politicians
+Saint Petersburg State University alumni
+Soviet chess players
+Soviet chess writers
+Soviet journalists
+Soviet male writers
+UNICEF Goodwill Ambassadors
+World chess champions
+World Junior Chess Champions
+The aspect ratio of a geometric shape is the ratio of its sizes in different dimensions. For example, the aspect ratio of a rectangle is the ratio of its longer side to its shorter side—the ratio of width to height, when the rectangle is oriented as a "landscape".
+
+The aspect ratio is most often expressed as two integer numbers separated by a colon (x:y), less commonly as a simple or decimal fraction. The values x and y do not represent actual widths and heights but, rather, the proportion between width and height. As an example, 8:5, 16:10, 1.6:1,  and 1.6 are all ways of representing the same aspect ratio.
+
+In objects of more than two dimensions, such as hyperrectangles, the aspect ratio can still be defined as the ratio of the longest side to the shortest side.
+
+Applications and uses
+The term is most commonly used with reference to:
+ Graphic / image
+ Image aspect ratio
+ Display aspect ratio
+ Paper size
+ Standard photographic print sizes
+ Motion picture film formats
+ Standard ad size
+ Pixel aspect ratio
+ Photolithography: the aspect ratio of an etched, or deposited structure is the ratio of the height of its vertical side wall to its width.
+ HARMST High Aspect Ratios allow the construction of tall microstructures without slant
+ Tire code
+ Tire sizing
+ Turbocharger impeller sizing
+ Wing aspect ratio of an aircraft or bird
+ Astigmatism of an optical lens
+ Nanorod dimensions
+ Shape factor (image analysis and microscopy)
+ Finite Element Analysis
+
+Aspect ratios of simple shapes
+
+Rectangles
+
+For a rectangle, the aspect ratio denotes the ratio of the width to the height of the rectangle. A square has the smallest possible aspect ratio of 1:1.
+
+Examples:
+ 4:3 = 1.: Some (not all) 20th century computer monitors (VGA, XGA, etc.), standard-definition television
+ : international paper sizes (ISO 216)
+ 3:2 = 1.5: 35mm still camera film, iPhone (until iPhone 5) displays
+ 16:10 = 1.6: commonly used widescreen computer displays (WXGA)
+ Φ:1 = 1.618...: golden ratio, close to 16:10
+ 5:3 = 1.: super 16 mm,  a standard film gauge in many European countries
+ 16:9 = 1.: widescreen TV and most laptops
+ 2:1 = 2: dominoes
+ 64:27 = 2.: ultra-widescreen, 21:9
+ 32:9 = 3.: super ultra-widescreen
+
+Ellipses
+For an ellipse, the aspect ratio denotes the ratio of the major axis to the minor axis. An ellipse with an aspect ratio of 1:1 is a circle.
+
+Aspect ratios of general shapes
+In geometry, there are several alternative definitions to aspect ratios of general compact sets in a d-dimensional space:
+ The diameter-width aspect ratio (DWAR) of a compact set is the ratio of its diameter to its width. A circle has the minimal DWAR which is 1. A square has a DWAR of .
+ The cube-volume aspect ratio (CVAR) of a compact set is the d-th root of the ratio of the d-volume of the smallest enclosing axes-parallel d-cube, to the set's own d-volume. A square has the minimal CVAR which is 1. A circle has a CVAR of . An axis-parallel rectangle of width W and height H, where W>H, has a CVAR of .
+
+If the dimension d is fixed, then all reasonable definitions of aspect ratio are equivalent to within constant factors.
+
+Notations
+Aspect ratios are mathematically expressed as x:y (pronounced "x-to-y").
+
+Cinematographic aspect ratios are usually denoted as a (rounded) decimal multiple of width vs unit height, while photographic and videographic aspect ratios are usually defined and denoted by whole number ratios of width to height. In digital images there is a subtle distinction between the display aspect ratio (the image as displayed) and the storage aspect ratio (the ratio of pixel dimensions); see Distinctions.
+
+See also
+ Axial ratio
+ Ratio
+ Equidimensional ratios in 3D
+ List of film formats
+ Squeeze mapping
+ Scale (ratio)
+ Vertical orientation
+
+References
+
+Ratios
+Auto racing (also known as car racing, motor racing, or automobile racing) is a motorsport involving the racing of automobiles for competition.
+
+Auto racing has existed since the invention of the automobile. Races of various sorts were organised, with the first recorded as early as 1867. Many of the earliest events were effectively reliability trials, aimed at proving these new machines were a practical mode of transport, but soon became an important way for automobile makers to demonstrate their machines. By the 1930s, specialist racing cars had developed.
+
+There are now numerous different categories, each with different rules and regulations.
+
+History
+
+The first prearranged match race of two self-powered road vehicles over a prescribed route occurred at 4:30 A.M. on August 30, 1867, between Ashton-under-Lyne and Old Trafford, England, a distance of . It was won by the carriage of Isaac Watt Boulton.
+
+Internal combustion auto racing events began soon after the construction of the first successful gasoline-fueled automobiles. The first organized contest was on April 28, 1887, by the chief editor of Paris publication , Monsieur Fossier. It ran  from Neuilly Bridge to the Bois de Boulogne.
+
+On July 22, 1894, the Parisian magazine  organized what is considered to be the world's first motoring competition, from Paris to Rouen. One hundred and two competitors paid a 10-franc entrance fee.
+
+The first American automobile race is generally held to be the Thanksgiving Day Chicago Times-Herald race of November 28, 1895. Press coverage of the event first aroused significant American interest in the automobile.
+
+The Targa Florio was an open road endurance automobile race held in the mountains of Sicily, Italy near the island's capital of Palermo. Founded in 1906, it was the oldest sports car racing event, part of the World Sportscar Championship between 1955 and 1973.
+
+The oldest surviving sports car racing event is the 24 Hours of Le Mans, begun in 1923. It is run by the Automobile Club of the West (ACO). Team Ferrari won the race in 2023. 
+
+With auto construction and racing dominated by France, the French automobile club ACF staged a number of major international races, usually from or to Paris, connecting with another major city, in France or elsewhere in Europe.
+
+Aspendale Racecourse, in Australia, was the world's first purpose-built motor racing circuit, opening in January 1906. The pear-shaped track was close to a mile in length, with slightly banked curves and a gravel surface of crushed cement.
+
+Brooklands, in Surrey, England, was the first purpose-built 'banked' motor racing venue, opening in June 1907. It featured a  concrete track with high-speed banked corners.
+
+One of the oldest existing purpose-built automobile racing circuits in the United States, still in use, is the  Indianapolis Motor Speedway in Speedway, Indiana. It is the largest capacity sports venue of any variety worldwide, with a top capacity of some 257,000+ seated spectators.
+
+NASCAR was founded by Bill France Sr. on February 21, 1948, with the help of several other drivers of the time. The first NASCAR "Strictly Stock" race ever was held on June 19, 1949, at Daytona Beach, Florida, U.S..
+
+From 1962, sports cars temporarily took a back seat to GT cars, with the  (FIA) replacing the World Championship for Sports Cars with the International Championship for GT Manufacturers.
+
+From 1962 through 2003, NASCAR's premier series was called the Winston Cup Series, sponsored by R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Company cigarette brand Winston. The changes that resulted from RJR's involvement, as well as the reduction of the schedule from 56 to 34 races a year, established 1972 as the beginning of NASCAR's "modern era".
+
+The IMSA GT Series evolved into the American Le Mans Series, which ran its first season in 1998. The European races eventually became the closely related European Le Mans Series, both of which mix prototypes and GTs.
+
+ (TC) is a popular touring car racing series in Argentina, and one of the oldest car racing series still active in the world. The first TC competition took place in 1931 with 12 races, each in a different province. Future Formula One star Juan Manuel Fangio (Chevrolet) won the 1940 and 1941 editions of the TC. It was during this time that the series' Chevrolet-Ford rivalry began, with Ford acquiring most of its historical victories.
+
+Over the last few years, auto racing has seen a transformative shift, echoing past pivots. The industry, much like the cars it champions, has had to navigate through the hairpin turns of a global pandemic and a persistent chip shortage, each threatening to derail production schedules. At the same time, a new course is being charted towards an electric future, a dramatic change in direction that's challenging the old guard of gasoline engines. There is also a growing number of events for electric racing cars, such as the Formula E,the Eco Grand Prix or the Electric GT Championship.
+
+Categories
+
+Open-wheel racing
+
+In single-seater (open-wheel) racing, the wheels are not covered, and the cars often have aerofoil wings front and rear to produce downforce and enhance adhesion to the track. The two most popular varieties of open-wheel road racing are Formula One and the IndyCar Series. In Europe and Asia, open-wheeled racing is commonly referred to as 'Formula', with appropriate hierarchical suffixes. In North America, the 'Formula' terminology is not followed (with the exception of F1). The sport is usually arranged to follow an international format (such as F1), a regional format (such as the Formula 3 Euro Series), and/or a domestic, or country-specific, format (such as the German Formula 3 championship, or the British Formula Ford).
+
+F1 is a worldwide series that runs only street circuit and race tracks. These cars are heavily based on technology and their aerodynamics. The speed record was set in 2005 by Juan Pablo Montoya hitting 373 km/h (232 mph). Some of the most prominent races are the Monaco Grand Prix, the Italian Grand Prix, and the British Grand Prix. The season ends with the crowning of the World Championship for drivers and constructors.
+
+In the United States, the most popular series is the IndyCar Series. The cars have traditionally been similar to, though less technologically sophisticated than, F1 cars, with more restrictions on technology aimed at controlling costs. While these cars are not as technologically advanced, they are faster, mainly because they compete on oval race tracks, being able to average a lap at 388 km/h (241 mph). The series' biggest race is the Indianapolis 500, which is commonly referred to as "The Greatest Spectacle in Racing" due to being the longest continuously run race and having the largest crowd for a single-day sporting event (350,000+).
+
+The other major international single-seater racing series is Formula 2 (formerly known as Formula 3000 and GP2 Series). Regional series include Super Formula and Formula V6 Asia (specifically in Asia), Formula Renault 3.5 (also known as the World Series by Renault, succession series of World Series by Nissan), Formula Three, Formula Palmer Audi and Formula Atlantic. In 2009, the FIA Formula Two Championship brought about the revival of the F2 series. Domestic, or country-specific, series include Formula Three and Formula Renault, with the leading introductory series being Formula Ford.
+
+Single-seater racing is not limited merely to professional teams and drivers. There exist many amateur racing clubs. In the UK, the major club series are the Monoposto Racing Club, BRSCC F3 (Formerly ClubF3, formerly ARP F3), Formula Vee and Club Formula Ford. Each series caters to a section of the market, with some primarily providing low-cost racing, while others aim for an authentic experience using the same regulations as the professional series (BRSCC F3).
+
+There are other categories of single-seater racing, including kart racing, which employs a small, low-cost machine on small tracks. Many of the current top drivers began their careers in karts. Formula Ford represents the most popular first open-wheel category for up-and-coming drivers stepping up from karts. The series is still the preferred option, as it has introduced an aero package and slicks, allowing the junior drivers to gain experience in a race car with dynamics closer to F1. The Star Mazda Series is another entry-level series.
+
+Students at colleges and universities can also take part in single-seater racing through the Formula SAE competition, which involves designing and building a single-seater car in a multidisciplinary team and racing it at the competition. This also develops other soft skills, such as teamwork, while promoting motorsport and engineering.
+
+The world's first all-female Formula racing team was created in 2006. The group was an assemblage of drivers from different racing disciplines and formed for an MTV reality pilot, which was shot at Mazda Raceway Laguna Seca.
+
+In December 2005, the FIA gave approval to Superleague Formula racing, which debuted in 2008, whereby the racing teams are owned and run by prominent sports clubs such as A.C. Milan and Liverpool F.C.
+
+After 25 years away from the sport, former Formula 2 champion Jonathan Palmer reopened the F2 category again; most drivers have graduated from the Formula Palmer Audi series. The category is officially registered as the FIA Formula Two championship. Most rounds have two races and are support races to the FIA World Touring Car Championship.
+
+Touring car racing
+
+Touring car racing is a style of road racing that is run with production-derived four-seat race cars. The lesser use of aerodynamics means following cars have a much easier time passing than in open-wheel racing. It often features full-contact racing with subtle bumping and nudging due to the small speed differentials and large grids.
+
+The major touring car championships conducted worldwide are the Supercars Championship (Australia), British Touring Car Championship, Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters (DTM), World Touring Car Championship and the World Touring Car Cup. The European Touring Car Cup is a one-day event open to Super 2000 specification touring cars from Europe's many national championships.
+
+The Sports Car Club of America's SPEED World Challenge Touring Car and GT championships are dominant in North America. America's historic Trans-Am Series is undergoing a period of transition, but is still the longest-running road racing series in the U.S. The National Auto Sport Association also provides a venue for amateurs to compete in home-built factory-derived vehicles on various local circuits.
+
+Sports car racing
+
+In sports car racing, production-derived versions of two-seat sports cars, also known as grand tourers (GTs), and purpose-built sports prototype cars compete within their respective classes on closed circuits. The premier championship series of sports car racing is the FIA World Endurance Championship. The main series for GT car racing is the GT World Challenge Europe, divided into two separate championships: the GT World Challenge Europe Sprint Cup and the GT World Challenge Europe Endurance Cup. This series has formed after the folding of the various FIA GT championships.
+
+Other major GT championships include the GT World Challenge America, GT World Challenge Asia, Super GT, and the International GT Open. There are minor regional and national GT series using mainly GT4 and GT3 cars featuring both amateur and professional drivers.
+
+Sports prototypes, unlike GT cars, do not rely on road-legal cars as a base. They are closed-wheel and often closed-cockpit purpose-built race cars intended mainly for endurance racing. They have much lower weight and more downforce compared to GT cars, making them much faster. They are raced in the 24 hours of Le Mans (held annually since 1923) and in the (European) Le Mans series, Asian Le Mans Series and the WeatherTech SportsCar Championship. These cars are referred to as LMP (Le Mans prototype) cars with LMP1 being run mainly by manufacturers and the slightly less powerful LMP2 cars run by privateer teams. All three Le Mans Series run GT cars in addition to Le Mans Prototypes; these cars have different restrictions than the FIA GT cars.
+
+Another prototype and GT racing championship exists in the United States; the Grand-Am, which began in 2000, sanctions its own endurance series, the Rolex Sports Car Series, which consists of slower and lower-cost race cars compared to LMP and FIA GT cars. The Rolex Sports Car Series and American Le Mans Series announced a merger between the two series forming the WeatherTech SportsCar Championship starting in 2014.
+
+These races are often conducted over long distances, at least , and cars are driven by teams of two or more drivers, switching every few hours. Due to the performance difference between production-based sports cars and purpose-built sports prototypes, one race usually involves several racing classes, each fighting for its own championship.
+
+Famous sports car races include the 24 Hours of Le Mans, the Rolex 24 at Daytona, 24 Hours of Spa-Franchorchamps, the 12 Hours of Sebring, the 6 Hours of Watkins Glen, and the  Petit Le Mans at Road Atlanta. There is also the 24 Hours of the Nürburgring on the infamous Nordschleife track and the Dubai 24 Hour, which is aimed at GT3 and below cars with a mixture of professional and pro-am drivers.
+
+Production-car racing
+
+Production-car racing, otherwise known as "showroom stock" in the US, is an economical and rules-restricted version of touring-car racing, mainly used to restrict costs. Numerous production racing categories are based on particular makes of cars.
+
+Most series, with a few exceptions, follow the Group N regulation. There are several different series that are run all over the world, most notably, Japan's Super Taikyu and IMSA's Firehawk Series, which ran in the 1980s and 1990s all over the United States.
+
+Stock car racing
+
+In North America, stock car racing is the most popular form of auto racing. Primarily raced on oval tracks, stock cars vaguely resemble production cars, but are in fact purpose-built racing machines that are built to tight specifications and, together with touring cars, also called Silhouette racing cars.
+
+The largest stock car racing governing body is NASCAR (National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing). NASCAR's premier series is the NASCAR Cup Series, its most famous races being the Daytona 500, the Southern 500, the Coca-Cola 600, and the Brickyard 400. NASCAR also runs several feeder series, including the Xfinity Series and Gander RV & Outdoors Truck Series (a pickup truck racing series). The series conduct races across the entire continental United States. The NASCAR Pinty's Series conducts races across Canada and the NASCAR PEAK Mexico Series conducts races across Mexico.
+
+NASCAR also governs several smaller regional series, such as the Whelen Modified Tour. Modified cars are best described as open-wheel cars. Modified cars have no parts related to the stock vehicle for which they are named after. A number of modified cars display a "manufacturer's" logo and "vehicle name", yet use components produced by another automobile manufacturer.
+
+There are also other stock car governing bodies, most notably the Automobile Racing Club of America (ARCA).
+
+In the UK, British Stock car racing is also referred to as "Short Circuit Racing". UK Stock car racing started in the 1950s and grew rapidly through the 1960s and 1970s. Events take place on shale or tarmac tracks – usually around 1/4 mile long. There are around 35 tracks in the UK and upwards of 7000 active drivers. The sport is split into three basic divisions – distinguished by the rules regarding car contact during racing. The most famous championship are the BriSCA F1 Stock Cars. 
+
+Full-contact formulas include Bangers, Bombers, and Rookie Bangers – and racing features Demolition Derbies, Figure of Eight, and Oval Racing.
+
+Semi Contact Formulas include BriSCA F1, F2, and Superstox – where bumpers are used tactically.
+
+Non-contact formulas include National Hot Rods, Stock Rods, and Lightning Rods.
+
+One-make racing
+
+One-make, or single marque, championships often employ production-based cars from a single manufacturer or even a single model from a manufacturer's range. There are numerous notable one-make formulae from various countries and regions, some of which – such as the Porsche Supercup and, previously, IROC – have fostered many distinct national championships. Single marque series are often found at the club level, to which the production-based cars, limited modifications, and close parity in performance are very well suited. Some of the better-known single-make series are the Mini 7 Championship (Europe's longest-running one-make championship), the Radical European Masters, John Cooper Mini Challenge, Clio Cup, Ginettas, Caterhams, BMWs, and MX5s. There are also single-chassis single seater formulae, such as Formula Renault and Formula BMW, usually as "feeder" series for "senior" race formula (in the fashion of farm teams).
+
+Drag racing
+
+In drag racing, the objective is to complete a given straight-line distance, from a standing start, ahead of a vehicle in a parallel lane. This distance is traditionally , though  has become popular since the 1990s. The vehicles may or may not be given the signal to start at the same time, depending on the class of racing. Vehicles range from the everyday car to the purpose-built dragster. Speeds and elapsed time differ from class to class. Average street cars cover the  mile in 12 to 16 seconds, whereas a top fuel dragster takes 4.5 seconds or less, reaching speeds of up to . Drag racing was organized as a sport by Wally Parks in the early 1950s through the National Hot Rod Association (NHRA). The NHRA was formed to discourage street racing.
+
+When launching, a top fuel dragster will accelerate at 3.4 g (33 m/s2), and when braking parachutes are deployed the deceleration is 4 g (39 m/s2), more than the Space Shuttle experiences. A top fuel car can be heard over  away and can generate a reading from 1.5 to 3.9 on the Richter scale.
+
+Drag racing is two cars head-to-head, the winner proceeding to the next round. Professional classes are all first to the finish line wins. Sportsman racing is handicapped (slower car getting a head start) using an index (a lowest e.t. allowed), and cars running under (quicker than) their index "break out" and lose. The slowest cars, bracket racers, are also handicapped, but rather than an index, they use a dial-in.
+
+Off-road racing
+
+In off-road racing, various classes of specially modified vehicles, including cars, compete in races through off-road environments. In North America these races often take place in the desert, such as the famous Baja 1000. Another format for off-road racing happens on closed-course short course tracks such as Crandon International Off-Road Raceway. In the 1980s and 1990s, the short course was extended to racing inside stadiums in the Mickey Thompson Entertainment Group; this format was revived by Robby Gordon in 2013 with his Stadium Super Trucks series.
+
+In Europe, "offroad" refers to events such as autocross or rallycross, while desert races and rally-raids such as the Paris-Dakar, Master Rallye or European "bajas" are called "cross-country rallies".
+
+Kart racing
+
+The modern kart was invented by Art Ingels, a fabricator at the Indianapolis-car manufacturer Kurtis-Kraft, in Southern California in 1956. Ingels took a small chainsaw engine and mounted it to a simple tube-frame chassis weighing less than 100 lb. Ingels, and everyone else who drove the kart, were startled at its performance capabilities. The sport soon blossomed in Southern California, and quickly spread around the world. Although often seen as the entry point for serious racers into the sport, kart racing, or karting, can be an economical way for amateurs to try racing and is also a fully-fledged international sport in its own right. A large proportion of professional racing drivers began in karts, often from a very young age, such as Michael Schumacher and Fernando Alonso. Several former motorcycle champions have also taken up the sport, notably Wayne Rainey, who was paralysed in a racing accident and now races a hand-controlled kart. As one of the cheapest ways to race, karting is seeing its popularity grow worldwide.
+
+Despite their diminutive size, karts of the most powerful class, superkart (assuming a weight of 205 kg (452 lb), and a power output of 100 hp (75 kW)), can have a power-to-weight ratio (including the driver) of 490 hp/tonne (0.22 hp/lb). Without the driver, this figure doubles, to almost 980 hp/tonne (0.44 hp/lb).
+
+Historical racing
+
+Historic motorsport or vintage motorsport uses vehicles limited to a particular era. Only safety precautions are modernized in these hobbyist races. A historical event can be of various types of motorsport disciplines, from road racing to rallying. Because it is based on a particular era it is more hobbyist-oriented, reducing corporate sponsorship. The only modern equipment used is related to safety and timing. A historical event can be of a number of different motorsport disciplines.
+
+Some of the most famous events include the Goodwood Festival of Speed and Goodwood Revival in Britain and Monterey Historic in the United States. Championships range from "grass root" Austin Seven racing to the FIA Thoroughbred Grand Prix Championship for classic Formula One chassis. While there are several professional teams and drivers in historical racing, this branch of auto sport tends to be contested by wealthy car owners and is thus more amateur and less competitive in its approach.
+
+Other categories
+
+Use of flags
+
+In many types of auto races, particularly those held on closed courses, flags are displayed to indicate the general status of the track and to communicate instructions to competitors. While individual series have different rules, and the flags have changed from the first years (e.g., red used to start a race), these are generally accepted.
+
+Accidents
+
+The worst accident in racing history is the 1955 Le Mans disaster, where more than 80 people died, including the French driver Pierre Levegh.
+
+Racing-car setup
+
+In auto racing, the racing setup or car setup is the set of adjustments made to the vehicle to optimize its behaviour (performance, handling, reliability, etc.). Adjustments can occur in suspensions, brakes, transmissions, engines, tires, and many others.
+
+Aerodynamics
+Aerodynamics and airflow play big roles in the setup of a race car. Aerodynamic downforce improves the race car's handling by lowering the center of gravity and distributing the weight of the car equally on each tire. Once this is achieved, fuel consumption decreases and the forces against the car are significantly lowered. Many aerodynamic experiments are conducted in wind tunnels, to simulate real-life situations while measuring the various drag forces on the car. These "Rolling roads" produce many wind situations and direct air flow at certain speeds and angles. When a diffuser is installed under the car, the amount of drag force is significantly lowered, and the overall aerodynamics of the vehicle is positively adjusted. Wings and canards channel the airflow in the most efficient way to get the least amount of drag from the car. It is experimentally proven that downforce is gained and the vehicle's handling is considerably changed when aerodynamic wings on the front and rear of the vehicle are installed.
+
+Suspension
+Suspension plays a huge part in giving the race car the ability to be driven optimally. Shocks are mounted vertically or horizontally to prevent the body from rolling in the corners. The suspension is important because it makes the car stable and easier to control and keeps the tires on the road when driving on uneven terrain. It works in three different ways including vertically, longitudinally, and laterally to control movement when racing on various tracks.
+
+Tyres
+Tyres called R-Compounds are commonly used in motorsports for high amounts of traction. The soft rubber allows them to expand when they are heated up, making more surface area on the pavement, therefore producing the most traction. These types of tyres do not have grooves on them. Tyre pressure is dependent on the temperature of the tyre and track when racing. Each time a driver pulls into the pits, the tyre pressure and temperature should be tested for optimal performance. When the tyres get too hot they will swell or inflate and need to be deflated to the correct pressure. When the tyres are not warmed up they will not perform as well.
+
+Brakes
+Brakes on a race car are imperative in slowing and stopping the car at precise times and wear quickly depending on the road or track on which the car is being raced, how many laps are being run, track conditions due to weather, and how many caution runs require more braking. There are three variables to consider in racing: brake pedal displacement, brake pedal force, and vehicle deceleration. Various combinations of these variables work together to determine the stiffness, sensitivity, and pedal force of the brakes. When using the brakes effectively, the driver must go through a buildup phase and end with a modulating phase. These phases include attaining maximum deceleration and modulating the brake pressure. Brake performance is measured in bite and consistency. Bite happens when the driver first applies the brakes and they have not warmed up to the correct temperature to operate efficiently. Consistency is measured in how consistent the friction is during the entire time of braking. These two measurements determine the wear of the brakes.
+
+Engine
+The race car's engine needs a considerable amount of air to produce maximum power. The air intake manifold sucks the air from scoops on the hood and front bumper and feeds it into the engine. Many engine modifications to increase horsepower and efficiency are commonly used in many racing-sanctioning bodies. Engines are tuned on a machine called a dynamometer, which is commonly known in the racing world as a DYNO. The car is driven onto the DYNO and many gauges and sensors are hooked up to the car that are controlled by an online program to test force, torque, or power. Through the testing, the car's engine maps can be changed to get the most horsepower and ultimately speed out of the vehicle.
+
+Racing drivers
+
+Racing drivers, at the highest levels, are usually paid by the team, or by sponsors, and can command very substantial salaries.
+
+Contrary to what may be popularly assumed, racing drivers as a group do not have unusually better reflexes or peripheral response time. During repeated physiological (and psychological) evaluations of professional racing drivers, the two characteristics that stand out are racers' near-obsessive need to control their surroundings (the psychological aspect), and an unusual ability to process fast-moving information (physiological). In this, researchers have noted a strong correlation between racers' psychological profiles and those of fighter pilots. In tests comparing racers to members of the general public, the greater the complexity of the information processing matrix, the greater the speed gap between racers and the public.
+
+Due partly to the performance capabilities of modern racing cars, racing drivers require a high level of fitness, focus, and the ability to concentrate at high levels for long periods in an inherently difficult environment. Racing drivers mainly complain about pains in the lumbar, shoulder, and neck regions.
+
+Racing drivers experience extremely large g-forces because formula cars and sports prototypes generate more downforce and are able to corner at significantly higher speeds. Formula 1 drivers routinely experience g-loadings in excess of 4.5 g.
+
+See also
+
+ Outline of auto racing
+ List of auto racing tracks
+ Motorcycle racing
+ Race track
+ List of auto racing films
+ Racing video game
+
+References
+
+External links
+ 
+
+ Sanctioning bodies
+ Motorsports UK Association 
+ American Le Mans Series (ALMS)
+ Indy Racing League (IRL)
+ Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA)
+ Grand American Road Racing Association
+ International Conference of Sports Car Clubs (ICSCC)
+ International Hot Rod Association (IHRA)
+ International Motor Sports Association (IMSA)
+ National Auto Sport Association
+ National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing (NASCAR)
+ National Hot Rod Association (NHRA)
+ No Prep Racing
+ SCORE International Off-Road Racing
+ Sports Car Club of America (SCCA)
+ United States Auto Club (USAC)
+ Formula One (F1)
+ Confederation of Australian Motorsport (CAMS)
+ Best In The Desert Off-Road Racing
+Anarcho-capitalism (colloquially: ancap or '"an-cap"') is an anti-statist, libertarian political philosophy and economic theory that seeks to abolish centralized states in favor of stateless societies with systems of private property enforced by private agencies, the non-aggression principle, free markets and self-ownership, which extends the concept to include control of private property as part of the self. In the absence of statute, anarcho-capitalists hold that society tends to contractually self-regulate and civilize through participation in the free market, which they describe as a voluntary society involving the voluntary exchange of goods and services. In a theoretical anarcho-capitalist society, the system of private property would still exist and be enforced by private defense agencies and/or insurance companies selected by customers, which would operate competitively in a market and fulfill the roles of courts and the police.
+
+According to its proponents, various historical theorists have espoused philosophies similar to anarcho-capitalism. While the earliest extant attestation of "anarchocapitalism [sic]" is in Karl Hess's essay "The Death of Politics" published by Playboy in March 1969, the person credited with coining the terms anarcho-capitalism and anarcho-capitalist is Murray Rothbard. Rothbard, a leading figure in the 20th-century American libertarian movement, synthesized elements from the Austrian School, classical liberalism and 19th-century American individualist anarchists and mutualists Lysander Spooner and Benjamin Tucker, while rejecting the labor theory of value. Rothbard's anarcho-capitalist society would operate under a mutually agreed-upon "legal code which would be generally accepted, and which the courts would pledge themselves to follow". This legal code would recognize contracts between individuals, private property, self-ownership and tort law in keeping with the non-aggression principle. Rothbard views the power of the state as unjustified, arguing that it restricts individual rights and prosperity, and creates social and economic problems.
+
+Anarcho-capitalists and right-libertarians cite several historical precedents of what they believe to be examples of quasi-anarcho-capitalism, including the Republic of Cospaia, Acadia, Anglo-Saxon England, Medieval Iceland, the American Old West, Gaelic Ireland, and merchant law, admiralty law, and early common law.
+
+Anarcho-capitalism is distinguished from minarchism, which advocates a night-watchman state limited to protecting individuals from aggression and enforcing private property. Unlike most anarchists, anarcho-capitalists support private property and private institutions.
+
+Classification 
+
+Anarcho-capitalism developed from radical American anti-state libertarianism and individualist anarchism. A strong current within anarchism does not consider anarcho-capitalism to be part of the anarchist movement because they argue that anarchism has historically been an anti-capitalist movement and for definitional reasons which see anarchism as incompatible with capitalist forms. According to several scholars, Anarcho-capitalism lies outside the tradition of the vast majority of anarchist schools of thought and is more closely affiliated with capitalism, right-libertarianism and neoliberalism. Social anarchists oppose and reject capitalism, and consider "anarcho-capitalism" to be a contradiction in terms, although some, including anarcho-capitalists and right-libertarians, consider anarcho-capitalism to be a form of anarchism.
+
+According to the Encyclopædia Britannica:Anarcho-capitalism is occasionally seen as part of the New Right.
+
+Philosophy 
+
+Author J Michael Oliver says that during the 1960s, a philosophical movement arose in the United States that championed "reason, ethical egoism, and free-market capitalism". According to Oliver, anarcho-capitalism is a political theory which logically follows the philosophical conclusions of Objectivism, a philosophical system developed by Russian-American writer Ayn Rand, but Oliver acknowledges that his advocacy of anarcho-capitalism is "quite at odds with Rand's ardent defense of 'limited government. Professor Lisa Duggan also says that Rand's anti-statist, pro–"free market" stances went on to shape the politics of anarcho-capitalism.
+
+According to Patrik Schumacher, the political ideology and programme of Anarcho-capitalism envisages the radicalization of the neoliberal "rollback of the state", and calls for the extension of "entrepreneurial freedom" and "competitive market rationality" to the point where the scope for private enterprise is all-encompassing and "leaves no space for state action whatsoever".
+
+On the state 
+Anarcho-capitalists oppose the state and seek to privatize any useful service the government presently provides, such as education, infrastructure, or the enforcement of law. They see capitalism and the "free market" as the basis for a free and prosperous society. Murray Rothbard stated that the difference between free-market capitalism and state capitalism is the difference between "peaceful, voluntary exchange" and a "collusive partnership" between business and government that "uses coercion to subvert the free market". Rothbard argued that all government services, including defense, are inefficient because they lack a market-based pricing mechanism regulated by "the voluntary decisions of consumers purchasing services that fulfill their highest-priority needs" and by investors seeking the most profitable enterprises to invest in.
+
+Maverick Edwards of the Liberty University describes anarcho-capitalism as a political, social, and economic theory that places markets as the central "governing body" and where government no longer "grants" rights to its citizenry.
+
+Non-aggression principle 
+
+Writer Stanisław Wójtowicz says that although anarcho-capitalists are against centralized states, they hold that all people would naturally share and agree to a specific moral theory based on the non-aggression principle. While the Friedmanian formulation of anarcho-capitalism is robust to the presence of violence and in fact, assumes some degree of violence will occur, anarcho-capitalism as formulated by Rothbard and others holds strongly to the central libertarian nonaggression axiom, sometimes non-aggression principle. Rothbard wrote:
+
+Rothbard's defense of the self-ownership principle stems from what he believed to be his falsification of all other alternatives, namely that either a group of people can own another group of people, or that no single person has full ownership over one's self. Rothbard dismisses these two cases on the basis that they cannot result in a universal ethic, i.e. a just natural law that can govern all people, independent of place and time. The only alternative that remains to Rothbard is self-ownership which he believes is both axiomatic and universal.
+
+In general, the non-aggression axiom is described by Rothbard as a prohibition against the initiation of force, or the threat of force, against persons (in which he includes direct violence, assault and murder) or property (in which he includes fraud, burglary, theft and taxation). The initiation of force is usually referred to as aggression or coercion. The difference between anarcho-capitalists and other libertarians is largely one of the degree to which they take this axiom. Minarchist libertarians such as libertarian political parties would retain the state in some smaller and less invasive form, retaining at the very least public police, courts, and military. However, others might give further allowance for other government programs. In contrast, Rothbard rejects any level of "state intervention", defining the state as a coercive monopoly and as the only entity in human society, excluding acknowledged criminals, that derives its income entirely from coercion, in the form of taxation, which Rothbard describes as "compulsory seizure of the property of the State's inhabitants, or subjects."
+
+Some anarcho-capitalists such as Rothbard accept the non-aggression axiom on an intrinsic moral or natural law basis. It is in terms of the non-aggression principle that Rothbard defined his interpretation of anarchism, "a system which provides no legal sanction for such aggression ['against person and property']"; and wrote that "what anarchism proposes to do, then, is to abolish the State, i.e. to abolish the regularized institution of aggressive coercion". In an interview published in the American libertarian journal The New Banner, Rothbard stated that "capitalism is the fullest expression of anarchism, and anarchism is the fullest expression of capitalism".
+
+Property
+
+Private property 
+Anarcho-capitalists postulate the privatization of everything, including cities with all their infrastructures, public spaces, streets and urban management systems.
+
+Central to Rothbardian anarcho-capitalism are the concepts of self-ownership and original appropriation that combines personal and private property. Hans-Hermann Hoppe wrote:
+
+Rothbard however rejected the Lockean proviso, and followed the rule of "first come, first served", without any consideration of how much resources are left for other individuals.
+
+Anarcho-capitalists advocate private ownership of the means of production and the allocation of the product of labor created by workers within the context of wage labour and the free market – that is through decisions made by property and capital owners, regardless of what an individual needs or does not need. Original appropriation allows an individual to claim any never-before-used resources, including land and by improving or otherwise using it, own it with the same "absolute right" as their own body, and retaining those rights forever, regardless of whether the resource is still being used by them. According to Rothbard, property can only come about through labor, therefore original appropriation of land is not legitimate by merely claiming it or building a fence around it—it is only by using land and by mixing one's labor with it that original appropriation is legitimized: "Any attempt to claim a new resource that someone does not use would have to be considered invasive of the property right of whoever the first user will turn out to be". Rothbard argued that the resource need not continue to be used in order for it to be the person's property as "for once his labor is mixed with the natural resource, it remains his owned land. His labor has been irretrievably mixed with the land, and the land is therefore his or his assigns' in perpetuity".
+
+Rothbard also spoke about a theory of justice in property rights:
+
+In Justice and Property Rights, Rothbard wrote that "any identifiable owner (the original victim of theft or his heir) must be accorded his property". In the case of slavery, Rothbard claimed that in many cases "the old plantations and the heirs and descendants of the former slaves can be identified, and the reparations can become highly specific indeed". Rothbard believed slaves rightfully own any land they were forced to work on under the homestead principle. If property is held by the state, Rothbard advocated its confiscation and "return to the private sector", writing that "any property in the hands of the State is in the hands of thieves, and should be liberated as quickly as possible". Rothbard proposed that state universities be seized by the students and faculty under the homestead principle. Rothbard also supported the expropriation of nominally "private property" if it is the result of state-initiated force such as businesses that receive grants and subsidies. Rothbard further proposed that businesses who receive at least 50% of their funding from the state be confiscated by the workers, writing: "What we libertarians object to, then, is not government per se but crime, what we object to is unjust or criminal property titles; what we are for is not 'private' property per se but just, innocent, non-criminal private property".
+
+Similarly, Karl Hess wrote that "libertarianism wants to advance principles of property but that it in no way wishes to defend, willy nilly, all property which now is called private ... Much of that property is stolen. Much is of dubious title. All of it is deeply intertwined with an immoral, coercive state system".
+
+By accepting an axiomatic definition of private property and property rights, anarcho-capitalists deny the legitimacy of a state on principle. Hans-Hermann Hoppe argues:
+
+Anarchists view capitalism as an inherently authoritarian and hierarchical system and seek the abolishment of private property. There is disagreement between anarchists and anarcho-capitalists as the former generally rejects anarcho-capitalism as a form of anarchism and considers anarcho-capitalism a contradiction in terms, while the latter holds that the abolishment of private property would require expropriation which is "counterproductive to order" and would require a state.
+
+Common property 
+As opposed to anarchists, most anarcho-capitalists reject the commons. However, some of them propose that non-state public or community property can also exist in an anarcho-capitalist society. For anarcho-capitalists, what is important is that it is "acquired" and transferred without help or hindrance from what they call the "compulsory state". Deontological anarcho-capitalists believe that the only just and most economically beneficial way to acquire property is through voluntary trade, gift, or labor-based original appropriation, rather than through aggression or fraud.
+
+Anarcho-capitalists state that there could be cases where common property may develop in a Lockean natural rights framework. Anarcho-capitalists make the example of a number of private businesses which may arise in an area, each owning the land and buildings that they use, but they argue that the paths between them become cleared and trodden incrementally through customer and commercial movement. These thoroughfares may become valuable to the community, but according to them ownership cannot be attributed to any single person and original appropriation does not apply because many contributed the labor necessary to create them. In order to prevent it from falling to the "tragedy of the commons", anarcho-capitalists suggest transitioning from common to private property, wherein an individual would make a homesteading claim based on disuse, acquire title by the assent of the community consensus, form a corporation with other involved parties, or other means.
+
+Randall G. Holcombe see challenges stemming from the idea of common property under anarcho-capitalism, such as whether an individual might claim fishing rights in the area of a major shipping lane and thereby forbid passage through it. In contrast, Hoppe's work on anarcho-capitalist theory is based on the assumption that all property is privately held, "including all streets, rivers, airports, and harbors" which forms the foundation of his views on immigration.
+
+Intellectual property 
+
+Some anarcho-capitalists strongly oppose intellectual property (i.e., trademarks, patents, copyrights). Stephan N. Kinsella argues that ownership only relates to tangible assets.
+
+Contractual society 
+The society envisioned by anarcho-capitalists has been labelled by them as a "contractual society" which Rothbard described as "a society based purely on voluntary action, entirely unhampered by violence or threats of violence" The system relies on contracts between individuals as the legal framework which would be enforced by private police and security forces as well as private arbitrations.
+
+Rothbard argues that limited liability for corporations could also exist through contract, arguing that "[c]orporations are not at all monopolistic privileges; they are free associations of individuals pooling their capital. On the purely free market, those men would simply announce to their creditors that their liability is limited to the capital specifically invested in the corporation".
+
+There are limits to the right to contract under some interpretations of anarcho-capitalism. Rothbard believes that the right to contract is based in inalienable rights and because of this any contract that implicitly violates those rights can be voided at will, preventing a person from permanently selling himself or herself into unindentured slavery. That restriction aside, the right to contract under anarcho-capitalist order would be pretty broad. For example, Rothbard went as far as to justify stork markets, arguing that a market in guardianship rights would facilitate the transfer of guardianship from abusive or neglectful parents to those more interested or suited to raising children. Other anarcho-capitalists have also suggested the legalization of organ markets, as in Iran's renal market. Other interpretations conclude that banning such contracts would in itself be an unacceptably invasive interference in the right to contract.
+
+Included in the right of contract is "the right to contract oneself out for employment by others". While anarchists criticize wage labour describing it as wage slavery, anarcho-capitalists view it as a consensual contract. Some anarcho-capitalists prefer to see self-employment prevail over wage labor. David D. Friedman has expressed a preference for a society where "almost everyone is self-employed" and "instead of corporations there are large groups of entrepreneurs related by trade, not authority. Each sells not his time, but what his time produces".
+
+Law and order and the use of violence 
+Different anarcho-capitalists propose different forms of anarcho-capitalism and one area of disagreement is in the area of law. In The Market for Liberty, Morris and Linda Tannehill object to any statutory law whatsoever. They argue that all one has to do is ask if one is aggressing against another in order to decide if an act is right or wrong. However, while also supporting a  on force and fraud, Rothbard supports the establishment of a mutually agreed-upon centralized libertarian legal code which private courts would pledge to follow, as he presumes a high degree of convergence amongst individuals about what constitutes natural justice.
+
+Unlike both the Tannehills and Rothbard who see an ideological commonality of ethics and morality as a requirement, David D. Friedman proposes that "the systems of law will be produced for profit on the open market, just as books and bras are produced today. There could be competition among different brands of law, just as there is competition among different brands of cars". Friedman says whether this would lead to a libertarian society "remains to be proven". He says it is a possibility that very un-libertarian laws may result, such as laws against drugs, but he thinks this would be rare. He reasons that "if the value of a law to its supporters is less than its cost to its victims, that law ... will not survive in an anarcho-capitalist society".
+
+Anarcho-capitalists only accept the collective defense of individual liberty (i.e. courts, military, or police forces) insofar as such groups are formed and paid for on an explicitly voluntary basis. However, their complaint is not just that the state's defensive services are funded by taxation, but that the state assumes it is the only legitimate practitioner of physical force—that is, they believe it forcibly prevents the private sector from providing comprehensive security, such as a police, judicial and prison systems to protect individuals from aggressors. Anarcho-capitalists believe that there is nothing morally superior about the state which would grant it, but not private individuals, a right to use physical force to restrain aggressors. If competition in security provision were allowed to exist, prices would also be lower and services would be better according to anarcho-capitalists. According to Molinari: "Under a regime of liberty, the natural organization of the security industry would not be different from that of other industries". Proponents believe that private systems of justice and defense already exist, naturally forming where the market is allowed to "compensate for the failure of the state", namely private arbitration, security guards, neighborhood watch groups and so on. These private courts and police are sometimes referred to generically as private defense agencies (PDAs). The defense of those unable to pay for such protection might be financed by charitable organizations relying on voluntary donation rather than by state institutions relying on taxation, or by cooperative self-help by groups of individuals. Edward Stringham argues that private adjudication of disputes could enable the market to internalize externalities and provide services that customers desire.
+
+Rothbard stated that the American Revolutionary War and the War of Southern Secession were the only two just wars in American military history. Some anarcho-capitalists such as Rothbard feel that violent revolution is counter-productive and prefer voluntary forms of economic secession to the extent possible. Retributive justice is often a component of the contracts imagined for an anarcho-capitalist society. According to Matthew O'Keefee, some anarcho-capitalists believe prisons or indentured servitude would be justifiable institutions to deal with those who violate anarcho-capitalist property relations while others believe exile or forced restitution are sufficient. Rothbard stressed the importance of restitution as the primary focus of a libertarian legal order and advocated for corporal punishment for petty vandals and the death penalty for murders. 
+
+Bruce L. Benson argues that legal codes may impose punitive damages for intentional torts in the interest of deterring crime. Benson gives the example of a thief who breaks into a house by picking a lock. Even if caught before taking anything, Benson argues that the thief would still owe the victim for violating the sanctity of his property rights. Benson opines that despite the lack of objectively measurable losses in such cases, "standardized rules that are generally perceived to be fair by members of the community would, in all likelihood, be established through precedent, allowing judgments to specify payments that are reasonably appropriate for most criminal offenses".
+
+Morris and Linda Tannehill raise a similar example, saying that a bank robber who had an attack of conscience and returned the money would still owe reparations for endangering the employees' and customers' lives and safety, in addition to the costs of the defense agency answering the teller's call for help. However, they believe that the robber's loss of reputation would be even more damaging. They suggest that specialized companies would list aggressors so that anyone wishing to do business with a man could first check his record, provided they trust the veracity of the companies' records. They further theorise that the bank robber would find insurance companies listing him as a very poor risk and other firms would be reluctant to enter into contracts with him.
+
+Influences 
+Murray Rothbard has listed different ideologies of which his interpretations, he said, have influenced anarcho-capitalism. This includes his interpretation of anarchism, and more precisely individualist anarchism; classical liberalism and the Austrian School of economic thought. Scholars additionally associate anarcho-capitalism with neo-classical liberalism, radical neoliberalism and right-libertarianism.
+
+Anarchism 
+
+In both its social and individualist forms, anarchism is usually considered an anti-capitalist and radical left-wing or far-left movement that promotes libertarian socialist economic theories such as collectivism, communism, individualism, mutualism and syndicalism. Because anarchism is usually described alongside libertarian Marxism as the libertarian wing of the socialist movement and as having a historical association with anti-capitalism and socialism, anarchists believe that capitalism is incompatible with social and economic equality and therefore do not recognize anarcho-capitalism as an anarchist school of thought. In particular, anarchists argue that capitalist transactions are not voluntary and that maintaining the class structure of a capitalist society requires coercion which is incompatible with an anarchist society. The usage of libertarian is also in dispute. While both anarchists and anarcho-capitalists have used it, libertarian was synonymous with anarchist until the mid-20th century, when anarcho-capitalist theory developed.
+
+Anarcho-capitalists are distinguished from the dominant anarchist tradition by their relation to property and capital. While both anarchism and anarcho-capitalism share general antipathy towards government authority, anarcho-capitalism favors free-market capitalism. Anarchists, including egoists such as Max Stirner, have supported the protection of an individual's freedom from powers of both government and private property owners. In contrast, while condemning governmental encroachment on personal liberties, anarcho-capitalists support freedoms based on private property rights. Anarcho-capitalist theorist Murray Rothbard argued that protesters should rent a street for protest from its owners. The abolition of public amenities is a common theme in some anarcho-capitalist writings.
+
+As anarcho-capitalism puts laissez-faire economics before economic equality, it is commonly viewed as incompatible with the anti-capitalist and egalitarian tradition of anarchism. Although anarcho-capitalist theory implies the abolition of the state in favour of a fully laissez-faire economy, it lies outside the tradition of anarchism. While using the language of anarchism, anarcho-capitalism only shares anarchism's antipathy towards the state and not anarchism's antipathy towards hierarchy as theorists expect from anarcho-capitalist economic power relations. It follows a different paradigm from anarchism and has a fundamentally different approach and goals. In spite of the anarcho- in its title, anarcho-capitalism is more closely affiliated with capitalism, right-libertarianism, and liberalism than with anarchism. Some within this laissez-faire tradition reject the designation of anarcho-capitalism, believing that capitalism may either refer to the laissez-faire market they support or the government-regulated system that they oppose.
+
+Rothbard argued that anarcho-capitalism is the only true form of anarchism—the only form of anarchism that could possibly exist in reality as he maintained that any other form presupposes authoritarian enforcement of a political ideology such as "redistribution of private property", which he attributed to anarchism. According to this argument, the capitalist free market is "the natural situation" that would result from people being free from state authority and entails the establishment of all voluntary associations in society such as cooperatives, non-profit organizations, businesses and so on. Moreover, anarcho-capitalists, as well as classical liberal minarchists, argue that the application of anarchist ideals as advocated by what they term "left-wing anarchists" would require an authoritarian body of some sort to impose it. Based on their understanding and interpretation of anarchism, in order to forcefully prevent people from accumulating capital, which they believe is a goal of anarchists, there would necessarily be a redistributive organization of some sort which would have the authority to in essence exact a tax and re-allocate the resulting resources to a larger group of people. They conclude that this theoretical body would inherently have political power and would be nothing short of a state. The difference between such an arrangement and an anarcho-capitalist system is what anarcho-capitalists see as the voluntary nature of organization within anarcho-capitalism contrasted with a "centralized ideology" and a "paired enforcement mechanism" which they believe would be necessary under what they describe as a "coercively" egalitarian-anarchist system.
+
+Rothbard also argued that the capitalist system of today is not properly anarchistic because it often colludes with the state. According to Rothbard, "what Marx and later writers have done is to lump together two extremely different and even contradictory concepts and actions under the same portmanteau term. These two contradictory concepts are what I would call 'free-market capitalism' on the one hand, and 'state capitalism' on the other". "The difference between free-market capitalism and state capitalism", writes Rothbard, "is precisely the difference between, on the one hand, peaceful, voluntary exchange, and on the other, violent expropriation". He continues: "State capitalism inevitably creates all sorts of problems which become insoluble".
+
+Traditional anarchists reject the notion of capitalism, hierarchies and private property. Albert Meltzer argued that anarcho-capitalism simply cannot be anarchism because capitalism and the state are inextricably interlinked and because capitalism exhibits domineering hierarchical structures such as that between an employer and an employee. Anna Morgenstern approaches this topic from the opposite perspective, arguing that anarcho-capitalists are not really capitalists because "mass concentration of capital is impossible" without the state. According to Jeremy Jennings, "[i]t is hard not to conclude that these ideas," referring to anarcho-capitalism, have "roots deep in classical liberalism" and "are described as anarchist only on the basis of a misunderstanding of what anarchism is." For Jennings, "anarchism does not stand for the untrammelled freedom of the individual (as the 'anarcho-capitalists' appear to believe) but, as we have already seen, for the extension of individuality and community." Similarly, Barbara Goodwin, Emeritus Professor of Politics at the University of East Anglia, Norwich, argues that anarcho-capitalism's "true place is in the group of right-wing libertarians", not in anarchism.
+
+Some right-libertarian scholars like Michael Huemer, who identify with the ideology, describe anarcho-capitalism as a "variety of anarchism". British author Andrew Heywood also believes that "individualist anarchism overlaps with libertarianism and is usually linked to a strong belief in the market as a self-regulating mechanism, most obviously manifest in the form of anarcho-capitalism". Frank H. Brooks, author of The Individualist Anarchists: An Anthology of Liberty (1881–1908), believes that "anarchism has always included a significant strain of radical individualism, from the hyperrationalism of Godwin, to the egoism of Stirner, to the libertarians and anarcho-capitalists of today".
+
+While both anarchism and anarcho-capitalism are in opposition to the state, it is a necessary but not sufficient condition because anarchists and anarcho-capitalists interpret state-rejection differently. Austrian school economist David Prychitko, in the context of anarcho-capitalism says that "while society without a state is necessary for full-fledged anarchy, it is nevertheless insufficient". According to Ruth Kinna, anarcho-capitalists are anti-statists who draw more on right-wing liberal theory and the Austrian School than anarchist traditions. Kinna writes that "[i]n order to highlight the clear distinction between the two positions", anarchists describe anarcho-capitalists as "propertarians". Anarcho-capitalism is usually seen as part of the New Right.
+
+Some anarcho-capitalists argue that, according to them, anarchists consider the word "anarchy" as to be the antithesis of hierarchy, and therefore, that "anarcho-capitalism" is sometimes considered to be a term with differences philosophically to what they personally consider to be true anarchism, as an anarcho-capitalist society would inherently contain hierarchy. Additionally, Rothbard discusses the difference between "government" and "governance" thus, proponents of anarcho-capitalism think the philosophy's common name is indeed consistent, as it promotes private governance, but is vehemently anti-government.
+
+Classical liberalism 
+
+Historian and libertarian Ralph Raico argued that what liberal philosophers "had come up with was a form of individualist anarchism, or, as it would be called today, anarcho-capitalism or market anarchism". He also said that Gustave de Molinari was proposing a doctrine of the private production of security, a position which was later taken up by Murray Rothbard. Some anarcho-capitalists consider Molinari to be the first proponent of anarcho-capitalism. In the preface to the 1977 English translation by Murray Rothbard called The Production of Security the "first presentation anywhere in human history of what is now called anarcho-capitalism", although admitting that "Molinari did not use the terminology, and probably would have balked at the name". Hans-Hermann Hoppe said that "the 1849 article 'The Production of Security' is probably the single most important contribution to the modern theory of anarcho-capitalism". According to Hans-Hermann Hoppe, one of the 19th century precursors of anarcho-capitalism were philosopher Herbert Spencer, classical liberal Auberon Herbert and liberal socialist Franz Oppenheimer.
+
+Ruth Kinna credits Murray Rothbard with coining the term anarcho-capitalism, which is – Kinna proposes – to describe "a commitment to unregulated private property and laissez-faire economics, prioritizing the liberty-rights of individuals, unfettered by government regulation, to accumulate, consume and determine the patterns of their lives as they see fit". According to Kinna, anarcho-capitalists "will sometimes label themselves market anarchists because they recognize the negative connotations of 'capitalism'. But the literature of anarcho-capitalism draws on classical liberal theory, particularly the Austrian School – Friedrich von Hayek and Ludwig von Mises – rather than recognizable anarchist traditions. Ayn Rand's laissez-faire, anti-government, corporate philosophy – Objectivism – is sometimes associated with anarcho-capitalism". Other scholars similarly associate anarcho-capitalism with anti-state classical liberalism, neo-classical liberalism, radical neoliberalism and right-libertarianism.
+
+Paul Dragos Aligica writes that there is a "foundational difference between the classical liberal and the anarcho-capitalist positions". Classical liberalism, while accepting critical arguments against collectivism, acknowledges a certain level of public ownership and collective governance as necessary to provide practical solutions to political problems. In contrast anarcho-capitalism, according to Aligica, denies any requirement for any form of public administration, and allows no meaningful role for the public sphere, which is seen as sub-optimal and illegitimate.
+
+Individualist anarchism 
+
+Murray Rothbard, a student of Ludwig von Mises, stated that he was influenced by the work of the 19th-century American individualist anarchists. In the winter of 1949, Rothbard decided to reject minimal state laissez-faire and embrace his interpretation of individualist anarchism. In 1965, Rothbard wrote that "Lysander Spooner and Benjamin R. Tucker were unsurpassed as political philosophers and nothing is more needed today than a revival and development of the largely forgotten legacy they left to political philosophy". However, Rothbard thought that they had a faulty understanding of economics as the 19th-century individualist anarchists had a labor theory of value as influenced by the classical economists, while Rothbard was a student of Austrian School economics which does not agree with the labor theory of value. Rothbard sought to meld 19th-century American individualist anarchists' advocacy of economic individualism and free markets with the principles of Austrian School economics, arguing that "[t]here is, in the body of thought known as 'Austrian economics', a scientific explanation of the workings of the free market (and of the consequences of government intervention in that market) which individualist anarchists could easily incorporate into their political and social Weltanschauung". Rothbard held that the economic consequences of the political system they advocate would not result in an economy with people being paid in proportion to labor amounts, nor would profit and interest disappear as they expected. Tucker thought that unregulated banking and money issuance would cause increases in the money supply so that interest rates would drop to zero or near to it. Peter Marshall states that "anarcho-capitalism overlooks the egalitarian implications of traditional individualist anarchists like Spooner and Tucker". Stephanie Silberstein states that "While Spooner was no free-market capitalist, nor an anarcho-capitalist, he was not as opposed to capitalism as most socialists were."
+
+In "The Spooner-Tucker Doctrine: An Economist's View", Rothbard explained his disagreements. Rothbard disagreed with Tucker that it would cause the money supply to increase because he believed that the money supply in a free market would be self-regulating. If it were not, then Rothbard argued inflation would occur so it is not necessarily desirable to increase the money supply in the first place. Rothbard claimed that Tucker was wrong to think that interest would disappear regardless because he believed people, in general, do not wish to lend their money to others without compensation, so there is no reason why this would change just because banking was unregulated. Tucker held a labor theory of value and thought that in a free market people would be paid in proportion to how much labor they exerted and that exploitation or usury was taking place if they were not. As Tucker explained in State Socialism and Anarchism, his theory was that unregulated banking would cause more money to be available and that this would allow the proliferation of new businesses which would, in turn, raise demand for labor. This led Tucker to believe that the labor theory of value would be vindicated and equal amounts of labor would receive equal pay. As an Austrian School economist, Rothbard did not agree with the labor theory and believed that prices of goods and services are proportional to marginal utility rather than to labor amounts in the free market. As opposed to Tucker he did not think that there was anything exploitative about people receiving an income according to how much "buyers of their services value their labor" or what that labor produces.
+
+Without the labor theory of value, some argue that 19th-century individualist anarchists approximate the modern movement of anarcho-capitalism, although this has been contested or rejected. As economic theory changed, the popularity of the labor theory of classical economics was superseded by the subjective theory of value of neoclassical economics and Rothbard combined Mises' Austrian School of economics with the absolutist views of human rights and rejection of the state he had absorbed from studying the individualist American anarchists of the 19th century such as Tucker and Spooner. In the mid-1950s, Rothbard wrote an unpublished article named "Are Libertarians 'Anarchists'?" under the pseudonym "Aubrey Herbert", concerned with differentiating himself from communist and socialistic economic views of anarchists, including the individualist anarchists of the 19th century, concluding that "we are not anarchists and that those who call us anarchists are not on firm etymological ground and are being completely unhistorical. On the other hand, it is clear that we are not archists either: we do not believe in establishing a tyrannical central authority that will coerce the noninvasive as well as the invasive. Perhaps, then, we could call ourselves by a new name: nonarchist." Joe Peacott, an American individualist anarchist in the mutualist tradition, criticizes anarcho-capitalists for trying to hegemonize the individualist anarchism label and make appear as if all individualist anarchists are in favor of capitalism. Peacott states that "individualists, both past and present, agree with the communist anarchists that present-day capitalism is based on economic coercion, not on voluntary contract. Rent and interest are the mainstays of modern capitalism and are protected and enforced by the state. Without these two unjust institutions, capitalism could not exist".
+
+Anarchist activists and scholars do not consider anarcho-capitalism as a part of the anarchist movement, arguing that anarchism has historically been an anti-capitalist movement and see it as incompatible with capitalist forms. Although some regard anarcho-capitalism as a form of individualist anarchism, many others disagree or contest the existence of an individualist–socialist divide. In coming to terms that anarchists mostly identified with socialism, Rothbard wrote that individualist anarchism is different from anarcho-capitalism and other capitalist theories due to the individualist anarchists retaining the labor theory of value and socialist doctrines. Similarly, many writers deny that anarcho-capitalism is a form of anarchism or that capitalism is compatible with anarchism.
+
+The Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism writes that "[a]s Benjamin Franks rightly points out, individualisms that defend or reinforce hierarchical forms such as the economic-power relations of anarcho-capitalism are incompatible with practices of social anarchism based on developing immanent goods which contest such as inequalities". Laurence Davis cautiously asks "[I]s anarcho-capitalism really a form of anarchism or instead a wholly different ideological paradigm whose adherents have attempted to expropriate the language of anarchism for their own anti-anarchist ends?" Davis cites Iain McKay, "whom Franks cites as an authority to support his contention that 'academic analysis has followed activist currents in rejecting the view that anarcho-capitalism has anything to do with social anarchism, as arguing "quite emphatically on the very pages cited by Franks that anarcho-capitalism is by no means a type of anarchism". McKay writes that "[i]t is important to stress that anarchist opposition to the so-called capitalist 'anarchists' does not reflect some kind of debate within anarchism, as many of these types like to pretend, but a debate between anarchism and its old enemy capitalism. ... Equally, given that anarchists and 'anarcho'-capitalists have fundamentally different analyses and goals it is hardly 'sectarian' to point this out".
+
+Davis writes that "Franks asserts without supporting evidence that most major forms of individualist anarchism have been largely anarcho-capitalist in content, and concludes from this premise that most forms of individualism are incompatible with anarchism". Davis argues that "the conclusion is unsustainable because the premise is false, depending as it does for any validity it might have on the further assumption that anarcho-capitalism is indeed a form of anarchism. If we reject this view, then we must also reject the individual anarchist versus the communal anarchist 'chasm' style of argument that follows from it". Davis maintains that "the ideological core of anarchism is the belief that society can and should be organised without hierarchy and domination. Historically, anarchists have struggles against a wide range of regimes of domination, from capitalism, the state system, patriarchy, heterosexism, and the domination of nature to colonialism, the war system, slavery, fascism, white supremacy, and certain forms of organised religion". According to Davis, "[w]hile these visions range from the predominantly individualistic to the predominantly communitarian, features common to virtually all include an emphasis on self-management and self-regulatory methods of organisation, voluntary association, decentralised society, based on the principle of free association, in which people will manage and govern themselves". Finally, Davis includes a footnote stating that "[i]ndividualist anarchism may plausibly be re regarded as a form of both socialism and anarchism. Whether the individualist anarchists were consistent anarchists (and socialists) is another question entirely. ... McKay comments as follows: 'any individualist anarchism which supports wage labour is inconsistent anarchism. It can easily be made consistent anarchism by applying its own principles consistently. In contrast 'anarcho'-capitalism rejects so many of the basic, underlying, principles of anarchism ... that it cannot be made consistent with the ideals of anarchism.
+
+Historical precedents 
+Several anarcho-capitalists and right-libertarians have discussed historical precedents of what they believe were examples of anarcho-capitalism.
+
+Free cities of medieval Europe 
+Economist and libertarian scholar Bryan Caplan considers the free cities of medieval Europe as examples of "anarchist" or "nearly anarchistic" societies, further arguing:
+
+Medieval Iceland 
+
+According to the libertarian theorist David D. Friedman, "[m]edieval Icelandic institutions have several peculiar and interesting characteristics; they might almost have been invented by a mad economist to test the lengths to which market systems could supplant government in its most fundamental functions". While not directly labeling it anarcho-capitalist, Friedman argues that the legal system of the Icelandic Commonwealth comes close to being a real-world anarcho-capitalist legal system. Although noting that there was a single legal system, Friedman argues that enforcement of the law was entirely private and highly capitalist, providing some evidence of how such a society would function. Friedman further wrote that "[e]ven where the Icelandic legal system recognized an essentially 'public' offense, it dealt with it by giving some individual (in some cases chosen by lot from those affected) the right to pursue the case and collect the resulting fine, thus fitting it into an essentially private system".
+
+Friedman and Bruce L. Benson argued that the Icelandic Commonwealth saw significant economic and social progress in the absence of systems of criminal law, an executive, or bureaucracy. This commonwealth was led by chieftains, whose position could be bought and sold like that of private property. Being a member of the chieftainship was also completely voluntary.
+
+American Old West 
+According to Terry L. Anderson and P. J. Hill, the Old West in the United States in the period of 1830 to 1900 was similar to anarcho-capitalism in that "private agencies provided the necessary basis for an orderly society in which property was protected and conflicts were resolved" and that the common popular perception that the Old West was chaotic with little respect for property rights is incorrect. Since squatters had no claim to western lands under federal law, extra-legal organizations formed to fill the void. Benson explains:
+
+According to Anderson, "[d]efining anarcho-capitalist to mean minimal government with property rights developed from the bottom up, the western frontier was anarcho-capitalistic. People on the frontier invented institutions that fit the resource constraints they faced".
+
+Gaelic Ireland 
+
+In his work For a New Liberty, Murray Rothbard has claimed ancient Gaelic Ireland as an example of nearly anarcho-capitalist society. In his depiction, citing the work of Professor Joseph Peden, the basic political unit of ancient Ireland was the tuath, which is portrayed as "a body of persons voluntarily united for socially beneficial purposes" with its territorial claim being limited to "the sum total of the landed properties of its members". Civil disputes were settled by private arbiters called "brehons" and the compensation to be paid to the wronged party was insured through voluntary surety relationships. Commenting on the "kings" of tuaths, Rothbard stated:
+
+Law merchant, admiralty law, and early common law 
+Some libertarians have cited law merchant, admiralty law and early common law as examples of anarcho-capitalism.
+
+In his work Power and Market, Rothbard stated:
+
+Somalia from 1991 to 2006 
+
+Economist Alex Tabarrok argued that Somalia in its stateless period provided a "unique test of the theory of anarchy", in some aspects near of that espoused by anarcho-capitalists David D. Friedman and Murray Rothbard. Nonetheless, both anarchists and some anarcho-capitalists argue that Somalia was not an anarchist society.
+
+Analysis and criticism
+
+State, justice and defense 
+
+Anarchists such as Brian Morris argue that anarcho-capitalism does not in fact get rid of the state. He says that anarcho-capitalists "simply replaced the state with private security firms, and can hardly be described as anarchists as the term is normally understood". In "Libertarianism: Bogus Anarchy", anarchist Peter Sabatini notes:
+
+Similarly, Bob Black argues that an anarcho-capitalist wants to "abolish the state to his own satisfaction by calling it something else". He states that they do not denounce what the state does, they just "object to who's doing it".
+
+Paul Birch argues that legal disputes involving several jurisdictions and different legal systems will be too complex and costly. He therefore argues that anarcho-capitalism is inherently unstable, and would evolve, entirely through the operation of free market forces, into either a single dominant private court with a natural monopoly of justice over the territory (a de facto state), a society of multiple city states, each with a territorial monopoly, or a 'pure anarchy' that would rapidly descend into chaos.
+
+Randall G. Holcombe argues that anarcho-capitalism turns justice into a commodity as private defense and court firms would favour those who pay more for their services. He argues that defense agencies could form cartels and oppress people without fear of competition. Philosopher Albert Meltzer argued that since anarcho-capitalism promotes the idea of private armies, it actually supports a "limited State". He contends that it "is only possible to conceive of Anarchism which is free, communistic and offering no economic necessity for repression of countering it".
+
+Libertarian Robert Nozick argues that a competitive legal system would evolve toward a monopoly government—even without violating individuals' rights in the process. In Anarchy, State, and Utopia, Nozick defends minarchism and argues that an anarcho-capitalist society would inevitably transform into a minarchist state through the eventual emergence of a monopolistic private defense and judicial agency that no longer faces competition. He argues that anarcho-capitalism results in an unstable system that would not endure in the real world. While anarcho-capitalists such as Roy Childs and Murray Rothbard have rejected Nozick's arguments, with Rothbard arguing that the process described by Nozick, with the dominant protection agency outlawing its competitors, in fact violates its own clients' rights, John Jefferson actually advocates Nozick's argument and states that such events would best operate in laissez-faire. Robert Ellickson presented a Hayekian case against anarcho-capitalism, calling it a "pipe-dream" and stating that anarcho-capitalists "by imagining a stable system of competing private associations, ignore both the inevitability of territorial monopolists in governance, and the importance of institutions to constrain those monopolists' abuses".
+
+Some libertarians argue that anarcho-capitalism would result in different standards of justice and law due to relying too much on the market. Friedman responded to this criticism by arguing that it assumes the state is controlled by a majority group that has similar legal ideals. If the populace is diverse, different legal standards would therefore be appropriate.
+
+Rights and freedom 
+Negative and positive rights are rights that oblige either action (positive rights) or inaction (negative rights). Anarcho-capitalists believe that negative rights should be recognized as legitimate, but positive rights should be rejected as an intrusion. Some critics reject the distinction between positive and negative rights. Peter Marshall also states that the anarcho-capitalist definition of freedom is entirely negative and that it cannot guarantee the positive freedom of individual autonomy and independence.
+
+About anarcho-capitalism, anarcho-syndicalist and anti-capitalist intellectual Noam Chomsky says:
+
+Economics and property 
+Social anarchists argue that anarcho-capitalism allows individuals to accumulate significant power through free markets and private property. Friedman responded by arguing that the Icelandic Commonwealth was able to prevent the wealthy from abusing the poor by requiring individuals who engaged in acts of violence to compensate their victims financially.
+
+Anarchists argue that certain capitalist transactions are not voluntary and that maintaining the class structure of a capitalist society requires coercion which violates anarchist principles. Anthropologist David Graeber noted his skepticism about anarcho-capitalism along the same lines, arguing:
+
+Some critics argue that the anarcho-capitalist concept of voluntary choice ignores constraints due to both human and non-human factors such as the need for food and shelter as well as active restriction of both used and unused resources by those enforcing property claims. If a person requires employment in order to feed and house himself, the employer-employee relationship could be considered involuntary. Another criticism is that employment is involuntary because the economic system that makes it necessary for some individuals to serve others is supported by the enforcement of coercive private property relations. Some philosophies view any ownership claims on land and natural resources as immoral and illegitimate. Objectivist philosopher Harry Binswanger criticizes anarcho-capitalism by arguing that "capitalism requires government", questioning who or what would enforce treaties and contracts.
+
+Some right-libertarian critics of anarcho-capitalism who support the full privatization of capital such as geolibertarians argue that land and the raw materials of nature remain a distinct factor of production and cannot be justly converted to private property because they are not products of human labor. Some socialists, including market anarchists and mutualists, adamantly oppose absentee ownership. Anarcho-capitalists have strong abandonment criteria, namely that one maintains ownership until one agrees to trade or gift it. Anti-state critics of this view posit comparatively weak abandonment criteria, arguing that one loses ownership when one stops personally occupying and using it as well as the idea of perpetually binding original appropriation is anathema to traditional schools of anarchism.
+
+Literature 
+The following is a partial list of notable nonfiction works discussing anarcho-capitalism.
+ Bruce L. Benson, The Enterprise of Law: Justice Without The State
+ To Serve and Protect: Privatization and Community in Criminal Justice
+ David D. Friedman, The Machinery of Freedom
+ Edward P. Stringham, Anarchy and the Law: The Political Economy of Choice
+ George H. Smith, "Justice Entrepreneurship in a Free Market"
+ Gerard Casey, Libertarian Anarchy: Against the State
+ Hans-Hermann Hoppe, Anarcho-Capitalism: An Annotated Bibliography
+ A Theory of Socialism and Capitalism
+ Democracy: The God That Failed
+ The Economics and Ethics of Private Property
+ Linda and Morris Tannehill, The Market for Liberty
+ Michael Huemer, The Problem of Political Authority
+ Murray Rothbard, founder of anarcho-capitalism:
+ For a New Liberty
+ Man, Economy, and State
+ Power and Market
+ The Ethics of Liberty
+
+See also 
+
+ Agorism
+ Anarcho-capitalism and minarchism
+ Consequentialist libertarianism
+ Counter-economics
+ Creative disruption
+ Crypto-anarchism
+ Definition of anarchism and libertarianism
+ Issues in anarchism
+ Left-wing market anarchism
+ Natural-rights libertarianism
+ Privatization in criminal justice
+ Propertarianism
+ Stateless society
+ The Libertarian Forum
+ Voluntaryism
+
+Notes
+
+References
+
+Further reading 
+ Brown, Susan Love (1997). "The Free Market as Salvation from Government: The Anarcho-Capitalist View". In Carrier, James G., ed. Meanings of the Market: The Free Market in Western Culture (illustrated ed.). Oxford: Berg Publishers. p. 99. .
+
+External links 
+
+ Anarcho-capitalist FAQ
+ LewRockwell.com – website run by Lew Rockwell
+ Mises Institute – research and educational center of classical liberalism, including anarcho-capitalism, Austrian School of economics and American libertarian political theory
+ Property and Freedom Society – international anarcho-capitalist society
+ Strike The Root – an anarcho-capitalist website featuring essays, news, and a forum
+
+ 
+Austrian School
+Capitalist systems
+Economic ideologies
+Anarcho-capitalism
+Ideologies of capitalism
+Classical liberalism
+Libertarianism by form
+Political ideologies
+Right-libertarianism
+Syncretic political movements
+Murray Rothbard
+
+
+Events
+
+Pre-1600
+48 BC – Caesar's Civil War: Battle of Pharsalus: Julius Caesar decisively defeats Pompey at Pharsalus and Pompey flees to Egypt.
+ 378 – Gothic War: Battle of Adrianople: A large Roman army led by Emperor Valens is defeated by the Visigoths. Valens is killed along with over half of his army.
+1173 – Construction of the campanile of the Cathedral of Pisa (now known as the Leaning Tower of Pisa) begins; it will take two centuries to complete.
+1329 – Quilon, the first Indian Christian Diocese, is erected by Pope John XXII; the French-born Jordanus is appointed the first Bishop.
+1428 – Sources cite biggest caravan trade between Podvisoki and Republic of Ragusa. Vlachs committed to Ragusan lord Tomo Bunić, that they will with 600 horses deliver 1,500 modius of salt. Delivery was meant for Dobrašin Veseoković, and Vlachs price was half of delivered salt.
+1500 – Ottoman–Venetian War (1499–1503): The Ottomans capture Methoni, Messenia.
+
+1601–1900
+1610 – The First Anglo-Powhatan War begins in colonial Virginia.
+1810 – Napoleon annexes Westphalia as part of the First French Empire.
+1814 – American Indian Wars: The Creek sign the Treaty of Fort Jackson, giving up huge parts of Alabama and Georgia.
+1830 – Louis Philippe becomes the king of the French following abdication of Charles X.
+1842 – The Webster–Ashburton Treaty is signed, establishing the United States–Canada border east of the Rocky Mountains.
+1854 – American Transcendentalist philosopher Henry David Thoreau publishes his memoir Walden.
+1855 – Åland War: The Battle of Suomenlinna begins.
+1862 – American Civil War: Battle of Cedar Mountain: At Cedar Mountain, Virginia, Confederate General Stonewall Jackson narrowly defeats Union forces under General John Pope.
+1877 – American Indian Wars: Battle of the Big Hole: A small band of Nez Percé Indians clash with the United States Army.
+1892 – Thomas Edison receives a patent for a two-way telegraph.
+1897 – The first International Congress of Mathematicians is held in Zürich, Switzerland.
+
+1901–present
+1902 – Edward VII and Alexandra of Denmark are crowned King and Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.
+1907 – The first Boy Scout encampment concludes at Brownsea Island in southern England.
+1925 – A train robbery takes place in Kakori, near Lucknow, India, by the Indian independence revolutionaries, against British government.
+1936 – Summer Olympics: Jesse Owens wins his fourth gold medal at the games.
+1942 – World War II: Battle of Savo Island: Allied naval forces protecting their amphibious forces during the initial stages of the Battle of Guadalcanal are surprised and defeated by an Imperial Japanese Navy cruiser force.
+  1942   – Dmitri Shostakovich's 7th symphony is premiered in a besieged Leningrad.
+1944 – The United States Forest Service and the Wartime Advertising Council release posters featuring Smokey Bear for the first time.
+  1944   – World War II: Continuation War: The Vyborg–Petrozavodsk Offensive, the largest offensive launched by Soviet Union against Finland during the Second World War, ends to a strategic stalemate. Both Finnish and Soviet troops at the Finnish front dug to defensive positions, and the front remains stable until the end of the war.
+1945 – World War II: Nagasaki is devastated when an atomic bomb, Fat Man, is dropped by the United States B-29 Bockscar. Thirty-five thousand people are killed outright, including 23,200–28,200 Japanese war workers, 2,000 Korean forced workers, and 150 Japanese soldiers.
+  1945   – The Red Army invades Japanese-occupied Manchuria.
+1960 – South Kasai secedes from the Congo.
+1965 – Singapore is expelled from Malaysia and becomes the only country to date to gain independence unwillingly.
+1969 – Tate–LaBianca murders: Followers of Charles Manson murder pregnant actress Sharon Tate (wife of Roman Polanski), coffee heiress Abigail Folger, Polish actor Wojciech Frykowski, men's hairstylist Jay Sebring and recent high-school graduate Steven Parent.
+1970 – LANSA Flight 502 crashes after takeoff from Alejandro Velasco Astete International Airport in Cusco, Peru, killing 99 of the 100 people on board, as well as two people on the ground.
+1971 – The Troubles: In Northern Ireland, the British authorities launch Operation Demetrius. The operation involves the mass arrest and internment without trial of individuals suspected of being affiliated with the Irish Republican Army (PIRA). Mass riots follow, and thousands of people flee or are forced out of their homes.
+1973 – Mars 7 is launched from the USSR.
+1974 – As a direct result of the Watergate scandal, Richard Nixon becomes the first President of the United States to resign from office. Vice President Gerald Ford becomes president.
+1991 – The Italian prosecuting magistrate Antonino Scopelliti is murdered by the 'Ndrangheta on behalf of the Sicilian Mafia while preparing the government's case in the final appeal of the Maxi Trial.
+1993 – The Liberal Democratic Party of Japan loses a 38-year hold on national leadership.
+1995 – Aviateca Flight 901 crashes into the San Vicente volcano in El Salvador, killing all 65 people on board.
+1999 – Russian President Boris Yeltsin fires his Prime Minister, Sergei Stepashin, and for the fourth time fires his entire cabinet.
+2006 – At least 21 suspected terrorists are arrested in the 2006 transatlantic aircraft plot that happened in the United Kingdom. The arrests are made in London, Birmingham, and High Wycombe in an overnight operation.
+2007 – Air Moorea Flight 1121 crashes after takeoff from Moorea Airport in French Polynesia, killing all 20 people on board.
+2012 – Shannon Eastin becomes the first woman to officiate an NFL game.
+2013 – Gunmen open fire at a Sunni mosque in the city of Quetta killing at least ten people and injuring 30.
+2014 – Michael Brown, an 18-year-old African American male in Ferguson, Missouri, is shot and killed by a Ferguson police officer after reportedly assaulting the officer and attempting to steal his weapon, sparking protests and unrest in the city.
+2021 – The Tampere light rail officially starts operating.
+
+Births
+
+Pre-1600
+1201 – Arnold Fitz Thedmar, English historian and merchant (d. 1274)
+1537 – Francesco Barozzi, Italian mathematician and astronomer (d. 1604)
+1544 – Bogislaw XIII, Duke of Pomerania (d. 1606)
+1590 – John Webster, colonial settler and governor of Connecticut (d. 1661)
+
+1601–1900
+1603 – Johannes Cocceius, German-Dutch theologian and academic (d. 1669)
+1611 – Henry of Nassau-Siegen, German count, officer in the Dutch Army, diplomat for the Dutch Republic (b. 1611)
+1648 – Johann Michael Bach, German composer (d. 1694)
+1653 – John Oldham, English poet and translator (d. 1683)
+1674 – František Maxmilián Kaňka, Czech architect, designed the Veltrusy Mansion (d. 1766)
+1696 – Joseph Wenzel I, Prince of Liechtenstein (d. 1772)
+1722 – Prince Augustus William of Prussia (d. 1758)
+1726 – Francesco Cetti, Italian priest, zoologist, and mathematician (d. 1778)
+1748 – Bernhard Schott, German music publisher (d. 1809)
+1757 – Elizabeth Schuyler Hamilton, American humanitarian; wife of Alexander Hamilton (d. 1854)
+  1757   – Thomas Telford, Scottish architect and engineer, designed the Menai Suspension Bridge (d. 1834)
+1776 – Amedeo Avogadro, Italian physicist and chemist (d. 1856)
+1783 – Grand Duchess Alexandra Pavlovna of Russia (d. 1801)
+1788 – Adoniram Judson, American missionary and lexicographer (d. 1850)
+1797 – Charles Robert Malden, English lieutenant and surveyor (d. 1855)
+1805 – Joseph Locke, English engineer and politician (d. 1860)
+1845 – André Bessette, Canadian saint (d. 1937)
+1847 – Maria Vittoria dal Pozzo, French-Italian wife of Amadeo I of Spain (d. 1876)
+1848 – Alfred David Benjamin, Australian-born businessman and philanthropist. (d. 1900)
+1861 – Dorothea Klumpke, American astronomer and academic (d. 1942)
+1867 – Evelina Haverfield, Scottish nurse and activist (d. 1920)
+1872 – Archduke Joseph August of Austria (d. 1962)
+1874 – Reynaldo Hahn, Venezuelan composer and conductor (d. 1947)
+1875 – Albert Ketèlbey, English pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1959)
+1878 – Eileen Gray, Irish architect and furniture designer (d. 1976)
+1879 – John Willcock, Australian politician, 15th Premier of Western Australia, (d. 1956)
+1881 – Prince Antônio Gastão of Orléans-Braganza, Brazilian prince (d. 1918)
+1890 – Eino Kaila, Finnish philosopher and psychologist, attendant of the Vienna circle (d. 1958)
+1896 – Erich Hückel, German physicist and chemist (d. 1980)
+  1896   – Jean Piaget, Swiss psychologist and philosopher (d. 1980)
+1899 – P. L. Travers, Australian-English author and actress (d. 1996)
+1900 – Charles Farrell, American actor and singer (d. 1990)
+
+1901–present
+1902 – Zino Francescatti, French violinist (d. 1991)
+  1902   – Panteleimon Ponomarenko, Russian general and politician (d. 1984)
+1905 – Leo Genn, British actor and barrister (d. 1978)
+1909 – Vinayaka Krishna Gokak, Indian scholar, author, and academic (d. 1992)
+  1909   – Willa Beatrice Player, American educator, first Black woman college president (d. 2003)
+  1909   – Adam von Trott zu Solz, German lawyer and diplomat (d. 1944)
+1911 – William Alfred Fowler, American astronomer and astrophysicist, Nobel Laureate (d. 1996)
+  1911   – Eddie Futch, American boxer and trainer (d. 2001)
+  1911   – John McQuade, Northern Irish soldier, boxer, and politician (d. 1984)
+1913 – Wilbur Norman Christiansen, Australian astronomer and engineer (d. 2007)
+1914 – Ferenc Fricsay, Hungarian-Austrian conductor and director (d. 1963)
+  1914   – Tove Jansson, Finnish author and illustrator (d. 2001)
+  1914   – Joe Mercer, English footballer and manager (d. 1990)
+1915 – Mareta West, American astronomer and geologist (d. 1998)
+1918 – Kermit Beahan, American colonel (d. 1989)
+  1918   – Giles Cooper, Irish soldier and playwright (d. 1966)
+  1918   – Albert Seedman, American police officer (d. 2013)
+1919 – Joop den Uyl, Dutch journalist, economist, and politician, Deputy Prime Minister of the Netherlands (d. 1987)
+  1919   – Ralph Houk, American baseball player and manager (d. 2010)
+1920 – Enzo Biagi, Italian journalist and author (d. 2007)
+1921 – Ernest Angley, American evangelist and author (d. 2021)
+  1921   – J. James Exon, American soldier and politician, 33rd Governor of Nebraska (d. 2005)
+1922 – Philip Larkin, English poet and novelist (d. 1985)
+1924 – Mathews Mar Barnabas, Indian metropolitan (d. 2012)
+  1924   – Frank Martínez, American soldier and painter (d. 2013)
+1925 – David A. Huffman, American computer scientist, developed Huffman coding (d. 1999)
+1926 – Denis Atkinson, Barbadian cricketer (d. 2001)
+1927 – Daniel Keyes, American short story writer and novelist (d. 2014)
+  1927   – Robert Shaw, English actor and screenwriter (d. 1978)
+1928 – Bob Cousy, American basketball player and coach
+  1928   – Camilla Wicks, American violinist and educator (d. 2020)
+  1928   – Dolores Wilson, American soprano and actress (d. 2010)
+1929 – Abdi İpekçi, Turkish journalist and activist (d. 1979)
+1930 – Milt Bolling, American baseball player and scout (d. 2013)
+  1930   – Jacques Parizeau, Canadian economist and politician, 26th Premier of Quebec (d. 2015)
+1931 – Chuck Essegian, American baseball player and lawyer
+  1931   – James Freeman Gilbert, American geophysicist and academic (d. 2014)
+  1931   – Paula Kent Meehan, American businesswoman, co-founded Redken (d. 2014)
+  1931   – Mário Zagallo, Brazilian footballer and coach
+1932 – Tam Dalyell, Scottish academic and politician (d. 2017)
+  1932   – John Gomery, Canadian lawyer and jurist (d. 2021)
+1933 – Tetsuko Kuroyanagi, Japanese actress, talk show host, and author
+1935 – Beverlee McKinsey, American actress (d. 2008)
+1936 – Julián Javier, Dominican-American baseball player
+  1936   – Patrick Tse, Chinese-Hong Kong actor, director, producer, and screenwriter
+1938 – Leonid Kuchma, Ukrainian engineer and politician, 2nd President of Ukraine
+  1938   – Rod Laver, Australian tennis player and coach
+  1938   – Otto Rehhagel, German footballer, coach, and manager
+1939 – Hércules Brito Ruas, Brazilian footballer
+  1939   – Vincent Hanna, Northern Irish journalist (d. 1997)
+  1939   – The Mighty Hannibal, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2014)
+  1939   – Billy Henderson, American singer (d. 2007)
+  1939   – Bulle Ogier, French actress and screenwriter
+  1939   – Romano Prodi, Italian academic and politician, 52nd Prime Minister of Italy
+  1939   – Butch Warren, American bassist (d. 2013)
+1940 – Linda Keen, American mathematician and academic
+1942 – David Steinberg, Canadian actor, director, producer, and screenwriter
+1943 – Ken Norton, American boxer and actor (d. 2013)
+1944 – George Armstrong, English footballer (d. 2000)
+  1944   – Patrick Depailler, French racing driver (d. 1980)
+  1944   – Sam Elliott, American actor and producer
+  1944   – Patricia McKissack, American soldier, engineer, and author (d. 2017)
+1945 – Barbara Delinsky, American author
+  1945   – Aleksandr Gorelik, Russian figure skater and sportscaster (d. 2012)
+  1945   – Posy Simmonds, English author and illustrator
+1946 – Rinus Gerritsen, Dutch rock bass player
+1947 – Roy Hodgson, English footballer and manager
+  1947   – Barbara Mason, American R&B/soul singer-songwriter
+  1947   – John Varley, American author
+1948 – Bill Campbell, American baseball player and coach (d. 2023)
+1949 – Jonathan Kellerman, American psychologist and author
+  1949   – Ted Simmons, American baseball player and coach
+1951 – James Naughtie, Scottish journalist and radio host
+  1951   – Steve Swisher, American baseball player and manager
+1952 – Prateep Ungsongtham Hata, Thai activist and politician
+1953 – Kay Stenshjemmet, Norwegian speed skater
+  1953   – Jean Tirole, French economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate
+1954 – Ray Jennings, South African cricketer and coach
+  1954   – Pete Thomas, English drummer
+1955 – John E. Sweeney, American lawyer and politician
+1956 – Gordon Singleton, Canadian Olympic cyclist
+1957 – Melanie Griffith, American actress and producer
+1958 – Amanda Bearse, American actress, comedian and director
+  1958   – Calie Pistorius, South African engineer and academic
+1959 – Kurtis Blow, American rapper, producer, and actor
+  1959   – Michael Kors, American fashion designer
+1961 – Brad Gilbert, American tennis player and sportscaster
+  1961   – John Key, New Zealand businessman and politician, 38th Prime Minister of New Zealand
+1962 – Louis Lipps, American football player and radio host
+  1962   – Kevin Mack, American football player
+  1962   – John "Hot Rod" Williams, American basketball player (d. 2015)
+1963 – Whitney Houston, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actress (d. 2012)
+  1963   – Jay Leggett, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2013)
+  1963   – Barton Lynch, Australian surfer
+1964 – Brett Hull, Canadian-American ice hockey player and manager
+  1964   – Hoda Kotb, American journalist and television personality
+1965 – Nitin Chandrakant Desai, Indian art director, production designer, and film and television producer (d. 2023)
+1966 – Vinny Del Negro, American basketball player and coach
+  1966   – Linn Ullmann, Norwegian journalist and author
+1967 – Deion Sanders, American football and baseball player
+1968 – Gillian Anderson, American-British actress, activist and writer
+  1968   – Eric Bana, Australian actor, comedian, producer, and screenwriter
+  1968   – Sam Fogarino, American drummer
+  1968   – McG, American director and producer
+1969 – Troy Percival, American baseball player and coach
+1970 – Rod Brind'Amour, Canadian ice hockey player and coach
+  1970   – Chris Cuomo, American lawyer and journalist
+  1970   – Thomas Lennon, American actor and comedian
+1972 – Juanes, Colombian singer and songwriter
+1973 – Filippo Inzaghi, Italian footballer and manager
+  1973   – Kevin McKidd, Scottish actor and director
+  1973   – Gene Luen Yang, American author and illustrator
+1974 – Derek Fisher, American basketball player and coach
+  1974   – Stephen Fung, Hong Kong actor, singer, director, and screenwriter
+  1974   – Lesley McKenna, Scottish snowboarder
+  1974   – Matt Morris, American baseball player
+  1974   – Kirill Reznik, American lawyer and politician
+  1974   – Raphaël Poirée, French biathlete
+1975 – Mahesh Babu, Indian actor and producer
+  1975   – Valentin Kovalenko, Uzbek football referee
+  1975   – Mike Lamb, American baseball player
+  1975   – Robbie Middleby, Australian soccer player
+1976 – Rhona Mitra, English actress and singer
+  1976   – Audrey Tautou, French model and actress
+  1976   – Jessica Capshaw, American actress
+1977 – Jason Frasor, American baseball player
+  1977   – Chamique Holdsclaw, American basketball player
+  1977   – Ravshan Irmatov, Uzbek football referee
+  1977   – Adewale Ogunleye, American football player
+  1977   – Ime Udoka, American basketball player and coach
+  1977   – Mikaël Silvestre, French footballer
+1978 – Dorin Chirtoacă, Moldavian lawyer and politician, Mayor of Chișinău
+  1978   – Ana Serradilla, Mexican actress and producer
+  1978   – Wesley Sonck, Belgian footballer
+1979 – Michael Kingma, Australian basketball player
+  1979   – Lisa Nandy, British politician
+  1979   – Tony Stewart, American football player
+1981 – Jarvis Hayes, American basketball player
+  1981   – Li Jiawei, Singaporean table tennis player
+1982 – Joel Anthony, American basketball player
+  1982   – Tyson Gay, American sprinter
+  1982   – Yekaterina Samutsevich, Russian singer and activist
+  1982   – Kanstantsin Sivtsov, Belarusian cyclist
+1983 – Dan Levy, Canadian actor and comedian
+  1983   – Hamilton Masakadza, Zimbabwean cricketer
+  1983   – Shane O'Brien, Canadian ice hockey player
+  1983   – Alicja Smietana, Polish-English violinist
+1984 – Paul Gallagher, Scottish footballer
+1985 – Luca Filippi, Italian racing driver
+  1985   – Filipe Luís, Brazilian footballer
+  1985   – Anna Kendrick, American actress and singer
+  1985   – Hayley Peirsol, American swimmer
+  1985   – JaMarcus Russell, American football player
+  1985   – Chandler Williams, American football player (d. 2013)
+1986 – Michael Lerchl, German footballer
+  1986   – Daniel Preussner, German rugby player
+  1986   – Tyler Smith, American singer-songwriter and bass player
+1987 – Marek Niit, Estonian sprinter
+1988 – Anthony Castonzo, American football player
+  1988   – Willian, Brazilian footballer
+  1988   – Vasilios Koutsianikoulis, Greek footballer
+1989 – Jason Heyward, American baseball player
+  1989   – Stefano Okaka, Italian footballer
+  1989   – Kento Ono, Japanese actor and model
+1990 – İshak Doğan, Turkish footballer
+  1990   – Sarah McBride, American LGBT activist
+  1990   – Stuart McInally, Scottish rugby player
+  1990   – Brice Roger, French skier
+  1990   – D'Arcy Short, Australian cricketer 
+  1990   – Bill Skarsgård, Swedish actor
+1991 – Alice Barlow, English actress
+  1991   – Alexa Bliss, American bodybuilder and wrestler
+  1991   – Hansika Motwani, Indian actress 
+1992 – Farahnaz Forotan, Afghan journalist
+1993 – Jun.Q, South Korean singer and actor
+  1993   – Dipa Karmakar, Indian gymnast
+1994 – Kelli Hubly, American soccer player
+  1994   – King Von, American rapper (d. 2020)
+1995 – Eli Apple, American football player
+  1995   – Justice Smith, American actor
+1996 – Sanya Lopez, Filipino actress and model
+1999 – Deniss Vasiļjevs, Latvian figure skater
+2000 – Arlo Parks, British singer-songwriter
+2005 – Victoria Jiménez Kasintseva, Andorran tennis player
+
+Deaths
+
+Pre-1600
+ 378 – Traianus, Roman general
+   378   – Valens, Roman emperor (b. 328)
+ 803 – Irene of Athens, Byzantine ruler (b. 752)
+ 833 – Al-Ma'mun, Iraqi caliph (b. 786)
+1048 – Pope Damasus II
+1107 – Emperor Horikawa of Japan (b. 1079)
+1173 – Najm ad-Din Ayyub, Kurdish soldier and politician
+1211 – William de Braose, 4th Lord of Bramber, exiled Anglo-Norman baron (b. 1144/53)
+1260 – Walter of Kirkham, Bishop of Durham
+1296 – Hugh, Count of Brienne, French crusader
+1341 – Eleanor of Anjou, queen consort of Sicily (b. 1289)
+1354 – Stephen, Duke of Slavonia, Hungarian prince (b. 1332)
+1420 – Pierre d'Ailly, French theologian and cardinal (b. 1351)
+1516 – Hieronymus Bosch, Early Netherlandish painter (b. circa 1450)
+1534 – Thomas Cajetan, Italian cardinal and philosopher (b. 1470)
+1580 – Metrophanes III of Constantinople (b. 1520)
+
+1601–1900
+1601 – Michael the Brave, Romanian prince (b. 1558)
+1634 – William Noy, English lawyer and judge (b. 1577)
+1720 – Simon Ockley, English orientalist and academic (b. 1678)
+1744 – James Brydges, 1st Duke of Chandos, English academic and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Radnorshire (b. 1673)
+1816 – Johann August Apel, German jurist and author (b. 1771)
+1861 – Vincent Novello, English composer and publisher (b. 1781)
+1886 – Samuel Ferguson, Irish lawyer and poet (b. 1810)
+
+1901–present
+1910 – Huo Yuanjia, Chinese martial artist, co-founded the Chin Woo Athletic Association (b. 1868)
+1919 – Ruggero Leoncavallo, Italian composer and educator (b. 1857)
+1920 – Samuel Griffith, Welsh-Australian politician, 9th Premier of Queensland (b. 1845)
+1932 – John Charles Fields, Canadian mathematician, founder of the Fields Medal (b. 1863)
+1941 – Richard Goss, Executed Irish Republican (b. 1915)
+1942 – Edith Stein, German nun and saint (b. 1891)
+1943 – Chaïm Soutine, Belarusian-French painter and educator (b. 1893)
+1945 – Robert Hampton Gray, Canadian lieutenant and pilot, Victoria Cross recipient (b. 1917)
+  1945   – Harry Hillman, American runner and coach (b. 1881)
+1946 – Bert Vogler, South African cricketer (b. 1876)
+1948 – Hugo Boss, German fashion designer, founded Hugo Boss (b. 1885)
+1949 – Edward Thorndike, American psychologist and academic (b. 1874)
+1957 – Carl Clauberg, German Nazi physician (b. 1898)
+1962 – Hermann Hesse, German-born Swiss poet, novelist, and painter, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1877)
+1963 – Patrick Bouvier Kennedy, American son of John F. Kennedy (b. 1963)
+1967 – Joe Orton, English author and playwright (b. 1933)
+1969 – Wojciech Frykowski, Polish-American actor and author (b. 1936)
+  1969   – Sharon Tate, American model and actress (b. 1943)
+  1969   – C. F. Powell, English physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1903)
+1972 – Sıddık Sami Onar, Turkish lawyer and academic (b. 1897)
+1974 – Bill Chase, American trumpet player and bandleader (b. 1934)
+1975 – Dmitri Shostakovich, Russian pianist and composer (b. 1906)
+1978 – James Gould Cozzens, American novelist and short story writer (b. 1903)
+1979 – Walter O'Malley, American businessman (b. 1903)
+  1979   – Raymond Washington, American gang leader, founded the Crips (b. 1953)
+1980 – Jacqueline Cochran, American pilot (b. 1906)
+  1980   – Ruby Hurley, American civil rights activist (b. 1909)
+1981 – Max Hoffman, Austrian-born car importer and businessman (b. 1904)
+1985 – Clive Churchill, Australian rugby league player and coach (b. 1927)
+1988 – M. Carl Holman, American author, educator, poet, and playwright (b. 1919)
+1988 – Giacinto Scelsi, Italian composer (b. 1905)
+1990 – Joe Mercer, English footballer and manager (b. 1914)
+1992 – Fereydoun Farrokhzad, Iranian singer and actor (b. 1938)
+1995 – Jerry Garcia, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1942)
+1996 – Frank Whittle, English soldier and engineer, invented the jet engine (b. 1907)
+1999 – Helen Rollason, English sports journalist and sportscaster (b. 1956)
+  1999   – Fouad Serageddin, Egyptian journalist and politician (b. 1910)
+2000 – John Harsanyi, Hungarian-American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1920)
+  2000   – Nicholas Markowitz, American murder victim (b. 1984)
+2002 – Paul Samson, English guitarist (b. 1953)
+2003 – Jacques Deray, French director and screenwriter (b. 1929)
+  2003   – Ray Harford, English footballer and manager (b. 1945)
+  2003   – Gregory Hines, American actor, dancer, and choreographer (b. 1946)
+  2003   – R. Sivagurunathan, Sri Lankan lawyer, journalist, and academic (b. 1931)
+2004 – Robert Lecourt, French lawyer and politician, Lord Chancellor of France (b. 1908)
+  2004   – Tony Mottola, American guitarist and composer (b. 1918)
+  2004   – David Raksin, American composer and educator (b. 1912)
+2005 – Judith Rossner, American author (b. 1935)
+2006 – Philip E. High, English author (b. 1914)
+  2006   – James Van Allen, American physicist and academic (b. 1914)
+2007 – Joe O'Donnell, American photographer and journalist (b. 1922)
+2008 – Bernie Mac, American comedian, actor, screenwriter, and producer (b. 1957)
+  2008   – Mahmoud Darwish, Palestinian author and poet (b. 1941)
+2010 – Calvin "Fuzz" Jones, American singer and bass player (b. 1926)
+  2010   – Ted Stevens, American soldier, lawyer, and politician (b. 1923)
+2012 – Carl Davis, American record producer (b. 1934)
+  2012   – Gene F. Franklin, American engineer, theorist, and academic (b. 1927)
+  2012   – Al Freeman, Jr., American actor, director, and educator (b. 1934)
+  2012   – David Rakoff, Canadian-American actor and journalist (b. 1964)
+  2012   – Carmen Belen Richardson, Puerto Rican-American actress (b. 1930)
+  2012   – Mel Stuart, American director and producer (b. 1928)
+2013 – Harry Elliott, American baseball player and coach (b. 1923)
+  2013   – Eduardo Falú, Argentinian guitarist and composer (b. 1923)
+  2013   – William Lynch, Jr., American lawyer and politician (b. 1947)
+2014 – J. F. Ade Ajayi, Nigerian historian and academic (b. 1929)
+  2014   – Andriy Bal, Ukrainian footballer and coach (b. 1958)
+  2014   – Arthur G. Cohen, American businessman and philanthropist, co-founded Arlen Realty and Development Corporation (b. 1930)
+  2014   – Ed Nelson, American actor (b. 1928)
+2015 – Frank Gifford, American football player, sportscaster, and actor (b. 1930)
+  2015   – John Henry Holland, American computer scientist and academic (b. 1929)
+  2015   – Walter Nahún López, Honduran footballer (b. 1977)
+  2015   – David Nobbs, English author and screenwriter (b. 1935)
+  2015   – Kayyar Kinhanna Rai, Indian journalist, author, and poet (b. 1915)
+  2015   – Fikret Otyam, Turkish painter and journalist (b. 1926)
+2016 – Gerald Grosvenor, 6th Duke of Westminster, third-richest British citizen (b. 1951)
+2021 – Pat Hitchcock, English actress and producer (b. 1928)
+  2021   – Killer Kau, South African rapper, dancer and record producer (b. 1998)
+  2021   – Zairaini Sarbini, Malaysian voice actress (b. 1972)
+2023 – Robbie Robertson, Canadian singer-songwriter, guitarist, producer, and actor (b. 1943)
+
+Holidays and observances
+Battle of Gangut Day (Russia)
+Christian feast day:
+Candida Maria of Jesus
+Edith Stein (St Teresa Benedicta of the Cross)
+Firmus and Rusticus
+Herman of Alaska (Russian Orthodox Church and related congregations; Episcopal Church (USA))
+John Vianney (1950s – currently August 4)
+Mary Sumner (Church of England)
+Nath Í of Achonry
+Romanus Ostiarius
+Secundian, Marcellian and Verian
+August 9 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
+International Day of the World's Indigenous Peoples (United Nations)
+Meyboom (Brussels and Leuven, Belgium)
+National Day, celebrates the independence of Singapore from Malaysia in 1965.
+National Peacekeepers' Day, celebrated on Sunday closest to the day (Canada)
+National Women's Day (South Africa)
+
+References
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+External links
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+ 
+ 
+ 
+
+Days of the year
+August
+Aristophanes (; , ; c. 446 – c. 386 BC), son of Philippus, of the deme Kydathenaion (), was a comic playwright or comedy-writer of ancient Athens and a poet of Old Attic Comedy. Eleven of his forty plays survive virtually complete. These provide the most valuable examples of a genre of comic drama known as Old Comedy and are used to define it, along with fragments from dozens of lost plays by Aristophanes and his contemporaries.
+
+Also known as "The Father of Comedy" and "the Prince of Ancient Comedy", Aristophanes has been said to recreate the life of ancient Athens more convincingly than any other author. His powers of ridicule were feared and acknowledged by influential contemporaries; Plato singled out Aristophanes' play The Clouds as slander that contributed to the trial and subsequent condemning to death of Socrates, although other satirical playwrights had also caricatured the philosopher.
+
+Aristophanes' second play, The Babylonians (now lost), was denounced by Cleon as a slander against the Athenian polis. It is possible that the case was argued in court, but details of the trial are not recorded and Aristophanes caricatured Cleon mercilessly in his subsequent plays, especially The Knights, the first of many plays that he directed himself. "In my opinion," he says through that play's Chorus, "the author-director of comedies has the hardest job of all."
+
+Etymology
+Aristophanes's name means 'one who appears best', from the Greek 'ἄριστος' (Aristos) meaning "best" and 'φαίνομαι', meaning "appear".
+
+Biography
+
+Less is known about Aristophanes than about his plays. In fact, his plays are the main source of information about him and his life. It was conventional in Old Comedy for the chorus to speak on behalf of the author during an address called the parabasis and thus some biographical facts can be found there. However, these facts relate almost entirely to his career as a dramatist and the plays contain few clear and unambiguous clues about his personal beliefs or his private life. He was a comic poet in an age when it was conventional for a poet to assume the role of teacher (didaskalos), and though this specifically referred to his training of the Chorus in rehearsal, it also covered his relationship with the audience as a commentator on significant issues.
+
+Aristophanes claimed to be writing for a clever and discerning audience, yet he also declared that "other times" would judge the audience according to its reception of his plays. He sometimes boasts of his originality as a dramatist yet his plays consistently espouse opposition to radical new influences in Athenian society. He caricatured leading figures in the arts (notably Euripides, whose influence on his own work however he once grudgingly acknowledged), in politics (especially the populist Cleon), and in philosophy/religion (where Socrates was the most obvious target). Such caricatures seem to imply that Aristophanes was an old-fashioned conservative, yet that view of him leads to contradictions.
+
+It has been argued that Aristophanes produced plays mainly to entertain the audience and to win prestigious competitions. His plays were written for production at the great dramatic festivals of Athens, the Lenaia and City Dionysia, where they were judged and awarded prizes in competition with the works of other comic dramatists. An elaborate series of lotteries, designed to prevent prejudice and corruption, reduced the voting judges at the City Dionysia to just five. These judges probably reflected the mood of the audiences yet there is much uncertainty about the composition of those audiences. The theatres were certainly huge, with seating for at least 10,000 at the Theatre of Dionysus. The day's program at the City Dionysia for example was crowded, with three tragedies and a satyr play ahead of a comedy, but it is possible that many of the poorer citizens (typically the main supporters of demagogues like Cleon) occupied the festival holiday with other pursuits. The conservative views expressed in the plays might therefore reflect the attitudes of the dominant group in an unrepresentative audience.
+
+The production process might also have influenced the views expressed in the plays. Throughout most of Aristophanes' career, the Chorus was essential to a play's success and it was recruited and funded by a choregus, a wealthy citizen appointed to the task by one of the archons. A choregus could regard his personal expenditure on the Chorus as a civic duty and a public honour, but Aristophanes showed in The Knights that wealthy citizens might regard civic responsibilities as punishment imposed on them by demagogues and populists like Cleon. Thus the political conservatism of the plays may reflect the views of the wealthiest section of Athenian society, on whose generosity all dramatists depended for putting on their plays.
+
+When Aristophanes' first play The Banqueters was produced, Athens was an ambitious, imperial power and the Peloponnesian War was only in its fourth year. His plays often express pride in the achievement of the older generation (the victors at Marathon) yet they are not jingoistic, and they are staunchly opposed to the war with Sparta. The plays are particularly scathing in criticism of war profiteers, among whom populists such as Cleon figure prominently. By the time his last play was produced (around 386 BC) Athens had been defeated in war, its empire had been dismantled and it had undergone a transformation from being the political to the intellectual centre of Greece. Aristophanes was part of this transformation and he shared in the intellectual fashions of the period—the structure of his plays evolves from Old Comedy until, in his last surviving play, Wealth II, it more closely resembles New Comedy. However it is uncertain whether he led or merely responded to changes in audience expectations.
+
+Aristophanes won second prize at the City Dionysia in 427 BC with his first play The Banqueters (now lost). He won first prize there with his next play, The Babylonians (also now lost). It was usual for foreign dignitaries to attend the City Dionysia, and The Babylonians caused some embarrassment for the Athenian authorities since it depicted the cities of the Delian League as slaves grinding at a mill. Some influential citizens, notably Cleon, reviled the play as slander against the polis and possibly took legal action against the author. The details of the trial are unrecorded but, speaking through the hero of his third play The Acharnians (staged at the Lenaia, where there were few or no foreign dignitaries), the poet carefully distinguishes between the polis and the real targets of his acerbic wit:
+
+Aristophanes repeatedly savages Cleon in his later plays. But these satirical diatribes appear to have had no effect on Cleon's political career—a few weeks after the performance of The Knights—a play full of anti-Cleon jokes—Cleon was elected to the prestigious board of ten generals. Cleon also seems to have had no real power to limit or control Aristophanes: the caricatures of him continued up to and even beyond his death.
+
+In the absence of clear biographical facts about Aristophanes, scholars make educated guesses based on interpretation of the language in the plays. Inscriptions and summaries or comments by Hellenistic and Byzantine scholars can also provide useful clues. We know from a combination of these sources, and especially from comments in The Knights and The Clouds, that Aristophanes' first three plays were not directed by him;  they were instead directed by Callistratus and Philoneides, an arrangement that seemed to suit Aristophanes since he appears to have used these same directors in many later plays as well (Philoneides for example later directed The Frogs and he was also credited, perhaps wrongly, with directing The Wasps). Aristophanes's use of directors complicates our reliance on the plays as sources of biographical information, because apparent self-references might have been made with reference to his directors instead. Thus, for example, a statement by the chorus in The Acharnians seems to indicate that the "poet" had a close, personal association with the island of Aegina. Similarly, the hero in The Acharnians complains about Cleon "dragging me into court" over "last year's play."
+
+Comments made by the Chorus referring to Aristophanes in The Clouds have been interpreted as evidence that he can hardly have been more than 18 years old when his first play The Banqueters was produced. The second parabasis in Wasps appears to indicate that he reached some kind of temporary accommodation with Cleon following either the controversy over The Babylonians or a subsequent controversy over The Knights. It has been inferred from statements in The Clouds and Peace that Aristophanes was prematurely bald.
+
+Aristophanes was probably victorious at least once at the City Dionysia, with Babylonians in 427, and at least three times at the Lenaia, with The Acharnians in 425, Knights in 424, and Frogs in 405. Frogs in fact won the unique distinction of a repeat performance at a subsequent festival. A son of Aristophanes, Araros, was also a comic poet and he could have been heavily involved in the production of his father's play Wealth II in 388. Araros is also thought to have been responsible for the posthumous performances of the now lost plays Aeolosicon II and Cocalus, and it is possible that the last of these won the prize at the City Dionysia in 387. It appears that a second son, Philippus, was twice victorious at the Lenaia and he could have directed some of Eubulus’ comedies. A third son was called either Nicostratus or Philetaerus, and a man by the latter name appears in the catalogue of Lenaia victors with two victories, the first probably in the late 370s.
+
+Plato's The Symposium appears to be a useful source of biographical information about Aristophanes, but its reliability is open to doubt. It purports to be a record of conversations at a dinner party at which both Aristophanes and Socrates are guests, held some seven years after the performance of The Clouds, the play in which Socrates was cruelly caricatured. One of the guests, Alcibiades, even quotes from the play when teasing Socrates over his appearance and yet there is no indication of any ill-feeling between Socrates and Aristophanes. Plato's Aristophanes is in fact a genial character and this has been interpreted as evidence of Plato's own friendship with him (their friendship appears to be corroborated by an epitaph for Aristophanes, reputedly written by Plato, in which the playwright's soul is compared to an eternal shrine for the Graces). Plato was only a boy when the events in The Symposium are supposed to have occurred and it is possible that his Aristophanes is in fact based on a reading of the plays. For example, conversation among the guests turns to the subject of Love and Aristophanes explains his notion of it in terms of an amusing allegory, a device he often uses in his plays. He is represented as suffering an attack of hiccups and this might be a humorous reference to the crude physical jokes in his plays. He tells the other guests that he is quite happy to be thought amusing but he is wary of appearing ridiculous. This fear of being ridiculed is consistent with his declaration in The Knights that he embarked on the career of comic playwright warily after witnessing the public contempt and ridicule that other dramatists had incurred.
+
+Aristophanes survived The Peloponnesian War, two oligarchic revolutions and two democratic restorations; this has been interpreted as evidence that he was not actively involved in politics, despite his highly political plays. He was probably appointed to the Council of Five Hundred for a year at the beginning of the fourth century, but such appointments were very common in democratic Athens.
+
+Use of language
+
+The language of Aristophanes' plays, and in Old Comedy generally, was valued by ancient commentators as a model of the Attic dialect. The orator Quintilian believed that the charm and grandeur of the Attic dialect made Old Comedy an example for orators to study and follow, and he considered it inferior in these respects only to the works of Homer. A revival of interest in the Attic dialect may have been responsible for the recovery and circulation of Aristophanes' plays during the fourth and fifth centuries AD, resulting in their survival today. In Aristophanes' plays, the Attic dialect is couched in verse and his plays can be appreciated for their poetic qualities.
+
+For Aristophanes' contemporaries the works of Homer and Hesiod formed the cornerstones of Hellenic history and culture. Thus poetry had a moral and social significance that made it an inevitable topic of comic satire. Aristophanes was very conscious of literary fashions and traditions and his plays feature numerous references to other poets. These include not only rival comic dramatists such as Eupolis and Hermippus and predecessors such as Magnes, Crates and Cratinus, but also tragedians, notably Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, all three of whom are mentioned in e.g. The Frogs. Aristophanes was the equal of these great tragedians in his subtle use of lyrics. He appears to have modelled his approach to language on that of Euripides in particular, so much so that the comic dramatist Cratinus labelled him a 'Euripidaristophanist' addicted to hair-splitting niceties.
+
+A full appreciation of Aristophanes' plays requires an understanding of the poetic forms he employed with virtuoso skill, and of their different rhythms and associations. There were three broad poetic forms: iambic dialogue, tetrameter verses and lyrics:
+ Iambic dialogue: Aristophanes achieves an effect resembling natural speech through the use of the iambic trimeter (corresponding to the effects achieved by English poets such as Shakespeare using iambic pentameters). His realistic use of the meter makes it ideal for both dialogue and soliloquy, as for instance in the prologue, before the arrival of the Chorus, when the audience is introduced to the main issues in the plot. The Acharnians opens with these three lines by the hero, Dikaiopolis (rendered here in English as iambic pentameters):
+
+How many are the things that vex my heart!
+Pleasures are few, so very few – just four –
+But stressful things are manysandthousandsandheaps!
+
+Here Aristophanes employs a frequent device, arranging the syntax so that the final word in a line comes as a comic climax. The hero's pleasures are so few he can number them (, four) but his causes for complaint are so many they beggar numerical description and he must invent his own word for them (, literally "sandhundredheaps", here paraphrased "manysandthousandsandheaps"). The use of invented compound words is another comic device frequently found in the plays.
+ Tetrameter catalectic verses: These are long lines of anapests, trochees or iambs (where each line is ideally measured in four dipodes or pairs of feet), used in various situations within each play such as:
+ formal debates or agons between characters (typically in anapestic rhythm);
+ excited dialogue or heated argument (typically trochaic rhythm, the same as in early tragedy);
+ long speeches declaimed by the Chorus in parabases (in either anapestic or trochaic rhythms);
+ informal debates barely above the level of ordinary dialogue (typically iambic).
+Anapestic rhythms are naturally jaunty (as in many limericks) and trochaic meter is suited to rapid delivery (the word "trochee" is in fact derived from trechein, "to run", as demonstrated for example by choruses who enter at speed, often in aggressive mood) However, even though both these rhythms can seem to "bowl along" Aristophanes often varies them through use of complex syntax and substituted meters, adapting the rhythms to the requirements of serious argument. In an anapestic passage in The Frogs, for instance, the character Aeschylus presents a view of poetry that is supposed to be serious but which leads to a comic interruption by the god, Dionysus:
+
+AES.:It was Orpheus singing who taught us religion and how wrong people are when they kill,
+And we learned from Musaeus medicinal cures and the science of divination.
+If it's farming you want, Hesiod knows it all, when to plant, when to harvest. How godlike
+Homer got to be famous, I'll tell if you ask: he taught us what all good men should know,
+Discipline, fortitude, battle-readiness. DIO.: But no-one taught Pantocles – yesterday
+He was marching his men up and down on parade when the crest of his helmet fell off!
+
+The rhythm begins at a typical anapestic gallop, slows down to consider the revered poets Hesiod and Homer, then gallops off again to its comic conclusion at the expense of the unfortunate Pantocles. Such subtle variations in rhythm are common in the plays, allowing for serious points to be made while still whetting the audience's appetite for the next joke.
+ Lyrics: Almost nothing is known about the music that accompanied Greek lyrics, and the meter is often so varied and complex that it is difficult for modern readers or audiences to get a feel for the intended effects, yet Aristophanes still impresses with the charm and simplicity of his lyrics. Some of the most memorable and haunting lyrics are dignified hymns set free of the comic action. In the example below, taken from The Wasps, the lyric is merely a comic interlude and the rhythm is steadily trochaic. The syntax in the original Greek is natural and unforced and it was probably accompanied by brisk and cheerful music, gliding to a concluding pun at the expense of Amynias, who is thought to have lost his fortune gambling.
+Though to myself I often seem
+A bright chap and not awkward,
+None comes close to Amynias,
+Son of Sellos of the Bigwig
+Clan, a man I once saw
+Dine with rich Leogorus.
+Now as poor as Antiphon,
+He lives on apples and pomegranates
+Yet he got himself appointed
+Ambassador to Pharsalus,
+Way up there in Thessaly,
+Home of the poor Penestes:
+Happy to be where everyone
+Is as penniless as he is!
+
+The pun here in English translation (Penestes–penniless) is a weak version of the Greek pun , Penéstaisi-penéstĕs, "destitute". Many of the puns in the plays are based on words that are similar rather than identical, and it has been observed that there could be more of them than scholars have yet been able to identify. Others are based on double meanings. Sometimes entire scenes are constructed on puns, as in The Acharnians with the Megarian farmer and his pigs: the Megarian farmer defies the Athenian embargo against Megarian trade, and tries to trade his daughters disguised as pigs, except "pig" was ancient slang for "vagina". Since the embargo against Megara was the pretext for the Peloponnesian War, Aristophanes naturally concludes that this whole mess happened because of "three cunts".
+
+It can be argued that the most important feature of the language of the plays is imagery, particularly the use of similes, metaphors and pictorial expressions. In The Knights, for example, the ears of a character with selective hearing are represented as parasols that open and close. In The Frogs, Aeschylus is said to compose verses in the manner of a horse rolling in a sandpit. Some plays feature revelations of human perfectibility that are poetic rather than religious in character, such as the marriage of the hero Pisthetairos to Zeus's paramour in The Birds and the "recreation" of old Athens, crowned with roses, at the end of The Knights.
+
+Rhetoric
+It is widely believed that Aristophanes condemned rhetoric on both moral and political grounds. He states, "a speaker trained in the new rhetoric may use his talents to deceive the jury and bewilder his opponents so thoroughly that the trial loses all semblance of fairness" He is speaking to the "art" of flattery, and evidence points towards the fact that many of Aristophanes' plays were actually created with the intent to attack the view of rhetoric. The most noticeable attack can be seen in his play Banqueters, in which two brothers from different educational backgrounds argue over which education is better. One brother comes from a background of "old-fashioned" education while the other brother appears to be a product of the sophistic education
+
+The chorus was mainly used by Aristophanes as a defense against rhetoric and would often talk about topics such as the civic duty of those who were educated in classical teachings. In Aristophanes' opinion it was the job of those educated adults to protect the public from deception and to stand as a beacon of light for those who were more gullible than others. One of the main reasons why Aristophanes was so against the sophists came into existence from the requirements listed by the leaders of the organization. Money was essential, which meant that roughly all of the pupils studying with the sophists came from upper-class backgrounds and excluded the rest of the polis. Aristophanes believed that education and knowledge was a public service and that anything that excluded willing minds was nothing but an abomination. He concludes that all politicians that study rhetoric must have "doubtful citizenships, unspeakable morals, and too much arrogance".
+
+Aristophanes and Old Comedy
+
+The plays of Aristophanes are among the defining examples of Old Comedy. Aristophanes' plays are also the only full length Old Comedy plays that have survived from antiquity. Thus making them literally among the most defining elements, for defining Old Comedy... For this reason, an understanding of Old Comedy and Aristophanes' place in it is useful to comprehend his plays in their historical and cultural context.  The themes of Old Comedy included: 
+
+ Inclusive comedy: Old Comedy provided a variety of entertainments for a diverse audience. It accommodated a serious purpose, light entertainment, hauntingly beautiful lyrics, the buffoonery of puns and invented words, obscenities, disciplined verse, wildly absurd plots and a formal, dramatic structure.
+ Fantasy and absurdity: Fantasy in Old Comedy is unrestricted and impossibilities are ignored. Situations are developed logically to absurd conclusions, an approach to humour that is echoed for instance in the works of Lewis Carroll and Eugène Ionesco (the Theatre of the Absurd). The crazy costume worn by Dionysus in The Frogs is typical of an absurd result obtained on logical grounds—he wears a woman's saffron-coloured tunic because effeminacy is an aspect of his divinity, buskin boots because he is interested in reviving the art of tragedy, and a lion skin cape because, like Heracles, his mission leads him into Hades. Absurdities develop logically from initial premises in a plot. In The Knights for instance, Cleon's corrupt service to the people of Athens is originally depicted as a household relationship in which the slave dupes his master. The introduction of a rival, who is not a member of the household, leads to an absurd shift in the metaphor, so that Cleon and his rival become erastai competing for the affections of an eromenos, hawkers of oracles competing for the attention of a credulous public, athletes in a race for approval and orators competing for the popular vote.
+ The resourceful hero: In Aristophanic comedy, the hero is an independent-minded and self-reliant individual. He has something of the ingenuity of Homer's Odysseus and much of the shrewdness of the farmer idealized in Hesiod's Works and Days, subjected to corrupt leaders and unreliable neighbours. Typically he devises a complicated and highly fanciful escape from an intolerable situation. Thus Dikaiopolis in The Acharnians contrives a private peace treaty with the Spartans; Bdelucleon in The Wasps turns his own house into a private law court in order to keep his jury-addicted father safely at home; Trygaeus in Peace flies to Olympus on a giant dung beetle to obtain an end to the Peloponnesian War; Pisthetairus in Birds sets off to establish his own colony and becomes instead the ruler of the bird kingdom and a rival to the gods.
+ The resourceful cast: The numerous surprising developments in an Aristophanic plot, the changes in scene, and the farcical comings and goings of minor characters towards the end of a play, were managed according to theatrical convention with only three principal actors (a fourth actor, often the leader of the chorus, was permitted to deliver short speeches). Songs and addresses to the audience by the Chorus gave the actors hardly enough time off-stage to draw breath and to prepare for changes in scene.
+ Complex structure: The action of an Aristophanic play obeyed a crazy logic of its own and yet it always unfolded within a formal, dramatic structure that was repeated with minor variations from one play to another. The different, structural elements are associated with different poetic meters and rhythms and these are generally lost in English translations.
+
+Dramatic structure of Aristophanes' plots
+The structural elements of a typical Aristophanic plot can be summarized as follows:
+ prologue – an introductory scene with a dialogue and/or soliloquy addressed to the audience, expressed in iambic trimeter and explaining the situation that is to be resolved in the play;
+ parodos – the arrival of the chorus, dancing and singing, sometimes followed by a choreographed skirmish with one or more actors, often expressed in long lines of tetrameters;
+ symmetrical scenes – passages featuring songs and declaimed verses in long lines of tetrameters, arranged symmetrically in two sections such that each half resembles the other in meter and line length; the agon and parabasis can be considered specific instances of symmetrical scenes:
+ parabasis – verses through which the Chorus addresses the audience directly, firstly in the middle of the play and again near the end (see the section below, Parabasis);
+ agon – a formal debate that decides the outcome of the play, typically in anapestic tetrameter, though iambs are sometimes used to delineate inferior arguments;
+ episodes – sections of dialogue in iambic trimeter, often in a succession of scenes featuring minor characters towards the end of a play;
+ songs ('strophes'/'antistrophes' or 'odes'/'antodes') – often in symmetrical pairs where each half has the same meter and number of lines as the other, used as transitions between other structural elements, or between scenes while actors change costume, and often commenting on the action;
+ exodus – the departure of the Chorus and the actors, in song and dance celebrating the hero's victory and sometimes celebrating a symbolic marriage.
+The rules of competition did not prevent a playwright arranging and adjusting these elements to suit his particular needs. In The Acharnians and Peace, for example, there is no formal agon whereas in The Clouds there are two agons.
+
+Parabasis
+The parabasis is an address to the audience by the chorus or chorus leader while the actors leave or have left the stage. In this role, the chorus is sometimes out of character, as the author's voice, and sometimes in character, although these capacities are often difficult to distinguish. Generally the parabasis occurs somewhere in the middle of a play and often there is a second parabasis towards the end. The elements of a parabasis have been defined and named by scholars but it is probable that Aristophanes' own understanding was less formal. The selection of elements can vary from play to play and it varies considerably within plays between first and second parabasis. The early plays (The Acharnians to The Birds) are fairly uniform in their approach however and the following elements of a parabasis can be found within them.
+ kommation: This is a brief prelude, comprising short lines and often including a valediction to the departing actors, such as  (Go rejoicing!).
+ parabasis proper: This is usually a defense of the author's work and it includes criticism of the audience's attitude. It is declaimed in long lines of 'anapestic tetrameters'. Aristophanes himself refers to the parabasis proper only as 'anapests'.
+ pnigos: Sometimes known as 'a choker', it comprises a few short lines appended to the parabasis proper as a kind of rapid patter (it has been suggested that some of the effects achieved in a pnigos can be heard in "The Lord Chancellor's Nightmare Song", in act 2 of Gilbert and Sullivan's Iolanthe).
+ epirrhematic syzygies: These are symmetrical scenes that mirror each other in meter and number of lines. They form part of the first parabasis and they often comprise the entire second parabasis. They are characterized by the following elements:
+ strophe or ode: These are lyrics in a variety of meters, sung by the Chorus in the first parabasis as an invocation to the gods and as a comic interlude in the second parabasis.
+ epirrhema: These are usually long lines of trochaic tetrameters. Broadly political in their significance, they were probably spoken by the leader of the Chorus in character.
+ antistrophe or antode: These are songs that mirror the strophe/ode in meter, length and function.
+ antepirrhema. This is another declaimed passage and it mirrors the epirrhema in meter, length and function.
+
+The Wasps is thought to offer the best example of a conventional approach and the elements of a parabasis can be identified and located in that play as follows.
+
+{| class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto; background-color: #ffffff"
+! Elements in The Wasps
+! 1st parabasis
+! 2nd parabasis
+|-
+| kommation
+| lines 1009–1014
+| ---
+|-
+| parabasis proper
+| lines 1015–1050
+| ---
+|-
+| pnigos
+| lines 1051–1059
+| ---
+|-
+| strophe
+| lines 1060–1070
+| lines 1265–1274
+|-
+| epirrhema
+| lines 1071–1090
+| lines 1275–1283
+|-
+| antistrophe
+| lines 1091–1101
+| missing
+|-
+| antepirrhema
+| lines 1102–1121
+| lines 1284–1291
+|}
+
+Textual corruption is probably the reason for the absence of the antistrophe in the second parabasis.
+However, there are several variations from the ideal even within the early plays. For example, the parabasis proper in The Clouds (lines 518–562) is composed in eupolidean meter rather than in anapests and the second parabasis includes a kommation but it lacks strophe, antistrophe and antepirrhema (The Clouds lines 1113–1130). The second parabasis in The Acharnians lines 971–999 can be considered a hybrid parabasis/song (i.e. the declaimed sections are merely continuations of the strophe and antistrophe) and, unlike the typical parabasis, it seems to comment on actions that occur on stage during the address. An understanding of Old Comedy conventions such as the parabasis is necessary for a proper understanding of Aristophanes' plays; on the other hand, a sensitive appreciation of the plays is necessary for a proper understanding of the conventions.
+
+Influence and legacy
+
+The tragic dramatists, Sophocles and Euripides, died near the end of the Peloponnesian War and the art of tragedy thereafter ceased to develop, yet comedy did continue to evolve after the defeat of Athens and it is possible that it did so because, in Aristophanes, it had a master craftsman who lived long enough to help usher it into a new age. Indeed, according to one ancient source (Platonius, c.9th Century AD), one of Aristophanes's last plays, Aioliskon, had neither a parabasis nor any choral lyrics (making it a type of Middle Comedy), while Kolakos anticipated all the elements of New Comedy, including a rape and a recognition scene. Aristophanes seems to have had some appreciation of his formative role in the development of comedy, as indicated by his comment in Clouds that his audience would be judged by other times according to its reception of his plays. Clouds was awarded third (i.e. last) place after its original performance and the text that has come down to the modern age was a subsequent draft that Aristophanes intended to be read rather than acted. The circulation of his plays in manuscript extended their influence beyond the original audience, over whom in fact they seem to have had little or no practical influence: they did not affect the career of Cleon, they failed to persuade the Athenians to pursue an honourable peace with Sparta and it is not clear that they were instrumental in the trial and execution of Socrates, whose death probably resulted from public animosity towards the philosopher's disgraced associates (such as Alcibiades), exacerbated of course by his own intransigence during the trial. The plays, in manuscript form, have been put to some surprising uses—as indicated earlier, they were used in the study of rhetoric on the recommendation of Quintilian and by students of the Attic dialect in the Fourth and Fifth Centuries AD. It is possible that Plato sent copies of the plays to Dionysius of Syracuse so that he might learn about Athenian life and government.
+
+Latin translations of the plays by Andreas Divus (Venice 1528) were circulated widely throughout Europe in the Renaissance and these were soon followed by translations and adaptations in modern languages. Racine, for example, drew Les Plaideurs (1668) from The Wasps. Goethe (who turned to Aristophanes for a warmer and more vivid form of comedy than he could derive from readings of Terence and Plautus) adapted a short play Die Vögel from The Birds for performance in Weimar. Aristophanes has appealed to both conservatives and radicals in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries—Anatoly Lunacharsky, first Commissar of Enlightenment for the USSR in 1917, declared that the ancient dramatist would have a permanent place in proletarian theatre and yet conservative, Prussian intellectuals interpreted Aristophanes as a satirical opponent of social reform. The avant-gardist stage-director Karolos Koun directed a version of The Birds under the Acropolis in 1959 that established a trend in modern Greek history of breaking taboos through the voice of Aristophanes.
+
+The plays have a significance that goes beyond their artistic function, as historical documents that open the window on life and politics in classical Athens, in which respect they are perhaps as important as the writings of Thucydides. The artistic influence of the plays is immeasurable. They have contributed to the history of European theatre and that history in turn shapes our understanding of the plays. Thus for example the operettas of Gilbert and Sullivan can give us insights into Aristophanes' plays and similarly the plays can give us insights into the operettas. The plays are a source of famous sayings, such as "By words the mind is winged."
+
+Listed below are some of the many works influenced (more or less) by Aristophanes.
+
+Drama
+ 1909: Wasps, original Greek, Cambridge University undergraduate production, music by Vaughan Williams;
+ 2004, July–October: The Frogs (musical), adapted by Nathan Lane, music and lyrics by Stephen Sondheim, performed at The Vivian Beaumont Theater Broadway;
+ 1962–2006: various plays by students and staff, King's College London, in the original Greek: Frogs 1962, 1971, 1988; Thesmophoriazusae 1965, 1974, 1985; The Acharnians 1968, 1992, 2004; Clouds 1977, 1990; Birds 1982, 2000; Ecclesiazusae 2006; Peace 1970; Wasps 1981
+ 2002: Lysistrata, adapted by Robert Brustein, music by Galt MacDermot, performed by American Repertory Theatre, Boston US;
+ 2008, May–June: Frogs, adapted by David Greenspan, music by Thomas Cabaniss, performed by Classic Stage Company, New York, US.
+ 2023, May: The Wasps, adapted by the NSW Arts Unit Drama Company, directed by Genevieve de Souza, NIDA
+
+Literature
+ The romantic poet, Percy Shelley, wrote a comic, lyrical drama (Swellfoot the Tyrant) in imitation of Aristophanes' play The Frogs after he was reminded of the Chorus in that play by a herd of pigs passing to market under the window of his lodgings in San Giuliano, Italy.
+ Aristophanes (particularly in reference to The Clouds) is mentioned frequently by the character Menedemos in the Hellenic Traders series of novels by H. N. Turteltaub.
+ A liberal version of the comedies have been published in comic book format, initially by "Agrotikes Ekdoseis" during the 1980s and republished over the years by other companies. The plot was written by Tasos Apostolidis and the sketches were of George Akokalidis. The stories feature either Aristophanes narrating them, directing the play, or even as a character inside one of his stories.
+
+Radio shows
+ Acropolis Now is a comedy radio show for the BBC set in Ancient Greece. It features Aristophanes, Socrates and many other famous Greeks. (Not to be confused with the Australian sitcom of the same name.) Aristophanes is characterised as a celebrity playwright, and most of his plays have the title formula: One of Our [e.g] Slaves has an Enormous Knob (a reference to the exaggerated appendages worn by Greek comic actors)
+ Aristophanes Against the World was a radio play by Martyn Wade and broadcast on BBC Radio 4. Loosely based on several of his plays, it featured Clive Merrison as Aristophanes.
+ The Wasps, radio play adapted by David Pountney, music by Vaughan Williams, recorded 26–28 July 2005, Albert Halls, Bolten, in association with BBC, under Halle label
+
+Music
+ Satiric Dances for a Comedy by Aristophanes is a three-movement piece for concert band composed by Norman Dello Joio. It was commissioned in commemoration of the Bicentennial of 19 April 1775 (the start of the American Revolutionary War) by the Concord (Massachusetts) Band. The commission was funded by the Town of Concord and assistance was given by the Eastern National Park and Monument Association in cooperation with the National Park Service.
+ Ralph Vaughan Williams wrote The Wasps for a 1909 Cambridge University production of the play.
+
+Translation of Aristophanes 
+Alan H. Sommerstein believes that although there are good translations of Aristophanes' comedies, none could be flawless, "for there is much truth in the paradox that the only really perfect translation is the original." Nevertheless, there are competent, respectable translations in many languages. Despite the fact that translations of Aristophanes may not be perfect, "the reception of Aristophanes has gained extraordinary momentum as a topic of academic interest in the last few years."
+
+Works
+
+Surviving plays
+
+Most of these are traditionally referred to by abbreviations of their Latin titles; Latin remains a customary language of scholarship in classical studies.
+ The Acharnians ( Akharneis; Attic ; ), 425 BC
+ The Knights ( Hippeis; Attic ; Latin: ), 424 BC
+ The Clouds ( Nephelai; Latin: ), original 423 BC, uncompleted revised version from 419 to 416 BC survives
+ The Wasps ( Sphekes; Latin: ), 422 BC
+ Peace ( Eirene; Latin: ), first version, 421 BC
+ The Birds ( Ornithes; Latin: ), 414 BC
+ Lysistrata ( Lysistrate), 411 BC
+ Thesmophoriazusae or The Women Celebrating the Thesmophoria ( Thesmophoriazousai), first version 
+ The Frogs ( Batrakhoi; Latin: ), 405 BC
+ Ecclesiazusae or The Assemblywomen; ( Ekklesiazousai), 
+ Wealth ( Ploutos; Latin Plutus) second version, 388 BC
+
+Datable non-surviving (lost) plays
+The standard modern edition of the fragments is Rudolf Kassel and Colin François Lloyd Austin's, Poetae Comici Graeci III.2.
+
+ Banqueters (Δαιταλεῖς Daitaleis, 427 BC)
+ Babylonians (Βαβυλώνιοι Babylonioi, 426 BC)
+ Farmers (Γεωργοί Georgoi, 424 BC)
+ Merchant Ships (Ὁλκάδες Holkades, 423 BC)
+ Clouds (first version, 423 BC)
+ Proagon (Προάγων, 422 BC)
+ Amphiaraus (Ἀμφιάραος, 414 BC)
+ Plutus (Wealth, first version, 408 BC)
+ Gerytades (Γηρυτάδης, uncertain, probably 407 BC)
+ Cocalus (Κώκαλος, 387 BC)
+ Aiolosicon (Αἰολοσίκων, second version, 386 BC)
+
+Undated non-surviving (lost) plays
+
+ Aiolosicon (first version)
+ Anagyrus (Ἀνάγυρος)
+ Frying-Pan Men (Ταγηνισταί Tagenistai)
+ Daedalus (Δαίδαλος)
+ Danaids (Δαναΐδες Danaides)
+ Centaur (Κένταυρος Kentauros)
+ Heroes (Ἥρωες)
+ Lemnian Women (Λήμνιαι Lemniai)
+ Old Age (Γῆρας Geras)
+ Peace (second version)
+ Phoenician Women (Φοίνισσαι Phoinissai)
+ Polyidus (Πολύιδος)
+ Seasons (Ὧραι Horai)
+ Storks (Πελαργοί Pelargoi)
+ Telmessians (Τελμησσεῖς Telmesseis)
+ Triphales (Τριφάλης)
+ Thesmophoriazusae (Women at the Thesmophoria Festival, second version)
+ Women in Tents (Σκηνὰς Καταλαμβάνουσαι Skenas Katalambanousai)
+
+Attributed (doubtful, possibly by Archippus)
+
+See also
+ Agathon
+ Ancient Greek comedy
+ Asteroid 2934 Aristophanes, named after the dramatist
+ Greek literature
+ Onomasti komodein, the witty personal attack made with total freedom against the most notable individuals
+ Hubert Parry wrote music for The Birds
+ Theatre of ancient Greece
+ Codex Ravennas 429
+
+Notes
+
+References
+ 
+ 
+ 
+ 
+ 
+
+ 
+ 
+ 
+ 
+ 
+ 
+ 
+ 
+ 
+ 
+ 
+ 
+ 
+ 
+ 
+ 
+ 
+ 
+ 
+ 
+ reviewed  by W. J. Slater, Phoenix, Vol. 30, No. 3 (Autumn, 1976), pp. 291–293 
+ Lee, Jae Num. "Scatology in Continental Satirical Writings from Aristophanes to Rabelais" and "English Scatological Writings from Skelton to Pope." Swift and Scatological Satire. Albuquerque: U of New Mexico P, 1971. 7–22; 23–53.
+ 
+ Aristophanes and the Comic Hero by Cedric H. Whitman Author(s) of Review: H. Lloyd Stow The American Journal of Philology, Vol. 87, No. 1 (Jan., 1966), pp. 111–113
+ 
+ 
+ 
+ G. M. Sifakis The Structure of Aristophanic Comedy The Journal of Hellenic Studies, Vol. 112, 1992 (1992), pp. 123–142 
+ 
+ 
+ Van Steen, Gonda. 2000 Venom in Verse: Aristophanes in Modern Greece. Princeton University Press.
+ Jstor.org, The American Journal of Philology, 1996.
+ Life, death and Aristophanes' concept of Eros in Saul Bellow's "Ravelstein".
+
+Further reading
+ The Eleven Comedies (in translation) at the University of Adelaide Library
+
+External links
+
+ 
+ 
+ 
+ 
+ 
+
+ 
+440s BC births
+Year of birth unknown
+380s BC deaths
+Year of death unknown
+4th-century BC Athenians
+4th-century BC writers
+5th-century BC Athenians
+5th-century BC writers
+Ancient Athenians
+Ancient Athenian dramatists and playwrights
+Ancient Greek satirists
+Old Comic poets
+Writers of lost works
+Ludwig Philipp Albert Schweitzer  (; 14 January 1875 – 4 September 1965) was an Alsatian polymath. He was a theologian, organist, musicologist, writer, humanitarian, philosopher, and physician. A Lutheran minister, Schweitzer challenged both the secular view of Jesus as depicted by the historical-critical method current at this time, as well as the traditional Christian view. His contributions to the interpretation of Pauline Christianity concern the role of Paul's mysticism of "being in Christ" as primary and the doctrine of justification by faith as secondary.
+
+He received the 1952 Nobel Peace Prize for his philosophy of "Reverence for Life", becoming the eighth Frenchman to be awarded that prize. His philosophy was expressed in many ways, but most famously in founding and sustaining the Hôpital Albert Schweitzer in Lambaréné, French Equatorial Africa (now Gabon). As a music scholar and organist, he studied the music of German composer Johann Sebastian Bach and influenced the Organ Reform Movement (Orgelbewegung).
+
+Early years
+
+Schweitzer was born 14 January 1875 in Kaysersberg in Alsace, in what had less than four years previously become the Imperial Territory of Alsace-Lorraine in the German Empire after being French for more than two centuries; he later became a citizen of France after World War I, when Alsace became French territory again. He was the son of Louis Schweitzer and Adèle Schillinger. He spent his childhood in Gunsbach, also in Alsace, where his father, the local Lutheran-Evangelical pastor of the EPCAAL, taught him how to play music. The tiny village would become home to the Association Internationale Albert Schweitzer (AIAS). The medieval parish church of Gunsbach was shared by the Protestant and Catholic congregations, which held their prayers in different areas at different times on Sundays. This compromise arose after the Protestant Reformation and the Thirty Years' War. Schweitzer, the pastor's son, grew up in this exceptional environment of religious tolerance, and developed the belief that true Christianity should always work towards a unity of faith and purpose.
+
+Schweitzer's first language was the Alsatian dialect of German. At the Mulhouse gymnasium he received his "Abitur" (the certificate at the end of secondary education) in 1893. He studied organ in Mulhouse from 1885 to 1893 with Eugène Munch, organist at the Protestant cathedral, who inspired Schweitzer with his enthusiasm for the music of German composer Richard Wagner. In 1893, he played for the French organist Charles-Marie Widor (at Saint-Sulpice, Paris), for whom Johann Sebastian Bach's organ music contained a mystic sense of the eternal. Widor, deeply impressed, agreed to teach Schweitzer without fee, and a great and influential friendship thus began.
+
+From 1893 Schweitzer studied Protestant theology at the Kaiser Wilhelm University in Strasbourg. There he also received instruction in piano and counterpoint from professor Gustav Jacobsthal, and associated closely with Ernest Munch, the brother of his former teacher, organist of St William church, who was also a passionate admirer of J. S. Bach's music. Schweitzer served his one-year compulsory military service in 1894. Schweitzer saw many operas of Richard Wagner in Strasbourg (under Otto Lohse) and in 1896 he managed to afford a visit to the Bayreuth Festival to see Wagner's Der Ring des Nibelungen and Parsifal, both of which impressed him. In 1898, he returned to Paris to write a PhD dissertation on The Religious Philosophy of Kant at the Sorbonne, and to study in earnest with Widor. Here he often met with the elderly Aristide Cavaillé-Coll. He also studied piano at that time with Marie Jaëll. In 1899, Schweitzer spent the summer semester at the University of Berlin and eventually obtained his theology degree at the University of Strasbourg. He published his PhD thesis at the University of Tübingen in 1899.
+
+In 1905, Schweitzer began his study of medicine at the University of Strasbourg, culminating in the degree of M.D. in 1913.
+
+Music
+Schweitzer rapidly gained prominence as a musical scholar and organist, dedicated also to the rescue, restoration and study of historic pipe organs. With theological insight, he interpreted the use of pictorial and symbolical representation in J. S. Bach's religious music. In 1899, he astonished Widor by explaining figures and motifs in Bach's Chorale Preludes as painter-like tonal and rhythmic imagery illustrating themes from the words of the hymns on which they were based. They were works of devotional contemplation in which the musical design corresponded to literary ideas, conceived visually. Widor had not grown up with knowledge of the old Lutheran hymns.
+
+The exposition of these ideas, encouraged by Widor and Munch, became Schweitzer's last task, and appeared in the masterly study J. S. Bach: Le Musicien-Poète, written in French and published in 1905. There was great demand for a German edition, but, instead of translating it, he decided to rewrite it. The result was two volumes (J. S. Bach), which were published in 1908 and translated into English by Ernest Newman in 1911. Ernst Cassirer, a contemporaneous German philosopher, called it "one of the best interpretations" of Bach. During its preparation Schweitzer became a friend of Cosima Wagner, then resident in Strasbourg, with whom he had many theological and musical conversations, exploring his view of Bach's descriptive music, and playing the major Chorale Preludes for her at the Temple Neuf. Schweitzer's interpretative approach greatly influenced the modern understanding of Bach's music. He became a welcome guest at the Wagners' home, Wahnfried. He also corresponded with composer Clara Faisst, who became a good friend.
+
+His pamphlet "The Art of Organ Building and Organ Playing in Germany and France" (1906, republished with an appendix on the state of the organ-building industry in 1927) effectively launched the 20th-century Orgelbewegung, which turned away from romantic extremes and rediscovered baroque principles—although this sweeping reform movement in organ building eventually went further than Schweitzer had intended. In 1909, he addressed the Third Congress of the International Society of Music at Vienna on the subject. Having circulated a questionnaire among players and organ-builders in several European countries, he produced a very considered report. This provided the basis for the International Regulations for Organ Building. He envisaged instruments in which the French late-romantic full-organ sound should work integrally with the English and German romantic reed pipes, and with the classical Alsace Silbermann organ resources and baroque flue pipes, all in registers regulated (by stops) to access distinct voices in fugue or counterpoint capable of combination without loss of distinctness: different voices singing the same music together.
+
+Schweitzer also studied piano under Isidor Philipp, head of the piano department at the Paris Conservatory.
+
+In 1905, Widor and Schweitzer were among the six musicians who founded the Paris Bach Society, a choir dedicated to performing J. S. Bach's music, for whose concerts Schweitzer took the organ part regularly until 1913. He was also appointed organist for the Bach Concerts of the Orféo Català at Barcelona, Spain, and often travelled there for that purpose. He and Widor collaborated on a new edition of Bach's organ works, with detailed analysis of each work in three languages (English, French, German). Schweitzer, who insisted that the score should show Bach's notation with no additional markings, wrote the commentaries for the Preludes and Fugues, and Widor those for the Sonatas and Concertos: six volumes were published in 1912–14. Three more, to contain the Chorale Preludes with Schweitzer's analyses, were to be worked on in Africa, but these were never completed, perhaps because for him they were inseparable from his evolving theological thought.
+
+On departure for Lambaréné in 1913, he was presented with a pedal piano, a piano with pedal attachments to operate like an organ pedal-keyboard. Built especially for the tropics, it was delivered by river in a huge dug-out canoe to Lambaréné, packed in a zinc-lined case. At first, he regarded his new life as a renunciation of his art, and fell out of practice, but after some time he resolved to study and learn by heart the works of Bach, Mendelssohn, Widor, César Franck, and Max Reger systematically. It became his custom to play during the lunch hour and on Sunday afternoons. Schweitzer's pedal piano was still in use at Lambaréné in 1946. According to a visitor, Dr. Gaine Cannon, of Balsam Grove, N.C., the old, dilapidated piano-organ was still being played by Dr. Schweitzer in 1962, and stories told that "his fingers were still lively" on the old instrument at 88 years of age.
+
+Sir Donald Tovey dedicated his conjectural completion of Bach's The Art of Fugue to Schweitzer.
+
+Schweitzer's recordings of organ-music, and his innovative recording technique, are described below.
+
+One of his pupils was conductor and composer Hans Münch.
+
+Theology 
+
+In 1899, Schweitzer became a deacon at the church of Saint Nicholas in Strasbourg. In 1900, with the completion of his licentiate in theology, he was ordained as curate, and that year he witnessed the Oberammergau Passion Play. In the following year he became provisional Principal of the Theological College of Saint Thomas, from which he had just graduated, and in 1903 his appointment was made permanent.
+
+In 1906, he published Geschichte der Leben-Jesu-Forschung [History of Life-of-Jesus research]. This book, which established his reputation, was first published in English in 1910 as The Quest of the Historical Jesus. Under this title the book became famous in the English-speaking world. A second German edition was published in 1913, containing theologically significant revisions and expansions: this revised edition did not appear in English until 2001. In 1931, he published Mystik des Apostels Paulus (The Mysticism of Paul the Apostle); a second edition was published in 1953.
+
+The Quest of the Historical Jesus (1906)
+
+In The Quest, Schweitzer criticised the liberal view put forward by liberal and romantic scholars during the first quest for the historical Jesus. Schweitzer maintained that the life of Jesus must be interpreted in the light of Jesus' own convictions, which reflected late Jewish eschatology and apocalypticism.  Schweitzer writes:
+
+Instead of these liberal and romantic views, Schweitzer wrote that Jesus and his followers expected the imminent end of the world.
+ Schweitzer cross-referenced the many New Testament verses declaring imminent fulfilment of the promise of the World's ending within the lifetime of Jesus's original followers.  He wrote that in his view, in the Gospel of Mark, Jesus speaks of a "tribulation", with his "coming in the clouds with great power and glory" (St. Mark), and states that it will happen but it has not: "This generation shall not pass, till all these things be fulfilled" (St. Matthew, 24:34) or, "have taken place" (Luke 21:32). Similarly, in 1st Peter 1:20, "Christ, who verily was foreordained before the foundation of the world but was manifest in these last times for you", as well as "But the end of all things is at hand" (1 Peter 4:7) and "Surely, I come quickly." (Revelation 22:20).
+
+Schweitzer concluded his treatment of Jesus with what has been called the most famous words of twentieth-century theology:
+
+"He comes to us as One unknown, without a name, as of old, by the lake-side, He came to those men who knew him not.  He speaks to us the same word:  'Follow thou me' and sets us to the task which He has to fulfill for our time.  He commands.  And to those who obey Him, whether they be wise or simple, He will reveal Himself in the toils, the conflicts, the sufferings which they shall pass through in His fellowship, and as an ineffable mystery, they shall learn in their own experience Who He is."
+
+The Mysticism of Paul the Apostle (1931)
+In The Mysticism of Paul the Apostle, Schweitzer first distinguishes between two categories of mysticism: primitive and developed. Primitive mysticism "has not yet risen to a conception of the universal, and is still confined to naive views of earthly and super-earthly, temporal and eternal". Additionally, he argues that this view of a "union with the divinity, brought about by efficacious ceremonies, is found even in quite primitive religions".
+
+On the other hand, a more developed form of mysticism can be found in the Greek mystery-cults that were popular in first-century A.D. society. These included the cults of Attis, Osiris, and Mithras. A developed form of mysticism is attained when the "conception of the universal is reached and a man reflects upon his relation to the totality of being and to Being in itself". Schweitzer claims that this form of mysticism is more intellectual and can be found "among the Brahmans and in the Buddha, in Platonism, in Stoicism, in Spinoza, Schopenhauer, and Hegel".
+
+Next, Schweitzer poses the question: "Of what precise kind then is the mysticism of Paul?" He locates Paul between the two extremes of primitive mysticism and developed mysticism. Paul stands high above primitive mysticism, due to his intellectual writings, but never speaks of being one with God or being in God. Instead, he conceives of sonship to God as "mediated and effected by means of the mystical union with Christ". He summarizes Pauline mysticism as "being in Christ" rather than "being in God".
+
+Paul's imminent eschatology (from his background in Jewish eschatology) causes him to believe that the kingdom of God has not yet come and that Christians are now living in the time of Christ. Christ-mysticism holds the field until God-mysticism becomes possible, which is in the near future. Therefore, Schweitzer argues that Paul is the only theologian who does not claim that Christians can have an experience of "being-in-God". Rather, Paul uses the phrase "being-in-Christ" to illustrate how Jesus is a mediator between the Christian community and God. Additionally, Schweitzer explains how the experience of "being-in-Christ" is not a "static partaking in the spiritual being of Christ, but as the real co-experiencing of His dying and rising again". The "realistic" partaking in the mystery of Jesus is only possible within the solidarity of the Christian community.
+
+One of Schweitzer's major arguments in The Mysticism of Paul the Apostle is that Paul's mysticism, marked by his phrase "being in Christ", gives the clue to the whole of Pauline theology. Rather than reading justification by faith as the main topic of Pauline thought, which has been the most popular argument set forward by Martin Luther, Schweitzer argues that Paul's emphasis was on the mystical union with God by "being in Christ". Jaroslav Pelikan, in his foreword to The Mysticism of Paul the Apostle, points out that:
+
+Paul's "realism" versus Hellenistic "symbolism"
+Schweitzer contrasts Paul's "realistic" dying and rising with Christ to the "symbolism" of Hellenism. Although Paul is widely influenced by Hellenistic thought, he is not controlled by it. Schweitzer explains that Paul focused on the idea of fellowship with the divine being through the "realistic" dying and rising with Christ rather than the "symbolic" Hellenistic act of becoming like Christ through deification. After baptism, Christians are continually renewed throughout their lifetimes due to participation in the dying and rising with Christ (most notably through the Sacraments). On the other hand, the Hellenist "lives on the store of experience which he acquired in the initiation" and is not continually affected by a shared communal experience.
+
+Another major difference between Paul's "realism" and Hellenistic "symbolism" is the exclusive nature of the former and the inclusive nature of the latter. Schweitzer unabashedly emphasizes the fact that "Paul's thought follows predestinarian lines". He explains, "only the man who is elected thereto can enter into relation with God". Although every human being is invited to become a Christian, only those who have undergone the initiation into the Christian community through baptism can share in the "realistic" dying and rising with Christ.
+
+Medicine
+At the age of 30, in 1905, Schweitzer answered the call of The Society of the Evangelist Missions of Paris, which was looking for a physician. The committee of this missionary society was not ready to accept his offer, considering his Lutheran theology to be "incorrect". He could easily have obtained a place in a German evangelical mission, but wished to follow the original call despite the doctrinal difficulties. Amid a hail of protests from his friends, family and colleagues, he resigned his post and re-entered the university as a student in a three-year course towards the degree of Doctorate in Medicine, a subject in which he had little knowledge or previous aptitude. He planned to spread the Gospel by the example of his Christian labour of healing, rather than through the verbal process of preaching, and believed that this service should be acceptable within any branch of Christian teaching.
+
+Even in his study of medicine, and through his clinical course, Schweitzer pursued the ideal of the philosopher-scientist. By extreme application and hard work, he completed his studies successfully at the end of 1911. His medical degree dissertation was another work on the historical Jesus, Die psychiatrische Beurteilung Jesu. Darstellung und Kritik [The psychiatric evaluation of Jesus. Description and criticism] (published in English in 1948 as The Psychiatric Study of Jesus. Exposition and Criticism). He defended Jesus' mental health in it. In June 1912, he married Helene Bresslau, municipal inspector for orphans and daughter of the Jewish pan-Germanist historian Harry Bresslau.
+
+In 1912, now armed with a medical degree, Schweitzer made a definite proposal to go as a physician to work at his own expense in the Paris Missionary Society's mission at Lambaréné on the Ogooué river, in what is now Gabon, in Africa (then a French colony). He refused to attend a committee to inquire into his doctrine, but met each committee member personally and was at last accepted. Through concerts and other fund-raising, he was ready to equip a small hospital. In early 1913, he and his wife set off to establish a hospital (the Hôpital Albert Schweitzer) near an existing mission post. The site was nearly 200 miles (14 days by raft) upstream from the mouth of the Ogooué at Port Gentil (Cape Lopez) (and so accessible to external communications), but downstream of most tributaries, so that internal communications within Gabon converged towards Lambaréné.
+
+In the first nine months, he and his wife had about 2,000 patients to examine, some travelling many days and hundreds of kilometres to reach him. In addition to injuries, he was often treating severe sandflea and crawcraw infections, yaws, tropical eating sores, heart disease, tropical dysentery, tropical malaria, sleeping sickness, leprosy, fevers, strangulated hernias, necrosis, abdominal tumours and chronic constipation and nicotine poisoning, while also attempting to deal with deliberate poisonings, fetishism and fear of cannibalism among the Mbahouin.
+
+Schweitzer's wife, Helene Schweitzer, served as an anaesthetist for surgical operations. After briefly occupying a shed formerly used as a chicken hut, in late 1913 they built their first hospital of corrugated iron, with a consulting room and operating theatre and with a dispensary and sterilising room. The waiting room and dormitory were built, like native huts, of unhewn logs along a path leading to the boat landing. The Schweitzers had their own bungalow and employed as their assistant Joseph, a French-speaking Mpongwe, who first came to Lambaréné as a patient.
+
+After World War I broke out in July 1914, Schweitzer and his wife, German citizens in a French colony when the countries were at war, were put under supervision by the French military at Lambaréné, where Schweitzer continued his work. In 1917, exhausted by over four years' work and by tropical anaemia, they were taken to Bordeaux and interned first in Garaison and then from March 1918 in Saint-Rémy-de-Provence. In July 1918, after being transferred to his home in Alsace, he was a free man again. At this time Schweitzer, born a German citizen, had his parents' former (pre-1871) French citizenship reinstated and became a French citizen. Then, working as medical assistant and assistant-pastor in Strasbourg, he advanced his project on the philosophy of civilization, which had occupied his mind since 1900. By 1920, his health recovering, he was giving organ recitals and doing other fund-raising work to repay borrowings and raise funds for returning to Gabon. In 1922, he delivered the Dale Memorial Lectures in the University of Oxford, and from these in the following year appeared Volumes I and II of his great work, The Decay and Restoration of Civilization and Civilization and Ethics. The two remaining volumes, on The World-View of Reverence for Life  and a fourth on the Civilized State, were never completed.
+
+In 1924, Schweitzer returned to Africa without his wife, but with an Oxford undergraduate, Noel Gillespie, as his assistant. Everything was heavily decayed, and building and doctoring progressed together for months. He now had salvarsan for treating syphilitic ulcers and framboesia. Additional medical staff, nurse (Miss) Kottmann and Dr. Victor Nessmann, joined him in 1924, and Dr. Mark Lauterberg in 1925; the growing hospital was manned by native orderlies. Later Dr. Trensz replaced Nessmann, and Martha Lauterberg and Hans Muggenstorm joined them. Joseph also returned. In 1925–6, new hospital buildings were constructed, and also a ward for white patients, so that the site became like a village. The onset of famine and a dysentery epidemic created fresh problems. Much of the building work was carried out with the help of local people and patients. Drug advances for sleeping sickness included Germanin and . Trensz conducted experiments showing that the non-amoebic strain of dysentery was caused by a paracholera vibrion (facultative anaerobic bacteria). With the new hospital built and the medical team established, Schweitzer returned to Europe in 1927, this time leaving a functioning hospital at work.
+
+He was there again from 1929 to 1932. Gradually his opinions and concepts became acknowledged, not only in Europe, but worldwide. There was a further period of work in 1935. In January 1937, he returned again to Lambaréné and continued working there throughout World War II.
+
+Hospital conditions
+The journalist James Cameron visited Lambaréné in 1953 (when Schweitzer was 78) and found significant flaws in the practices and attitudes of Schweitzer and his staff. The hospital suffered from squalor and was without modern amenities, and Schweitzer had little contact with the local people. Cameron did not make public what he had seen at the time: according to a BBC dramatisation, he made the unusual journalistic decision to withhold the story, and resisted the expressed wish of his employers to publish an exposé.
+
+The poor conditions of the hospital in Lambaréné were also famously criticized by Nigerian professor and novelist Chinua Achebe in his essay on Joseph Conrad's novel Heart of Darkness: "In a comment which has often been quoted Schweitzer says: 'The African is indeed my brother but my junior brother.' And so he proceeded to build a hospital appropriate to the needs of junior brothers with standards of hygiene reminiscent of medical practice in the days before the germ theory of disease came into being."
+
+Schweitzer's biographer Edgar Berman, who was a volunteer surgeon at Lambarene for several months and had extended conversations with Schweitzer, has a different perspective.  Schweitzer felt that patients were better off, and the hospital functioned better given the severe lack of funding, if patients' families lived on the hospital grounds during treatment.  Surgical survival rates were, Berman asserts, as high as in many fully-equipped western hospitals.  The volume of patients needing care, the difficulty of obtaining materials and supplies, and the scarcity of trained medical staff willing to work long hours in the remote setting for almost no pay all argued for a spartan setting with an emphasis on high medical standards nevertheless.
+
+Schweitzer's views
+
+Colonialism
+Schweitzer considered his work as a medical missionary in Africa to be his response to Jesus' call to become "fishers of men".
+
+Schweitzer was one of colonialism's harshest critics. In a sermon that he preached on 6 January 1905, before he had told anyone of his plans to dedicate the rest of his life to work as a physician in Africa, he said:
+
+Paternalism
+Schweitzer was nonetheless still sometimes accused of being paternalistic in his attitude towards Africans. For instance, he thought that Gabonese independence came too early, without adequate education or accommodation to local circumstances. Edgar Berman quotes Schweitzer as having said in 1960, "No society can go from the primeval directly to an industrial state without losing the leavening that time and an agricultural period allow." Schweitzer believed dignity and respect must be extended to blacks, while also sometimes characterizing them as children. He summarized his views on European-African relations by saying "With regard to the negroes, then, I have coined the formula: 'I am your brother, it is true, but your elder brother.'" Chinua Achebe has criticized him for this characterization, though Achebe acknowledges that Schweitzer's use of the word "brother" at all was, for a European of the early 20th century, an unusual expression of human solidarity between Europeans and Africans. Schweitzer eventually emended and complicated this notion with his later statement that "The time for speaking of older and younger brothers has passed".
+
+American journalist John Gunther visited Lambaréné in the 1950s and reported Schweitzer's patronizing attitude towards Africans. He also noted the lack of Africans trained to be skilled workers. By comparison, his English contemporary Albert Ruskin Cook in Uganda had been training nurses and midwives since the 1910s, and had published a manual of midwifery in the local language of Luganda. After three decades in Africa, Schweitzer still depended on Europe for nurses.
+
+Reverence for life
+
+The keynote of Schweitzer's personal philosophy (which he considered to be his greatest contribution to mankind) was the idea of Reverence for Life ("Ehrfurcht vor dem Leben"). He thought that Western civilization was decaying because it had abandoned affirmation of life as its ethical foundation.
+
+In the Preface to Civilization and Ethics (1923) he argued that Western philosophy from Descartes to Kant had set out to explain the objective world expecting that humanity would be found to have a special meaning within it. But no such meaning was found, and the rational, life-affirming optimism of the Age of Enlightenment began to evaporate. A rift opened between this world-view, as material knowledge, and the life-view, understood as Will, expressed in the pessimist philosophies from Schopenhauer onward. Scientific materialism (advanced by Herbert Spencer and Charles Darwin) portrayed an objective world process devoid of ethics, entirely an expression of the will-to-live.
+
+Schweitzer wrote, "True philosophy must start from the most immediate and comprehensive fact of consciousness, and this may be formulated as follows: 'I am life which wills to live, and I exist in the midst of life which wills to live.'" In nature one form of life must always prey upon another. However, human consciousness holds an awareness of, and sympathy for, the will of other beings to live. An ethical human strives to escape from this contradiction so far as possible.
+
+Though we cannot perfect the endeavour we should strive for it: the will-to-live constantly renews itself, for it is both an evolutionary necessity and a spiritual phenomenon. Life and love are rooted in this same principle, in a personal spiritual relationship to the universe. Ethics themselves proceed from the need to respect the wish of other beings to exist as one does towards oneself. Even so, Schweitzer found many instances in world religions and philosophies in which the principle was denied, not least in the European Middle Ages, and in the Indian Brahminic philosophy.
+
+For Schweitzer, mankind had to accept that objective reality is ethically neutral. It could then affirm a new Enlightenment through spiritual rationalism, by giving priority to volition or ethical will as the primary meaning of life. Mankind had to choose to create the moral structures of civilization: the world-view must derive from the life-view, not vice versa. Respect for life, overcoming coarser impulses and hollow doctrines, leads the individual to live in the service of other people and of every living creature. In contemplation of the will-to-life, respect for the life of others becomes the highest principle and the defining purpose of humanity.
+
+Such was the theory which Schweitzer sought to put into practice in his own life. According to some authors, Schweitzer's thought, and specifically his development of reverence for life, was influenced by Indian religious thought and in particular the Jain principle of ahimsa, or non-violence. Albert Schweitzer noted the contribution of Indian influence in his book Indian Thought and Its Development:
+
+Further on ahimsa and the reverence for life in the same book, he elaborates on the ancient Indian didactic work of the Tirukkural, which he observed that, like the Buddha and the Bhagavad Gita, "stands for the commandment not to kill and not to damage". Translating several couplets from the work, he remarked that the Kural insists on the idea that "good must be done for its own sake" and said, "There hardly exists in the literature of the world a collection of maxims in which we find so much lofty wisdom."
+
+Later life
+
+After the birth of their daughter (Rhena Schweitzer Miller), Albert's wife, Helene Schweitzer was no longer able to live in Lambaréné due to her health. In 1923, the family moved to Königsfeld im Schwarzwald, Baden-Württemberg, where he was building a house for the family. This house is now maintained as a Schweitzer museum.
+
+From 1939 to 1948, he stayed in Lambaréné, unable to go back to Europe because of the war. Three years after the end of World War II, in 1948, he returned for the first time to Europe and kept travelling back and forth (and once to the US) as long as he was able. During his return visits to his home village of Gunsbach, Schweitzer continued to make use of the family house, which after his death became an archive and museum to his life and work. His life was portrayed in the 1952 movie Il est minuit, Docteur Schweitzer, starring Pierre Fresnay as Albert Schweitzer and Jeanne Moreau as his nurse Marie. Schweitzer inspired actor Hugh O'Brian when O'Brian visited in Africa. O'Brian returned to the United States and founded the Hugh O'Brian Youth Leadership Foundation (HOBY).
+
+Schweitzer was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize of 1952, accepting the prize with the speech, "The Problem of Peace". With the $33,000 prize money, he started the leprosarium at Lambaréné. From 1952 until his death he worked against nuclear tests and nuclear weapons with Albert Einstein, Otto Hahn and Bertrand Russell. In 1957 and 1958, he broadcast four speeches over Radio Oslo which were published in Peace or Atomic War. In 1957, Schweitzer was one of the founders of The Committee for a Sane Nuclear Policy. On 23 April 1957, Schweitzer made his "Declaration of Conscience" speech; it was broadcast to the world over Radio Oslo, pleading for the abolition of nuclear weapons. His speech ended, "The end of further experiments with atom bombs would be like the early sunrays of hope which suffering humanity is longing for."
+
+Weeks prior to his death, an American film crew was allowed to visit Schweitzer and Drs. Muntz and Friedman, both Holocaust survivors, to record his work and daily life at the hospital. The film The Legacy of Albert Schweitzer, narrated by Henry Fonda, was produced by Warner Brothers and aired once. It resides in their vault today in deteriorating condition. Although several attempts have been made to restore and re-air the film, all access has been denied.
+
+In 1955, he was made an honorary member of the Order of Merit (OM) by Queen Elizabeth II. He was also a chevalier of the Military and Hospitaller Order of Saint Lazarus of Jerusalem.
+
+Schweitzer died on 4 September 1965 at his beloved hospital in Lambaréné, now in independent Gabon. His grave, on the banks of the Ogooué River, is marked by a cross he made himself.
+
+His cousin Anne-Marie Schweitzer Sartre was the mother of Jean-Paul Sartre. Her father, Charles Schweitzer, was the older brother of Albert Schweitzer's father, Louis Théophile.
+
+Schweitzer is often cited in vegetarian literature as being an advocate of vegetarianism in his later years. Schweitzer was not a vegetarian in his earlier life. For example, in 1950, biographer Magnus C. Ratter commented that Schweitzer never "commit[ted] himself to the anti-vivisection, vegetarian, or pacifist positions, though his thought leads in this direction". Biographer James Bentley has written that Schweitzer became a vegetarian after his wife's death in 1957 and he was "living almost entirely on lentil soup". In contrast to this, historian David N. Stamos has written that Schweitzer was not a vegetarian in his personal life nor imposed it on his missionary hospital but he did help animals and was opposed to hunting. Stamos noted that Schweitzer held the view that evolution ingrained humans with an instinct for meat so it was useless in trying to deny it.
+
+The Albert Schweitzer Fellowship was founded in 1940 by Schweitzer to unite US supporters in filling the gap in support for his Hospital when his European supply lines were cut off by war, and continues to support the Lambaréné Hospital today. Schweitzer considered his ethic of Reverence for Life, not his hospital, his most important legacy, saying that his Lambaréné Hospital was just "my own improvisation on the theme of Reverence for Life. Everyone can have their own Lambaréné". Today ASF helps large numbers of young Americans in health-related professional fields find or create "their own Lambaréné" in the US or internationally. ASF selects and supports nearly 250 new US and Africa Schweitzer Fellows each year from over 100 of the leading US schools of medicine, nursing, public health, and every other field with some relation to health (including music, law, and divinity). The peer-supporting lifelong network of "Schweitzer Fellows for Life" numbered over 2,000 members in 2008, and is growing by nearly 1,000 every four years. Nearly 150 of these Schweitzer Fellows have served at the Hospital in Lambaréné, for three-month periods during their last year of medical school.
+
+International Albert Schweitzer Prize
+The prize was first awarded on 29 May 2011 to Eugen Drewermann and the physician couple Rolf and Raphaela Maibach in Königsfeld im Schwarzwald, where Schweitzer's former residence now houses the Albert Schweitzer Museum.
+
+Sound recordings
+Recordings of Schweitzer playing the music of Bach are available on CD. During 1934 and 1935 he resided in Britain, delivering the Gifford Lectures at Edinburgh University, and those on Religion in Modern Civilization at Oxford and London. He had originally conducted trials for recordings for HMV on the organ of the old Queen's Hall in London. These records did not satisfy him, the instrument being too harsh. In mid-December 1935 he began to record for Columbia Records on the organ of All Hallows, Barking-by-the-Tower, London. Then at his suggestion the sessions were transferred to the church of Ste Aurélie in Strasbourg, on a mid-18th-century organ by Johann Andreas Silbermann (brother of Gottfried), an organ-builder greatly revered by Bach, which had been restored by the Lorraine organ-builder Frédéric Härpfer shortly before the First World War. These recordings were made in the course of a fortnight in October 1936.
+
+Schweitzer Technique
+
+Schweitzer developed a technique for recording the performances of Bach's music. Known as the "Schweitzer Technique", it is a slight improvement on what is commonly known as mid-side. The mid-side sees a figure-8 microphone pointed off-axis, perpendicular to the sound source. Then a single cardioid microphone is placed on axis, bisecting the figure-8 pattern. The signal from the figure-8 is muted, panned hard left and right, one of the signals being flipped out of polarity. In the Schweitzer method, the figure-8 is replaced by two small diaphragm condenser microphones pointed directly away from each other. The information that each capsule collects is unique, unlike the identical out-of-polarity information generated from the figure-8 in a regular mid-side. The on-axis microphone is often a large diaphragm condenser. The technique has since been used to record many modern instruments.
+
+Columbia recordings
+Altogether his early Columbia discs included 25 records of Bach and eight of César Franck. The Bach titles were mainly distributed as follows:
+ Queen's Hall: Organ Prelude and Fugue in E minor (Edition Peters Vol 3, 10);  (BWV 727);  (Vol 7, 58 (Leipzig 18)).
+ All Hallows: Prelude and Fugue in C major; Fantasia and Fugue in G minor (the Great); Prelude and Fugue in G major; Prelude and Fugue in F minor; Little Fugue in G minor; Toccata and Fugue in D minor.
+ Ste Aurélie: Prelude and Fugue in C minor; Prelude and Fugue in E minor; Toccata and Fugue in D minor. Chorale Preludes:  (Peters Vol 7, 49 (Leipzig 4));  (Vol 5, 45);  (Vol 7, 48 (Leipzig 6));  (Vol 5, 8);  (Vol 5, 9);  (Vol 6, 12b);  (Vol 5, 6);  (Vol 5, app 5);  (Vol 5, 4);  (Var 11, Vol 5, app. 3);  (Vol 6, 31 (Leipzig 15)); Christ lag in Todesbanden (Vol 5, 5); Erschienen ist der herrlich Tag (Vol 5, 15).
+
+Later recordings were made at Parish church, Günsbach: These recordings were made by C. Robert Fine during the time Dr. Schweitzer was being filmed in Günsbach for the documentary "Albert Schweitzer". Fine originally self-released the recordings but later licensed the masters to Columbia.
+ Fugue in A minor (Peters, Vol 2, 8); Fantasia and Fugue in G minor (Great) (Vol 2, 4); Toccata, Adagio and Fugue in C major (Vol 3, 8).
+ Prelude in C major (Vol 4, 1); Prelude in D major (Vol 4, 3); Canzona in D minor (Vol 4, 10) (with Mendelssohn, Sonata in D minor op 65.6).
+ Chorale-Preludes:  (1st and 2nd versions, Peters Vol 5, 45);  (vol 7, 58 (Leipzig 18));  (Vol 5, 30);  (Vol 5, 17);  (Vol 5, 27);  (vol 7, 45 (BWV 659a)).
+The above were released in the United States as Columbia Masterworks boxed set SL-175.
+
+Philips recordings
+ J. S. Bach: Prelude and Fugue in A major, BWV 536; Prelude and Fugue in F minor, BWV 534; Prelude and Fugue in B minor, BWV 544; Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 538.
+ J. S. Bach: Passacaglia in C minor, BWV 582; Prelude and Fugue in E minor, BWV 533; Prelude and Fugue in A minor, BWV 543; Prelude and Fugue in G major, BWV 541; Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565.
+ César Franck: Organ Chorales, no. 1 in E major; no. 2 in B minor; no. 3 in A minor.
+
+Portrayals
+Dramatisations of Schweitzer's life include:
+ The 1952 biographical film Il est minuit, Docteur Schweitzer, with Pierre Fresnay as Schweitzer.
+ The 1957 biographical film Albert Schweitzer in which Schweitzer appears as himself and Phillip Eckert portrays him.
+ The 1962 TV remake of Il est minuit, Docteur Schweitzer, with Jean-Pierre Marielle as Schweitzer.
+ The 1990 biographical film The Light in the Jungle, with Malcolm McDowell as Schweitzer.
+ Two 1992 episodes of the television series The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles ("German East Africa, December 1916" and "Congo, January 1917"), with Friedrich von Thun as Schweitzer. The episodes were later combined to create Oganga, Giver and Taker of Life.
+ The 1995 biographical film Le Grand blanc de Lambaréné, with André Wilms as Schweitzer.
+ The 2006 TV biographical film Albert Schweitzer: Called to Africa, with Jeff McCarthy as Schweitzer.
+ The 2009 biographical film , with Jeroen Krabbé as Schweitzer.
+
+Bibliography
+ 
+ 
+ . English translation by Ernest Newman, with author's alterations and additions, London 1911. Fulltext scans (English): Vol. 1, Vol. 2.
+  (first printed in Musik, vols 13 and 14 (5th year)).
+ 
+ 
+ 
+  (translation of Zwischen Wasser und Urwald, 1921)
+The Decay and the Restoration of Civilization and Civilization and Ethics (The Philosophy of Civilization, Vols I & II of the projected but not completed four-volume work), A. & C. Black, London 1923. Material from these volumes is rearranged in a modern compilation, The Philosophy of Civilization (Prometheus Books, 1987), 
+ 
+  translated as ; 
+ 
+Afrikanische Geschichten (Felix Meiner, Leipzig and Hamburg 1938): tr. Mrs C. E. B. Russell as From My African Notebook (George Allen and Unwin, London 1938/Henry Holt, New York 1939). Modern edition with foreword by L. Forrow (Syracuse University Press, 2002).
+
+See also
+List of peace activists
+Cultural depictions of Albert Schweitzer
+Helene Bresslau Schweitzer
+
+Notes
+
+References
+
+Citations
+
+Sources 
+
+  (translation of Zwischen Wasser und Urwald, 1921)
+
+Further reading
+ 
+ 
+ Bartolf, Christian; Gericke, Marion; Miething, Dominique (2020): Dr. Albert Schweitzer: "My Address to the People" – Commitment against Nuclear War. Berlin: Freie Universität Berlin, Gandhi-Informations-Zentrum.  .
+ 
+
+ 
+ 
+———————
+Notes
+
+External links
+
+ Award-winning documentary about him 
+ Albert Schweitzer info at Internet Archive
+ 
+ 
+ 
+ Albert Schweitzer Papers at Syracuse University
+ John D. Regester Collection on Albert Schweitzer
+ The Helfferich Collection, collected by Reginald H. Helfferich on Albert Schweitzer, is at the Harvard Divinity School Library at Harvard Divinity School in Cambridge, Massachusetts.
+ What Jesus was thinking  An interpretation and restatement of Schweitzer's last book, The Kingdom of God and Primitive Christianity
+ 
+ 
+
+1875 births
+1965 deaths
+People from Kaysersberg-Vignoble
+People from Alsace-Lorraine
+20th-century German Protestant theologians
+19th-century French people
+19th-century German Lutheran clergy
+French biblical scholars
+Bach scholars
+Critics of the Christ myth theory
+French anti–nuclear weapons activists
+French Lutheran missionaries
+French Christian pacifists
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+French tropical physicians
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+German anti–nuclear weapons activists
+German Lutheran missionaries
+German Christian pacifists
+Lutheran pacifists
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+German Lutheran theologians
+German classical organists
+German humanitarians
+20th-century German Lutheran clergy
+German Nobel laureates
+German medical writers
+German Unitarians
+German evangelicals
+Honorary members of the Order of Merit
+Honorary Members of the Royal Philharmonic Society
+German music historians
+Nobel Peace Prize laureates
+Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
+University of Tübingen alumni
+Christian medical missionaries
+Environmental philosophers
+Pupils of Isidor Philipp
+German male non-fiction writers
+Lutheran missionaries in Africa
+Protestant missionaries in Gabon
+Healthcare in Gabon
+German writers in French
+French writers in German
+19th-century French writers
+19th-century German writers
+19th-century German male writers
+20th-century French writers
+20th-century German writers
+Translators to German
+Tamil–German translators
+Animal rights scholars
+Anti-imperialism in Europe
+German male organists
+Tirukkural translators
+Missionary linguists
+Corresponding Fellows of the British Academy
+Celebrity doctors
+Male classical organists
+The Austrian School is a heterodox school of economic thought that advocates strict adherence to methodological individualism, the concept that social phenomena result exclusively from the motivations and actions of individuals. Austrian school theorists hold that economic theory should be exclusively derived from basic principles of human action.
+
+The Austrian School originated in Vienna with the work of Carl Menger, Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk, Friedrich von Wieser, and others. It was methodologically opposed to the Historical School (based in Germany), in a dispute known as Methodenstreit, or methodology struggle. Current-day economists working in this tradition are located in many different countries, but their work is still referred to as Austrian economics. Among the theoretical contributions of the early years of the Austrian School are the subjective theory of value, marginalism in price theory and the formulation of the economic calculation problem, each of which has become an accepted part of mainstream economics.
+
+In the 1970s, the Austrian School attracted some renewed interest after Friedrich Hayek shared the 1974 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences with Gunnar Myrdal.
+
+History
+
+Etymology 
+The Austrian School owes its name to members of the German historical school of economics, who argued against the Austrians during the late 19th-century Methodenstreit ("methodology struggle"), in which the Austrians defended the role of theory in economics as distinct from the study or compilation of historical circumstance. In 1883, Menger published Investigations into the Method of the Social Sciences with Special Reference to Economics, which attacked the methods of the historical school. Gustav von Schmoller, a leader of the historical school, responded with an unfavorable review, coining the term "Austrian School" in an attempt to characterize the school as outcast and provincial. The label endured and was adopted by the adherents themselves.
+
+First wave 
+
+The school originated in Vienna in the Austrian Empire. Carl Menger's 1871 book Principles of Economics is generally considered the founding of the Austrian School. The book was one of the first modern treatises to advance the theory of marginal utility. The Austrian School was one of three founding currents of the marginalist revolution of the 1870s, with its major contribution being the introduction of the subjectivist approach in economics.
+
+Despite such claim, John Stuart Mill had used value in use in this sense in 1848 in Principles of Political Economy, where he wrote: "Value in use, or as Mr. De Quincey calls it, teleologic value, is the extreme limit of value in exchange. The exchange value of a thing may fall short, to any amount, of its value in use; but that it can ever exceed the value in use, implies a contradiction; it supposes that persons will give, to possess a thing, more than the utmost value which they themselves put upon it as a means of gratifying their inclinations."
+
+While marginalism was generally influential, there was also a more specific school that began to coalesce around Menger's work, which came to be known as the "Psychological School", "Vienna School", or "Austrian School". Menger's contributions to economic theory were closely followed by those of Eugen Böhm von Bawerk and Friedrich von Wieser. These three economists became what is known as the "first wave" of the Austrian School. Böhm-Bawerk wrote extensive critiques of Karl Marx in the 1880s and 1890s and was part of the Austrians' participation in the late 19th-century Methodenstreit, during which they attacked the Hegelian doctrines of the historical school.
+
+Early 20th century 
+Frank Albert Fetter (1863–1949) was a leader in the United States of Austrian thought. He obtained his PhD in 1894 from the University of Halle and then was made Professor of Political Economy and Finance at Cornell University in 1901. Several important Austrian economists trained at the University of Vienna in the 1920s and later participated in private seminars held by Ludwig von Mises. These included Gottfried Haberler, Friedrich Hayek, Fritz Machlup, Karl Menger (son of Carl Menger), Oskar Morgenstern, Paul Rosenstein-Rodan, Abraham Wald, and Michael A. Heilperin, among others, as well as the sociologist Alfred Schütz.
+
+Later 20th century 
+
+By the mid-1930s, most economists had embraced what they considered the important contributions of the early Austrians. Fritz Machlup quoted Hayek's statement that "the greatest success of a school is that it stops existing because its fundamental teachings have become parts of the general body of commonly accepted thought". Sometime during the middle of the 20th century, Austrian economics became disregarded or derided by mainstream economists because it rejected model building and mathematical and statistical methods in the study of economics. Mises' student Israel Kirzner recalled that in 1954, when Kirzner was pursuing his PhD, there was no separate Austrian School as such. When Kirzner was deciding which graduate school to attend, Mises had advised him to accept an offer of admission at Johns Hopkins because it was a prestigious university and Fritz Machlup taught there.
+
+After the 1940s, Austrian economics can be divided into two schools of economic thought and the school "split" to some degree in the late 20th century. One camp of Austrians, exemplified by Mises, regards neoclassical methodology to be irredeemably flawed; the other camp, exemplified by Friedrich Hayek, accepts a large part of neoclassical methodology and is more accepting of government intervention in the economy. Henry Hazlitt wrote economics columns and editorials for a number of publications and wrote many books on the topic of Austrian economics from the 1930s to the 1980s. Hazlitt's thinking was influenced by Mises. His book Economics in One Lesson (1946) sold over a million copies and he is also known for The Failure of the "New Economics" (1959), a line-by-line critique of John Maynard Keynes's General Theory.
+
+The reputation of the Austrian School rose in the late 20th century due in part to the work of Israel Kirzner and Ludwig Lachmann at New York University and to renewed public awareness of the work of Hayek after he won the 1974 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences. Hayek's work was influential in the revival of laissez-faire thought in the 20th century.
+
+Split among contemporary Austrians 
+Economist Leland Yeager discussed the late 20th-century rift and referred to a discussion written by Murray Rothbard, Hans-Hermann Hoppe, Joseph Salerno and others in which they attack and disparage Hayek. Yeager stated: "To try to drive a wedge between Mises and Hayek on [the role of knowledge in economic calculation], especially to the disparagement of Hayek, is unfair to these two great men, unfaithful to the history of economic thought". He went on to call the rift subversive to economic analysis and the historical understanding of the fall of Eastern European communism.
+
+In a 1999 book published by the Ludwig von Mises Institute, Hoppe asserted that Rothbard was the leader of the "mainstream within Austrian Economics" and contrasted Rothbard with Nobel Laureate Friedrich Hayek, whom he identified as a British empiricist and an opponent of the thought of Mises and Rothbard. Hoppe acknowledged that Hayek was the most prominent Austrian economist within academia, but stated that Hayek was an opponent of the Austrian tradition which led from Carl Menger and Böhm-Bawerk through Mises to Rothbard. Austrian economist Walter Block says that the Austrian School can be distinguished from other schools of economic thought through two categories—economic theory and political theory. According to Block, while Hayek can be considered an Austrian economist, his views on political theory clash with the libertarian political theory which Block sees as an integral part of the Austrian School.
+
+Both criticism from Hoppe and Block to Hayek apply to Carl Menger, the founder of the Austrian School. Hoppe emphasizes that Hayek, which for him is from the English empirical tradition, is an opponent of the supposed rationalist tradition of the Austrian School; Menger made strong critiques to rationalism in his works in similar vein as Hayek's. He emphasized the idea that there are several institutions which were not deliberately created, have a kind of "superior wisdom" and serve important functions to society. He also talked about Burke and the English tradition to sustain these positions.
+
+When saying that the libertarian political theory is an integral part of the Austrian School and supposing Hayek is not a libertarian, Block excludes Menger from the Austrian School too since Menger seems to defend broader state activity than Hayek—for example, progressive taxation and extensive labour legislation.
+
+Economists of the Hayekian view are affiliated with the Cato Institute, George Mason University (GMU) and New York University, among other institutions. They include Peter Boettke, Roger Garrison, Steven Horwitz, Peter Leeson and George Reisman. Economists of the Mises–Rothbard view include Walter Block, Hans-Hermann Hoppe, Jesús Huerta de Soto and Robert P. Murphy, each of whom is associated with the Mises Institute and some of them also with academic institutions. According to Murphy, a "truce between (for lack of better terms) the GMU Austro-libertarians and the Auburn Austro-libertarians" was signed around 2011.
+
+Influence 
+Many theories developed by "first wave" Austrian economists have long been absorbed into mainstream economics. These include Carl Menger's theories on marginal utility, Friedrich von Wieser's theories on opportunity cost and Eugen Böhm von Bawerk's theories on time preference, as well as Menger and Böhm-Bawerk's criticisms of Marxian economics.
+
+Former American Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan said that the founders of the Austrian School "reached far into the future from when most of them practiced and have had a profound and, in my judgment, probably an irreversible effect on how most mainstream economists think in this country". In 1987, Nobel Laureate James M. Buchanan told an interviewer: "I have no objections to being called an Austrian. Hayek and Mises might consider me an Austrian but, surely some of the others would not".
+
+Currently, universities with a significant Austrian presence are George Mason University, New York University, Grove City College, Loyola University New Orleans, Monmouth College, and Auburn University in the United States; King Juan Carlos University in Spain; and Universidad Francisco Marroquín in Guatemala. Austrian economic ideas are also promoted by privately funded organizations such as the Mises Institute and the Cato Institute.
+
+Theory 
+
+The Austrian School theorizes that the subjective choices of individuals including individual knowledge, time, expectation and other subjective factors cause all economic phenomena. Austrians seek to understand the economy by examining the social ramifications of individual choice, an approach called methodological individualism. It differs from other schools of economic thought, which have focused on aggregate variables, equilibrium analysis and societal groups rather than individuals.
+
+In the 20th and 21st centuries, economists with a methodological lineage to the early Austrian School developed many diverse approaches and theoretical orientations. Ludwig von Mises organized his version of the subjectivist approach, which he called "praxeology", in a book published in English as Human Action in 1949. In it, Mises stated that praxeology could be used to deduce a priori theoretical economic truths and that deductive economic thought experiments could yield conclusions which follow irrefutably from the underlying assumptions. He wrote that conclusions could not be inferred from empirical observation or statistical analysis and argued against the use of probabilities in economic models.
+
+Since Mises' time, some Austrian thinkers have accepted his praxeological approach while others have adopted alternative methodologies. For example, Fritz Machlup, Friedrich Hayek and others did not take Mises' strong a priori approach to economics. Ludwig Lachmann, a radical subjectivist, also largely rejected Mises' formulation of Praxeology in favor of the verstehende Methode ("interpretive method") articulated by Max Weber.
+
+In the 20th century, various Austrians incorporated models and mathematics into their analysis. Austrian economist Steven Horwitz argued in 2000 that Austrian methodology is consistent with macroeconomics and that Austrian macroeconomics can be expressed in terms of microeconomic foundations. Austrian economist Roger Garrison writes that Austrian macroeconomic theory can be correctly expressed in terms of diagrammatic models. In 1944, Austrian economist Oskar Morgenstern presented a rigorous schematization of an ordinal utility function (the Von Neumann–Morgenstern utility theorem) in Theory of Games and Economic Behavior.
+
+Fundamental tenets 
+In 1981, Fritz Machlup listed the typical views of Austrian economic thinking as such:
+ Methodological individualism: in the explanation of economic phenomena, we have to go back to the actions (or inaction) of individuals; groups or "collectives" cannot act except through the actions of individual members. Groups do not think; people think.
+ Methodological subjectivism: the judgments and choices made by individuals on the basis of whatever knowledge they have or believe to have, and whatever expectations they have regarding external developments and the consequences of their actions.
+ Tastes and preferences: subjective valuations of goods and services determine the demand for them so that their prices are influenced by  consumers.
+ Opportunity costs: the costs of the alternative opportunities that must be foregone; as productive services are employed for one purpose, all alternative uses have to be sacrificed.
+ Marginalism: in all economic designs, the values, costs, revenues, productivity and so on are determined by the significance of the last unit added to or subtracted from the total.
+ Time structure of production and consumption: decisions to save reflect "time preferences" regarding consumption in the immediate, distant, or indefinite future and investments are made in view of larger outputs expected to be obtained if more time-taking production processes are undertaken.
+
+He included two additional tenets held by the Mises branch of Austrian economics:
+ Consumer sovereignty: the influence consumers have on the effective demand for goods and services and through the prices which result in free competitive markets, on the production plans of producers and investors, is not merely a hard fact but also an important objective, attainable only by complete avoidance of governmental interference with the markets and of restrictions on the freedom of sellers and buyers to follow their own judgment regarding quantities, qualities and prices of products and services.
+ Political individualism: only when individuals are given full economic freedom will it be possible to secure political and moral freedom. Restrictions on economic freedom lead, sooner or later, to an extension of the coercive activities of the state into the political domain, undermining and eventually destroying the essential individual liberties which the capitalistic societies were able to attain in the 19th century.
+
+Contributions to economic thought
+
+Opportunity cost 
+
+The opportunity cost doctrine was first explicitly formulated by the Austrian economist Friedrich von Wieser in the late 19th century. Opportunity cost is the cost of any activity measured in terms of the value of the next best alternative foregone (that is not chosen). It is the sacrifice related to the second best choice available to someone, or group, who has picked among several mutually exclusive choices. Although a more ephemeral scarcity, expectations of the future must also be considered. Quantified as time preference, opportunity cost must also be valued with respect to one’s preference for present versus future investments.
+
+Opportunity cost is a key concept in mainstream economics and has been described as expressing "the basic relationship between scarcity and choice". The notion of opportunity cost plays a crucial part in ensuring that resources are used efficiently.
+
+Capital and interest 
+
+The Austrian theory of capital and interest was first developed by Eugen Böhm von Bawerk. He stated that interest rates and profits are determined by two factors, namely supply and demand in the market for final goods and time preference.
+
+Böhm-Bawerk's theory equates capital intensity with the degree of roundaboutness of production processes. Böhm-Bawerk also argued that the law of marginal utility necessarily implies the classical law of costs. Some Austrian economists therefore entirely reject the notion that interest rates are affected by liquidity preference.
+
+Inflation 
+
+In Mises's definition, inflation is an increase in the supply of money: 
+
+Hayek pointed out that inflationary stimulation exploits the lag between an increase in money supply and the consequent increase in the prices of goods and services:
+
+Economic calculation problem 
+
+The economic calculation problem refers to a criticism of planned economies which was first stated by Max Weber in 1920. Mises subsequently discussed Weber's idea with his student Friedrich Hayek, who developed it in various works including The Road to Serfdom. What the calculation problem essentially states is that without price signals, the factors of production cannot be allocated in the most efficient way possible, rendering planned economies inefficacious.
+
+Austrian theory emphasizes the organizing power of markets. Hayek stated that market prices reflect information, the totality of which is not known to any single individual, which determines the allocation of resources in an economy. Because socialist systems lack the individual incentives and price discovery processes by which individuals act on their personal information, Hayek argued that socialist economic planners lack all of the knowledge required to make optimal decisions. Those who agree with this criticism view it as a refutation of socialism, showing that socialism is not a viable or sustainable form of economic organization. The debate rose to prominence in the 1920s and 1930s and that specific period of the debate has come to be known by historians of economic thought as the socialist calculation debate.
+
+Mises argued in a 1920 essay "Economic Calculation in the Socialist Commonwealth" that the pricing systems in socialist economies were necessarily deficient because if the government owned the means of production, then no prices could be obtained for capital goods as they were merely internal transfers of goods in a socialist system and not "objects of exchange", unlike final goods. Therefore, they were unpriced and hence the system would be necessarily inefficient since the central planners would not know how to allocate the available resources efficiently. This led him to write "that rational economic activity is impossible in a socialist commonwealth".
+
+Business cycles 
+
+The Austrian theory of the business cycle (ABCT) focuses on banks' issuance of credit as the cause of economic fluctuations. Although later elaborated by Hayek and others, the theory was first set forth by Mises, who posited that fractional reserve banks extend credit at artificially low interest rates, causing businesses to invest in relatively roundabout production processes which leads to an artificial "boom". Mises stated that this artificial "boom" then led to a misallocation of resources which he called "malinvestment" – which eventually must end in a "bust".
+
+Mises surmised how government manipulation of money and credit in the banking system throws savings and investment out of balance, resulting in misdirected investment projects that are eventually found to be unsustainable, at which point the economy has to rebalance itself through a period of corrective recession. Austrian economist Fritz Machlup summarized the Austrian view by stating, "monetary factors cause the cycle but real phenomena constitute it." For Austrians, the only prudent strategy for government is to leave money and the financial system to the free market's competitive forces to eradicate the business cycle's inflationary booms and recessionary busts, allowing markets to keep people's saving and investment decisions in place for well-coordinated economic stability and growth.
+
+A Keynesian would suggest government intervention during a recession to inject spending into the economy when people will not. However, the heart of Austrian macroeconomic theory states the government "fine tuning" through expansions and contractions in the money supply orchestrated by the government are actually the cause of business cycles because of the differing impact of the resulting interest rate changes on different stages in the structure of production. Austrian economist Thomas Woods further supports this view by arguing it is not consumption, but rather production that should be emphasized. A country cannot become rich by consuming, and therefore, by using up all their resources. Instead, production is what enables consumption as a possibility in the first place, since a producer would be working for nothing, if not for the desire to consume.
+
+Central banks
+According to Ludwig von Mises, central banks enable the commercial banks to fund loans at artificially low interest rates, thereby inducing an unsustainable expansion of bank credit and impeding any subsequent contraction and argued for a gold standard to constrain growth in fiduciary media. Friedrich Hayek took a different perspective not focusing on gold but focusing on regulation of the banking sector via strong central banking.
+
+Criticism
+
+General 
+Mainstream economists generally reject modern-day Austrian economics, and argue that modern-day Austrian economists are excessively averse to the use of mathematics and statistics in economics. Austrian opposition to mathematization extends to economic theorizing only, as they argue that human behavior is too variable for overarching mathematical models to hold true across time and context. Austrians do, however, support analyzing revealed preference via mathematization to aid business and finance.
+
+Economist Paul Krugman has stated that Austrians are unaware of holes in their own thinking because they do not use "explicit models".
+
+Economist Benjamin Klein has criticized the economic methodological work of Austrian economist Israel M. Kirzner. While praising Kirzner for highlighting shortcomings in traditional methodology, Klein argued that Kirzner did not provide a viable alternative for economic methodology. Economist Tyler Cowen has written that Kirzner's theory of entrepreneurship can ultimately be reduced to a neoclassical search model and is thus not in the radical subjectivist tradition of Austrian praxeology. Cowen states that Kirzner's entrepreneurs can be modeled in mainstream terms of search.
+
+Economist Jeffrey Sachs argues that among developed countries, those with high rates of taxation and high social welfare spending perform better on most measures of economic performance compared to countries with low rates of taxation and low social outlays. He concludes that Friedrich Hayek was wrong to argue that high levels of government spending harms an economy and "a generous social-welfare state is not a road to serfdom but rather to fairness, economic equality and international competitiveness".
+
+Economist Bryan Caplan has noted that Mises has been criticized for overstating the strength of his case in describing socialism as "impossible" rather than as something that would need to establish non-market institutions to deal with the inefficiency.
+
+Methodology 
+Critics generally argue that Austrian economics lacks scientific rigor and rejects scientific methods and the use of empirical data in modelling economic behavior. Some economists describe Austrian methodology as being a priori or non-empirical.
+
+Economist Mark Blaug has criticized over-reliance on methodological individualism, arguing it would rule out all macroeconomic propositions that cannot be reduced to microeconomic ones, and hence reject almost the whole of received macroeconomics.
+
+Economist Thomas Mayer has stated that Austrians advocate a rejection of the scientific method which involves the development of empirically falsifiable theories. Furthermore, economists have developed numerous experiments that elicit useful information about individual preferences.
+
+Although economist Leland Yeager is sympathetic to Austrian economics, he rejects many favorite views of the Misesian group of Austrians, in particular "the specifics of their business-cycle theory, ultra-subjectivism in value theory and particularly in interest-rate theory, their insistence on unidirectional causality rather than general interdependence, and their fondness for methodological brooding, pointless profundities, and verbal gymnastics".
+
+Economist Paul A. Samuelson wrote in 1964 that most economists believe that economic conclusions reached by pure logical deduction are limited and weak. According to Samuelson and Caplan, Mises' deductive methodology also embraced by Murray Rothbard and to a lesser extent by Mises' student Israel Kirzner was not sufficient in and of itself.
+
+Business cycle theory 
+Mainstream economic research regarding Austrian business cycle theory finds that it is inconsistent with empirical evidence. Noted economists such as Gordon Tullock, Milton Friedman and Paul Krugman have said that they regard the theory as incorrect. Austrian economist Ludwig Lachmann noted that the Austrian theory was rejected during the 1930s:
+
+Theoretical objections 
+Some economists have argued that Austrian business cycle theory requires bankers and investors to exhibit a kind of irrationality because the Austrian theory posits that investors will be fooled repeatedly (by temporarily low interest rates) into making unprofitable investment decisions. Milton Friedman objected to the policy implications of the theory, stating the following in a 1998 interview:
+
+Empirical objections 
+In 1969, Milton Friedman examined the history of business cycles in the United States and wrote that there "appears to be no systematic connection between the size of an expansion and of the succeeding contraction", contradicting business cycle theories (such as the Austrian business cycle theory) which rely on that premise. He analyzed the issue using newer data in 1993, and again reached the same conclusion. Referring to Friedman's discussion of the business cycle, Austrian economist Roger Garrison argued that Friedman's empirical findings are "broadly consistent with both Monetarist and Austrian views" and goes on to argue that although Friedman's model "describes the economy's performance at the highest level of aggregation, Austrian theory offers an insightful account of the market process that might underlie those aggregates".
+
+See also 
+
+ Carl Menger
+ Chicago school of economics
+ Criticism of the Federal Reserve
+ Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk
+ Friedrich Hayek
+ Hans-Hermann Hoppe
+ Hard money (policy)
+ Henry Hazlitt
+ Israel Kirzner
+ List of Austrian intellectual traditions
+ List of Austrian School economists
+ Ludwig von Mises
+ New institutional economics
+ Perspectives on capitalism by school of thought
+ School of Salamanca
+
+Notes and references
+
+Further reading 
+ 
+ Boettke, Peter J.; Coyne, Christopher J. (2023). "New Thinking in Austrian Economics". Annual Review of Economics 15 (1).
+  PDF .
+   
+  
+   
+ 
+ 
+  (Excerpt via Amazon).
+
+External links 
+
+Understanding Austrian Economics by Henry Hazlitt 
+ 
+
+ 
+Schools of economic thought
+Libertarian theory
+An abscess is a collection of pus that has built up within the tissue of the body. Signs and symptoms of abscesses include redness, pain, warmth, and swelling. The swelling may feel fluid-filled when pressed. The area of redness often extends beyond the swelling. Carbuncles and boils are types of abscess that often involve hair follicles, with carbuncles being larger.
+
+They are usually caused by a bacterial infection. Often many different types of bacteria are involved in a single infection. In many areas of the world, the most common bacteria present is methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Rarely, parasites can cause abscesses; this is more common in the developing world. Diagnosis of a skin abscess is usually made based on what it looks like and is confirmed by cutting it open. Ultrasound imaging may be useful in cases in which the diagnosis is not clear. In abscesses around the anus, computer tomography (CT) may be important to look for deeper infection.
+
+Standard treatment for most skin or soft tissue abscesses is cutting it open and drainage. There appears to be some benefit from also using antibiotics. A small amount of evidence supports not packing the cavity that remains with gauze after drainage. Closing this cavity right after draining it rather than leaving it open may speed healing without increasing the risk of the abscess returning. Sucking out the pus with a needle is often not sufficient.
+
+Skin abscesses are common and have become more common in recent years. Risk factors include intravenous drug use, with rates reported as high as 65% among users. In 2005, 3.2 million people went to American emergency departments for abscesses. In Australia, around 13,000 people were hospitalized in 2008 with the condition.
+
+Signs and symptoms
+
+Abscesses may occur in any kind of tissue but most frequently within the skin surface (where they may be superficial pustules known as boils or deep skin abscesses), in the lungs, brain, teeth, kidneys, and tonsils. Major complications may include spreading of the abscess material to adjacent or remote tissues, and extensive regional tissue death (gangrene).
+
+The main symptoms and signs of a skin abscess are redness, heat, swelling, pain, and loss of function. There may also be high temperature (fever) and chills. If superficial, abscesses may be fluctuant when palpated; this wave-like motion is caused by movement of the pus inside the abscess.
+
+An internal abscess is more difficult to identify, but signs include pain in the affected area, a high temperature, and generally feeling unwell.
+Internal abscesses rarely heal themselves, so prompt medical attention is indicated if such an abscess is suspected. An abscess can potentially be fatal depending on where it is located.
+
+Causes
+Risk factors for abscess formation include intravenous drug use. Another possible risk factor is a prior history of disc herniation or other spinal abnormality, though this has not been proven.
+
+Abscesses are caused by bacterial infection, parasites, or foreign substances.
+Bacterial infection is the most common cause, particularly Staphylococcus aureus. The more invasive methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) may also be a source of infection, though is much rarer. Among spinal subdural abscesses, methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus is the most common organism involved.
+
+Rarely parasites can cause abscesses and this is more common in the developing world. Specific parasites known to do this include dracunculiasis and myiasis.
+
+Perianal abscess
+
+Surgery of the anal fistula to drain an abscess treats the fistula and reduces likelihood of its recurrence and the need for repeated surgery. There is no evidence that fecal incontinence is a consequence of this surgery for abscess drainage.
+
+Perianal abscesses can be seen in people with, for example, inflammatory bowel disease (such as Crohn's disease) or diabetes.  Often the abscess will start as an internal wound caused by ulceration, hard stool, or penetrative objects with insufficient lubrication.  This wound typically becomes infected as a result of the normal presence of feces in the rectal area, and then develops into an abscess.  This often presents itself as a lump of tissue near the anus which grows larger and more painful with time.  Like other abscesses, perianal abscesses may require prompt medical treatment, such as an incision and debridement or lancing.
+
+Incisional abscess
+An incisional abscess is one that develops as a complication secondary to a surgical incision. It presents as redness and warmth at the margins of the incision with purulent drainage from it. If the diagnosis is uncertain, the wound should be aspirated with a needle, with aspiration of pus confirming the diagnosis and availing for Gram stain and bacterial culture.
+
+Pathophysiology
+An abscess is a defensive reaction of the tissue to prevent the spread of infectious materials to other parts of the body.
+
+Organisms or foreign materials destroy the local cells, which results in the release of cytokines. The cytokines trigger an inflammatory response, which draws large numbers of white blood cells to the area and increases the regional blood flow.
+
+The final structure of the abscess is an abscess wall, or capsule, that is formed by the adjacent healthy cells in an attempt to keep the pus from infecting neighboring structures. However, such encapsulation tends to prevent immune cells from attacking bacteria in the pus, or from reaching the causative organism or foreign object.
+
+Diagnosis
+
+An abscess is a localized collection of pus (purulent inflammatory tissue) caused by suppuration buried in a tissue, an organ, or a confined space, lined by the pyogenic membrane. Ultrasound imaging can help in a diagnosis.
+
+Classification
+Abscesses may be classified as either skin abscesses or internal abscesses. Skin abscesses are common; internal abscesses tend to be harder to diagnose, and more serious. Skin abscesses are also called cutaneous or subcutaneous abscesses.
+
+IV drug use
+For those with a history of intravenous drug use, an X-ray is recommended before treatment to verify that no needle fragments are present. If there is also a fever present in this population, infectious endocarditis should be considered.
+
+Differential
+Abscesses should be differentiated from empyemas, which are accumulations of pus in a preexisting, rather than a newly formed, anatomical cavity.
+
+Other conditions that can cause similar symptoms include: cellulitis, a sebaceous cyst, and necrotising fasciitis. Cellulitis typically also has an erythematous reaction, but does not confer any purulent drainage.
+
+Treatment
+The standard treatment for an uncomplicated skin or soft tissue abscess is the act of opening and draining. There does not appear to be any benefit from also using antibiotics in most cases. A small amount of evidence did not find a benefit from packing the abscess with gauze.
+
+Incision and drainage
+
+The abscess should be inspected to identify if foreign objects are a cause, which may require their removal. If foreign objects are not the cause, incising and draining the abscess is standard treatment.
+
+In critical areas where surgery presents a high risk, it may be delayed or used as a last resort.  The drainage of a lung abscess may be performed by positioning the affected individual in a way that enables the contents to be discharged via the respiratory tract.  Warm compresses and elevation of the limb may be beneficial for a skin abscess.
+
+Antibiotics 
+Most people who have an uncomplicated skin abscess should not use antibiotics. Antibiotics in addition to standard incision and drainage is recommended in persons with severe abscesses, many sites of infection, rapid disease progression, the presence of cellulitis, symptoms indicating bacterial illness throughout the body, or a health condition causing immunosuppression. People who are very young or very old may also need antibiotics. If the abscess does not heal only with incision and drainage, or if the abscess is in a place that is difficult to drain such as the face, hands, or genitals, then antibiotics may be indicated.
+
+In those cases of abscess which do require antibiotic treatment, Staphylococcus aureus bacteria is a common cause and an anti-staphylococcus antibiotic such as flucloxacillin or dicloxacillin is used. The Infectious Diseases Society of America advises that the draining of an abscess is not enough to address community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), and in those cases, traditional antibiotics may be ineffective. Alternative antibiotics effective against community-acquired MRSA often include clindamycin, doxycycline, minocycline, and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. The American College of Emergency Physicians advises that typical cases of abscess from MRSA get no benefit from having antibiotic treatment in addition to the standard treatment. If the condition is thought to be cellulitis rather than an abscess, consideration should be given to the possibility of the strep species as a cause, that are still sensitive to traditional anti-staphylococcus agents such as dicloxacillin or cephalexin. This would be in the case of people that are able to tolerate penicillin. Antibiotic therapy alone without surgical drainage of the abscess is seldom effective due to antibiotics often being unable to get into the abscess and their ineffectiveness at low pH levels.
+
+Culturing the wound is not needed if standard follow-up care can be provided after the incision and drainage. Performing a wound culture is unnecessary because it rarely gives information which can be used to guide treatment.
+
+Packing
+In North America, after drainage, an abscess cavity is usually packed, often with special iodoform-treated cloth. This is done to absorb and neutralize any remaining exudate as well as to promote draining and prevent premature closure. Prolonged draining is thought to promote healing. The hypothesis is that though the heart's pumping action can deliver immune and regenerative cells to the edge of an injury, an abscess is by definition a void in which no blood vessels are present. Packing is thought to provide a wicking action that continuously draws beneficial factors and cells from the body into the void that must be healed. Discharge is then absorbed by cutaneous bandages and further wicking promoted by changing these bandages regularly. However, evidence from emergency medicine literature reports that packing wounds after draining, especially smaller wounds, causes pain to the person and does not decrease the rate of recurrence, nor bring faster healing, or fewer physician visits.
+
+Loop drainage
+More recently, several North American hospitals have opted for less-invasive loop drainage over standard drainage and wound packing. In one study of 143 pediatric outcomes, a failure rate of 1.4% was reported in the loop group versus 10.5% in the packing group (P<.030), while a separate study reported a 5.5% failure rate among the loop group.
+
+Primary closure
+Closing an abscess immediately after draining it appears to speed healing without increasing the risk of recurrence. This may not apply to anorectal abscesses as while they may heal faster, there may be a higher rate of recurrence than those left open.
+
+Prognosis
+Even without treatment, skin abscesses rarely result in death, as they will naturally break through the skin. Other types of abscess are more dangerous. Brain abscesses may be fatal if untreated. When treated, the mortality rate reduces to 5–10%, but is higher if the abscess ruptures.
+
+Epidemiology
+Skin abscesses are common and have become more common in recent years. Risk factors include intravenous drug use, with rates reported as high as 65% among users. In 2005, in the United States 3.2 million people went to the emergency department for an abscess. In Australia around 13,000 people were hospitalized in 2008 for the disease.
+
+Society and culture
+The Latin medical aphorism "ubi pus, ibi evacua" expresses "where there is pus, there evacuate it" and is classical advice in the culture of Western medicine.
+
+Needle exchange programmes often administer or provide referrals for abscess treatment to injection drug users as part of a harm reduction public health strategy.
+
+Etymology
+An abscess is so called "abscess" because there is an abscessus (a going away or departure) of portions of the animal tissue from each other to make room for the suppurated matter lodged between them.
+
+The word carbuncle is believed to have originated from the Latin: carbunculus, originally a small coal; diminutive of carbon-, carbo: charcoal or ember, but also a carbuncle stone, "precious stones of a red or fiery colour", usually garnets.
+
+Other types
+The following types of abscess are listed in the medical dictionary:
+
+References
+
+External links 
+
+ 
+ 
+ 
+ 
+ 
+
+General surgery
+Cutaneous lesion
+Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate
+Wikipedia emergency medicine articles ready to translate
+Aalborg Municipality () is a municipality in North Jutland Region on the Jutland peninsula in northern Denmark. The municipality straddles the Limfjord, the waterway which connects the North Sea and the Kattegat east-to-west, and which separates the main body of the Jutland peninsula from the island of Vendsyssel-Thy north-to-south. It has a land area of  and a population of 222,571 (1. January 2023).
+
+It is also the name of the municipality's main city Aalborg and the site of its municipal council, as well as the name of a seaport.
+
+The municipality and the town have chosen to retain the traditional spelling of the name as Aalborg, although the new spelling Ålborg is used in other contexts, such as Ålborg Bight (Ålborg Bugt), the body of water which lies to the east of the Jutland peninsula.
+
+Municipal reform of 2007
+As of 1 January 2007 Aalborg municipality joined with the municipalities of Hals, Nibe, and Sejlflod to form a new Aalborg municipality. The former Aalborg municipality, including the island of Egholm, covered an area of , with a total population of 192,353 (2005).  Its last mayor was Henning G. Jensen, a member of the Social Democrats () political party. The former municipality was bordered by Sejlflod and Hals to the east, Dronninglund and Brønderslev to the north, Aabybro and Nibe to the west, and Støvring and Skørping to the south. It belonged to North Jutland County.
+
+Geography
+
+Surroundings
+The waters in the Limfjord splitting the municipality are called Langerak to the east and Gjøl Bredning to the west.  The island of Egholm is located in Gjøl Bredning, and is connected by ferry to the city of Aalborg at its southern shore.
+
+The area is typical for the north of Jutland.  To the west, the Limfjord broadens into an irregular lake (salt water), with low, marshy shores and many islands.  Northwest is Store Vildmose ("Greater Wild bog"), a swamp where a mirage is sometimes seen in summer. Southeast lies the similar Lille Vildmose ("Lesser Wild bog").  Store Vildmose was drained and farmed in the beginning of the 20th century, and Lille Vildmose is now the largest moor in Denmark.
+
+Urban areas in Aalborg Municipality
+Aalborg City has a total population of 123,432. The metropolitan area is a conurbation of the Aalborg urban area in Himmerland (102,312) and the  urban area in  (21,120).
+
+Economy
+North Flying has its head office on the property of Aalborg Airport in , Aalborg Municipality.
+
+Politics
+
+Municipal council
+Aalborg's municipal council consists of 31 members, elected every four years.
+
+Below are the municipal councils elected since the Municipal Reform of 2007.
+
+Twin towns – sister cities
+
+Aalborg is twinned with 34 cities, more than any other city in Denmark. Every four years, Aalborg gathers young people from most of its twin towns for a week of sports, known as Ungdomslegene (Youth Games).
+
+ , Netherlands
+ Antibes, France
+ Büdelsdorf, Germany
+ Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom
+ , Norway
+ Fuglafjørður, Faroe Islands
+ Galway, Ireland
+ Gdynia, Poland
+ Haifa, Israel
+ Hefei, China
+ , Austria
+, Greenland
+ Karlskoga, Sweden
+ Lancaster, England
+ Lerum, Sweden
+ Liperi, Finland
+ , Iceland
+ Orsa, Sweden
+ Orust, Sweden
+ Ośno Lubuskie, Poland
+ , Russia
+ Racine, United States
+ Rapperswil-Jona, Switzerland
+ Rendalen, Norway
+ Rendsburg, Germany
+ Riga, Latvia
+ Riihimäki, Finland
+ , Greenland
+ Solvang, United States
+ , Romania
+ , Bulgaria
+ Vilnius, Lithuania
+ , Germany
+
+References
+
+ Municipal statistics: NetBorger Kommunefakta, delivered from KMD a.k.a. Kommunedata (Municipal Data)
+ Municipal mergers and neighbors: Eniro map with named municipalities
+ Aalborg in figures 2008, a publication from Aalborg Municipality.
+
+External links
+
+About Aalborg from Nordjyske Medier
+Aalborg Municipality's official website
+VisitAalborg (Aalborg Tourist Office)
+Website for Aalborg Municipality's former Municipality Reformation Board
+Public Transport in Aalborg and surroundings
+Searchable map
+
+ 
+Aalborg
+Municipalities of the North Jutland Region
+Municipalities of Denmark
+Populated places established in 2007
+Aarhus (, , ; officially spelled Århus from 1948 until 1 January 2011) is the second-largest city in Denmark and the seat of Aarhus Municipality. It is located on the eastern shore of Jutland in the Kattegat sea and approximately  northwest of Copenhagen.
+
+Dating back to the late 8th century, Aarhus was founded as a harbour settlement at the mouth of the Aarhus River and quickly became a trade hub. The first Christian church was built here around the year 900 and later in the Viking Age the town was fortified with defensive ramparts. The bishopric of Aarhus grew steadily stronger and more prosperous, building several religious institutions in the town during the early Middle Ages. Trade continued to improve, although it was not until 1441 that Aarhus was granted market town privileges, and the population of Aarhus remained relatively stable until the 19th century. The city began to grow significantly as trade prospered in the mid-18th century, but not until the mid-19th century did the Industrial Revolution bring real growth in population. The first railway line in Jutland was built here in 1862. In 1928, the first university in Jutland was founded in Aarhus and today it is a university city and the largest centre for trade, services, industry, and tourism in Jutland.
+
+Aarhus Cathedral is the longest cathedral in Denmark with a total length of . The Church of our Lady (Vor Frue Kirke) was originally built in 1060, making it the oldest stone church in Scandinavia. The City Hall, designed by Arne Jacobsen and Erik Møller, was completed in 1941 in a modern Functionalist style. Aarhus Theatre, the largest provincial theatre in Denmark, opposite the cathedral on Bispetorvet, was built by Hack Kampmann in the Art Nouveau style and completed in 1916. Musikhuset Aarhus (concert hall) and Det Jyske Musikkonservatorium (Royal Academy of Music, Aarhus/Aalborg) are also of note, as are its museums including the open-air museum Den Gamle By, the art museum ARoS Aarhus Kunstmuseum, the Moesgård Museum and the women's museum Kvindemuseet. The city's major cultural institutions include Den Gamle By, ARoS Aarhus Kunstmuseum, the Moesgård Museum, Gender Museum Denmark, Musikhuset Aarhus and Aarhus Theatre. Known as  (lit. City of Smiles) it is the Danish city with the youngest demographics and home to Scandinavia's largest university, Aarhus University. Commercially, the city is the principal container port in the country, and major Danish companies such as Vestas, Arla Foods, Salling Group, and Jysk have their headquarters there.
+
+Etymology
+The name originates from the city's location at the mouth of  (Aarhus River). It is a compound of the two words , genitive of  ("river", Modern Danish ), and  ("mouth", in Modern Icelandic this word, spelt , is still used for "river delta"). In Valdemar's Census Book (1231) the city was called Arus, and in Icelandic it was known as , later written as Aars.
+
+Spelling
+The spelling "Aarhus" is first found in 1406 and gradually became the norm in the 17th century. With the Danish spelling reform of 1948, "Aa" was changed to "Å". Some Danish cities resisted the change but Aarhus city council opted to change the name. In 2010, the city council voted to change the name back from  to  again with effect from 1 January 2011.
+
+It is still grammatically correct to write geographical names with the letter Å and local councils are allowed to use the Aa spelling as an alternative and most newspapers and public institutions will accept either. Some official authorities such as the Danish Language Committee, publisher of the Danish Orthographic Dictionary, still retain  as the main name, providing  as a second option, in brackets and some institutions are still using  explicitly in their official name, such as the local newspaper  and the schools  and . "Aa" was used by some major institutions between 1948 and 2011 as well, such as Aarhus University or the largest local sports club,  (AGF), which has never used the "Å"-spelling. Certain geographically affiliated names have been updated to reflect the name of the city, such as the Aarhus River, changed from  to .
+
+History
+
+Early history
+Founded in the early Viking Age, Aarhus is one of the oldest cities in Denmark, along with Ribe and Hedeby. The original Aros settlement was situated on the northern shores of a fjord by the mouth of the Aarhus River, right where the city center is today. It quickly became a hub for sea-going trade due to its position on intersecting trade routes in the Danish straits and the fertile countryside. The trade, however, was not nearly as prominent as that in Ribe and Hedeby during the Viking Age, and it was primarily linked to Norway as evidenced by archaeological finds. A shipbuilding yard from the Viking Age was uncovered upriver in 2002 by archaeologists. It was located at a place formerly known as Snekkeeng, or Snekke Meadow in English ('Snekke' is a type of longship), east of the Brabrand Lake close to Viby, and it was in use for more than 400 years from the late 700s till around the mid-1200s.
+
+Archaeological evidence indicates that Aarhus was a town as early as the last quarter of the 8th century. Discoveries after a 2003 archaeological dig included half-buried longhouses, firepits, glass pearls and a road dated to the late 700s. Several excavations in the inner city since the 1960s have revealed wells, streets, homes and workshops, and inside the buildings and adjoining archaeological layers, everyday utensils like combs, jewellery and basic multi-purpose tools from approximately the year 900 have been unearthed. The early town was fortified with defensive earthen ramparts in the first part of the 900s, possibly in the year 934 on order from king Gorm the Old. The fortifications were later improved and expanded by his son Harald Bluetooth, encircling the settlement much like the defence structures found at Viking ring fortresses elsewhere. Together with the town's geographical placement, this suggests that Aros became an important military centre in the Viking Age. There are also strong indications of a former royal residence from the same period in Viby, a few kilometres south of the Aarhus city centre.
+
+The centre of Aarhus was originally a pagan burial site until Aarhus's first Christian church, Holy Trinity Church, a timber structure, was built upon it during the reign of Frode, King of Jutland, around 900. The bishopric of Aarhus dates back to at least 948 when Adam of Bremen reported that the missionary bishop Reginbrand of Aros attended the synod of Ingelheim in Germany, but the late Viking Age during the Christianization of Scandinavia was a turbulent and violent time with several naval attacks on the town, such as Harald Hardrada's assault around 1050, when the Holy Trinity Church was burned to the ground. Despite the conflicts, Aarhus continued to prosper from the trade and the finding of six runestones in and around Aarhus indicates the city had some significance around the year 1000, as only wealthy nobles traditionally used them. The bishopric diocese was obliterated for almost a hundred years after Reginbrand in 988, but in 1060 a new bishop Christian was ordained and he founded a new church in Aarhus, Sankt Nicolai Domkirke (St. Nicholas Cathedral), this time in stone. It was erected outside the town fortifications, and stood finished in 1070 at the site where Church of Our Lady stands today, but only an underground crypt remains.
+
+Middle Ages
+
+The growing influence of the Church during the Middle Ages gradually turned Aarhus, with its bishopric, into a prosperous religious centre. Many public and religious buildings were built in and around the town; notably Aarhus Cathedral was initiated in the late 12th century by the influential bishop Peder Vognsen, and around 1200, Aros had a total of four churches. The 13th century also marks a thorough reorganisation, erasing most of the town's original layout with new streets, relocations, dismantling and new constructions. The Church clearly had the upper hand in the Aarhus region during medieval times, and the large bishopric of Aarhus prospered and expanded territory, reaching as far as Viborg in extent. In 1441, Christopher III issued the oldest known charter granting market town status, although similar privileges may have existed as far back as the 12th century. The charter is the first official recognition of the town as a regional power and is by some considered Aarhus's birth certificate.
+
+The commercial and religious status spurred town growth, and in 1477 the defensive earthen ramparts, which had ringed the town since the Viking Age, were abandoned to accommodate expansion. Parts of the ramparts still exist today and can be experienced as steep slopes at the riverside, and they have also survived in some place names of the inner city, including the streets of Volden (The Rampart) and Graven (The Moat). Aarhus grew to become one of the largest cities in the country by the early 16th century. In 1657, octroi was imposed in larger Danish cities which changed the layout and face of Aarhus over the following decades. Wooden city walls were erected to prevent smuggling, with gates and toll booths on the major thoroughfares, Mejlgade and Studsgade. The city gates funnelled most traffic through a few streets where merchant quarters were built.
+
+In the 17th century, Aarhus entered a period of recession as it suffered blockades and bombardments during the Swedish wars and trade was dampened by the preferential treatment of the capital by the state. Not until the middle of the 18th century did growth return, in large part due to trade with the large agricultural catchment areas around the city; grain, particularly, proved to be a remunerative export. The first factories were established at this time, as the Industrial Revolution reached the country, and in 1810 the harbour was expanded to accommodate growing trade.
+
+Industrialisation
+
+Aarhus began to prosper in the 1830s as the industrial revolution reached the city and factories with steam-driven machinery became more productive. In 1838, the electoral laws were reformed leading to elections for the 15 seats on the city council. The rules were initially very strict, allowing only the wealthiest citizens to run. In the 1844 elections, only 174 citizens qualified out of a total population of more than 7,000. The first city council, mainly composed of wealthy merchants and industrialists, quickly looked to improve the harbour, situated along the Aarhus River. Larger ships and growing freight volumes made a river harbour increasingly impractical. In 1840, the harbour was moved to the coast, north of the river, where it became the largest industrial harbour outside Copenhagen over the following 15 years. From the outset, the new harbour was controlled by the city council, as it is to this day.
+
+During the First Schleswig War, Aarhus was occupied by German troops from 21 June to 24 July 1849. The city was spared any fighting, but in Vejlby north of the city a cavalry skirmish known as Rytterfægtningen took place which stopped the German advance through Jutland. The war and occupation left a notable impact on the city as many streets, particularly on Frederiksbjerg, are named after Danish officers of the time. Fifteen years later, in 1864, the city was occupied again, this time for seven months, during the Second Schleswig War.
+
+In spite of wars and occupation, the city continued to expand and develop. In 1851, the octroi was abolished and the city walls were removed to provide easier access for trade. Regular steamship links with Copenhagen had begun with the Jylland in 1825–26 and the Dania (1827–36), and in 1862 Jutland's first railway was established between Aarhus and Randers.
+
+In the second half of the 19th century, industrialisation came into full effect and a number of new industries emerged around production and refinement of agricultural products, especially oil and butter. Many companies from this time would come to leave permanent iconic marks on Aarhus. The Ceres Brewery was established in 1856 and served as Aarhus's local brewery for more than 150 years, gradually expanding into an industrial district known as Ceres-grunden (lit.: the Ceres-ground). In 1896, local farmers and businessmen created Korn- og Foderstof Kompagniet (KFK), focused on grain and feedstuffs. KFK established departments all over the country, while its headquarters remained in Aarhus where its large grain silos still stand today. Otto Mønsted created the Danish Preserved Butter Company in 1874, focusing on butter export to England, China and Africa and later founded the Aarhus Butterine Company in 1883, the first Danish margarine factory. His company became an important local employer, with factory employees increasing from 100 in 1896 to 1,000 in 1931, partaking in the effective transformation of the city from a regional trade hub to an industrial centre. Other new factories of note included the dockyard Aarhus Flydedok and the oil mill Århus Oliefabrik.
+
+Aarhus became the largest provincial city in the country by the turn of the century and the city marketed itself as the "Capital of Jutland". The population increased from 15,000 in 1870 to 52,000 in 1901 and, in response, the city annexed large land areas to develop new residential quarters such as Trøjborg, Frederiksbjerg and Marselisborg. Many of its cultural institutions were also established at this time such as Aarhus Theatre (1900), the original State Library (1902), Aarhus University (1928) and several hospitals.
+
+Second World War
+
+On 9 April 1940, Nazi Germany invaded Denmark, occupying Aarhus the following day; the occuption lasted for five years. This was a destructive period with major disasters, loss of life and economic depression. The Port of Aarhus became a hub for supplies to the Baltics and Norway, while the surrounding rail network supplied the Atlantic Wall in west Jutland and cargo headed for Germany. Combined, these factors resulted in a strong German presence, especially in 1944–45.
+
+Small resistance groups first appeared in 1941–42 but the first to co-ordinate with the Freedom Council was the Samsing Group, responsible for most operations from early 1943. The Samsing group, along with others in and around Aarhus, was dismantled in June 1944 when Grethe "Thora" Bartram turned her family and acquaintances over to German authorities. In response, requests for assistance were sent to contacts in England and in October 1944 the Royal Air Force bombed the Gestapo headquarters successfully destroying archives and obstructing the ongoing investigation.
+
+In the summer of 1944 the Copenhagen-based resistance group Holger Danske helped establish the 5 Kolonne group and an SOE agent arrived from England to liaison with the L-groups. Subsequently, resistance operations escalated which was countered with Schalburgtage terror operations by the Peter group. The increasingly destructive occupation was compounded when an ammunition barge exploded in July 1944, destroying much of the harbour area. On 5 May 1945 German forces in Denmark surrendered but during the transitional period fighting broke out resulting in 22 dead. On 8 May the British Royal Dragoons entered the city.
+
+Post-World War II years
+In the 1970s and 1980s the city entered a period of rapid economic growth and the service sector overtook trade, industry and crafts as the leading sector of employment for the first time. Workers gradually began commuting to the city from most of east and central Jutland as the region became more interconnected. The student population tripled between 1965 and 1977 turning the city into a Danish centre of research and education. The growing and comparably young population initiated a period of creativity and optimism; Gaffa and the KaosPilot school were founded in 1983 and 1991 respectively, and Aarhus was at the centre of a renaissance in Danish rock and pop music launching bands and musicians such as TV2, Gnags, Thomas Helmig, Bamses Venner, Anne Dorte Michelsen, Mek Pek and Shit & Chanel.
+
+The 2000s 
+
+Since the turn of the millennium, Aarhus has seen an unprecedented building boom with many new institutions, infrastructure projects, city districts and recreational areas. Several of the construction projects are among the largest in Europe, such as the New University Hospital (DNU) and the harbourfront redevelopment.
+
+Both the skyline and land use of the inner city is changing, as former industrial sites are being redeveloped into new city districts and neighbourhoods. Starting in 2008, the former docklands known as De Bynære Havnearealer (The Peri-urban Harbour-areas), and closest to the city seaside, are being converted to new mixed-use districts. It is among the largest harbourfront projects in Europe. The northern part dubbed Aarhus Ø (Aarhus Docklands) is almost finished as of 2018, while the southern district dubbed Sydhavnskvarteret (The South-harbour neighbourhood) is only starting to be developed. The adjacent site of Frederiks Plads at the former DSB repair facilities have been under construction since 2014 as a new business and residential quarter. The main bus terminal close by is planned to be moved to the central railway station and the site will be redeveloped to a new residential neighbourhood. Elsewhere in the inner city, the site of the former Ceres breweries was redeveloped in 2012-2019 as a new mixed use neighbourhood known as CeresByen.
+
+Construction of Aarhus Letbane, the first light rail system in the country, commenced in 2013, and the first increment was finished in December 2017. Since then, the lightrail service has been expanded with two intercity sections to the towns of Odder and Grenå, respectively, and also includes a northward leg to the suburb of Lisbjerg. The light rail system is planned to tie many other suburbs closer to central Aarhus in the future, with the next phase including local lines to Brabrand in the east and Hinnerup to the north.
+
+Accelerating growth since the early 2000s, brought the inner urban area to roughly 260,000 inhabitants by 2014. The rapid growth is expected to continue until at least 2030 when Aarhus municipality has set an ambitious target for 375,000 inhabitants.
+
+Geography
+
+Aarhus is located at the Bay of Aarhus facing the Kattegat sea in the east with the peninsulas of Mols and Helgenæs across the bay to the northeast. Mols and Helgenæs are both part of the larger regional peninsula of Djursland. A number of larger cities and towns is within easy reach from Aarhus by road and rail, including Randers ( by road north), Grenå (northeast), Horsens ( south) and Silkeborg ( east).
+
+Topography
+At Aarhus's location, the Bay of Aarhus provides a natural harbour with a depth of  quite close to the shore. Aarhus was founded at the mouth of a brackish water fjord, but the original fjord no longer exists, as it has gradually narrowed into what is now the Aarhus River and the Brabrand Lake, due to natural sedimentation. The land around Aarhus was once covered by forests, remains of which exist in parts of Marselisborg Forest to the south and Riis Skov to the north. Several lakes extend west from the inner city as the landscape merges with the larger region of Søhøjlandet with heights exceeding  at Himmelbjerget between Skanderborg and Silkeborg. The highest natural point in Aarhus Municipality is Jelshøj at 128 metres above sea level, in the southern district of Højbjerg. The hilltop is home to a Bronze Age barrow shrouded in local myths and legends.
+
+The hilly area around Aarhus consists of a morainal plateau from the last ice age, broken by a complex system of tunnel valleys. The most prominent valleys of this network are the Aarhus Valley in the south, stretching inland east–west with the Aarhus River, Brabrand Lake, Årslev Lake and Tåstrup Lake, and the Egå Valley to the north, with the stream of Egåen, Egå Engsø, the bog of Geding-Kasted Mose and Geding Lake. Most parts of the two valleys have been drained and subsequently farmed, but in the early 2000s some of the drainage was removed and parts of the wetlands were restored for environmental reasons. The valley system also includes the stream of Lyngbygård Å in the west and valleys to the south of the city, following erosion channels from the pre-quaternary. By contrast, the Aarhus River Valley and the Giber River Valley are late glacial meltwater valleys. The coastal cliffs along the Bay of Aarhus consist of shallow tertiary clay from the Eocene and Oligocene (57 to 24 million years ago).
+
+Climate
+
+Aarhus has a temperate oceanic climate (Köppen: Cfb) and the weather is constantly influenced by major weather systems from all four ordinal directions, resulting in unstable conditions throughout the year. Temperature varies a great deal across the seasons with a mild spring in April and May, warmer summer months from June to August, frequently rainy and windy autumn months in October and September and cooler winter months, often with frost and occasional snow, from December to March. The city centre experiences the same climatic effects as other larger cities with higher wind speeds, more fog, less precipitation and higher temperatures than the surrounding, open land.
+
+Western winds from the Atlantic and North Sea are dominant resulting in more precipitation in western Denmark. In addition, Jutland rises sufficiently in the centre to lift air to higher, colder altitudes contributing to increased precipitation in eastern Jutland. Combined, these factors make east and south Jutland comparatively wetter than other parts of the country. Average temperature over the year is  with February being the coldest month () and August the warmest (). Temperatures in the sea can reach  in June to August, but it is not uncommon for beaches to register  locally.
+
+The geography in the area affects the local climate of the city with the Aarhus Bay imposing a temperate effect on the low-lying valley floor where central Aarhus is located. Brabrand Lake to the west further contributes to this effect and as a result, the valley has a comparably mild, temperate climate. The sandy ground on the valley floor dries up quickly after winter and warms faster in the summer than the surrounding hills of moist-retaining boulder clay. These conditions affect crops and plants that often bloom 1–2 weeks earlier in the valley than on the northern and southern hillsides.
+
+Because of the northern latitude, the number of daylight hours varies considerably between summer and winter. On the summer solstice, the sun rises at 04:26 and sets at 21:58, providing 17 hours 32 minutes of daylight. On the winter solstice, it rises at 08:37 and sets at 15:39 with 7 hours and 2 minutes of daylight. The difference in length of days and nights between summer and winter solstices is 10 hours and 30 minutes.
+
+Politics and administration
+
+Aarhus is the seat of Aarhus Municipality, and Aarhus City Council (Aarhus Byråd) is also the municipal government with headquarters in Aarhus City Hall. The Mayor of Aarhus since 2010 is Jacob Bundsgaard of the Social Democrats. Municipal elections are held every fourth year on the third Tuesday of November with the next election in 2021. The city council consists of 31 members elected for four-year terms. When an election has determined the composition of the council, it elects a mayor, two deputy mayors and five aldermen from their ranks. Anyone who is eligible to vote and who resides within the municipality can run for a seat on the city council provided they can secure endorsements and signatures from 50 inhabitants of the municipality.
+
+The first publicly elected mayor of Aarhus was appointed in 1919. In the 1970 Danish Municipal Reform the current Aarhus municipality was created by merging 20 municipalities. Aarhus was the seat of Aarhus County until the 2007 Danish municipal reform, which substituted the Danish counties with five regions and replaced Aarhus County with Central Denmark Region (Region Midtjylland), seated in Viborg.
+
+Subdivisions
+Aarhus Municipality has 45 electoral wards and polling stations in four electoral districts for the Folketing (national Parliament). The diocese of Aarhus has four deaneries composed of 60 parishes within Aarhus municipality. Aarhus municipality contains 21 postal districts and some parts of another 9. The urban area of Aarhus and the immediate suburbs are divided into the districts Aarhus C, Aarhus N, Aarhus V, Viby J, Højbjerg and Brabrand.
+
+Environmental planning 
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+Aarhus has increasingly been investing in environmental planning and, in accordance with national policy, aims to be -neutral and independent of fossil fuels for heating by 2030. The municipal power plants were adapted for this purpose in the 2010s. In 2015, the municipality took over three private straw-fired heating plants and the year after, a new 77 MW combined heat and power biomass plant at Lisbjerg Power Station was completed while Studstrup Power Station finished a refit to move from coal to wood chips. In conjunction with the development of the Docklands district there are plans for a utility-scale seawater heat pump which will take advantage of fluctuating electricity prices to supply the district heating system. Since 2015, the city has been implementing energy-saving LED technology in street lighting; by January 2019, about half of the municipal street lighting had been changed. Apart from reducing the city's CO2 emissions, it saves 30% on the electricity bill, thereby making it a self-financed project over a 20-year period.
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+The municipality aims for a coherent and holistic administration of the water cycle to protect against, or clean up, previous pollution and encourage green growth and self-sufficiency. The main issues are excessive nutrients, adapting to increased (and increasing) levels of precipitation brought on by climate change, and securing the water supply. These goals have manifested in a number of large water treatment projects often in collaboration with private partners. In the 2000s, underground rainwater basins were built across the city while the two lakes Årslev Engsø and Egå Engsø were created in 2003 and 2006 respectively. The number of sewage treatment plants is planned to be reduced from 17 to 2 by 2025, as the treatment plants in Marselisborg and Egå are scheduled for expansion to take over all waste water treatment. They have already been refitted for biogas production to become net producers of electricity and heat. To aid the new treatment plants, and avoid floodings, sewage and stormwater throughout the municipality is planned to be separated into two different drainage systems. Construction began in 2017 in several areas, but it is a long process that is scheduled to be finished by 2085.
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+Afforestation projects have been undertaken to prevent groundwater pollution, secure drinking water, sequester , increase biodiversity, create an attractive countryside, provide easy access to nature and offer outdoor activities to the public. In 2000, the first project, the New Forests of Aarhus, was completed, which aimed to double the forest cover in the municipality and, in 2009, another phase was announced to double forest cover once more before the year 2030. The afforestation plans were realised as a local project in collaboration with private landowners, under a larger national agenda. Other projects to expand natural habitats include a rewilding effort in Geding-Kasted Bog and continuous monitoring of the four Natura 2000 areas in the municipality.
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+Demographics
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+Aarhus has a population of 261,570 on  for a density of 2,874/km2 (7,444/sq mi). Aarhus municipality has a population of 330,639 on 468 km2 with a density of 706/km2 (1,829/sq mi). Less than a fifth of the municipal population resides beyond city limits and almost all live in an urban area. The population of Aarhus is both younger and better-educated than the national average which can be attributed to the high concentration of educational institutions. More than 40% of the population have an academic degree while only some 14% have no secondary education or trade. The largest age group is 20- to 29-year-olds and the average age is 37.5, making it the youngest city in the country and one of its youngest municipalities. Women have slightly outnumbered men for many years.
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+The city is home to 75 different religious groups and denominations, most of which are Christian or Muslim with a smaller number of Buddhist, Hindu, and Jewish communities. Since the 1990s there has been a marked growth in diverse new spiritual groups although the total number of followers remains small. The majority of the population are members of the Protestant state church, Church of Denmark, which is by far the largest religious institution both in the city and the country as a whole. Some 20% of the population are not officially affiliated with any religion, a percentage that has been slowly rising for many years.
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+During the 1990s there was significant immigration from Turkey and in the 2000s, there was a fast growth in the overall immigrant community, from 27,783 people in 1999 to 40,431 in 2008. The majority of immigrants have roots outside Europe and the developed world, comprising some 25,000 people from 130 different nationalities, with the largest groups coming from the Middle East and North Africa. Some 15,000 have come from within Europe, with Poland, Germany, Romania and Norway being the largest contributors.
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+Many immigrants have established themselves in the suburbs of Brabrand, Hasle and Viby, where the percentage of inhabitants with foreign origins has risen by 66% since 2000. This has resulted in a few so-called ghettos, defined as residential areas with more than half of inhabitants from non-Western countries and with relatively high levels of poverty and/or crime. Gellerup is the most notable neighbourhood in that respect. The ghetto-labelling has been criticized as unnecessarily stigmatising and counterproductive for social and economical development of the related areas.
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+Economy
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+The economy of Aarhus is predominantly knowledge- and service-based, strongly influenced by the University of Aarhus and the large healthcare industry. The service sector dominates the economy and is growing as the city transitions away from manufacturing. Trade and transportation remain important sectors, benefiting from the large port and central position on the rail network. Manufacturing has been in slow but steady decline since the 1960s while agriculture has long been a marginal sector within the municipality. The municipality is home to 175,000 jobs with some 100,000 in the private sector and the rest split between state, region and municipality. The region is a major agricultural producer, with many large farms in the outlying districts. People commute to Aarhus from as far away as Randers, Silkeborg and Skanderborg and almost a third of those employed within the Aarhus municipality commute from neighbouring communities. Aarhus is a centre for retail in the Nordic and Baltic countries, with expansive shopping centres, the busiest commercial street in the country and a dense urban core with many speciality shops.
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+The job market is knowledge- and service-based, and the largest employment sectors are healthcare and social services, trade, education, consulting, research, industry and telecommunications. The municipality has more high- and middle-income jobs, and fewer low-income jobs, than the national average. Today, te majority of the largest companies in the municipality are in the sectors of trade, transport and media. The wind power industry has strong roots in Aarhus and the larger region of Central Jutland, and nationally, most of the revenue in the industry is generated by companies in the greater Aarhus area. The wind industry employs about a thousand people within the municipality, making it a central component in the local economy. The biotech industry is well-established in the city, with many small- and medium-sized companies mainly focused on research and development. There are multiple Big Tech companies with offices in the city, including Uber and Google.
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+Several major companies are headquartered in Aarhus, including four of the ten largest in the country. These include Arla Foods, one of the largest dairy groups in Europe, Salling Group, Denmark's largest retailer, Jysk, a worldwide retailer of household goods, Vestas, a global wind turbine manufacturer, Terma A/S, a major defence and aerospace manufacturer, Per Aarsleff, a civil engineering company and several large retail companies. Other large employers of note include Krifa, Systematic A/S,), and Bestseller A/S. Since the early 2000s, the city has experienced an influx of larger companies moving from other parts of the Jutland peninsula.
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+Port of Aarhus
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+The Port of Aarhus is one of the largest industrial ports in northern Europe with the largest container terminal in Denmark, processing more than 50% of Denmark's container traffic and accommodating the largest container vessels in the world. It is a municipal self-governing port with independent finances. The facilities handle some 9.5 million tonnes of cargo a year (2012). Grain is the principal export, while feedstuffs, stone, cement and coal are among the chief imports. Since 2012 the port has faced increasing competition from the Port of Hamburg and freight volumes have decreased somewhat from the peak in 2008.
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+The ferry terminal presents the only alternative to the Great Belt Link for passenger transport between Jutland and Zealand. It has served different ferry companies since the first steamship route to Copenhagen opened in 1830. Currently, Mols-Linien operates the route and annually transports some two million passengers and a million vehicles. Additional roll-on/roll-off cargo ferries serve Finland and Kalundborg on a weekly basis and smaller outlying Danish ports at irregular intervals. Since the early 2000s the port has increasingly become a destination for cruise lines operating in the Baltic Sea.
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+Tourism
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+The ARoS Art Museum, the Old Town Museum and Tivoli Friheden are among Denmark's top tourist attractions. With a combined total of almost 1.4 million visitors they represent the driving force behind tourism but other venues such as Moesgård Museum and Kvindemuseet are also popular. The city's extensive shopping facilities are also said to be a major attraction for tourists, as are festivals, especially NorthSide and SPOT. Many visitors arrive on cruise ships: in 2012, 18 vessels visited the port with over 38,000 passengers.
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+In the 2010s, there was a significant expansion of tourist facilities, culminating in the opening of the 240-room Comwell Hotel in July 2014, which increased the number of hotel rooms in the city by 25%. Some estimates put the number of visitors spending at least one night as high as 750,000 a year, most of them Danes from other regions, with the remainder coming mainly from Norway, Sweden, northern Germany and the United Kingdom. Overall, they spend roughly DKK 3 billion (€402 million) in the city each year. The primary motivation for tourists choosing Aarhus as a destination is experiencing the city and culture, family and couples vacation or as a part of a round trip in Denmark. The average stay is little more than three days on average.
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+There are more than 30 tourist information spots across the city. Some of them are staffed, while others are online, publicly accessible touchscreens. The official tourist information service in Aarhus is organised under VisitAarhus, a corporate foundation initiated in 1994 by Aarhus Municipality and local commercial interest organisations.
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+Research parks
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+The largest research park in Aarhus is INCUBA Science Park, focused on IT and biomedical research, It is based on Denmark's first research park, Forskerpark Aarhus (Research Park Aarhus), founded in 1986, which in 2007 merged with another research park to form INCUBA Science Park. The organisation is owned partly by Aarhus University and private investors and aims to foster close relationships between public institutions and startup companies. It is physically divided across 4 locations after a new department was inaugurated in Navitas Park in 2015, which it will share with the Aarhus School of Marine and Technical Engineering and AU Engineering. Another major centre for knowledge is Agro Food Park in Skejby, established to facilitate co-operation between companies and public institutions working within food science and agriculture. In January 2017 Arla Foods will open the global innovation centre Arla Nativa in Agro Food Park and in 2018 Aarhus University is moving the Danish Centre for Food and Agriculture there as well. In 2016, some 1000 people worked at Agro Food Park, spread across 50 companies and institutions and in August 2016 Agro Food Park management published plans to expand facilities from 92,000 m2 to .
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+In addition, Aarhus is home to the Aarhus School of Architecture, one of two Danish Ministry of Education institutions that provide degree programs in architecture, and some of the largest architecture firms in the Nordic countries such as Schmidt Hammer Lassen Architects, Arkitema Architects and C. F. Møller Architects. Taken together these organisations form a unique concentration of expertise and knowledge in architecture outside Copenhagen, which the Danish Ministry of Business and Growth refers to as  (the architecture cluster). To promote the "cluster", the School of Architecture will be given new school buildings centrally in the new Freight Station Neighborhood, planned for development in the 2020s. In the interim, the city council supports a culture, business and education centre in the area, which may continue in the future neighbourhood in some form. The future occupants of the neighbourhood will be businesses and organisations selected for their ability to be involved in the local community, and it is hoped that the area will evolve into a hotspot for creativity and design.
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+Cityscape
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+Aarhus has developed in stages, from the Viking Age to modern times, all visible in the city today. Many architectural styles are represented in different parts of the city such as Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance, Baroque, Rococo, National Romantic, Nordic Classicism, Neoclassical, Empire and Functionalism. The city has developed around the main transport hubs – the river, the harbour, and later the railway station – and as a result, the oldest parts are also the most central and busiest today.
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+The streets of Volden (The Rampart) and Graven (The Moat) testify to the defences of the initial Viking town, and Allégaderingen in Midtbyen roughly follows the boundaries of that settlement. The street network in the inner city formed during the Middle Ages with narrow, curved streets and low, dense housing by the river and the coast. Vesterport (Westward Gate) still bears the name of the medieval city gate and the narrow alleyways Posthussmøgen and Telefonsmøgen are remnants of toll stations from that time. The inner city has the oldest preserved buildings, especially the Latin Quarter, with houses dating back to the early 17th century in Mejlgade and Skolegade. Medieval merchants' mansions with courtyards can be seen in Klostergade, Studsgade and Skolegade. By far, the largest part of the present-day city was built during and after the industrialization of the late 1800s, and the most represented architectural styles today are historicism and modernism, especially the subgenre of Danish functionalism of which there are many fine examples. The building boom of the 2000s has imprinted itself on Aarhus with a redeveloped harbourfront, many new neighbourhoods (also in the inner city), and a revitalized public space. It is also beginning to change the skyline with several dominating high-rises.
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+Developments
+In recent years, Aarhus has experienced a large demand in housing and offices, spurring a construction boom in some parts of the city. The newly built city district of Aarhus Ø, formerly docklands, includes major housing developments, mostly consisting of privately owned apartments, designed by architects such as CEBRA, and JDS Architects.
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+In the second quarter of 2012, the population of the area stood at only 5; however, that number had risen to 3,940 by October 2019.
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+The main public transportation service is bus line 23, as well as Østbanetorvet train station. Plans to service the area by the light rail line Aarhus Letbane have now been shelved.
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+Landmarks
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+Aarhus Cathedral (Århus Domkirke) in the centre of Aarhus, is the longest and tallest church in Denmark at  and  in length and height respectively. Originally built as a Romanesque basilica in the 13th century, it was rebuilt and enlarged as a Gothic cathedral in the late 15th and early 16th centuries. Even though the cathedral stood finished around 1300, it took more than a century to build; the associated cathedral school of Aarhus Katedralskole was already founded in 1195 and ranks as the 44th oldest school in the world. Another important and historic landmark in the inner city, is the Church of Our Lady (Vor Frue Kirke) also from the 13th century in Romanesque and Gothic style. It is smaller and less impressive, but it was the first cathedral of Aarhus and founded on an even older church constructed in 1060; the oldest stone church in Scandinavia. Langelandsgade Kaserne in National Romantic Style from 1889 is the oldest former military barracks left in the country; home to the university Department of Aesthetics and Communication since 1989.
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+Marselisborg Palace (Marselisborg Slot), designed by Hack Kampmann in Neoclassical and Art Nouveau styles, was donated by the city to Prince Christian and Princess Alexandrine as a wedding present in 1898. The Aarhus Custom House (Toldkammeret) from 1898, is said to be Hack Kampmann's finest work.
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+Tivoli Friheden (Tivoli Freedom) opened in 1903 and has since been the largest amusement park in the city and a tourist attraction. Aarhus Theatre from 1916 in the Art Nouveau style is the largest provincial theatre in Denmark. The early buildings of Aarhus University, especially the main building completed in 1932, designed by Kay Fisker, Povl Stegmann and by C.F. Møller have gained an international reputation for their contribution to functionalist architecture. The City Hall (Aarhus Rådhus) from 1941 with an iconic  tower clad in marble, was designed by Arne Jacobsen and Erik Møller in a modern Functionalist style.
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+Culture
+Aarhus is home to many annual cultural events and festivals, museums, theatres, and sports events of both national and international importance, and presents some of the largest cultural attractions in Denmark. There is a long tradition of music from all genres, and many Danish bands have emerged from Aarhus. Libraries, cultural centres and educational institutions present free or easy opportunities for the citizens to participate in, engage in, or be creative with cultural events and productions of all kinds.
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+Since 1938, Aarhus has marketed itself as Smilets by (City of smiles) which has become both an informal moniker and official slogan. In 2011, the city council opted to change the slogan to "Aarhus. Danish for Progress" but it was unpopular and abandoned after just a few years. Other slogans that have occasionally been used are Byen ved havet (City by the sea), Mellem bugt og bøgeskov (Between bay and beechwood) and Verdens mindste storby (World's smallest big city). Aarhus is featured in popular songs such as Hjem til Aarhus by På Slaget 12, Lav sol over Aarhus by Gnags, 8000 Aarhus C by Flemming Jørgensen, Pigen ud af Aarhus by Tina Dickow and Slingrer ned ad Vestergade by Gnags. In 1919, the number Sangen til Aarhus (Song to Aarhus) had become a popular hit for a time, but the oldest and perhaps best known "national anthem" for the city is the classical Aarhus Tappenstreg from 1872 by Carl Christian Møller which is occasionally played at official events or at performances by local marching bands and orchestras.
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+Museums
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+Aarhus has a range of museums, including two of the largest in the country, measured by the number of paying guests, Den Gamle By and ARoS Aarhus Kunstmuseum. Den Gamle By (The Old Town), officially Danmarks Købstadmuseum (Denmark's Market Town Museum), presents Danish townscapes from the 16th century to the 1970s with individual areas focused on different time periods. 75 historic buildings collected from different parts of the country have been brought here to create a small town in its own right.
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+ARoS Aarhus Kunstmuseum, the city's main art museum, is one of the largest art museums in Scandinavia with a collection covering Danish art from the 18th century to the present day as well as paintings, installations and sculptures representing international art movements and artists from all over the world. The iconic glass structure on the roof, Your Rainbow Panorama, was designed by Olafur Eliasson and features a promenade offering a colourful panorama of the city.
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+The Moesgård Museum specialises in archaeology and ethnography in collaboration with Aarhus University with exhibits on Denmark's prehistory, including weapon sacrifices from Illerup Ådal and the Grauballe Man. Kvindemuseet, the Women's Museum, from 1984 contains collections of the lives and works of women in Danish cultural history. The Occupation Museum (Besættelsesmuseum) presents exhibits illustrating the German occupation of the city during the Second World War; the University Park on the campus of Aarhus University includes the Natural History Museum with 5,000 species of animals, many in their natural surroundings; and the Steno Museum is a museum of the history of science and medicine with a planetarium. Kunsthal Aarhus (Aarhus Art Hall) hosts exhibitions of contemporary art including painting, sculpture, photography, performance art, film and video. Strictly speaking it is not a museum but an arts centre, one of the oldest in Europe, built and founded in 1917.
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+Libraries and community centres
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+Public libraries in Denmark are also cultural and community centres. They play an active role in cultural life and host many events, exhibitions, discussion groups, workshops, educational courses and facilitate everyday cultural activities for and by the citizens. In June 2015, the large central library and cultural centre of Dokk1 opened at the harbour front. Dokk1 also includes civil administrations and services, commercial office rentals and a large underground robotic car park and aims to be a landmark for the city and a public meeting place. The building of Dokk1 and the associated squares and streetscape is also collectively known as Urban Mediaspace Aarhus and it is the largest construction project Aarhus municipality has yet undertaken. Apart from this large main library, some neighbourhoods in Aarhus have a local library engaged in similar cultural and educational activities, but on a more local scale.
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+The State Library (Statsbiblioteket) at the university campus has status of a national library. The city is a member of the ICORN organisation (International Cities of Refuge Network) in an effort to provide a safe haven to authors and writers persecuted in their countries of origin.
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+There are several cultural and community centres throughout the city. This includes Folkestedet in the central Åparken, facilitating events for and by non-commercial associations, organisations and clubs, and activities for the elderly, the nearby Godsbanen at the railway yard, with workshops, events and exhibitions, and Globus1 in Brabrand facilitating sports and various cultural activities.
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+Performing arts
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+The city enjoys strong musical traditions, both classical and alternative, underground and popular, with educational and performance institutions such as the concert halls of Musikhuset, the opera of Den Jyske Opera, Aarhus Symfoniorkester (Aarhus Symphony Orchestra) and Det Jyske Musikkonservatorium (Royal Academy of Music, Aarhus/Aalborg). Musikhuset is the largest concert hall in Scandinavia, with seating for more than 3,600 people. Other major music venues include VoxHall, rebuilt in 1999, and the associated venue of Atlas, Train nightclub at the harbourfront, and Godsbanen, a former rail freight station.
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+The acting scene in Aarhus is diverse, with many groups and venues engaged in a broad span of genres, from animation theatre and children's theatre to classical theatre and improvisational theatre. Aarhus Teater is the oldest and largest venue with mostly professional classical acting performances. Svalegangen, the second largest theatre, is more experimental with its performances and other notable groups and venues includes EntréScenen, Katapult, Gruppe 38, Helsingør Teater, Det Andet Teater and Teater Refleksion as well as dance venues like Bora Bora. The cultural center of Godsbanen includes several scenes and stages and the Concert Halls of Musikhuset also stage theatrical plays regularly and is home to the children's theatre Filuren and a comedy club. The city hosts a biannual international theatre festival, International Living Theatre (ILT), with the next event being scheduled for 2021.
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+Since 2010 the music production centre of PROMUS (Produktionscentret for Rytmisk Musik) has supported the rock scene in the city along with the publicly funded ROSA (Dansk Rock Samråd), which promotes Danish rock music in general.
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+Aarhus is known for its musical history. Fuelled by a relatively young population jazz clubs sprang up in the 1950s which became a tour stop for many iconic American Jazz musicians. By the 1960s, the music scene diversified into rock and other genres and in the 1970s and 1980s, Aarhus became a centre for rock music, fostering iconic bands such as Kliché, TV-2 and Gnags and artists such as Thomas Helmig and Anne Linnet. Acclaimed bands since the 1970s include Under Byen, Michael Learns to Rock, Nephew, Carpark North, Spleen United, VETO, Hatesphere and Illdisposed in addition to individual performers such as Medina and Tina Dico.
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+Events and festivals
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+Aarhus hosts many annual or recurring festivals, concerts and events, with the festival of Aarhus Festuge as the most popular and wide-ranging, along with large sports events. Aarhus Festuge is the largest multicultural festival in Scandinavia, always based on a special theme and takes place every year for ten days between late August and early September, transforming the inner city with festive activities and decorations of all kinds.
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+There are numerous music festivals; the eight-day Aarhus Jazz Festival features jazz in many venues across the city. It was founded in 1988 and usually takes place in July every year, occasionally August or September. There are several annually recurring music festivals for contemporary popular music in Aarhus. NorthSide Festival presents well-known bands every year in mid-June on large outdoor scenes. It is a relatively new event, founded in 2010, but grew from a one-day event to a three-day festival in its first three years, now with 35,000 paying guests in 2015. Spot festival is aiming to showcase up-and-coming Danish and Scandinavian talents at selected venues of the inner city. The outdoor Grøn Koncert music festival takes place every year in many cities across Denmark, including Aarhus. Danmarks grimmeste festival (lit. Denmark's ugliest Festival) is a small summer music festival held in Skjoldhøjkilen, Brabrand.
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+Aarhus also hosts recurring events dedicated to specific art genres. International Living Theatre (ILT) is a bi-annual festival, established in 2009, with performing arts and stage art on a broad scale. The festival has a vision of showing the best plays and stage art experiences of the world, while at the same time attracting thespians and stage art interested people from both Aarhus and Europe at large. LiteratureXchange is a new annual festival from 2018, focused on literature from around the world as well as regional talents. The city actively promotes its gay and lesbian community and celebrates the annual Aarhus Pride gay pride festival while Aarhus Festuge usually includes exhibits, concerts and events designed for the LGBT communities.
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+Notable events of a local scope include the university boat-race, held in the University Park since 1991, which has become a local spectator event attracting some 20,000 people. The boat race pits costumed teams from the university departments against each other in inflatable boats in a challenge to win the Gyldne Bækken (Golden Chamber Pot) trophy. The annual lighting of the Christmas lights on the Salling department store in Søndergade has also become an attraction in recent times, packing the pedestrianised city centre with thousands of revellers. Significant dates such as Saint Lucy's Day, Sankt Hans (Saint John's Eve) and Fastelavn are traditionally celebrated with numerous events across the city.
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+Parks, nature, and recreation
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+The beech forests of Riis Skov and Marselisborg occupy the hills along the coast to the north and south, and apart from the city centre, sandy beaches form the coastline of the entire municipality. There are two public sea baths, the northern Den Permanente below Riis Skov and close to the harbour area, and the southern Ballehage Beach in the Marselisborg Forests. As in most of Denmark, there are no private beaches in the municipality, but access to Den Permanente requires a membership, except in the summer.
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+ 
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+The relatively mild, temperate marine climate, allows for outdoor recreation year round, including walking, hiking, cycling, and outdoor team sports. Mountain biking is usually restricted to marked routes. Watersports like sailing, kayaking, motor boating, etc. are also popular, and since the bay rarely freezes up in winter, they can also be practised most of the year. Recreational and transportational pathways for pedestrians and cyclists, radiate from the city centre to the countryside, providing safety from motorised vehicles and a more tranquil experience. This includes the 19 kilometre long pathway of Brabrandstien, encircling the Brabrand Lake. The long-range hiking route Aarhus-Silkeborg, starts off from Brabrandstien.
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+Aarhus has an unusually high number of parks and green spaces, 134 of them, covering a total area of around . The central Botanical Gardens (Botanisk Have) from 1875 are a popular destination, as they include The Old Town open-air museum and host a number of events throughout the year. Originally used to cultivate fruit trees and other useful plants for the local citizens, there are now a significant collection of trees and bushes from different habitats and regions of the world, including a section devoted to native Danish plants. Recently renovated tropical and subtropical greenhouses, exhibit exotic plants from throughout the world. Also in the city centre is the undulating University Park, recognised for its unique landscaped design with large old oak trees. The Memorial Park (Mindeparken) at the coast below Marselisborg Palace, offers a panoramic view across the Bay of Aarhus and is popular with locals for outings, picnics or events. Other notable parks include the small central City Hall Park (Rådhusparken) and Marienlyst Park (Marienlystparken). Marienlyst Park is a relatively new park from 1988, situated in Hasle out of the inner city and is less crowded, but it is the largest park in Aarhus, including woodlands, large open grasslands and soccer fields.
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+Marselisborg Forests and Riis Skov, has a long history of recreational activities of all kinds, including several restaurants, hotels and opportunities for green exercise. There are marked routes here for jogging, running and mountain biking and large events are hosted regularly. This includes running events, cycle racing and orienteering, the annual Classic Race Aarhus with historic racing cars, all attracting thousands of people. Marselisborg Deer Park (Marselisborg Dyrehave) in Marselisborg Forests, comprises  of fenced woodland pastures with free-roaming sika and roe deer. Below the Moesgård Museum in the southern parts of the Marselisborg Forests, is a large historical landscape of pastures and woodlands, presenting different eras of Denmark's prehistory. Sections of the forest comprise trees and vegetation representing specific climatic epochs from the last Ice Age to the present. Dotted across the landscape are reconstructed Stone Age and Bronze Age graves, buildings from the Iron Age, Viking Age and medieval times, with grazing goats, sheep and horses in between.
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+Food, drink, and nightlife
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+Aarhus has a large variety of restaurants and eateries offering food from cultures all over the world, especially Mediterranean and Asian, but also international gourmet cuisine, traditional Danish food and New Nordic Cuisine. Among the oldest restaurants are Rådhuscafeen (lit. The City Hall Café), opened in 1924, serving a menu of traditional Danish meals, and Peter Gift from 1906, a tavern with a broad beer selection and a menu of smørrebrød and other Danish dishes. In Aarhus, New Nordic can be experienced at Kähler Villa Dining, Hærværk and Domestic, but local produce can be had at many places, especially at the twice-weekly food markets in Frederiksbjerg. Aarhus and Central Denmark Region was selected as European Region of Gastronomy in 2017. The city (and municipality) is a member of the Délice Network, an international non-profit organization nurturing and facilitating knowledge exchange in gastronomy.
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+Appraised high-end restaurants serving international gourmet cuisine include Frederikshøj, Substans, Gastromé, Det Glade Vanvid, Nordisk Spisehus, Restaurant Varna, Restaurant ET, Gäst, Brasserie Belli, Møf. Restaurants in Aarhus were the first in provincial Denmark to receive Michelin stars since 2015, when Michelin inspectors ventured outside Copenhagen for the first time.
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+Vendors of street food are numerous throughout the centre, often selling from small trailers on permanent locations formally known as Pølsevogne (lit. sausage wagons), traditionally serving a Danish variety of hot dogs, sausages and other fast food. There are increasingly more outlets inspired by other cultural flavours such as sushi, kebab and currywurst.
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+The city centre is packed with cafés, especially along the river and the Latin quarter. Some of them also include an evening restaurant, such as Café Casablanca, Café Carlton, Café Cross and Gyngen. Aarhus Street Food and Aarhus Central Food Market are two indoor food courts from 2016 in the city centre, comprising a variety of street food restaurants, cafés and bars.
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+Aarhus has a robust and diverse nightlife. The action tends to concentrate in the inner city, with the pedestrianised riverside, Frederiksgade, the Latin Quarter, and Jægergårdsgade on Frederiksbjerg as the most active centres at night, but things are stirring elsewhere around the city too. The nightlife scene offers everything from small joints with cheap alcohol and a homely atmosphere to fashionable nightclubs serving champagne and cocktails or small and large music venues with bars, dance floors and lounges. A short selection of well-established places where you can have a drink and socialise, include the fashionable lounge and night club Kupé at the harbourfront, the relaxed Ris Ras Filliongongong offering waterpipes and an award-winning beer selection, Fatter Eskild with a broad selection of Danish bands playing mostly blues and rock, the wine and book café Løve's in Nørregade, Sherlock Holmes, a British-style pub with live music, and the brew pub of Sct. Clemens, with A Hereford Beefstouw restaurant across the cathedral. A few nightlife spots are aimed at gays and lesbians specifically, including Gbar (nightclub) and Café Sappho.
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+The Århus Set (Danish: Århus Sæt) is a set of drinks often ordered together, named for the city and consisting of two beverages, one Ceres Top beer and one shot Arnbitter, both originally from Aarhus. Ordering "a set" suffices in most bars and pubs. Aarhus Bryghus is a local craft brewery with a sizeable production. The brewery is located in the southern district of Viby and a large variety of their craft brews are available there, in most larger well-assorted stores in the city, and in some bars and restaurants as well. They also export.
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+Local dialect
+
+The Aarhus dialect, commonly called Aarhusiansk (Aarhusian in English), is a Jutlandic dialect in the Mid-Eastern Jutland dialect area, traditionally spoken in and around Aarhus. Aarhusian, as with most local dialects in Denmark, has diminished in use through the 20th century and most Danes today speak some version of Standard Danish with slight regional features. Aarhusian, however, still has a strong presence in older segments of the population and in areas with high numbers of immigrants. Some examples of common, traditional and unique Aarhusian words are: træls ('tiresome'), noller ('silly' or 'dumb') and dælme (excl. 'damn me!'). The dialect is notable for single-syllable words ending in "d" being pronounced with stød while the same letter in multiple-syllable words is pronounced as "j", i.e., Odder is pronounced "Ojjer". Like other dialects in East Jutland, it has two grammatical genders, similar to Standard Danish, but different from West Jutlandic dialects, which have only one. In 2009, the University of Aarhus compiled a list of contemporary public figures who best exemplify the dialect, including Jacob Haugaard, Thomas Helmig, Steffen Brandt, Stig Tøfting, Flemming Jørgensen, Tina Dickow and Camilla Martin. In popular culture, the dialect features prominently in Niels Malmros's movie Aarhus by Night and in 90s comedy sketches by Jacob Haugaard and Finn Nørbygaard.
+
+Sports
+
+Aarhus has three major men's professional sports teams: the Superliga team Aarhus Gymnastikforening (AGF), Danish Handball League's Aarhus GF Håndbold, and Danish Basketball League's Bakken Bears. Notable or historic clubs include Aarhus 1900, Aarhus Fremad, Idrætsklubben Skovbakken and Aarhus Sejlklub. Aarhus Idrætspark has hosted matches in the premiere Danish soccer league since it was formed in 1920 and matches for the national men's soccer team in 2006 and 2007. The five sailing clubs routinely win national and international titles in a range of disciplines and the future national watersports stadium will be located on the Aarhus Docklands in the city centre. The Bakken Bears won the Danish basketball championships in 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014.
+
+The municipality actively supports sports organisations in and around the city, providing public organisations that aim to attract major sporting events and strengthen professional sports. The National Olympic Committee and Sports Confederation of Denmark counts some 380 sports organisations within the municipality and about one third of the population are members of one. Soccer is by far the most popular sport followed by Gymnastics, Handball and Badminton.
+
+In recent decades, many free and public sports facilities have sprung up across the city, such as street football, basketball, climbing walls, skateboarding and beach volley. Several natural sites also offer green exercise, with exercise equipment installed along the paths and tracks reserved for mountain biking. The newly reconstructed area of Skjoldhøjkilen is a prime example.
+
+Aarhus has hosted many sporting events including the 2010 European Women's Handball Championship, the 2014 European Men's Handball Championship, the 2013 Men's European Volleyball Championships, the 2005 European Table Tennis Championships, the Denmark Open in badminton, the UCI Women's Road Cycling World Cup, the 2006 World Orienteering Championships, the 2006 World Artistic Gymnastics Championships and the GF World Cup (women's handball). On average, Aarhus is hosting one or two international sailing competitions every year. In 2008, the city hosted the ISAF Youth Sailing World Championships and in 2018 it was host to the ISAF Sailing World Championships, the world championship for the 12 Olympic sailing disciplines. Aarhus is an important qualifier for the 2020 Olympics.
+
+Education
+
+Aarhus is the principal centre for education in the Jutland region. It draws students from a large area, especially from the western and southern parts of the peninsula. The relatively large influx of young people and students creates a natural base for cultural activities. Aarhus has the greatest concentration of students in Denmark, fully 12% of citizens attending short, medium or long courses of study. In addition to around 25 institutions of higher education, several research forums have evolved to assist in the transfer of expertise from education to business. The city is home to more than 52,000 students.
+
+Since 2012, Aarhus University (AU) has been the largest university in Denmark by number of students enrolled. It is ranked among the top 100 universities in the world by several of the most influential and respected rankings. The university has approximately 41,500 Bachelor and Master students enrolled as well as about 1,500 PhD students. It is possible to engage in higher academic studies in many areas, from the traditional spheres of natural science, humanities and theology to more vocational academic areas like engineering and dentistry.
+
+Aarhus Tech is one of the largest technical colleges in Denmark, teaching undergraduate study programmes in English, including vocational education and training (VET), continuing vocational training (CVT), and human resource development. Business Academy Aarhus is among the largest business academies in Denmark and offers undergraduate and some academic degrees, in IT, business and technical fields. The academic level technical aspects are covered in a collaboration with Aarhus Tech, Aarhus School of Marine and Technical Engineering and Aarhus Educational Centre for Agriculture. The Danish School of Media and Journalism (DMJX) is the oldest and largest of the colleges, offering journalism courses since 1946, with approximately 1,700 students as of 2014. DMJX has been an independent institution since 1974, conducting research and teaching at undergraduate level, and in 2004, master's courses in journalism was established in a collaboration with Aarhus University. The latter is offered through the Centre for University studies in journalism, granting degrees through the university.
+
+The Royal Academy of Music in Aarhus (Det Jyske Musikkonservatorium) is a conservatoire, established under the auspices of the Danish Ministry of Culture in 1927. In 2010, it merged administratively with the Royal Academy of Music in Aalborg, which was founded in 1930. Under the patronage of His Royal Highness Crown Prince Frederik, it offers graduate level studies in areas such as music teaching, and solo and professional musicianship. VIA University College was established in January 2008 and is one of eight new regional organisations offering bachelor courses of all kinds, throughout the Central Denmark Region. It offers over 50 higher educations, taught in Danish or sometimes in English, with vocational education and it participates in various research and development projects. Aarhus School of Architecture (Arkitektskolen Aarhus) was founded in 1965. Along with the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts of Copenhagen, it is responsible for the education of architects in Denmark. With an enrolment of approximately 900 students, it teaches in five main departments: architecture and aesthetics, urban and landscape, architectonic heritage, design and architectural design.
+
+Transport
+
+Aarhus has two ring roads; Ring 1, roughly encircling the central district of Aarhus C, and the outlying Ring 2. Six major intercity motorways radiate from the city centre, connecting with nearby cities Grenå, Randers, Viborg, Silkeborg, Skanderborg and Odder.
+
+In the inner city, motorised traffic is highly regulated, larger parts are pedestrianised and in the 2000s, a system of roads prioritised for cyclists have been implemented, connecting to suburban areas.
+
+The main railway station in Aarhus is Aarhus Central Station located in the city centre. DSB has connections to destinations throughout Denmark and also services to Flensburg and Hamburg in Germany.
+
+Aarhus Letbane is a local electric light rail or tram system that opened in December 2017, connecting the central station and the inner city with the University Hospital in Skejby and also replaced local railway services to Grenaa and Odder in late 2018. It is the first electric light rail system in Denmark and more routes are planned to open in coming years. Tickets for the light rail are also available in local yellow bus lines.
+
+Most city bus lines go through the inner city and pass through either Park Allé or Banegårdspladsen, or both, right at the central station. Regional and Inter-city buses terminate at Aarhus Bus Terminal, just east of the central station. FlixBus provides long-distance buses that travel to other cities in Denmark and Europe.
+
+Ferries administered by Danish ferry company Mols-Linien transports passengers and motorvehicles between Aarhus and Sjællands Odde on Zealand. The ferries comprises HSC KatExpress 1 and HSC KatExpress 2, the world's largest diesel-powered catamarans, and HSC Max Mols.
+
+Aarhus Airport is located on Djursland,  north-east of Aarhus near Tirstrup, and provides links to both Copenhagen and international destinations. The larger Billund Airport is situated  south-west of Aarhus. There has been much discussion about constructing a new airport closer to the city for many years, but so far no plans have been realised. In August 2014, the city council officially initiated a process to assert the viability of a new international airport. A small seaplane now operates four flights daily between Aarhus harbour and Copenhagen harbour.
+
+Aarhus has a free bike sharing system, Aarhus Bycykler (Aarhus City Bikes). The bicycles are available from 1 April to 30 October at 57 stands throughout the city and can be obtained by placing a DKK 20 coin in a release slot, like caddies in a supermarket. The coin can be retrieved when the bike is returned at a random stand. Bicycles can also be hired from many shops.
+
+Healthcare
+
+Aarhus is home to Aarhus University Hospital, one of six Danish "Super Hospitals" officially established in 2007 when the regions reformed the Danish healthcare sector. The university hospital is the result of a series of mergers in the 2000s between the local hospitals of Skejby Sygehus, the Municipal Hospital, the County Hospital, Marselisborg Hospital and Risskov Psychiatric Hospital. It is today the largest hospital in Denmark with a combined staff of some 10,000 and 1,150 patient beds, and has been ranked the best hospital in Denmark consecutively since 2008. In 2012, construction of a new large hospital building began, known as Det Nye Universitetshospital (DNU) or 'The New University Hospital' in English, and it is centralising and accommodating all of the former departments, ending in 2019. The new hospital is divided in four clinical centres, a service centre and one administrative unit along with twelve research centres.
+
+Private hospitals specialised in different areas from plastic surgery to fertility treatments operate in Aarhus as well. Ciconia Aarhus Private Hospital founded in 1984 is a leading Danish fertility clinic and the first of its kind in Denmark. Ciconia has provided for the birth of 6,000 children by artificial insemination and continually conducts research into the field of fertility. Aagaard Clinic, established in 2004, is another private fertility and gynaecology clinic which since 2004 has undertaken fertility treatments that has resulted in 1550 births. Aarhus Municipality also offers a number of specialised services in the areas of nutrition, exercise, sex, smoking and drinking, activities for the elderly, health courses and lifestyle.
+
+Media
+
+The first daily newspaper to appear in Aarhus was Århus Stiftstidende, established in 1794 as Aarhuus Stifts Adresse-Contoirs Tidender, with a moderately conservative approach. Once one of Denmark's largest, it was a leading provincial newspaper for a time, but after the Second World War it increasingly faced competition from Demokraten (1884–1974) and , both published in Aarhus. In 1998, it merged with Randers Amtsavis and is now run by Midtjyske Medier, part of Berlingske Media. The daily newspaper of  was established in 1871 in Aarhus, and takes a generally right-wing editorial approach. With a reputation as a serious news publication, the paper has always included news from Jutland in particular, but somewhat less so since its promotion as a national newspaper in the 1960s. Today it is one of the three bestselling serious newspapers in Denmark, the others being Berlingske and Politiken. Jyllands-Posten publishes JP Aarhus, a section dedicated to news in and around Aarhus, and hosted a free cityguide website from 2010 to 2016. The Copenhagen-based media company of Politiken, also publishes several free local papers once a week in parts of Denmark and Sweden. In Aarhus, they publish a total of five local newspapers; Aarhus Midt, Aarhus Nord, Aarhus Vest, Aarhus Syd and Aarhus Onsdag. Aarhus Onsdag (Aarhus Wednesday) is financed completely by advertisements and available in both paperform and online. It was bought from Århus Stiftstidende in June 2017, but has been published for many years previous.
+
+Danmarks Radio has a large department in Aarhus with over 200 employees. It runs the DR Østjylland radio programme, provides local contributions to DR P4, and produces local regional television programmes. In 1999, TV 2 moved its Jutland headquarters from Randers to Skejby in northern Aarhus. The station broadcasts regional news and current affairs television and radio programmes. Since 2012, it has run its own TV channel, TV 2 Østjylland. Aarhus has its own local TV channel TVAarhus, transmitting since 1984. After an agreement on 1 July 2014, TVAarhus can be watched by 130,000 households in Aarhus, making it the largest cable-transmitted local TV channel in Denmark.
+
+With over 1,700 students, the Danish School of Media and Journalism (Danmarks Medie- og Journalisthøjskole) is the country's largest and oldest school of journalism. The school works closely with Aarhus University, where the first journalism course was established in 1946. In 2004, the two institutions established the Centre for University Studies in Journalism, which offers master's courses.
+
+International relations
+Aarhus is home to 32 consulates:
+
+Aarhus practices twinning on the municipal level. For the twin towns, see twin towns of Aarhus Municipality.
+
+Notable people
+
+Citations
+
+Notes
+
+References
+
+Publications
+
+Further reading
+
+External links
+
+Aarhus Kommune Official municipal and city portal 
+Visit Aarhus Official tourist site
+
+ 
+Cities and towns in the Central Denmark Region
+Cities and towns in Aarhus Municipality
+Municipal seats of the Central Denmark Region
+Municipal seats of Denmark
+Port cities and towns in Denmark
+Viking Age populated places
+The northern cavefish or northern blindfish (Amblyopsis spelaea) is found in caves through Kentucky and southern Indiana. It is under review for possible listing under the Endangered Species Act of 1973 in the United States as of 2023, and the IUCN lists the species as near threatened.
+
+During a 2013 study of Amblyopsis spelaea, scientists found that the species was divided into two distinct evolutionary lineages: one north of the Ohio River, in Indiana, and one south of the river, in Kentucky.  The southern population retained the name A. spelaea and the northern was re-designated Amblyopsis hoosieri in a 2014 paper published in the journal ZooKeys. Neither species is found north of the White River, flowing east to west south of Bedford, Indiana.
+
+References
+
+ 
+
+Amblyopsidae
+Cave fish
+Cavefish, Northern
+Fish of the United States
+Fish described in 1842
+Taxa named by James Ellsworth De Kay
+Mammoth Cave National Park
+Abatement refers generally to a lessening, diminution, reduction, or moderation; specifically, it may refer to:
+
+ 421-a tax abatement, property tax exemption in the U.S. state of New York
+ Abatement of debts and legacies, a common law doctrine of wills
+ Abatement in pleading, a legal defense to civil and criminal actions
+ Abatement (heraldry), a modification of the shield or coat of arms imposed by authority for misconduct
+ Asbestos abatement, removal of asbestos from structures
+ Bird abatement, driving or removing undesired birds from an area
+ Dust abatement, the process of inhibiting the creation of excess soil dust
+ Graffiti abatement, a joint effort between groups to eliminate graffiti
+ Marginal abatement cost, the marginal cost of reducing pollution
+ Noise abatement, strategies to reduce noise pollution or its impact
+ Nuisance abatement, regulatory compliance methodology
+ Tax abatement, temporary reduction or elimination of a tax
+
+See also
+ Abate (disambiguation)
+An amateur () is generally considered a person who pursues an avocation independent from their source of income. Amateurs and their pursuits are also described as popular, informal, self-taught, user-generated, DIY, and hobbyist.
+
+History 
+
+Historically, the amateur was considered to be the ideal balance between pure intent, open mind, and the interest or passion for a subject. That ideology spanned many different fields of interest. It may have its roots in the ancient Greek philosophy of amateur athletes competing in the Olympics. The ancient Greek citizens spent most of their time in other pursuits, but competed according to their natural talents and abilities.
+
+The "gentleman amateur" was a phenomenon among the gentry of Great Britain from the 17th century until the 20th century. With the start of the Age of Reason, with people thinking more about how the world works around them, (see science in the Age of Enlightenment), things like the cabinets of curiosities, and the writing of the book The Christian Virtuoso, started to shape the idea of the gentleman amateur. He was vastly interested in a particular topic, and studied, observed, and collected things and information on his topic of choice. The Royal Society in Great Britain was generally composed of these "gentleman amateurs", and is one of the reasons science today exists the way it does. A few examples of these gentleman amateurs are Francis Bacon, Isaac Newton, and Sir Robert Cotton, 1st Baronet, of Connington.
+
+Amateurism can be seen in both a negative and positive light. Since amateurs often lack formal training and are self-taught, some amateur work may be considered sub-par. For example, amateur athletes in sports such as basketball, baseball, or football are regarded as possessing a lower level of ability than professional athletes. On the other hand, an amateur may be in a position to approach a subject with an open mind (as a result of the lack of formal training) and in a financially disinterested manner.  An amateur who dabbles in a field out of interest rather than as a profession, or possesses a general but superficial interest in any art or a branch of knowledge, is often referred to as a dilettante.
+
+Amateur athletics
+
+Olympics
+
+Through most of the 20th century the Olympics allowed only amateur athletes to participate and this amateur code was strictly enforced, Jim Thorpe was stripped of track and field medals for having taken expense money for playing baseball in 1912.
+
+Later on, the nations of the Communist Bloc entered teams of Olympians who were all nominally students, soldiers, or working in a profession, but many of whom were in reality paid by the state to train on a full-time basis.
+
+Near the end of the 1960s, the Canadian Amateur Hockey Association (CAHA) felt their amateur players could no longer be competitive against the Soviet team's full-time athletes and the other constantly improving European teams. They pushed for the ability to use players from professional leagues but met opposition from the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) and the International Olympic Committee (IOC). At the IIHF Congress in 1969, the IIHF decided to allow Canada to use nine non-NHL professional hockey players at the 1970 World Championships in Montreal and Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. The decision was reversed in January 1970 after IOC President Avery Brundage said that ice hockey's status as an Olympic sport would be in jeopardy if the change was made. In response, Canada withdrew from all international ice hockey competitions and officials stated that they would not return until "open competition" was instituted. Günther Sabetzki became president of the IIHF in 1975 and helped to resolve the dispute with the CAHA. In 1976, the IIHF agreed to allow "open competition" between all players in the World Championships. However, NHL players were still not allowed to play in the Olympics, because of the unwillingness of the NHL to take a break mid-season and the IOC's amateur-only policy.
+
+Before the 1984 Winter Olympics, a dispute formed over what made a player a professional. The IOC had adopted a rule that made any player who had signed an NHL contract but played less than ten games in the league eligible. However, the United States Olympic Committee maintained that any player contracted with an NHL team was a professional and therefore not eligible to play. The IOC held an emergency meeting that ruled NHL-contracted players were eligible, as long as they had not played in any NHL games. This made five players on Olympic rosters—one Austrian, two Italians and two Canadians—ineligible. Players who had played in other professional leagues—such as the World Hockey Association—were allowed to play. Canadian hockey official Alan Eagleson stated that the rule was only applied to the NHL and that professionally contracted players in European leagues were still considered amateurs. Murray Costello of the CAHA suggested that a Canadian withdrawal was possible. In 1986, the IOC voted to allow all athletes to compete in Olympic Games starting in 1988, but let the individual sport federations decide if they wanted to allow professionals.
+
+After the 1972 retirement of IOC President Brundage, the Olympic amateurism rules were steadily relaxed, amounting only to technicalities and lip service, until being completely abandoned in the 1990s (in the United States, the Amateur Sports Act of 1978 prohibits national governing bodies from having more stringent standards of amateur status than required by international governing bodies of respective sports.  The act caused the breakup of the Amateur Athletic Union as a wholesale sports governing body at the Olympic level).
+
+Olympic regulations regarding amateur status of athletes were eventually abandoned in the 1990s with the exception of wrestling, where the amateur fight rules are used due to the fact that professional wrestling is largely staged with pre-determined outcomes. Starting from the 2016 Summer Olympics, professionals were allowed to compete in boxing, though amateur fight rules are still used for the tournament.
+
+Contribution of amateurs 
+Many amateurs make valuable contributions in the field of computer programming through the open source movement. Amateur dramatics is the performance of plays or musical theater, often to high standards, but lacking the budgets of professional West End or Broadway performances. Astronomy, chemistry, history, linguistics, and the natural sciences are among the fields that have benefited from the activities of amateurs. Gregor Mendel was an amateur scientist who never held a position in his field of study. Radio astronomy was founded by Grote Reber, an amateur radio operator. Radio itself was greatly advanced by Guglielmo Marconi, a young Italian man who started out by tinkering with a coherer and a spark coil as an amateur electrician. Pierre de Fermat was a highly influential mathematician whose primary vocation was law.
+
+In the 2000s and 2010s, the distinction between amateur and professional has become increasingly blurred, especially in areas such as computer programming, music and astronomy. The term amateur professionalism, or pro-am, is used to describe these activities.
+
+List of amateur pursuits 
+
+ Amateur astronomy, including a list of notable amateur astronomers
+ Amateur chemistry, including a list of notable amateur chemists
+ Amateur film
+ Amateur geology or rockhounding, including a list of notable amateur geologists
+ Amateur journalism
+ Amateur radio
+ Amateur sports
+ Amateur theatre
+ Amateur pornography
+ Arts and crafts or handicraft, including a list of handicrafts carried out by amateurs
+ Fan fiction
+ Fan art
+ Independent scholar
+ Independent scientist or gentleman scientist, including a list of notable amateur scientists
+
+See also 
+
+ Professional
+ Semi-professional
+ Amateurism in the NCAA
+ Amateur professionalism
+ Hobby
+ List of amateur chess players
+ List of amateur mathematicians
+ List of amateur wrestlers
+ Volunteering
+
+References
+
+Further reading 
+
+ 
+ 
+ 
+ 
+ 
+ 
+
+Occupations
+Alexis Carrel (; 28 June 1873 – 5 November 1944) was a French surgeon and biologist who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1912 for pioneering vascular suturing techniques. He invented the first perfusion pump with Charles Lindbergh opening the way to organ transplantation. Carrel was also a pioneer in transplantology and thoracic surgery. He is known for his leading role in implementing eugenic policies in Vichy France.
+
+Biography 
+Born in Sainte-Foy-lès-Lyon, Rhône, Carrel was raised in a devout Catholic family and was educated by Jesuits, though he had become an agnostic by the time he became a university student. He was a member of learned societies in the U.S., Spain, Russia, Sweden, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Vatican City, Germany, Italy, and Greece, and was elected twice, in 1924 and 1927, as an honorary member of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. He also received honorary doctorates from Queen's University of Belfast, Princeton University, California, New York, Brown University, and Columbia University.
+
+In 1902, he was claimed to have witnessed the miraculous cure of Marie Bailly at Lourdes, which became famous in part because she named Carrel as a witness of her cure. After the notoriety surrounding the event, Carrel could not obtain a hospital appointment because of the pervasive anticlericalism in the French university system at the time. In 1903, he emigrated to Montreal, Canada, but soon relocated to Chicago, Illinois, to work for Hull Laboratory. While there he collaborated with American physician Charles Claude Guthrie in work on vascular suture and the transplantation of blood vessels and organs as well as the head, and Carrel was awarded the 1912 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for these efforts.
+
+In 1906, he joined the newly formed Rockefeller Institute of Medical Research in New York where he spent the rest of his career. There he did significant work on tissue cultures with pathologist Montrose Thomas Burrows. In the 1930s, Carrel and Charles Lindbergh became close friends not only because of the years they worked together but also because they shared personal, political, and social views. Lindbergh initially sought out Carrel to see if his sister-in-law's heart, damaged by rheumatic fever, could be repaired. When Lindbergh saw the crudeness of Carrel's machinery, he offered to build new equipment for the scientist. Eventually they built the first perfusion pump, an invention instrumental to the development of organ transplantation and open heart surgery. Lindbergh considered Carrel his closest friend, and said he would preserve and promote Carrel's ideals after his death.
+
+Due to his close proximity with Jacques Doriot's fascist Parti Populaire Français (PPF) during the 1930s and his role in implementing eugenics policies during Vichy France, he was accused after the Liberation of collaboration, but died before the trial.
+
+In his later life he returned to his Catholic roots. In 1939, he met with Trappist monk Alexis Presse on a recommendation. Although Carrel was skeptical about meeting with a priest, Presse ended up having a profound influence on the rest of Carrel's life. In 1942, he said "I believe in the existence of God, in the immortality of the soul, in Revelation and in all the Catholic Church teaches." He summoned Presse to administer the Catholic Sacraments on his death bed in November 1944.
+
+For much of his life, Carrel and his wife spent their summers on the  which they owned. After he and Lindbergh became close friends, Carrel persuaded him to also buy a neighboring island, the Ile Illiec, where the Lindberghs often resided in the late 1930s.
+
+Contributions to science
+
+Vascular suture 
+Carrel was a young surgeon who was deeply affected by the 1894 assassination of the French president, Sadi Carnot, who died from a severed portal vein that surgeons believed was irreparable. This tragedy inspired Carrel to develop new techniques for suturing blood vessels, such as the "triangulation" technique using three stay-sutures to minimize damage to the vascular wall during suturing. Carrel learned this technique from an embroideress, and later incorporated it into his work. According to Julius Comroe, Carrel performed every feat and developed every technique in vascular surgery using experimental animals between 1901 and 1910, leading to his great success in reconnecting arteries and veins and performing surgical grafts. These achievements earned him the Nobel Prize in 1912.
+
+Wound antisepsis 
+During World War I (1914–1918), Carrel and the English chemist Henry Drysdale Dakin developed the Carrel–Dakin method of treating wounds with an antiseptic solution based on chlorine, known as Dakin's solution. This method, which involved wound debridement and irrigation with a high volume of antiseptic fluid, was a significant medical advancement in the absence of antibiotics. For his contributions, Carrel was awarded the Légion d'honneur. The Carrel–Dakin method became widely used in hospitals. The mechanical irrigation technique developed by Carrel is still used today.<ref name=dakin3>H. D. Dakin (1915): Comptes rendues de la Academie des Sciences, CLXI, p. 150. Cited by Marcel Dufresne, Presse médicale' (1916)</ref>
+
+ Organ transplants 
+Carrel co-authored a book with pilot Charles Lindbergh, The Culture of Organs. Together, they developed the perfusion pump in the mid-1930s, which made it possible for organs to remain viable outside of the body during surgical procedures. This innovation is considered to be a significant advancement in the fields of open-heart surgery and organ transplantation, and it paved the way for the development of the artificial heart, which became a reality many years later. Although some critics accused Carrel of exaggerating Lindbergh's contributions to gain publicity, other sources indicate that Lindbergh played a significant role in the device's development. In recognition of their groundbreaking work, both Carrel and Lindbergh appeared on the cover of Time magazine on June 13, 1938.
+
+ Cellular senescence 
+Carrel was interested in the phenomenon of senescence or aging. He believed that all cells continued to grow indefinitely, which became a widely accepted view in the early 20th century. In 1912, Carrel began an experiment at the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, where he cultured tissue from an embryonic chicken heart in a stoppered Pyrex flask of his own design. He supplied the culture with nutrients regularly and maintained it for over 20 years, longer than a chicken's normal lifespan. This experiment received significant popular and scientific attention, but it was never successfully replicated.
+
+In the 1960s, Leonard Hayflick and Paul Moorhead proposed the concept of the Hayflick limit, which states that differentiated cells undergo only a limited number of divisions before dying. Hayflick suggested that Carrel's daily feeding of nutrients continually introduced new living cells to the culture, resulting in anomalous results. J. A. Witkowski argued that the deliberate introduction of new cells into the culture, possibly without Carrel's knowledge, could also explain the results.
+
+Despite the doubts surrounding Carrel's experiment, it remains an important part of scientific history, and his work on tissue culture had a significant impact on the development of modern medicine.
+
+ Honors 
+In 1972, the Swedish Post Office honored Carrel with a stamp that was part of its Nobel stamp series. Seven years later, in 1979, the lunar crater Carrel was named after him as a tribute to his breakthroughs. In February 2002, to celebrate the 100th anniversary of Charles Lindbergh's birth, the Lindbergh-Carrel Prize was established by the Medical University of South Carolina at Charleston. Michael DeBakey and nine other scientists were the first recipients of the prise, a bronze statuette, named "Elisabeth" after Elisabeth Morrow, the sister of Lindbergh's wife Anne Morrow who died from heart disease. Lindbergh's frustration with the limitations of medical technology, specifically the lack of an artificial heart pump for heart surgery, led him to reach out to Carrel.
+
+ Alexis Carrel and Lourdes 
+In 1902, Carrel underwent a transformative experience that led him from being a skeptic of the reported visions and miracles at Lourdes to a believer in spiritual cures. This conversion came about after he witnessed the inexplicable healing of Marie Bailly. The Catholic journal Le Nouvelliste reported that she identified Carrel as the principal witness of her cure. Despite facing opposition from his peers in the medical community, Carrel refused to dismiss a supernatural explanation for the event and went on to publish his account of the experience in the book, The Voyage to Lourdes, which was released four years after his death. However, his beliefs proved to be a hindrance to his career and reputation in academic medicine in France. As a result, Carrel moved to Canada with plans of farming and raising cattle. But, shortly after, he accepted a position at the University of Chicago, where he remained for two years before taking up a post at the Rockefeller Institute of Medical Research.
+
+ Man, the Unknown (1935, 1939) 
+
+In 1935, Carrel's book, L'Homme, cet inconnu (Man, the Unknown), became a best-seller. The book attempted to comprehensively outline what is known, and unknown, of the human body and human life "in light of discoveries in biology, physics, and medicine", to shed light on the problems of the modern world, and to provide possible routes to a better life for human beings. In the book, Carrel advocated for an elite group of intellectuals to guide mankind and to incorporate eugenics into the social framework. He argued for an aristocracy that would come from individuals of potential and advocated for euthanasia for criminals and the criminally insane. Notably, Carrel's endorsement of euthanasia for criminals and the criminally insane was published in the mid-1930s, prior to the implementation of death camps and gas chambers in Nazi Germany. In the 1936 German introduction of his book, Carrel added praise for the Nazi regime at the publisher's request, which did not appear in other language editions. After the second world war the book and his role with the Vichy regime would stain his reputation such that his name was removed from streets in more than 20 French cities and the Alexis Carrel Medical Faculty in Lyon was renamed in 1996.
+
+ French Foundation for the Study of Human Problems 
+
+In 1937, Carrel joined the Centre d'Etudes des Problèmes Humains, which was led by Jean Coutrot. Coutrot's goal was to develop what he called an "economic humanism" through "collective thinking." However, in 1941, Carrel went on to advocate for the creation of the French Foundation for the Study of Human Problems (Fondation Française pour l'Etude des Problèmes Humains). This foundation was created by decree of the Vichy regime in 1941, and Carrel served as a "regent." Carrel's connections to the cabinet of Vichy France president Philippe Pétain, specifically French industrial physicians André Gros and Jacques Ménétrier, helped pave the way for the creation of the foundation.
+
+The foundation played a significant role in the establishment of the field of occupational medicine, which was institutionalized by the Provisional Government of the French Republic (GPRF) through the 11 October 1946 law. The foundation's efforts were not limited to occupational medicine and extended to other areas such as demographics, economics, nutrition, habitation, and opinion polls. Notable figures associated with the foundation's work include Robert Gessain, Paul Vincent, Jean Bourgeois-Pichat, François Perroux, Jean Sutter, and Jean Stoetzel. The foundation achieved several notable accomplishments throughout its history. It played a crucial role in the promotion of the 16 December 1942 Act, which mandated the use of a prenuptial certificate before marriage. This certificate aimed to ensure the good health of spouses, particularly regarding sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and "life hygiene." Additionally, the institute created the livret scolaire, a document that recorded the grades of French secondary school students, allowing for the classification and selection of students based on academic performance.
+
+Gwen Terrenoire's book, "Eugenics in France (1913–1941): a review of research findings," describes the Foundation for the Study of Human Problems as a pluridisciplinary center that employed approximately 300 researchers, primarily statisticians, psychologists, and physicians, from the summer of 1942 until the end of autumn 1944. Following the liberation of Paris, Alexis Carrel, the founder, was suspended by the Minister of Health, and he died in November 1944. However, the Foundation underwent a purge and emerged shortly afterward as the Institut national d'études démographiques (INED), which is still active today. Although Carrel had passed away, most of his team transferred to INED, which was headed by demographer Alfred Sauvy, who coined the term "Third World." Other team members joined the Institut national d'hygiène (National Hygiene Institute), later known as INSERM.
+
+ See also 
+ HeLa
+
+ Notes 
+
+ References 
+Citations
+
+Cited sources
+
+ 
+ 
+
+ 
+ 
+
+Further reading
+ 
+ Etienne Lepicard. L'Homme, cet inconnu d'Alexis Carrel (1935). Anatomie d'un succès, analyse d'un échec, Paris, Classiques Garnier, « Littérature, Histoire, Politique, 38 », 2019.
+ Feuerwerker, Elie. Alexis Carrel et l'eugénisme. Le Monde, 1er Juillet 1986.
+ Bonnafé, Lucien and Tort, Patrick. L'Homme, cet inconnu? Alexis Carrel, Jean-Marie le Pen et les chambres a gaz Editions Syllepse, 1996. 
+ David Zane Mairowitz. "Fascism à la mode: in France, the far right presses for national purity", Harper's Magazine; 10/1/1997
+ Berman, Paul. Terror and Liberalism W. W. Norton, 2003.
+ Walther, Rudolph. Die seltsamen Lehren des Doktor Carrel, DIE ZEIT, 31.07.2003 Nr. 32
+ Terrenoire, Gwen, CNRS. Eugenics in France (1913–1941) : a review of research findings Joint Programmatic Commission UNESCO-ONG Science and Ethics, 24 March 2003 (Comité de Liaison ONG-UNESCO)
+ Borghi L. (2015) "Heart Matters. The Collaboration Between Surgeons and Engineers in the Rise of Cardiac Surgery". In: Pisano R. (eds) A Bridge between Conceptual Frameworks. History of Mechanism and Machine Science, vol 27. Springer, Dordrecht, pp. 53–68
+
+ External links 
+
+  including the Nobel Lecture on 11 December 1912 Suture of Blood-Vessels and Transplantation of Organs Research Foundation entitled to Alexis Carrel
+  Time, 16 October 1944
+ Death of Alexis Carrel, Time'', 13 November 1944
+
+1873 births
+1944 deaths
+French eugenicists
+Converts to Roman Catholicism from atheism or agnosticism
+French Nobel laureates
+Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine
+French Roman Catholics
+French collaborators with Nazi Germany
+Knights of the Legion of Honour
+Members of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences
+Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)
+Corresponding Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences
+Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences
+People from Sainte-Foy-lès-Lyon
+French vascular surgeons
+History of transplant surgery
+Rockefeller University people
+20th-century French physicians
+All Souls' Day, also called The Commemoration of All the Faithful Departed, is a day of prayer and remembrance for the faithful departed, observed by certain Christian denominations on 2 November. Through prayer, intercessions, alms and visits to cemeteries, people commemorate the poor souls in purgatory and gain them indulgences.
+
+In Western Christianity, including Roman Catholicism and certain parts of Lutheranism and Anglicanism, All Souls' Day is the third day of Allhallowtide, after All Saints' Day (1 November) and All Hallows' Eve (October 31). Before the standardization of Western Christian observance on 2 November by St. Odilo of Cluny in the 10th century, many Catholic congregations celebrated All Souls Day on various dates during the Easter season as it is still observed in some Eastern Orthodox Church, Eastern Catholic and Eastern Lutheran churches. Churches of the East Syriac Rite (Syro-Malabar Catholic Church, Chaldean Catholic Church, Assyrian Church of the East, Ancient Church of the East) commemorate all the faithful departed on the Friday before Lent.
+
+In other languages 
+Known in Latin as Commemoratio Omnium Fidelium Defunctorum, All Souls' Day is known
+
+ in other Germanic languages as Allerseelen (German), Allerzielen (Dutch), Alla själars dag (Swedish), and Alle Sjæles Dag (Danish);
+ in the Romance languages as Dia de Finados or Dia dos Fiéis Defuntos (Portuguese), Commémoration de tous les fidèles Défunts (French), Día de los Fieles Difuntos (Spanish), Commemorazione di tutti i fedeli defunti (Italian), and Ziua morților or Luminația (Romanian);
+ in the Slavic languages as Wspomnienie Wszystkich Wiernych Zmarłych or Zaduszki (Polish), Vzpomínka na všechny věrné zesnulé, Památka zesnulých or Dušičky (Czech), Pamiatka zosnulých or Dušičky (Slovak), Spomen svih vjernih mrtvih (Croatian), and День всех усопших верных or День поминовения всех усопших(Den' vsekh usopshikh vernykh; Den' pominoveniya vsekh usopshih) (Russian)
+ in the  or 
+ and in .
+
+Background
+
+In the Catholic Church, "the faithful" refers essentially to baptized Catholics; "all souls" commemorates the church penitent of souls in purgatory, whereas "all saints" commemorates the church triumphant of saints in heaven. In the liturgical books of the Latin Church it is called the Commemoration of All the Faithful Departed ().
+
+The Catholic Church teaches that the purification of the souls in purgatory can be assisted by the actions of the faithful on earth. Its teaching is based also on the practice of prayer for the dead mentioned as far back as 2 Maccabees 12:42–46. The theological basis for the feast is the doctrine that the souls which, on departing from the body, are not perfectly cleansed from venial sins, or have not fully atoned for past transgressions, are debarred from the Beatific vision, and that the faithful on earth can help them by prayers, alms, deeds, and especially by the sacrifice of the Holy Mass.
+
+Religious observance by denomination
+
+Byzantine (Greek) Catholic and Eastern Orthodox
+
+Saturday of Souls (or Soul Saturday) is a day set aside for the commemoration of the dead within the liturgical year of the Eastern Orthodox and Byzantine Catholic Churches. Saturday is a traditional day of prayer for the dead, because Christ lay dead in the Tomb on Saturday.
+
+These days are devoted to prayer for departed relatives and others among the faithful who would not be commemorated specifically as saints. The Divine Services on these days have special hymns added to them to commemorate the departed. There is often a Panikhida (Memorial Service) either after the Divine Liturgy on Saturday morning or after Vespers on Friday evening, for which Koliva (a dish made of boiled wheatberries or rice and honey) is prepared and placed on the Panikhida table. After the Service, the priest blesses the Koliva. It is then eaten as a memorial by all present.
+
+Radonitsa
+
+Another Memorial Day in the East, Radonitsa, does not fall on a Saturday, but on either Monday or Tuesday of the second week after Pascha (Easter). Radonitsa does not have special hymns for the dead at the Divine Services. Instead a Panikhida will follow the Divine Liturgy, and then all will bring paschal foods to the cemeteries to greet the departed with the joy of the Resurrection.
+
+East Syriac tradition
+East Syriac churches including the Syro Malabar Church and Chaldean Catholic Church commemorates the feast of departed faithful on the last Friday of Epiphany season (which means Friday just before start of Great Lent). The season of Epiphany remembers the revelation of Christ to the world. Each Friday of Epiphany season, the church remembers important evangelistic figures.
+
+In the Syro Malabar Church, the Friday before the parish festival is also celebrated as feast of departed faithful when the parish remembers the activities of forebears who worked for the parish and faithful. They also request the intercession of all departed souls for the faithful celebration of parish festival. In East Syriac liturgy, the church remembers departed souls including saints on every Friday throughout the year since the Christ was crucified and died on Friday.
+
+Latin Catholicism
+
+History
+In Western Christianity,  there is ample evidence of the custom of praying for the dead in the inscriptions of the catacombs, with their constant prayers for the peace of the souls of the departed and in the early liturgies, which commonly contain commemorations of the dead. Tertullian, Cyprian and other early Western Fathers witness to the regular practice of praying for the dead among the early Christians.
+
+In the sixth century, it was customary in Benedictine monasteries to hold a commemoration of the deceased members at Whitsuntide. In the time of St. Isidore of Seville (d. 636) who lived in what is today Spain, the Monday after Pentecost was designated to remember the deceased. At the beginning of the ninth century, Abbot Eigil of Fulda set 17 December as commemoration of all deceased in part of what is today Germany.
+
+According to Widukind of Corvey (c. 975), there also existed a ceremony praying for the dead on 1 October in Saxony. But it was the day after All Saints' Day that Saint Odilo of Cluny chose when in the 11th century he instituted for all the monasteries dependent on the Abbey of Cluny an annual commemoration of all the faithful departed, to be observed with alms, prayers, and sacrifices for the relief of the suffering souls in purgatory. Odilo decreed that those requesting a Mass be offered for the departed should make an offering for the poor, thus linking almsgiving with fasting and prayer for the dead.
+
+The 2 November date and customs spread from the Cluniac monasteries to other Benedictine monasteries and thence to the Western Church in general. The Diocese of Liège was the first diocese to adopt the practice under Bishop Notger (d. 1008). 2 November was adopted in Italy and Rome in the thirteenth century.
+
+In the 15th century the Dominicans instituted a custom of each priest offering three Masses on the Feast of All Souls. During World War I, given the great number of war dead and the many destroyed churches where Mass could no longer be said, Pope Benedict XV, granted all priests the privilege of offering three Masses on All Souls Day.
+
+Liturgical practice
+
+If 2 November falls on a Sunday, All Souls' Day is observed on that day. In the Liturgy of the hours of All Souls' day the sequence Dies irae can be used ad libitum. Every priest is allowed to celebrate three holy Masses on All Souls' Day.
+
+In Divine Worship: The Missal the minor propers (Introit, Gradual, Tract, Sequence, Offertory, and Communion) are those used for Renaissance and Classical musical requiem settings, including the Dies Irae. This permits the performance of traditional requiem settings in the context of the Divine Worship Form of the Roman Rite on All Souls Day as well as at funerals, votive celebrations of all faithful departed, and anniversaries of deaths.
+
+In the ordinary form of the Roman Rite, as well as in the Personal Ordinariates established by Benedict XVI for former Anglicans, it remains on 2 November if this date falls on a Sunday; in the 1962–1969 form of the Roman Rite, use of which is still authorized, it is transferred to Monday, 3 November.
+
+All Souls' indulgence
+According to the Enchiridion of Indulgences, an indulgence applicable only to the souls in purgatory (commonly called the poor souls) is granted to the faithful who devoutly visit on All souls Day a church or chapel and pray the Our Father and the Credo or the Lauds or Vespers of the Office of the Dead and the eternal rest prayer for the dead. The indulgence can be gained from noon of All Saints' Day on as well as a plenary indulgence is each day from the first to the eighth of November; a partial indulgence is granted on other days of the year.
+
+Lutheran Churches
+
+Among continental Protestants its tradition has been more tenaciously maintained. During Luther's lifetime, All Souls' Day was widely observed in Saxony although the Roman Catholic meaning of the day was discarded; ecclesiastically in the Lutheran Church, the day was merged with, and is often seen as an extension of All Saints' Day, with many Lutherans still visiting and decorating graves on all the days of Allhallowtide, including All Souls' Day. Just as it is the custom of French people, of all ranks and creeds, to decorate the graves of their dead on the jour des morts, Germans stream to the graveyards once a year with offerings of flowers and special grave lights. In 1816, Prussia introduced a new date for the remembrance of the Dead among its Lutheran citizens: Totensonntag, the last Sunday before Advent.
+
+Anglican Communion
+
+In the Church of England it is called The Commemoration of the Faithful Departed and is an optional celebration; Anglicans view All Souls' Day as an extension of the observance of All Saints' Day and it serves to "remember those who have died", in connection with the theological doctrines of the resurrection of the body and the Communion of Saints.
+
+In the Anglican Communion, All Souls' Day is known liturgically as the Commemoration of All Faithful Departed, and is an optional observance seen as "an extension of All Saints' Day", the latter of which marks the second day of Allhallowtide. Historically and at present, several Anglican churches are dedicated to All Souls. During the English Reformation, the observance of All Souls' Day lapsed, although a new Anglican theological understanding of the day has "led to a widespread acceptance of this commemoration among Anglicans". Patricia Bays, with regard to the Anglican view of All Souls' Day, wrote that:
+
+As such, Anglican parishes "now commemorate all the faithful departed in the context of the All Saints' Day celebration", in keeping with this fresh perspective. Contributing to the revival was the need "to help Anglicans mourn the deaths of millions of soldiers in World War I". Members of the Guild of All Souls, an Anglican devotional society founded in 1873, "are encouraged to pray for the dying and the dead, to participate in a requiem of All Souls' Day and say a Litany of the Faithful Departed at least once a month".
+
+At the Reformation the celebration of All Souls' Day was fused with All Saints' Day in the Church of England or, in the judgement of some, it was "deservedly abrogated". It was reinstated in certain parishes in connection with the Oxford Movement of the 19th century and is acknowledged in United States Anglicanism in the Holy Women, Holy Men calendar and in the Church of England with the 1980 Alternative Service Book. It features in Common Worship as a Lesser Festival called "Commemoration of the Faithful Departed (All Souls' Day)".
+
+Methodist Churches
+In the Methodist Church, saints refer to all Christians and therefore, on All Saint's Day, the Church Universal, as well as the deceased members of a local congregation are honoured and remembered. In Methodist congregations that celebrate the liturgy on All Souls Day, the observance, as with Anglicanism and Lutheranism, is viewed as an extension of All Saints' Day and as such, Methodists "remember our loved ones who had died" in their observance of this feast.
+
+Popular customs 
+Many All Souls' Day traditions are associated with popular notions about purgatory. Bell tolling is meant to comfort those being cleansed. Lighting candles serves to kindle a light for the poor souls languishing in the darkness. Soul cakes are given to children coming to sing or pray for the dead (cf. trick-or-treating), giving rise to the traditions of "going souling" and the baking of special types of bread or cakes (cf. Pão-por-Deus).
+
+Europe
+All Souls' Day is celebrated in many European countries with vigils, candles, the decoration of graves, and special prayers as well as many regional customs. Examples of regional customs include leaving cakes for departed loved ones on the table and keeping the room warm for their comfort in Tirol and the custom in Brittany, where people flock to the cemeteries at nightfall to kneel, bareheaded, at the graves of their loved ones and anoint the hollow of the tombstone with holy water or to pour libations of milk on it. At bedtime, supper is left on the table for the souls. All Souls' Day is known in Maltese as Jum il-Mejtin, and is accompanied a traditional supper including roasted pig, based on a custom of letting a pig loose on the streets with a bell around its neck, to be fed by the entire neighborhood and cooked on that day to feed the poor. In Linz, funereal musical pieces known as aequales were played from tower tops on All Souls' Day and the evening before. In the Czech Republic and Slovakia All Souls' Day is called Dušičky, or "little souls". Traditionally, candles are left on graves on Dušičky. In Sicily and other regions of southern Italy, All Souls' Day is celebrated as the Festa dei Morti or U juornu rii morti, the "Commemoration of the Dead" or the "Day of the Dead", which according to Joshua Nicolosi of the Sicilian Post could be seen "halfway between Christian and pagan traditions". Families visit and clean grave sites, home altars are decorated with family photos and votive candles, and children are gifted a special basket or cannistru of chocolates, pomegranate, and other gifts from their ancestors. Because of the gifting of sugary sweets and the emphasis on sugar puppet decorations, the Commemoration Day has spurred local Sicilian events such as the Notte di Zucchero ("Night of Sugar") in which communities celebrate the dead.
+
+Philippines
+
+In the Philippines, Hallow mas is variously called "Undás", "Todos los Santos" (Spanish, "All Saints"), and sometimes "Araw ng mga Patay / Yumao" (Tagalog, "Day of the dead / those who have passed away"), which incorporates All Saints' Day and All Souls' Day. Filipinos traditionally observe this day by visiting the family dead to clean and repair their tombs. Offerings of prayers, flowers, candles, and food. Chinese Filipinos additionally burn incense and kim. Many also spend the day and ensuing night holding reunions at the cemetery with feasts and merriment.
+
+See also
+ 
+ Day of the Dead
+ Festival of the Dead
+ Zaduszki
+ Flowering Sunday
+ Decoration Day (Appalachia and Liberia)
+ Cemetery Sunday
+ Totensonntag
+
+References
+
+Citations
+
+Sources
+
+Further reading
+ Tracey OSM, Liam. "The liturgy of All Souls Day", Catholic Ireland, 30 November 1999
+
+External links
+
+   Notes on Russian Orthodox observance by N. Bulgakov
+   N. Bulgakov
+ "Pope offers Mass for faithful departed on All Souls' Day", Vatican radio, 2 November 2016
+
+Allhallowtide
+Christianity and death
+Eastern Orthodox liturgical days
+Holidays based on the date of Easter
+November observances
+Observances honoring the dead
+(; born , ; 16 April 1844 – 12 October 1924) was a French poet, journalist, and novelist with several best-sellers. Ironic and skeptical, he was considered in his day the ideal French man of letters. He was a member of the Académie Française, and won the 1921 Nobel Prize in Literature "in recognition of his brilliant literary achievements, characterized as they are by a nobility of style, a profound human sympathy, grace, and a true Gallic temperament".
+
+France is also widely believed to be the model for narrator Marcel's literary idol Bergotte in Marcel Proust's In Search of Lost Time.
+
+Early years
+The son of a bookseller, France, a bibliophile, spent most of his life around books. His father's bookstore specialized in books and papers on the French Revolution and was frequented by many writers and scholars. France studied at the Collège Stanislas, a private Catholic school, and after graduation he helped his father by working in his bookstore. After several years, he secured the position of cataloguer at Bacheline-Deflorenne and at Lemerre. In 1876, he was appointed librarian for the French Senate.
+
+Literary career
+France began his literary career as a poet and a journalist. In 1869, Le Parnasse contemporain published one of his poems, "". In 1875, he sat on the committee in charge of the third Parnasse contemporain compilation. As a journalist, from 1867, he wrote many articles and notices. He became known with the novel  (1881). Its protagonist, skeptical old scholar Sylvester Bonnard, embodied France's own personality. The novel was praised for its elegant prose and won him a prize from the Académie Française. 
+
+In  (1893) France ridiculed belief in the occult, and in  (1893), France captured the atmosphere of the . He was elected to the Académie Française in 1896.
+
+France took a part in the Dreyfus affair. He signed Émile Zola's manifesto supporting Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish army officer who had been falsely convicted of espionage. France wrote about the affair in his 1901 novel Monsieur Bergeret.
+
+France's later works include Penguin Island (, 1908) which satirizes human nature by depicting the transformation of penguins into humans – after the birds have been baptized by mistake by the almost-blind Abbot Mael. It is a satirical history of France, starting in Medieval times, going on to the author's own time with special attention to the Dreyfus affair and concluding with a dystopian future. The Gods Are Athirst (, 1912) is a novel, set in Paris during the French Revolution, about a true-believing follower of Maximilien Robespierre and his contribution to the bloody events of the Reign of Terror of 1793–94. It is a wake-up call against political and ideological fanaticism and explores various other philosophical approaches to the events of the time. The Revolt of the Angels (, 1914) is often considered France's most profound and ironic novel. Loosely based on the Christian understanding of the War in Heaven, it tells the story of Arcade, the guardian angel of Maurice d'Esparvieu. Bored because Bishop d'Esparvieu is sinless, Arcade begins reading the bishop's books on theology and becomes an atheist. He moves to Paris, meets a woman, falls in love, and loses his virginity causing his wings to fall off, joins the revolutionary movement of fallen angels, and meets the Devil, who realizes that if he overthrew God, he would become just like God. Arcade realizes that replacing God with another is meaningless unless "in ourselves and in ourselves alone we attack and destroy Ialdabaoth." "Ialdabaoth", according to France, is God's secret name and means "the child who wanders".
+
+He was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1921. He died in 1924 and is buried in the Neuilly-sur-Seine Old Communal Cemetery near Paris.
+
+On 31 May 1922, France's entire works were put on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum ("List of Prohibited Books") of the Catholic Church. He regarded this as a "distinction". This Index was abolished in 1966.
+
+Personal life
+In 1877, France married Valérie Guérin de Sauville, a granddaughter of Jean-Urbain Guérin, a miniaturist who painted Louis XVI. Their daughter Suzanne was born in 1881 (and died in 1918).
+
+France's relations with women were always turbulent, and in 1888 he began a relationship with Madame Arman de Caillavet, who conducted a celebrated literary salon of the Third Republic. The affair lasted until shortly before her death in 1910.
+
+After his divorce, in 1893, France had many liaisons, notably with a Madame Gagey, who committed suicide in 1911.
+
+In 1920, France married for the second time, to Emma Laprévotte.
+
+France was a socialist and an outspoken supporter of the 1917 Russian Revolution. In 1920, he gave his support to the newly founded French Communist Party. In his book The Red Lily, France famously wrote, "The law, in its majestic equality, forbids rich and poor alike to sleep under bridges, to beg in the streets, and to steal loaves of bread."
+
+Reputation
+
+The English writer George Orwell defended France and declared that his work remained very readable, and that "it is unquestionable that he was attacked partly from political motives".
+
+Works
+
+Poetry
+
+ , poem published in 1867 in the Gazette rimée.
+  (1873)
+  (The Bride of Corinth) (1876)
+
+Prose fiction
+  (Jocasta and the Famished Cat) (1879)
+  (The Crime of Sylvestre Bonnard) (1881)
+  (The Aspirations of Jean Servien) (1882)
+  (Honey-Bee) (1883)
+  (1889)
+  (1890)
+  (Mother of Pearl) (1892)
+  (At the Sign of the Reine Pédauque) (1892)
+  (Our Children: Scenes from the Country and the Town) (1886) illustrated by Louis-Maurice Boutet de Monvel
+  (The Opinions of Jerome Coignard) (1893)
+  (The Red Lily) (1894)
+  (The Well of Saint Clare) (1895)
+  (A Chronicle of Our Own Times)
+ 1:  (The Elm-Tree on the Mall)(1897)
+ 2:  (The Wicker-Work Woman) (1897)
+ 3:  (The Amethyst Ring) (1899)
+ 4:  (Monsieur Bergeret in Paris) (1901)
+ Clio (1900)
+  (A Mummer's Tale) (1903)
+  (The White Stone) (1905)
+  (1901)
+  (Penguin Island) (1908)
+  (The Merrie Tales of Jacques Tournebroche) (1908)
+  (The Seven Wives of Bluebeard and Other Marvelous Tales) (1909)
+ Bee The Princess of the Dwarfs (1912)
+  (The Gods Are Athirst) (1912)
+  (The Revolt of the Angels) (1914)
+  (1920) illustrated by Fernand Siméon
+
+Memoirs
+  (My Friend's Book) (1885)
+  (1899)
+  (Little Pierre) (1918)
+  (The Bloom of Life) (1922)
+
+Plays
+  (1898)
+ Crainquebille (1903)
+  (The Man Who Married A Dumb Wife) (1908)
+  (The Wicker Woman) (1928)
+
+Historical biography
+  (The Life of Joan of Arc) (1908)
+
+Literary criticism
+ Alfred de Vigny (1869)
+  (1888)
+  (The Latin Genius) (1909)
+
+Social criticism
+  (The Garden of Epicurus) (1895)
+  (1902)
+  (1904)
+  (1906)
+  (1915)
+ , in four volumes, (1949, 1953, 1964, 1973)
+
+References
+
+External links
+
+ 
+ 
+ List of Works
+ 
+ 
+ 
+  
+ "Anatole France, Nobel Prize Winner" by Herbert S. Gorman, The New York Times'', 20 November 1921
+ Correspondence with architect Jean-Paul Oury at Syracuse University
+ 
+ Anatole France, his work in audio version   
+ 
+
+1844 births
+1924 deaths
+Writers from Paris
+French bibliophiles
+Collège Stanislas de Paris alumni
+French fantasy writers
+French Nobel laureates
+19th-century French poets
+French satirists
+Members of the Académie Française
+Nobel laureates in Literature
+Dreyfusards
+19th-century French novelists
+20th-century French novelists
+French socialists
+French male poets
+French male novelists
+19th-century male writers
+French historical novelists
+Burials at Neuilly-sur-Seine community cemetery
+19th-century pseudonymous writers
+20th-century pseudonymous writers
+André Paul Guillaume Gide (; 22 November 1869 – 19 February 1951) was a French author whose writings spanned a wide variety of styles and topics. He was awarded the 1947 Nobel Prize in Literature. Gide's career ranged from his beginnings in the symbolist movement, to criticising imperialism between the two World Wars. The author of more than fifty books, he was described in his obituary in The New York Times as "France's greatest contemporary man of letters" and "judged the greatest French writer of this century by the literary cognoscenti."
+
+Known for his fiction as well as his autobiographical works, Gide expressed the conflict and eventual reconciliation of the two sides of his personality (characterized by a Protestant austerity and a transgressive sexual adventurousness, respectively). He suggested that a strict and moralistic education had helped set these facets at odds. Gide's work can be seen as an investigation of freedom and empowerment in the face of moralistic and puritanical constraints. He worked to achieve intellectual honesty. As a self-professed pederast, he used his writing to explore his struggle to be fully oneself, including owning one's sexual nature, without betraying one's values. His political activity was shaped by the same ethos. While sympathetic to Communism in the early 1930s, as were many intellectuals, after his 1936 journey to the USSR he supported the anti-Stalinist left; during the 1940s he shifted towards more traditional values and repudiated Communism as an idea that breaks up with the traditions of the Christian civilization.
+
+Early life
+
+Gide was born in Paris on 22 November 1869, into a middle-class Protestant family. His father Jean Paul Guillaume Gide was a professor of law at University of Paris; he died in 1880, when the boy was eleven years old. His mother was Juliette Maria Rondeaux. His uncle was political economist Charles Gide. His paternal family traced its roots to Italy. The ancestral Guidos had moved to France and other western and northern European countries after converting to Protestantism during the 16th century, and facing persecution in Catholic Italy.
+
+Gide was brought up in isolated conditions in Normandy. He became a prolific writer at an early age, publishing his first novel, The Notebooks of André Walter (French: Les Cahiers d'André Walter), in 1891, at the age of twenty-one.
+
+In 1893 and 1894, Gide traveled in Northern Africa. There he came to accept his attraction to boys and youths.
+
+Gide befriended Irish playwright Oscar Wilde in Paris, where the latter was in exile. In 1895 the two men met in Algiers. Wilde had the impression that he had introduced Gide to homosexuality, but Gide had already discovered this on his own.
+
+The middle years
+
+In 1895, after his mother's death, Gide married his cousin Madeleine Rondeaux, but the marriage remained unconsummated. In 1896, he was elected mayor of La Roque-Baignard, a commune in Normandy.
+
+In 1901, Gide rented the property Maderia in St. Brélade's Bay and lived there while residing on the island of Jersey. This period, 1901–07, is commonly seen as a time of apathy and turmoil for him.
+
+In 1908, Gide helped found the literary magazine Nouvelle Revue Française (The New French Review).
+
+During The Great War, Gide visited England. One of his friends there was artist William Rothenstein. Rothenstein described Gide's visit to his Gloucestershire home in his autobiography:
+
+In 1916, Gide was about 47 years old when he took Marc Allégret, 15 years old, as a lover. Marc  was one of five children of Élie Allégret and his wife. Gide had become friends with the senior Allégret during his own school years, when Gide's mother had hired Allégret as a tutor for her son. Élie Allégret had been best man at Gide's wedding. After Gide fled with Marc to London, his wife Madeleine burned all his correspondence in retaliation– "the best part of myself," Gide later commented.
+
+In 1918, Gide met and befriended Dorothy Bussy; they were friends for more than thirty years and she translated many of his works into English.
+
+Gide also became close friends with the critic Charles Du Bos. Together they were part of the Foyer Franco-Belge, in which capacity they worked to find employment, food and housing for Franco-Belgian refugees who arrived in Paris following the 1914 German invasion of Belgium. Their friendship later declined, due to Du Bos's perception that Gide had disavowed or betrayed his spiritual faith, in contrast to Du Bos's own return to faith. 
+
+Du Bos's essay Dialogue avec André Gide was published in 1929. The essay, informed by Du Bos's Catholic convictions, condemned Gide's homosexuality. Gide and Du Bos's mutual friend Ernst Robert Curtius criticised the book in a letter to Gide, writing that "he [Du Bos] judges you according to Catholic morals suffices to neglect his complete indictment. It can only touch those who think like him and are convinced in advance. He has abdicated his intellectual liberty."
+
+In the 1920s, Gide became an inspiration for such writers as Albert Camus and Jean-Paul Sartre. In 1923, he published a book on Fyodor Dostoyevsky. But, when he defended homosexuality in the public edition of Corydon (1924), he received widespread condemnation. He later considered this his most important work.
+
+In 1923, Gide sired a daughter, Catherine, by Elisabeth van Rysselberghe, a much younger woman. He had known her for a long time, as she was the daughter of his friends Maria Monnom and Théo van Rysselberghe, a Belgian neo-impressionist painter. This caused the only crisis in the long-standing relationship between Allégret and Gide, and damaged his friendship with van Rysselberghe. This was possibly Gide's only sexual relationship with a woman, and it was brief in the extreme. Catherine was his only descendant by blood. He liked to call Elisabeth "La Dame Blanche" ("The White Lady"). 
+
+Elisabeth eventually left her husband to move to Paris and manage the practical aspects of Gide's life (they had adjoining apartments built on the rue Vavin). She worshipped him, but evidently they no longer had a sexual relationship.
+
+In 1924, he published an autobiography, If it Die... (French: Si le grain ne meurt).
+In the same year, he produced the first French-language editions of Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness and Lord Jim.
+
+After 1925, Gide began to campaign for more humane conditions for convicted criminals.
+
+His legal wife, Madeleine Gide, died in 1938. Later he explored their unconsummated marriage in his memoir of Madeleine, Et nunc manet in te (And now it remains in you, published in English in the United States in 1952).
+
+Africa
+From July 1926 to May 1927, Gide traveled through the colony of French Equatorial Africa with his lover Marc Allégret. They went successively to Middle Congo (now the Republic of the Congo), Ubangi-Shari (now the Central African Republic), briefly to Chad and then to Cameroon before returning to France. He kept a journal, which he published as Travels in the Congo (French: Voyage au Congo) and Return from Chad (French: Retour du Tchad). 
+
+In this work, he criticized the behavior of French business interests in the Congo and inspired reform. In particular, he strongly criticized the Large Concessions regime (French: Régime des Grandes Concessions). The government had essentially conceded part of the colony to French companies, allowing them to exploit the area's natural resources, in particular rubber. He related that native workers were forced to leave their village for several weeks to collect rubber in the forest, and compared their exploitation by the companies to slavery. The book contributed to the growing anti-colonialism movements in France and helped thinkers to re-evaluate the effects of colonialism in Africa.
+
+Political views and the Soviet Union
+During the 1930s, Gide briefly became a Communist, or more precisely, a fellow traveler (he never formally joined any Communist party), although he, an individualist himself, advocated the idea of Communist individualism. Despite supporting the Soviet Union, he acknowledged the political repression in the USSR. Gide insisted on the release of Victor Serge, a Soviet writer and a memeber of the Left Opposition who was prosecuted by the Stalinist regime for his views. As a distinguished writer sympathizing with the cause of Communism, he was invited to speak at Maxim Gorky's funeral and to tour the Soviet Union as a guest of the Soviet Union of Writers. He encountered censorship of his speeches and was particularly disillusioned with the state of culture under Soviet Communism. In his work, Retour de L'U.R.S.S. (Return from the USSR, 1936), he broke with such socialist friends as Jean-Paul Sartre; the book was adressed to pro-Soviet readers, so the purpose was to expose a reader to doubts instead of presenting harsh criticism. While admitting the economic and social achievements of the USSR compared to the Russian Empire, he noted the decay of culture, the erasure of the individuality of Soviet citizens, and the suppression of any dissent:
+
+Gide does not express his attitude towards Stalin, but he describes the signs of his personality cult: "in each [home], ... the same portrait of Stalin, and nothing else"; "portrait of Stalin... , in the same place no doubt where the icon used to be. Is it adoration, love, or fear? I do not know; always and everywhere he is present." However, Gide wrote that these problems could be solved by raising the cultural level of the Soviet society.
+
+When Gide began preparing his manuscript for publication, the Kremlin was immediately informed about it, and the soon Gide would be visited by the Soviet author Ilya Ehrenburg, who said that he agreed with Gide, but asked to postpone the publication, as the Soviet Union assisted the Republicans in Spain; two days later, Louis Aragon delivered a letter from Jef Last asking to postpone the publication. These measures didn't help, and as the book was published, Gide was condemned in the Soviet press and by the "friends of the USSR": Nordahl Grieg wrote that the reason of writing the book was Gide's impatience, and that with his book he made a favour to the Fascists, who greeted it with joy. In 1937, in response, Gide published Afterthoughts on the U. S. S. R.; earlier, Gide read Trotsky's The Revolution Betrayed and met Victor Serge who provided him more information about the Soviet Union. In Afterthoughts, Gide is more direct in his criticism of the Soviet society: "Citrine, Trotsky, Mercier, Yvon, Victor Serge, Leguay, Rudolf and many others have helped me with their documentation. Everything they have taught me so far I had only suspected it – has confirmed and reinforced my fears". The main points of Afterthoughts were that the dictatorship of the proletariat became the dictatorship of Stalin, and that the privileged bureaucracy became the new ruling class which profited by the workers' surplus labour, spending the state budget on projects like the Palace of Soviets or to raise its own standards of living, while the working class lived in extreme poverty; Gide cited the official Soviet newspapers to prove his statements.
+
+During the World War II Gide came to a conclusion that "absolute liberty destroys the individual and also society unless it be closely linked to tradition and discipline"; he rejected the revolutionary idea of Communism as breaking with the traditions, and wrote that "if civilization depended solely on those who initiated revolutionary theories, then it would perish, since culture needs for its survival a continuous and developing tradition." In Thesee, written in 1946, he showed that an individual may safely leave the Maze only if "he had clung tightly to the thread which linked him with the past". In 1947, he said that although during the human history the civilizations rose up and died, the Christian civilization may be saved from doom "if we accepted the responsibility of the sacred charge laid on us by our traditions and our past." He also said that he remained an individualist and protested against "the submersion of individual responsibility in organized authority, in that escape from freedom which is characteristic of our age."
+
+Gide contributed to the 1949 anthology The God that Failed. He could not write an essay because of his state of health, so the text was written by Enid Starkie, based on paraphrases of Return from the USSR, Afterthoughts,  from a discussion held in Paris at l'Union pour la Verite in 1935, and from his Journal; the text was approved by Gide.
+
+1930s and 1940s
+
+In 1930 Gide published a book about the Blanche Monnier case called La Séquestrée de Poitiers, changing little but the names of the protagonists. Monnier was a young woman who was kept captive by her own mother for more than 25 years.
+
+In 1939, Gide became the first living author to be published in the prestigious Bibliothèque de la Pléiade.
+
+He left France for Africa in 1942 and lived in Tunis from December 1942 until it was re-taken by French, British and American forces in May 1943 and he was able to travel to Algiers where he stayed until the end of World War II. In 1947, he received the Nobel Prize in Literature "for his comprehensive and artistically significant writings, in which human problems and conditions have been presented with a fearless love of truth and keen psychological insight". He devoted much of his last years to publishing his Journal. Gide died in Paris on 19 February 1951. The Roman Catholic Church placed his works on the Index of Forbidden Books in 1952.
+
+Gide's life as a writer
+
+Gide's biographer Alan Sheridan summed up Gide's life as a writer and an intellectual:
+
+"Gide's fame rested ultimately, of course, on his literary works. But, unlike many writers, he was no recluse: he had a need of friendship and a genius for sustaining it." But his "capacity for love was not confined to his friends: it spilled over into a concern for others less fortunate than himself."
+
+Writings
+
+André Gide's writings spanned many genres – "As a master of prose narrative, occasional dramatist and translator, literary critic, letter writer, essayist, and diarist, André Gide provided twentieth-century French literature with one of its most intriguing examples of the man of letters."
+
+But as Gide's biographer Alan Sheridan points out, "It is the fiction that lies at the summit of Gide's work." "Here, as in the oeuvre as a whole, what strikes one first is the variety. Here, too, we see Gide's curiosity, his youthfulness, at work: a refusal to mine only one seam, to repeat successful formulas...The fiction spans the early years of Symbolism, to the "comic, more inventive, even fantastic" pieces, to the later "serious, heavily autobiographical, first-person narratives"...In France Gide was considered a great stylist in the classical sense, "with his clear, succinct, spare, deliberately, subtly phrased sentences."
+
+Gide's surviving letters run into the thousands. But it is the Journal that Sheridan calls "the pre-eminently Gidean mode of expression." "His first novel emerged from Gide's own journal, and many of the first-person narratives read more or less like journals. In Les faux-monnayeurs, Edouard's journal provides an alternative voice to the narrator's." "In 1946, when Pierre Herbert asked Gide which of his books he would choose if only one were to survive," Gide replied, 'I think it would be my Journal.'''"  Beginning at the age of eighteen or nineteen, Gide kept a journal all of his life and when these were first made available to the public, they ran to thirteen hundred pages.
+
+Struggle for values
+
+"Each volume that Gide wrote was intended to challenge itself, what had preceded it, and what could conceivably follow it. This characteristic, according to Daniel Moutote in his Cahiers de André Gide essay, is what makes Gide's work 'essentially modern': the 'perpetual renewal of the values by which one lives.'" Gide wrote in his Journal in 1930: "The only drama that really interests me and that I should always be willing to depict anew, is the debate of the individual with whatever keeps him from being authentic, with whatever is opposed to his integrity, to his integration. Most often the obstacle is within him. And all the rest is merely accidental."
+
+As a whole, "The works of André Gide reveal his passionate revolt against the restraints and conventions inherited from 19th-century France. He sought to uncover the authentic self beneath its contradictory masks."
+
+Sexuality
+In his journal, Gide distinguishes between adult-attracted "sodomites" and boy-loving "pederasts", categorizing himself as the latter.
+
+Gide's journal documents his behavior in the company of Oscar Wilde. 
+
+Gide's novel Corydon, which he considered his most important work, includes a defense of pederasty. At that time, the age of consent  for any type of sexual activity was set at thirteen.
+
+Bibliography
+
+ See also 
+ Colonialism
+ Mise en abyme Pederasty
+
+References
+Citations
+
+Works cited
+ Edmund White,  André Gide: A Life in the Present. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998.]
+
+Further reading
+ Noel I. Garde [Edgar H. Leoni], Jonathan to Gide: The Homosexual in History. New York:Vangard, 1964. 
+ For a chronology of Gide's life, see pp. 13–15 in Thomas Cordle, André Gide (The Griffin Authors Series). Twayne Publishers, Inc., 1969.
+ For a detailed bibliography of Gide's writings and works about Gide, see pp. 655–678 in Alan Sheridan, André Gide: A Life in the Present. Harvard, 1999.
+
+External links
+
+ Website of the Catherine Gide Foundation, held by Catherine Gide, his daughter.
+ Center for Gidian Studies
+ 
+ 
+ 
+List of Works
+ 
+ André Gide at Goodreads
+ Amis d'André Gide in French Period newspaper articles on Gide interface in French''
+ André  Gide, 1947 Nobel Laureate for Literature
+ André Gide: A Brief Introduction
+ Gide at Maderia in Jersey, 1901–07
+ 
+
+1869 births
+1951 deaths
+Writers from Paris
+French novelists
+French Protestants
+French travel writers
+French anti-communists
+French communists
+Nobel laureates in Literature
+French Nobel laureates
+Writers about the Soviet Union
+Modernist writers
+Fyodor Dostoyevsky scholars
+Lycée Henri-IV alumni
+French male essayists
+French male novelists
+French people of Italian descent
+Anti-Stalinist left
+Nouvelle Revue Française editors
+LGBT Nobel laureates
+Algorithms for calculating variance play a major role in computational statistics. A key difficulty in the design of good algorithms for this problem is that formulas for the variance may involve sums of squares, which can lead to numerical instability as well as to arithmetic overflow when dealing with large values.
+
+Naïve algorithm
+A formula for calculating the variance of an entire population of size N is:
+
+Using Bessel's correction to calculate an unbiased estimate of the population variance from a finite sample of n observations, the formula is:
+
+Therefore, a naïve algorithm to calculate the estimated variance is given by the following:
+
+ Let 
+ For each datum :
+ 
+ 
+ 
+ 
+
+This algorithm can easily be adapted to compute the variance of a finite population: simply divide by n instead of n − 1 on the last line.
+
+Because  and  can be very similar numbers, cancellation can lead to the precision of the result to be much less than the inherent precision of the floating-point arithmetic used to perform the computation.  Thus this algorithm should not be used in practice, and several alternate, numerically stable, algorithms have been proposed. This is particularly bad if the standard deviation is small relative to the mean.
+
+Computing shifted data
+
+The variance is invariant with respect to changes in a location parameter, a property which can be used to avoid the catastrophic cancellation in this formula.
+
+with  any constant, which leads to the new formula
+
+the closer  is to the mean value the more accurate the result will be, but just choosing a value inside the
+samples range will guarantee the desired stability. If the values  are small then there are no problems with the sum of its squares, on the contrary, if they are large it necessarily means that the variance is large as well. In any case the second term in the formula is always smaller than the first one therefore no cancellation may occur.
+
+If just the first sample is taken as  the algorithm can be written in Python programming language as
+
+def shifted_data_variance(data):
+    if len(data) < 2:
+        return 0.0
+    K = data[0]
+    n = Ex = Ex2 = 0.0
+    for x in data:
+        n += 1
+        Ex += x - K
+        Ex2 += (x - K) ** 2
+    variance = (Ex2 - Ex**2 / n) / (n - 1)
+    # use n instead of (n-1) if want to compute the exact variance of the given data
+    # use (n-1) if data are samples of a larger population
+    return variance
+
+This formula also facilitates the incremental computation that can be expressed as
+K = Ex = Ex2 = 0.0
+n = 0
+
+def add_variable(x):
+    global K, n, Ex, Ex2
+    if n == 0:
+        K = x
+    n += 1
+    Ex += x - K
+    Ex2 += (x - K) ** 2
+
+def remove_variable(x):
+    global K, n, Ex, Ex2
+    n -= 1
+    Ex -= x - K
+    Ex2 -= (x - K) ** 2
+
+def get_mean():
+    global K, n, Ex
+    return K + Ex / n
+
+def get_variance():
+    global n, Ex, Ex2
+    return (Ex2 - Ex**2 / n) / (n - 1)
+
+Two-pass algorithm
+An alternative approach, using a different formula for the variance, first computes the sample mean,
+
+and then computes the sum of the squares of the differences from the mean,
+
+where s is the standard deviation.  This is given by the following code:
+
+def two_pass_variance(data):
+    n = len(data)
+    mean = sum(data) / n
+    variance = sum([(x - mean) ** 2 for x in data]) / (n - 1)
+    return variance
+
+This algorithm is numerically stable if n is small. However, the results of both of these simple algorithms ("naïve" and "two-pass") can depend inordinately on the ordering of the data and can give poor results for very large data sets due to repeated roundoff error in the accumulation of the sums. Techniques such as compensated summation can be used to combat this error to a degree.
+
+Welford's online algorithm
+It is often useful to be able to compute the variance in a single pass, inspecting each value  only once; for example, when the data is being collected without enough storage to keep all the values, or when costs of memory access dominate those of computation.  For such an online algorithm, a recurrence relation is required between quantities from which the required statistics can be calculated in a numerically stable fashion.
+
+The following formulas can be used to update the mean and (estimated) variance of the sequence, for an additional element xn. Here,  denotes the sample mean of the first n samples ,  their biased sample variance, and  their unbiased sample variance.
+
+These formulas suffer from numerical instability , as they repeatedly subtract a small number from a big number which scales with n. A better quantity for updating is the sum of squares of differences from the current mean, , here denoted :
+
+ 
+
+This algorithm was found by Welford, and it has been thoroughly analyzed. It is also common to denote  and .
+
+An example Python implementation for Welford's algorithm is given below.
+
+# For a new value new_value, compute the new count, new mean, the new M2.
+# mean accumulates the mean of the entire dataset
+# M2 aggregates the squared distance from the mean
+# count aggregates the number of samples seen so far
+def update(existing_aggregate, new_value):
+    (count, mean, M2) = existing_aggregate
+    count += 1
+    delta = new_value - mean
+    mean += delta / count
+    delta2 = new_value - mean
+    M2 += delta * delta2
+    return (count, mean, M2)
+
+# Retrieve the mean, variance and sample variance from an aggregate
+def finalize(existing_aggregate):
+    (count, mean, M2) = existing_aggregate
+    if count < 2:
+        return float("nan")
+    else:
+        (mean, variance, sample_variance) = (mean, M2 / count, M2 / (count - 1))
+        return (mean, variance, sample_variance)
+
+This algorithm is much less prone to loss of precision due to catastrophic cancellation, but might not be as efficient because of the division operation inside the loop.  For a particularly robust two-pass algorithm for computing the variance, one can first compute and subtract an estimate of the mean, and then use this algorithm on the residuals.
+
+The parallel algorithm below illustrates how to merge multiple sets of statistics calculated online.
+
+Weighted incremental algorithm
+The algorithm can be extended to handle unequal sample weights, replacing the simple counter n with the sum of weights seen so far.  West (1979) suggests this incremental algorithm:
+
+def weighted_incremental_variance(data_weight_pairs):
+    w_sum = w_sum2 = mean = S = 0
+
+    for x, w in data_weight_pairs:
+        w_sum = w_sum + w
+        w_sum2 = w_sum2 + w**2
+        mean_old = mean
+        mean = mean_old + (w / w_sum) * (x - mean_old)
+        S = S + w * (x - mean_old) * (x - mean)
+
+    population_variance = S / w_sum
+    # Bessel's correction for weighted samples
+    # Frequency weights
+    sample_frequency_variance = S / (w_sum - 1)
+    # Reliability weights
+    sample_reliability_variance = S / (w_sum - w_sum2 / w_sum)
+
+Parallel algorithm
+Chan et al. note that Welford's online algorithm detailed above is a special case of an algorithm that works for combining arbitrary sets  and :
+.
+This may be useful when, for example, multiple processing units may be assigned to discrete parts of the input.
+
+Chan's method for estimating the mean is numerically unstable when  and both are large, because the numerical error in  is not scaled down in the way that it is in the  case. In such cases, prefer .
+def parallel_variance(n_a, avg_a, M2_a, n_b, avg_b, M2_b):
+    n = n_a + n_b
+    delta = avg_b - avg_a
+    M2 = M2_a + M2_b + delta**2 * n_a * n_b / n
+    var_ab = M2 / (n - 1)
+    return var_ab
+This can be generalized to allow parallelization with AVX, with GPUs, and computer clusters, and to covariance.
+
+Example
+Assume that all floating point operations use standard IEEE 754 double-precision arithmetic. Consider the sample (4, 7, 13, 16) from an infinite population. Based on this sample, the estimated population mean is 10, and the unbiased estimate of population variance is 30.  Both the naïve algorithm and two-pass algorithm compute these values correctly.
+
+Next consider the sample (, , , ), which gives rise to the same estimated variance as the first sample.  The two-pass algorithm computes this variance estimate correctly, but the naïve algorithm returns 29.333333333333332 instead of 30.
+
+While this loss of precision may be tolerable and viewed as a minor flaw of the naïve algorithm, further increasing the offset makes the error catastrophic.  Consider the sample (, , , ).  Again the estimated population variance of 30 is computed correctly by the two-pass algorithm, but the naïve algorithm now computes it as −170.66666666666666.  This is a serious problem with naïve algorithm and is due to catastrophic cancellation in the subtraction of two similar numbers at the final stage of the algorithm.
+
+Higher-order statistics
+Terriberry extends Chan's formulae to calculating the third and fourth central moments, needed for example when estimating skewness and kurtosis:
+
+Here the  are again the sums of powers of differences from the mean , giving
+ 
+
+For the incremental case (i.e., ), this simplifies to:
+ 
+
+By preserving the value , only one division operation is needed and the higher-order statistics can thus be calculated for little incremental cost.
+
+An example of the online algorithm for kurtosis implemented as described is:
+def online_kurtosis(data):
+    n = mean = M2 = M3 = M4 = 0
+
+    for x in data:
+        n1 = n
+        n = n + 1
+        delta = x - mean
+        delta_n = delta / n
+        delta_n2 = delta_n**2
+        term1 = delta * delta_n * n1
+        mean = mean + delta_n
+        M4 = M4 + term1 * delta_n2 * (n**2 - 3*n + 3) + 6 * delta_n2 * M2 - 4 * delta_n * M3
+        M3 = M3 + term1 * delta_n * (n - 2) - 3 * delta_n * M2
+        M2 = M2 + term1
+
+    # Note, you may also calculate variance using M2, and skewness using M3
+    # Caution: If all the inputs are the same, M2 will be 0, resulting in a division by 0.
+    kurtosis = (n * M4) / (M2**2) - 3
+    return kurtosis
+
+Pébaÿ
+further extends these results to arbitrary-order central moments, for the incremental and the pairwise cases, and subsequently Pébaÿ et al.
+for weighted and compound moments. One can also find there similar formulas for covariance.
+
+Choi and Sweetman
+offer two alternative methods to compute the skewness and kurtosis, each of which can save substantial computer memory requirements and CPU time in certain applications. The first approach is to compute the statistical moments by separating the data into bins and then computing the moments from the geometry of the resulting histogram, which effectively becomes a one-pass algorithm for higher moments. One benefit is that the statistical moment calculations can be carried out to arbitrary accuracy such that the computations can be tuned to the precision of, e.g., the data storage format or the original measurement hardware.  A relative histogram of a random variable can be constructed in the conventional way: the range of potential values is divided into bins and the number of occurrences within each bin are counted and plotted such that the area of each rectangle equals the portion of the sample values within that bin:
+
+ 
+
+where  and  represent the frequency and the relative frequency at bin  and  is the total area of the histogram. After this normalization, the  raw moments and central moments of  can be calculated from the relative histogram:
+
+ 
+
+ 
+
+where the superscript  indicates the moments are calculated from the histogram. For constant bin width  these two expressions can be simplified using :
+
+ 
+
+ 
+
+The second approach from Choi and Sweetman is an analytical methodology to combine statistical moments from individual segments of a time-history such that the resulting overall moments are those of the complete time-history. This methodology could be used for parallel computation of statistical moments with subsequent combination of those moments, or for combination of statistical moments computed at sequential times.
+
+If  sets of statistical moments are known:
+ for , then each  can
+be expressed in terms of the equivalent  raw moments:
+
+ 
+
+where  is generally taken to be the duration of the  time-history, or the number of points if  is constant.
+
+The benefit of expressing the statistical moments in terms of  is that the  sets can be combined by addition, and there is no upper limit on the value of .
+
+ 
+
+where the subscript  represents the concatenated time-history or combined . These combined values of  can then be inversely transformed into raw moments representing the complete concatenated time-history
+
+ 
+
+Known relationships between the raw moments () and the central moments ()
+are then used to compute the central moments of the concatenated time-history.  Finally, the statistical moments of the concatenated history are computed from the central moments:
+
+Covariance
+Very similar algorithms can be used to compute the covariance.
+
+Naïve algorithm
+The naïve algorithm is
+
+For the algorithm above, one could use the following Python code:
+def naive_covariance(data1, data2):
+    n = len(data1)
+    sum1 = sum(data1)
+    sum2 = sum(data2)
+    sum12 = sum([i1 * i2 for i1, i2 in zip(data1, data2)])
+
+    covariance = (sum12 - sum1 * sum2 / n) / n
+    return covariance
+
+With estimate of the mean
+As for the variance, the covariance of two random variables is also shift-invariant, so given any two constant values  and  it can be written:
+
+and again choosing a value inside the range of values will stabilize the formula against catastrophic cancellation as well as make it more robust against big sums. Taking the first value of each data set, the algorithm can be written as:
+
+def shifted_data_covariance(data_x, data_y):
+    n = len(data_x)
+    if n < 2:
+        return 0
+    kx = data_x[0]
+    ky = data_y[0]
+    Ex = Ey = Exy = 0
+    for ix, iy in zip(data_x, data_y):
+        Ex += ix - kx
+        Ey += iy - ky
+        Exy += (ix - kx) * (iy - ky)
+    return (Exy - Ex * Ey / n) / n
+
+Two-pass
+The two-pass algorithm first computes the sample means, and then the covariance:
+
+The two-pass algorithm may be written as:
+def two_pass_covariance(data1, data2):
+    n = len(data1)
+    mean1 = sum(data1) / n
+    mean2 = sum(data2) / n
+
+    covariance = 0
+    for i1, i2 in zip(data1, data2):
+        a = i1 - mean1
+        b = i2 - mean2
+        covariance += a * b / n
+    return covariance
+
+A slightly more accurate compensated version performs the full naive algorithm on the residuals.  The final sums  and  should be zero, but the second pass compensates for any small error.
+
+Online
+
+A stable one-pass algorithm exists, similar to the online algorithm for computing the variance, that computes co-moment :
+
+The apparent asymmetry in that last equation is due to the fact that , so both update terms are equal to .  Even greater accuracy can be achieved by first computing the means, then using the stable one-pass algorithm on the residuals.
+
+Thus the covariance can be computed as
+
+def online_covariance(data1, data2):
+    meanx = meany = C = n = 0
+    for x, y in zip(data1, data2):
+        n += 1
+        dx = x - meanx
+        meanx += dx / n
+        meany += (y - meany) / n
+        C += dx * (y - meany)
+
+    population_covar = C / n
+    # Bessel's correction for sample variance
+    sample_covar = C / (n - 1)
+
+A small modification can also be made to compute the weighted covariance:
+
+def online_weighted_covariance(data1, data2, data3):
+    meanx = meany = 0
+    wsum = wsum2 = 0
+    C = 0
+    for x, y, w in zip(data1, data2, data3):
+        wsum += w