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+{"document_idx":0,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"of external signals, including hormones and other ligands, and sites for\nthe recognition and attachment of other cells. Internally, plasma membranes can act as points of attachment for intracellular structures, in\nparticular those concerned with cell motility and other cytoskeletal\nfunctions. Cell membranes are synthesized by the rough endoplasmic\nreticulum in conjunction with the Golgi apparatus.\n###### Cell coat (glycocalyx)\nThe external surface of a plasma membrane differs structurally from\ninternal membranes in that it possesses an external, fuzzy, carbohydraterich coat, the glycocalyx. The cell coat forms an integral part of the\nplasma membrane, projecting as a diffusely filamentous layer 2–20 nm\nor more from the lipoprotein surface. The cell coat is composed of the\ncarbohydrate portions of glycoproteins and glycolipids embedded in\nthe plasma membrane (see Fig. 1.3).\n\nThe precise composition of the glycocalyx varies with cell type; many","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":0,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"tissue- and cell type-specific antigens are located in the coat, including\nthe major histocompatibility complex of the immune system and, in\nthe case of erythrocytes, blood group antigens. Therefore, the glycocalyx\nplays a significant role in organ transplant compatibility. The glycocalyx\nfound on apical microvilli of enterocytes, the cells forming the lining\nepithelium of the intestine, consists of enzymes involved in the digestive process. Intestinal microvilli are cylindrical projections (1–2 µm\nlong and about 0.1 µm in diameter) forming a closely packed layer\ncalled the brush border that increases the absorptive function of\nenterocytes.\n\n###### Cytoplasm","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":0,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"###### Compartments and functional organization\nThe cytoplasm consists of the cytosol, a gel-like material enclosed by\nthe cell or plasma membrane. The cytosol is made up of colloidal proteins such as enzymes, carbohydrates and small protein molecules,\ntogether with ribosomes and ribonucleic acids. The cytoplasm contains\ntwo cytomembrane systems, the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi\napparatus, as well as membrane-bound organelles (lysosomes, peroxisomes and mitochondria), membrane-free inclusions (lipid droplets,\nglycogen and pigments) and the cytoskeleton. The nuclear contents,\nthe nucleoplasm, are separated from the cytoplasm by the nuclear\nenvelope.\n###### Endoplasmic reticulum\nThe endoplasmic reticulum is a system of interconnecting membranelined channels within the cytoplasm (Fig. 1.4). These channels take\nvarious forms, including cisternae (flattened sacs), tubules and vesicles.\nThe membranes divide the cytoplasm into two major compartments.\nThe intramembranous compartment, or cisternal space, is where secretory products are stored or transported to the Golgi complex and cell","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":0,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"exterior. The cisternal space is continuous with the perinuclear space.","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":0,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"Structurally, the channel system can be divided into rough or granu\nlar endoplasmic reticulum (RER), which has ribosomes attached to its\nouter, cytosolic surface, and smooth or agranular endoplasmic reticulum (SER), which lacks ribosomes. The functions of the endoplasmic\nreticulum vary greatly and include: the synthesis, folding and transport\nof proteins; synthesis and transport of phospholipids and steroids; and\nstorage of calcium within the cisternal space and regulated release into\nthe cytoplasm. In general, RER is well developed in cells that produce\n\n**Fig 1 4 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum with associated vesicles The**","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":0,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"abundant proteins; SER is abundant in steroid-producing cells and\nmuscle cells. A variant of the endoplasmic reticulum in muscle cells is\nthe sarcoplasmic reticulum, involved in calcium storage and release for\nmuscle contraction. For further reading on the endoplasmic reticulum,\nsee Bravo et al (2013).","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":0,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"###### Smooth endoplasmic reticulum\nThe smooth endoplasmic reticulum (see Fig. 1.4) is associated with\ncarbohydrate metabolism and many other metabolic processes, including detoxification and synthesis of lipids, cholesterol and steroids. The\nmembranes of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum serve as surfaces for\nthe attachment of many enzyme systems, e.g. the enzyme cytochrome\nP450, which is involved in important detoxification mechanisms and\nis thus accessible to its substrates, which are generally lipophilic. The\nmembranes also cooperate with the rough endoplasmic reticulum\nand the Golgi apparatus to synthesize new membranes; the protein,\ncarbohydrate and lipid components are added in different structural\ncompartments. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum in hepatocytes contains the enzyme glucose-6-phosphatase, which converts glucose-6phosphate to glucose, a step in gluconeogenesis.","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":0,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"###### Rough endoplasmic reticulum\nThe rough endoplasmic reticulum is a site of protein synthesis; its\ncytosolic surface is studded with ribosomes (Fig. 1.5E). Ribosomes only\nbind to the endoplasmic reticulum when proteins targeted for secretion\nbegin to be synthesized. Most proteins pass through its membranes and\naccumulate within its cisternae, although some integral membrane proteins, e.g. plasma membrane receptors, are inserted into the rough\nendoplasmic reticulum membrane, where they remain. After passage\nfrom the rough endoplasmic reticulum, proteins remain in membranebound cytoplasmic organelles such as lysosomes, become incorporated\ninto new plasma membrane, or are secreted by the cell. Some carbohydrates are also synthesized by enzymes within the cavities of the rough\nendoplasmic reticulum and may be attached to newly formed protein\n(glycosylation). Vesicles are budded off from the rough endoplasmic\nreticulum for transport to the Golgi as part of the protein-targeting\nmechanism of the cell.","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":0,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"###### Ribosomes, polyribosomes  and protein synthesis\nRibosomes are macromolecular machines that catalyse the synthesis of\nproteins from amino acids; synthesis and assembly into subunits takes\nplace in the nucleolus and includes the association of ribosomal RNA\n(rRNA) with ribosomal proteins translocated from their site of synthesis\nin the cytoplasm. The individual subunits are then transported into the\ncytoplasm, where they remain separate from each other when not\nactively synthesizing proteins. Ribosomes are granules approximately\n25 nm in diameter, composed of rRNA molecules and proteins assembled into two unequal subunits. The subunits can be separated by their\nsedimentation coefficients (S) in an ultracentrifuge into larger 60S and\nsmaller 40S components. These are associated with 73 different proteins (40 in the large subunit and 33 in the small), which have structural\nand enzymatic functions. Three small, highly convoluted rRNA strands\n(28S, 5.8S and 5S) make up the large subunit, and one strand (18S) is\nin the small subunit.","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":0,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"A typical cell contains millions of ribosomes. They may form groups\n\n(polyribosomes or polysomes) attached to messenger RNA (mRNA),\nwhich they translate during protein synthesis for use outside the system\nof membrane compartments, e.g. enzymes of the cytosol and cytoskeletal proteins. Some of the cytosolic products include proteins that can\nbe inserted directly into (or through) membranes of selected organelles,\nsuch as mitochondria and peroxisomes. Ribosomes may be attached to\nthe membranes of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (see Fig. 1.5E).\n\nIn a mature polyribosome, all the attachment sites of the mRNA are","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":0,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"occupied as ribosomes move along it, synthesizing protein according\nto its nucleotide sequence. Consequently, the number and spacing of\nribosomes in a polyribosome indicate the length of the mRNA molecule and hence the size of the protein being made. The two subunits\nhave separate roles in protein synthesis. The 40S subunit is the site of\nattachment and translation of mRNA. The 60S subunit is responsible\nfor the release of the new protein and, where appropriate, attachment\nto the endoplasmic reticulum via an intermediate docking protein that\ndirects the newly synthesized protein through the membrane into the\ncisternal space.\n\n###### Golgi apparatus (Golgi complex)\nThe Golgi apparatus is a distinct cytomembrane system located near the","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":0,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"-----\n\n","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":1,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"of external signals, including hormones and other ligands, and sites for\nthe recognition and attachment of other cells. Internally, plasma membranes can act as points of attachment for intracellular structures, in\nparticular those concerned with cell motility and other cytoskeletal\nfunctions. Cell membranes are synthesized by the rough endoplasmic\nreticulum in conjunction with the Golgi apparatus.\n###### Cell coat (glycocalyx)\nThe external surface of a plasma membrane differs structurally from\ninternal membranes in that it possesses an external, fuzzy, carbohydraterich coat, the glycocalyx. The cell coat forms an integral part of the\nplasma membrane, projecting as a diffusely filamentous layer 2–20 nm\nor more from the lipoprotein surface. The cell coat is composed of the\ncarbohydrate portions of glycoproteins and glycolipids embedded in\nthe plasma membrane (see Fig. 1.3).\n\nThe precise composition of the glycocalyx varies with cell type; many","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":1,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"tissue- and cell type-specific antigens are located in the coat, including\nthe major histocompatibility complex of the immune system and, in\nthe case of erythrocytes, blood group antigens. Therefore, the glycocalyx\nplays a significant role in organ transplant compatibility. The glycocalyx\nfound on apical microvilli of enterocytes, the cells forming the lining\nepithelium of the intestine, consists of enzymes involved in the digestive process. Intestinal microvilli are cylindrical projections (1–2 µm\nlong and about 0.1 µm in diameter) forming a closely packed layer\ncalled the brush border that increases the absorptive function of\nenterocytes.\n\n###### Cytoplasm","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":1,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"###### Compartments and functional organization\nThe cytoplasm consists of the cytosol, a gel-like material enclosed by\nthe cell or plasma membrane. The cytosol is made up of colloidal proteins such as enzymes, carbohydrates and small protein molecules,\ntogether with ribosomes and ribonucleic acids. The cytoplasm contains\ntwo cytomembrane systems, the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi\napparatus, as well as membrane-bound organelles (lysosomes, peroxisomes and mitochondria), membrane-free inclusions (lipid droplets,\nglycogen and pigments) and the cytoskeleton. The nuclear contents,\nthe nucleoplasm, are separated from the cytoplasm by the nuclear\nenvelope.\n###### Endoplasmic reticulum\nThe endoplasmic reticulum is a system of interconnecting membranelined channels within the cytoplasm (Fig. 1.4). These channels take\nvarious forms, including cisternae (flattened sacs), tubules and vesicles.\nThe membranes divide the cytoplasm into two major compartments.\nThe intramembranous compartment, or cisternal space, is where secretory products are stored or transported to the Golgi complex and cell","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":1,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"exterior. The cisternal space is continuous with the perinuclear space.","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":1,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"Structurally, the channel system can be divided into rough or granu\nlar endoplasmic reticulum (RER), which has ribosomes attached to its\nouter, cytosolic surface, and smooth or agranular endoplasmic reticulum (SER), which lacks ribosomes. The functions of the endoplasmic\nreticulum vary greatly and include: the synthesis, folding and transport\nof proteins; synthesis and transport of phospholipids and steroids; and\nstorage of calcium within the cisternal space and regulated release into\nthe cytoplasm. In general, RER is well developed in cells that produce\n\n**Fig 1 4 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum with associated vesicles The**","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":1,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"abundant proteins; SER is abundant in steroid-producing cells and\nmuscle cells. A variant of the endoplasmic reticulum in muscle cells is\nthe sarcoplasmic reticulum, involved in calcium storage and release for\nmuscle contraction. For further reading on the endoplasmic reticulum,\nsee Bravo et al (2013).","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":1,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"###### Smooth endoplasmic reticulum\nThe smooth endoplasmic reticulum (see Fig. 1.4) is associated with\ncarbohydrate metabolism and many other metabolic processes, including detoxification and synthesis of lipids, cholesterol and steroids. The\nmembranes of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum serve as surfaces for\nthe attachment of many enzyme systems, e.g. the enzyme cytochrome\nP450, which is involved in important detoxification mechanisms and\nis thus accessible to its substrates, which are generally lipophilic. The\nmembranes also cooperate with the rough endoplasmic reticulum\nand the Golgi apparatus to synthesize new membranes; the protein,\ncarbohydrate and lipid components are added in different structural\ncompartments. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum in hepatocytes contains the enzyme glucose-6-phosphatase, which converts glucose-6phosphate to glucose, a step in gluconeogenesis.","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":1,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"###### Rough endoplasmic reticulum\nThe rough endoplasmic reticulum is a site of protein synthesis; its\ncytosolic surface is studded with ribosomes (Fig. 1.5E). Ribosomes only\nbind to the endoplasmic reticulum when proteins targeted for secretion\nbegin to be synthesized. Most proteins pass through its membranes and\naccumulate within its cisternae, although some integral membrane proteins, e.g. plasma membrane receptors, are inserted into the rough\nendoplasmic reticulum membrane, where they remain. After passage\nfrom the rough endoplasmic reticulum, proteins remain in membranebound cytoplasmic organelles such as lysosomes, become incorporated\ninto new plasma membrane, or are secreted by the cell. Some carbohydrates are also synthesized by enzymes within the cavities of the rough\nendoplasmic reticulum and may be attached to newly formed protein\n(glycosylation). Vesicles are budded off from the rough endoplasmic\nreticulum for transport to the Golgi as part of the protein-targeting\nmechanism of the cell.","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":1,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"###### Ribosomes, polyribosomes  and protein synthesis\nRibosomes are macromolecular machines that catalyse the synthesis of\nproteins from amino acids; synthesis and assembly into subunits takes\nplace in the nucleolus and includes the association of ribosomal RNA\n(rRNA) with ribosomal proteins translocated from their site of synthesis\nin the cytoplasm. The individual subunits are then transported into the\ncytoplasm, where they remain separate from each other when not\nactively synthesizing proteins. Ribosomes are granules approximately\n25 nm in diameter, composed of rRNA molecules and proteins assembled into two unequal subunits. The subunits can be separated by their\nsedimentation coefficients (S) in an ultracentrifuge into larger 60S and\nsmaller 40S components. These are associated with 73 different proteins (40 in the large subunit and 33 in the small), which have structural\nand enzymatic functions. Three small, highly convoluted rRNA strands\n(28S, 5.8S and 5S) make up the large subunit, and one strand (18S) is\nin the small subunit.","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":1,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"A typical cell contains millions of ribosomes. They may form groups\n\n(polyribosomes or polysomes) attached to messenger RNA (mRNA),\nwhich they translate during protein synthesis for use outside the system\nof membrane compartments, e.g. enzymes of the cytosol and cytoskeletal proteins. Some of the cytosolic products include proteins that can\nbe inserted directly into (or through) membranes of selected organelles,\nsuch as mitochondria and peroxisomes. Ribosomes may be attached to\nthe membranes of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (see Fig. 1.5E).\n\nIn a mature polyribosome, all the attachment sites of the mRNA are","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":1,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"occupied as ribosomes move along it, synthesizing protein according\nto its nucleotide sequence. Consequently, the number and spacing of\nribosomes in a polyribosome indicate the length of the mRNA molecule and hence the size of the protein being made. The two subunits\nhave separate roles in protein synthesis. The 40S subunit is the site of\nattachment and translation of mRNA. The 60S subunit is responsible\nfor the release of the new protein and, where appropriate, attachment\nto the endoplasmic reticulum via an intermediate docking protein that\ndirects the newly synthesized protein through the membrane into the\ncisternal space.\n\n###### Golgi apparatus (Golgi complex)\nThe Golgi apparatus is a distinct cytomembrane system located near the","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":1,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"-----\n\n","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":2,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"of external signals, including hormones and other ligands, and sites for\nthe recognition and attachment of other cells. Internally, plasma membranes can act as points of attachment for intracellular structures, in\nparticular those concerned with cell motility and other cytoskeletal\nfunctions. Cell membranes are synthesized by the rough endoplasmic\nreticulum in conjunction with the Golgi apparatus.\n###### Cell coat (glycocalyx)\nThe external surface of a plasma membrane differs structurally from\ninternal membranes in that it possesses an external, fuzzy, carbohydraterich coat, the glycocalyx. The cell coat forms an integral part of the\nplasma membrane, projecting as a diffusely filamentous layer 2–20 nm\nor more from the lipoprotein surface. The cell coat is composed of the\ncarbohydrate portions of glycoproteins and glycolipids embedded in\nthe plasma membrane (see Fig. 1.3).\n\nThe precise composition of the glycocalyx varies with cell type; many","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":2,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"tissue- and cell type-specific antigens are located in the coat, including\nthe major histocompatibility complex of the immune system and, in\nthe case of erythrocytes, blood group antigens. Therefore, the glycocalyx\nplays a significant role in organ transplant compatibility. The glycocalyx\nfound on apical microvilli of enterocytes, the cells forming the lining\nepithelium of the intestine, consists of enzymes involved in the digestive process. Intestinal microvilli are cylindrical projections (1–2 µm\nlong and about 0.1 µm in diameter) forming a closely packed layer\ncalled the brush border that increases the absorptive function of\nenterocytes.\n\n###### Cytoplasm","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":2,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"###### Compartments and functional organization\nThe cytoplasm consists of the cytosol, a gel-like material enclosed by\nthe cell or plasma membrane. The cytosol is made up of colloidal proteins such as enzymes, carbohydrates and small protein molecules,\ntogether with ribosomes and ribonucleic acids. The cytoplasm contains\ntwo cytomembrane systems, the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi\napparatus, as well as membrane-bound organelles (lysosomes, peroxisomes and mitochondria), membrane-free inclusions (lipid droplets,\nglycogen and pigments) and the cytoskeleton. The nuclear contents,\nthe nucleoplasm, are separated from the cytoplasm by the nuclear\nenvelope.\n###### Endoplasmic reticulum\nThe endoplasmic reticulum is a system of interconnecting membranelined channels within the cytoplasm (Fig. 1.4). These channels take\nvarious forms, including cisternae (flattened sacs), tubules and vesicles.\nThe membranes divide the cytoplasm into two major compartments.\nThe intramembranous compartment, or cisternal space, is where secretory products are stored or transported to the Golgi complex and cell","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":2,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"exterior. The cisternal space is continuous with the perinuclear space.","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":2,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"Structurally, the channel system can be divided into rough or granu\nlar endoplasmic reticulum (RER), which has ribosomes attached to its\nouter, cytosolic surface, and smooth or agranular endoplasmic reticulum (SER), which lacks ribosomes. The functions of the endoplasmic\nreticulum vary greatly and include: the synthesis, folding and transport\nof proteins; synthesis and transport of phospholipids and steroids; and\nstorage of calcium within the cisternal space and regulated release into\nthe cytoplasm. In general, RER is well developed in cells that produce\n\n**Fig 1 4 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum with associated vesicles The**","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":2,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"abundant proteins; SER is abundant in steroid-producing cells and\nmuscle cells. A variant of the endoplasmic reticulum in muscle cells is\nthe sarcoplasmic reticulum, involved in calcium storage and release for\nmuscle contraction. For further reading on the endoplasmic reticulum,\nsee Bravo et al (2013).","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":2,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"###### Smooth endoplasmic reticulum\nThe smooth endoplasmic reticulum (see Fig. 1.4) is associated with\ncarbohydrate metabolism and many other metabolic processes, including detoxification and synthesis of lipids, cholesterol and steroids. The\nmembranes of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum serve as surfaces for\nthe attachment of many enzyme systems, e.g. the enzyme cytochrome\nP450, which is involved in important detoxification mechanisms and\nis thus accessible to its substrates, which are generally lipophilic. The\nmembranes also cooperate with the rough endoplasmic reticulum\nand the Golgi apparatus to synthesize new membranes; the protein,\ncarbohydrate and lipid components are added in different structural\ncompartments. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum in hepatocytes contains the enzyme glucose-6-phosphatase, which converts glucose-6phosphate to glucose, a step in gluconeogenesis.","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":2,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"###### Rough endoplasmic reticulum\nThe rough endoplasmic reticulum is a site of protein synthesis; its\ncytosolic surface is studded with ribosomes (Fig. 1.5E). Ribosomes only\nbind to the endoplasmic reticulum when proteins targeted for secretion\nbegin to be synthesized. Most proteins pass through its membranes and\naccumulate within its cisternae, although some integral membrane proteins, e.g. plasma membrane receptors, are inserted into the rough\nendoplasmic reticulum membrane, where they remain. After passage\nfrom the rough endoplasmic reticulum, proteins remain in membranebound cytoplasmic organelles such as lysosomes, become incorporated\ninto new plasma membrane, or are secreted by the cell. Some carbohydrates are also synthesized by enzymes within the cavities of the rough\nendoplasmic reticulum and may be attached to newly formed protein\n(glycosylation). Vesicles are budded off from the rough endoplasmic\nreticulum for transport to the Golgi as part of the protein-targeting\nmechanism of the cell.","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":2,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"###### Ribosomes, polyribosomes  and protein synthesis\nRibosomes are macromolecular machines that catalyse the synthesis of\nproteins from amino acids; synthesis and assembly into subunits takes\nplace in the nucleolus and includes the association of ribosomal RNA\n(rRNA) with ribosomal proteins translocated from their site of synthesis\nin the cytoplasm. The individual subunits are then transported into the\ncytoplasm, where they remain separate from each other when not\nactively synthesizing proteins. Ribosomes are granules approximately\n25 nm in diameter, composed of rRNA molecules and proteins assembled into two unequal subunits. The subunits can be separated by their\nsedimentation coefficients (S) in an ultracentrifuge into larger 60S and\nsmaller 40S components. These are associated with 73 different proteins (40 in the large subunit and 33 in the small), which have structural\nand enzymatic functions. Three small, highly convoluted rRNA strands\n(28S, 5.8S and 5S) make up the large subunit, and one strand (18S) is\nin the small subunit.","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":2,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"A typical cell contains millions of ribosomes. They may form groups\n\n(polyribosomes or polysomes) attached to messenger RNA (mRNA),\nwhich they translate during protein synthesis for use outside the system\nof membrane compartments, e.g. enzymes of the cytosol and cytoskeletal proteins. Some of the cytosolic products include proteins that can\nbe inserted directly into (or through) membranes of selected organelles,\nsuch as mitochondria and peroxisomes. Ribosomes may be attached to\nthe membranes of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (see Fig. 1.5E).\n\nIn a mature polyribosome, all the attachment sites of the mRNA are","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":2,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"occupied as ribosomes move along it, synthesizing protein according\nto its nucleotide sequence. Consequently, the number and spacing of\nribosomes in a polyribosome indicate the length of the mRNA molecule and hence the size of the protein being made. The two subunits\nhave separate roles in protein synthesis. The 40S subunit is the site of\nattachment and translation of mRNA. The 60S subunit is responsible\nfor the release of the new protein and, where appropriate, attachment\nto the endoplasmic reticulum via an intermediate docking protein that\ndirects the newly synthesized protein through the membrane into the\ncisternal space.\n\n###### Golgi apparatus (Golgi complex)\nThe Golgi apparatus is a distinct cytomembrane system located near the","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":2,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"-----\n\n","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":3,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"of external signals, including hormones and other ligands, and sites for\nthe recognition and attachment of other cells. Internally, plasma membranes can act as points of attachment for intracellular structures, in\nparticular those concerned with cell motility and other cytoskeletal\nfunctions. Cell membranes are synthesized by the rough endoplasmic\nreticulum in conjunction with the Golgi apparatus.\n###### Cell coat (glycocalyx)\nThe external surface of a plasma membrane differs structurally from\ninternal membranes in that it possesses an external, fuzzy, carbohydraterich coat, the glycocalyx. The cell coat forms an integral part of the\nplasma membrane, projecting as a diffusely filamentous layer 2–20 nm\nor more from the lipoprotein surface. The cell coat is composed of the\ncarbohydrate portions of glycoproteins and glycolipids embedded in\nthe plasma membrane (see Fig. 1.3).\n\nThe precise composition of the glycocalyx varies with cell type; many","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":3,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"tissue- and cell type-specific antigens are located in the coat, including\nthe major histocompatibility complex of the immune system and, in\nthe case of erythrocytes, blood group antigens. Therefore, the glycocalyx\nplays a significant role in organ transplant compatibility. The glycocalyx\nfound on apical microvilli of enterocytes, the cells forming the lining\nepithelium of the intestine, consists of enzymes involved in the digestive process. Intestinal microvilli are cylindrical projections (1–2 µm\nlong and about 0.1 µm in diameter) forming a closely packed layer\ncalled the brush border that increases the absorptive function of\nenterocytes.\n\n###### Cytoplasm","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":3,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"###### Compartments and functional organization\nThe cytoplasm consists of the cytosol, a gel-like material enclosed by\nthe cell or plasma membrane. The cytosol is made up of colloidal proteins such as enzymes, carbohydrates and small protein molecules,\ntogether with ribosomes and ribonucleic acids. The cytoplasm contains\ntwo cytomembrane systems, the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi\napparatus, as well as membrane-bound organelles (lysosomes, peroxisomes and mitochondria), membrane-free inclusions (lipid droplets,\nglycogen and pigments) and the cytoskeleton. The nuclear contents,\nthe nucleoplasm, are separated from the cytoplasm by the nuclear\nenvelope.\n###### Endoplasmic reticulum\nThe endoplasmic reticulum is a system of interconnecting membranelined channels within the cytoplasm (Fig. 1.4). These channels take\nvarious forms, including cisternae (flattened sacs), tubules and vesicles.\nThe membranes divide the cytoplasm into two major compartments.\nThe intramembranous compartment, or cisternal space, is where secretory products are stored or transported to the Golgi complex and cell","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":3,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"exterior. The cisternal space is continuous with the perinuclear space.","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":3,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"Structurally, the channel system can be divided into rough or granu\nlar endoplasmic reticulum (RER), which has ribosomes attached to its\nouter, cytosolic surface, and smooth or agranular endoplasmic reticulum (SER), which lacks ribosomes. The functions of the endoplasmic\nreticulum vary greatly and include: the synthesis, folding and transport\nof proteins; synthesis and transport of phospholipids and steroids; and\nstorage of calcium within the cisternal space and regulated release into\nthe cytoplasm. In general, RER is well developed in cells that produce\n\n**Fig 1 4 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum with associated vesicles The**","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":3,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"abundant proteins; SER is abundant in steroid-producing cells and\nmuscle cells. A variant of the endoplasmic reticulum in muscle cells is\nthe sarcoplasmic reticulum, involved in calcium storage and release for\nmuscle contraction. For further reading on the endoplasmic reticulum,\nsee Bravo et al (2013).","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":3,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"###### Smooth endoplasmic reticulum\nThe smooth endoplasmic reticulum (see Fig. 1.4) is associated with\ncarbohydrate metabolism and many other metabolic processes, including detoxification and synthesis of lipids, cholesterol and steroids. The\nmembranes of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum serve as surfaces for\nthe attachment of many enzyme systems, e.g. the enzyme cytochrome\nP450, which is involved in important detoxification mechanisms and\nis thus accessible to its substrates, which are generally lipophilic. The\nmembranes also cooperate with the rough endoplasmic reticulum\nand the Golgi apparatus to synthesize new membranes; the protein,\ncarbohydrate and lipid components are added in different structural\ncompartments. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum in hepatocytes contains the enzyme glucose-6-phosphatase, which converts glucose-6phosphate to glucose, a step in gluconeogenesis.","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":3,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"###### Rough endoplasmic reticulum\nThe rough endoplasmic reticulum is a site of protein synthesis; its\ncytosolic surface is studded with ribosomes (Fig. 1.5E). Ribosomes only\nbind to the endoplasmic reticulum when proteins targeted for secretion\nbegin to be synthesized. Most proteins pass through its membranes and\naccumulate within its cisternae, although some integral membrane proteins, e.g. plasma membrane receptors, are inserted into the rough\nendoplasmic reticulum membrane, where they remain. After passage\nfrom the rough endoplasmic reticulum, proteins remain in membranebound cytoplasmic organelles such as lysosomes, become incorporated\ninto new plasma membrane, or are secreted by the cell. Some carbohydrates are also synthesized by enzymes within the cavities of the rough\nendoplasmic reticulum and may be attached to newly formed protein\n(glycosylation). Vesicles are budded off from the rough endoplasmic\nreticulum for transport to the Golgi as part of the protein-targeting\nmechanism of the cell.","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":3,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"###### Ribosomes, polyribosomes  and protein synthesis\nRibosomes are macromolecular machines that catalyse the synthesis of\nproteins from amino acids; synthesis and assembly into subunits takes\nplace in the nucleolus and includes the association of ribosomal RNA\n(rRNA) with ribosomal proteins translocated from their site of synthesis\nin the cytoplasm. The individual subunits are then transported into the\ncytoplasm, where they remain separate from each other when not\nactively synthesizing proteins. Ribosomes are granules approximately\n25 nm in diameter, composed of rRNA molecules and proteins assembled into two unequal subunits. The subunits can be separated by their\nsedimentation coefficients (S) in an ultracentrifuge into larger 60S and\nsmaller 40S components. These are associated with 73 different proteins (40 in the large subunit and 33 in the small), which have structural\nand enzymatic functions. Three small, highly convoluted rRNA strands\n(28S, 5.8S and 5S) make up the large subunit, and one strand (18S) is\nin the small subunit.","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":3,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"A typical cell contains millions of ribosomes. They may form groups\n\n(polyribosomes or polysomes) attached to messenger RNA (mRNA),\nwhich they translate during protein synthesis for use outside the system\nof membrane compartments, e.g. enzymes of the cytosol and cytoskeletal proteins. Some of the cytosolic products include proteins that can\nbe inserted directly into (or through) membranes of selected organelles,\nsuch as mitochondria and peroxisomes. Ribosomes may be attached to\nthe membranes of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (see Fig. 1.5E).\n\nIn a mature polyribosome, all the attachment sites of the mRNA are","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":3,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"occupied as ribosomes move along it, synthesizing protein according\nto its nucleotide sequence. Consequently, the number and spacing of\nribosomes in a polyribosome indicate the length of the mRNA molecule and hence the size of the protein being made. The two subunits\nhave separate roles in protein synthesis. The 40S subunit is the site of\nattachment and translation of mRNA. The 60S subunit is responsible\nfor the release of the new protein and, where appropriate, attachment\nto the endoplasmic reticulum via an intermediate docking protein that\ndirects the newly synthesized protein through the membrane into the\ncisternal space.\n\n###### Golgi apparatus (Golgi complex)\nThe Golgi apparatus is a distinct cytomembrane system located near the","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":3,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"-----\n\n","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":4,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"of external signals, including hormones and other ligands, and sites for\nthe recognition and attachment of other cells. Internally, plasma membranes can act as points of attachment for intracellular structures, in\nparticular those concerned with cell motility and other cytoskeletal\nfunctions. Cell membranes are synthesized by the rough endoplasmic\nreticulum in conjunction with the Golgi apparatus.\n###### Cell coat (glycocalyx)\nThe external surface of a plasma membrane differs structurally from\ninternal membranes in that it possesses an external, fuzzy, carbohydraterich coat, the glycocalyx. The cell coat forms an integral part of the\nplasma membrane, projecting as a diffusely filamentous layer 2–20 nm\nor more from the lipoprotein surface. The cell coat is composed of the\ncarbohydrate portions of glycoproteins and glycolipids embedded in\nthe plasma membrane (see Fig. 1.3).\n\nThe precise composition of the glycocalyx varies with cell type; many","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":4,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"tissue- and cell type-specific antigens are located in the coat, including\nthe major histocompatibility complex of the immune system and, in\nthe case of erythrocytes, blood group antigens. Therefore, the glycocalyx\nplays a significant role in organ transplant compatibility. The glycocalyx\nfound on apical microvilli of enterocytes, the cells forming the lining\nepithelium of the intestine, consists of enzymes involved in the digestive process. Intestinal microvilli are cylindrical projections (1–2 µm\nlong and about 0.1 µm in diameter) forming a closely packed layer\ncalled the brush border that increases the absorptive function of\nenterocytes.\n\n###### Cytoplasm","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":4,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"###### Compartments and functional organization\nThe cytoplasm consists of the cytosol, a gel-like material enclosed by\nthe cell or plasma membrane. The cytosol is made up of colloidal proteins such as enzymes, carbohydrates and small protein molecules,\ntogether with ribosomes and ribonucleic acids. The cytoplasm contains\ntwo cytomembrane systems, the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi\napparatus, as well as membrane-bound organelles (lysosomes, peroxisomes and mitochondria), membrane-free inclusions (lipid droplets,\nglycogen and pigments) and the cytoskeleton. The nuclear contents,\nthe nucleoplasm, are separated from the cytoplasm by the nuclear\nenvelope.\n###### Endoplasmic reticulum\nThe endoplasmic reticulum is a system of interconnecting membranelined channels within the cytoplasm (Fig. 1.4). These channels take\nvarious forms, including cisternae (flattened sacs), tubules and vesicles.\nThe membranes divide the cytoplasm into two major compartments.\nThe intramembranous compartment, or cisternal space, is where secretory products are stored or transported to the Golgi complex and cell","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":4,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"exterior. The cisternal space is continuous with the perinuclear space.","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":4,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"Structurally, the channel system can be divided into rough or granu\nlar endoplasmic reticulum (RER), which has ribosomes attached to its\nouter, cytosolic surface, and smooth or agranular endoplasmic reticulum (SER), which lacks ribosomes. The functions of the endoplasmic\nreticulum vary greatly and include: the synthesis, folding and transport\nof proteins; synthesis and transport of phospholipids and steroids; and\nstorage of calcium within the cisternal space and regulated release into\nthe cytoplasm. In general, RER is well developed in cells that produce\n\n**Fig 1 4 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum with associated vesicles The**","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":4,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"abundant proteins; SER is abundant in steroid-producing cells and\nmuscle cells. A variant of the endoplasmic reticulum in muscle cells is\nthe sarcoplasmic reticulum, involved in calcium storage and release for\nmuscle contraction. For further reading on the endoplasmic reticulum,\nsee Bravo et al (2013).","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":4,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"###### Smooth endoplasmic reticulum\nThe smooth endoplasmic reticulum (see Fig. 1.4) is associated with\ncarbohydrate metabolism and many other metabolic processes, including detoxification and synthesis of lipids, cholesterol and steroids. The\nmembranes of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum serve as surfaces for\nthe attachment of many enzyme systems, e.g. the enzyme cytochrome\nP450, which is involved in important detoxification mechanisms and\nis thus accessible to its substrates, which are generally lipophilic. The\nmembranes also cooperate with the rough endoplasmic reticulum\nand the Golgi apparatus to synthesize new membranes; the protein,\ncarbohydrate and lipid components are added in different structural\ncompartments. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum in hepatocytes contains the enzyme glucose-6-phosphatase, which converts glucose-6phosphate to glucose, a step in gluconeogenesis.","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":4,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"###### Rough endoplasmic reticulum\nThe rough endoplasmic reticulum is a site of protein synthesis; its\ncytosolic surface is studded with ribosomes (Fig. 1.5E). Ribosomes only\nbind to the endoplasmic reticulum when proteins targeted for secretion\nbegin to be synthesized. Most proteins pass through its membranes and\naccumulate within its cisternae, although some integral membrane proteins, e.g. plasma membrane receptors, are inserted into the rough\nendoplasmic reticulum membrane, where they remain. After passage\nfrom the rough endoplasmic reticulum, proteins remain in membranebound cytoplasmic organelles such as lysosomes, become incorporated\ninto new plasma membrane, or are secreted by the cell. Some carbohydrates are also synthesized by enzymes within the cavities of the rough\nendoplasmic reticulum and may be attached to newly formed protein\n(glycosylation). Vesicles are budded off from the rough endoplasmic\nreticulum for transport to the Golgi as part of the protein-targeting\nmechanism of the cell.","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":4,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"###### Ribosomes, polyribosomes  and protein synthesis\nRibosomes are macromolecular machines that catalyse the synthesis of\nproteins from amino acids; synthesis and assembly into subunits takes\nplace in the nucleolus and includes the association of ribosomal RNA\n(rRNA) with ribosomal proteins translocated from their site of synthesis\nin the cytoplasm. The individual subunits are then transported into the\ncytoplasm, where they remain separate from each other when not\nactively synthesizing proteins. Ribosomes are granules approximately\n25 nm in diameter, composed of rRNA molecules and proteins assembled into two unequal subunits. The subunits can be separated by their\nsedimentation coefficients (S) in an ultracentrifuge into larger 60S and\nsmaller 40S components. These are associated with 73 different proteins (40 in the large subunit and 33 in the small), which have structural\nand enzymatic functions. Three small, highly convoluted rRNA strands\n(28S, 5.8S and 5S) make up the large subunit, and one strand (18S) is\nin the small subunit.","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":4,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"A typical cell contains millions of ribosomes. They may form groups\n\n(polyribosomes or polysomes) attached to messenger RNA (mRNA),\nwhich they translate during protein synthesis for use outside the system\nof membrane compartments, e.g. enzymes of the cytosol and cytoskeletal proteins. Some of the cytosolic products include proteins that can\nbe inserted directly into (or through) membranes of selected organelles,\nsuch as mitochondria and peroxisomes. Ribosomes may be attached to\nthe membranes of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (see Fig. 1.5E).\n\nIn a mature polyribosome, all the attachment sites of the mRNA are","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":4,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"occupied as ribosomes move along it, synthesizing protein according\nto its nucleotide sequence. Consequently, the number and spacing of\nribosomes in a polyribosome indicate the length of the mRNA molecule and hence the size of the protein being made. The two subunits\nhave separate roles in protein synthesis. The 40S subunit is the site of\nattachment and translation of mRNA. The 60S subunit is responsible\nfor the release of the new protein and, where appropriate, attachment\nto the endoplasmic reticulum via an intermediate docking protein that\ndirects the newly synthesized protein through the membrane into the\ncisternal space.\n\n###### Golgi apparatus (Golgi complex)\nThe Golgi apparatus is a distinct cytomembrane system located near the","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":4,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"-----\n\n","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":5,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"of external signals, including hormones and other ligands, and sites for\nthe recognition and attachment of other cells. Internally, plasma membranes can act as points of attachment for intracellular structures, in\nparticular those concerned with cell motility and other cytoskeletal\nfunctions. Cell membranes are synthesized by the rough endoplasmic\nreticulum in conjunction with the Golgi apparatus.\n###### Cell coat (glycocalyx)\nThe external surface of a plasma membrane differs structurally from\ninternal membranes in that it possesses an external, fuzzy, carbohydraterich coat, the glycocalyx. The cell coat forms an integral part of the\nplasma membrane, projecting as a diffusely filamentous layer 2–20 nm\nor more from the lipoprotein surface. The cell coat is composed of the\ncarbohydrate portions of glycoproteins and glycolipids embedded in\nthe plasma membrane (see Fig. 1.3).\n\nThe precise composition of the glycocalyx varies with cell type; many","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":5,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"tissue- and cell type-specific antigens are located in the coat, including\nthe major histocompatibility complex of the immune system and, in\nthe case of erythrocytes, blood group antigens. Therefore, the glycocalyx\nplays a significant role in organ transplant compatibility. The glycocalyx\nfound on apical microvilli of enterocytes, the cells forming the lining\nepithelium of the intestine, consists of enzymes involved in the digestive process. Intestinal microvilli are cylindrical projections (1–2 µm\nlong and about 0.1 µm in diameter) forming a closely packed layer\ncalled the brush border that increases the absorptive function of\nenterocytes.\n\n###### Cytoplasm","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":5,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"###### Compartments and functional organization\nThe cytoplasm consists of the cytosol, a gel-like material enclosed by\nthe cell or plasma membrane. The cytosol is made up of colloidal proteins such as enzymes, carbohydrates and small protein molecules,\ntogether with ribosomes and ribonucleic acids. The cytoplasm contains\ntwo cytomembrane systems, the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi\napparatus, as well as membrane-bound organelles (lysosomes, peroxisomes and mitochondria), membrane-free inclusions (lipid droplets,\nglycogen and pigments) and the cytoskeleton. The nuclear contents,\nthe nucleoplasm, are separated from the cytoplasm by the nuclear\nenvelope.\n###### Endoplasmic reticulum\nThe endoplasmic reticulum is a system of interconnecting membranelined channels within the cytoplasm (Fig. 1.4). These channels take\nvarious forms, including cisternae (flattened sacs), tubules and vesicles.\nThe membranes divide the cytoplasm into two major compartments.\nThe intramembranous compartment, or cisternal space, is where secretory products are stored or transported to the Golgi complex and cell","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":5,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"exterior. The cisternal space is continuous with the perinuclear space.","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":5,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"Structurally, the channel system can be divided into rough or granu\nlar endoplasmic reticulum (RER), which has ribosomes attached to its\nouter, cytosolic surface, and smooth or agranular endoplasmic reticulum (SER), which lacks ribosomes. The functions of the endoplasmic\nreticulum vary greatly and include: the synthesis, folding and transport\nof proteins; synthesis and transport of phospholipids and steroids; and\nstorage of calcium within the cisternal space and regulated release into\nthe cytoplasm. In general, RER is well developed in cells that produce\n\n**Fig 1 4 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum with associated vesicles The**","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":5,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"abundant proteins; SER is abundant in steroid-producing cells and\nmuscle cells. A variant of the endoplasmic reticulum in muscle cells is\nthe sarcoplasmic reticulum, involved in calcium storage and release for\nmuscle contraction. For further reading on the endoplasmic reticulum,\nsee Bravo et al (2013).","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":5,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"###### Smooth endoplasmic reticulum\nThe smooth endoplasmic reticulum (see Fig. 1.4) is associated with\ncarbohydrate metabolism and many other metabolic processes, including detoxification and synthesis of lipids, cholesterol and steroids. The\nmembranes of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum serve as surfaces for\nthe attachment of many enzyme systems, e.g. the enzyme cytochrome\nP450, which is involved in important detoxification mechanisms and\nis thus accessible to its substrates, which are generally lipophilic. The\nmembranes also cooperate with the rough endoplasmic reticulum\nand the Golgi apparatus to synthesize new membranes; the protein,\ncarbohydrate and lipid components are added in different structural\ncompartments. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum in hepatocytes contains the enzyme glucose-6-phosphatase, which converts glucose-6phosphate to glucose, a step in gluconeogenesis.","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":5,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"###### Rough endoplasmic reticulum\nThe rough endoplasmic reticulum is a site of protein synthesis; its\ncytosolic surface is studded with ribosomes (Fig. 1.5E). Ribosomes only\nbind to the endoplasmic reticulum when proteins targeted for secretion\nbegin to be synthesized. Most proteins pass through its membranes and\naccumulate within its cisternae, although some integral membrane proteins, e.g. plasma membrane receptors, are inserted into the rough\nendoplasmic reticulum membrane, where they remain. After passage\nfrom the rough endoplasmic reticulum, proteins remain in membranebound cytoplasmic organelles such as lysosomes, become incorporated\ninto new plasma membrane, or are secreted by the cell. Some carbohydrates are also synthesized by enzymes within the cavities of the rough\nendoplasmic reticulum and may be attached to newly formed protein\n(glycosylation). Vesicles are budded off from the rough endoplasmic\nreticulum for transport to the Golgi as part of the protein-targeting\nmechanism of the cell.","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":5,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"###### Ribosomes, polyribosomes  and protein synthesis\nRibosomes are macromolecular machines that catalyse the synthesis of\nproteins from amino acids; synthesis and assembly into subunits takes\nplace in the nucleolus and includes the association of ribosomal RNA\n(rRNA) with ribosomal proteins translocated from their site of synthesis\nin the cytoplasm. The individual subunits are then transported into the\ncytoplasm, where they remain separate from each other when not\nactively synthesizing proteins. Ribosomes are granules approximately\n25 nm in diameter, composed of rRNA molecules and proteins assembled into two unequal subunits. The subunits can be separated by their\nsedimentation coefficients (S) in an ultracentrifuge into larger 60S and\nsmaller 40S components. These are associated with 73 different proteins (40 in the large subunit and 33 in the small), which have structural\nand enzymatic functions. Three small, highly convoluted rRNA strands\n(28S, 5.8S and 5S) make up the large subunit, and one strand (18S) is\nin the small subunit.","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":5,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"A typical cell contains millions of ribosomes. They may form groups\n\n(polyribosomes or polysomes) attached to messenger RNA (mRNA),\nwhich they translate during protein synthesis for use outside the system\nof membrane compartments, e.g. enzymes of the cytosol and cytoskeletal proteins. Some of the cytosolic products include proteins that can\nbe inserted directly into (or through) membranes of selected organelles,\nsuch as mitochondria and peroxisomes. Ribosomes may be attached to\nthe membranes of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (see Fig. 1.5E).\n\nIn a mature polyribosome, all the attachment sites of the mRNA are","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":5,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"occupied as ribosomes move along it, synthesizing protein according\nto its nucleotide sequence. Consequently, the number and spacing of\nribosomes in a polyribosome indicate the length of the mRNA molecule and hence the size of the protein being made. The two subunits\nhave separate roles in protein synthesis. The 40S subunit is the site of\nattachment and translation of mRNA. The 60S subunit is responsible\nfor the release of the new protein and, where appropriate, attachment\nto the endoplasmic reticulum via an intermediate docking protein that\ndirects the newly synthesized protein through the membrane into the\ncisternal space.\n\n###### Golgi apparatus (Golgi complex)\nThe Golgi apparatus is a distinct cytomembrane system located near the","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":5,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"-----\n\n","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":6,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"of external signals, including hormones and other ligands, and sites for\nthe recognition and attachment of other cells. Internally, plasma membranes can act as points of attachment for intracellular structures, in\nparticular those concerned with cell motility and other cytoskeletal\nfunctions. Cell membranes are synthesized by the rough endoplasmic\nreticulum in conjunction with the Golgi apparatus.\n###### Cell coat (glycocalyx)\nThe external surface of a plasma membrane differs structurally from\ninternal membranes in that it possesses an external, fuzzy, carbohydraterich coat, the glycocalyx. The cell coat forms an integral part of the\nplasma membrane, projecting as a diffusely filamentous layer 2–20 nm\nor more from the lipoprotein surface. The cell coat is composed of the\ncarbohydrate portions of glycoproteins and glycolipids embedded in\nthe plasma membrane (see Fig. 1.3).\n\nThe precise composition of the glycocalyx varies with cell type; many","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":6,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"tissue- and cell type-specific antigens are located in the coat, including\nthe major histocompatibility complex of the immune system and, in\nthe case of erythrocytes, blood group antigens. Therefore, the glycocalyx\nplays a significant role in organ transplant compatibility. The glycocalyx\nfound on apical microvilli of enterocytes, the cells forming the lining\nepithelium of the intestine, consists of enzymes involved in the digestive process. Intestinal microvilli are cylindrical projections (1–2 µm\nlong and about 0.1 µm in diameter) forming a closely packed layer\ncalled the brush border that increases the absorptive function of\nenterocytes.\n\n###### Cytoplasm","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":6,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"###### Compartments and functional organization\nThe cytoplasm consists of the cytosol, a gel-like material enclosed by\nthe cell or plasma membrane. The cytosol is made up of colloidal proteins such as enzymes, carbohydrates and small protein molecules,\ntogether with ribosomes and ribonucleic acids. The cytoplasm contains\ntwo cytomembrane systems, the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi\napparatus, as well as membrane-bound organelles (lysosomes, peroxisomes and mitochondria), membrane-free inclusions (lipid droplets,\nglycogen and pigments) and the cytoskeleton. The nuclear contents,\nthe nucleoplasm, are separated from the cytoplasm by the nuclear\nenvelope.\n###### Endoplasmic reticulum\nThe endoplasmic reticulum is a system of interconnecting membranelined channels within the cytoplasm (Fig. 1.4). These channels take\nvarious forms, including cisternae (flattened sacs), tubules and vesicles.\nThe membranes divide the cytoplasm into two major compartments.\nThe intramembranous compartment, or cisternal space, is where secretory products are stored or transported to the Golgi complex and cell","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":6,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"exterior. The cisternal space is continuous with the perinuclear space.","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":6,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"Structurally, the channel system can be divided into rough or granu\nlar endoplasmic reticulum (RER), which has ribosomes attached to its\nouter, cytosolic surface, and smooth or agranular endoplasmic reticulum (SER), which lacks ribosomes. The functions of the endoplasmic\nreticulum vary greatly and include: the synthesis, folding and transport\nof proteins; synthesis and transport of phospholipids and steroids; and\nstorage of calcium within the cisternal space and regulated release into\nthe cytoplasm. In general, RER is well developed in cells that produce\n\n**Fig 1 4 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum with associated vesicles The**","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":6,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"abundant proteins; SER is abundant in steroid-producing cells and\nmuscle cells. A variant of the endoplasmic reticulum in muscle cells is\nthe sarcoplasmic reticulum, involved in calcium storage and release for\nmuscle contraction. For further reading on the endoplasmic reticulum,\nsee Bravo et al (2013).","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":6,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"###### Smooth endoplasmic reticulum\nThe smooth endoplasmic reticulum (see Fig. 1.4) is associated with\ncarbohydrate metabolism and many other metabolic processes, including detoxification and synthesis of lipids, cholesterol and steroids. The\nmembranes of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum serve as surfaces for\nthe attachment of many enzyme systems, e.g. the enzyme cytochrome\nP450, which is involved in important detoxification mechanisms and\nis thus accessible to its substrates, which are generally lipophilic. The\nmembranes also cooperate with the rough endoplasmic reticulum\nand the Golgi apparatus to synthesize new membranes; the protein,\ncarbohydrate and lipid components are added in different structural\ncompartments. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum in hepatocytes contains the enzyme glucose-6-phosphatase, which converts glucose-6phosphate to glucose, a step in gluconeogenesis.","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":6,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"###### Rough endoplasmic reticulum\nThe rough endoplasmic reticulum is a site of protein synthesis; its\ncytosolic surface is studded with ribosomes (Fig. 1.5E). Ribosomes only\nbind to the endoplasmic reticulum when proteins targeted for secretion\nbegin to be synthesized. Most proteins pass through its membranes and\naccumulate within its cisternae, although some integral membrane proteins, e.g. plasma membrane receptors, are inserted into the rough\nendoplasmic reticulum membrane, where they remain. After passage\nfrom the rough endoplasmic reticulum, proteins remain in membranebound cytoplasmic organelles such as lysosomes, become incorporated\ninto new plasma membrane, or are secreted by the cell. Some carbohydrates are also synthesized by enzymes within the cavities of the rough\nendoplasmic reticulum and may be attached to newly formed protein\n(glycosylation). Vesicles are budded off from the rough endoplasmic\nreticulum for transport to the Golgi as part of the protein-targeting\nmechanism of the cell.","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":6,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"###### Ribosomes, polyribosomes  and protein synthesis\nRibosomes are macromolecular machines that catalyse the synthesis of\nproteins from amino acids; synthesis and assembly into subunits takes\nplace in the nucleolus and includes the association of ribosomal RNA\n(rRNA) with ribosomal proteins translocated from their site of synthesis\nin the cytoplasm. The individual subunits are then transported into the\ncytoplasm, where they remain separate from each other when not\nactively synthesizing proteins. Ribosomes are granules approximately\n25 nm in diameter, composed of rRNA molecules and proteins assembled into two unequal subunits. The subunits can be separated by their\nsedimentation coefficients (S) in an ultracentrifuge into larger 60S and\nsmaller 40S components. These are associated with 73 different proteins (40 in the large subunit and 33 in the small), which have structural\nand enzymatic functions. Three small, highly convoluted rRNA strands\n(28S, 5.8S and 5S) make up the large subunit, and one strand (18S) is\nin the small subunit.","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":6,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"A typical cell contains millions of ribosomes. They may form groups\n\n(polyribosomes or polysomes) attached to messenger RNA (mRNA),\nwhich they translate during protein synthesis for use outside the system\nof membrane compartments, e.g. enzymes of the cytosol and cytoskeletal proteins. Some of the cytosolic products include proteins that can\nbe inserted directly into (or through) membranes of selected organelles,\nsuch as mitochondria and peroxisomes. Ribosomes may be attached to\nthe membranes of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (see Fig. 1.5E).\n\nIn a mature polyribosome, all the attachment sites of the mRNA are","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":6,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"occupied as ribosomes move along it, synthesizing protein according\nto its nucleotide sequence. Consequently, the number and spacing of\nribosomes in a polyribosome indicate the length of the mRNA molecule and hence the size of the protein being made. The two subunits\nhave separate roles in protein synthesis. The 40S subunit is the site of\nattachment and translation of mRNA. The 60S subunit is responsible\nfor the release of the new protein and, where appropriate, attachment\nto the endoplasmic reticulum via an intermediate docking protein that\ndirects the newly synthesized protein through the membrane into the\ncisternal space.\n\n###### Golgi apparatus (Golgi complex)\nThe Golgi apparatus is a distinct cytomembrane system located near the","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":6,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"-----\n\n","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":7,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"of external signals, including hormones and other ligands, and sites for\nthe recognition and attachment of other cells. Internally, plasma membranes can act as points of attachment for intracellular structures, in\nparticular those concerned with cell motility and other cytoskeletal\nfunctions. Cell membranes are synthesized by the rough endoplasmic\nreticulum in conjunction with the Golgi apparatus.\n###### Cell coat (glycocalyx)\nThe external surface of a plasma membrane differs structurally from\ninternal membranes in that it possesses an external, fuzzy, carbohydraterich coat, the glycocalyx. The cell coat forms an integral part of the\nplasma membrane, projecting as a diffusely filamentous layer 2–20 nm\nor more from the lipoprotein surface. The cell coat is composed of the\ncarbohydrate portions of glycoproteins and glycolipids embedded in\nthe plasma membrane (see Fig. 1.3).\n\nThe precise composition of the glycocalyx varies with cell type; many","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":7,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"tissue- and cell type-specific antigens are located in the coat, including\nthe major histocompatibility complex of the immune system and, in\nthe case of erythrocytes, blood group antigens. Therefore, the glycocalyx\nplays a significant role in organ transplant compatibility. The glycocalyx\nfound on apical microvilli of enterocytes, the cells forming the lining\nepithelium of the intestine, consists of enzymes involved in the digestive process. Intestinal microvilli are cylindrical projections (1–2 µm\nlong and about 0.1 µm in diameter) forming a closely packed layer\ncalled the brush border that increases the absorptive function of\nenterocytes.\n\n###### Cytoplasm","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":7,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"###### Compartments and functional organization\nThe cytoplasm consists of the cytosol, a gel-like material enclosed by\nthe cell or plasma membrane. The cytosol is made up of colloidal proteins such as enzymes, carbohydrates and small protein molecules,\ntogether with ribosomes and ribonucleic acids. The cytoplasm contains\ntwo cytomembrane systems, the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi\napparatus, as well as membrane-bound organelles (lysosomes, peroxisomes and mitochondria), membrane-free inclusions (lipid droplets,\nglycogen and pigments) and the cytoskeleton. The nuclear contents,\nthe nucleoplasm, are separated from the cytoplasm by the nuclear\nenvelope.\n###### Endoplasmic reticulum\nThe endoplasmic reticulum is a system of interconnecting membranelined channels within the cytoplasm (Fig. 1.4). These channels take\nvarious forms, including cisternae (flattened sacs), tubules and vesicles.\nThe membranes divide the cytoplasm into two major compartments.\nThe intramembranous compartment, or cisternal space, is where secretory products are stored or transported to the Golgi complex and cell","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":7,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"exterior. The cisternal space is continuous with the perinuclear space.","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":7,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"Structurally, the channel system can be divided into rough or granu\nlar endoplasmic reticulum (RER), which has ribosomes attached to its\nouter, cytosolic surface, and smooth or agranular endoplasmic reticulum (SER), which lacks ribosomes. The functions of the endoplasmic\nreticulum vary greatly and include: the synthesis, folding and transport\nof proteins; synthesis and transport of phospholipids and steroids; and\nstorage of calcium within the cisternal space and regulated release into\nthe cytoplasm. In general, RER is well developed in cells that produce\n\n**Fig 1 4 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum with associated vesicles The**","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":7,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"abundant proteins; SER is abundant in steroid-producing cells and\nmuscle cells. A variant of the endoplasmic reticulum in muscle cells is\nthe sarcoplasmic reticulum, involved in calcium storage and release for\nmuscle contraction. For further reading on the endoplasmic reticulum,\nsee Bravo et al (2013).","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":7,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"###### Smooth endoplasmic reticulum\nThe smooth endoplasmic reticulum (see Fig. 1.4) is associated with\ncarbohydrate metabolism and many other metabolic processes, including detoxification and synthesis of lipids, cholesterol and steroids. The\nmembranes of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum serve as surfaces for\nthe attachment of many enzyme systems, e.g. the enzyme cytochrome\nP450, which is involved in important detoxification mechanisms and\nis thus accessible to its substrates, which are generally lipophilic. The\nmembranes also cooperate with the rough endoplasmic reticulum\nand the Golgi apparatus to synthesize new membranes; the protein,\ncarbohydrate and lipid components are added in different structural\ncompartments. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum in hepatocytes contains the enzyme glucose-6-phosphatase, which converts glucose-6phosphate to glucose, a step in gluconeogenesis.","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":7,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"###### Rough endoplasmic reticulum\nThe rough endoplasmic reticulum is a site of protein synthesis; its\ncytosolic surface is studded with ribosomes (Fig. 1.5E). Ribosomes only\nbind to the endoplasmic reticulum when proteins targeted for secretion\nbegin to be synthesized. Most proteins pass through its membranes and\naccumulate within its cisternae, although some integral membrane proteins, e.g. plasma membrane receptors, are inserted into the rough\nendoplasmic reticulum membrane, where they remain. After passage\nfrom the rough endoplasmic reticulum, proteins remain in membranebound cytoplasmic organelles such as lysosomes, become incorporated\ninto new plasma membrane, or are secreted by the cell. Some carbohydrates are also synthesized by enzymes within the cavities of the rough\nendoplasmic reticulum and may be attached to newly formed protein\n(glycosylation). Vesicles are budded off from the rough endoplasmic\nreticulum for transport to the Golgi as part of the protein-targeting\nmechanism of the cell.","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":7,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"###### Ribosomes, polyribosomes  and protein synthesis\nRibosomes are macromolecular machines that catalyse the synthesis of\nproteins from amino acids; synthesis and assembly into subunits takes\nplace in the nucleolus and includes the association of ribosomal RNA\n(rRNA) with ribosomal proteins translocated from their site of synthesis\nin the cytoplasm. The individual subunits are then transported into the\ncytoplasm, where they remain separate from each other when not\nactively synthesizing proteins. Ribosomes are granules approximately\n25 nm in diameter, composed of rRNA molecules and proteins assembled into two unequal subunits. The subunits can be separated by their\nsedimentation coefficients (S) in an ultracentrifuge into larger 60S and\nsmaller 40S components. These are associated with 73 different proteins (40 in the large subunit and 33 in the small), which have structural\nand enzymatic functions. Three small, highly convoluted rRNA strands\n(28S, 5.8S and 5S) make up the large subunit, and one strand (18S) is\nin the small subunit.","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":7,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"A typical cell contains millions of ribosomes. They may form groups\n\n(polyribosomes or polysomes) attached to messenger RNA (mRNA),\nwhich they translate during protein synthesis for use outside the system\nof membrane compartments, e.g. enzymes of the cytosol and cytoskeletal proteins. Some of the cytosolic products include proteins that can\nbe inserted directly into (or through) membranes of selected organelles,\nsuch as mitochondria and peroxisomes. Ribosomes may be attached to\nthe membranes of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (see Fig. 1.5E).\n\nIn a mature polyribosome, all the attachment sites of the mRNA are","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":7,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"occupied as ribosomes move along it, synthesizing protein according\nto its nucleotide sequence. Consequently, the number and spacing of\nribosomes in a polyribosome indicate the length of the mRNA molecule and hence the size of the protein being made. The two subunits\nhave separate roles in protein synthesis. The 40S subunit is the site of\nattachment and translation of mRNA. The 60S subunit is responsible\nfor the release of the new protein and, where appropriate, attachment\nto the endoplasmic reticulum via an intermediate docking protein that\ndirects the newly synthesized protein through the membrane into the\ncisternal space.\n\n###### Golgi apparatus (Golgi complex)\nThe Golgi apparatus is a distinct cytomembrane system located near the","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":7,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"-----\n\n","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":8,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"of external signals, including hormones and other ligands, and sites for\nthe recognition and attachment of other cells. Internally, plasma membranes can act as points of attachment for intracellular structures, in\nparticular those concerned with cell motility and other cytoskeletal\nfunctions. Cell membranes are synthesized by the rough endoplasmic\nreticulum in conjunction with the Golgi apparatus.\n###### Cell coat (glycocalyx)\nThe external surface of a plasma membrane differs structurally from\ninternal membranes in that it possesses an external, fuzzy, carbohydraterich coat, the glycocalyx. The cell coat forms an integral part of the\nplasma membrane, projecting as a diffusely filamentous layer 2–20 nm\nor more from the lipoprotein surface. The cell coat is composed of the\ncarbohydrate portions of glycoproteins and glycolipids embedded in\nthe plasma membrane (see Fig. 1.3).\n\nThe precise composition of the glycocalyx varies with cell type; many","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":8,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"tissue- and cell type-specific antigens are located in the coat, including\nthe major histocompatibility complex of the immune system and, in\nthe case of erythrocytes, blood group antigens. Therefore, the glycocalyx\nplays a significant role in organ transplant compatibility. The glycocalyx\nfound on apical microvilli of enterocytes, the cells forming the lining\nepithelium of the intestine, consists of enzymes involved in the digestive process. Intestinal microvilli are cylindrical projections (1–2 µm\nlong and about 0.1 µm in diameter) forming a closely packed layer\ncalled the brush border that increases the absorptive function of\nenterocytes.\n\n###### Cytoplasm","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":8,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"###### Compartments and functional organization\nThe cytoplasm consists of the cytosol, a gel-like material enclosed by\nthe cell or plasma membrane. The cytosol is made up of colloidal proteins such as enzymes, carbohydrates and small protein molecules,\ntogether with ribosomes and ribonucleic acids. The cytoplasm contains\ntwo cytomembrane systems, the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi\napparatus, as well as membrane-bound organelles (lysosomes, peroxisomes and mitochondria), membrane-free inclusions (lipid droplets,\nglycogen and pigments) and the cytoskeleton. The nuclear contents,\nthe nucleoplasm, are separated from the cytoplasm by the nuclear\nenvelope.\n###### Endoplasmic reticulum\nThe endoplasmic reticulum is a system of interconnecting membranelined channels within the cytoplasm (Fig. 1.4). These channels take\nvarious forms, including cisternae (flattened sacs), tubules and vesicles.\nThe membranes divide the cytoplasm into two major compartments.\nThe intramembranous compartment, or cisternal space, is where secretory products are stored or transported to the Golgi complex and cell","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":8,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"exterior. The cisternal space is continuous with the perinuclear space.","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":8,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"Structurally, the channel system can be divided into rough or granu\nlar endoplasmic reticulum (RER), which has ribosomes attached to its\nouter, cytosolic surface, and smooth or agranular endoplasmic reticulum (SER), which lacks ribosomes. The functions of the endoplasmic\nreticulum vary greatly and include: the synthesis, folding and transport\nof proteins; synthesis and transport of phospholipids and steroids; and\nstorage of calcium within the cisternal space and regulated release into\nthe cytoplasm. In general, RER is well developed in cells that produce\n\n**Fig 1 4 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum with associated vesicles The**","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":8,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"abundant proteins; SER is abundant in steroid-producing cells and\nmuscle cells. A variant of the endoplasmic reticulum in muscle cells is\nthe sarcoplasmic reticulum, involved in calcium storage and release for\nmuscle contraction. For further reading on the endoplasmic reticulum,\nsee Bravo et al (2013).","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":8,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"###### Smooth endoplasmic reticulum\nThe smooth endoplasmic reticulum (see Fig. 1.4) is associated with\ncarbohydrate metabolism and many other metabolic processes, including detoxification and synthesis of lipids, cholesterol and steroids. The\nmembranes of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum serve as surfaces for\nthe attachment of many enzyme systems, e.g. the enzyme cytochrome\nP450, which is involved in important detoxification mechanisms and\nis thus accessible to its substrates, which are generally lipophilic. The\nmembranes also cooperate with the rough endoplasmic reticulum\nand the Golgi apparatus to synthesize new membranes; the protein,\ncarbohydrate and lipid components are added in different structural\ncompartments. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum in hepatocytes contains the enzyme glucose-6-phosphatase, which converts glucose-6phosphate to glucose, a step in gluconeogenesis.","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":8,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"###### Rough endoplasmic reticulum\nThe rough endoplasmic reticulum is a site of protein synthesis; its\ncytosolic surface is studded with ribosomes (Fig. 1.5E). Ribosomes only\nbind to the endoplasmic reticulum when proteins targeted for secretion\nbegin to be synthesized. Most proteins pass through its membranes and\naccumulate within its cisternae, although some integral membrane proteins, e.g. plasma membrane receptors, are inserted into the rough\nendoplasmic reticulum membrane, where they remain. After passage\nfrom the rough endoplasmic reticulum, proteins remain in membranebound cytoplasmic organelles such as lysosomes, become incorporated\ninto new plasma membrane, or are secreted by the cell. Some carbohydrates are also synthesized by enzymes within the cavities of the rough\nendoplasmic reticulum and may be attached to newly formed protein\n(glycosylation). Vesicles are budded off from the rough endoplasmic\nreticulum for transport to the Golgi as part of the protein-targeting\nmechanism of the cell.","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":8,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"###### Ribosomes, polyribosomes  and protein synthesis\nRibosomes are macromolecular machines that catalyse the synthesis of\nproteins from amino acids; synthesis and assembly into subunits takes\nplace in the nucleolus and includes the association of ribosomal RNA\n(rRNA) with ribosomal proteins translocated from their site of synthesis\nin the cytoplasm. The individual subunits are then transported into the\ncytoplasm, where they remain separate from each other when not\nactively synthesizing proteins. Ribosomes are granules approximately\n25 nm in diameter, composed of rRNA molecules and proteins assembled into two unequal subunits. The subunits can be separated by their\nsedimentation coefficients (S) in an ultracentrifuge into larger 60S and\nsmaller 40S components. These are associated with 73 different proteins (40 in the large subunit and 33 in the small), which have structural\nand enzymatic functions. Three small, highly convoluted rRNA strands\n(28S, 5.8S and 5S) make up the large subunit, and one strand (18S) is\nin the small subunit.","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":8,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"A typical cell contains millions of ribosomes. They may form groups\n\n(polyribosomes or polysomes) attached to messenger RNA (mRNA),\nwhich they translate during protein synthesis for use outside the system\nof membrane compartments, e.g. enzymes of the cytosol and cytoskeletal proteins. Some of the cytosolic products include proteins that can\nbe inserted directly into (or through) membranes of selected organelles,\nsuch as mitochondria and peroxisomes. Ribosomes may be attached to\nthe membranes of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (see Fig. 1.5E).\n\nIn a mature polyribosome, all the attachment sites of the mRNA are","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":8,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"occupied as ribosomes move along it, synthesizing protein according\nto its nucleotide sequence. Consequently, the number and spacing of\nribosomes in a polyribosome indicate the length of the mRNA molecule and hence the size of the protein being made. The two subunits\nhave separate roles in protein synthesis. The 40S subunit is the site of\nattachment and translation of mRNA. The 60S subunit is responsible\nfor the release of the new protein and, where appropriate, attachment\nto the endoplasmic reticulum via an intermediate docking protein that\ndirects the newly synthesized protein through the membrane into the\ncisternal space.\n\n###### Golgi apparatus (Golgi complex)\nThe Golgi apparatus is a distinct cytomembrane system located near the","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":8,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"-----\n\n","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":9,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"of external signals, including hormones and other ligands, and sites for\nthe recognition and attachment of other cells. Internally, plasma membranes can act as points of attachment for intracellular structures, in\nparticular those concerned with cell motility and other cytoskeletal\nfunctions. Cell membranes are synthesized by the rough endoplasmic\nreticulum in conjunction with the Golgi apparatus.\n###### Cell coat (glycocalyx)\nThe external surface of a plasma membrane differs structurally from\ninternal membranes in that it possesses an external, fuzzy, carbohydraterich coat, the glycocalyx. The cell coat forms an integral part of the\nplasma membrane, projecting as a diffusely filamentous layer 2–20 nm\nor more from the lipoprotein surface. The cell coat is composed of the\ncarbohydrate portions of glycoproteins and glycolipids embedded in\nthe plasma membrane (see Fig. 1.3).\n\nThe precise composition of the glycocalyx varies with cell type; many","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":9,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"tissue- and cell type-specific antigens are located in the coat, including\nthe major histocompatibility complex of the immune system and, in\nthe case of erythrocytes, blood group antigens. Therefore, the glycocalyx\nplays a significant role in organ transplant compatibility. The glycocalyx\nfound on apical microvilli of enterocytes, the cells forming the lining\nepithelium of the intestine, consists of enzymes involved in the digestive process. Intestinal microvilli are cylindrical projections (1–2 µm\nlong and about 0.1 µm in diameter) forming a closely packed layer\ncalled the brush border that increases the absorptive function of\nenterocytes.\n\n###### Cytoplasm","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":9,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"###### Compartments and functional organization\nThe cytoplasm consists of the cytosol, a gel-like material enclosed by\nthe cell or plasma membrane. The cytosol is made up of colloidal proteins such as enzymes, carbohydrates and small protein molecules,\ntogether with ribosomes and ribonucleic acids. The cytoplasm contains\ntwo cytomembrane systems, the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi\napparatus, as well as membrane-bound organelles (lysosomes, peroxisomes and mitochondria), membrane-free inclusions (lipid droplets,\nglycogen and pigments) and the cytoskeleton. The nuclear contents,\nthe nucleoplasm, are separated from the cytoplasm by the nuclear\nenvelope.\n###### Endoplasmic reticulum\nThe endoplasmic reticulum is a system of interconnecting membranelined channels within the cytoplasm (Fig. 1.4). These channels take\nvarious forms, including cisternae (flattened sacs), tubules and vesicles.\nThe membranes divide the cytoplasm into two major compartments.\nThe intramembranous compartment, or cisternal space, is where secretory products are stored or transported to the Golgi complex and cell","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":9,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"exterior. The cisternal space is continuous with the perinuclear space.","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":9,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"Structurally, the channel system can be divided into rough or granu\nlar endoplasmic reticulum (RER), which has ribosomes attached to its\nouter, cytosolic surface, and smooth or agranular endoplasmic reticulum (SER), which lacks ribosomes. The functions of the endoplasmic\nreticulum vary greatly and include: the synthesis, folding and transport\nof proteins; synthesis and transport of phospholipids and steroids; and\nstorage of calcium within the cisternal space and regulated release into\nthe cytoplasm. In general, RER is well developed in cells that produce\n\n**Fig 1 4 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum with associated vesicles The**","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":9,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"abundant proteins; SER is abundant in steroid-producing cells and\nmuscle cells. A variant of the endoplasmic reticulum in muscle cells is\nthe sarcoplasmic reticulum, involved in calcium storage and release for\nmuscle contraction. For further reading on the endoplasmic reticulum,\nsee Bravo et al (2013).","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":9,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"###### Smooth endoplasmic reticulum\nThe smooth endoplasmic reticulum (see Fig. 1.4) is associated with\ncarbohydrate metabolism and many other metabolic processes, including detoxification and synthesis of lipids, cholesterol and steroids. The\nmembranes of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum serve as surfaces for\nthe attachment of many enzyme systems, e.g. the enzyme cytochrome\nP450, which is involved in important detoxification mechanisms and\nis thus accessible to its substrates, which are generally lipophilic. The\nmembranes also cooperate with the rough endoplasmic reticulum\nand the Golgi apparatus to synthesize new membranes; the protein,\ncarbohydrate and lipid components are added in different structural\ncompartments. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum in hepatocytes contains the enzyme glucose-6-phosphatase, which converts glucose-6phosphate to glucose, a step in gluconeogenesis.","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":9,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"###### Rough endoplasmic reticulum\nThe rough endoplasmic reticulum is a site of protein synthesis; its\ncytosolic surface is studded with ribosomes (Fig. 1.5E). Ribosomes only\nbind to the endoplasmic reticulum when proteins targeted for secretion\nbegin to be synthesized. Most proteins pass through its membranes and\naccumulate within its cisternae, although some integral membrane proteins, e.g. plasma membrane receptors, are inserted into the rough\nendoplasmic reticulum membrane, where they remain. After passage\nfrom the rough endoplasmic reticulum, proteins remain in membranebound cytoplasmic organelles such as lysosomes, become incorporated\ninto new plasma membrane, or are secreted by the cell. Some carbohydrates are also synthesized by enzymes within the cavities of the rough\nendoplasmic reticulum and may be attached to newly formed protein\n(glycosylation). Vesicles are budded off from the rough endoplasmic\nreticulum for transport to the Golgi as part of the protein-targeting\nmechanism of the cell.","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":9,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"###### Ribosomes, polyribosomes  and protein synthesis\nRibosomes are macromolecular machines that catalyse the synthesis of\nproteins from amino acids; synthesis and assembly into subunits takes\nplace in the nucleolus and includes the association of ribosomal RNA\n(rRNA) with ribosomal proteins translocated from their site of synthesis\nin the cytoplasm. The individual subunits are then transported into the\ncytoplasm, where they remain separate from each other when not\nactively synthesizing proteins. Ribosomes are granules approximately\n25 nm in diameter, composed of rRNA molecules and proteins assembled into two unequal subunits. The subunits can be separated by their\nsedimentation coefficients (S) in an ultracentrifuge into larger 60S and\nsmaller 40S components. These are associated with 73 different proteins (40 in the large subunit and 33 in the small), which have structural\nand enzymatic functions. Three small, highly convoluted rRNA strands\n(28S, 5.8S and 5S) make up the large subunit, and one strand (18S) is\nin the small subunit.","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":9,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"A typical cell contains millions of ribosomes. They may form groups\n\n(polyribosomes or polysomes) attached to messenger RNA (mRNA),\nwhich they translate during protein synthesis for use outside the system\nof membrane compartments, e.g. enzymes of the cytosol and cytoskeletal proteins. Some of the cytosolic products include proteins that can\nbe inserted directly into (or through) membranes of selected organelles,\nsuch as mitochondria and peroxisomes. Ribosomes may be attached to\nthe membranes of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (see Fig. 1.5E).\n\nIn a mature polyribosome, all the attachment sites of the mRNA are","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":9,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"occupied as ribosomes move along it, synthesizing protein according\nto its nucleotide sequence. Consequently, the number and spacing of\nribosomes in a polyribosome indicate the length of the mRNA molecule and hence the size of the protein being made. The two subunits\nhave separate roles in protein synthesis. The 40S subunit is the site of\nattachment and translation of mRNA. The 60S subunit is responsible\nfor the release of the new protein and, where appropriate, attachment\nto the endoplasmic reticulum via an intermediate docking protein that\ndirects the newly synthesized protein through the membrane into the\ncisternal space.\n\n###### Golgi apparatus (Golgi complex)\nThe Golgi apparatus is a distinct cytomembrane system located near the","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}
+{"document_idx":9,"document_name":"Gray's Anatomy","page_idx":34,"text":"-----\n\n","file_path":"grays_anatomy.pdf","file_url":"https://archive.org/download/GraysAnatomy41E2015PDF/Grays%20Anatomy-41%20E%20%282015%29%20%5BPDF%5D.pdf","loader_name":"PyMuPDF4LLMTextLoader"}