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The Pussycat Dolls
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Pussycat%20Dolls
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"The Pussycat Dolls were an American girl group and dance ensemble, founded in Los Angeles, California, by choreographer Robin Antin in 1995 as a burlesque troupe. At the suggestion of Jimmy Iovine, Antin decided to take the burlesque troupe mainstream as a pop group. Antin negotiated a record deal with Interscope Geffen A&M Records in 2003 turning the group into a music franchise comprising Nicole Scherzinger, Carmit Bachar, Ashley Roberts, Jessica Sutta, Melody Thornton, and Kimberly Wyatt",
". Their debut single, \"Sway\", was featured on the soundtrack of the 2004 film Shall We Dance?.",
"The Pussycat Dolls achieved worldwide success with the singles \"Don't Cha\", \"Stickwitu\", \"Buttons\", and their multi-platinum debut album PCD (2005). However, despite their commercial success, the group was plagued by internal conflict due to the emphasis on Scherzinger, the group's lead vocalist, and the subordinate treatment of the other members",
". Bachar's departure from the group preceded the release of their second and final studio album Doll Domination (2008), which contains hit singles \"When I Grow Up\", \"I Hate This Part\", and \"Jai Ho! (You Are My Destiny)\". Following the completion of their 2009 world tour, the group went on hiatus and fully disbanded in 2010. The original recording line-up, minus Thornton, announced their reunion in 2019 with an upcoming tour and a new album",
". However, with the worsening situation arising from the COVID-19 pandemic, along with breaches of contracts and logistical issues, the reunion tour was cancelled in 2022, leaving the group's fate uncertain.",
"The Pussycat Dolls brand diversified into merchandise, reality television programs, a Las Vegas act, product endorsements, spin-off recording groups (Girlicious, Paradiso Girls, G.R.L.), and other ventures. Billboard ranked the Pussycat Dolls as the 80th most successful musical act of the 2000s. The group has sold 55 million records worldwide, making them one of the best-selling girl groups of all time",
". In 2012, the Pussycat Dolls ranked 100th on VH1's 100 Greatest Women in Music, and as the tenth all-girl group.",
"History",
"1995–2002: Beginnings as burlesque dance troupe",
"Antin began exploring the idea of a modern burlesque troupe during 1990 with Carla Kama and Christina Applegate as performers. The troupe began to perform in 1995, with a repertoire of 1950s and 1960s popular music standards while dressed in lingerie or old-fashioned pin-up costumes. They secured a Thursday night residency at a Los Angeles nightclub, The Viper Room, where they stayed from 1995 to 2001",
". They appeared briefly in the 1998 films Matters of Consequence (dancing to Henry Mancini's \"Hub Caps and Tail Lights\", and Keely Smith's \"When Your Lover has Gone\"), and The Treat (directed by Jonathan Gems). From 1995 to 2003 there were numerous guest vocalists, and many changes to the dance personnel.",
"The troupe received wider press coverage during June 1999, when Playboy featured a Pussycat Dolls pictorial, featuring at least seven contemporary members posing semi-nude (Kasey Campbell, Kiva Dawson, Antonietta Macri, Erica Breckels, Katie Bergold, Erica Gudis and Lindsley Allen). Three years later, the Pussycat Dolls moved to The Roxy Theatre in West Hollywood. They were featured in magazines, television specials for MTV and VH1, ad campaigns, and films",
". They were featured in magazines, television specials for MTV and VH1, ad campaigns, and films. Some of the Pussycat Dolls appeared in the 2003 film Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle, dancing to Mancini's \"The Pink Panther Theme\". They were also featured in Pink's \"Trouble\" music video",
". They were also featured in Pink's \"Trouble\" music video. Along with Applegate, Christina Aguilera and Carmen Electra (who was the group's lead performer for many of their shows) the troupe was featured in a Maxim magazine shoot in 2002, which increased public interest in them (Aguilera later appeared in the similarly themed 2010 film Burlesque directed by Robin Antin's brother Steve)",
". In November 2002 the Dolls appeared with Electra on the Late Show with David Letterman (dancing to \"The Pink Panther Theme\" and Squirrel Nut Zippers' \"My Drag\", and with Staci Flood singing \"Big Spender\"). In 2003, the troupe appeared alongside t.A.T.u. during the band's live performance of \"All the Things She Said\" / \"Not Gonna Get Us\" at the 2003 MTV Movie Awards.",
"Following their growing popularity, Interscope Geffen A&M Records music producers Jimmy Iovine and Ron Fair became involved with the group helping them to transform into a franchise after Gwen Stefani was asked to perform with the group. The former dance troupe evolved into a popular music recording group and became employees of Iovine's label Interscope Records",
". The only troupe members who remained after the re-casting process were Robin Antin, Carmit Bachar, Cyia Batten, Kasey Campbell, Ashley Roberts, Jessica Sutta and Kimberly Wyatt. Electra, when asked about her lack of involvement with the group's evolution into a popular music group, said, \"I was part of [the Pussycat Dolls] for over two years and did every show with them [...] but financially, I couldn't become part of their new music project [...] It was a sacrifice I couldn't make.\"",
"2003–2007: Recording group formation and PCD",
"During 2003, Antin struck a joint venture with Interscope Records to develop the Pussycat Dolls into a brand, with Jimmy Iovine assigning the project to Ron Fair. Auditions followed suit, for a separate group which would not include celebrity members. Singers Nicole Scherzinger, Melody Thornton and Kaya Jones were recruited, joining Bachar, Roberts, Sutta, Wyatt, Batten, Campbell and Antin to form a new recording group. In February 2004, they performed \"Big Spender\" live at the MTV Asia Awards",
". In 2004, they recorded \"We Went as Far as We Felt Like Going\" for the Shark Tale soundtrack and recorded the single, \"Sway\" which is featured on the soundtrack of Shall We Dance? The group briefly reunited with Electra for a guest performance at VH1 Divas 2004 where they performed \"Tainted Love\", \"You Can Leave Your Hat On\" (with Tom Jones) and \"Girls on Film\" before joining the headliners in a finale of \"New Attitude\" alongside Patti LaBelle",
". Kaya Jones left the group in September 2004, while Batten and Campbell left in January 2005. Antin would eventually shift into a strictly managerial and creative role.",
"The group's debut album, PCD, was released in September 2005 and sold three million copies in the United States. The album's lead single, \"Don't Cha\", was a number-one hit in various countries worldwide, and reaching number two on the US Billboard Hot 100. It was followed by \"Stickwitu\", which became their second number-one single in the UK and New Zealand, and reached number five on the Hot 100. It was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal",
". It was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal. \"Beep\" also became a hit, reaching number one in Belgium and New Zealand, number two in the UK, and number thirteen in the US. The group became one of the top-selling artists in 2006, while the album appeared at number twelve on the Billboard 200-year-end chart that year.",
"The group was selected to perform for the introduction for ABC's coverage of the NBA. The Pussycat Dolls first opened for The Black Eyed Peas' Honda Civic Tour in North America. To further promote the album, Snoop Dogg was added to a remix of \"Buttons\", which became a worldwide hit reaching number three on the Billboard Hot 100, and top five elsewhere. The Pussycat Dolls embarked on their PCD World Tour with Rihanna as the opening act in the UK leg",
". The Pussycat Dolls embarked on their PCD World Tour with Rihanna as the opening act in the UK leg. One of the dates of the PCD World Tour was recorded and streamed via MSN Music. The group ran into trouble in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia with the authorities for sexually explicit dancing. The performance, a part of the PCD World Tour, was not well received in the Muslim state, which frowned upon the group's \"eye-popping attire\" and \"sexually suggestive stage routines\"",
". Absolute Entertainment, the company behind the group's appearance in Malaysia, was fined $3000 for the incident. Two final singles would be released from the album, \"I Don't Need a Man\" and \"Wait a Minute\", with the former becoming a moderate success and the latter becoming the group's fifth top 40 single on the Hot 100.",
"To further promote PCD, the Pussycat Dolls toured along with Danity Kane on Christina Aguilera's Back to Basics Tour in North America from February to May 2007. The success of the group's debut album brought them a wide array of spin-offs including a CW reality series, Pussycat Dolls Present: The Search for the Next Doll. The goal of the show was to add a seventh member to join them in future endeavors",
". The goal of the show was to add a seventh member to join them in future endeavors. Asia Nitollano was announced as the winner on April 24, however several months later, it was revealed that Nitollano had actually quit the group shortly after the finale aired. Following their performance at Live Earth, the group would only have occasional one-off performances for a while and went on a hiatus in mid-2007, during which Scherzinger attempted to launch a solo career",
". Plans for her debut solo album, Her Name is Nicole, would eventually be shelved after the release of four singles failed to make an impact on the charts. In August 2007, Sutta would be featured on the Paul van Dyke track \"White Lies\", which topped the US Billboard Hot Dance Singles chart.",
"2008–2010: Doll Domination and disbandment",
"On March 3, 2008, it was announced via the group's website that Carmit Bachar had left the group, intending to pursue a solo career. At the time of her departure, she had been the longest performing member of the group, joining in 1995 when they were a burlesque act. Several days later, they performed for the first time without Bachar for the Operation MySpace concert which honored US troops stationed in Kuwait",
". In May 2008, they released their second album's lead single \"When I Grow Up\", which reached the top ten in 16 countries. At the 2008 MTV Video Music Awards, its accompanying music video was nominated for six awards, the most of that ceremony, and went on to win Best Dancing in a Video. Doll Domination was released in September 2008 to mixed reviews",
". Doll Domination was released in September 2008 to mixed reviews. It attained their highest peak position on the Billboard 200, but failed to match the sales of its predecessor, selling less than a sixth as many as PCD sold (in the UK), and regarding it as a commercial disappointment. Three subsequent singles were released in 2008, \"Whatcha Think About That\", \"Out of This Club\", and \"I Hate This Part\"; the last one peaked at number 11 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart.",
"In January 2009, the Pussycat Dolls embarked on the Doll Domination Tour, their second headlining worldwide concert tour, which highlighted stops in Europe, Oceania, and Asia, and grossed over $14 million. Between the first two legs, the group opened for The Circus Starring Britney Spears in North America. In May 2009, Jessica Sutta suffered a back injury during the first Sydney show, leaving the group performing as a foursome throughout the following shows",
". While on tour in Europe, Nicole Scherzinger was asked to re-write pop version of \"Jai Ho\" from the film Slumdog Millionaire (2008). The song was entitled \"Jai Ho! (You Are My Destiny)\" and credited Scherzinger as a featured artist. This caused internal strife within the group, and a public outburst by Melody Thornton during one of the group's appearances on tour",
". Despite that, it became one of their most successful singles, and peaked at number 15 on the Billboard Hot 100, after charging eighty-five places, making the largest weekly leap from number 100. The album's final two singles, \"Bottle Pop\" and \"Hush Hush; Hush Hush\" topped the US Hot Dance/Club Songs chart. Meanwhile, Doll Domination was reissued into scaled down versions in various territories; in Australia, the album was subtitled 2.0",
".0. with ten songs and an EP subtitled The Mini Collection was released in the United Kingdom.",
"After the tour's conclusion, the group went on a hiatus, with Robin Antin acknowledging that new members would be joining Scherzinger. By February 2010, Jessica Sutta, Ashley Roberts, Kimberly Wyatt, and Melody Thornton had announced their departures from the group, with Wyatt later acknowledging that \"the group has fully disbanded.\" In May 2010, four new members surrounded Scherzinger in a new line-up, but by the end of the year, Scherzinger had left the group to pursue a solo career",
". In 2011, there were continued attempts to rebuild the group, and a line-up that included former Paradiso Girls member Lauren Bennett, former Girlicious member Chrystina Sayers, Paula van Oppen, Vanessa Curry, and Dallas Cowboys Cheerleaders Erica Kiehl Jenkins was featured in a GoDaddy commercial during Super Bowl XLVI. The group would go on to call themselves G.R",
". The group would go on to call themselves G.R.L, citing the need for differentiating from the Pussycat Dolls due to their music being less urban and they would spend the rest of the year recording their debut album. In 2015, the group would disband nine months after member Simone Battle committed suicide following a battle with depression, before returning as a trio in 2016.",
"2017–2022: Reunion, tour and second disbandment \nIn October 2017, social media sites were set up for a reunion. On April 25, 2018, during an appearance on The Chris Ramsey Show, Wyatt claimed that the band could reunite before the end of 2018. \"We're all just in a place where we're kind of ready to live it all again, and make it fun and enjoy it and everything,\" she said. \"So yeah, we're looking at the possibilities.\"",
"Later in September 2019, Entertainment Tonight reported that Scherzinger has joined former members of the Pussycat Dolls for new studio sessions and the band would be reuniting for a \"greatest hits\" tour in 2020.",
"On November 28, 2019, the group then confirmed their reunion on British radio station Heart, confirming that Bachar, Roberts, Scherzinger, Sutta, and Wyatt had been recording new music and have announced nine tour dates around the United Kingdom in 2020, with their The Pussycat Dolls Tour. It has been expanded to include dates in Australia and New Zealand. The tour, however, was pushed back to 2021 due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic",
". The tour, however, was pushed back to 2021 due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. During the interview, Scherzinger remarked that it had been around ten years since the group's last tour and that the time felt right, \"it's been a long time coming, but this feels like the perfect time to remind the world what it means to be a Pussycat Doll.\" According to group founder Robin Antin, Thornton would not be taking part due to her feeling like the time was not right",
". The group have stated that they are leaving the door open for Thornton and she would be welcome back if she decided to join them later down the line.",
"On November 30, 2019, the Pussycat Dolls performed at The X Factor: Celebrity finale with a medley of their previous hits \"Buttons\", \"When I Grow Up\", \"Don't Cha\", and a brand new song, \"React\". The group's performance at the show attracted over 400 complaints to British broadcasting regulator Ofcom for their \"risque outfits\" and being \"too raunchy\". Sutta confirmed that a new album was in the works",
". Sutta confirmed that a new album was in the works. On January 31, 2020, singer Meghan Trainor released her third studio album, Treat Myself, which features the Pussycat Dolls on the song \"Genetics\". In February 2020, the group performed on Ant and Dec's Saturday Night Takeaway and at Nova FM 96.9's Red Room at Glass Island Sydney Harbour, Australia in March.",
"In March 2021, it was announced that The Pussycat Dolls Tour was once again being delayed due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. In the same month, Sutta and Robin Antin appeared on Entertainment Tonight to announce Sutta's pregnancy and confirm the group's plans for new music and to tour when it was safe to do so. The group is in discussions to collaborate with Cardi B, Megan Thee Stallion, and Karol G, while also expressing a desire to work with Snoop Dogg again",
". On new music, Sutta said: \"I think you're going to hear a lot of us singing. All my bandmates are incredibly talented, they have beautiful voices and I think it's definitely time for them to shine.\"",
"In January 2022, Scherzinger officially confirmed the tour's cancellation on an Instagram story post. The official reasons cited \"evolving circumstances surrounding the pandemic\". Not long after group members Sutta and Bachar confirmed that they had only learnt about the tour's cancellation from Scherzinger's Instagram post, writing their own statement saying \"We want to say how incredibly disappointed we are to learn of an announcement made on Instagram that The Pussycat Dolls reunion tour is canceled",
". As of now, there has been no official notification of that.\" Antin also confirmed the tour's cancellation stating that \"all of us have made personal & financial sacrifices\"... and later confirming that there were \"truths to this situation\" which may see the light of day one day. Wyatt has expressed she had \"done all [she] can\", as she was the motivator for the reunion for years. She confirmed that both she and Roberts still wanted the tour to happen",
". She confirmed that both she and Roberts still wanted the tour to happen. Although the last known tour dates were confirmed cancelled by Antin and Scherzinger, Live Nation's website lists 9 new UK and Ireland tour listings for the group under the date \"rescheduled\".",
"On May 28, 2022, Universal Music Group released Celebrating Pride: The Pussycat Dolls, a compilation EP featuring six previous singles including \"Don't Cha\", \"Buttons\", \"Stickwitu\", \"When I Grow Up\", \"Beep\" and \"I Don't Need a Man\".\n\nOther ventures",
"The Pussycat Dolls had re-recorded \"Don't Cha\" in Simlish (as \"Do Ba\") for inclusion in the computer game The Sims 2: Pets. They also appeared in character form in the video game Asphalt: Urban GT 2 released in November 2006. In a merchandising agreement with Interscope in 2006, toy manufacturer Hasbro planned a line of dolls modeled after the group, reportedly to be marketed to six to nine-year-olds",
". Two organizations (Dads and Daughters and Campaign for a Commercial-Free Childhood) successfully lobbied Hasbro to scrap the plan, saying they felt the group would have been inappropriate for children due to the overtly sexual nature of the Pussycat Dolls' songs, videos and performances. Also in 2006, Interscope negotiated a deal with Estée Lauder for a Pussycat Dolls line of cosmetics under the Stila brand",
". In 2008, Robin Antin and the La Senza Corporation produced a line of Burlesque Pussycat Dolls-styled lingerie called \"Shhh...by Robin Antin\", and on December 15, Antin released Robin Antin's Pussycat Dolls Workout, which is composed of dancers from the Pussycat Doll Lounge Review including Chrystina Sayers from Girlicious, and features Nicole Scherzinger.",
"Caesars Palace in Las Vegas operated a resident live show at its \"Pussycat Dolls Lounge\", until closing the venue in February 2015. The burlesque-style show had female dancers inside a rhinestone-encrusted bathtub and on raised platforms, with female dealers, also wearing Pussycat Dolls-inspired clothing, operating the blackjack and roulette tables in the venue.\n\nArtistry",
"Since the Pussycat Dolls were originally a burlesque dance troupe, Scherzinger and Thornton were the only members specifically hired for singing role when the group turned into a pop act in 2003. Ron Fair stated that even though \"there were some adequate voices in the original group,\" Scherzinger and Thornton were needed \"to bring the ability",
".\" Despite Thornton taking the sole lead vocals for their debut performance as a music group at the 2004 MTV Asia Awards, Scherzinger eventually assumed the majority of the vocals on the group's recordings. As part of a Behind the Music special on Scherzinger's career, she claimed that she was responsible for singing both lead and background vocals on both of the group's studio albums, with hardly anything sung by her fellow members",
". Scherzinger, who said that she did not want to get in trouble for her revelations, explained that the other members did not even hear the tracks until they were finished.",
"Public image and media coverage",
"Nicole Scherzinger as lead singer",
"Critics have taken a major swipe at the group for their overemphasis of Scherzinger. Margeaux Watson of Entertainment Weekly said, \"there are two kinds of girl groups: those anchored by a superstar (The Supremes, Destiny's Child), and those made up of charismatic personalities endowed with limited individual gifts (Spice Girls, TLC). The Pussycat Dolls are neither—they're a brand, not a band",
". The Pussycat Dolls are neither—they're a brand, not a band. This follow-up to 2005's multi-platinum PCD finds lead Doll Nicole Scherzinger in the spotlight, and she's no Beyoncé. As for the others, well..",
". As for the others, well... can you name them? Do you even know how many there are?\" The Telegraphs Adam White described the Pussycat Dolls as \"pop's most embittered group\" where the other members played the role of \"glorified back-up dancers\", and said that their 2006 performance at the American Music Awards \"appeared to prove all was not well within the group's dynamic.\"",
"Kaya Jones, who initially auditioned as a vocalist for the group, said: \"Nicole was always someone who wanted to be in the spotlight and would do pretty much anything to get it. [...] To call the other girls in the Pussycat Dolls 'window dressings' is a bit farfetched... every girl in the group was talented.\" In a 2014 interview with The Independent, Ashley Roberts claimed that she and her bandmates \"were always told it was very much Nicole's project [..",
"...] we were the football team, and [Scherzinger] was the quarterback. You know, we weren't allowed to talk in interviews. We weren't even allowed in the studio sometimes.\" Kimberly Wyatt said in 2009: \"Every video and stage performance that we've done, Nicole has been our leader. I wasn't in videos like I wanted and wasn't seen in the way I was hoping, which has been the same for all the other girls too.\" In an interview with Vibe, Thornton said: \"For me, it's important for people to know that I do write..",
"... I got into the group to sing. That was made very clear to me. But it became more and more apparent what was going on. Roles were being minimised and minimised, and then by the time it got on the [road], it was very much like 'Y'all play your part and this is what it is.' It was tough because you don't want to s--- on your own opportunity.\"",
"2019 reunion",
"Following the group's reformation in 2019, Bachar addressed their prior split, \"It wasn't a bitter ending. It was just a time in our lives where we all wanted to go and do our own thing and flourish. I went and had a family. We all stayed in touch.\" Roberts added, \"Nicole is our lead singer and that is the way the band is constructed. We all have our place in the band and we each give something special individually, which fits like a puzzle—that's what makes the Pussycat Dolls",
".\" Scherzinger confirmed that she would take centre stage but that this was by mutual agreement, \"It feels better than ever now I have evolved as a woman. It is actually the time for me to carry it. It's not even me—we all carry each other. We make each other stronger\". Wyatt also confirmed that the other girls do get chance to record vocal, \"Ultimately, The Pussycat Dolls has a lead singer and that is Nicole",
". Whenever I get an opportunity to sing and get in the studio and throw down on some vocals, I'm so grateful.\" Speaking about the scrutiny that the group come under and the media attention Wyatt said \"we want people to love it and focus on the amazing feat we have done together instead of trying to rip us apart.\"",
"Sexual image",
"Following their performance on The X Factor: Celebrity in November 2019, the group were accused of over-sexualisation and being raunchy for wearing sheer PVC outfits. Over 400 viewers complained to British broadcast regulator Ofcom. Despite a more muted performance on Ant & Dec's Saturday Night Takeaway in February 2020 that poked fun at their X Factor performance and featured some censorship, the group garnered further complaints to Ofcom albeit a smaller amount",
". Scherzinger spoke out against the media and negative coverage, comparing the group's message to American singer-songwriter Lizzo who is an advocate for body awareness, saying \"If you have people like Lizzo leading the movement of accepting yourself and they don't get any criticism, then why are we getting this criticism? When we perform, we perform from a place of passion and power. We're not floundering out there just trying to be cute. We come like warriors out there and people feel empowered by that",
". We come like warriors out there and people feel empowered by that.\" Barchar addressed criticism on their second performance by saying \"being on Ant & Dec's show was hysterical; they are so good at what they do and the way they made light of the whole censorship thing was amazing. It's great that we got to be silly with it and we had a blast",
". It's great that we got to be silly with it and we had a blast.\" She supported early comments by Scherzinger that the intention and aims of the group's performances was always about empowerment, saying \"everyone has an opinion on what we do, and while I think the power of a woman can be intimidating, it's all about the intention of our performances\".",
"Wyatt has also defended the group's image saying that it is an important message around female empowerment, during an appearance on The Morning Show, Wyatt talked about bring her kids to rehearsals, \"[I love] teaching them what it means to be a Pussycat Doll and own your space as a female. I think it's a really positive and important message for my girls to see and understand what that means.\" Wyatt also stated during an interview with News.com",
".\" Wyatt also stated during an interview with News.com.au that the reunion feels like unfinished business due to the Pussycat Dolls being misunderstood. \"Luckily we have a presence online now and we can help people understand us, understand dance, understand what intention means as a performer ... there is still a conversation to be had, and the Pussycat Dolls are a little bit misunderstood by those who don’t seek to know who we are",
".\" This has also been echoed by Scherzinger who has since said, \"we just want to say everything we do we do it from a place of confidence ... only with the intention of inspiring and empowering each and every one of you ... And we just want to help some of you who are maybe struggling with stepping into your own power.\"",
"Referring to their provocative image, Sutta told The Daily Telegraph Australia that she felt that ageism is rife within the music industry but that times were changing, \"You've got J-Lo at 50 who's looking as fabulous as ever, and Lizzo who is all about self-love and owning it. It's a new era, and there's no rules anymore",
".\" Scherzinger also noted that the group had matured and felt more confident than ever, \"I mean if there is a time to be more provocative, it's when you're grown up, when you're comfortable in your skin and you fully accept yourself, right",
"?\" In a piece titled \"if you don't like the Pussycat Dolls or Lizzo, you can always look away\" for The Guardian, Barbara Ellen discussed the interplay of ageism, sexism and sizeism that female musicians face in the industry, comparing the negative media attention that the Pussycat Dolls received to that Lizzo received for appearing in underwear on TikTok and Jennifer Lopez's performance at the Super Bowl LIV halftime show",
". Ellen wrote, \"What is it about successful female artists doing their thing, on stage or on social media, that drives certain sectors of society crazy? And why is the sexism so often merged with ageism or sizeism, as if that makes the abuse they're meting out extra special and justified?\"",
"Sexist media coverage",
"Later in March 2020, during an interview with Network Ten's The Project, Scherzinger acknowledged that the costumes for the performance were provocative but said \"but we are women now and like literally as we say, (our bums) were hanging out and it takes courage to be that, you know it is vulnerable wearing as much as that",
", you know it is vulnerable wearing as much as that, it takes a lot of courage to do it and we always do everything with confidence with the intent of empowering others and all of our women out there and anyone who feels they relate to us\"",
". News AU and Junkee both criticised hosts of The Project for focusing on a perceived sexual nature of their dance moves and for making the interview with Scherzinger awkward. One of The Project's hosts Waleed Aly asked sexist questions such as whether the girls \"fight over who wore the best tube tops and low rise jeans?\". Jared Richards (Junkee) said \"it's a mess, absolutely dismissive of Scherzinger as a person and The Pussycat Dolls as an act..",
"... While sex appeal is a big part of The Pussycat Dolls, a group which started as a burlesque performance, there's a right and a wrong way to ask about it.\" During the closing segment of the interview, Scherzinger was cut off as she said \"if you watch us, we dance with heart, we dance like warriors, we come from a real place of power...\" As the music played, Scherzinger could be heard asking if the interview was about to cut to another segment",
".\" Viewers of the programme also slammed the hosts for the reductive nature of the interview. Music News reported that hundreds of viewers complained about the segment via Twitter.",
"Legal dispute over comeback",
"In September 2021, it was reported that Scherzinger was refusing to take part in the tour and had been subsequently sued by Robin Antin, founder of the Pussycat Dolls. The media reported that Scherzinger had originally agreed to 49% of the tour's earnings but was now refusing to take part unless this rose to 75% and included overall creative control",
". Documents filed at the Los Angeles Superior Court found that the basis of the agreement was a Memorandum of Understanding that Scherzinger had committed to 45 shows, under terms that she would receive 32.5% of earnings from the tour, with Sutta, Roberts, Wyatt and Antin also receiving 12.5% and Bachar receiving 5% reflecting that she left before the release of the group's second album, Doll Domination (2008)",
". The legal dispute came from Scherzinger wanting to negotiate the terms of PCD Worldwide, a new business venture that would handle future earning from the group and brand from existing terms of 49% to an increased 75%, to reflect \"opportunities she would have to forego to continue to engage in the partnership with Antin and the band as her reason for demanding a bigger share\".",
"Scherzinger's lawyer released a counter-statement to Antin's claims. Amongst the response was details of $600,000 advance from Live Nation that Antin had received to support the tour and now \"won't or can't repay\", as well as accusing Antin of \"trading on Nicole's name without her consent\" and public release of the group's financial arrangements for the tour. Scherzinger concluded that the lawsuit was \"ludicrous and false\", and that under those circumstances, the tour cannot happen",
". Scherzinger further responded the Antin's lawsuit with a counter-claim in August 2022 that Antin has been trying to orchestrate a comeback for the band as far back as 2017. According to papers filed by Scherzinger, it was on the promise of a comeback that Antin obtained funds from Live Nation and tried to unsuccessfully revive the Pussycat Dolls for a reunion with American singer Pia Mia as the group's lead. Mia was allegedly paid $100,000 for the arrangement which never came to fruition",
". Mia was allegedly paid $100,000 for the arrangement which never came to fruition. Scherzinger and Antin reached an agreement for the group's 2019 tour which was subsequently delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Scherzinger's position stated that the original 2019 agreement elapsed and a new venture agreement was needed to proceed with the tour",
". Along the requirements was compensation and appropriate shares and control over the group to recognise Scherzinger's personal and financial commitments to the reunion. According to Scherzinger, the Pussycat Doll's promotional appearances on The X Factor: Celebrity and subsequent Australian performances were financed and sourced by Scherzinger",
". The case against Antin alleges the use of Scherzinger's likeness to promote a tour for which there was no agreement in place, and that Antin has appropriated funds from the Live Nation advance for activities that were not related to Pussycat Dolls business. These claims have been refuted by Antin's lawyers and will be subject to further litigation.",
"Solo careers",
"After the group's initial disbandment in 2010, all members continued on their solo projects. Carmit Bachar would join musician Sammy Jay to become electronic music duo LadyStation, releasing the extended play Voices in 2015. She would later release her first solo single in 2017, \"It's Time\". In 2010, Kimberly Wyatt joined a musical duo called Her Majesty & the Wolves and released their debut album on July 11, 2011",
". That same year, she was featured on the Aggro Santos song \"Candy\" which became a UK top five hit. In June 2011, Melody Thornton announced plans to have her debut studio album released sometime in 2012. On March 15, 2012, she released her first mixtape, \"P.O.Y.B.L\", and contains ten tracks of five remakes and four originals all written by Thornton",
".O.Y.B.L\", and contains ten tracks of five remakes and four originals all written by Thornton. On June 3, 2011, Jessica Sutta announced that she had signed to Hollywood Records and her first single, \"Show Me\", peaked at number one on the Hot Dance Club Songs in the United States. However, her planned debut studio album Sutta Pop was shelved and she later left the label. Using the name J Sutta, she released the mixtape Feline Resurrection in 2016",
". Using the name J Sutta, she released the mixtape Feline Resurrection in 2016. Later, she released her debut studio album I Say Yes on March 3, 2017. On November 7, 2012, it was confirmed that Ashley Roberts would compete in the twelfth series of the British reality show I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here! airing on ITV. In January 2013, Roberts became a member of the ice panel for the final two series of British skating show, Dancing on Ice on ITV",
". In June 2014, Roberts announced her debut album, titled Butterfly Effect, would be released on September 1, 2014.",
"Lead member Nicole Scherzinger continued her solo career after a halt to release the group's second and final studio album. In March 2010, it was announced that Scherzinger would be a celebrity contestant on the tenth season of Dancing with the Stars, partnering with Derek Hough, which she won. In March 2011, Scherzinger released her debut studio album, Killer Love, and experienced moderate success in certain territories",
". The album included second single, \"Don't Hold Your Breath\" which debuted atop the UK Singles Chart. The album's third single, \"Right There\", was remixed featuring 50 Cent and released as the lead single for the US version of Killer Love. It peaked at number thirty-nine on the Billboard Hot 100, and reached the top ten in countries such as Australia, Ireland, New Zealand, Romania, Scotland and the United Kingdom",
". In May 2011, Scherzinger was hired as a judge on the first season of the American version of The X Factor, alongside Simon Cowell, Paula Abdul and L.A. Reid. After her stint in the United States, Scherzinger joined The X Factor UK for its ninth series as the fourth permanent judge. In May 2013, Scherzinger was confirmed as a returning judge for the tenth series of The X Factor UK",
". In January 2014, it was reported that Scherzinger left Interscope Records and signed a multimillion-dollar recording deal with Sony Records. Scherzinger's album, titled Big Fat Lie, was released in October 2014.",
"Legacy",
"With only two studio albums, the band became the best selling girl group of the 2000s' digital era, and fourth of all time. Since the group's formation in 2003, the Pussycat Dolls have sold 55 million records worldwide. VH1 included the Pussycat Dolls one of the 100 Greatest Women in Music in 2012. Billboard also ranked the group as one of the best selling acts of the 2000–2009 decade. The Pussycat Dolls are one of the best-selling girl groups of all time",
". The Pussycat Dolls are one of the best-selling girl groups of all time. James Montgomery of MTV commented that the success of the group's debut album PCD made the group \"the heirs to the Spice Girls' bedazzled throne\". PCD has sold over 1,246,769 copies in the United Kingdom, making it the best selling American girl group release there, also becoming one of the best selling albums of the 2000–2009 decade",
". The success of the group's debut album led them to become the most successful girl group in the world since the Spice Girls in the late 1990s.",
"The Pussycat Dolls have a string of hit singles − \"Don't Cha\" has sold more than 3 million copies in the United States – becoming the best-selling song of all time by a female group in the United States, and 6 million worldwide, becoming one of the best-selling singles of all time. It was included on VH1's list of Greatest Songs of '00s",
". It was included on VH1's list of Greatest Songs of '00s. The Official Charts Company listed \"Don't Cha\" and \"Jai Ho! (You Are My Destiny)\" at number five and thirty-nine, as of the most downloaded song since its launch, respectively. The latter created a milestone for Billboard Hot 100 with a biggest single-week upward movement in the lifetime of the chart. \"Jai Ho! (You are My Destiny)\" and \"Don't Cha\" are two of the best-selling songs in Australia and in the United Kingdom as of July 2009",
". \"Don't Cha\" was also featured in VH1's I Love the 2000s. The music video for \"Don't Cha\" is noted for being \"iconic\" among girl groups. Andrew Unterberger of Billboard said, \"It was inevitable that the song and video would become massive, and become massive they did, with the song heating up the Hot 100 chart and the video establishing the group as mainstays on MTV for many subsequent (though not quite as memorable) videos to come",
".\" \"Buttons\" is also regarded as one of the sexiest videos ever by media outlets AOL Music, MuchMusic, Fuse, and VH1. With \"Buttons\" surpassing 2 million digital downloads, the Pussycat Dolls became the first all-female group in digital history to have three singles—along with \"Don't Cha\" and \"When I Grow Up\"—pass the two million mark in digital sales.",
"Spin-offs",
"A second season of Pussycat Dolls Present commenced as Pussycat Dolls Present: Girlicious which tried to find women to become part of a new three member all-female group, Girlicious. Interscope Records formed a London-based spin-off group called Paradiso Girls through an open audition. In 2010, they were dropped and further promotion of their planned debut album Crazy Horse was cancelled, disestablishing the group",
". Throughout 2011 and 2012 Antin spoke of casting new members for the Pussycat Dolls, with various new members named. In February 2013, Antin announced that she had scrapped plans for the new line-up to replace the former members of the Pussycat Dolls and would instead form a new group who will be the \"next generation\". They eventually became known as G.R.L. and released their debut single, \"Vacation\", on June 16 as a B-side track to pop singer Britney Spears' single \"Ooh La La\".",
"Member timeline\n\nDiscography\n\n PCD (2005)\n Doll Domination (2008)\n\nTours\nHeadlining\n PCD World Tour (2006–2007)\n Doll Domination Tour (2009)\n The Pussycat Dolls Tour (Cancelled)\n\nSupporting act\n Honda Civic Tour (2006)\n Back to Basics Tour (2007)\n The Circus Starring Britney Spears (2009)\n\nAwards and nominations\n\nSee also\n List of awards and nominations received by The Pussycat Dolls\n List of songs recorded by The Pussycat Dolls\n List of best-selling girl groups\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links",
"Notes\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n \n \n \n \n \n\n \nAmerican contemporary R&B musical groups\nAmerican dance groups\nAmerican dance music groups\nAmerican girl groups\nAmerican pop girl groups\nBurlesque performers\nInterscope Records artists\nMTV Video Music Award winners\nMusical groups from Los Angeles\nMusical groups established in 2003\nMusical groups disestablished in 2010\nMusical groups reestablished in 2019\nParticipants in American reality television series"
] |
St Mark's Campanile
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%20Mark%27s%20Campanile
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[
"St Mark's Campanile (, ) is the bell tower of St Mark's Basilica in Venice, Italy. The current campanile is a reconstruction completed in 1912, the previous tower having collapsed in 1902. At in height, it is the tallest structure in Venice and is colloquially termed \"el paròn de casa\" (the master of the house). It is one of the most recognizable symbols of the city.",
"Located in Saint Mark's Square near the mouth of the Grand Canal, the campanile was initially intended as a watchtower to sight approaching ships and protect the entry to the city. It also served as a landmark to guide Venetian ships safely into harbour. Construction began in the early tenth century and continued sporadically over time as the tower was slowly raised in height. A belfry and a spire were first added in the twelfth century",
". A belfry and a spire were first added in the twelfth century. In the fourteenth century the spire was gilded, making the tower visible to distant ships in the Adriatic. The campanile reached its full height in 1514 when the belfry and spire were completely rebuilt on the basis of an earlier Renaissance design by Giorgio Spavento",
". Historically, the bells served to regulate the civic and religious life of Venice, marking the beginning, pauses, and end of the work day; the convocation of government assemblies; and public executions.",
"The campanile stands alone in the square, near the front of St Mark's Basilica. It has a simple form, recalling its early defensive function, the bulk of which is a square brick shaft with lesenes, wide on each side and tall. The belfry is topped by an attic with effigies of the Lion of St Mark and allegorical figures of Venice as Justice. The tower is capped by a pyramidal spire at the top of which there is a golden weather vane in the form of the archangel Gabriel.\n\nHistorical background",
"The Magyar raids into northern Italy in 898 and again in 899 resulted in the plundering and brief occupation of the important mainland cities of Cittanova, Padua, and Treviso as well as several smaller towns and settlements in and around the Venetian Lagoon. Although the Venetians ultimately defeated the Magyars on the Lido of Albiola on 29 June 900 and repelled the incursion, Venice remained vulnerable by way of the deep navigable channel that allowed access to the harbour from the sea",
". In particular, the young city was threatened by the Slavic pirates who routinely menaced Venetian shipping lanes in the Adriatic.",
"A series of fortifications was consequently erected during the reign of Doge Pietro Tribuno () to protect Venice from invasion by sea. These fortifications included a wall that started at the rivulus de Castello (Rio del Palazzo), just east of the Doge's Castle, and eventually extended along the waterfront to the area occupied by the early Church of Santa Maria Iubanico. However, the exact location of the wall has not been determined nor how long it was there beyond the period of crisis.",
"Integral to this defensive network, an iron harbour chain that could be pulled taut across the Grand Canal to impede navigation and block access to the centre of the city was installed at the height of San Gregorio. In addition, a massive watchtower was built in Saint Mark's Square",
". In addition, a massive watchtower was built in Saint Mark's Square. Probably begun during the reign of Tribuno, it was also intended to serve as a point of reference to guide Venetian ships safely into the harbour, which at that time occupied a substantial part of the area corresponding to the present-day piazzetta.",
"Construction",
"Tower",
"The defensive system begun under Pietro Tribuno was likely provisional, and construction may have been limited to the reinforcement of pre-existing structures. Medieval chronicles suggest that the laying of the foundation for the tower continued during the reigns of his immediate successors, Orso II Participazio () and Pietro II Candiano (). Delays were likely due to the difficulty in developing suitable construction techniques as well as locating and importing building materials",
". Some of the early bricks dated from the late Roman Empire and were salvaged from ruins on the mainland. For the foundation, alder piles, roughly in length and in diameter, were driven into a dense layer of clay located around below the surface. The piles were topped with two layers of oak planking on which multiple layers of stone were laid.",
"Fabrication of the actual tower seems to have begun during the brief reign of Pietro Participazio () but did not progress far. Political strife during the ensuing reigns of Pietro III Candiano () and, particularly, Pietro IV Candiano () precluded further work. Under Pietro I Orseolo (), construction resumed, and it advanced considerably during the reign of Tribuno Memmo ()",
". No further additions were made to the tower until the time of Domenico Selvo (), an indication that it had reached a serviceable height and could be used to control access to the city. Selvo increased the height to around , which corresponded with the fifth of the eight present windows. Doge Domenico Morosini () then raised the height to the actual level of the belfry and is credited with the construction of the bell tower",
". His portrait in the Doge's Palace shows him together with a scroll that lists the significant events of his reign, among which is the construction of the bell tower: \"Sub me admistrandi operis campanile Sancti Marci construitur...\".",
"Belfry and spire",
"The first belfry was added under Vitale II Michiel (). It was surmounted by a pyramidal spire in wood that was sheathed with copper plates. Around 1329, the belfry was restored and the spire reconstructed. The spire itself was particularly prone to fire due to the wooden framework. It burned when lighting struck the tower on 7 June 1388, but it was nevertheless rebuilt in wood. On this occasion, the copper plates were covered in gold leaf, rendering the tower visible to distant ships in the Adriatic",
". Marcantonio Sabellico records in his guide to the city, De Venetae urbis situ (), that mariners looked to the gilded spire as a 'welcoming star':",
"The spire was once again destroyed in 1403 when flames from a bonfire lit to illuminate the tower in celebration of the Venetian victory over the Genoese at the Battle of Modon enveloped the wooden frame. It was rebuilt between 1405 and 1406. Lightning again struck the tower during a violent storm on 11 August 1489, setting ablaze the spire which eventually crashed into the square below. The bells fell to the floor of the belfry, and the masonry of the tower itself cracked",
". The bells fell to the floor of the belfry, and the masonry of the tower itself cracked. In response to this latest calamity, the procurators of Saint Mark de supra, the government officials responsible for the public buildings around Saint Mark's Square, decided to rebuild the belfry and spire completely in masonry so as to prevent future fires. The commission was given to their proto (consultant architect and buildings manager), Giorgio Spavento",
". Although the design was submitted within a few months, the estimated cost was 50,000 ducats, and financial constraints in the period of recovery from the wars in Lombardy against Milan (1423–1454) delayed construction. Instead, Spavento limited repairs to the structural damage to the tower. A temporary clay-tile roof was placed over the belfry, and the bells that were still intact were rehung. The outbreak in 1494 of the Italian wars for the control of the mainland precluded any further action.",
"On 26 March 1511, a violent earthquake further damaged the fragile structure and opened a long fissure on the northern side of the tower, making it necessary to immediately intervene. Upon the initiative of procurator Antonio Grimani, the temporary roof and the belfry were removed and preparations were made to finally execute Spavento's design. The work was carried out under the direction of who had succeeded Spavento as proto in 1509",
". The work was carried out under the direction of who had succeeded Spavento as proto in 1509. To finance the initial work, the procurators sold unclaimed objects in precious metals that had been deposited in the treasury of St Mark's in 1414 for a value of 6,000 ducats. By 1512, the tower itself had been completely repaired, and work began on the new belfry made in Istrian stone.",
"The four sides of the brick attic above have high-relief sculptures in contrasting Istrian stone. The eastern and western sides have allegorical figures of Venice, presented as a personification of Justice with the sword and the scales. She sits on a throne supported by lions on either side in allusion to the throne of Solomon, the king of ancient Israel renowned for his wisdom and judgement",
". This theme of Venice as embodying, rather than invoking, the virtue of Justice is common in Venetian state iconography and is recurrent on the façade of the Doge's Palace. The remaining sides of the attic have the lion of Saint Mark, the symbol of the Venetian Republic.",
"On 6 July 1513 a wooden statue of the archangel Gabriel, plated in copper and gilded, was placed at the top of the spire. In his diary, Marin Sanudo recorded the event:",
"A novelty with respect to the earlier tower, the statue also functioned as a weather vane, turning so that it always faced into the wind. Francesco Sansovino suggested in his guide to the city, Venetia città nobilissima et singolare (1581), that the idea of a weather vane atop the new tower derived from Vitruvius’ description of the Tower of the Winds in Athens which had a bronze triton mounted on a pivot",
". But the specific choice of the archangel Gabriel was meant to recall the legend of Venice's foundation on the 25 March 421, the feast of the Annunciation. In Venetian historiography, the legend, traceable to the thirteenth century, conflated the beginning of the Christian era with the birth of Venice as a Christian republic and affirmed Venice's unique place and role in history as an act of divine grace",
". As a construct, it is expressed in the frequent representations of the Annunciation throughout Venice, most notably on the façade of St Mark's Basilica and in the reliefs by Agostino Rubini at the base of the Rialto Bridge, depicting the Virgin Mary opposite the archangel Gabriel.",
"As recorded by Marin Sanudo, structural work on the tower terminated in June 1514. The remaining work was completed by October 1514, including the gilding of the spire.\n\nLoggetta",
"Loggetta\n\nIn the fifteenth century, the procurators of Saint Mark de supra erected a covered exterior gallery attached to the bell tower. It was a lean-to wooden structure, partially enclosed, that served as a gathering place for nobles whenever they came to the square on government business. It also provided space for the procurators who occasionally met there and for the sentries who protected the entry to the Doge's Palace whenever the Great Council was in session.",
"Over time, it was repeatedly damaged by falling masonry from the bell tower as a result of storm and earthquake but was repaired after each incident. However, when lightning struck the bell tower on 11 August 1537 and the loggia underneath was once again damaged, the decision came to completely rebuild the structure. The commission was given to the sculptor and architect Jacopo Sansovino, the immediate successor to Bon as proto to the procurators of Saint Mark de supra. It was completed in 1546.",
"The remaining three sides of the bell tower were covered with wooden lean-to stalls, destined for retail activities. These were an additional source of revenue for the procurators of Saint Mark de supra and were leased in order to finance the maintenance of the buildings in the square. The lean-to stalls were removed in 1873.",
"Later history",
"Throughout its history, the bell tower remained susceptible to damage from storms. Lightning struck in 1548, 1562, 1565, and 1567. On each occasion, repairs were carried out under the direction of Jacopo Sansovino, responsible as proto for the maintenance of the buildings administered by the procurators of Saint Mark de supra, including the bell tower. The work, funded from the accounts of the procurators, was typically executed by carpenters provided by the Arsenal, the government shipyards",
". The tower was damaged twice in 1582.",
"In the following centuries, it was repeatedly necessary to intervene and repair the damage caused by lightning. In 1653, Baldassarre Longhena took up repairs after lightning struck, having become proto in 1640. The damage must have been extensive on this occasion, given the repair cost of 1,230 ducats. Significant work was also necessary to repair damage done after lightning struck on 23 April 1745, causing some of the masonry to crack and killing four people in the square as a result of falling stonework",
". The campanile was again damaged by lightning in 1761 and 1762. Repair costs on the second occasion reached the considerable sum of 3,329 ducats. Finally, on 18 March 1776, the physicist Giuseppe Toaldo, professor of astronomy at the University of Padua, installed a lightning rod, the first in Venice.",
"Periodic work was also needed to repair damage to the tower and the statue of the archangel Gabriel from wind and rain erosion. The original statue was replaced in 1557 with a smaller version. After numerous restorations, this was in turn substituted in 1822 by a statue designed by , professor at the Accademia di Belle Arti di Venezia.",
"The tower remained of strategic importance to the city. Access to visiting foreign dignitaries was allowed only by the Signoria, the executive body of the government, and ideally at high tide when it was not possible to distinguish the navigable channels in the lagoon. On 21 August 1609, Galileo Galilei demonstrated his telescope to the procurator Antonio Priuli and other nobles from the belfry. Three days later, the telescope was presented to doge Leonardo Donato from the loggia of the Doge's Palace.",
"Bells\n\nHistory",
"A bell was most likely first installed in the tower during the tenure of Doge Vitale II Michiel. However, documents that attest to the presence of a bell are traceable only from the thirteenth century. A deliberation of the Great Council, dated 8 July 1244, established that the bell to convene the council was to be rung in the evening if the council was to meet the following morning and in the early afternoon if the meeting was scheduled for the evening of the same day",
". There is a similar reference to the bell in the statute of the ironmongers' guild, dating to 1271.",
"Over time, the number of bells varied. In 1489, there were at least six. Four were present in the sixteenth century until 1569 when a fifth was added. Beginning in 1678 the bell brought to Venice from Crete after the island was lost to the Ottoman Turks, called the Campanon da Candia, hung in the tower, but it fell to the floor of the belfry in 1722, and was not resuspended. After this time, five bells remained",
". After this time, five bells remained. These were named (from smallest to largest) Maleficio (also Renghiera or Preghiera), Trottiera (also Dietro Nona), Meza-terza (also Pregadi), Nona, and Marangona.",
"The historical accounts of the damage to the tower caused by lightning make reference to broken bells, an indication that the bells must have been recast at various times. Nonetheless, the first documented instance concerns the Trottiera, which was recast in 1731. The resulting sound was unsatisfactory, and the bell had to be recast two more times before it harmonized with the older bells",
". After the designation of St Mark's Basilica as the cathedral of Venice (1807), the Marangona and Renghiera, together with the Campanon da Candia and other bells from former churches, were recast by Domenico Canciani Dalla Venezia into two larger bronze bells between 1808 and 1809, but these were melted with the Meza-terza, Trottiera, and Nona in 1820, again by Dalla Venezia, to create a new series of five bells. Of these bells, only the Marangona survived the collapse of the bell tower in 1902.",
"Functions\n\nIn various combinations, the bells indicated the times of the day and coordinated activities throughout the city. Four of the bells also had specific functions in relation to the activities of the Venetian government.\n\nTimes of the day",
"At dawn, with the first appearance of daylight, the Meza-terza rang (16 series of 18 strokes). The Marangona followed at sunrise (16 series of 18 strokes). This signalled the opening of the Church of St Mark for prayer and of the loggetta at the base of the bell tower. The gates of the Jewish Ghetto were also opened. The ringing of the Marangona also notified labourers to prepare for the workday which, determined by sunlight, varied in length throughout the year",
". The Marangona, the largest bell, derived its name from this particular function in reference to the marangoni (carpenters) who worked in the Arsenal. After the Marangona ceased, a half hour of silence followed. The Meza-terza then rang continuously for thirty minutes. The bell derived its name, Meza-terza (half third), from the time of the day since it rang between sunrise and Third Hour (Terce), the traditional moment of the liturgical mid-morning prayer",
". At the end of the thirty minutes, holy mass was celebrated in St Mark's. Also, the workday began for the workmen in the Arsenal, the artisans da grosso (heavy mechanical trades), and government officials. Labourers who were not present for work did not receive full wages for the day. Shop hours and the workday of some artisan guilds were regulated by the Realtina, the bell located in the tower of the Church of San Giovanni Elemosinario at Rialto.",
"Third Hour was signalled by the ringing of the Marangona (15 series of 16 strokes).",
"The Nona derived its name from Ninth Hour (Nones), the traditional moment of the liturgical afternoon prayer. It sounded (16 series of 18 strokes) at midday and marked the beginning of the work break. After the Nona ceased, a half hour of silence ensued. The Trottiera then rang continuously for 30 minutes: from this particular function, the Trottiera was also termed Dietro Nona (behind, or after, Nona). When the ringing stopped, work began again",
". When the ringing stopped, work began again. An hour later, the Nona rang (9 series of 10 strokes for three times) to mark the vespertine Ave Maria which was followed by the Marangona (15 series of 16 strokes).",
"The Marangona rang (15 series of 16 strokes) at sunset which corresponded to 24 hours and the end of the workday for the Arsenal, the heavy mechanical trades, and the government offices. An hour after sunset, the Meza-terza rang for 12 minutes, signalling that the night watch was required to be present in Saint Mark's Square. After a twelve-minute pause, the Nona rang for 12 minutes. This indicated that letters were to be taken to Rialto for dispatch",
". This indicated that letters were to be taken to Rialto for dispatch. After another 12 minutes, the Marangona struck for 12 minutes, ending at two hours after sunset. The night watch then began. The Realtina signalled the moment to extinguish fires in the homes.",
"Midnight was marked by the ringing of the Marangona (16 series of 18 strokes).\n\nPublic executions",
"The smallest bell, known alternatively as the Renghiera, Maleficio, or Preghiera, signalled public executions by ringing for 30 minutes. The bell had previously been located in the Doge's Palace and is mentioned in connection with the execution for treason of Doge Marin Falier in 1355. In 1569, it was moved to the tower. The earliest name, Renghiera, derived from renga (harangue) in reference to the court proceedings within the Palace",
". The alternative name of Maleficio, from malus (evil, wicked), recalled the criminal act, whereas Preghiera (prayer) invoked supplications for the soul of the condemned. After the execution, the Marangona was rung for a half hour and then the Meza-terza. Whenever capital punishment was ordered by the Council of Ten, the Maleficio rang immediately after the Marangona of sunrise and the sentence was carried out in the morning",
". Death sentences issued by the Quarantia al Criminal or the Lords of the Night were carried out in the afternoon, the Maleficio ringing immediately after the Dietro Nona ended.",
"Convocation of government assemblies",
"The Marangona announced the sessions of the Great Council. In the event that the council was to meet in the afternoon, the Trottiera first rang for 15 minutes, immediately after Third Hour. After midday, the Marangona resounded (4 series of 50 strokes followed by 5 of 25). The Trottiera then rang continuously for a half hour as a second call for the members of the Great Council, signalling the need to quicken the pace. The name of the bell originated when horses were used in the city",
". The name of the bell originated when horses were used in the city. The ringing of the Trottiera was therefore meant to signal the need to proceed at a trot. When the bell ceased, the doors of the council hall were closed and the session began. No latecomers were admitted. Whenever the Great Council convened in the morning, the Trottiera rang the previous evening for 15 minutes after the Marangona marked the end of the day at sunset",
". The Marangona was then rung in the morning, with the prescribed series of strokes, followed by the Trottiera.",
"The meetings of the Venetian Senate were announced by the Trottiera, which rang for 12 minutes. The Meza-terza followed and rang for 18 minutes. Because of this function, the Meza-terza was also known as the Pregadi, in reference to the early name of the Senate when members were 'prayed' (pregadi) to attend.",
"Holy days and events\nOn solemnities and certain feast days, all the bells rang in plenum. The bells also rang in unison for three days, until three hours after sunset, to mark the election of the doge and the coronation of the pope. On these occasions, they were rapidly hammered. Two hundred lanterns were also arranged in four tiers at the height of the belfry in celebration.",
"To announce the death of the doge and for the funeral, the bells rang in unison (9 series, each series slowly over 12 minutes). For the death of the pope, the bells rang for three days after Third Hour (6 series, each series slowly over 12 minutes)",
". The bells also marked the passing of cardinals and foreign ambassadors who had died in Venice, the dogaressa and sons of the doge, the patriarch and the canons of St Mark's, the procurators of Saint Mark, and the Grand Chancellor (the highest ranking civil servant).",
"Custodian\n\nThe custodian of the bell tower was responsible for ringing the bells. Nominated for life by the procurators of Saint Mark de supra, he was often succeeded by his sons or, in one instance, by his widow. The salary varied over time and could include a combination of wages, lodgings in the tower, and the use, for sublet or retail activities, of one of the lean-to stalls at the base of the tower.\n\nCollapse and rebuilding (1902–1912)\n\nCollapse",
"When the lean-to stalls were removed from the sides of the bell tower in 1873–1874, the base was discovered to be in poor condition, but restoration was limited to repairing surface damage. Similarly, excavations in Saint Mark's Square in 1885 raised concerns for the state of the foundation and the stability of the structure. Yet inspection reports by engineers and architects in 1892 and 1898 were reassuring that the tower was in no danger",
". Ensuing restoration was sporadic and primarily involved the substitution of weathered bricks.",
"In July 1902, work was underway to repair the roof of the loggetta. The girder supporting the roof where it rested against the tower was removed by cutting a large fissure, roughly in height and in depth, at the base of the tower. On 7 July, it was observed that the shaft of the tower trembled as workmen hammered the new girder into place. Glass tell-tales were inserted into crevices in order to monitor the shifting of the tower. Several of these were found broken the next day.",
"By 12 July, a large crack had formed on the northern side of the tower, running almost the entire height of the brick shaft. More accurate plaster tell-tales were inserted into the crevices. Although a technical commission was immediately formed, it determined that there was no threat to the structure. Nevertheless, wooden barricades were erected to keep onlookers at a safe distance as pieces of mortar began to break off from the widening gap and fall to the square below",
". Access to the tower was prohibited, and only the bell signalling the beginning and end of the work day was to be rung in order to limit vibrations. The following day, Sunday, the customary band in Saint Mark's Square was cancelled for the same reason.",
"The next morning, Monday 14 July, the latest tell-tales were all discovered broken; the maximum crack that had developed since the preceding day was . At 09:30 the square was ordered evacuated. Stones began to fall at 9:47, and at 9:53 the entire bell tower collapsed. Subsequent investigations determined that the immediate cause of the disaster was the collapse of the access ramps located between the inner and outer shafts of the tower. Beginning at the upper levels, these fell one by one atop the others",
". Beginning at the upper levels, these fell one by one atop the others. Without their support, the outer shaft then caved in against the inner shaft. Because the tower collapsed vertically and due to the tower's isolated position, the resulting damage was relatively limited. Apart from the loggetta, which was completely demolished, only a corner of the historical building of the Marciana Library was destroyed",
". The basilica itself was unharmed, although the pietra del bando, a large porphyry column from which laws were read, was damaged. The sole fatality was the custodian's cat. That same evening, the communal council convened in an emergency session and voted unanimously to rebuild the bell tower exactly as it had been before the collapse. The council also approved an initial 500,000 lire for the reconstruction. The province of Venice followed with 200,000 lire on 22 July",
". The province of Venice followed with 200,000 lire on 22 July. Although a few detractors of the reconstruction, including the editorialist of the Daily Express and Maurice Barrès, claimed that the square was more beautiful without the tower and that any replica would have no historical value, \"dov’era e com’era\" (\"where it was and how it was\") was the prevailing sentiment.",
"Rebuilding\n\nIn addition to the sums appropriated by the commune and the province, a personal donation arrived from King Victor Emmanuel III and the queen mother (100,000 lire). This was followed by contributions from other Italian communes and provinces as well as private citizens. Throughout the world, fund raising began, spearheaded by international newspapers. The German scaffolding specialist Georg Leib of Munich donated the scaffolding on 22 July 1902.",
"In autumn 1902, work began on clearing the site. The fragments of the loggetta, including columns, reliefs, capitals, and the bronze statues, were carefully removed, inventoried, and transferred to the courtyard of the Doge's Palace. Bricks that could be used for other construction projects were salvaged, whereas the rubble of no use was transported on barges to the open Adriatic where it was dumped",
". By spring 1903, the site had been cleared of debris, and the remaining stub of the old tower was torn down and the material removed. The pilings of the medieval foundation were inspected and found to be in good condition, requiring only moderate reinforcement.",
"The ceremony to mark the commencement of the actual reconstruction took place on 25 April 1903, St Mark's feast day, with the blessing by the patriarch of Venice Giuseppe Sarto, later Pope Pius X, and the laying of the cornerstone by Prince Vittorio Emanuele, the count of Turin, as the king's representative. For the first two years, work consisted in preparing the foundation which was extended outward by on all sides",
". This was accomplished by driving in 3076 larch piles, roughly in length and in diameter. Eight layers of Istrian stone blocks were then placed on top to create the new foundation. This was completed in October 1905. The first of the 1,203,000 bricks used for the new tower was laid in a second ceremony on 1 April 1906. To facilitate construction, a mobile scaffold was conceived. It surrounded the tower on all sides and was raised as work progressed by extending the braces.",
"With respect to the original tower, structural changes were made to provide for greater stability and decrease the overall weight. The two shafts, one inside the other, were previously independent of each other. The outer shell alone bore the entire weight of the belfry and spire; the inner shaft only partially supported the series of ramps and steps",
". With the new design, the two shafts were tied together by means of reinforced concrete beams which also support the weight of the ramps, rebuilt in concrete rather than masonry. In addition, the stone support of the spire was replaced with reinforced concrete, and the weight was distributed on both the inner and outer shafts of the tower.",
"The tower itself was completed on 3 October 1908. It was then in height. The following year work began on the belfry and the year after on the attic. The allegorical figures of Venice as Justice on the eastern and western sides were reassembled from the fragments that had been recovered from the ruins and were restored",
". The twin effigies of the winged lion of Saint Mark located on the remaining sides of the attic had already been chiselled away and irreparably damaged after the fall of the Venetian Republic at the time of the first French occupation (May 1797 – January 1798). They were completely remade.",
"Work began on the spire in 1911 and lasted until 5 March 1912 when the restored statue of the archangel Gabriel was hoisted to the summit. The new campanile was inaugurated on 25 April 1912, on the occasion of St Mark's feast day, exactly 1000 years after the foundations of the original building had allegedly been laid.\n\nNew bells\n\nOf the five bells cast by Domenico Canciani Dalla Venezia in 1820, only the largest, the Marangona, survived the collapse.",
"On 14 July 1902, Pope Pius X, patriarch of Venice at the time of the collapse, announced his intention to personally finance the recasting of the four bells as a gift to the city. For the purpose, a foundry was activated near the Church of Sant'Elena, on the homonymous island. The work was carried out under the supervision of the directors of the choirs of St Mark's and St Anthony's in Padua, the director of the Milan Conservatory, and the owner of the of Milan",
". The fragments of the four bells were first assembled, and moulds were made to ensure the same sizes and shapes. The original bronze was then remelted, and the new Maleficio, Trottiera, Meza terza, and Nona were cast on 24 April 1909, the vigil of St Mark's Feast. After two months, the bells were tuned to harmonize with the Marangona before being transported to Saint Mark's Square for storage",
". They were formally blessed by Cardinal Aristide Cavallari, patriarch of Venice, on 15 June 1910 in a ceremony with Prince Luigi Amedeo in attendance, prior to being raised to the new belfry on 22 June.",
"To ring the new bells, the simple rope and lever system, previously used to swing the wooden headstock, was replaced with a grooved wheel around which the rope is wrapped. This was done to minimize the vibrations whenever the bells are rung and hence the risk of damage to the tower.",
"Elevator\nIn 1892, it was first proposed that an elevator be installed in the bell tower. But concerns over the stability of the structure were voiced by the Regional Office for the Preservation of Veneto Monuments (Ufficio Regionale per la Conservazione dei Monumenti del Veneto). Although a special commission was nominated and concluded that the concerns were unfounded, the project was abandoned.",
"At the time of the reconstruction, an elevator was used to raise the new bells to the level of the belfry, but it was only temporary. Finally, in 1962, a permanent elevator was installed. Located within the inner shaft, it takes 30 seconds to reach the belfry from the ground level.",
"Restoration work (2007–2013)",
"At the time of the reconstruction, the original foundation was extended from approximately to with the objective of distributing the weight of the bell tower on a larger base and reducing the load from to per . This was done by driving additional piles into the clay. Three layers of oak planks were then laid on top of the piles followed by multiple layers of Istrian stone blocks",
". However, the old and the new foundations were not successfully fused into a unified whole, and they began to subside at different rates. As a result, cracks in the new tower were already visible in 1914 and multiplied over time. A monitoring system, installed in 1995, revealed that the tower was leaning by .",
"Beginning in 2007, the Magistrato alle Acque, responsible for public works, reinforced the foundation, adopting a system used to consolidate the façade of St Peter's Basilica in Rome. This involved placing four titanium tension cables, in diameter, around the perimeter of the stone foundation. Two of the cables, placed apart within a single protective polyethylene tube, are located below the surface of the square and are anchored at the four corners of the foundation by titanium pillars",
". Two more cables are located at a depth of and are held by granite blocks. These cables are monitored and can be tightened as necessary. The project, initially projected to last two and half years, was completed after five years in April 2013.",
"Influence\nThe campanile inspired the designs of other towers worldwide, especially in the areas belonging to the former Republic of Venice. Similar bell towers, albeit smaller, exist at the Church of San Rocco in Dolo, Italy, at the Church of San Giorgio in Piran, Slovenia, and at the Church of Sant'Eufemia in Rovinj, Croatia.",
"Other towers inspired by St Mark's campanile, particularly in the aftermath of the collapse of the original tower, include:\n the mill chimney of India Mill (1867) in Darwen, Lancashire, United Kingdom\n the Sretenskaya church (1892) in Bogucharovo, Tula region, Russia\n the right-hand bell-tower of St. John Gualbert (1895) in Johnstown, Pennsylvania, United States\n the clock tower at King Street Station (1904–1906) in Seattle, Washington, United States",
"the clock tower at King Street Station (1904–1906) in Seattle, Washington, United States\n the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company Tower (1905–1909) in New York City, New York, United States\n the Daniels & Fisher Tower (1910) in Denver, Colorado, United States\n 14 Wall Street (1910–1912) in New York City, New York, United States\n the Rathaus (Town Hall) (1911) in Kiel, Germany\n the Custom House Tower (1913–1915) in Boston, Massachusetts, United States",
"the Custom House Tower (1913–1915) in Boston, Massachusetts, United States\n the Sather Tower (1914) on the campus of the University of California, Berkeley, California, United States\n North Toronto Station (1916) in Toronto, Canada\n Brisbane City Hall (1920–1930) in Brisbane, Australia\n the Campanile (1922–1924) in Port Elizabeth, South Africa\nthe Tribune Tower (1923–1924) in Oakland, California, United States\n the Venetian Towers (1927–1929) in Barcelona, Spain",
"the Venetian Towers (1927–1929) in Barcelona, Spain\n the tower at Jones Beach State Park (1930), Long Island, New York, United States\nthe water tower of the former Trencherfield Mill in Wigan, Greater Manchester, United Kingdom",
"As symbols of Venice, replicas of the campanile also exist at The Venetian in Las Vegas, Nevada and at its sister resort The Venetian Macao in Macao; at the Italy Pavilion at Epcot, a theme park at Walt Disney World in Lake Buena Vista, Florida; and at the Venice Grand Canal, Taguig in Manila, Philippines.\n\nSee also\n List of tallest structures built before the 20th century\n\nReferences\n\nNotes\n\nBibliography\n\nExternal links",
"References\n\nNotes\n\nBibliography\n\nExternal links\n\nBell towers in Italy\nBuildings and structures in Venice\nCollapsed buildings and structures\nHistory of Venice after 1797\nPiazza San Marco\nReligious buildings and structures completed in 1514\nSt Mark's Basilica\nTourist attractions in Venice\nTowers completed in the 16th century\nTowers completed in 1912\nTowers in Italy\nRebuilt buildings and structures in Italy"
] |
Seymour Hersh
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seymour%20Hersh
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[
"Seymour Myron \"Sy\" Hersh (born April 8, 1937) is an American investigative journalist and political writer. He gained recognition in 1969 for exposing the My Lai massacre and its cover-up during the Vietnam War, for which he received the 1970 Pulitzer Prize for International Reporting. During the 1970s, Hersh covered the Watergate scandal for The New York Times, also reporting on the secret U.S. bombing of Cambodia and the CIA's program of domestic spying. In 2004, he detailed the U.S",
".S. bombing of Cambodia and the CIA's program of domestic spying. In 2004, he detailed the U.S. military's torture and abuse of prisoners at Abu Ghraib in Iraq for The New Yorker. Hersh has won a record five George Polk Awards, and two National Magazine Awards. He is the author of 11 books, including The Price of Power: Kissinger in the Nixon White House (1983), an account of the career of Henry Kissinger which won the National Book Critics Circle Award.",
"In 2013, Hersh's reporting alleged that Syrian rebel forces, rather than the government, had attacked civilians with sarin gas at Ghouta during the Syrian Civil War, and in 2015, he presented an alternative account of the U.S. special forces raid in Pakistan which killed Osama bin Laden, both times attracting controversy and criticism. In 2023, Hersh alleged that the U.S. and Norway had sabotaged the Nord Stream pipelines, again stirring controversy",
".S. and Norway had sabotaged the Nord Stream pipelines, again stirring controversy. He is known for his use of anonymous sources, for which his later stories in particular have been criticized.",
"Early life and education",
"Hersh was born in Chicago, Illinois, on April 8, 1937, to Isador and Dorothy Hersh (née Margolis), Yiddish-speaking Jews who had immigrated to the U.S. in the 1920s from Lithuania and Poland, respectively. Isador's original surname was Hershowitz, which he had changed upon becoming a citizen in 1930. As a teenager, Seymour helped run the family's dry cleaning shop on the South Side",
". As a teenager, Seymour helped run the family's dry cleaning shop on the South Side. Hersh graduated from Hyde Park High School in 1954, then attended the University of Illinois Chicago and later the University of Chicago, where he graduated with a history degree in 1958. He worked as a Xerox salesman before being admitted to the University of Chicago Law School in 1959, but was expelled during his first year due to poor grades.",
"Newspaper career",
"After briefly working at a Walgreens drug store, Hersh began his career in 1959 with a seven-month stint at the City News Bureau of Chicago, first as a copyboy and later as a crime reporter. In 1960, he enlisted as an Army reservist, and spent three months in basic training at Fort Leavenworth in Kansas. After returning to Chicago, in 1961 Hersh launched the Evergreen Dispatch, a short-lived weekly newspaper for the suburb of Evergreen Park",
". He moved to Pierre, South Dakota, in 1962 to work as a correspondent for United Press International (UPI), reporting on the state legislature and writing a series of articles on the Oglala Sioux.",
"In 1963, Hersh moved back to Chicago to work for the Associated Press (AP), and in 1965 he was transferred to its Washington, D.C., bureau to report on the Pentagon. While in Washington, he befriended famed investigative journalist I. F. Stone, whose muckraking newsletter I. F. Stone's Weekly served as an inspiration. Hersh began to develop his investigative methods, often walking out of regimented press briefings at the Pentagon to interview high-ranking officers in their lunch halls",
". In 1966, Hersh reported on the intensifying U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War, writing series of articles on draft reform, the shortage of qualified pilots, and on the U.S. bombing of civilian targets in North Vietnam, revealed by New York Times correspondent Harrison Salisbury.",
"In 1967, Hersh became part of the AP's first special investigative unit. After his editors diminished a piece he wrote on the U.S.'s secretive chemical and biological weapons programs, he quit and became a freelancer",
".S.'s secretive chemical and biological weapons programs, he quit and became a freelancer. Hersh wrote six articles in national magazines in 1967 (two for The New Republic, two for Ramparts, and two for The New York Times Magazine) in which he detailed the government's growing stockpiles of the weapons and its co-operation with universities and corporations, as well as the secret adoption of a first-use policy",
". The research formed the basis for his first book, Chemical and Biological Warfare: America's Hidden Arsenal (1968), and the topic was highlighted that year by the Dugway sheep incident, in which an aerial test of VX nerve agent at the U.S. Army's Dugway Proving Ground in Utah inadvertently killed more than 6,000 sheep owned by local ranchers. The event and Hersh's reporting led to public hearings and international pressure, contributing to the Nixon administration's decision to end the U.S",
".S. biological weapons program in 1969.",
"In the first three months of 1968, Hersh served as the press secretary for anti–Vietnam War candidate Senator Eugene McCarthy in his campaign in the 1968 Democratic Party presidential primaries. After resigning before the Wisconsin primary, he returned to journalism as a freelance reporter on Vietnam.\n\nMy Lai massacre",
"My Lai massacre \n\nIn 1969, Hersh's freelance reporting exposed the My Lai massacre, the murder of between 347 and 504 unarmed Vietnamese civilians (almost all women, children, and elderly men) by U.S. soldiers in a village on March 16, 1968.",
"On October 22, 1969, Hersh received a tip from Geoffrey Cowan, a columnist for The Village Voice with a military source, about a soldier being held at Fort Benning in Georgia for a court-martial for allegedly killing 75 civilians in South Vietnam. After speaking with a Pentagon contact and Fort Benning's public relations office, Hersh found an AP story from September 7 that identified the soldier as Lieutenant William Calley. He next found Calley's lawyer, George W",
". He next found Calley's lawyer, George W. Latimer, who met with him in Salt Lake City, Utah, and showed him a document which revealed Calley was charged with killing 109 people. Hersh traveled to Fort Benning on November 11, where he quickly gained the confidence of Calley's roommates and eventually Calley himself, whom he interviewed that night. Hersh's first article on the massacre, a cautious and conservative piece which was approved with Latimer, was initially rejected by Life and Look magazines",
". Hersh next approached the anti-war Dispatch News Service run by his friend David Obst, which sold the story to 35 national papers. On November 13, the story appeared in The Washington Post, The Boston Globe, the Miami Herald, the Chicago Sun-Times, The Seattle Times, and Newsday, among others. Initial reaction was muted, with the press focusing on a massive anti-war demonstration in Washington on November 15.",
"Follow-up articles by other reporters revealed that the Army's investigation had been prompted by a letter on March 29 from Ronald Ridenhour, a Vietnam veteran who had interviewed soldiers who knew of the killings. After traveling to California and visiting Ridenhour, who gave him their personal information, Hersh traveled across the country to interview the soldiers. This revealed that eyewitnesses had been told not to talk to anyone, and that the actual death count was in the hundreds",
". On November 20, Dispatch syndicated Hersh's second article, which was internationally published. On the same day, photos of the massacre by Army photographer Ronald L. Haeberle were published in the Cleveland Plain Dealer, causing outrage among members of Congress and the public. The reporting was now being followed by The New York Times and the Post, and was covered on the CBS and NBC national nightly news",
". Hersh next interviewed Paul Meadlo, a soldier who admitted that he had killed dozens of civilians on the orders of Calley. Meadlo's mother told Hersh that she \"sent them a good boy and they made him a murderer\". Hersh's third article was syndicated by Dispatch on November 25, and that night an interview with Meadlo by Mike Wallace on the CBS News program 60 Minutes was broadcast on national television",
". The White House acknowledged the massacre for the first time the next day, and the Army appointed General William R. Peers to head an official commission investigating it. Hersh proceeded to visit 50 witnesses over the next three months, 35 of whom agreed to talk. His fourth article, syndicated on December 2, revealed random killings of civilians in the days before the massacre; a fifth article was published weeks later. Ten pages of Haeberle's photos were printed in Life magazine on December 5.",
"Hersh's reporting garnered him national fame, and encouraged the growing opposition to the war in the U.S. However, he was also attacked by some in the press and government, who questioned his work and motivations",
". An op-ed column in the Times by James Reston asked: \"Whatever happened in the massacre, should it be reported by press, radio and television, since clearly reporting the murder of civilians by American soldiers helps the enemy, divides the people of this country, and damages the ideal of America in the world",
"?\" South Carolina Republican Representative Albert Watson said, \"this is no time to cast aspersions on our fighting men, the President and ourselves for that matter, as some members of the national news media and a few demagogues are doing\"",
". The reveal of the massacre changed American media coverage of the war, which was restrained and had limited independence from official sources in its reporting before 1967; after the exposure of the My Lai massacre, major newspapers began reporting on other U.S. atrocities in Vietnam.",
"For his coverage, Hersh won the 1970 Pulitzer Prize for International Reporting and numerous other awards, including his first George Polk Award. He later wrote in a note to Robert Loomis, the editor of his 1970 book-length account of the massacre, My Lai 4: A Report on the Massacre and Its Aftermath:",
"On March 14, 1970, the Peers Commission submitted to the Army its secret report on the massacre, containing more than 20,000 pages of testimony from 400 witnesses. One of Hersh's sources leaked the testimony to him over the course of a year; it revealed that at least 347 civilians were killed, over twice as many as the Army had publicly conceded",
". The leak formed the basis for two articles by Hersh for The New Yorker magazine in 1972, which alleged that officers had destroyed documents on the massacre, as well as his 1972 book Cover-Up: The Army's Secret Investigation of the Massacre at My Lai 4.",
"The New York Times",
"In April 1972, Hersh was hired by The New York Times as an investigative journalist at the paper's Washington bureau. After the June 17 break-in at the Democratic National Committee headquarters in Washington and the emergence of the Watergate scandal, the Times sought to catch up with the reporting of Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein at The Washington Post, who broke several stories in 1972 linking the break-in to the Nixon campaign",
". Together with Walter Rugaber, Hersh produced extensive reporting for the Times on the unfolding scandal; a key article by him published on January 14, 1973, revealed that hush money payments were still being made to the burglars, which shifted the press's focus from the break-in itself to its cover-up",
". During 1973, Hersh wrote more than 40 articles on Watergate, most printed on page one; his reveals included the FBI's failure to investigate political operative Donald Segretti, despite knowing of his activities, and leaks from the grand jury testimonies of former Attorney General John Mitchell and burglar James McCord, the latter of which revealed that the Committee to Re-Elect the President had made the payments",
". John Dean, Nixon's counsel, later said that while it had been the Post articles in 1972 that had encouraged prosecutors, \"the most devastating pieces that strike awfully close to home\" were Hersh's in 1973 and 1974.",
"Hersh contributed to the revelations around Operation Menu, the secret U.S. bombing of neutral Cambodia in 1969–1970. On June 11, 1972, an article by Hersh alleged that General John D. Lavelle, who had recently been relieved as commander of the Air Force in Southeast Asia, was ousted because he had ordered repeated, unauthorized bombings of North Vietnam. The ensuing \"Lavelle affair\" led to Senate Armed Services Committee hearings in September 1972",
". The ensuing \"Lavelle affair\" led to Senate Armed Services Committee hearings in September 1972. After reading Hersh's articles on the affair, Major Hal Knight, who had supervised radar crews in Vietnam, realized that the Senate \"was unaware of what had taken place while I was out there\", and in early 1973 wrote a letter to the committee that confessed his role in the cover-up of Operation Menu, in which he recorded fake bombing coordinates and burned his orders",
". Hersh learned of Knight's letter after exposing a different scandal on May 17, 1973, in which Nixon and National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger had authorized wiretaps of employees of the National Security Council after early bombings of Cambodia were exposed in the Times in May 1969. Hersh interviewed Knight and detailed the cover-up of Menu in an article on July 15, 1973, one day before the start of Knight's public testimony. On July 16, Secretary of Defense James R",
". On July 16, Secretary of Defense James R. Schlesinger admitted that the Air Force had flown 3,630 raids over Cambodia in 14 months, dropping more than 100,000 tons of bombs. Hersh continued to investigate who had ordered the cover-up; in a rare telephone interview, Kissinger stated Nixon had \"neither ordered nor was aware of any falsification\". On July 31, former chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff General Earle Wheeler admitted that Nixon had ordered him to falsify records",
". Nixon's impeachment on this basis was proposed that day by Representative Robert Drinan, and it was considered as an article alongside the Watergate cover-up during the House debate on Nixon's articles of impeachment in July 1974.",
"In early 1974, Hersh planned to publish a story on \"Project Jennifer\" (later revealed to be codenamed Project Azorian), a covert CIA operation that partially recovered the sunken Soviet submarine K-129 from the floor of the Pacific Ocean with a purpose-built vessel, the Glomar Explorer. The ship, which was falsely presented as a underwater mineral mining vessel, was built by a company owned by magnate Howard Hughes",
". After a discussion with CIA director William Colby, Hersh promised not to publish the story while the operation was still active, in order to avoid triggering a potential international incident. The Times eventually published Hersh's article on March 19, 1975, with an added five-paragraph explanation of the publishing history and one-year delay.",
"On September 8, 1974, an article by Hersh revealed that the CIA, with the approval of Kissinger, had spent $8 million to influence unions, political parties, and media in Chile in order to destabilize the government of socialist Salvador Allende, who was overthrown in the September 11, 1973, coup d'état that brought to power a military dictatorship under General Augusto Pinochet. Hersh followed up the story over the next two months, with 27 articles in total.",
"On December 22, 1974, Hersh exposed Operation CHAOS, a massive CIA program of domestic wiretapping and infiltration of anti-war groups during the Nixon administration, which was conducted in direct violation of the agency's charter. Hersh reported that dossiers had been compiled on at least 10,000 American citizens, including congressmen; the government eventually conceded the figure was closer to 300,000",
". He wrote 34 more articles on the story over the next months; they prompted the formation of the Rockefeller Commission and Church Committee, which investigated covert CIA operations and led to reforms of the agency. Hersh's exposure of CHAOS was the earliest reporting to reveal contents of the CIA's \"Family Jewels\" list of its own illegal activities. Hersh soon felt \"double-crossed\" after learning of a January 16, 1975, meeting between the paper's top editors (including executive editor A. M",
". M. Rosenthal) and President Gerald Ford, in which the president mentioned CIA political assassinations—a comment which he subsequently asked to be struck from the record; the editors later agreed not to tell Hersh about the disclosure. Hersh thereafter decided to move away from reporting on the CIA.",
"On May 25, 1975, Hersh revealed that the U.S. Navy was using submarines to collect intelligence inside the three-mile protected coastal zone of the Soviet Union in a spy program codenamed \"Holystone\", which had continued for at least 15 years. It was later revealed that Dick Cheney, one of Ford's top aides and later George W. Bush's vice president, proposed that the FBI search the home of Hersh and his sources in order to halt his reporting on the subject.",
"In 1976, Hersh moved with his family to New York, where his wife was to attend medical school. He began working on larger projects; the first was a four-part investigation produced with Jeff Gerth, initially appearing on June 27, 1976, into the activities of Sidney Korshak, a lawyer and \"fixer\" for the Chicago Mafia, union leaders, and Hollywood",
". On July 24, 1977, the Times published the first entry in a three-part investigation by Hersh and Gerth into financial impropriety at Gulf and Western Industries, one of the country's largest conglomerates; it was followed by two civil lawsuits by the Securities and Exchange Commission",
". The Times management was ambivalent about Hersh's new focus (he later stated that the paper \"wasn't nearly as happy when we went after business wrongdoing as when we were kicking around some slob in government\"), and he left the job in 1979 to start writing a book on Henry Kissinger.",
"In 1981, an article by Hersh in The New York Times Magazine described how former CIA agents Edwin Wilson and Frank Terpil had worked with Colonel Muammar Gaddafi, the leader of Libya, to illegally export explosives and train his troops for terrorism. Hersh reported that the CIA had given the pair tacit approval to oversee the sale of American technology. The story was followed up by Gerth at the Times through 1982, prompting reforms at the agency.\n\nInvestigative books: 1980s and 1990s",
"Hersh's 1983 book The Price of Power: Kissinger in the Nixon White House, which involved four years of exhaustive work and more than 1,000 interviews, was a best-seller and won him the National Book Critics Circle Award for Nonfiction",
". The 698-page book contained 41 chapters, including 13 devoted to Kissinger's role in Vietnam and the bombing of Cambodia; other topics included his role in the Chilean coup, the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, domestic wiretapping, and the White House Plumbers, as well as Hersh's criticism of his former Times colleagues, such as Max Frankel and James Reston, for their proximity to him",
". One much-discussed allegation was that Kissinger, originally an advisor to Nelson Rockefeller in the 1968 Republican Party presidential primaries before his defeat to Nixon, had offered Democratic candidate Hubert Humphrey damaging material on Nixon before going to the Nixon campaign with secret information he had gathered from the Vietnam War's Paris peace negotiations",
". The book also alleges that Kissinger alerted Nixon to President Johnson's October 31, 1968, bombing halt 12 hours in advance, securing his position in the administration. The book is noted for its density of information and prosecutorial tone, and it has been credited with preventing Kissinger from returning to a government position during the Reagan administration.",
"While writing the book, Hersh revisited his previous reporting on Edward M. Korry, the U.S. ambassador to Chile from 1967 to 1971. In 1974, Hersh had reported in the Times that Korry had known of the CIA's efforts to foment a coup. Korry, who had reacted to the claim with furious denial, demanded a front-page retraction in exchange for documents Hersh wanted for his book. The retraction, which Time called the \"longest correction ever published\", appeared on February 9, 1981",
". Peter Kornbluh, Chile expert at the National Security Archive, later judged based on declassified documents that Korry was unaware of CIA involvement. Also in the book was the claim that former Indian Prime Minister Morarji Desai had been paid $20,000 per year by the CIA during the Johnson and Nixon administrations",
". Desai filed a $50 million libel lawsuit against Hersh; when it went to trial in 1989, Desai, then 93, was too ill to attend, but Kissinger appeared and testified that Desai had not worked in any capacity for the CIA. A Chicago jury ruled in favor of Hersh, finding it had not been proved that Hersh had intended to write falsehoods or that he had shown reckless disregard for the truth, either of which must be proven in a libel suit.",
"In August 1983, a 17,500-word article by Hersh in The Atlantic magazine alleged that former President Gerald Ford, whom he interviewed in the story, had struck a secret deal prior to Nixon's resignation, brokered by Nixon's chief of staff General Alexander Haig, which gave him the presidency in exchange for his subsequent pardon of Nixon",
". Hersh worked on and narrated the 1985 PBS Frontline documentary \"Buying the Bomb\", which reported on a Pakistani businessman who had attempted to smuggle krytron devices which could be used as nuclear bomb triggers out of the U.S. On June 12, 1986, an article by Hersh in the Times revealed that U.S.-backed dictator of Panama Manuel Noriega was a key figure in weapons and narcotics trafficking. The article was the first in a \"political landslide\" of allegations against Noriega; in 1989, the U.S",
".S. invaded Panama and captured him, taking him to the U.S. to stand trial.",
"Hersh spent much of the decade writing two critically acclaimed but commercially unsuccessful books. In his 1986 title The Target Is Destroyed, Hersh examined the 1983 shootdown of Korean Air Lines Flight 007 by the Soviet Union. He reported that the U.S. Air Force knew almost immediately that the Soviets believed that they had shot down a military plane, and that the U.S. misrepresented the situation to portray the Soviets as deliberate murderers of civilians",
".S. misrepresented the situation to portray the Soviets as deliberate murderers of civilians. In The Samson Option (1991), Hersh chronicled the history of Israel's nuclear weapon program, arguing that a nuclear capability was sought from the state's founding, and that it was achieved under a U.S. policy of feigned ignorance and indirect assistance. Hersh also wrote that Israel received aid from the U.S",
". Hersh also wrote that Israel received aid from the U.S. in the 1973 Yom Kippur War through \"nuclear blackmail\" (Israel's threat to use the weapons against its Arab enemies). Another major allegation was that the intelligence passed to Israel by convicted American spy Jonathan Pollard had been shared with the Soviet Union by former Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin, who denied the charge",
". Another allegation was that British media magnate Robert Maxwell was an informant for Mossad, Israel's national intelligence agency; Maxwell filed a defamation lawsuit against Hersh, but died in a drowning incident two weeks after the book was published.",
"Hersh's 1997 best-seller The Dark Side of Camelot, about the political career of John F. Kennedy, was controversial and heavily criticized. Shortly before publication, it emerged in the press that Hersh had removed claims at the last minute which were based on forged documents provided to him by fraudster Lex Cusack, including a fake hush money contract between Kennedy and Marilyn Monroe",
". An article about the controversy in The Washington Post said: \"The strange and twisted saga of the JFK file is part cautionary tale, part slapstick farce, a story of deception and self-delusion in the service of commerce and journalism\". Hersh and a one-time co-author had received a $800,000 advance for the project",
". Hersh and a one-time co-author had received a $800,000 advance for the project. Other aspects of the book also came under criticism, including its prying into Kennedy's alleged sexual escapades based on interviews with his Secret Service guards, and its claim that Kennedy used Judith Exner as a courier to deliver cash to mobster Sam Giancana, made by a source who later recanted it before the Assassination Records Review Board.",
"In 1998, Hersh published Against All Enemies: Gulf War Syndrome: The War Between America's Ailing Veterans and Their Government, about Gulf War syndrome. He estimated that 15 percent of returning American troops were afflicted with the chronic and multi-symptomatic disorder, and challenged the government claim that they were suffering from war fatigue, as opposed to the effects of a chemical or biological weapon",
". He suggested the smoke from the destruction of a weapon depot that stored nerve gas at Khamisiyah in Iraq, to which more than 100,000 soldiers were exposed, as a possible cause.",
"Later investigations",
"Starting in 1993, Hersh became a regular contributor to The New Yorker magazine, edited by Tina Brown until 1998 and David Remnick thereafter. A piece by him in 1993 alleged that Pakistan had developed nuclear weapons with the consent of the Reagan and Bush administrations, using restricted, high-tech materials purchased in the U.S",
".S. In May 2000, a 25,000-word article by Hersh titled \"Overwhelming Force\", the longest piece in the magazine since 1993, detailed the Battle of Rumaila, an alleged massacre of retreating and surrendering Iraqi troops by soldiers under General Barry McCaffrey on the \"Highway of Death\" in the final days of the 1990–1991 Gulf War. He had received tips on the incident, which had been investigated and dismissed by the U.S. Army, from other officers while investigating McCaffrey's role in the Colombian drug war",
".S. Army, from other officers while investigating McCaffrey's role in the Colombian drug war. Hersh performed six months of research for the article, and interviewed 300 people, including soldiers who had witnessed the killings; he alleged that McCaffrey had deceived his superiors and disregarded cease-fire orders. In July 2001, the magazine published Hersh's investigation of Mobil's illegal multibillion-dollar oil swap deal between Kazakhstan and Iran in the 1990s.",
"Following the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, Hersh turned his focus to U.S. policy in the Middle East and the Bush administration's \"war on terror\". In The New Yorker, he reported on U.S",
". In The New Yorker, he reported on U.S. intelligence failures surrounding 9/11; on the corruption of the Saudi royal family and its alleged financial support for Osama bin Laden; and on the potential instability of the Pakistani nuclear arsenal, including an article alleging that the Pentagon was planning a covert operation inside Pakistan to disarm the weapons. President Bush told Pakistani President Pervez Musharraf that Hersh was \"a liar\". During the U.S",
". President Bush told Pakistani President Pervez Musharraf that Hersh was \"a liar\". During the U.S. invasion of Afghanistan, Hersh reported that a Predator drone had followed a convoy carrying Taliban leader Mullah Omar, but that delayed approval for a missile strike had allowed him to escape; that a failed Army Delta Force raid on Omar's compound in Kandahar had led to an escape in which 12 soldiers were injured; and that a U.S",
".S.-backed airlift of Pakistani officers from Kunduz in Afghanistan had inadvertently carried Taliban and al-Qaeda fighters. Hersh later reported on the government's flawed prosecution of Zacarias Moussaoui, on the U.S.'s aggressive assassination efforts against al-Qaeda members, and on business conflicts of interest held by Richard Perle, chairman of the Pentagon's advisory Defense Policy Board, which led to his resignation.",
"Iraq and Abu Ghraib",
"Following the U.S. invasion of Iraq in 2003, Hersh disputed the Bush administration's false claims about Saddam Hussein's alleged stockpile of weapons of mass destruction and ties to terrorism, which had been used to justify the invasion",
". He reported that the claim that Iraq had received nuclear materials from Niger was based on forged documents, that the Pentagon's Office of Special Plans had provided dubious intelligence to the White House on Iraq's weapons capacity, and that the Bush administration had pressured the intelligence community to violate its \"stovepiping\" rule, which allowed only vetted and confirmed information to rise up the chain of command.",
"On April 30, 2004, Hersh published the first of three articles in The New Yorker which detailed the U.S. military's torture and abuse of detainees at Abu Ghraib prison near Baghdad. The story, titled \"Torture at Abu Ghraib\", was accompanied by a now-infamous photo of an Iraqi prisoner standing on a box and wearing a black pointed hood, his hands spread out and attached to electrodes",
". A short piece with the photo and others had appeared two days earlier on the CBS News program 60 Minutes II, in anticipation of Hersh's article. He described these photos:",
"Hersh had obtained a secret 53-page report from an internal Army investigation headed by General Antonio Taguba, which had been submitted on March 3. It detailed more of the abuses, including pouring cold water and liquid from broken chemical lights on naked detainees, beatings with a broom stick and a chair, threatening males with rape, allowing guards to stitch wounds from a beating, sodomizing a detainee with a chemical light and a broom stick, and using military dogs to intimidate",
". The article also alleged that military intelligence teams, which included CIA officers and \"interrogation specialists\" from private contractors, had directed the abuse at the prison",
". In two articles in May 2004, \"Chain of Command\" and \"The Gray Zone\", Hersh alleged that the abuse stemmed from a top-secret special access program (SAP) authorized by Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld during the invasion of Afghanistan in 2001, which provided blanket approval for killings, kidnappings, and interrogations (at Guantanamo Bay and CIA black sites) of \"high-value\" targets",
". He alleged that the SAP was extended to Iraq's military prisons in 2003 to gather intelligence on the growing insurgency, with Rumsfeld and Under Secretary of Defense for Intelligence Stephen Cambone also extending its methods of physical coercion and sexual humiliation, under the name \"Copper Green\".",
"In a rare statement responding directly to the allegations, Pentagon spokesman Lawrence Di Rita said that they were \"outlandish, conspiratorial, and filled with error and anonymous conjecture\", and that they reflected \"the fevered insights of those with little, if any, connection to the activities in the Department of Defense\"; he added that: \"With these false claims, the Magazine and the reporter have made themselves part of the story",
".\" As the scandal grew and calls for Rumsfeld to resign mounted, he privately offered to step down, which Bush rejected. Later stories by other reporters revealed the Torture Memos, in which the Department of Justice had advised the Pentagon and the CIA on the legality of \"enhanced interrogation techniques\". As after Hersh's reporting on the My Lai massacre, he garnered national and international attention and won multiple awards, including his fifth George Polk Award",
". A book compiling and building upon his post-9/11 reporting for The New Yorker, titled Chain of Command: The Road from 9/11 to Abu Ghraib, was published later in 2004.",
"In July 2005, an article by Hersh alleged that the U.S. had covertly intervened in favor of Ayad Allawi in the January 2005 Iraqi parliamentary election, in an \"off the books\" campaign conducted by retired CIA officers and non-government personnel, and with funds \"not necessarily\" appropriated by Congress.",
"Iran",
"In a January 2005 article for The New Yorker titled \"The Coming Wars\", Hersh wrote that the next U.S. target in the Middle East was Iran, and alleged that covert U.S. reconnaissance missions, including a commando task force, had infiltrated the country to gather intelligence on nuclear, chemical, and missile sites since mid-2004",
". In April 2006, an article by Hersh titled \"The Iran Plans\" alleged that the Bush administration was accelerating military planning for an attack on Iran, and that the Pentagon had presented the White House the option of using bunker-buster nuclear weapons on the country's underground uranium enrichment sites; he further alleged that the Joint Chiefs of Staff later sought to drop this option, which had been resisted by White House officials. The article also alleged that U.S",
". The article also alleged that U.S. troops were infiltrating Iran to establish contact with anti-government minority groups, and that carrier-based aircraft were flying simulated nuclear bombing runs",
". Hersh wrote several more pieces on this alleged plan in the next two years, including a July 2006 article on how senior commanders were challenging Bush's plan for a major bombing campaign, articles in November 2006 and March 2007 on the plan's re-focusing on targets in Iran aiding Iraqi militants, and an October 2007 article on planned \"surgical\" strikes on Iranian Quds Force training camps and supply depots.",
"In an August 2006 article, Hersh alleged that the U.S. was involved in the planning of Israel's attacks on Hezbollah in the 2006 Lebanon War as a \"prelude\" to the U.S. bombing of Iran. In his March 2007 article, titled \"The Redirection\", he alleged that the U.S. and Saudi Arabia were covertly supporting Sunni extremist groups to combat the influence of Shiite Iran and Syria, and that the Lebanese government of Fouad Siniora was using its U.S",
".S. backing to supply weapons to Osbat al-Ansar and Fatah al-Islam, militant groups in Palestinian refugee camps, to develop a counter-balance to Shiite-backed Hezbollah. In May 2007, Lebanon launched an attack on Fatah al-Islam, which it accused of having ties to the Syrian government, starting a severe domestic conflict.",
"In a June 2008 article titled \"Preparing the Battlefield\", Hersh alleged that Congress had secretly appropriated $400 million for a major escalation of covert operations against Iran in late 2007, following a request from President Bush. The request allegedly \"focused on undermining Iran's nuclear ambitions and trying to undermine the government through regime change\", and included new activities such as the funding of opposition groups in the south and east of the country",
". The article also alleged that Vice President Dick Cheney, after a January 2008 incident in the Strait of Hormuz in which a U.S. warship had nearly fired on Iranian boats, had held a meeting on how to create a casus belli for a war; Hersh later said in an interview that one of the options discussed and rejected was a false flag operation involving Navy SEALs, who would pose as Iranian patrols and start a firefight with U.S. ships",
".S. ships. Hersh later began writing a book on Cheney in 2011, on which he spent four years before dropping amid a crackdown on leaks, instead writing his 2018 memoir Reporter.",
"Hersh alleged in a May 2011 article titled \"Iran And the Bomb\" that the U.S. lacked conclusive evidence that Iran was developing nuclear weapons, citing a still-classified National Intelligence Estimate produced by the National Intelligence Council earlier that year",
". The summary of the 2007 estimate, which had been released publicly, had found \"with high confidence\" that Iran had halted its weapons program in late 2003 after the invasion of Iraq; Hersh alleged that the 2011 estimate found that this program had been aimed at Iraq (which Iran had believed to be developing a nuclear weapon), not Israel or the U.S., and that no new evidence had changed the 2007 assessment, despite expanded covert surveillance",
".S., and that no new evidence had changed the 2007 assessment, despite expanded covert surveillance. In a November 2011 article after the release of a report by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) on possible military dimensions of Iran's nuclear program, Hersh disputed that the findings were new or transformative, arguing that there remained \"no definitive evidence\" of a weapons program, and calling the report a \"political document\" in an interview.",
"In an April 2012 article, Hersh alleged that the U.S. trained members of the Iranian dissident group Mujahideen-e-Khalq (MEK), listed as a \"foreign terrorist organization\" by the State Department, at a site in Nevada from 2005 to 2007, and had provided intelligence for its assassinations of nuclear scientists.",
"Syria and chemical attacks",
"In the early weeks of the Iraq War in 2003, Hersh traveled to Damascus in Syria and interviewed President Bashar al-Assad, whom he interviewed several more times in following years, the latest in early 2010; he also interviewed Hassan Nasrallah, the leader of Hezbollah",
". In February 2008, an article by Hersh questioned the Israeli and American claims that a Syrian facility bombed by Israel in September 2007 was an under-construction nuclear reactor; a later report by the IAEA in 2011 found it was \"very likely\" that it was a secret reactor. An article by Hersh in April 2009, citing his email correspondence with Assad, suggested that Syria was eager for peace with Israel over the Golan Heights, as well as negotiations with the U.S",
".S. over its withdrawal from Iraq and Syria's support for Hamas and Hezbollah. Hersh concluded that the Obama administration had a chance for diplomacy with Syria and perhaps Iran.",
"On December 8, 2013, an article by Hersh titled \"Whose sarin?\", published in the London Review of Books (LRB), alleged that the Obama administration had \"cherry-picked intelligence\" on the August 21, 2013, sarin attack at Ghouta during the Syrian Civil War, which had killed hundreds of civilians, in order to attribute the attack to Assad's government and justify a military strike. The article, which had been rejected by The New Yorker and The Washington Post, alleged that U.S",
". The article, which had been rejected by The New Yorker and The Washington Post, alleged that U.S. intelligence had found by June 2013 that al-Nusra, a branch of al-Qaeda and part of the Syrian opposition, was also capable of producing and deploying sarin gas. The article cited munitions expert Theodore Postol, who judged that the rockets used in the attack were improvised, and that their estimated range of was inconsistent with a proposed flight path from a Syrian Army base away",
". In a second article published in the LRB in April 2014, titled \"The Red Line and the Rat Line\", Hersh alleged that the attack was conducted by al-Nusra with the aid of the Turkish government of Recep Tayyip Erdoğan in a false flag operation aimed at drawing the U.S. into the war against Assad",
".S. into the war against Assad. It described an alleged supply chain operation, organized by the CIA and the United Kingdom's MI6 with funding from Saudi Arabia and Qatar, which transported weapons to the Syrian rebels from Libya via southern Turkey between early 2012 and the September 2012 attack on the U.S. consulate and CIA annex at Benghazi",
".S. consulate and CIA annex at Benghazi. Hersh alleged that Turkey's National Intelligence Organization and Gendarmerie had proceeded to instruct al-Nusra on producing and deploying sarin, and that the planned U.S. strike was averted after British intelligence found that samples of sarin from Ghouta did not match batches from Syria's arsenal.",
"A report from an investigation by the United Nations (UN) concluded that sarin had been used at Ghouta, but did not assign responsibility for the attack. Blogger Eliot Higgins and chemical weapons expert Dan Kaszeta disputed some of the claims in the articles with open-source intelligence, writing that the \"improvised\" rockets had been used by the Syrian Army as early as November 2012, and that the front lines on the day of the attack were just from the impact sites, within Postol's estimated range",
". They also criticized the claim of al-Nusra responsibility, citing the high difficulty and expense of producing sarin, and the presence of hexamine in the Ghouta samples, an additive which Syria later declared part of its chemical weapons program.",
"In a December 2015 article in the LRB titled \"Military to Military\", Hersh alleged that the Joint Chiefs of Staff, after discovering by mid-2013 that Turkey was aiding al-Nusra and the Islamic State (ISIS) and that the moderate rebels were no longer viable, had sabotaged Obama's support for the rebels by sending U.S. intelligence to the militaries of Germany, Russia, and Israel, on the understanding it would be forwarded to Assad",
". In exchange for this support, aimed at defeating ISIS, Hersh alleged that the Joint Chiefs had required that Assad \"restrain\" Hezbollah from attacking Israel, restart negotiations with Israel over the Golan Heights, agree to accept Russian advisers, and hold elections after the war. This alleged alliance ended in September 2015 upon the retirement of its architect, chairman General Martin Dempsey",
". Max Fisher of Vox criticized the narrative, citing reporting that Syria and Russia were primarily bombing anti-ISIS rebels instead of ISIS, and Dempsey's prominent public support for sending more arms to the rebels, over which he had clashed with Obama.",
"On June 25, 2017, the German newspaper Die Welt published Hersh's article \"Trump's Red Line\", which had been rejected by the LRB. It alleged that the Syrian Air Force's April 4, 2017, attack at Khan Shaykhun was not a sarin attack, but a conventional bombing conducted with Russian intelligence that struck a regional headquarters building with \"fertilisers, disinfectants and other goods\" in its basement, which created \"effects similar to those of sarin\"",
". The article further alleged that the April 7 missile strike on Shayrat Airbase, ordered by President Trump, was conducted despite U.S. intelligence affirming a conventional bombing. Higgins again criticized Hersh's claims, writing for Bellingcat that they were inconsistent with Syrian and Russian descriptions of the target and satellite images of the impact sites, as well as findings of sarin and hexamine in samples retrieved by the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW)",
". A later investigation by a joint UN–OPCW panel found that the attack was a sarin bombing by the Syrian Air Force.",
"Killing of Osama bin Laden",
"In a September 2013 interview, Hersh commented that the U.S.'s account of the May 2, 2011, raid in Abbottabad, Pakistan, which killed Osama bin Laden was \"one big lie, not one word of it is true\". He stated that both the Obama administration and Pakistan had lied about the event, and that American media outlets were reluctant to challenge the administration, saying: \"It's pathetic, they are more than obsequious, they are afraid to pick on this guy [Obama]\"",
". Hersh later said that his sources told him that the official story was false days after the raid, but that The New Yorker had rejected his article pitches.",
"On May 10, 2015, a 10,000-word article by Hersh detailing an alternative account of the raid, titled \"The Killing of Osama bin Laden\", was published in the London Review of Books",
". The official account was that bin Laden had been located through interrogation of detainees and surveillance of his courier, that Pakistan was unaware of the operation, and that he was killed only when he did not surrender; Hersh reported that bin Laden had been captured and held as a prisoner of Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) since 2006, that his location was revealed to the CIA by a former Pakistani intelligence officer in 2010",
", that his location was revealed to the CIA by a former Pakistani intelligence officer in 2010, that top Pakistani military officials knew about the operation, and that bin Laden had been assassinated",
". The article alleged Pakistan had kept bin Laden, with financial support from Saudi Arabia, as leverage against al-Qaeda, and that it agreed to give him up in exchange for increased U.S. military aid and a \"freer hand in Afghanistan\"",
".S. military aid and a \"freer hand in Afghanistan\". Further allegations were that bin Laden's DNA had been collected by a Pakistani Army doctor, not by Shakil Afridi in a fake vaccination drive by the CIA; that the Navy SEALs met no resistance at the compound, and were escorted by an ISI officer; that bin Laden's body was torn apart by rifle fire; and that pieces of his corpse were tossed out over the Hindu Kush mountains on the flight back to Jalalabad, rather than being buried at sea",
". A book compiling the article and Hersh's pieces on Syria for the magazine, The Killing of Osama bin Laden, was published in 2016.",
"Hersh's article was heavily criticized by other reporters. The narrative was similar to a little-known August 2011 post by national security blogger R.J. Hillhouse, who called Hersh's article \"either plagiarism or unoriginal\", though she speculated they used different sources; Hersh denied having read her work. Max Fisher of Vox accused Hersh's story of \"internal contradictions\" and \"troubling inconsistencies\" in a long article, questioning among other claims that the U.S",
".S. and Pakistan had struck a secret deal, as U.S. military aid had fallen and relations had deteriorated in following years. Peter Bergen of CNN, who visited the compound after the raid, disputed that the only shots fired were those that killed bin Laden, writing that he had seen evidence of an extended firefight. Both journalists, as well as Jack Shafer at Politico and James Kirchick at Slate, criticized Hersh's sources: an unnamed \"retired senior [U.S",
".S.] intelligence official\", \"two longtime consultants to the Special Operations Command\", and retired Pakistani General Asad Durrani, who headed the ISI from 1990 to 1992, with Fisher writing that this was \"worryingly little evidence for a story that accuses hundreds of people across three governments of staging a massive international hoax that has gone on for years\"",
". Fisher also questioned that Pakistan had insisted on an elaborate raid over simpler and lower-risk methods, asking why bin Laden was not killed and his body handed over, or killed in a staged U.S. drone strike. Hersh's article stated that a drone strike was the raid's original cover story before one of the Black Hawk helicopters crashed and was demolished, which was impossible to hide.",
"Some details in Hersh's article were corroborated by Carlotta Gall of The New York Times, who reported that she had previously been told by a \"high-level member\" of the ISI that Pakistan had been hiding bin Laden and that an ISI brigadier had informed the CIA of his location; NBC News also corroborated the claim of a retired ISI officer who had tipped off the CIA. Pakistani news outlets alleged the tipster was Brigadier Usman Khalid, who died in 2014",
". In an article in the Columbia Journalism Review, Trevor Timm, executive director of the Freedom of the Press Foundation, praised an article by Ali Watkins of The Huffington Post as one of the few that identified the tipster development as discrediting the CIA's claim that its torture of detainees had revealed the identity of bin Laden's courier, which had previously been challenged by the December 2014 report on torture by the Senate Intelligence Committee.",
"Nord Stream pipeline and Ukraine",
"On February 8, 2023, in a Substack article titled \"How America Took Out The Nord Stream Pipeline\", Hersh alleged that the September 26, 2022, sabotage of the Nord Stream 1 and 2 pipelines, which had carried natural gas from Russia to Germany through the Baltic Sea, was carried out by the U.S. in a top-secret CIA operation ordered by President Joe Biden, with collaboration from Norway",
".S. in a top-secret CIA operation ordered by President Joe Biden, with collaboration from Norway. The self-published post, which relied on one anonymous source \"with direct knowledge of the operational planning\", alleged that U.S. Navy divers operating from a Norwegian ship, using NATO's BALTOPS 22 exercise in June 2022 as cover, had planted C-4 mines which were later remotely detonated by a sonar buoy dropped from a Norwegian plane",
". The alleged motive was reducing Russian economic influence in Europe and cutting off a major source of state revenue; Nord Stream 2 was not yet operational, but would have doubled the gas supply of Nord Stream 1. Hersh cited statements against the pipeline made by Biden and his foreign policy team as support, including Biden's warning in February 2022, before the Russian invasion of Ukraine, that: \"If Russia invades... there will no longer be a Nord Stream 2. We will bring an end to it.\"",
"The party responsible for the attack, which rendered three of the four pipelines inoperable, was not widely known at the time of Hersh's report. Western countries had not formally accused Russia, though some officials suggested it was responsible; Germany, Denmark, and Sweden had each opened investigations into the attack. Russia had accused the United Kingdom's Royal Navy and later the U.S., and disputed the idea it would destroy the pipelines, which it owned a large stake in through Gazprom",
". Kelly Vlahos, a senior advisor at the Quincy Institute for Responsible Statecraft, described the U.S. mainstream media response to Hersh's post as a \"total blackout\", and wrote that his reporting \"should have opened the floodgates of journalistic inquiry\"",
". The post received widespread attention in independent media and European mainstream media, including in Germany; the Bundestag held its first debate on the bombing on February 10, in which members from Alternative for Germany (AfD) and Die Linke cited Hersh and called on the executive branch to release the results of its investigation, which it had said would be kept secret. In Russia, Hersh's report was picked up by the state-owned media agencies RT and TASS",
". In Russia, Hersh's report was picked up by the state-owned media agencies RT and TASS. At a UN Security Council meeting on February 21, Russia's representative Vasily Nebenzya cited Hersh and called for an independent UN investigation.",
"Some of the post's claims were criticized by writers using open-source intelligence. In a Substack post, blogger Oliver Alexander disputed the claim that the U.S. divers operated from a Norwegian Alta-class minesweeper, as no ships of the class had taken part in BALTOPS 22; he noted the participation of the Hinnøy, a member of the similar Oksøy mine hunter class, but wrote that AIS data from the ship showed that it had passed several kilometers from the sites at its closest, without slowing down",
". He wrote that ADS-B records did not show the alleged \"seemingly routine flight\" by a Norwegian P-8 Poseidon in the hours before the explosions, and questioned the claim that NATO Secretary General Jens Stoltenberg had co-operated with U.S. intelligence since the Vietnam War, as Stoltenberg was 16 years old in 1975. Hersh replied that the open-source location data could have been manipulated by spoofing or disabling transponders",
". Alexander later wrote that satellite images showed the Hinnøy sailing in formation at six locations, matching AIS data. In March 2023, the New York Times reported that new intelligence suggested a \"pro-Ukrainian group\" was responsible for the attack, and the German newspaper Die Zeit reported that German police found it was carried out by six people of unclear nationality diving from a yacht rented from a Ukrainian-owned Polish company",
". In a second post, Hersh alleged that this account was a false flag fabrication created by the CIA and fed to U.S. and German outlets.",
"In an April 2023 article on Substack, Hersh alleged that figures in the Ukrainian government of Volodymyr Zelensky had embezzled at least $400 million of U.S. aid to the country, intended for the purchase of diesel fuel, by buying discount diesel from Russia, citing an alleged analysis produced by the CIA.\n\nOther statements\n\nSpeeches",
"Other statements\n\nSpeeches \n \n\nIn a 2005 interview with New York magazine, Hersh made a distinction between the strict standards of accuracy observed in his print reporting and the leeway he allowed himself in speeches, in which he spoke informally about stories still being worked on, or changed information to protect his sources: \"Sometimes I change events, dates, and places in a certain way to protect people. ... I can't fudge what I write. But I can certainly fudge what I say.\"",
"In a July 2004 speech to the American Civil Liberties Union, at the height of the Abu Ghraib scandal, Hersh alleged that there existed video tapes of young boys being sexually assaulted at the prison, in which their \"shrieking\" could be heard. In his book Chain of Command, however, he clarified that a lawyer in the case had told him about a prisoner witness statement which described the alleged rape of a boy by a foreign contract employee who worked as an interpreter, as a woman was taking pictures",
". Hersh later stated: \"I actually didn't quite say what I wanted to say correctly. ... It wasn't that inaccurate, but it was misstated. The next thing I know, it was all over the blogs.\"",
"In a March 2009 speech at the University of Minnesota, Hersh alleged that the Bush administration had authorized the Joint Special Operations Command (JSOC) to locate and kill targets in a program which reported only to Vice President Cheney, outside of the chain of command, in what Hersh described as an \"executive assassination ring\". In a January 2011 speech in Doha, Qatar, Hersh alleged that General Stanley A. McChrystal, head of the JSOC from 2003 to 2008, and his successor Admiral William H",
". McChrystal, head of the JSOC from 2003 to 2008, and his successor Admiral William H. McRaven were \"members, or at least supporters\" of the Knights of Malta, a Catholic lay religious order, and that many JSOC officers were members of the Catholic institution Opus Dei; McChrystal denied the allegation. Hersh further alleged that some military leaders viewed the U.S. wars in the Middle East as a \"crusade\", in which they were protecting Christians from Muslims \"[as] in the 13th century\".",
"Murder of Seth Rich",
"In a January 2017 phone conversation about the 2016 murder of Democratic National Committee staffer Seth Rich, Hersh told Fox News commentator Ed Butowsky that he had heard about an FBI report which found that Rich had tried to sell emails to WikiLeaks prior to his death",
". Although cautioned by Hersh that the information may not be true, Butowsky forwarded the taped call to the Rich family, who were encouraged to hire a private investigator quoted in a later-retracted Fox News article on the alleged FBI report. Hersh later said that he had relayed \"gossip\", and that he was fishing for information.",
"Pat Nixon abuse \nIn his 2018 autobiography Reporter, Hersh wrote that he had heard in 1974 that Pat Nixon, wife of former president Richard Nixon, had been treated in an emergency room in California after her husband had hit her, and that former Nixon aide John Ehrlichman told him of two previous incidents in which Nixon struck her. Hersh chose not to report on the alleged abuse because he considered it part of Nixon's private life, a decision which he later regretted.",
"Use of anonymous sources",
"Hersh's reporting is well-known for its use of anonymous sources, which his biographer Robert Miraldi described as his \"trademark\". While working as a Pentagon correspondent for the AP, he developed many anonymous top- and mid-level military sources, leading Pentagon officials to deride the fact that he \"broke every rule of bureaucratic journalism\". His AP colleague Richard Pyle later observed that \"people were somewhat annoyed that he had no or few names in so many of his stories\"",
". Hersh's articles on the Watergate scandal, like that of Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein, made extensive use of unnamed sources, including deep inside the White House, Justice Department, and Congress. Hersh's New York Times editor A. M. Rosenthal warned him to halt his practice of \"ascribing long, colorful pejorative comments in direct quotes to anonymous officials\"",
". After Hersh's articles on CIA involvement in the Chilean coup, largely based on unnamed CIA sources, Rosenthal praised his work but again warned about sources: \"It's our obligation to be extremely careful, restrained and judicious. Using them puzzles the reader at the best, and raises questions about the credibility of the story at the worst.\"",
"Hersh's conservative critics frequently accused him of a left-wing bias in his reporting on the My Lai massacre and later stories. Hersh responded that: \"I don't go around getting my stories from nice old Lefties or the Weathermen ... I get them from good old-fashioned constitutionalists. I learned a long time ago that you can't go around making judgments on the basis of people's politics",
". The essential thing is: Do they have integrity or not?\" Henry Kissinger, in response to Hersh's 1983 book The Price of Power, accused him of including \"inference piled on assumption, third-hand hearsay accepted as fact, the self-serving accounts of disgruntled adversaries elevated to gospel, the 'impressions' of people several times removed from the scene",
".\" Hersh's 1986 book The Target Is Destroyed was especially noted for its anonymous sources, with Hersh admitting that: \"This is a book whose key allegations hinge on unnamed sources ... mysterious 'government officials' and 'intelligence analysts'.\", and his 1991 book The Samson Option was similar, with journalist Steven Emerson writing in a review that it relied on Hersh's mere reputation: \"If anyone else wrote this book, it would have never seen the light of day\"",
". Hersh's 1997 book The Dark Side of Camelot used very few unnamed sources, but its document hoax controversy and dubious claims drew the criticism of many in the media, with Kennedy biographer Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. calling him \"the most gullible investigative reporter perhaps in American history\".",
"Hersh's articles for The New Yorker, like his previous articles at the Times under Rosenthal, were reviewed by an active editor (David Remnick) and a team of fact-checkers. In a 2003 interview with the Columbia Journalism Review, Remnick stated that he knew the identity of all of Hersh's sources: \"I know every single source that is in his pieces ..",
"... Every 'retired intelligence officer', every general with reason to know, and all those phrases that one has to use, alas, by necessity, I say, 'Who is it? What's his interest?' We talk it through.\" Hersh's reporting on the Middle East after 9/11 drew renewed criticism of his unnamed sources; journalist Amir Taheri wrote in a review of Hersh's 2004 book Chain of Command that: \"Hersh uses the method of medieval scholastics: first choose your belief, then seek proofs. ..",
". ... By my count Hersh has anonymous sources inside 30 foreign governments and virtually every department of the U.S. government.\" Remnick defended Hersh, arguing that unnamed sources were needed in intelligence reporting due to the risk taken by sources, who faced dismissal or prosecution. Hersh said of his reporting of the \"war on terror\" that: \"[T]he only way you measure my stories in any reasonable way is to say that I've been writing an alternative history of the war",
". And the question is: Is it basically right? And I think overwhelmingly it's right.\" Journalist William Arkin, who worked with Hersh in the 1990s, responded to critics of Hersh's errors that: \"He can get every fact wrong but get the story correct.\"",
"Hersh's reporting outside of The New Yorker has been criticized for allegedly being subjected to less editorial review and fact-checking. Hersh stated that his 2013 article on the Ghouta chemical attack, published in the London Review of Books (LRB), had been rejected because \"[Remnick] didn't feel it was strong enough\". In 2015, he stated that the LRB had used a former fact-checker from The New Yorker for his article on the killing of Osama bin Laden",
". Journalist James Kirchick criticized Hersh's later reporting for uncritically treating information provided to him by \"cranks\", which he wrote were attracted to Hersh because he shared a \"conspiratorial\" view of the world where \"dark, shadowy\" forces ruled. Hersh replied that: \"There's zero value in taking just the line of government agencies and official spokespeople ... So that makes you reliant on people who have agendas, as all sources usually do, and it attracts people who believe in conspiracies",
". A lot of intelligence work is finding connections, a bit of an occupational hazard.\"",
"Criticism of Hersh and his sources was renewed after his 2017 article on the Khan Shaykhun chemical attack, published by Die Welt after LRB editor Mary-Kay Wilmers told him she \"didn't want to be accused of being too pro-Russian and too pro-Syria\", and Hersh's 2023 post on the Nord Stream sabotage, self-published on Substack",
". Hersh defended his use of a single anonymous source for his Nordstream story, saying that \"I don’t want to talk specifically about any particular meeting because I have to protect my source.\"",
"In 2015, during the bin Laden controversy, Hersh's biographer Robert Miraldi noted that his stories were often controversial when they were first published, being considered too conspiratorial or relying too heavily on unnamed sources, but that many were later proven correct. He added that: \"This is typical Sy... He explodes onto page one, his critics say it ain't so, and yet in the end he's proven to be correct. He's loving this. He revels in these moments.\"",
"In 2023, after Hersh cited an alleged U.S. official describing Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy as a \"poor waif in his underwear\" — a translation of an idiomatic Russian expression and not otherwise common in English — some commentators speculated that Hersh's source had in fact been Russian-speaking.\n\nPersonal life \n\nHersh married Elizabeth Sarah Klein, a doctor, in 1964. They have three children.",
"Personal life \n\nHersh married Elizabeth Sarah Klein, a doctor, in 1964. They have three children.\n\nAwards and honors \nHersh's journalism and publishing awards include the Pulitzer Prize in 1970, five George Polk Awards (making him that award's most honored laureate as of 2004), two National Magazine Awards, and more than a dozen other prizes for investigative reporting:",
"1969: George Polk Special Award and Worth Bingham Prize for Investigative Journalism, for reporting on the My Lai massacre (Dispatch News Service)\n 1970: Pulitzer Prize for International Reporting and Sigma Delta Chi Distinguished Service Award, for reporting on the My Lai massacre\n 1973: George Polk Award for Investigative Reporting and Scripps-Howard Public Service Award, for reporting on Operation Menu (The New York Times)",
"1974: George Polk Award for National Reporting, for reporting on Operation CHAOS (The New York Times)\n 1975: Hillman Prize for Newspaper Reporting, for reporting on Operation CHAOS\n 1981: George Polk Award for National Reporting (with Jeff Gerth and Philip Taubman) and Sigma Delta Chi Award, for reporting on arms sales to Libya by former CIA agents (The New York Times)",
"1983: National Book Critics Circle Award for Nonfiction, Los Angeles Times Book Prize for Biography, and Investigative Reporters & Editors Award, for The Price of Power: Kissinger in the Nixon White House\n 1984: Hillman Prize for Book Reporting, for The Price of Power: Kissinger in the Nixon White House\n 1992: Investigative Reporters & Editors Award, for The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy",
"2004: National Magazine Award for Public Interest, for articles on the Bush administration in the lead-up to the Iraq War (The New Yorker); George Polk Award for Magazine Reporting, Overseas Press Club Joe and Laurie Dine Award, National Press Foundation Kiplinger Distinguished Contributions to Journalism Award, Letelier-Moffitt Human Rights Award, and LennonOno Grant for Peace, for reporting on the prisoner abuse at Abu Ghraib (The New Yorker); George Orwell Award for both stories",
"2005: National Magazine Award for Public Interest, for reporting on the prisoner abuse at Abu Ghraib; Ridenhour Courage Prize \n 2009: International Center for Journalists Founders Award for Excellence in Journalism\n 2017: Sam Adams Award",
"Publications\n\nBooks\n\nArticles \n Articles on the My Lai massacre (St. Louis Post-Dispatch; November 13, 20, and 25, 1969)\n Collected articles for The New Yorker (1971–2015)\n Collected articles for The Atlantic (1982–1994)\n Collected articles for the London Review of Books (2013–2019)\n\nReferences\n\nWorks cited\n\nExternal links \n \n \n Seymour Hersh on Substack",
"1937 births\nLiving people\n20th-century American journalists\n21st-century American journalists\n20th-century American male writers\n21st-century American male writers\n21st-century American memoirists\nAmerican investigative journalists\nAmerican male journalists\nAmerican newspaper reporters and correspondents\nAmerican people of Lithuanian-Jewish descent\nAmerican people of Polish-Jewish descent\nAmerican people of the Vietnam War\nAmerican political writers\nEspionage writers\nGeorge Polk Award recipients",
"American political writers\nEspionage writers\nGeorge Polk Award recipients\nJewish American journalists\nJewish American writers\nMỹ Lai massacre\nThe New York Times writers\nThe New Yorker people\nPulitzer Prize for International Reporting winners\nUniversity of Chicago Law School alumni\nUniversity of Illinois Chicago alumni\nWatergate scandal investigators\nJournalists from Chicago"
] |
Bloody Thursday (Bahrain)
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloody%20Thursday%20%28Bahrain%29
|
[
"Bloody Thursday () is the name given by Bahraini protesters to 17 February 2011, the fourth day of the Bahraini uprising as part of the Arab Spring. Bahraini security forces launched a pre-dawn raid to clear Pearl Roundabout in Manama of the protesters camped there, most of whom were at the time asleep in tents; four were killed and about 300 injured. The event led some to demand even more political reform than they had been before, calling for an end to the reign of King Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa.",
"The clearance was described by witnesses as being brutal and sudden. Clouds of tear gas covered the area, and volleys of birdshot were fired on those who refused to withdraw. Medics, ambulances and a journalist were reportedly attacked as well. Sporadic clashes broke out around Bahrain hours after the raid. During the afternoon the National Guard and army deployed armoured vehicles, tanks, more than 50 armoured personnel carriers and set up checkpoints in the streets around the country",
". Protesters then took refuge at Salmaniya Medical Complex and continued their agitations; thousands of them chanted \"Down with the king, down with the government.\"",
"The Bahraini government accused protesters of attacking the security forces, 50 of whom sustained injuries, and insisted that action had been necessary to pull Bahrain back from the \"brink of a sectarian abyss\". But opposition parties dismissed the government's account as a \"silly play\", described the raid as a \"heinous massacre\" and submitted their resignations from the lower house of Parliament.",
"Internationally, the Gulf Cooperation Council Ministers of Foreign Affairs expressed their solidarity with government of Bahrain and their support for the measures taken. The United Nations, the European Union and the United States on the other hand expressed their deep concern and regret for the violence used against protesters. The United Kingdom government announced that in light of the unrest it would revoke some arms export licences to Bahrain",
". A number of international rights groups and independent observers criticised the government crackdown.",
"Background\n\nThe events were one of a string of protests that occurred across the Arab world following the self-immolation and eventual death of Mohammed Bouazizi in Tunisia, the majority Shia population of Bahrain, as well as some Sunni Muslims, took to the streets demanding reforms. Al Jazeera reported that a protest was planned for 14 February, just a few months after the controversial 2010 election.",
"On 14 February (referred to as Day of Rage by protest organisers), about 6,000 people took part in many protests around Bahrain demanding the release of previously detained protesters, socio-economic justice, political reform and a constitutional monarchy. Police then attacked the protesters throughout the day, using tear gas, rubber bullets and shotguns, inflicting many injuries and causing the hospitalisation of four demonstrators",
". In the evening, Ali Mushaima died from police shotgun wounds to his back at close range. The next day, thousands of mourners attended his funeral. During the ceremony police shot Fadhel Al-Matrook in the back at close range; he died from his wounds within an hour. People were then allowed to march to and occupy Pearl Roundabout, where they began to set up tents; the number of demonstrators had swelled to 10,000 people by nightfall",
". King Hamad offered his condolences for the two deaths and announced the establishment of a committee to investigate the events of the previous two days. In total, 25 people were said to have been injured on 15 February.",
"By 16 February, Pearl Roundabout was still occupied by thousands of protesters. Some of those present at the scene described the mood at the roundabout as \"festive,\" with protesters distributing tea, coffee and food while discussing the situation in the country. Opposition political figures such as Ali Salman and Abdulwahab Hussain also addressed the crowds gathered at the roundabout",
". Elsewhere in the country a funeral procession was held for Fadhel Al-Matrook, while a motorcade of about 100 cars with supporters of King Hamad passed without police interference.",
"The Ministry of Interior then announced that the gathering at Pearl Roundabout was illegal and that it was only tolerated as a display of sympathy in the wake of recent events. King Hamad visited the Bahrain Defence Force headquarters, where he met its Commander-in-Chief Field Marshal Khalifa bin Ahmad and other senior military officers. Together they reviewed \"the preparations undertaken by the Defence Force to protect the security of the homeland and to maintain the safety of citizens.\"\n\nNaming",
"Naming\n\nIn Bahrain, especially among the organising activists, the day police stormed the roundabout was posthumously referred to as Bahrain Bloody Thursday; some doctors also referred to it as Black Thursday; while other opposition members have called it a massacre.\n\nRaid",
"Raid\n\nIn a pre-dawn raid, at about 3:00 on 17 February, around 1,000 police were dispatched to clear the Pearl Roundabout of an estimated 1,500–3,000 individuals staying overnight in tents. According to the Bahrain Independent Commission of Inquiry, police were armed with sticks, shields, sound bombs, tear gas and shotguns. They moved on protesters from two directions, the flyover north of Pearl Roundabout and Noaim, south of the roundabout. In addition, personnel from NSA and BDF were onsite.",
"Eyewitness and journalist accounts",
"According to eyewitnesses, the raid was sudden and without warning and many sleeping protesters, including women and children, were awoken by the sounds of tear gas and stun grenades. Armed plainclothes policemen arrived in more than 100 civilian cars and started breaking into tents before the uniformed officers started shooting. The police carried knives, which they used to slice through tents, before beating women and men inside and firing on some people with bird-shot shotguns",
". Clouds of tear gas covered Pearl Roundabout that \"one could not see surroundings,\" according to one witness.",
"Maryam Alkhawaja of the Bahrain Centre for Human Rights said: \"The attack was very violent, [the police] were not showing any mercy.\" An unnamed injured protester told the local independent newspaper Al-Wasat he was within a group of protesters who were awake and that they chanted \"peaceful ... peaceful\" before being attacked by police who reportedly stole his wallet, camera and mobile phone after beating and dragging him with a rope",
". Another injured protester described how women and children were running all over the place; even after withdrawing to nearby villages, police still pursued protesters and arrested \"large numbers\" of them. Other eyewitnesses said police searched the cars parked around Pearl Roundabout, damaging some of them.",
"Yet another injured protesters said: \"They had encircled us and they kept shooting tear gas and live rounds. The circle got closer and closer.\" Some witnesses claimed the police used anti-Shia curses during their attacks on the mainly Shia protesters. Medics who arrived at Pearl Roundabout said they saw police stamping on handcuffed protesters who laid on the ground. A nurse said she saw a group of police \"execute\" a young protester with a gun at \"point-blank range\" after handcuffing and beating him.",
"ABC News reporter Miguel Marquez said he was beaten by men carrying clubs while he was making a phone call report. \"There was a canister that looked like – No! No! No! Hey! I'm a journalist here! I'm going! I'm going! I'm going! I'm going! ... I'm hit.\" Then, in an attempt to show he was not a protester, Marquez yelled \"Journalist, journalist!,\" yet he reported getting hit multiple times and that his camera was stolen",
". He described the plainclothes police who reportedly attacked him as a \"gang of thugs,\" who wanted to clear the square before planned protests following Friday prayers.",
"Health worker accounts\nA medical volunteer said that despite showing their identification cards police attacked ten medics at the roundabout who had offered their services.",
"For eight hours Health Minister Faisal al-Hamar prevented ambulances going to the assistance of those injured at Pearl Roundabout. Doctors and paramedics protested inside Salmaniya Medical Complex (SMC); while still doing their best to help the wounded, medics signed a petition and formed a human chain calling for his resignation for \"blocking ambulances from going to help those injured in Pearl Roundabout.\" They claimed that he told doctors at the hospital of his resignation before leaving",
".\" They claimed that he told doctors at the hospital of his resignation before leaving. However, he later rejected that claim.",
"Despite the block, Salmaniya Medical Complex's disaster plan was activated on the morning of the attack. It called for more than a dozen ambulances to search nearby areas and Pearl Roundabout. Another dozen ambulances were put on stand-by, according to a member of the medical staff. The staff said that ambulances were functioning in accordance with the plan until about 6:00 am, when an alleged call from the Ministry of Interior ordered all but two ambulances to head back to the SMC",
". However, this order was ignored and more ambulances were sent to search for the injured in the areas surrounding the roundabout.",
"About five ambulances reached Pearl Roundabout, where they were confronted by police and army forces; three drivers and nine paramedics were attacked. One of the injured drivers claimed that police had clubbed him and that a senior officer had told him: \"If I see you again, I'll kill you",
".\" Another ambulance driver, who was unharmed, said that police removed injured protesters from his vehicle by force and a military officer – whom he believed to be a Saudi, based on his Arabic dialect – held a gun to his head and warned him to drive away or be shot. One ambulance was reportedly confiscated by police, who then took it to an unknown location after beating its driver and other paramedics, who had to walk back to the SMC.",
"A paramedic also said police allowed the first ambulances that reached Pearl Roundabout to pass safely, while some security personnel captured videos, but when the ambulances moved out carrying casualties security forces had targeted the vehicles. He said: \"Later Bahrain T.V. showed only the scenes where they allowed us to pass in order to mislead the public opinion. I personally heard orders given to security forces via their communication devices to target, threat and delay paramedics as long as they can",
". Security forces dealt with us as if we were defendants and partners to protesters who wanted to hide them, whereas what we were doing was a professional and humane duty that has nothing to do with our political position.\" When the block was lifted in the late morning till noon, paramedics did not find any casualties to take back to the SMC at Pearl Roundabout, despite seeing handcuffed protesters being stomped on by police when they arrived.",
"Government accounts",
"The government account of the incident indicated that police, using a megaphone, had ordered protesters to evacuate the area and that some had done so, whereas others remained in defiance of the law. It added that police only intervened after exhausting all opportunities for dialogue and that lethal shots were fired only at armed protesters who attacked police officers",
". Security forces reported finding pistols, bullets, large quantities of knives, daggers, swords and other sharp objects, as well as Hezbollah flags at the site.",
"On a state television show, Ministry of Interior spokesman Tariq Al-Hassan said that fifty police officers had been injured, including two with serious sword wounds and that \"one protester drove over police resulting in injuries including cutting-off fingers of a policeman before we could catch him",
".\" He also denied policemen prevented ambulances from reaching Pearl Roundabout or attacked any paramedics, but instead: \"What happened is that protesters stole an ambulance car, so we were checking on every ambulance that reaches the roundabout.\" One doctor working at SMC's ER supported the government's account, accusing protesters of attacking the Under-Secretary-of-State for Health, taking control of all hospital entrances and stealing an ambulance.",
"The Bahrain Independent Commission of Inquiry, set up by the king to report on the events of February and March, did not see any evidence to support the government's claim that protesters were armed or that medics had supplied them with weapons, however it stated that medics took control of the first floor of Salmaniya hospital. Eyewitnesses also denied being warned by the police, saying that if they had known of the police presence then women and children would have been evacuated.\n\nAftermath",
"The raid culminated in the destruction of the encampment, with flattened tents and protesters' belongings scattered all over the place. Security forces then declared the protest camp to be illegal and installed barbed wire around Pearl Roundabout. An hour after the attack, a number of protesters tried to return to the roundabout, which was completely controlled by police. Security forces fired a shotgun on one protester directly in the head from a few centimetres away, killing him instantly",
". Police claimed the protesters attacked them using \"metal rods, swords, molotov cocktails, stones, and other weapons.\" After some more time around 500 protesters gathered in the Noaim area, but were dispersed by police.",
"Sporadic clashes broke out around Bahrain hours after the raid. During the afternoon, the National Guard deployed eight armoured vehicles and the Bahrain Defence Force deployed tanks and at least 50 armoured personnel carriers armed with machine guns around the capital, Manama, the first time military armoured vehicles had been seen in the streets since the protests commenced. Military checkpoints were set up and patrols circulated throughout the country",
". Military checkpoints were set up and patrols circulated throughout the country. The Interior Ministry issued a warning to citizens to stay out of the streets; while the army warned people that they were ready to take \"punitive measures\" to restore order. The Bahrain Defence Force issued Statement 1, which asked citizens to \"distance themselves from gatherings in vital areas in the capital [to prevent] fear, shock and serious traffic disruptions",
".\" Main roads leading to Manama were blocked and traffic was also redirected, while main roads of the capital were almost empty, as workers stayed home, leaving banks and \"other key institutions\" closed.",
"Salmaniya hospital",
"According to an unnamed Al Jazeera reporter, hospitals in Manama were full because of patients that were awaiting treatment as a result of and during the police raid, including medical personnel who were attacked by police while trying to help the wounded. The New York Times columnist Nicolas Kristof reported that \"hospital corridors were also full of frantic mothers searching desperately for children who had gone missing in the attack.\" Women's cries were evident in the hospital and some fainted",
".\" Women's cries were evident in the hospital and some fainted. The Minister of Health appeared on state television and claimed that the situation at the main hospital was calm and that there were only seven minor injuries.",
"The blood bank at SMC called for blood donations, while the U.S. missionary hospital announced that it will be treating those injured for free. An eyewitness at the hospital said: \"Lots of people are standing at the gates of the hospital. The police have closed the area so that no people can get in or out – some tried to get out and were shot at by police.\" The SMC was seen as a safe place for the opposition protesters to go",
".\" The SMC was seen as a safe place for the opposition protesters to go. By late afternoon, about 4,000 protesters had congregated at the hospital, while protesters who had gathered in the car parks near the emergency entrance chanted: \"Down with the regime, with our blood we will defend our rights.\"",
"After seeing the violence, Ali al-Ghanmi, a police officer, left his guard post and joined the crowd, announcing to them that he could no longer support \"a killer institution.\" The crowd hoisted him on their shoulders and al-Ghanmi became an immediate \"mini-celebrity\" of the protest movement.\n\nCasualties",
"More than 300 individuals were injured during the raid, including women and children; some of them in critical condition. Injured protesters were taken to the Salmaniya Medical Complex, many of them with broken limbs and open wounds. Four individuals were killed by police using shotguns, from close range. While two of them who were shot in the back, another protester was shot in the thigh and subsequently died at the SMC; the fourth was shot in the head later and died instantly",
". At least 25,000 mourners took part at the funeral procession, which was held in Sitra on 18 February for the three protesters originating from the island.",
"Dr Sadiq Alekry",
"Dr Sadiq Alekry, a 44-year-old plastic surgeon, voluntarily offered his services at the roundabout on the evening of 16 February, shortly after he had returned from Houston. According to Human rights watch, Alekry along with other staff were wearing special medical jackets showing the Red Crescent",
". During the raid, riot police attacked his tent and cut through it; despite telling them he was a physician, police handcuffed him from his back and a number of security officers repeatedly punched, kicked and hit him with sticks on his head and other parts of the body.",
"About 20 officers then marched him away from Pearl Roundabout. Alekry said that while walking him, riot police also broke his nose and damaged his left eye so badly in the process that he temporarily lost his sight. He was then taken to a police bus, where his pants were pulled down by an officer who threatened Alekry with sexual assault; though the threat was not carried out.",
"In the bus, Alekry's shirt was pulled over his head and, while he was still hand-cuffed, security officers continued kicking and beating him for about an hour, until he fell to the floor. Nevertheless, the beating continued and Alekry reported that a police officer told him: \"If you bleed in my chair with your dirty blood I will beat you to death!\" When an ambulance arrived, police allowed him and three other detainees to be taken to hospital",
". He arrived at the SMC at 6:00 am, with severe injuries to his back, chest and face and underwent facial surgery a few days later.",
"Deaths\n\nAli Ahmed Moumen",
"Ali Ahmed Moumen was a 22-year-old college senior who died at the SMC on 17 February after being shot by a police in the thigh. His death certificate indicated he died due to \"extensive bleeding leading to intractable hypovolemic shock.\" Hours before his death he had posted a \"status\" update on Facebook saying: \"My blood is sacrificed for my country",
".\" That night, Moumen was sleeping beside his younger brother and made it out of Pearl Roundabout safely, but, according to his father, was then killed when he tried to return after hearing women and children were trapped. One of his friends said Ali was \"shot in the street and merely left to die.\"",
"Moumen was picked up at around 8:30 from Pearl Roundabout. He had serious injuries to his pelvis and right thigh. Bleeding profusely, two paramedics found Moumen after police allowed them through. The paramedics reported that they saw another possibly dead body with a fractured skull close to Moumen's, but were not permitted to pick it up. While leaving, the ambulance was reportedly attacked by riot police who beat the driver before allowing them to continue to the SMC",
". At the emergency room, Moumen had a surgery, but he died at 9:30. His father called Prime Minister Khalifa bin Salman Al Khalifa a \"killer\" and blamed him for his son's death. An unnamed policeman charged with the murder of Moumen was acquitted on 27 September 2012.",
"Ali Mansoor Khudair",
"Ali Mansour Ahmed Khudair was a 53 or 58-year-old Bahraini who died on 17 February after police shot at his back. He had 91 pellets in his chest. Khudair was a fisherman from Sitra who lived in a ramshackle house. He had three sons: Hassan (21), Jaffar (14) and Ahmed (9), as well as an 18-year-old daughter. Jaffar said: \"I was with my father in Pearl Roundabout when they attacked. We were asleep at first, when I woke up, I started moving away, but my father told me to endure, stay and not fear",
". Then we heard screams and rushed there. For a few seconds he spoke to the security forces, asking them to stay away from women and children, but they shot him in the chest. He fell to the ground and I couldn't see him after tear gas cloud covered the place.\"",
"Mahmood Makki Abutaki",
"Mahmoud Makki Abutaki was a 22-year-old college student majoring in engineering, when he died on 17 February after being shot in the back by police. Medics pulled about 200 pellets of birdshot from his chest and arms. Abutaki's elder brother, Ahmed, who was in the morgue while holding his brothers' hands, recalled the last conversation they had the previous night for the media present: \"He said, 'This is my chance, to have a say, so that maybe our country will do something for us",
".' My country did do something; it killed him.\"",
"Isa Abdulhasan Ali Hussain",
"Isa Abdulhasan Ali Hussain was a 60-year-old Bahraini who died on 17 February morning immediately after riot police fired at his head from point-blank range. Hussain was a part of a group of protesters who marched back towards Pearl Roundabout after being dispersed when police shot him. Eyewitnesses say he went near security forces asking them to allow young people help the injured protesters",
". However, police claimed he was with a group of protesters who attacked them using metal rods, swords, molotov cocktails, stones and other weapons. His funeral was held on 18 February in Karzakan and was attended by thousands of mourners. An unnamed policeman charged with his murder was acquitted on 27 September 2012.",
"Responses\n\nDomestic\nExecutive",
"King Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa praised the concluding statement from the meeting of the Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf foreign ministers, which was held on 17 February in Manama, and offered \"full support\" for Bahrain's security and politically, economically and defensively. At a news conference, Foreign Minister Khalid ibn Ahmad Al Khalifah alleged, and expressed his surprise, that protesters had attacked police",
". When asked about the reasons for choosing a pre-dawn time for the raid, he said: \"The reason for choosing this time was the smaller number of participants, and this reduces injuries.\" He called the deaths of the three protestors during the raid a \"regrettable accident. Police action was necessary to pull Bahrain back from the brink of a sectarian abyss",
". Police action was necessary to pull Bahrain back from the brink of a sectarian abyss.\" During the press conference, which was broadcasting live on national television, Al-Wasat correspondent Reem Khalifa cried tears and described what happened as a \"real massacre.\"",
"In what Al-Wasat called \"an unexpected move,\" Crown Prince Salman bin Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa appeared on state-owned television to express his condolences to the people for the \"hard days\" and asked them to \"calm down.\" He offered open dialogue with political societies, shortly before a royal decree was issued by his father, King Hamad, commissioning Salman to lead the dialogue.\n\nLegislative",
"All 18 MPs from Al Wefaq, the only opposition political party represented in parliament, submitted their resignations. They announced that the investigation committee formed by the king to fact-find the issues into the previous two killing incidents was only for media consumption, more so in the light of the deaths of four more protesters. They said the extraordinary session of parliament was illegal according to its rules of procedure",
". They said the extraordinary session of parliament was illegal according to its rules of procedure. Al Wefaq described the government account as a \"silly play that wasn't even as good as the previously exposed plays.\" It considered the report, which published photographs of firearms, swords and daggers, as \"funny\" and that these tools were not commercially sold in Bahrain.",
"Ali Salman, the head of Al Wefaq, said the party would continue to demand reform. Abdul Jalil Khalil, an Al Wefaq member of parliament, described the raid as \"real terrorism. Whoever took the decision to attack the protest was aiming to kill.\" He also said the casualty number is proportially large given the small size of Bahrain's population and added: \"After what happened today, people are asking us to leave parliament. Quit the government",
". Quit the government.\" Other Al Wefaq MP's and lawyers made a criminal complaint against senior officials of the Ministry of Interior, including its minister, the agents, the commander of public security forces, his assistants and the various heads of security zones.",
"Political",
"Seven opposition political parties, including Al Wefaq and the National Democratic Action Society, issued a joint statement rejecting the government's charge that the demonstrators were armed and condemning \"the heinous massacre\" perpetrated by police, including the prevention of ambulances from reaching the site to ferry the wounded to hospital. They demanded the resignation of the government and the formation of a new one to investigate the \"crime\" and submit political reforms",
". Ibrahim Sharif, the head of National Democratic Action Society and a Sunni Muslim, said protesters were not given enough time to evacuate the area and that government could have told them hours before or even by small papers thrown from helicopters. He told the BBC that \"throughout the day there were rumours we would have another 24 hours, but the attack has come without [any] warning.\"",
"Other",
"The General Federation of Workers Trade Unions in Bahrain condemned the use of force in breaking up the peaceful gathering at Pearl Roundabout and asked King Hamad to intervene to stop security forces' violence and to punish those responsible for the incidents. They also announced that a meeting of the Central Council and heads of other trade unions is in the state of permanent session to take any deemed necessary steps, including the call for a general strike",
". The Bahrain Teachers' Society called for a strike and gatherings outside schools on 20 February. The Bahrain Human Rights Society and 18 other civil society foundations condemned the \"sudden brutal attack\" and asked other international and Arab figures to condemn it.",
"Ayatollah Isa Qassim, Bahrain's highest-ranking Shia cleric, described the incident as a \"massacre\" in Friday sermon's Khutbah: \"This reckless murder, and thirst to kill would create a complete break between the government and the people, and it will not allow any chance of any vote aiming to calm the situation and heal the wounds",
".\" A group of clerics including the head of the Olama council visited the wounded at the SMC and spoke of their support for the protesters' demands and also called for immediate political reforms. The Olama council described the raid as a \"terrible crime and at least a massacre\" and asked for immediate urgent initiatives to achieve the \"just demands of the people. We refuse blank prosthetic solutions, the practice of wasting time, and referral to the powerless Parliament that lacks popular legitimacy.\"",
"Doctors, nurses and paramedics organised a sit-in at the parks of the SMC demanding the resignation of the health minister and condemning the blocking of ambulances from going to Pearl Roundabout. The Bahrain Medical Society and Bahrain Dental Society issued a joint statement denouncing the \"unjustified and excessive use of force by police, and the banning of medical teams from performing their duties\" and asked the king to take immediate action to stop these procedures from re-occurring.",
"International\nSupranational bodies",
"The United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon asked for bringing to justice those responsible for the violence. He expressed his deep concern and disturbance \"by the violent means used to disperse demonstrators",
". He expressed his deep concern and disturbance \"by the violent means used to disperse demonstrators.\" A spokesperson for Catherine Ashton, the European Union's High Representative, said that she was very concerned about the events that took place and that she expressed regret for the deaths and acts of violence, while also calling on the Bahraini government to respect and protect the basic rights of its citizens including the right to assemble peacefully",
". \"Concerns expressed by the people must be addressed peacefully through dialogue.\"",
"States",
"French Foreign Ministry spokeswoman Christine Valle expressed regret for the excessive use of force in several Arab countries and serious concern about the recent developments in Bahrain, as well as Libya and Yemen, in particular. German Foreign Minister Guido Westerwelle condemned the use of violence by the police and called on officials in Bahrain to stop the use of violence immediately and protect the protesters better. \"They [protestors] are just exercising their rights",
". \"They [protestors] are just exercising their rights.\" Saudi Arabian prince Talal Bin Abdulaziz, father of prince Al Waleed Bin Talal, said there is a chance protests in Bahrain would move into Saudi Arabia if serious reforms were not carried out. United Arab Emirates Foreign Minister Abdullah bin Zayed Al Nahyan expressed his country's support for Bahrain, stressing that what affects Bahrain and its security would affect the entire Gulf Cooperation Council and ultimately all countries of the world.",
"United Kingdom Foreign Secretary William Hague said that he was \"deeply concerned\" by the \"unacceptable violence\" used against protesters. He also stressed the \"need for peaceful action to address the concerns of protesters\" to his Bahraini counterpart. The U.K",
". The U.K. government then announced that in light of the unrest it has decided to revoke some arms export licenses to Bahrain stating that \"licenses will not be issued when officials judge that there is a risk that the exports may provoke regional or internal conflicts or be used to facilitate internal repression.\" However, arms sales continued throughout the year. The British Foreign Office also temporarily closed its embassy in Bahrain.",
"United States President Barack Obama expressed his objection the use of the violence by the Bahraini government against peaceful demonstrators. White House spokesman Jay Carney said that it was \"not an appropriate reaction\" to use force against the protesters. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton called Bahrain's foreign minister during the day to convey \"our deep concern about the actions of the security forces",
".\" The Pentagon's spokesman said that they were keeping a close look at developments in Bahrain and called on all parties to \"exercise restraint and refrain from violence.\" Jennifer Stride, the Bahrain-based U.S. Fifth Fleet's spokeswoman, said there was no \"indication the protests will cause significant disruption\" for the fleet, which she also said was \"not being targeted.\"",
"Other",
"Bernie Ecclestone, the F1 commercial rights holder, said if the unrest has \"not quietened down by Wednesday, I think we will have to cancel the 2011 Bahrain Grand Prix probably.\" On 21 February the race was postponed and then canceled later. Human Rights Watch called on the Bahraini government to stop attacking peaceful protesters and start probes into the deaths. Amnesty International similarly condemned the government crackdown and asked for an independent investigation into the events",
". Anonymous, an online hackers grouping, issued a statement condemning the crackdown and expressed its solidarity with the protesters: \"By interfering with the freedom to hold peaceful protests, the Bahrainian government has made itself a clear enemy of its own citizens and of Anonymous. The actions of this regime will not be forgotten, nor will they be forgiven.\"",
"The New York Times columnist Nicolas Kristof described the raid as \"brutal repression\" that is usually \"confined to remote and backward nations\" and referred to the government's version of events as \"preposterous\" and expressed his sadness over the events. Fareed Zakaria, CNNs international affairs analyst, said that the crackdown on the protesters was a \"rash move that will enrage many of its people and cost the regime international prestige",
". This is a terrible mistake and they will pay a heavy price for it. The regime in Bahrain is doing something very rash and unwise; it is trying to respond by using force and punitive measures. This is not going to work in the end.\"",
"Analysis",
"The events at the Pearl Roundabout and Salmaniyya Medical Complex marked a turning point in the Bahraini uprising, according to the media; an analysis by The Guardian said it reduced, if not killed, any chance of dialogue. The raid expanded the demands of some protesters from asking for reforms which included writing a new constitution to calling for an end to the monarchy",
". According to the Bahrain Mirror, the phrase \"after Thursday, we stopped the talking; the people want to overthrow the regime\" (Arabic: من بعد الخميس أنهينا الكلام، الشعب يريد إسقاط النظام) became popular in later protests. On 22 February, a mass rally dubbed the March of loyalty to martyrs was held in honour of the four protesters who had lost their lives during the day; over 100,000 people took part in the protest",
". The Al Jazeera English documentary Bahrain: Shouting in the Dark also features the events of the day.",
"See also\n\nHuman rights in Bahrain\n\nFurther reading\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n Amnesty International: Bloodied but Unbowed: Unwarranted State Violence against Bahraini Protesters\n Human Rights Watch: Targets of Retribution: Attacks against Medics, Injured Protesters, and Health Facilities\n\nBahraini uprising of 2011\nDeaths during the Bahraini uprising of 2011\nFebruary 2011 events in Asia\nHuman rights abuses in Bahrain\nProtest-related deaths\nProtests in Bahrain"
] |
List of Gunslinger Girl characters
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Gunslinger%20Girl%20characters
|
[
"The following is a list of characters from the Japanese manga series Gunslinger Girl.",
"Set in modern-day Italy, the series revolves around the Social Welfare Agency, a government-funded organisation which is supposed to provide advanced medical care to those in need. This, however, is a cover for a far different agenda: the patients, adolescent girls who have survived traumatic events, are brainwashed into forgetting their past, turned into cyborgs, trained in the use of weapons and used as assassins to battle enemies of the State",
". Each girl is assigned to an adult whose job is to provide the girl with training and act as a mentor and authority figure. The relationship between the cyborg-girls and their \"handlers\" forms the basis of much of the plot and varies from the affectionate to the indifferent with varying degrees of results.",
"Child cyborg assassins\n\nFirst Generation",
"Left for dead after the brutal murder of her family, during which she herself was assaulted, Henrietta suffered severe psychological trauma, making her suicidal. Like the other cyborg-girls, she was brainwashed into forgetting these events by a technique known as conditioning. Henrietta has short brown hair and brown eyes. Henrietta is devoted to her handler, Jose Croce, towards whom she has strong feelings. She even shows signs of jealousy when she feels Jose is paying attention to other women",
". She even shows signs of jealousy when she feels Jose is paying attention to other women. He encourages her to share his interest in astronomy which she passes on to the other girls. Jose even gives her a diary, but this causes her distress when, as a result of the long-term effects of the conditioning, she begins to forget the events she noted in the book. Henrietta's preferred weapons are the SIG Sauer P239 Two-Tone, the Fabrique Nationale P90 PDW, and the FN FAL",
". She and her handler have also used the Walther WA 2000 sniper rifle and Ingram MAC-10.",
"Confined to a hospital by severe birth defects, Rico was signed over by her parents to the SWA on her eleventh birthday. Rico loves her new body and life at the SWA, viewing each day as a blessing and maintaining a happy disposition. Rico appears to be the only cyborg with a clear memory of her life before coming to the SWA",
". Rico appears to be the only cyborg with a clear memory of her life before coming to the SWA. Rico's interrelationship with Jean is often marked by his seeming apathy towards her, and his harsh treatment of her when she makes mistakes, while Rico accepts his treatment of her as without question, only occasionally showing subtle signs of discontent. At his own request she shoots through and very nearly kills Jean, who was being used as a shield by Dante, in order to kill Dante (although he also survives)",
". In the epilogue of the penultimate chapter, it is revealed through Claes's narration that Rico passed away one year after the end of the main story. In the final chapter, after an undetermined amount of time has passed, Jean still keeps a picture of Rico on his desk.",
"Rico's preferred weapons are the CZ-75 pistol and the Dragunov SVD. In chapter 79 she wields a FN SCAR with a CQC barrel and chambered in 7.62 NATO. She has also been shown wielding a Beretta SCP-70/90 and is additionally shown training with a Galil MAR carbine and a Benelli M4 Super 90 shotgun. Her preferred support weapon is the MG 3 general purpose machine gun.",
"Originally from Tunisia, Triela was kidnapped and smuggled to Amsterdam by the Mafia, where she was assaulted during a taping of a snuff film. She was rescued by Victor Hilshire and Rachelle Belleut, after he took her to the SWA for treatment to her injuries. But she was also converted to a cyborg without his knowledge. Extremely pragmatic with just a hint of rebellion, Triela has a sarcastic wit and prefers to wear masculine clothing, though she does wear more feminine clothing in later chapters",
". She serves as a sort of mentor to the other girls of the SWA and retains a realistic outlook on her situation within the Agency. As the second oldest cyborg, Triela is beginning to experience the memory loss and medicinal withdrawals that plagued Angelica's final months, and has stated that she will probably die soon. She and Victor were killed during the New Turin Nuclear Plant incident and their bodies were later found together by the agency's cleanup crew",
". It is revealed in Victor's will that he had secretly had some of Triela's eggs preserved in a hospital. One of these is implanted to Roberta Guellfi, who bears and raises Triela's child, a girl she names \"Speranza\" (hope).",
"Triela's preferred weapons are the SIG-Sauer P230 SL pistol (after losing her P230 to Pinocchio, she is given a P232 as a replacement) and the M1897 Trench Shotgun with bayonet attachment. She has also been shown using a selection of Heckler & Koch weaponry, including the H&K G3A3 battle rifle, the H&K P7M8 pistol, H&K UMP submachine gun and H&K MP7 PDW.",
"Born Fleda Claes Johansson and the daughter of a professor who instilled in her a love for books at an early age, it is unknown how she arrived at the Social Welfare Agency. Claes is usually confined to the Agency, unable to participate in missions with the other girls since the death of her handler Raballo. She is used as a test subject by the cyborg engineers, who utilize controlled situations and equipment to monitor the usefulness of her implants",
". Since she and Raballo had bonded closely before his death it was decided that she could not be assigned to another handler, so she was re-conditioned to remove all memory of him. However, her life since then subconsciously reflects his influence through things like her painting of fishing, accessing the books in Raballo’s former dorm room and her enjoyment of gardening",
". Claes wears glasses from her life before her cybernetic operation as a visual reminder of a promise she once made to Raballo to “be good”, but over time she’s come to believe that she should not engage in violence at all — which causes complications when she and Petra are sent to capture some suspected weapons smugglers",
". After the New Turin incident, when the government sends soldiers to terminate the Social Welfare Agency (who have served their purpose and are now just 'dirty laundry'), Claes confronts them, but breaks down when she hears mention of Raballo - although it is left uncertain whether she is finally able to remember him, or not. Her final fate is unknown, but it can be presumed that she continues to live with the Social Welfare Agency or its successor until her death.",
"While part of a fratello with Raballo, Claes employed the H&K VP70M and the MP5K PDW.",
"Angelica was almost killed in a hit-and-run accident staged by her father to collect the life insurance he had on her. She thus became the first girl converted to a cyborg. Originally she remembered her family, but later she was conditioned to forget them. This conditioning significantly dampened her gregarious and outgoing nature, which alienated her from her handler, Marco. As the first cyborg to undergo the conditioning process, she became the first cyborg to suffer the deleterious effects",
". She suffered serious injuries while protecting on a mission at the end of season 1, but manages to slowly recover and eventually rejoin the other girls, despite the doubts of some Section 2 members. In the manga, Angelica's memory and function continue to deteriorate in a manner similar to those suffering Alzheimer's Disease. She passes away after reconciling with Marco and trying to comfort him with the Prince of Pasta story, despite no longer being able to recognize him",
". The Angelica/Marco fratello exclusively used Steyr-Mannlicher weapons including the AUG A2, TMP compact submachine gun, M-A1 pistol and the AUG H-BAR LMG.",
"Elsa de Sica’s world revolved around her handler, Lauro, even though he showed general disinterest towards her. Triela claimed that Elsa was in love with Lauro and generally ignored the other cyborgs. In both the manga and the anime, Henrietta believes that Elsa, knowing Lauro would never return her feelings of love and affection, took him to the park where Lauro named her and murdered him, taking her own life thereafter",
". Elsa's preferred weapons were the SIG 550, SIG 551, and SIG P229, and is also shown to use as a secondary sniping weapon a PGM Hecate II.",
"In the manga, Elsa never appeared alive (exceptions being a very brief flashback), and was only introduced after her death. The anime, however, devoted an entire episode to her relationship with her handler as a prelude to her killing him and then herself.\n In the anime, Elsa is said to be the newest addition to the Agency.",
"Beatrice is able to smell explosives either on a person or structure, an ability used by her handler to help identify potential suspects. In both the anime and manga she is portrayed as both apathetic and unemotional. She forms a friendship with Claes, who teaches her botany and gardening. Beatrice's preferred weapon is the IMI Micro Uzi machine pistol",
". Beatrice's preferred weapon is the IMI Micro Uzi machine pistol. She is killed during the Venice Operation against Giacomo Dante in Volume 11 by a shot to the chest from a Denel NTW-20 anti-materiel rifle, while throwing a 500kg missile warhead out of the Belltower of St. Marks. Her last thoughts were about her unique duty to do what normal people cannot do because she does not fear death, and the many people who wish for Triela to live.",
"Introduced in Chapter 60, Silvia has long wavy hair and carries a Benelli M4 Super 90 shotgun. She and her handler have been with the SWA for just under three years and they spent time together in Bologna. She is killed during the Venice Operation against Giacomo Dante in Volume 11.",
"Introduced in Chapter 60, Chiara has short dark hair and appears to carry an FR Ordnance MC51. Chiara became a cyborg shortly before Silvia did. She is wounded during the Venice Operation against Giacomo Dante in Volume 11. She does not appear again in the manga, so her fate is unknown.\n\nSeen only in the PS2 video game, her handler was a sleeper Padania agent who escaped with her. Dialogue in the game states she was created at the same time as Henrietta and Rico.",
"Unidentified Cyborgs\nIn Chapter 18, two unidentified girls are shown in the dining room. The one entering is likely Beatrice based on her hair style and clothing. It is possible the girl at the table with dark hair is Chiara.\nIn Chapter 33, also in the dining room, an unidentified girl with long dark hair is seen with a tray of food.\n\nSecond Generation",
"() was a Russian ballerina (the manga states her parents were from Southern Belarus, but later moved to Russia student at the Bolshoi Ballet Academy).Irradiated as a result of the Chernobyl disaster, she developed a tumor in her leg at sixteen. Sent to Italy for treatment, her leg could not be saved and was amputated. Distraught at her dreams of becoming a ballerina ending, she attempted suicide by jumping off the roof. She was transferred to the SWA and made into a cyborg",
". She was transferred to the SWA and made into a cyborg. Renamed Petrushka (after the Russian puppet of the same name) by her handler Alessandro Ricci, she underwent plastic surgery as part of her new life. Thus she is not naturally redheaded or green-eyed. As Angelica was the prototype for the first-generation cyborgs (Henrietta, Rico, Triela etc",
". As Angelica was the prototype for the first-generation cyborgs (Henrietta, Rico, Triela etc.), so Petrushka became the prototype for the second-generation, who, ironically, are shown to be in their mid-to-late teens, while most of the first generation are adolescents",
". Petrushka also had everything she needed to know about her life at the SWA pre-programmed into her brain: she knew where she was, that she would be trained for combat, and that she \"must follow Alessandro's and the Agency's orders without hesitation\". This also brought on side effects, such as her throwing up whenever she speaks against Alessandro",
". This also brought on side effects, such as her throwing up whenever she speaks against Alessandro. Furthermore, the conditioning was milder than that received by the previous generation and this has led her to occasionally question the SWA and its war on terrorism — such as at the time when she overheard Jean torturing a suspect",
". Petrushka also has dreams of herself of the time she was a ballerina and still practices the moves, even though she cannot recall where she learnt them — nor does she associate herself with the dancing girl in her dreams. At the end of the series she is discovered to have developed leukemia and as a result had to be operated on, from a request from Allesandro her conditioning was reversed and she regained her memories of her past, and decides that even without conditioning she loves Allesandro",
". In the epilogue of the final volume, it is confirmed by Claes that Petrushka dies of leukemia a little more than a year after the end of the Social Welfare Agency. Petrushka's preferred weapons are the Spectre M4 submachine gun and Taurus PT92 pistol. She briefly appears in episode 5 of Gunslinger Girl: Il Teatrino as Elizaveta. She was voiced by Brittney Karbowski.",
"In Chapter 49, Petrushka returns to her room and talks with three unidentified teenage girls. It is assumed these three are next-generation cyborgs like Petrushka. All three of these girls appear again in Chapter 73, but they remain unnamed. In Chapter 81, the girl with the short black hair operating the sniper rifle is named Gattonero. In Chapter 84, the one with blonde hair and bangs over her eyes is Soni and the redhead with freckles is named Fleccia.",
"Unidentified Cyborg\nThere is another cyborg with long dark hair in a ponytail whose handler is killed by Dante, but she is unnamed.\n\nCyborg handlers",
"Jose is an agent in Section 2, Henrietta's handler, and Jean's younger brother. He was previously an officer with the Carabinieri and was the youngest son of the influential public prosecutor Giovanni Croce and defense attorney Carla Croce, Enrica (whom Henrietta strongly resembles). In what would be labeled as the \"Croce Incident\", Jose's parents, sister and Jean's fiance were murdered when their car was destroyed by a roadside bomb set by Giacomo Dante of the terroristic Padania organization",
". To avenge his family, Jose and his brother joined the SWA to eradicate Padania, and ultimately kill Giacomo. After joining the SWA, Jose was initially adamant against treating the children the agency \"repaired\" as mere tools of vengeance, and is quite aware of their propensity for feeling emotion and pain, as well as each having a separate consciousness. However, as the series progress, he grows tired of treating Henrietta nicely as it is emotionally draining",
". After hunting down Giacomo, the terrorist responsible for his family's deaths and losing one of his eye, Jose grows detached from Henrietta, even allowing the SWA to \"reset\" Henrietta without caring about the consequences. During the SWA attack at the New Turin nuclear power station after Giacomo and his followers take control of the plant, Jose was accidentally shot and mortally wounded by a panicked Henrietta as she has a flashback of her past",
". Knowing that she will not be able to live happily if he is dead, He also feels dying by her hand wouldn't be so bad. Jose then reminds her of their vacation to Sicily and what she had said. With Jose pointing his gun at her eye and Henrietta with hers at his head, they enter into a suicide pact and together they pull their triggers.",
"The name \"Giuseppe\" is used only in ADV's English adaptation of the manga; in the Japanese-language manga and anime, this character is named , which has been rendered as Jose and even Giuse for the North American DVD release from FUNimation. Both forms have the same meaning: they are translations of the name \"Joseph.\" Although in flashback of Enrika Croce, Carla mentioned Jose as Gioseffo when she told her daughter to invite his brother to her football match replacing her.",
"An agent of Section 2, Rico's handler and Jose's older brother. Jean is also the leader of the handlers and a trusted advisor to Director Lorenzo, the head of the department. Jean’s childhood was strongly influenced by his grandfather, a hero of the Italian resistance movement in World War II. His father, a leading anti-terrorist prosecutor, wanted him to become a lawyer, but Jean wished to enroll in a military academy and then join the Army",
". His service with the Carabinieri, which includes both civilian and military work, may have been a compromise. Jean became engaged to Sophia Durante, a fellow Carabinieri soldier, who was later killed in the car bomb that also claimed his parents and sister. Determined on revenge, Jean joined Section 2 which also included his brother Jose",
". Determined on revenge, Jean joined Section 2 which also included his brother Jose. Whereas Jose shows affection and concern for Henrietta — treating her like the little sister he loved so much — Jean looks upon Rico as simply a tool for vengeance — a means to an end. Jean's desire for revenge defines his being: he lives only to kill terrorists and is not above torturing them either. Rescuing innocent hostages is the least of his problems as long as he can kill the terrorists who took them",
". Jean can occasionally be quite brutal towards Rico: leaving her with a bleeding lip after he got angry with her; and pushing her aside in frustration when, due to an error of judgement on his part and through no fault of hers, his enemy Giacomo Dante escaped, leaving a trail of death and destruction behind him",
". During the attack at the Turin power plant, Dante takes Jean as a human shield after Rico is about to shoot him but Jean orders Rico to shoot anyway, severely wounding Jean and Dante, knocking Dante back to and through the hole in the wall the shot created and falling down crashing into some scaffold below. He is later found and captured by Julia Aprea. After being shot, Jean apologizes to Rico on how he treated her and tells her to live on without him.",
"Victor Hartman was a Europol detective from Germany tasked with inter-departmental liaison at Interpol HQ. He wanted to join the Child Abuse Regulations Section to help expose a child-torture group operating in Holland. However, his boss denied him the request on the grounds that he was “too soft” to deal with the sort of cases that the team came up with. Later approached by Rachelle Belleut, the two decided to investigate a warehouse where torture sessions were rumored to take place",
". They received information concerning the child smuggling ring from Mario Bossi, a Camorra leader who had experienced an attack of conscience. In the course of rescuing a girl from a snuff movie, Rachelle was mortally wounded. Hartman and Bossi managed to rescue the girl and get her to hospital where she fell into a coma as a result of her experiences. The two men thus took her to Italy for treatment at the Social Welfare Agency, fooling the Dutch police who needed her in Holland as part of their case",
". Only later did Hartman discover that the girl, now called Triela, was to become a brainwashed killing machine. He was outraged but gave in to Jean Croce's coercion and agreed to become her handler, changing his name to Hilshire in order to cover his tracks.",
"Hilshire develops a very strong bond with Triela, and is increasingly worried about shortening her life-span due to repairs and re-conditioning. Eventually, he vows to devote himself to protecting her and keeping her alive as long as possible. He follows through on this to the very end, when he voluntarily dies with Triela in the New Turin power plant siege, after she is mortally wounded and surrounded by the RF forces",
". Later, it is revealed that in anticipation of such an end, Hilshire had preserved some of Triela's eggs, in order to give her a symbolic 'second chance' at life.",
"A former Captain in the Carabinieri, discharged due to a leg injury, he was approached by Jean Croce to serve as Claes' handler. In return, Jean would ensure Raballo’s reinstatement to the Carabinieri after three years. During his time in Section 2, Raballo and Claes partook of activities outside the SWA, especially fishing. He also taught Claes the value of patience and rekindled her prior love of reading. However, some incidents led him to question the cyborg program and the way the girls were being used",
". He left the agency and contacted a friend who was a newspaper reporter, but Raballo was then said to have been killed in a rather fortuitous hit-and-run.",
"An agent of Section 2 and Angelica’s handler, Marco Toni suffered an injury to his left eye, which resulted in his suspension from the Central Security Operations Service (NOCS) of the Polizia di Stato. His friend, Dr. Bianchi, recommended Marco to serve as Angelica’s handler. To help Angelica adjust to her new surroundings and all the surgeries, he created a fairy tale titled Il Principe del Regno della Pasta (\"The Prince of the Land of Pasta\") about a prince who ate only pasta",
". This fascinated his girlfriend at the time, Patricia, who later wrote and published an actual book based on the story. The conditioning process changed Angelica’s personality and effectiveness and her memories could become random: she would remember some events and forget others. This caused Marco to no longer feel any attachment for her, though after her near death he felt regret over how he treated her. After Angelica was allowed back onto the field, he was still somewhat distant from her",
". After Angelica was allowed back onto the field, he was still somewhat distant from her. Near the end, he reestablished the attachment that he used to have for her.",
"An agent of Section 2 and Elsa’s handler, little was said or shown about him in the manga other than he didn’t show her much attention, but Jean noted they were an excellent fratello. In the anime, Lauro was shown as being almost abusive towards Elsa, treating her with disrespect and disinterest. The anime also stated that Lauro joined Section 2 for the money because he had debts he needed to pay off and saw it only as a job, not as a cause",
". His lack of affection towards her caused Elsa to kill him before committing suicide.",
"As a boy, Alessandro Ricci's hobby was to observe people from a distance and figure out who they were and what they did from their appearance and body language. This brought him to the attention of a woman called Rossana who recruited him to the Public Security Division. Sandro was trained in surveillance and intelligence-gathering",
". Sandro was trained in surveillance and intelligence-gathering. As part of his missions he would seduce and bed the female relatives and associates of the activists he was targeting and this earned him a reputation in the department as something of a gigolo. There is some indication that he and Rossana had an affair. Her influence led Sandro to adopting a similar lifestyle to hers: a sparesely-furnished apartment filled with books and other material with which to do research on people and their habits",
". An example of this was when he had an informal chat at a hospital with a Russian ballerina, took down notes and returned to his flat in order to research the profession and increase his own knowledge into life in general. Sandro was assigned to Section 2 to become a handler to the first of a new generation of cyborgs",
". Sandro was assigned to Section 2 to become a handler to the first of a new generation of cyborgs. He showed little interest in touring hospitals and checking on potential recruits and told his colleagues that they could pick whichever girl they liked and do anything to her before he took over as handler. This included a certain amount of plastic surgery and Sandro's only condition was that she should not be a redhead (a possible reference to Rossana who had recently disappeared and gone into hiding)",
". Surgeon Louis Duvalier overlooked this condition, probably to get back at Sandro and his lack of interest or apparent commitment. The new cyborg was named Petrushka and Sandro trained in her in the application of make-up, disguise, surveillance and taking an enemy by surprise by feigning friendlyness. He also encouraged her to smoke and swear — though when, at his request, she tried to insult him personally, a side-effect of the conditioning made her suffer a nervous breakdown",
". Sandro and Petra have become close over time, and there is even some indication of a budding romance between the young couple.",
"An agent of Section 2 and Beatrice's handler, whom he appears to be fond of despite her lack of emotion. Unlike his cyborg charge, Bernardo is shown in both the manga and anime as a gregarious and outgoing person.\n\nPia's handler, he turns rogue and attempts to deliver his cyborg Pia to Padania. Like his cyborg, Earnest is present only in the PS2 videogame.",
"Other Handlers\nIn Chapter 82, a handler named Kraman is introduced, but he's buried under a pile of rubble. His unnamed cyborg attempts to extricate him, but is wounded.",
"In Chapter 84, the handlers for the three Section 2 girls first introduced in Chapter 49 are identified and given names. The female handler is named Fio, and her cyborg is Soni. Yarow is the handler for Gattonero and Lupa is the handler for Fleccia. An unidentified handler (for the cyborg with long dark hair in a ponytail) is killed by Dante.",
"Social Welfare Agency staff\n\nSection 1\n\nChief of Special Ops, Section 1. Jealous of the initial success of the cyborg program implemented by Section 2, he once attempted to cast doubt on the feasibility of the program via the investigation into the death of Elsa de Sica.\n\nA male agent for Section 1. He was called in to investigate the deaths of Elsa deSica and Lauro, as well as find information on the child assassins employed by Section 2.",
"A female agent for Section 1. She often kept track of minor details for Section 1 and kept a Moleskine pocketbook with everything she needed written inside, which Henrietta referred to as a \"magical notebook\".\n\nSection 2\n\nChief of Special Ops, Section 2. He is responsible for overseeing the overall development of the child assassins, as well as the handling of their missions. When looking over sensitive issues, Lorenzo often confers with Jean.",
"A female agent for Section 2 who has a no-nonsense personality.\n\nA female agent for Section 2 who is originally from Russia and was employed at the Russian embassy before joining the agency. She has often expressed the view that the girls would make excellent ballerinas.",
"A former officer of the Guardia di Finanza and now an agent for Section 2 who loves and genuinely cares for the girls and Angelica in particular. She has a chirpy personality when not on duty. She seems to have a better understanding of the dynamics among the various fratelli. Her function in Section 2 revolves primarily around collecting data.\n\nA male agent for Section 2. He uses a Floro MK-9 submachine gun.\n\nA male agent for Section 2 and former Marine. He refers to himself as \"The Agent of Love\".",
"A male agent for Section 2 and former Marine. He refers to himself as \"The Agent of Love\".\n\nA male agent for Section 2, it was mentioned that he used to serve in the Army, the anime specified that he was an officer. Voiced by Mike McFarland in Season 1\n\nA male agent for Section 2.\n\nTechnology department\n\nThe head doctor in charge of the child assassins' surgical operations. Dr. Bianchi also observes the medical diagnosis and physical development of the girls, and acts as a counselor to them.",
"Dr. \nThe head doctor in charge of developing artificial arms and legs of the cyborg's body.\n\nMember of the surgical team. Replaced Triela's leg in Volume 4.\n\nDr. \nOversees the conditioning processes used on the cyborgs. Holds four doctorates.\n\nDr. \n\nTechnician officer, expert on artificial organs and the vascular system. Performed some of the body design for Petrushka with Dr. Giliani.",
"Technical officer who works on designing the outsides of the cyborg's body. The name implies that he is of French origin. He is assisted by a pair of twin girls who talk in unison and even make the same moves. Louis was in charge of modifying Petrushka's physical appearance and probably deliberately gave her red hair to irritate Alessandro because of his non-committal attitude and because his only request concerning his cyborg was that she should not have such a hair colour.",
"Technician officer and neurologist. She keeps track of the mental deterioration the conditioning drugs have on the girls.\n\nPublic Security\n\nDirector of the Public Security department.",
"A red-headed ex-member of Section 1. She was the best spy in Italy in her time, and mentored Sandro. She could impersonate 100 people, speak various languages, and was an exceptional athlete. At one point during her career, she started a relationship with Sandro, but suddenly left mysteriously and was proclaimed a traitor. As a result, Sandro claimed to hate red-heads from then on",
". As a result, Sandro claimed to hate red-heads from then on. Sandro later discovered that she left after becoming pregnant while working \"undercover\" on a male suspect and that she and her daughter were living on a small farm. Sandro and Petra subsequently helped Rossanna flee the country when they became targets of assassins sent by the child's father, now a leading politician.",
"Others\n\nThe Prime Minister of Italy.\n\nThe Minister of Defense for Italy. She also oversees the Social Welfare Agency special operations divisions and their use of federal funds.",
"The younger sister of Jose and Jean Croce. She was especially close to Jose who took the trouble of being with her as much as possible since she tended to be neglected by their career-minded parents and sibling. She was killed with her parents in a roadside bombing carried out by Giacomo Dante under the direction of Cristiano",
". Even in death she maintains something of a hold over her brothers: when much the worse for drink, both Jean and Jose have seen her as a ghost, criticizing the fact that Jose is turning Henrietta into a virtual replacement for her and putting his need for a younger sister over justice for his slaughtered family.",
"A corporal in the Carabinieri, she pursues Jean Croce and becomes his fiancee. She is killed along with the Croce family in the bombing.",
"A former member of the Paris Police Department, who was working as a coroner at Europol headquarters in The Hague at the time of her appearance in the story. She performed the autopsies on the victims of a child-torture ring, but was unable to glean any clues from their bodies. Her co-worker Paulin introduced her to Hilshire, who had unsuccessfully been trying to get added to the group investigating the child-torture ring",
". Over dinner, Rachelle and Hilshire decided to investigate an Amsterdam warehouse said to be used to film the child-torture based on information provided by Mario Bossi. She was critically wounded in a shoot-out in the warehouse and gave her life saving the girl who would become Triela; Triela remembers her face (woman with eyeglasses) and perfume as a mother image.",
"A public prosecutor working on the murder of the Croce family. Targeted by Padania, she is protected by Hilshire, Triela, Alessandro and Petrushka. Afterwards, she and Hilshire start seeing each other and enter into a relationship.",
"A Camorra gangster, Bossi was involved in the smuggling of children to Amsterdam as part of an abusive trade that included snuff movies. However, he turned against his colleagues when some of their victims began to remind him of his own daughter. Confronted by Victor Hartman and Rachelle Belleut, he helped them rescue a girl from the making of a snuff film, during which Belleut was killed. The rescued girl was seriously injured, both physically and psychologically",
". The rescued girl was seriously injured, both physically and psychologically. Hartman knew of advanced medical facilities in Italy but the Dutch police needed the girl for their case against the smugglers. Bossi used his skills as a con-man and knowledge of the underworld to again help smuggle the girl out of the country but for what he and Hartman originally thought would be for the best",
". Later, on the run from both the law and the mob, he was captured in Naples by Hartman and the girl, who now formed the Hilshire-Triela SWA fratello. Bossi ably gave them the slip only to be captured by mob men, but was subsequently saved by Triela. Bossi was in Naples to see his daughter whom he had long neglected so, in exchange for a promise to testify in court, Triela allowed him to leave",
". While Bossi was giving evidence at a mob trial, Hilshire and Triela were assigned as bodyguards to his teenage daughter Maria \"Mimi\" Machiavelli (voiced by Taya Fujimori (Japanese)/Kate Oxley (English)). The death of Angelica made Hilshire more protective towards Triela and, during another mission to Naples, he himself carried out an assassination without her and got seriously injured in the process. This caused Triela to run out on him",
". This caused Triela to run out on him. She then met Bossi, who was now living full-time with Mimi, and he told her the whole story about her rescue in Amsterdam. She later returned to Hilshire.",
"Five Republics Faction members\nThe Five Republics Faction is a covert radical nationalist and right-wing group dedicated to the independence of northern Italy, as well as the opposition of globalization in Italy. This group is also referred to as Padania, after a valley in northern Italy formed by the Po River.",
"Cristiano Savonarola was the executive in charge of Padania operations in the province of Milan. A patriot at heart, Cristiano had a deep respect for Italian culture, history, and political ideals. Before he joined the Five Republics Faction, he was a low-level lieutenant for an unknown Italian crime syndicate. During that time, he befriended a former CIA agent known only as \"John Doe\" and encountered the boy who would later become Pinocchio (see below)",
". Cristiano was directly responsible for a number of critical Padania missions, such as the assassination of Filippo Adani and the shutdown of the Messina Bridge project. In the months before his disappearance, Cristiano was blamed for the many major failures his operations experienced. As a result, a rival faction of Padania betrayed the location of his hideout to the Italian government in exchange for \"certain conditions\". Cristiano was resigned to his fate until Pinocchio convinced him to attempt escape",
". Cristiano was resigned to his fate until Pinocchio convinced him to attempt escape. During the attempt by Section 2 to arrest Cristiano, he was briefly (and barely) rescued by Franca and Franco in an attempted getaway by car. Moments later, their car crashed and fell into a nearby river after Franca, who was driving the car, was shot several times by Angelica. Cristiano is later shown to be alive, but paralyzed and has to communicate by a computer",
". Cristiano is later shown to be alive, but paralyzed and has to communicate by a computer. He hires Giacomo Dante to wipe out the Social Welfare Agency to avenge Pinocchio's, Franca's and Franco's death. He is finally captured by the Social Welfare Agency after the New Turin incident, and he is convinced to sell out the original perpetrators behind the Croce killings.",
"Franca was the codename of an expert on bombs and explosive materials who worked as a freelancer with her partner Franco (see below). An idealist by nature, Franca had strong morals and disliked those who would kill indiscriminately. As a team, Franca and Franco were known within Padania for the quality of their bombs, which were said to be impossible to disarm. Some within the Five Republics Faction do not trust them because of their freelancer status",
". Some within the Five Republics Faction do not trust them because of their freelancer status. They operated an auto repair shop in Milan as a front for their clandestine business. Franca's true identity was Caterina, a student who dropped out of her university in order to file a national lawsuit against the arrest of her father, who was imprisoned on charges of unspecified crimes. Shortly afterward, the father died of suspicious causes during his incarceration",
". Shortly afterward, the father died of suspicious causes during his incarceration. Convinced of her father's innocence and angry at the Italian government's apparent immoral attempts to silence political dissent, Caterina sought out various activists within Italy in an attempt to learn how to get revenge on the Italian government. At the recommendation of Mangello Marinov, a family friend, Caterina made contact with Franco, whose uncle was a well-known explosives expert",
". Although Franco was reluctant at first, he was soon moved by the strength of Caterina's convictions. Caterina learned much from Franco and eventually took the name \"Franca\" as a cover identity since she would be working closely with Franco from then on. When Padania began the mission to stop the construction of the Messina bridge, Pinocchio was assigned as a bodyguard to Franca and Franco, both of whom would make the bomb to stop the construction if the abduction of Chairwoman Isabella D'Angelo failed",
". After the encounter with Triela and Hilshire in Montalcino, the three Padania agents went into hiding at a winery in Frascati for several months. When Section 2 moved in to arrest Christiano, Franca and Franco joined Pinocchio in his attempt to help Christiano escape the authorities as a favor. Barely rescuing Christiano from Rico, Franca and Franco then attempted to escape by car. However, after Angelica shot Franca several times, their car crashes into a nearby river",
". However, after Angelica shot Franca several times, their car crashes into a nearby river. It's later revealed that she died with Franco and Pinocchio in this incident, leaving only Cristiano alive, paralyzed and resolved to exact revenge on the Agency.",
"Franco was an expert on bombs and explosive materials who worked as a freelancer with his partner Franca (see above). Normally a jaded, sullen, and unhappy individual, Franco came to rely on Franca as a reason to stay alive and fight for a cause. Little of Franco's background is revealed other than the fact that he had helped his uncle, a noted explosives expert, in the production of various types of bombs and chemical explosives",
". After his uncle's death, Franco no longer felt the need to live until he was visited a month later by a young woman named Caterina. Impressed by Caterina's resolve to change Italy for the better, Franco taught her his trade. It would be because of Caterina, later known as Franca, that Franco continued to supply explosives to activists as his uncle once did. It's later revealed that he died with Franca and Pinocchio leaving only Cristiano alive, paralyzed and resolved to exact revenge on the Agency.",
"Pinocchio was a professional assassin with a near-fanatical devotion to his foster father, Christiano. Much like his namesake, Pinocchio wanted to repay the old man (in this case, Christiano) who \"created\" him. Years ago, Christiano and \"John Doe\", a former CIA agent, eliminated the Polacco family in their own house. Later, they found an unknown boy, speculated to be \"merchandise\" of the Polacco family, in a hidden cellar of the house",
". Although he originally intended to use the boy as a \"bargaining chip\", Christiano eventually decided to raise the boy as his own. Personally educated by Christiano and taught the skills of an assassin by \"John Doe\", the boy, now named Pinocchio, committed his first murder at the age of ten. Pinocchio conducted many high-profile assassinations on his foster father's behalf, including the murders of eight politicians, five judges, and four financiers of the Italian government",
". Encountered by Triela in the town of Montalcino, Pinocchio's extraordinary reflexes, speed, and martial arts mastery allowed him to defeat her in hand-to-hand combat despite the cyborg's enhanced strength and speed (as well as her own expertise in martial arts), but he remembered his first assassination and decided not to kill Triela while she lay unconscious. As a result of this incident, Triela considered Pinocchio a personal enemy",
". As a result of this incident, Triela considered Pinocchio a personal enemy. Several months later, Franca told Pinocchio of Section 2's plans to arrest Christiano. Despite his orders to stay with Franca and Franco, Pinocchio went to his foster father's home in an attempt to convince him to escape or, failing that, defend him to the death. At the last minute, Christiano finally decided to escape so Pinocchio decided to cover for him",
". At the last minute, Christiano finally decided to escape so Pinocchio decided to cover for him. After this, Pinocchio encountered Triela again and was killed in a fierce duel of guns and hand-to-hand combat with her, stabbed through the throat by Triela's cybernetic fingers. Cristiano later hires Giacomo Dante to avenge Pinocchio.",
"A Padania terrorist who had been living abroad and recently return to Italy after Cristiano's assassination attempt. An ex-mercenary, Giacomo is a tactical genius who loves the thrill of battle and thus does not believe in the cause of the Padania movement, only joining them to soothe his bloodlust of war. Jose and Jean seeks revenge against him as he was the one responsible for the bombings that killed their family and Jean's fiance, Sophia Durante",
". After his return, he unites the various Padania factions against their common enemy, the Social Welfare Agency and in their first act, and take over the Belltower of St. Marks in Venice and threatens to blow it up with a missile they smuggled inside, unless the government release Aaron Cicero and his comrades",
". But unknown to the Government and the SWA, the siege is actually a trap in order to kill the cyborgs using new heavy weaponry, which they succeed dealing major casualties against them despite suffering the same fate as well and the Belltower saved",
". The siege becomes a boost of morale for the Padanian movement who join Giacomo's banner and with Cristiano orders, Giacomo leads a campaign of bombings at cities across Italy and takes over a nuclear power plant outside of Turin and demand that the government dismantle the Social Welfare Agency. He learns the hard way that not even a handler makes an effective shield when, on Jean's orders, Rico shoots them both with an anti-material rifle. Dante survives and is imprisoned when the series ends.",
"A former anarchist who joined the PRF for money offered. A man who believed that the ends justified the means, Enrico once planned to blow up the Piazza di Spagna in a terrorist plot with a bomb designed by Franca and Franco. He was arrested by Section 2 after he was followed to his hideout and currently remains imprisoned.",
"A well-known Italian billionaire who secretly funds the activities of the PRF. He was betrayed by his former accountant, Filippo Adani, who gave Pirazzi's accounting records (including details of the PRF's finances and future plans) to the Agency.",
"Known within the PRF as \"the Fixer,\" this man is usually sent to destroy unwanted corpses the PRF leaves behind. Bruno works closely with his apprentice, Vincenzo, in this job. A family man, Bruno only does his job for the money offered by the PRF. In volume three, he was left alive proceeding Rico and Angelica's mission; his current state is unknown.",
"Bruno's apprentice in the odious job of disposal of human corpses. As with Bruno, Vincenzo does his job only for the money. He was killed by Rico in volume three of the manga during the mission by Rico and Angelica.",
"Was the self-proclaimed \"handsome and excellent journalist\" who works with Marco’s ex-girlfriend Patricia at Ultima magazine. He learned from Patricia that Marco works for the Social Welfare Agency and that she was writing an article on the Agency. Leonardo told Patricia of the rumors that the SWA uses child assassins and offered to co-investigate the Agency with her",
". They spoke to an incarcerated prisoner who claims that the SWA is the modern version of \"Operation Gladio\" and is operating to destabilize the rightists and others backing Northern secession. Leonardo continued his digging into the SWA.",
"Leonardo was set up by the SWA through an intermediary (Colonel Farn). When he showed, Marco tried to place him under arrest, but Patricia appeared and was taken hostage by Leonardo. Angelica appeared and blinded Leonardo with a flashlight on her pistol. When he let go of Patricia to shield his eyes, Angelica shot him.",
"Once known as the Tibetan Terrier, Nino was once a great kidnapper who was known in the PRF for his precise and non-violent tactics. He was originally hired to capture Mario Bossi's daughter to stop Mario from testifying against the Faction, but realized that what he did was not worth all of the fighting and blood. Nino also worked at a repair shop, and at one time fixed a kaleidoscope belonging to Henrietta. His current whereabouts are unknown.\n\nReferences",
"References\n\nExternal links\n \n Gunslinger Girl -Il Teatrino- anime at Tokyo MX \n Gunslinger Girl anime at Funimation\n Gunslinger: Il Teatrino anime at Funimation\n \n\nGunslinger Girl\n\nja:GUNSLINGER GIRL#登場人物"
] |
Ahmed Niyazi Bey
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmed%20Niyazi%20Bey
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[
"Ahmed Niyazi Bey (1873 – 1913) (; ; \"Ahmet Niyazi Bey from Resen\") was an Ottoman revolutionary, who was the bey of the Resne (now Resen, North Macedonia) area in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. An ethnic Albanian, Niyazi was one of the heroes of the 1908 Young Turk Revolution and of suppressing the 1909 countercoup as he played leading roles in both events. Niyazi is also known for the Saraj, a French-style estate he built in Resne.\n\nLife\n\nEarly years and education",
"Ahmed Niyazi Bey was born to a Tosk Albanian landowning family from Resne in 1873. His father was Abdullah Aga. Niyazi was educated at the Ottoman Civil Service Academy, and later at the Military High School in Monastir (modern Bitola). Many years later, he stated that he transferred to the Monastir school out of a desire to be taught by some of its instructors, who \"[advocated] love for humanity, patria, progress, and society",
".\" In his memoirs, Niyazi would recall that as a student in the 1880s he had heard Ottoman and French stories of patriotism, and been strongly influenced by them. He credited these stories, and the teachers who told them, with inculcating ideas of loyalty and love of country in him. He was particularly influenced by the Ottoman writer Namık Kemal; according to Niyazi, Kemal was frequently referred to when they discussed global issues.",
"After completing his secondary schooling in Monastir, Niyazi studied at the Ottoman War Academy between 1894 and 1897. Like many other students who would eventually rise to hold officer ranks in the army, he received training from the German military, and developed a degree of respect for Germany. While studying in Istanbul, he was again exposed to the writing of Kemal, despite the fact that they were banned because they questioned the authoritarianism of Sultan Abdul Hamid II",
". Abdul Hamid had dissolved parliament and governed alone. According to Niyazi, Kemal's works inspired him; \"an intoxicating patriotism prepared my heart, my innocent heart, for revolutions...\", he later wrote. After reading Kemal's work, he told his friends that their education lacked patriotism. In 1896, Niyazi also renovated and upgraded the Haji Murat Mosque of Resne, built in 1612, with the rooms of the ground floor reserved for schooling and the remaining space for prayers.",
"Young Turk membership and early military career",
"During his time training at the Istanbul War Academy, a fellow Ottoman officer Ismail Enver Bey initiated Niyazi into the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) movement. He became a lieutenant (mülazım) and joined the Ottoman army at a young age in 1896. Niyazi fought with distinction during the Greco-Turkish War (1897), in particular at the Battle of Beşpınar in Epirus, and returned to Istanbul with prisoners of war. Sultan Abdul Hamid II proposed that Niyazi become his aide-de-camp at the palace",
". Sultan Abdul Hamid II proposed that Niyazi become his aide-de-camp at the palace. Niyazi refused the offer due to the government campaign launched against suppressing the CUP and decided to return home. Among the CUP of his time, Niyazi became disillusioned with exiled opposition figure Murad Bey after he reconciled with the sultan and took a government position following an amnesty for Young Turk members",
". Niyazi despised the despotism of the sultan and nepotism at the royal court, where ranks and other positions were given at times to people with close social connections.",
"Between 1899 and 1903 Niyazi was stationed in Ohri as an officer in charge of the ammunition depot in a company of reservists. During his time there he monitored the preparations of the Macedo-Bulgarians for an uprising and noticed how various Russian and Bulgarian missionaries, teachers, officers and advisers contributed to the organisation of this revolt",
". Through the press and his correspondence with Mecduddin Efendi, a captain based in Izmir, Niyazi followed the activities of the Young Turks within Europe, in particular the decisions and split of the CUP First Congress in Paris (1902). In August 1903, the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organisation (IMRO) staged an uprising against the Ottomans in Macedonia and Niyazi was assigned to the third regiment of the Ottoman Third Army",
". During these events he had an active role in the Monastir branch of the CUP with his status raised to war hero and had gained great notoriety among the Muslim Albanian population of Macedonia. Beginning from 1904 and for five years prior to the revolution he served in an Ottoman chasseur battalion becoming renown for the effective pursuit of bandits in mountainous terrain",
". Niyazi became committed to the ideas of Ahmed Rıza, a CUP member who advocated for constitutional restoration through revolution and was against foreign intervention in the empire or reforms for a specific community based on preferential treatment.",
"Military service and a deteriorating security situation in Macedonia affected individuals such as Niyazi who felt that the plight of local Muslims was little known and like other peoples in the region had experienced attacks due to guerilla activity. He was influenced by reforms implemented in the region by the empire under pressure from the Great Powers after the Ilinden revolt of 1903",
". Niyazi thought that European powers were pushing Ottoman Christians into uprisings against the state to defeat the empire and wanted to prevent the development of propaganda by the Russians and Austrians in Macedonia. He felt that Ottomans were viewed negatively in the West and that the Great Powers did not care about the majority Muslim population of Macedonia, as they wanted to partition the empire",
". Niyazi and his colleagues preferred to preserve the empire with all its multiethnic and multireligious population and denounced attacks by reactionary Muslims against Christians, yet they had limited knowledge of Ottoman politics.",
"Coming from an area where the strongest supporters of the Young Turks among Albanians in the Balkans originated from central and southern Macedonia, those events motivated Niyazi to become part of the (CUP). He became an army captain (kolağası). The position was obtained for him by the CUP through its powerful underground influence in government and Niyazi was stationed in Resne where the committee thought he could be most useful toward the cause",
". At Resne he played an influential role in recruiting people into the CUP. In military operations against bands, Niyazi's actions were done on behalf of the CUP instead of the Ottoman government. Niyazi had a reputation of being an Albanian with close connections to other Albanians living in Macedonia, possessed strong authority among fellow Muslims in the area where he resided and could communicate with them as he spoke both Albanian (his mother tongue) and Turkish.",
"Young Turk Revolution (1908)\n\nPlanning for revolution",
"Niyazi was an important member of the councils held by the Young Turks. Starting from March 1908 some soldiers initiated mutinies after the CUP organised meetings and encouraged them to demand better work conditions. Niyazi stated that troops who achieved redress attributed their success to the committee",
". Niyazi stated that troops who achieved redress attributed their success to the committee. CUP publications calling for action against the sultan and prevention of foreign occupation like Şura-yı Ümmet, Mechveret Supplement Français and Ahmed Rıza's pamphlet on the army influenced junior officers such as Niyazi who described their \"extraordinary impact in illuminating minds\"",
". Following a meeting in Reval between Tsar Nicholas II and Edward VII (9-12 June 1908) rumors of a partition of Macedonia through imminent Russo-British intervention spread and were accelerated by the CUP, whereas Niyazi took it as a signal to act immediately. At the time Niyazi heard rumors regarding the Reval meeting and experienced three sleepless nights that left him \"flushed with anxiety and excitement\" which shaped his conviction that he \"found salvation in sacrifice and death\"",
". He discussed matters with the local CUP membership and the CUP Monastir branch that followed on with a decision by Niyazi to form a band and head into the mountains.",
"On 28 June 1908 Niyazi at his home advised Hoca Cemal Efendi, the mayor and Tahir Efendi, the police commissioner of Resne to form a band and on 29 June repeated those calls to a larger group of Muslims where he inscribed on his hat the words \"Hürriyet ya da ölüm\" (freedom or death). The group was placed under the direction of the CUP. Niyazi modeled his guerilla band on Bulgarian, Serb and Greek bands operating in Macedonia that had been formed in the preceding decade in the region",
". In his memoirs Niyazi wrote that he formed his CUP band on 28 June 1908, yet for some time before that he had been giving confiscated weapons from Macedo-Bulgarian villages to fellow members as CUP headquarters planned to mobilise bands from mid-June. Cemal Efendi, as the mayor of Resen, a spiritual leader (Sufi cleric) and a member of the Young Turks had traveled to Monastir for talks with its CUP branch about the details of action to be taken and had obtained approval.",
"Start of revolution",
"In July the CUP conspiracy involving Niyazi was uncovered by the military mufti of the Ottoman Third Army stationed in Monastir. The mufti, a palace spy and police agent was shot and wounded to stop him from reporting back to Istanbul. A military commission was sent from Istanbul to investigate subversion within the army in the area. Fearing discovery on 3 July 1908 Niyazi spread rumors of an approaching Bulgarian band and lured out most of the Resne garrison and its commanding officers from the town",
". In Resne, as some other officers were attending Friday prayers, Niyazi along with mayor Cemal Efendi, police commissioner Tahir Efendi, tax commissioner Tahsin Effendi and two hundred men raided the military depot. From the Resne depot they seized fifteen boxes of ammunition, seventy rifles that were given to volunteers and 600 Ottoman liras from the garrison safe that was divided among people within the band",
". All escaped from Resne into the nearby mountains from where Niyazi initiated the Young Turk Revolution and issued a proclamation that called for the restoration of the constitution of 1876 without specifically mentioning the CUP. On the night prior to his departure Niyazi entrusted the care of his family to his brother in law Ismail Hakki Bey, an Albanian national awakening figure.",
"Initially composed of 160-240 volunteers (mostly of Albanian descent), Niyazi's band was named the CUP Resne National battalion. The group consisted of civilian supporters who were in the belief that they were in pursuit of a Bulgarian band and CUP members involved in plotting the revolution from 28 June. Nine soldiers from Niyazi's battalion participated and once in the mountains thirty more volunteers from the Prespa region joined",
". Later, the initial reason of pursuing a Macedo-Bulgarian band was discarded and Niyazi informed his troops and volunteers that there was no such band and four of his soldiers left and returned to the Resne barracks. Niyazi's band grew to 500 troops at the end of the first week and was joined by 800 armed civilians in the mountains. In short time the band was joined by two more officers, other officials and people from the Prespa region.",
"Niyazi sought to build his support base among local Muslims as the uprising was mainly a Muslim movement. To gain the support of Muslim villagers, officers focused on local issues of discontent with government, lack of services such as schools and roads, heavy taxation and protection from roaming armed bands as opposed to invoking the constitution. Niyazi also undertook other measures such as forcing local clans into truces were blood feud was active among northern Geg and some southern Tosk Albanians",
". In Albanian villages officers induced locals to make a besa (oath) of support. The band grew as they visited surrounding Albanian Muslim villages adding local Albanian notables, Muslim bands, army deserters and other volunteers into its ranks.",
"Niyazi presented his 'national battalion' as a patriotic Ottoman band and that made it recognisable for other similar bands, Albanian Tosk nationalists, deserters and criminals to join the group. The deserters and criminals referred to by Niyazi as \"vile blackguards\" due to their \"past crimes\" took oaths and joined his band after he granted them a pardon.",
"The well developed imperial telegraph network was used by Niyazi and on behalf of his band he sent proclamations to provincial and local officials along with the palace that demanded injustices and inequality be combated and the constitution restored",
". Ottoman authorities that Niyazi addressed through appeals and ultimatums were a declaration to the Governor General in Monastir, Inspectorate General of Rumelia and Palace secretariat along with letters of accusation to the Gendarme Officer of Resne and Commandant of the Gendarmerie in Monastir. He also made appeals addressed to various social and ethnic groups in the empire",
". He also made appeals addressed to various social and ethnic groups in the empire. It is unclear whether the CUP had a fixed date for the revolution and in comments to a journalist following the event Niyazi said that they acted earlier than was planned, but did not give a date for the predetermined day. Niyazi also stated that documents with details giving information to executors about certain plans were according to strict CUP orders burned by branch executive committees.",
"Spread of the revolution",
"At the same time and following Niyazi's example, Enver Bey in Tikveş, Eyüp Sabri in Ohri and Bekir Fikri in Grebene were three of several officers who went into the mountains and formed guerilla bands (çetes). From the outset in July Sabri worked closely with Niyazi. No order had come from the Young Turk (CUP) committee in Salonica and instead the uprising developed spontaneously as news spread from one Ottoman army unit to another and among the various local CUP committees",
". For the revolt to get local support Niyazi and Enver played on fears of possible foreign intervention. Notables of Resne supported Niyazi's band as Muslims in much of the town and surrounding villages were CUP members. Niyazi's reasons for going against the sultan was to defend liberty, initiate reforms for both Muslims and Christians and was of the view that \"Rather than live basely, i have preferred to die... either death or the salvation of the fatherland\".",
"To deal with Niyazi and other guerilla bands formed by deserting Ottoman soldiers, Abdul Hamid II sent general Shemsi Pasha with two battalions to Resne and while in Monastir he was assassinated on 7 July by an Ottoman officer and CUP revolutionary Atıf Kamçıl. For the revolution the murder was a turning point that demoralised the palace and it removed a dangerous opponent for the CUP that could have mobilised Albanians against their forces",
". Ahmet Tevfik Pasha, the Ottoman foreign minister sent letters to Ottoman ambassadors. He described the palace position on events and accused Niyazi of organising bands made up of deserters, subversives and other people influenced by such individuals and instructed them to inform foreign governments and the press.",
"Overtures to the Macedo-Bulgarian population",
"Niyazi made several overtures to the local Macedo-Bulgarian population of the Resne area to join the revolution. During the revolution, a sister of an IMRO voyvoda (chieftain) whose band Niyazi annihilated years earlier asked him to rescue her kidnapped son from a Serbian band. Viewing the appeal as a \"blessing of God\", Niyazi took a Serb teacher from Resne as hostage to force the Serbian band to release the child",
". The Serb teacher eventually became a CUP member translating Niyazi's appeals into Bulgarian and Serbian while also assisting him in establishing contacts with Serb villagers and forcing the Serb band to release the boy.",
"Among local Macedo-Bulgarians the image of Niyazi was boosted with the release of the child. A local band leader who was his foe and badly beaten by Niyazi in 1906 joined the CUP band and told him that \"now i will die for you\". Amidst these events an appeal was issued by Niyazi to local Bulgarians that outsiders would not be allowed to rule the region and placed blame on the government and its \"corrupt officials\" for \"causing bad things to happen\"",
". He promised justice and equality for Bulgarians while warning that people disobeying those \"orders\" would be hung, a punishment extended to notables of a settlement if a band entered a town or village and CUP authorities were not informed. Approving of Niyazi's actions the CUP Monastir branch cautioned against the recruitment by force of \"Bulgarian or other Christian\" people into his band.",
"Recruitment of Albanians",
"At first Albanian recruits into the CUP originating from the army and among other coreligionists that came from Ohri, Resne, and Monastir were accepted and those from the Albanian committee rejected. Niyazi placed his efforts on mobilizing and working with Albanians for the cause such as his comrades in the army and as circumstances changed during the revolution he also recruited prominent individuals like Çerçiz Topulli whom he regarded as \"the Chief of the Tosk Committee of Albanians\"",
". During those attempts to secure Albanian support, Niyazi commented that Albanians complained about the Turks focusing on their own nationalist interests. In Albanian inhabited territories, Niyazi visited Elbasan, Korçë, Debre and Ohri whereas his revolutionary methods involved expelling Ottoman officials, tax collectors and creating Albanian militia to maintain order. Niyazi sent a letter to Topulli inviting him for a meeting to talk about conditions for a union.",
"Representatives from Topulli met with Niyazi in Korçë. Albanian delegates accused the Turks of lacking commitment to Ottomanism resulting in their struggle to defend themselves from foreigners and Ottomans, whereas Niyazi replied that Turks made much effort toward promoting Ottomanism with the creation of the CUP being evidence of that endeavour",
". Revolutionary support from Korçë rested upon the condition for the establishment of Albanian autonomy and during negotiations with Albanian committee members Niyazi accepted their proposal for an autonomous Albania to be administered under a governor selected by the sultan. After the discussion Albanian delegates accepted the CUP invitation",
". After the discussion Albanian delegates accepted the CUP invitation. All joined through an oath ceremony and were enrolled with promises to bring Topulli and other prominent Albanian committee members for a final meeting to talk about details of the agreement.",
"Hyrsev Starova Bey, a local Albanian notable and friend of Niyazi's father was tasked with arranging the meeting that was scheduled to occur in Pogradec. Hyrsev also contacted Hysen Baba, an Albanian Bektashi sheikh from the Melçan tekke who acted as mediator between Niyazi and Topulli that influenced the latter along with other brigand leaders to support the CUP cause. Niyazi viewed the meeting as mainly unimportant due to local Albanians already pledging allegiance to the CUP",
". During negotiations with Albanian committee members the significance of Albanian participation made Niyazi remark that \"most of the leaders and partisans of [the movement for] constitutional administration were not Turkish\". The Korçë Albanian committee lent support to Niyazi and at the request of the CUP called upon guerillas based in the mountains around Korçë to join Ottoman insurgent bands with the Ohri Albanian committee heeding the directive",
". Topulli was hard pressed by fellow Albanians to meet with Niyazi to talk about joint action and he arrived in Pogradec with his band on 21 July 1908.",
"Niyazi also worked to recruit other Muslim guerilla bands to the revolutionary cause. Throughout the revolution, guerilla bands of both Niyazi and Enver were Muslim (mostly Albanian) paramilitaries. Niyazi described that Albanian Tosk bands and Bulgarian bands had been united under Topulli in Ohri. Topulli's guerilla band gave important support to Niyazi and his forces during their capture of the Resne garrison and the event was a small military victory in the campaign to oust the Hamidian regime",
". Niyazi's band numbered 2000 men in the third week of the revolution and he along with Enver got like minded officials and civilian notables to send multiple petitions to the Ottoman place. Activists in Kosovo organised a large demonstration in support of Niyazi and the wider anti-Hamidian opposition. Many of the Muslim Albanians involved in the revolution like Niyazi saw themselves as CUP members first and not as Albanian activists",
". Unlike organisers such as Behaeddin Shakir and Talaat Pasha, Niyazi and other Albanians involved in revolutionary actions did not have decision-making positions within the CUP, yet they felt that the revolution was an Albanian undertaking and expected in return special treatment.",
"Declaration of constitutional government and end of revolution",
"Niyazi's band adopted a deer that appeared to them while they were in a village near Monastir, as the animal was interpreted by the group as a spiritual guide sent by god directing them toward their objective. Tatar Osman Pasha, Shemsi's replacement was kidnapped after the Resne band of Niyazi, the Ohri band of Sabri and two Albanian bands conducted an attack on Monastir",
". On 22 July Monastir was captured on orders from the CUP with news of Niyazi's actions reaching Salonica early in the morning on 23 July and was spread all over Macedonia by the CUP controlled telegraph service. Niyazi proclaimed the constitution on 23 July in front of large crowds of Muslims and Christians, Ottoman officials, the town garrison and battalions from other areas gathered in Monastir, actions that were simultaneously replicated in several towns of Macedonia.",
"On 23 July Niyazi returned to Resne and met with guerilla leaders Topulli and Mihal Grameno where he expressed his gratitude and viewed the declaration of the CUP constitution as advantageous for the Albanian nation. The worsening situation in the Ottoman Balkan provinces and lack of government control along with army desertions motivated the sultan to issue an imperial decree restoring the 1876 constitution on 24 July 1908.\n\nPost revolution",
"In the aftermath of the revolution Niyazi and Enver remained in the political background due to their youth and junior military ranks with both agreeing that photographs of them would not be disturbed to the general public, yet this decision was rarely observed. Instead Niyazi and Enver as leaders of the revolution elevated their positions into near legendary status with their images placed on postcards and distributed throughout the Ottoman state",
". During the revolution the Manakis brothers had photographed Niyazi and their pictures reconstructed him as an ordinary man of the people with his prominent dust covered mustache giving an appearance of a recent arrival from the hills commanding rebels. In one iconic photograph showing Niyazi and his famous deer they are portrayed as the materialisation of freedom with him and his rifle depicting a military figure of power represented by his surrounding soldiers and bandits",
". In other photographs taken by the Manakis brothers of the revolution, Niyazi is present alongside revolutionaries Topulli and Grameno. Niyazi also appeared on a prominent poster as a figure with a big mustache having freed Liberty personified by a woman from her chains and surrounded by other figures from the revolution.",
"Toward the latter part of 1908, photographs of Niyazi and Enver had reached Istanbul and among school children in the city immersed in fanfare, they played with masks that depicted the revolutionaries. In other images produced of the time the new sultan Mehmed V is presented in the centre flanked by Niyazi and Enver to either side",
". As the actions of both men carried the appearance of initiating the revolution, Niyazi, an Albanian and Enver, a Turk (with Albanian heritage on his mother's side) later got popular acclaim as \"heroes of freedom\" (hürriyet kahramanları) and symbolised Albanian-Turkish cooperation. Niyazi was also known by the sobriquets \"Hero of the Revolution\" and the \"Turkish Garibaldi\".",
"Soon after the success of the revolution, Niyazi attempting to raise hopes for the new order condemned the former Hamidian regime in a speech delivered in Resne and it was published in a pamphlet during 1908. Niyazi warned his audience about the risks of Macedonia and Anatolia becoming colonies of other countries like other former Ottoman territories",
". In 1908 the CUP committee held its congress at the conclusion of the revolution and agreed to publish Niyazi's memoirs as a book which appeared toward the end of the year. The Committee wanted Niyazi to exaggerate the role the CUP played in the revolution and give the appearance that they directed all actions during those events.",
"Later in 1910 they were published by the CUP Monastir Central Committee in Istanbul and the memoirs consist of detailed biographical information about Niyazi from 1887 to 1908 relating to his military action and politics in Macedonia. Niyazi felt the military and political hierarchy blamed him for his personal fame arising from the revolution and he was compelled to justify it in his memoirs",
". His memories of events also contain contradictions and in his introduction Niyazi warns the reader that the memoirs are not a complete account of the revolution and they should not rely on it having revelations about the history or way the CUP was founded. Niyazi's memoirs are full of information about the Lake Prespa region, the towns of Resne and Ohri and he highlighted the contributions of Albanians during the revolution for its success and his efforts to gain their support",
". As with documents he published that included letters and telegraphs which were sent or received, Niyazi kept insisting in his memoirs on the action he took and conducted personally along with his group while little attention was devoted toward Enver. In his memoirs Niyazi enriched them with photographs taken of him and his revolutionaries by the Manakis brothers. For a limited period the self glorifying memoirs of Niyazi were a prime text for the revolutionaries.",
"In the aftermath of the revolution, CUP unity gave way to personal rivalries which by March 1909, rumor had it that Niyazi had fallen out with the main views of the Young Turks and began to have a liberal outlook regarding the situation in Macedonia. Niyazi was a delegate representing Resne at the Congress of Dibra (July 1909) organised by the CUP regarding Albanian ethno-linguistic rights. He refused to sign any resolutions due to disagreements with other delegates over its contents",
". He refused to sign any resolutions due to disagreements with other delegates over its contents. Niyazi was a CUP member till his death and never managed to generate a considerable following among prominent and other rank CUP members apart from his involvement during the revolution. The Ottoman newspaper Volkan, a strong supporter of the constitution published adulatory pieces about Niyazi and Enver in 1909.",
"Counterrevolution (1909) and retirement from army",
"A group of mainly Albanian soldiers stationed in Istanbul mutinied after CUP authorities planned to replace them with other army units from Macedonia and they attempted a countercoup in 1909 to undo the 1908 revolution. The Ottoman Third Army, stationed in Macedonia and led by Mahmud Shevket Pasha was joined by Niyazi who brought 1,800 men from Resne",
". Niyazi led volunteer units consisting mainly of Albanians that reinforced regular army units and he played a leading role in suppressing the counterrevolution. Together in military operations that were directed by a fellow Albanian Ali Pasha Kolonja they retook Istanbul (23 April) with little resistance from the mutineers and deposed sultan Abdul Hamid II.",
"After those events he retired from the army and he devoted himself to the development of Resne where he built public buildings, schools and a palatial home, the Saraj. The construction of the Saraj began in 1905 after Niyazi received a postcard of Versailles that inspired his desire to have a French-style estate whose exterior was completed in 1909 after the CUP revolution. As he died years later in Albania, Niyazi never lived to see his estate completed",
". As he died years later in Albania, Niyazi never lived to see his estate completed. By 1911 Niyazi still remained in Resne and barely hid his exasperation at the deteriorating security situation in Macedonia related to fighting between guerilla bands and Ottoman forces.",
"Sultan's Balkan tour (1911)",
"The Albanian uprisings of 1910 and 1911 made the CUP send Mehmed V on a goodwill tour of Kosovo and Macedonia during June 1911 to recover loyalty from the Albanians, inspire patriotism and solidarity among local peoples and to counter nationalism. Niyazi arrived with 600 men from Resne and as a Mücahit-i Muhterem (honoured fighter) the sultan received him in Salonica on 9 June",
". Due to his Albanian ethnicity, role as hero of the revolution and being a revered yet politically marginal CUP member Niyazi became a central figure in the royal tour of Macedonia.",
"On 11 June, the sultan proceeded to Üsküp on a slow seven-hour train ride with many stopovers and Niyazi traveled on a separate pilot train in front of the imperial entourage with an announcement that anyone seen coming close to the tracks would be shot. Later after returning from Kosovo the sultan visited Monastir where Niyazi reenacted scenes from the revolution such as the entry into town by soldiers under his command in 1908",
". The reenactment by Niyazi also involved Eyüp Sabri where both men wore their old clothes, rode horses accompanied by a gun carriage with the event recorded on camera by the Manakis brothers. The film titled Sultan Rešad's Visit to Bitola is currently preserved in the Macedonian Archives.",
"Balkan Wars (1912-1913) and death",
"During the Balkan Wars (1912-1913), Niyazi and his Resne regiment remained until the end of the conflict and fought alongside Cavit Pasha. In April 1913 he arrived in Vlorë to board a ferry departing for Istanbul where he was shot by four men on the port docks. No one claimed responsibility for his death as rumors of the time speculated that either someone having a personal vendetta, an Albanian nationalist or a CUP rival ordered the assassination",
". Niyazi was killed by Albanian committee members who were the men of Ismail Toptani and Ismail Qemali. As the death of Niyazi was the result of people close to him and not of war or battles, the event is remembered in a Turkish proverb as \"Ne şehittir ne gazi, hiç yoluna gitti Niyazi\" (Niyazi is neither a martyr nor a fighter, he died for nothing).",
"Personal life and family",
"Niyazi was married to Feride Hanım (died 1966), who originated from an old Istanbulite family in the Saraçhanebaşı (Saraçhane) neighbourhood of Fatih district of the city. He had two sons Mithat (born 1911) and Saim (born 1913) with Feride and during the Balkan Wars she went back to Istanbul. Niyazi has descendants from both sons in Istanbul and they carry the surname Resnelioğlu in honour of their ancestor",
". The Resnelioğlu family unsuccessfully lobbied the Turkish government in the 1980s-1990s for assistance to have the body of Niyazi exhumed from Vlorë, Albania and reburied in Turkey at the Hill of Eternal Freedom (Hürriyet-i Ebediye Tepesi).",
"Cultural references",
"As a tribute to his role in the Young Turk Revolution that began the Second Constitutional Era of the Ottoman Empire, Niyazi is mentioned along with Enver in the March of the Deputies ( or Meclis-i Mebusan Marşı), the anthem of the Chamber of Deputies, the lower house of the Ottoman parliament. It was performed in 1909 upon the opening of the parliament. The fourth line of the anthem reads \"Long live Niyazi, long live Enver\" ()",
". The fourth line of the anthem reads \"Long live Niyazi, long live Enver\" (). In the 1910s Niyazi was mentioned in other songs that reflected the Young Turks move toward a Turcocentric ideology.",
"References\n\nFurther reading\n\n1873 births\n1912 deaths\nPeople from Resen, North Macedonia\nAlbanian people from the Ottoman Empire\nYoung Turks\nOttoman military officers\n20th-century people from the Ottoman Empire\nMonastir Military High School alumni\nAssassinated people from the Ottoman Empire\nAssassinated Albanian people\n\nMilitary personnel of the Ottoman Empire\nEthnic Albanian military personnel\n20th-century assassinated people"
] |
Last of the Summer Wine
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Last%20of%20the%20Summer%20Wine
|
[
"Last of the Summer Wine is a British sitcom set in Yorkshire created and written by Roy Clarke and originally broadcast by the BBC from 1973 to 2010. It premiered as an episode of Comedy Playhouse on 4 January 1973, and the first series of episodes followed on 12 November 1973. Alan J. W. Bell produced and directed all episodes of the show from late 1981 to 2010. The BBC confirmed on 2 June 2010 that Last of the Summer Wine would no longer be produced and the 31st series would be its last",
". Subsequently, the final episode was broadcast on 29 August 2010. Since its original release, all 295 episodes, comprising thirty-one series—including the pilot and all films and specials—have been released on DVD. Repeats of the show are broadcast in the UK on BBC One (until 18 July 2010 when the 31st and final series started on 25 July of that year), Gold, Yesterday, and Drama. It is also seen in more than 25 countries, including various PBS stations in the United States and on VisionTV in Canada",
". With the exception of programmes 'rebooted' after long hiatuses, Last of the Summer Wine is the longest-running TV comedy programme in Britain and the longest-running TV sitcom in the world.",
"Last of the Summer Wine was set and filmed in and around Holmfirth, West Yorkshire, England, and centred on a trio of elderly men and their youthful misadventures; the members of the trio changed many times over the years. The original trio consisted of Bill Owen as the mischievous and impulsive Compo Simmonite, Peter Sallis as easy-going everyman Norman Clegg, and Michael Bates as uptight and arrogant Cyril Blamire",
". When Bates dropped out due to illness in 1976 after two series, the role of the third man of the trio was filled in various years up to the 30th series by the quirky war veteran Walter C \"Foggy\" Dewhurst (Brian Wilde) (who had two lengthy stints), the eccentric inventor and ex-headmaster Seymour Utterthwaite (Michael Aldridge), and former police officer Herbert \"Truly of The Yard\" Truelove (Frank Thornton)",
". The men never seem to grow up, and they develop a unique perspective on their equally eccentric fellow townspeople through their stunts. Although in its early years the series generally revolved around the exploits of the main trio, with occasional interaction with a few recurring characters, over time the cast grew to include a variety of supporting characters and by later years the series was very much an ensemble piece",
". Each of these recurring characters contributed their own running jokes and subplots to the show, often becoming reluctantly involved in the schemes of the trio, or on occasion having their own, separate storylines.",
"After the death of Owen in 1999, Compo was replaced at various times by his real-life son, Tom Owen, as Tom Simmonite, Keith Clifford as Billy Hardcastle, a man who thought of himself as a direct descendant of Robin Hood, and Brian Murphy as the cheeky-chappy Alvin Smedley. Due to the age of the main cast, a new trio was formed during the 30th series, featuring somewhat younger actors. This format was used for the final two instalments of the show",
". This format was used for the final two instalments of the show. This group consisted of Russ Abbot as Luther Hobdyke, known as Hobbo, a former milkman who fancied himself as a secret agent, Burt Kwouk as the electrical repairman, \"Electrical\" Entwistle, and Murphy as Alvin Smedley. Sallis and Thornton, both past members of the trio, continued in supporting roles alongside the new actors.",
"Although many felt that the show's quality had declined over the years, Last of the Summer Wine continued to receive large audiences for the BBC and was praised for its positive portrayal of older people and family-friendly humour. Many members of the royal family enjoyed the show. The programme was nominated for numerous awards and won the National Television Award for Most Popular Comedy Programme in 1999",
". There were twenty-one Christmas specials, three television films and a documentary film about the series. Last of the Summer Wine inspired other adaptations, including a television prequel, several novelisations, and stage adaptations.",
"Production",
"History and development",
"In 1972, Duncan Wood, the BBC's Head of Comedy, watched a comedy on television called The Misfit. Impressed by writer Roy Clarke's ability to inject both comedy and drama into the sitcom, Wood offered Clarke the opportunity to write a sitcom. Clarke nearly turned the job down as he felt that the BBC's idea for a programme about three old men was a dull concept for a half-hour sitcom",
". Instead, Clarke proposed that the men should all be unmarried, widowed, or divorced and either unemployed or retired, leaving them free to roam around like adolescents in the prime of their lives, unfettered and uninhibited.",
"Clarke chose the original title, The Last of the Summer Wine, to convey the idea that the characters are not in the autumn of their lives but the summer, even though it may be \"the last of the summer\". BBC producers hated this at first and insisted that it remain a temporary working title, while the cast worried that viewers would forget the name of the show. The working title was changed later to The Library Mob, a reference to one of the trio's regular haunts early in the show",
". Clarke switched back to his original preference shortly before production began, a title that was shortened to Last of the Summer Wine after the pilot show.",
"The Last of the Summer Wine premiered as an episode of BBC's Comedy Playhouse on 4 January 1973. The pilot, \"Of Funerals and Fish\", received enough positive response that a full series was commissioned to be broadcast before the end of the year. Although the initial series did not do well in the ratings, the BBC ordered a second series in 1975.\n\nFilming",
"The site for the exterior shots of Last of the Summer Wine was, in part, suggested by television producer Barry Took, who was familiar with the area. Took had, in the 1950s, toured as a stand-up comic, often appearing at working men's clubs. One such appearance was at Burnlee Working Men's Club, a club in the small West Yorkshire town of Holmfirth, and Took saw Holmfirth's potential as the backdrop of a television show",
". Twenty years later, he returned to Holmfirth, where he filmed an episode of the BBC documentary series Having a Lovely Time, which turned out to be the highest rated episode of the show. When Took heard that James Gilbert and Roy Clarke were looking for a place with a centre surrounded by hills for their new television programme, he suggested the idea to Duncan Wood, who was at that time filming Comedy Playhouse",
". Gilbert and Clarke then travelled to Holmfirth and decided to use it as the setting for the pilot episode.",
"Though the exterior shots were always filmed on location in Holmfirth and the surrounding countryside, the interior shots were, until the early 1990s, filmed in front of a live studio audience at BBC Television Centre in London. The amount of location work increased, however, as studio work became a drain on time and money. Under Alan J. W. Bell, Last of the Summer Wine became the first comedy series to do away with the live studio audience, moving all of the filming to Holmfirth",
". The episodes were filmed and then shown to preview audiences, whose laughter was recorded and then mixed into each episode's soundtrack to provide a laugh track and avoid the use of canned laughter.",
"The show used actual businesses and homes in and around Holmfirth, and Nora Batty's house, which is actually a Summer Wine themed holiday cottage where members of the public can stay in a replica of Nora Batty's home. Although this has helped the Holmfirth economy and made it a tourist destination, tensions have occasionally surfaced between Holmfirth residents and the crew. One such incident, regarding compensation to local residents, prompted producer Bell to consider not filming in Holmfirth any more",
". The situation escalated to the point that Bell filmed a scene in which Nora Batty put her house up for sale.",
"Crew",
"Every episode of Last of the Summer Wine was written by Roy Clarke. The Comedy Playhouse pilot and all episodes of the first series were produced and directed by James Gilbert. Bernard Thompson produced and directed the second series of episodes in 1975. In 1976, Sydney Lotterby took over as producer and director. He directed all but two episodes of the third series – Ray Butt directed \"The Great Boarding House Bathroom Caper\" and \"Cheering up Gordon\"",
". Lotterby directed two further series before departing the show in 1979. In 1981, Alan J. W. Bell took over as producer and director. Bell, in an effort to get each scene exactly right, was known for his use of more film and more takes than his predecessors and for using wider angles that feature more of the local Holmfirth landscape.",
"In 1983, Lotterby returned to the show at the insistence of Brian Wilde, who preferred Lotterby's use of tight shots focused on the trio as they talked rather than Bell's wide-angle scenes. Lotterby produced and directed one additional series before departing again the same year. Bell then returned to the show beginning with the 1983 Christmas special and produced and directed all episodes of the show to the end of the 31st series.",
"In 2008, Bell announced that he had quit as producer of Last of the Summer Wine. Citing differences with the BBC and his dislike of their indifference towards the series, Bell said, \"I have now decided I will not do it again. I have had enough of the BBC's attitude.\" The announcement came following rumours initiated by Bell that the corporation would not commission another series of episodes following the 30th series and their indecision regarding a possible one-off special",
". However, on 26 June 2009, the BBC announced that it had recommissioned the show for a 31st series with Bell continuing as producer and director.",
"Music\nAudio samples of Last of the Summer Wine (media help)",
"Composer and conductor Ronnie Hazlehurst, who also produced themes for such series as Are You Being Served?, Yes Minister, and The Two Ronnies, created the theme for the show. The BBC initially disliked Hazlehurst's theme, feeling it was not proper for a comedy programme to have such mellow music. He was asked to play the music faster for more comedic effect but eventually his original slower version was accepted. A jauntier, upbeat version was played by a brass band in the episode \"Full Steam Behind\".",
"The theme, an instrumental work, featured lyrics three times. The 1981 Christmas special, \"Whoops\", had two verses of lyrics written by Roy Clarke that were performed over the closing credits. The 1983 film, Getting Sam Home, used those two verses, with an additional two and played them over the opening credits. Another altered version was sung during Compo's funeral in the 2000 episode \"Just a Small Funeral\"",
". Another altered version was sung during Compo's funeral in the 2000 episode \"Just a Small Funeral\". Bill Owen also wrote a different version of the lyrics but this version was never used during an episode of the show.",
"Composing the score for each episode until his death in 2007, Hazlehurst spent an average of ten hours per episode watching scenes and making notes for music synchronisation. Hazlehurst then recorded the music using an orchestra consisting of a guitar, harmonica, two violins, a viola, cello, accordion, horn, bass, flute, and percussion. The distinctive harmonica was played by Harry Pitch, who had featured in the 1970 one-hit-wonder \"Groovin With Mr Bloe\".",
"Ending\nDespite numerous cast and production changes over the years, Last of the Summer Wine continued to be popular with viewers and was renewed year after year despite reports to the contrary. Rumours circulated as early as the 1980s that the BBC wanted to end the show and replace it with a new programme aimed at a younger audience. Its popularity made this decision hard to justify, however, since even repeats sometimes received ratings of as many as five million viewers per episode.",
"In December 2008, Alan J. W. Bell stated in an interview with The Daily Telegraph that the BBC had not yet commissioned a new series and that bosses at the network told him one would not be produced. Bell criticised this decision, stating that \"millions still enjoy the series and the actors love being involved\" and that it would be a terrible blow to the shops and businesses in Holmfirth who have come to depend on tourist revenue",
". The BBC denied these claims, saying that a decision had not yet been reached whether to commission another series or not.",
"It was confirmed on 26 June 2009 that a 31st series of 6 episodes had been commissioned for transmission in 2010. In June 2010 the BBC announced that it would not renew Last of the Summer Wine after its thirty-first series was broadcast during the summer of 2010. Tom Owen criticised the BBC for not permitting a special final episode. Roy Clarke, however, stated that he was fully aware this was the last series, and preferred the show to have a quiet ending",
". The final episode of the show, \"How Not to Cry at Weddings\", was subsequently broadcast on 29 August 2010. The final line was said by Peter Sallis, the longest-serving actor.",
"Characters and casting\n\nInitially, the only certain cast member for the show was Peter Sallis. Clarke had already collaborated on a few scripts with him and knew he wanted Sallis on the show. The character of Norman Clegg was created especially for Sallis, who liked the character and agreed to play him. He was soon joined by an actor he had previously worked with, Michael Bates as Cyril Blamire. James Gilbert wanted Bates as Blamire because of his reputation as a comedy actor, and Bates loved the role.",
"Compo Simmonite was the last role to be cast in the original trio. Gilbert had seen film actor Bill Owen playing northern characters in the Royal Court Theatre and proposed to cast him as Compo. Clarke, who initially saw Owen as an archetypal cockney who could not play as solid a northern character as Compo was meant to be, recognised Owen's potential only after going to London for a read-through with him.",
"On-screen chemistry with existing players determined the later changes to the cast. Brian Wilde, Michael Aldridge and Frank Thornton each brought a sense of completion to the trio after the departure of the preceding third man. Tom Owen provided a direct link between his father and himself after the death of Bill Owen. Keith Clifford was added following three popular guest appearances on the show",
". Keith Clifford was added following three popular guest appearances on the show. Brian Murphy was chosen as Nora Batty's neighbour because of his work on George and Mildred, where he played the hen-pecked husband to a strong-willed woman.",
"In 2008, the BBC announced that Russ Abbot would join the cast in series 30 as a relatively youthful actor. Abbot was cast to allow Sallis and Thornton to reduce their role on the show to indoor scenes only. Abbot portrayed Luther \"Hobbo\" Hobdyke, who formed a new trio with Entwistle and Alvin. Entwistle, played by Burt Kwouk, had been a supporting character brought in to replace Wesley Pegden after the death of actor Gordon Wharmby, but his role on the show steadily increased in the previous two series.",
"The original cast of Last of the Summer Wine also included a handful of characters with whom the trio regularly interacted. Kathy Staff was chosen to play Compo's neighbour, Nora Batty. Gilbert was initially sceptical about casting Staff but changed his mind after she padded herself to look bigger and read from a scene between her character and Owen's",
". This group was rounded out by characters at two locations frequented by the trio: John Comer and Jane Freeman as Sid and Ivy, the quarrelling husband-and-wife owners of the local café; and Blake Butler and Rosemary Martin as Mr Wainwright and Mrs Partridge, the librarians having a not-so-secret affair. Butler and Martin, however, were dropped as major characters after the first series. According to Peter Sallis, Roy Clarke felt there was little more he could do with them.",
"Although the show initially focused on the trio and four to five supporting characters, the cast expanded over the years to include an ensemble of eccentric characters who rounded out the show. The biggest expansion came in 1985 when four characters from the stage adaptation of the show were brought over to the series proper: Howard (Robert Fyfe), Pearl (Juliette Kaplan), Marina (Jean Fergusson), and Ivy's nephew, \"Crusher\" Milburn (Jonathan Linsley)",
". Further additions came the following year when the film Uncle of the Bride introduced Seymour's sister, Edie, played by veteran actress Thora Hird, and her family, who were brought over to the programme the following series. The only addition with no professional acting experience was the Holmfirth resident Gordon Wharmby, who performed so well during his audition as mechanic Wesley Pegden, that Alan J. W. Bell cast him in one episode",
". W. Bell cast him in one episode. Pegden would make two more appearances before being brought in permanently as Edie's husband and Seymour's brother-in-law after positive audience reception, becoming a regular character starting in Uncle of the Bride. The increasingly large cast ensured a sense of continuity with the changing configuration of the trio, especially following the death of Bill Owen.",
"During the late 1970s, after the introduction of Foggy, the plots of Last of the Summer Wine moved away from the original dialogue-packed scenes in the pub and the library; guest actors were brought in to interact with the trio in new situations",
". Although many of these guest appearances lasted for only one episode, some led to a permanent role on the show, as in the cases of Gordon Wharmby, Thora Hird, Jean Alexander, Stephen Lewis, Dora Bryan, Keith Clifford, Brian Murphy, Josephine Tewson, June Whitfield, Barbara Young, and Trevor Bannister. Other noted guests on the programme included John Cleese, Ron Moody, Sir Norman Wisdom, Eric Sykes, Liz Fraser, Stanley Lebor, and Philip Jackson.",
"Scenario",
"Last of the Summer Wine focused on a trio of older men and their youthful antics. The original trio consisted of Compo Simmonite, Norman Clegg, and Cyril Blamire. Blamire left in 1976, when Michael Bates fell ill shortly before filming of the third series, requiring Clarke to hastily rewrite the series with a new third man",
". The third member of the trio would be recast four times over the next three decades: Foggy Dewhurst in 1976, Seymour Utterthwaite in 1986, Foggy again in 1990, and Truly Truelove in 1997. After Compo died in 1999, his son, Tom Simmonite, filled the gap for the rest of that series, and Billy Hardcastle joined the cast as the third lead character in 2001",
". The trio became a quartet between 2003 and 2006 when Alvin Smedley moved in next door to Nora Batty, but returned to the usual threesome in 2006 when Billy Hardcastle left the show. The role of supporting character Entwistle steadily grew until the beginning of the 30th series, when he and Alvin were recruited by Hobbo Hobdyke, a former milkman with ties to MI5, to form a new trio of volunteers who respond to any emergency.",
"The trio explored the world around them, experiencing a second childhood with no wives, jobs, or responsibilities. They passed the time by speculating about their fellow townspeople and testing inventions",
". They passed the time by speculating about their fellow townspeople and testing inventions. Regular subplots in the first decade of the show included: Sid and Ivy bickering over the management of the café, Mr Wainwright and Mrs Partridge having a secret love affair that everyone knows about, Wally trying to get away from Nora's watchful eye, Foggy's exaggerated war stories, and Compo's schemes to win the affections of Nora Batty.",
"The number of subplots on the show grew as more cast members were added",
". Regular subplots since the 1980s included: Howard and Marina trying to have an affair without Howard's wife finding out (a variation of the Wainwright-Partridge subplot of the 1970s), the older women meeting for tea and discussing their theories about men and life, the police officers trying not to work, Auntie Wainwright trying to sell unwanted merchandise to unsuspecting customers, Smiler trying to find a woman, Barry trying to better himself (at the insistence of Glenda)",
", Smiler trying to find a woman, Barry trying to better himself (at the insistence of Glenda), and Tom trying to stay one step ahead of the repo man",
".",
"Episodes",
"[[File:Trio-collage.jpg|thumb|right|A collage illustrating the different compositions of the main characters during Last of the Summer Wine'''s 37 year run. From left to right: Series 1–2, Series 3–8 & 12–18, Series 9–11, Series 19–21, Series 21, Series 22–25, Series 26–27, Series 28–29, Series 30–31.]]Last of the Summer Wine is the longest-running comedy programme in Britain, and the longest running situation comedy in the world",
". Each series has between six and twelve episodes; most were thirty minutes in length, with some specials running longer. There were 295 episodes and 31 series between 1973 and 2010, counting the pilot, all episodes of the series, specials, and two films.",
"Specials",
"In 1978, the BBC commissioned a Last of the Summer Wine Christmas special instead of a new series. Titled \"Small Tune on a Penny Wassail\", it was broadcast on 26 December 1978. Other Christmas programmes followed in 1979 and 1981. The 1981 special, \"Whoops\", gained 17 million viewers and was beaten only by Coronation Street for the number one spot. Christmas shows were produced infrequently thereafter and sometimes were the only new episodes in years without an order for a new series",
". This happened often during the 1980s when Roy Clarke's commitment to Open All Hours prevented the production of a full series every year. The specials often included well-known guest stars such as John Cleese and June Whitfield.",
"The first New Year special, \"The Man who Nearly Knew Pavarotti\", was commissioned in 1994. The hour-long show was broadcast on 1 January 1995 and featured Norman Wisdom as a piano player who had lost the confidence to play. A second New Year programme was produced and broadcast in 2000 to celebrate the new millennium. It featured the second guest appearance by Keith Clifford and a guest appearance by Dora Bryan",
". It featured the second guest appearance by Keith Clifford and a guest appearance by Dora Bryan. Titled \"Last Post and Pigeon\", the show ran for sixty minutes and dealt with the trio's pilgrimage to visit World War II graves in France. Part of this special was shot on location in France. A third New Year show, titled \"I Was a Hitman for Primrose Dairies\", was broadcast on 31 December 2008 and introduced Hobbo and the new trio he formed with Entwistle and Alvin.",
"Films",
"In 1983, Bill Owen suggested to a newly returned producer Alan J. W. Bell that Roy Clarke's novelisation of the show should be made into a feature-length special. Other British sitcoms such as Steptoe and Son and Dad's Army had previously produced films made for the cinema, but the BBC were initially sceptical as they had never before commissioned a film based on a comedy programme for original broadcast on television",
". They nevertheless commissioned a ninety-minute film named Getting Sam Home, which was broadcast on 27 December 1983, and started a trend which would continue with other British sitcoms, including Only Fools and Horses.",
"Following the success of Getting Sam Home, a second film was made during 1985, and broadcast on 1 January 1986. Titled Uncle of the Bride, the film featured the introduction of Michael Aldridge as Seymour Utterthwaite, the new third man of the trio. The plot centred on the marriage of Seymour's niece, Glenda (Sarah Thomas), to Barry (Mike Grady)",
". The plot centred on the marriage of Seymour's niece, Glenda (Sarah Thomas), to Barry (Mike Grady). Also making her first appearance in the film was Thora Hird as Seymour's sister and Glenda's mother, Edie, as well as re-introducing Gordon Wharmby as Edie's husband Wesley, previously seen in three popular one-off appearances. The second film proved a success and all four new characters were carried over to the show beginning with the ninth series in 1986.",
"Documentaries\nA documentary film was commissioned to celebrate the 25th anniversary of Last of the Summer Wine. Produced and directed by Alan J. W. Bell, it featured interviews with the majority of cast and crew members, outtakes from the show, and a behind-the-scenes look at production. Segments with Duncan Wood and Barry Took explained the origins of the show and how it came to be filmed in Holmfirth. The documentary was broadcast on 30 March 1997.",
"An updated version of the documentary was commissioned for the 30th anniversary of the series. Broadcast on 13 April 2003, this version featured an expanded interview with Brian Wilde and new interviews with Brian Murphy and Burt Kwouk.\n\nIn March 2022, Channel 5 aired a 67-minute special retrospective for their series \"30 Years Of Laughs\". Cast, crew and celebrities paid tribute to the show.\n\nDVD releases",
"In September 2002, Universal Playback (licensed by the BBC) began releasing boxed sets of episodes on DVD for region two. Each set contains two consecutive full series of episodes. The entire series is now available on home video, both in box sets with two series of episodes each, and in a complete collection which features every episode of Last of the Summer Wine plus the pilot, all films, and specials. The entire series is also available for region four from ABC",
". The entire series is also available for region four from ABC. Like the region two releases, each box set contains two series.",
"Three \"best of\" collections as well as sets devoted to individual series have been released for region one. The first, simply titled Last of the Summer Wine, was released in 2003 and includes early episodes from the 1970s and 1980s. The second collection, titled Last of the Summer Wine: Vintage 1995, followed in 2004 and includes episodes from series seventeen and the 30th anniversary documentary",
". A 2008 release named Last of the Summer Wine: Vintage 1976 focuses on the third series of the show and includes bonus interviews with Peter Sallis, Brian Wilde, and Frank Thornton. Subsequently, every episode from the third to the twenty-seventh series has been released on DVD in Vintage collections, many including special features and interviews.",
"Other adaptations\n\nFirst of the Summer Wine",
"A spin-off prequel show, First of the Summer Wine, premiered on BBC1 in 1988. The new programme was written by Roy Clarke and used different actors to follow the activities of the principal characters from Last of the Summer Wine in the months leading up to World War II. Unlike its mother show, First of the Summer Wine was not filmed in Holmfirth. Period music was used instead of Ronnie Hazlehurst's score to create a more World War II era atmosphere",
". New supporting characters were added to those from Last of the Summer Wine. Peter Sallis and Jonathan Linsley were the only actors from the original series to appear in the spin-off: Sallis played the father of his own character from the original show and Linsley appeared during the second series as a different character.",
"The spin-off show could not build on its early success and was cancelled after two series of thirteen episodes in 1989. Although the BBC has never rerun the show, it has been broadcast on Gold and internationally.",
"Cooper and Walsh",
"In 2014, it was announced that long-time supporting actors Ken Kitson and Louis Emerick had returned to Holmfirth to reprise their roles as Police Constables Cooper and Walsh in the pilot for a new proposed spin-off, Cooper and Walsh. Alan J.W",
". Alan J.W. Bell as well as crew from Last of the Summer Wine were involved in the creation of two short films while Kitson and Emerick appealed for funding through crowd-sourcing sites in the hopes of gaining enough support to produce a feature film featuring the duo or even a television series",
". Associate Producer Terry Bartlam believed there was enough of a scope with Cooper and Walsh that they could carry their own series and that this spin-off could be the answer to those who believed Last of the Summer Wine should have been given a proper ending.",
"Stage adaptations",
"A live production of Last of the Summer Wine, known informally as the \"summer season\", was produced in Bournemouth in 1984. While Bill Owen and Peter Sallis reprised their roles as Compo and Clegg, Brian Wilde chose not to take part because of personal differences with Owen. The show focused on the men's interaction with Clegg's new neighbour, Howard (Kenneth Waller), and his wife, Pearl, played by a local actress",
". The first act built up to the appearance of Marina (Jean Fergusson), who was in correspondence with Howard. At the end of the first act, Marina was revealed to be a blonde sexpot. Howard and Marina's story line was partly based on an early subplot of the television show. In the first series, the librarian, Mr. Wainwright, was having a love affair with his married assistant, Mrs. Partridge. Despite their efforts to keep the plot a secret, especially from Mrs",
". Partridge. Despite their efforts to keep the plot a secret, especially from Mrs. Partridge's husband, the trio of old men were well aware of the affair. The summer season reversed the roles: Howard became the married partner, and the challenge was to keep the affair secret from his wife.",
"The summer season proved to be a success and frequently played to packed houses. In 1985, the show was once again produced, first as a two-week tour of Britain, and then as another summer season in Bournemouth. Fergusson returned for the second summer season, once again playing Marina. Robert Fyfe replaced Waller in the role of Howard, and Juliette Kaplan took the role of Pearl for this season",
". Although the new characters were not originally intended to be carried over to the television programme, Roy Clarke included them in four of the following six episodes of the 1985 series, beginning with the episode \"Catching Digby's Donkey\". All three characters remained until the end of the sitcom.",
"An amended version of the show toured across Britain in 1987. Sallis was reluctant to appear in the new production, and his role in the show was rewritten and played by Derek Fowlds. Because Owen was the only member of the television show's trio to appear in the production, it was retitled Compo Plays Cupid. Once again, the summer season was a success.",
"A new stage adaptation of the show debuted in 2003. Based on Clarke's novel The Moonbather, the play was first performed by the Scunthorpe Little Theatre Club from 7 to 11 October 2003. Using new actors to perform the roles of Compo, Clegg, and Foggy, the play featured the trio as they attempted to get to the bottom of the disturbance created by a near-naked man in the town",
". The play was later performed in Eastbourne by Eastbourne Theatres from 15 July 2009 to 8 August 2009 before touring the country through November 2009.",
"In 2010, it was announced that long-time supporting cast members Ken Kitson and Louis Emerick would spin their characters off into their own stage adaptation, titled An Arresting Night. Kitson and Emerick, who appeared together on Last of the Summer Wine as Police Constables Cooper and Walsh from 2003 to 2010, reprised their roles in an improvised stage play",
". While some elements of the series will be used, the majority of the play was improvised, with Kitson and Emerick each deriving their cues of what to do from the audience. The play was successfully performed in Holmfirth, after which dates were announced in Emerick's hometown on the Wirral Peninsula.",
"Other media",
"Coronet Books released a novelisation of Last of the Summer Wine in 1974. Written by Roy Clarke as an unbroadcast original story, the novel featured Compo, Clegg and Blamire helping their friend, Sam, enjoy one last night with a glam girl. The book became the basis for the Last of the Summer Wine film, Getting Sam Home, with Blamire being replaced by Foggy. In 1983, Granada Books published a slightly different version of the first novel with Foggy in it instead of Blamire",
". In the late 1980s, Roy Clarke wrote two novels featuring Compo, Clegg, and Seymour. The books were published by Penguin Books under the series heading Summer Wine Chronicles, and were titled Gala Week and The Moonbather. Clarke later adapted The Moonbather into a stage play.",
"In the early 1980s, a daily comic strip based on the show was drawn by Roger Mahoney and appeared in the Daily Star. A compilation of these strips, published by Express Books, was released in 1983.",
"In 1993, the Summer Wine Appreciation Society asked their members for their favourite musical themes from Last of the Summer Wine. Ronnie Hazlehurst used the resulting list for an independently released CD collection titled Last of the Summer Wine: Original Music from the TV Series. BBC Radio released audio-only versions of episodes starting in 1995. Peter Sallis provided narration to compensate for the loss of the televised visual elements. All twelve audio episodes were released in CD format.",
"In 1976, a selection of early scripts from the series was published as Last of the Summer Wine Scripts. A companion guide to the show, Last of the Summer Wine: The Finest Vintage, was released in 2000. The book was written by Morris Bright and Robert Ross and chronicled the show from its inception through the end of the 2000 series. Included were interviews with cast and crew, a character guide, and an episode guide. Both the companion guide and its updated 30th anniversary version are now out of print",
". Both the companion guide and its updated 30th anniversary version are now out of print. A release by journalist Andrew Vine titled Last of the Summer Wine: The Inside Story of the World's Longest-running Comedy Programme covered the entire series, including the story of the final words of the series. It was released on 16 August 2010.",
"On 5 November 2012, a new book titled Last of the Summer Wine - From the Directors Chair was released and written by producer and director Alan J.W. Bell. 2023 saw the publication of 50 Years of Last of the Summer Wine: An Appreciation by author Miles Eaton. The book was released to coincide with the 50th anniversary of the first broadcast of the sitcom.",
"Reception",
"During its first series, Last of the Summer Wine did not receive a high ratings share. The second series proved to be a success, however, and two episodes made it to the top ten programmes of the week. The programme has since consistently been a favourite in the ratings, peaking at 18.8 million viewers for an episode shown on 10 February 1985. The premiere of the 28th series in 2007 brought in an 18.6 percent share of viewers in the 6:20 time slot with an average of 3.2 million viewers",
".6 percent share of viewers in the 6:20 time slot with an average of 3.2 million viewers. Last of the Summer Wine's audience grew from 2.7 million to 3.4 million over the 30 minutes. The show was beaten for the night only by Channel 4's Big Brother with 3.6 million viewers at 9:00 p.m., although the reality show had a smaller share of viewers for its time slot. The 29th series finale, which was broadcast on 31 August 2008, was watched by 4.2 million people, giving the network a 22.5% share for the night.",
"The 31st series continued to bring in over four million viewers, with the series opener pulling in 4.77 million viewers for an overall 21.6% share of the ratings for the night.",
"Several members of the royal family were viewers of Last of the Summer Wine. While presenting an OBE to Roy Clarke in 2002, Prince Charles said that his grandmother, the Queen Mother, had introduced him to the show. The Queen told Dame Thora Hird during a 2001 meeting that Last of the Summer Wine was her favourite television programme.",
"A 2003 survey by Radio Times found that Last of the Summer Wine was the programme readers most wanted to see cancelled. With nearly 12,000 votes in the survey, the show received one-third of the total vote, and twice as many votes as the runner up in the poll, Heartbeat. Alan J. W. Bell responded that Radio Times has always been anti-Last of the Summer Wine, and Roy Clarke remarked that people who dislike the show \"shouldn't switch it on\" if they are \"too idle to turn it off\"",
". A 2008 survey by County Life magazine, which named the show the worst thing about Yorkshire, was disputed by members of the Holme Valley Business Association, who said the show was good for business. The BBC wanted to cancel Last of the Summer Wine for years in favour of a new programme aimed at a younger audience, but the show remained too popular for cancellation; even repeats received ratings of as much as five million viewers per episode",
". The show came 14th in a high-profile 2004 BBC poll to find Britain's Best Sitcom, and was praised for portraying older people in a non-stereotypical, positive, and active manner. It was also praised for its clever and at times philosophical writing, and for being a family-friendly show.Last of the Summer Wine'' was nominated numerous times for two British television industry awards",
".Last of the Summer Wine'' was nominated numerous times for two British television industry awards. The show was proposed five times between 1973 and 1985 for the British Academy Film Awards, twice for the Best Situation Comedy Series award (in 1973 and 1979) and three times for the Best Comedy Series award (in 1982, 1983, and 1985). The show was also considered for the National Television Awards four times since 1999 (in 1999, 2000, 2003, and 2004), each time in the Most Popular Comedy Programme category",
". In 1999 the show won the National Television Award for Most Popular Comedy Programme.",
"See also\nList of British comedy series by episode count\nList of longest-running TV shows by category\nYorkshire dialect\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n \n (Archived BBC Comedy page)\n \n Last of the Summer Wine at Drama\n Last of the Summer Wine at Gold",
"1973 British television series debuts\n2010 British television series endings\n1970s British sitcoms\n1980s British sitcoms\n1990s British sitcoms\n2000s British sitcoms\n2010s British sitcoms\nBBC high definition shows\nBBC television sitcoms\nComedy Playhouse\nEnglish-language television shows\nFictional trios\nHolmfirth\nTelevision series about old age\nTelevision series produced at Pinewood Studios\nTelevision shows set in West Yorkshire\nTelevision shows shot in Yorkshire\nTelevision series by BBC Studios",
"Television shows shot in Yorkshire\nTelevision series by BBC Studios\nTelevision shows adapted into novels\nTelevision shows filmed in the United Kingdom"
] |
Concentrated poverty
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concentrated%20poverty
|
[
"Concentrated poverty concerns the spatial distribution of socio-economic deprivation, specifically focusing on the density of poor populations. Within the United States, common usage of the term concentrated poverty is observed in the fields of policy and scholarship referencing areas of \"extreme\" or \"high-poverty.\" These are defined by the US census as areas where \"40 percent of the tract population [lives] below the federal poverty threshold",
".\" A large body of literature argues that areas of concentrated poverty place additional burdens on poor families residing within them, burdens beyond what these families' individual circumstances would dictate. Research also indicates that areas of concentrated poverty can have effects beyond the neighborhood in question, affecting surrounding neighborhoods not classified as \"high-poverty\" and subsequently limiting their overall economic potential and social cohesion",
". Concentrated poverty is a global phenomenon, with prominent examples world-wide. Despite differing definitions, contributing factors, and overall effects, global concentrated poverty retains its central theme of spatial density. Multiple programs have attempted to ameliorate concentrated poverty and its effects within the United States, with varying degrees of progress and to sometimes detrimental effect.",
"History in the United States",
"A long-standing issue, concentrated poverty creates distinct social problems, exacerbating individual impoverishment and standing as the grounds of reform movements and studies since the mid-19th century. An analytical conception and measure for concentrated emerged in the United States around the 1970s, sparked by concern for its inner cities following deindustrialization, late-1960s civil unrest, rapid suburbanization, and subsequent out-migration",
". Most inner-city areas of concentrated poverty contained predominantly minority populations, featuring expansive public housing developments. The Bureau of the Census developed the first definition of \"low-income areas\" as part of its work for the newly established Office of Economic Opportunity, an organization designed to administer President Lyndon B. Johnson's War on Poverty programs, part of his Great Society legislative agenda",
". Johnson's War on Poverty programs, part of his Great Society legislative agenda. Overall, these programs were intended to identify major poverty concentrations within large metropolitan areas. An attribute-based criterion formed the original definition, with census tracts ranked by the following:",
"Income\n Average level of education\n Number of single-parent households\n Percentage of low-skilled workers\n Quality of housing stock",
"Of these, the lowest quartile were designated \"low income.\" Following the 1970 census, attribute-based measures were translated to purely statistical ones, defining \"low-income areas\" as census tracts with 20%–39% of inhabitants falling under the poverty line, and labeling areas with 40% or more impoverished inhabitants as \"high\" or \"extreme\" poverty",
". Calibration of household income statistics most closely approximating the 1960 census lower quartile lead to the adoption of the 20% threshold adopted in 1970. The 40% threshold designating \"high-poverty\" areas was set by doubling the low-income threshold, becoming the common definition of \"concentrated poverty\" in policy and scholarly research.",
"Paul Jargowsky later developed an alternative measure for concentrated poverty, used more specifically for larger geographical areas. His rate expresses the proportion of all poor individuals in a certain area (e.g., city, metropolitan region, or county) who live in census tracts of high poverty",
".g., city, metropolitan region, or county) who live in census tracts of high poverty. Jargowsky further refined the concept of concentrated poverty to more specifically describe the \"proportion of the poor in some region city or region that resides in high-poverty neighborhoods,\" as opposed to a simple territorial designation of high-poverty neighborhoods.",
"William Julius Wilson's book The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, The Underclass, and Public Policy was the first major scholarly work utilizing the census measure to study changing spatial trends in poverty, as well as its causes and effects. According to his findings, tracts of concentrated poverty increased dramatically throughout metropolitan areas of the United States during the 1970s, alongside the population of poor people residing within them",
". These trends related specifically to an African American \"underclass\" in America's inner cities (see trends below). In this work, Wilson utilizes concentrated poverty as an analytic measure to gauge the changing spatial organization and intensification of poverty, as a territorial category to designate an object of analysis, and also as a causal factor in and of itself, effecting life chances among the poor",
". All three conceptualizations have since served as the basis for a wide range of social science research, as well as policy interventions and prescriptions.",
"Analytic measure \n\nWilson's study both set the precedent of using the census' 40% threshold and has been adopted as the standard measure for the study of poverty trends and poor neighborhoods. Its standardization is largely credited to the measure's convenience, as opposed to any conceptual justifications, and is employed to compare degrees of poverty concentration between areas, as well as the growth or decline in total number of tracts fitting such qualifications within a given city, region, or country.",
"Both the federal definition of poverty and the census definition of concentrated poverty (40% threshold) have received criticism. The overall discussion for both cases has labeled the use of bureaucratic categories intended to facilitate both the routine collection of statistics and public assistance eligibility as unfit for comprehensively capturing urban social structures and strategies",
". Many criticisms revolve around the poverty threshold, the most prominent including the inability to fully consider the needs of different family types (e.g.: childcare services, health insurance, etc.), the non-cash benefits from public sources, the cash and non-cash resources (or lack thereof) from social and familial networks, and the consideration of regional variations in cost of living expenses",
". Concurrently, the 40% benchmark used by the census and various scholars to define concentrated poverty does not refer to any adequately specific objective or subjective criteria. Jargowsky and Bane (1991) assert “...that the 40 percent criterion came very close to identifying areas that looked like ghettos in terms of their housing conditions” (p. 239)",
". 239). They contend that “the areas selected by the 40 percent criterion corresponded closely with the neighborhoods that city officials and local Census Bureau officials considered ghettos” (p. 239). Thus, these scholars argued that although “any fixed cutoff is inherently arbitrary...the 40 percent criterion appropriately identifies most ghetto neighborhoods” (p. 239)",
"...the 40 percent criterion appropriately identifies most ghetto neighborhoods” (p. 239). Here we observe the threshold's justification on the basis of general personal impressions and impressions of city officials rather than any rigorous objective criteria.",
"In addition to contentious debate regarding the selection of particular percentage thresholds as accurate descriptive measures (i.e. 30% vs. 60% threshold of residents in poverty), other scholars criticized the use of an absolute indicator of poverty concentration as an analytic measure and tool for trend tracking. In one instance, researchers Massey and Eggers contend that a relative, segregation-based indicator is more rigorous and meaningful, claiming that \". .",
". . .levels and trends in poverty concentration are best studied with well-established measures of segregation that use complete information on the spatial distribution of income instead of an ad hoc and arbitrary definition of 'poverty neighborhoods' and 'poverty concentration'\" Based on a recent growth of working poor populations and emergence of inner-suburban poverty, Jennifer Wolch and Nathan Sessoms have challenged the utility of the traditional 40% threshold concept of concentrated poverty",
". Their study shows that several areas in Southern California, which meet the 40% threshold, do not demonstrate the characteristics traditionally associated with areas of concentrated poverty, and do not suffer from extreme levels of dysfunction, crime, and blight. Additionally, they are often reasonably clean, safe, well-maintained, and home to several commercial/retail establishments, public facilities, etc",
". They also argue that the term has become conflated with \"areas of social problems\" and argue that the concept should be unhooked from behavioral definitions and stigma.",
"Territorial category",
"Areas of concentrated poverty as a territorial category have become both key targets of place-specific policy interventions and the object of analysis for comparative studies within policy research and the social sciences. Its use as a territorial category has also resulted in several critiques, beginning with the question of whether census tracts are good spatial categories for social-scientific analysis",
". Systematic field observations in various inner-city areas reveal that census tracts serve as poor proxies of what residents construe and construct as neighborhoods in their daily routines. Sociologist Loic Wacquant criticized the measure when used to denote or define “ghettos,\" a reference first made by Bane and Jargowsky and William Julius Wilson (see above)",
". Scholars increasingly conflate areas of concentrated poverty and ghettos, something Wacquant claims camouflages the constitutive role of ethnoracial domination in the ghetto and hyperghetto. According to Wacquant, this income-based notion of the ghetto is \"ostensibly deracialized\" and largely a product of policy-geared research fearful of the \"strict taboo that weighs on segregation in the political sphere\"",
". Massey and Denton similarly question the use of a purely income-based measure to define areas of deprivation, showing strong empirical evidence and theorizing that high levels of racial segregation (defined by an index of dissimilarity above 60) produce distinct socio-economic constellations and processes. Additional questions by Wacquant include why rural communities and suburban tracts are often left out of social science analyses focusing on concentrated poverty.",
"Causal factor",
"Concentrated poverty is increasingly recognized as a \"causal factor\" in compounding the effects of poverty by isolating residents from networks and resources useful for realizing human potential (explored further in the effects section). William Julius Wilson coined these processes in The Truly Disadvantaged as \"concentration effects.\" He termed the primary effect \"social isolation\", defined as the lack of contact or sustained interaction with individuals and institutions representing mainstream society",
". This isolation makes it much more difficult for those looking for jobs to be tied into the job network, also generating behavior not conducive to good work histories. A key in Wilson's idea of social isolation is the linking of behavioral outcomes of the ghetto poor to the structural constraints of the job market and historical discrimination",
". This contradicts the theory of a \"culture of poverty,\" which stipulated that basic values and attitudes of the ghetto subculture have been internalized, placing a strong emphasis on the autonomous character of these cultural traits once they come into existence.",
"Many scholars have called to question this causal framing. For Wilson, concentrated poverty stood as a link between structural factors and social behaviors produced through the \"concentration effects\" of poverty. Subsequent policy and scholarly research have ignored such causes. According to Agnew, \"one can start out using spatial concepts as shorthand for complex sociological processes but slip easily into substituting the spatial concepts for the more complex argument\"",
". Steinberg has claimed that this amounts to misdiagnosing the symptom as the disease, as the structural factors are severed from the spatial outcome, policy prescriptions to address concentrated poverty have shifted from economic policies to encourage full-employment to simply deconcentrating poverty (see section below)",
". As Goetz observed, “Over time, focus has shifted away from the causes of concentrated poverty toward the behavior of the poor in response to concentrated poverty,\" which ultimately has led to reproducing the \"culture of poverty\" thesis in severing the theory from its structural roots.",
"Causes\nThe shifting spatial distribution of poverty is attributed to various structural factors, primarily of an economic nature. According to William Julius Wilson in the 1987 book The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, The Underclass, and Public Policy, the driving forces of American concentrated poverty date back to the 1970s. The following are some causes outlined in Wilson's book:",
"Racial discrimination and segregation: In the early twentieth century, black people were discriminated against far more severely than white immigrants. Restrictive covenants, municipal policies, and federal housing programs forced black people, unlike other immigrant groups, into particular areas within inner cities",
". Concurrently, discrimination against black people was far more severe than against other groups in the labor market, leading to disproportionate poverty and concentration in low-paying jobs, particularly in industrial sectors. Collectively, these forms of racial and spatial discrimination laid the initial foundation for many areas of contemporary concentrated poverty.",
"Deindustrialization: Black people's discrimination-driven concentration in low-wage sectors led to greater adverse effects and overall increased vulnerability during economic shifts in advanced industrial society. Their heavy concentration in the automobile, rubber, steel, and other smokestack industries meant that they were especially impacted by deindustrialization occurring in American cities from the 70s onward",
". Such disparities reveal the overall vulnerability of minorities to economic changes such as recessions, structural shifts, cutbacks, and other events driving job shifts, due to their disproportionate concentration in low-wage, often manual/industrial sectors.",
"Increasing gaps between skilled and unskilled workers: Many new jobs in the post-1970s economy have disproportionately emerged in the service and knowledge sectors. Large wage inequalities characterize these sectors, which have lowered average household income compared to those holding better paying industrial jobs in the past (see Working Poor)",
"Spatial mismatch: Suburban expansion shifted economic growth from the inner cities to suburbs. Spatial distance from places of employment, among other locations, prevented inner-city poor families from taking advantage of these new opportunities.",
"White flight: Large scale migrations of wealthier white people from the inner-city were driven by increased fears and anxieties directed against minority populations. Construction of the federal highway system and expansions of federal mortgage programs facilitated these patterns",
". In turn, the proportion of both poor and black people in urban populations increased concurrently with the erosion of municipal tax bases, leading toward a downward spiral in the provision of public services, job opportunities, and economic development.",
"Flight of the black middle class: Black inner-city middle-class families, taking advantage of increased opportunities for socioeconomic mobility following the end of several institutional racial restrictions after the civil rights movement, such as within federal housing loans and programs, moved to mixed neighborhoods or satellite suburbs. This increased the proportion of poor people within the ghetto, weakening civic institutions and investment in the local economy.",
"Changes in age demographics: A simultaneous increase in the proportion of inner-city black youth accompanied increases in concentrated poverty. Populations of central-city black people aged 14 to 24 rose by 78% from 1960 to 1970, compared with an increase of 23% for whites of the same age. This demographic imbalance is often considered a contributing factor to increases in crime, teenage pregnancy, unemployment, and other factors associated with poverty.",
"Changes in family structure: In 1965, 25% of all black families were headed by women. The proportion surpassed 28% in 1970 and reached 40% by 1979. Trends continued, with 43% in 1984 and 72% by 2010. Because poverty is measured at the household level, rather than the individual level, these demographic changes inevitably resulted in an \"on-paper\" increase in poverty rates",
". Furthermore, this data implies an increase in single-mother households, a demographic which several studies show faces disproportionate poverty.",
"Effects",
"Several studies have pointed to the role of \"neighborhood effects\" caused by concentrated poverty. These studies indicate that neighborhood characteristics, particularly the concentration of poverty, affect crime and delinquency, education deficiencies, psychological distress, and various health problems, among many other issues. Thresholds, or tipping points, also prove important. In a recent review of research, George C",
". Galster notes that studies suggest “that the independent impacts of neighborhood poverty rates in encouraging negative outcomes for individuals like crime, school leaving, and duration of poverty spells appear to be nil unless the neighborhood exceeds about 20 percent poverty, whereupon the externality effects grow rapidly until the neighborhood reaches approximately 40 percent poverty; subsequent increases in the poverty population appear to have no marginal effect",
".” Housing values and rents show similar patterns. Using data from the 100 largest U.S. metro areas from 1990 to 2000, Galster et al. find little relationship between neighborhood poverty rates and declines in neighborhood housing values and rents until poverty exceeds 10 percent, at which point values decline rapidly before becoming shallower at very high poverty levels.",
"The Pew Economic Mobility Project conducted one of the largest studies examining concentrated poverty's effects, tracking 5,000 families since 1968. The study found that no other factor, including parents' education, employment, or marital status, was as important as neighborhood poverty in explaining why African-American children were disproportionately more likely to have lower incomes than their parents as adults",
". Thus, the concentrated poverty rate aims to capture the extent of a possible “double burden” imposed on poor families living in extremely poor communities; both being poor and living in a poor community. The study also found negative effects on the better-off children raised in such areas. While initial research failed to isolate the direct effects of \"concentrated poverty\" itself, more recent work has shifted to identifying its primary mechanisms",
". This scholarship us primarily focused on examining the social-interactive and institutional aspects produced through concentrated poverty, rather than a sole focus on the socioeconomic characteristics of neighborhoods. Below is an overview of these effects and mechanisms.",
"Mechanisms\n\n(From George C. Galster, \"The Mechanism(s) of Neighborhood Effects: Theory, Evidence, and Policy Implications\").\n\nSocial interactive effects",
"This set of mechanisms refers to social processes endogenous to neighborhoods. These processes include:\n Social contagion: Behaviors, aspirations, and attitudes may be changed by contact with peers who are neighbors. Under certain conditions these changes can take on contagion dynamics that are akin to “epidemics.”",
"Collective socialization: Individuals may be encouraged to conform to local social norms conveyed by neighborhood role models and other social pressures. This socialization effect is characterized by a minimum threshold or critical mass being achieved before a norm can produce noticeable consequences for others in the neighborhood.",
"Social networks: Individuals may be influenced by the interpersonal communication of information and resources of various kinds transmitted through neighbors. These networks can involve either “strong ties” and/or “weak ties.”\n Social cohesion and control: The degree of neighborhood social disorder and its converse, “collective efficacy\" may influence a variety of behaviors and psychological reactions of residents.",
"Relative deprivation: This mechanism suggests that residents who have achieved some socioeconomic success will be a source of disamenities for their less-well off neighbors. The latter, it is argued, will view the successful with envy and/or will make them perceive their own relative inferiority as a source of dissatisfaction.",
"Parental mediation: The neighborhood may affect (through any of the mechanisms listed under all categories here) parents’ physical and mental health, stress, coping skills, sense of efficacy, behaviors, and material resources. All of these, in turn, may affect the home environment in which children are raised.",
"Environmental effects",
"Environmental mechanisms refer to natural and human-made attributes of the local space that may affect directly the mental and/or physical health of residents without affecting their behaviors. As in the case of social-interactive mechanism, the environmental category can also assume distinct forms:",
"Exposure to violence: If people sense that their property or person is in danger they may suffer psychological and physical responses that may impair their functioning or sensed well-being. These consequences are likely to be even more pronounced if the person has been victimized.\n Physical surroundings: Decayed physical conditions of the built environment (e.g., deteriorated structures and public infrastructure, litter, graffiti) may impart psychological effects on residents,",
"Geographical effects",
"Geographic mechanisms refer to aspects of spaces that may affect residents’ life courses yet do not arise within the neighborhood but rather purely because of the neighborhood's location relative to larger-scale political and economic forces such as:",
"Spatial mismatch: Certain neighborhoods may have little accessibility (in either spatial proximity or as mediated by transportation networks) to job opportunities appropriate to the skills of their residents, thereby restricting their employment opportunities.",
"Public services: Some neighborhoods may be located within local political jurisdictions that offer inferior public services and facilities because of their limited tax base resources, incompetence, corruption, or other operational challenges. These, in turn, may adversely affect the personal development and educational opportunities of residents.",
"Institutional effects",
"The last category of mechanisms involves actions by those typically not residing in the given neighborhood who control important institutional resources located there and/or points of interface between neighborhood residents and vital markets:",
"Stigmatization: Neighborhoods may be stigmatized on the basis of public stereotypes held by powerful institutional or private actors about its current residents. In other cases this may occur regardless of the neighborhood's current population because of its history, environmental or topographical disamenities, style, scale and type of dwellings, or condition of their commercial districts and public spaces",
". Such stigma may reduce the opportunities and perceptions of residents of stigmatized areas in a variety of ways, such as job opportunities and self-esteem.",
"Local institutional resources: Some neighborhoods may have access to few and/or high-quality private, non-profit, or public institutions and organizations, such as benevolent charities, day care facilities, schools, and medical clinics. The lack of same may adversely affect the personal development opportunities of residents.",
"Local market actors: There may be substantial spatial variations in the prevalence of certain private market actors that may encourage or discourage certain behaviors by neighborhood residents, such as liquor stores, fresh food markets, fast food restaurants, and illegal drug markets.",
"Regional examples",
"Concentrated poverty is a global phenomenon, with examples visible in both developed and developing countries. According to the Brookings Institution, post-industrial revolution growth has spread unevenly between and within countries, with many developing countries likely to still have regional examples of extreme poverty",
". Through spatial analysis of satellite imagine, the Brookings Institution defined various \"hotspots\" of extreme poverty, primarily in areas of tropical Africa, tropical Latin America, Central-South Asia, and Southeast Asia/Western Oceania. Although this analysis does not refer specifically to concentrated poverty, rather more broadly to extreme poverty, its conclusions underscore the widespread nature of concentrated poverty, as well as its relationship to extreme poverty and poverty cycles",
". Despite positive trends in the reduction of global poverty rates, researchers such as Oxford's Max Roser and Esteban Ortiz-Ospina highlight the deepening divide between socioeconomic classes worldwide, which in turn paints an inaccurate image of the conditions faced by most populations. Instead, regions such as Africa and Asia observe overall economic growth while its poorest populations stagnate",
". The widespread nature of extreme poverty, as well as trends pointing towards the growth of concentrated poverty, suggest a need to explore this issue through a more global lens. The following are examples of concentrated poverty through the lens of various countries/regions, ranging from developed to developing. While it is not an exhaustive list of examples, the overall goal is to provide information regarding the diverse characteristics of concentrated poverty.",
"American trends\n\n1970–1990\n\nThe number of people living in high-poverty neighborhoods – where the poverty rate was 40% or higher – doubled between 1970 and 1990. It was not until after the release of the 1980 census, however, that trends of poverty concentration were systematically studied, as the 1970 census was the first instance where the 40% measure was employed. Studying these trends, sociologist William Julius Wilson made the following discoveries regarding the decade of the 1970s:",
"Poverty increased dramatically throughout metropolitan areas of the United States.\n The number of poor people residing within poor metropolitan areas increased\n The exacerbation of poverty conditions primarily occurred within African-American neighborhoods.",
"Several other scholars later affirmed a dramatic increase in the number of neighborhoods classified as areas of concentrated poverty in the 1970s. The increase of neighborhoods classified as areas of \"extreme poverty\" continued into the 1980s, albeit to a lesser extent. The same trends of concentrated poverty observed at the census tract and neighborhood levels were similarly observed at the metropolitan statistical area (MSA) level",
". Both decades between 1970 and 1990 saw an increased difference in poverty rates between central cities and their suburbs, reflecting an increasing spatial concentration of MSA poverty within central cities. The changing spatial distribution of poverty has been attributed to the following:",
"Changes in the labor market due to deindustrialization, leading to a widening wage gap between skilled and unskilled workers and spatial mismatches between the types of jobs offered in cities and the type of workers residing within them.\n Declining economic growth (several studies, however, demonstrate a weak or non-existent link between poverty reduction and urban economic growth in neighborhoods with extreme poverty).",
"Relocation of upper- and middle- income residents from cities to suburbs, alongside demographic changes such as the rise in one-parent households and a decrease in labor market participation.",
"Such changes were intertwined with America's history of ethno-racial segregation. Some of its effects include white flight from American cities, leading to a declining tax base to provide city services, and the civil rights movement, allowing better-off blacks to leave inner-city areas. While concentrated poverty between 1970 and 1990 increased among blacks, Hispanics, and whites, the most dramatic increases were observed among blacks, followed by Hispanics, and to a much lesser extent whites.\n\n1990–2000",
"In the 1990s, the number of people living in high-poverty neighborhoods declined by 24%, or 2.5 million people. The steepest declines in high-poverty neighborhoods occurred in metropolitan areas in the Midwest and South, and the overall share of poor people living in high-poverty neighborhoods declined among all racial groups. The decline of the number of high-poverty neighborhoods occurred in rural areas and central cities, while suburbs experienced minimal change",
". Scholars have also recognized qualitative shifts in areas of \"concentrated poverty.\" A study of Southern California's (a state which observed increases in concentrated poverty during the 1990s despite national downward trends) metropolitan areas by Wolch and Sessoms draws attention to the contrast between growing inner-suburban poverty and the original intention of the concentrated poverty statistic",
". These areas, which qualify as \"extreme poverty\" under the 40% threshold, do not demonstrate the negative social behaviors or physical decay of traditional images that the original statistic was designed to designate. Other scholars argued for an expansion of the definition, challenging Jargowsky's claim of decreasing poverty concentration in the 1990s. Using the relative definition of poverty employed in Europe, based on 50% of the median income in each region, Swanstrom et al",
". point to an increase in concentrated poverty throughout most American cities during the 1990s.",
"2000–present",
"From 2000 to 2009, the populations of extremely poor neighborhoods climbed by over one third, from 6.6 million to 8.7 million, erasing any progress claimed during the 1990s. During that time, the share of poor people living in such neighborhoods grew from 9.1% to 10.5%, highlighting the \"double burden\" effect of their individual poverty and the poverty within their community. A Brookings Institution report attributes this trend to both the downturn of 2000 and the 2008 recession",
". This poverty not only affected inner cities, but continued to spread into the suburbs, extending the suburbanization trend of concentrated poverty first noted in the 1990s. Furthermore, the study indicated that the concentrated poverty rates of 2010 was approaching an all-time high. In metro areas, concentrated poverty grew to 15.1%, a considerable increase from 11.7% between 2005 and 2009 and nearing the previous record of 16.5% from 1990",
".7% between 2005 and 2009 and nearing the previous record of 16.5% from 1990. Such trend appears to confirm William Julius Wilson's original thesis, which states that extremely poor neighborhoods and their residents are the last to benefit from economic growth and the first to suffer from economic troubles.",
"Brazil",
"Despite its ranking as one of the largest economies in the world, Brazil continues facing deep socioeconomic inequality. According to a 2008 paper by Nathalie Beghin for Oxfam International employing data from the Institute for Applied Economic Research, 11.5% of its population was categorized as extremely poor, with an overall 30.3% (including the aforementioned 11.5%) classified as \"poor",
".3% (including the aforementioned 11.5%) classified as \"poor.\" Beghin further states that Brazil's poverty rate is in some cases more than three times higher than that of comparable economies. Such economic situation in turn confines poor people to areas with large spatial concentrations of poverty, such as the infamous Favelas, neighborhoods with few access to government services, high crime, and poor living conditions. According to a descriptive study by Brueckner et al",
". According to a descriptive study by Brueckner et al. for the Journal of Housing Economics, significant rural to urban migration in the second half of the 1900s led to unprecedented metropolitan population growth. Given the rapid influx of often-poor migrants, as well as insufficient housing, slums developed along the edges of cities. These neighborhoods did not follow building codes, lacking sanitation and other services",
". These neighborhoods did not follow building codes, lacking sanitation and other services. Exhibiting similarities to examples of concentrated poverty in the United States, neighborhoods such as favelas have additionally struggled with racial and socioeconomic discrimination. Working on Brazilian census data, the Brueckner et al",
". Working on Brazilian census data, the Brueckner et al. study underscores the racial disparity of favela residents, finding a statistically significantly greater chance of non-white residents existing within favelas than the rest of Brazilian urban areas. Given their relative disconnect from government oversight, favelas are frequently depicted as breeding grounds for organized crime",
". A study for the Political and Legal Anthropology Review outlines criminal organizations' strategies for finding refuge within favelas, involving complex relationships with favela residents. These organizations essentially act as a government for favelas, claiming to provide order, security, and resources. Within this study, however, such security is referred to as \"ordered disorder,\" due to the continued threat of violence to residents brought forth by criminal activity.",
"Turkey",
"Similar to Brazil, Turkey experienced an explosive rate of urbanization throughout the 20th century, leading to various hasty attempts at expanding urban housing capacities. Citing a variety of Turkish government sources, the Middle East Institute describes Istanbul, Turkey's largest city, as increasing its share of the total Turkish population from 5% in 1955 to at least 14% in 2000, with continued growth patterns",
". Gecekondu refers to neighborhoods built through legally-questionable methods to house rural migrants within or outside urban centers. The primary demographic of gecekondu residents are rural poor seeking improved living conditions and urban employment. Research published in Turkey's Megaron journal by Bektaş & Yücel outline vast problems faced by the residents of gecekondus, relating primarily to their integration to urban life, as well as spatial distribution",
". In essence, their study reveals the impact of continued rapid migration patterns and insufficient governmental responses on urban inequality. As more residents settle into urban centers, the concentration of poverty increases while resources become increasingly scarce",
". Gecekondu residents face additional hardships due to the questionable legality of their housing: as gecekondus are traditionally built through legal loopholes, avoiding costs associated with formal land use, residents may encounter a problematic relationship with government entities",
". In a paper for the journal Urban Anthropology and Studies of Cultural Systems and World Economic Development, researcher Tahire Erman explores the relationship between gecekondu residents and government intervention, revealing the residents' decreasing bargaining power. Primarily, the demographic makeup of gecekondus have led to varying levels of government attention to different neighborhoods",
". As the years progressed and Turkish politics shifted toward neoliberalism, neighborhoods grew increasingly divided, with the largest ramifications being a loss of collective bargaining power. Consequently, residents are more vulnerable to displacement and face increasing governmental neglect",
". Overall, gecekondu neighborhoods stand as examples of the negative effects inherent to and generated by concentrated poverty, with residents facing poor living conditions and socioeconomic and political barriers to integration.",
"Examples of policy interventions\n\nUnited States \n\nBeginning in the early 1990s, federal housing policy has focused on reducing the spatial concentration of poverty, accomplished through three methods:",
"Creating income diversity within public housing developments that continue to be owned and operated by public housing authorities under the rules of the public housing program.\n Creating income diversity in new or redeveloped housing projects, including former public housing projects redeveloped under the HOPE VI program.\n Encouraging the use of tenant-based housing vouchers for families to locate in neighborhoods that will improve the life opportunities of family members.\n\nMobility programs",
"Authorized in 1992, the Moving To Opportunity (MTO) pilot program provided section 8 vouchers to public housing residents to enable them to move out of public housing and into neighborhoods with lower poverty",
". Modeled after Chicago's Gautreaux program, which provided housing vouchers to black public housing residents so they could move to more integrated neighborhoods, MTO stands as an example of \"mobility programs\" aimed at enabling poor families from high-poverty neighborhoods to move into communities featuring decreased poverty levels, such as middle-class neighborhoods.",
"Comparatively, the Gatreuax program exhibited stronger and clearer results than MTO. The program assigned participants selected from the same pool of callers to random private apartment placements in either suburban or urban locations. Follow-ups several years later revealed different outcomes between suburban and urban participants. Namely, urban participants were more likely to have remained on welfare rolls while their suburban counterparts were very likely to find employment and leave welfare programs",
". Additionally, children of urban participants were likely to drop out of high school while suburban participants were likely to graduate from high school and proceed towards college. The children of both types of participants began below the average academic level of their peers, however due to the lower number of participants selected for suburbs, suburban participants' children experience greater individual instruction",
". In turn, suburban children eventually reached the same level of academic proficiency as their average classmates.",
"On the other hand, participants of the MTO program experienced non-significant changes in employment and educational improvement, with nearly half of all participants moving back or remaining in their original neighborhood. Most participants did not move into suburbs, instead moving more frequently into other nearby urban neighborhoods with lower poverty levels",
". The program did show significant improvements regarding the fostering of a sense of security among participants, resulting in the reduction of stress, fear, and depression, particularly among women and young girls.",
"Several scholars have questioned both the success and broader ability of such policy interventions as an adequate response to concentrated poverty. Goetz argues that voluntary programs like MTO and Gautreaux, though justifiable on other grounds, will not make a dent in concentrated poverty for two reasons:",
"They primarily select families most likely to succeed in their new environments, essentially the \"cream of the crop.\"\n They do not reach sufficient scales to noticeably affect overall settlement patterns.",
"MTO, Gautreaux and other voluntary mobility programs can apply to only a subset of the poor by the political reality of destination communities. Low-poverty areas are not anxious to receive large numbers of poor, public housing families, and there will typically be political backlash if current residents feel that these families are being forced into their neighborhoods, and it was this type of resistance that ended the expansion of the program in 1995",
". Venkatesh and Celimi point out, dispersal programs incorrectly assume the poor can relocate as easily as the middle class does. In fact, very real resource constraints limit the ability of public housing families to abandon existing support networks, and these constraints limit the attractiveness of dispersal strategies to poor families. Lastly, mobility programs have historically contributed to disadvantages for the current residents of neighborhoods where poor families have been relocated.",
"Hope VI \n\nHope VI is a federal housing plan designed to revitalize American public housing projects into mixed-income developments. In most cases, such projects involve demolishing older high rise buildings composed entirely of extremely low-income residents and constructing higher quality, low-density, housing with various tiers of income earners.",
"While Hope VI has successfully de-concentrated public housing sites, it has done little to de-concentrate poverty within poor neighborhoods in general. Public housing families who are displaced and relocated typically re-concentrate in other poor neighborhoods nearby. Very rarely do these families relocate to low-poverty suburbs. Over half of families relocated by HOPE VI either move into other public housing or use vouchers to rent units on the private market",
". Public housing units are more likely to be in low-income neighborhoods. Families using vouchers are also likely to move into low-income areas, as they are more likely to find program-eligible units and landlords willing to rent to them. Therefore, while HOPE VI has significantly improved the physical quality of several public housing sites and the lives of former residents given units in the new developments, it has come short of addressing the issue of concentrated poverty at large.",
"See also \n\n WikiProject: International Development\n Main page on poverty\n Accumulation by dispossession\n Causes of poverty\n Poverty trap\n Extreme poverty\n Environmental racism\n\nReferences \n\nMeasurements and definitions of poverty\nSocial issues\nEconomic inequality"
] |
Inuit women
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inuit%20women
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[
"The Inuit are indigenous people who live in the Arctic and subarctic regions of North America (parts of Alaska, Canada, and Greenland). The ancestors of the present-day Inuit are culturally related to Iñupiat (northern Alaska) and Yupik (Siberia and western Alaska),<ref>[https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/inuit \"Inuit\", Canadian Encycloprdia]</ref> and the Aleut, who live in the Aleutian Islands of Siberia and Alaska",
". The word \"Eskimo\" has been used to encompass the Inuit and Yupik, and other indigenous Alaskan and Siberian peoples, but this usage is in decline.",
"In Inuit communities, the women play a crucial role in the survival of the group. The responsibilities faced by Inuit women were considered equally as important as those faced by the men. Because of this, women are given due respect and an equal share of influence or power.\n\nRecent modernization and urbanization have transformed traditional Inuit culture and influenced the role of women within the culture. These changes include both positive and negative impacts on the overall well-being of Inuit women.",
"Family structure and marriage",
"In Inuit culture, marriage was not a choice, but a necessity. Inuit men and women needed each other to survive. Married couples had to work together to overcome nearly impossible living conditions. Because every individual had to rely on a partner to survive, marriages were often arranged at birth to ensure the survival of the family. Love marriages, or choice marriages, existed, but these were all but arranged because there were usually few eligible partners",
". A young woman was eligible for marriage after puberty, but a man had to prove he was efficient enough in hunting to support a family before he could marry.",
"Inuit marriages rarely included large ceremonies; couples were often considered married after the birth of their first child. There were monogamous and polygamous marriages, but polygyny was rare because few men could afford to support multiple wives. Families exchanged gifts before marriages, but no official bride price or dowry was paid. Although men were considered the head of the family, both genders could demand a divorce",
". Although men were considered the head of the family, both genders could demand a divorce. However, divorce was frowned upon because it was bad for the family and the community as a whole.",
"Spouses were sometimes traded or exchanged, and women had some say in this process. This was a common alternative to divorce because neither family would be without a component vital to its survival — a mother and a wife. In Inuit culture, the family was typically represented by a kudlik (lamp) or a hearth, which was the property and responsibility of the wife. This lamp had significant symbolic meaning in the family, the community, and the culture.",
"Food production and preparation",
"Hunting and fishing were the primary sources of food for the Inuit, and men were traditionally responsible for these duties. Women's duties included gathering other sources of food, such as eggs and berries, and preparing the food the hunters brought back. Seals, walrus, whales and caribou were the most common targets of Inuit hunters. Animals killed by the hunters needed to be butchered and frozen quickly, before they went bad or froze before being butchered",
". Women were traditionally responsible for the butchering, skinning, and cooking of animals taken by the hunters.",
"In Inuit culture, it was believed that the women's respect for the animals killed during hunting trips, and subsequent care when butchering them, would ensure successful hunts. Food, as well as other resources, were often shared throughout the community as needed. Women were in charge of the distribution of food to families in the community.",
"The Inuit moved with the seasons to maximize their chances of a successful hunt; their entire families often moved with them. Because of this, tools and other items used by the Inuit for hunting and food preparation had to be light and easily transported. Among some Inuit groups, this led to the development of complex tools such as light and powerful metal harpoons and wood stoves, which were being used by the late 1800s.",
"Children, reproduction, and motherhood",
"Childbirth and childcare were two of the most important responsibilities for an Inuit woman. Inuit parents showed a very high level of warmth and affection to their children. Inuit children usually began to contribute to the family and community by the age of 12 through activities like picking berries and hunting small game. During this period, they learned skills from their parents through close observation",
". During this period, they learned skills from their parents through close observation. Learning through observation was the chosen method because it was not practical for children to practice their skills by sewing valuable skins or accompanying men on important hunting trips.",
"Women raised boys and girls. Men taught boys certain skills, such as hunting, and women taught girls certain skills, such as sewing.",
"Kinship is an important factor to an Inuit child's cultural belonging. From birth, children are introduced to their duties and ties of kinship. One way Inuit achieve this is by the practice referred to as name-soul. After a member of the family has passed away, their name is used as the name for a child of the same family line. The name provides a child with a cultural tie, belonging within their community, and personal identity",
". In addition, name-soul allows for prior family members to carry on their legacy in their family lineage even after passing. The children are raised in a family-oriented environment, as their name serves as a reminder that the group comes first. There were no boy's and girl's names in Inuit culture, so it was common for a girl to have the name of her grandfather, for example.",
"Children were taught at a young age to listen to their parents and respect their elders, and were treated with more autonomy than non-Inuit children. Over disciplining a child was seen as counterproductive, so children were rarely punished for transgressions. Learning was regarded as a partnership between child and adult, with children being more guided through life than directly taught or lectured.",
"Adoption was very common in Inuit culture, and it was often very informal. Unwanted babies, or babies a family could not support, could be offered to another family. If the other family accepted, the adoption was complete.",
"Infanticide occurred when conditions were desperate and the group was threatened by starvation. A mother abandoned an infant in hopes that someone less desperate might find and adopt the child before the cold or animals killed it. The belief that the Inuit regularly resorted to infanticide may be due in part to studies done by Asen Balikci, Milton Freeman, and David Riches among the Netsilik, along with the trial of Kikkik.\n\n Pregnancy behaviours and beliefs in Canada",
"Pregnancy",
"In regards to conception and pregnancy, young Inuit women were discouraged from engaging in sexual intercourse during puberty, ages 11 to 13 years, until they reached \"prime maternity age\", after marriage, about 15. Similar to menarche, many young Inuit women were unaware of the indications of their first pregnancy. Elders recount that young women often thought that they had been cured of their menses when they experienced amenorrhoea for the first time",
". It was not uncommon for the young woman to learn about her first pregnancy from her mother or grandmother when she began to show (or carry weight). According to elders, pregnancy was also determined by, \"looking into the face\" of the young woman and/or feeling her stomach for a fetus",
". Once aware, it was important that the woman immediately divulge her pregnancy status to her mother, husband, and close community, as the Inuit believed that her status demanded special considerations and/or treatment to ensure the health of the mother, baby, and camp.",
"To prevent miscarriage, the husband and camp were to assure that the woman did not become mentally stressed or exhausted during the pregnancy. This taboo extended to include not allowing the husband to get angry with his wife at any time during the pregnancy. If miscarriage did occur, the woman was expected to inform her mother and the camp right away. According to traditional Inuit beliefs, hiding such a secret would bring bad luck for the camp such as hunger, lack of food, or illness.",
"Taboos (pittailiniq) in pregnancy",
"In pregnancy, women's care was traditionally guided by the taboos, known as pittailiniq, from the elders in the community. These taboos, which were passed down through generations and varied somewhat across geographic regions or camps, informed the woman's behaviors and activities in order to prevent complications, promote a healthy birth, and ensure desired characteristics of the infant",
". For example, in regards to activity, the Inuit had many pittailiniq about maintaining physical activity throughout pregnancy and resisting idleness or laziness, which was believed to adversely affect labor and birth. The Inuit words sailliq and sailliqtuq, distinguished between the women who relaxed (sailliq) as appropriate, and those who relaxed too much, sailliqtuq",
". Another common pittailiniq instructed the woman to massage her stomach until she felt the fetus move so that the baby wouldn't \"stick\" to the uterus.",
"In interviews with Inuit elders, numerous pittailiniq about the woman's activity and behavior in pregnancy are discussed. Some of these are listed below.\n\n Pittailiniq on activity in pregnancy",
"In the morning when waking, go outside as fast as possible, to ensure a short labor and fast delivery\nDon't relax too much or the placenta might stick to the womb\nDon't lie around or take naps or the labor will be long\nWhen you stretch sealskin on a frame, don't wind the rope around your hands because this would cause the umbilical cord to be wrapped around the baby's neck.\nDon't put anything bowl-shaped on your head so the placenta won't get stuck on the baby's head.",
"Don't put anything bowl-shaped on your head so the placenta won't get stuck on the baby's head.\nDon't walk backward or the baby will be breech\nDon't put your head or arm partway through a doorway or into a hole because during birth the baby will present and retreat back and forth, or the baby will come out arm first",
"Pittailiniq on behaviour in pregnancy",
"When called outside or asked to perform a task, do so immediately to ensure a speedy delivery\nWhen beginning a project such as sewing, finish it or the labour will be longer\nDon't scratch the stomach so that stretch marks will be less noticeable\nDon't speak about or stare at other peoples' physical oddities such as a big nose, or the baby will have even more serious oddities\nUntie everything that is tied up so as to be more dilated when the baby is ready",
"Untie everything that is tied up so as to be more dilated when the baby is ready\nDon't wear tight pants while pregnant for an easier delivery\nDon't clean hands with an ulu or knife in order to prevent a dry, painful birth and risk of perineal tears\nDon't make bubbles with gum or blow up a balloon or the membranes might rupture\nFace the bed toward a doorway. If it is sideways toward the door the baby will be transverse",
"Face the bed toward a doorway. If it is sideways toward the door the baby will be transverse\nDon't allow the legs to get cold during pregnancy, because this will cause hemorrhaging after birth",
"Diet in pregnancy \n\nThe Inuit also followed many taboos (pittailiniq) about diet and consumption in pregnancy. Consistently, elders report that pregnant women were to abstain from raw meat, eating only boiled or cooked meat, during pregnancy. Men were also expected to observe this rule, but only when in the presence of their wives. The preferential treatment of pregnant women also extended to food, and the best pieces of meat and food were always reserved for the pregnant woman.",
"The pittailiniq regarding the diet of pregnant women demonstrates the strong emphasis on maternal diet affecting infant beauty and/or appearance. Some of these pittailiniq are listed below.\n\n Pittailiniq on diet in pregnancy",
"Pittailiniq on diet in pregnancy \n\nWhen eating, be sure to finish the meal and lick the plate. This ensures that your baby will be beautiful.\nEat caribou kidneys to ensure that you have beautiful babies\nWhen eating seal, swallow a seal cap to have a nice round baby\nDo not drink directly from a soup bowl or the baby will have dark skin\nDo not chew candle wax during pregnancy or the baby will be covered with a white coating at birth\nEat seaweed if you want to have a boy\n\n Preparation for birth",
"According to elders, the women were not taught how to prepare for birth. Women expected and trusted that they would receive instruction and advice from their midwife and other birth attendants (i.e. mother and/or mother-in-law) during the event. When labour and birth were perceived imminent, the woman and/or her attendants would set up a soft bed of caribou skins or heathers nearby. A thick layer of caribou fur on top of the heathers was desired in order to soak up the blood lost during birth.",
"Birth attendant(s) \n\nAccording to elders, birth ideally occurred with both an assistant and midwife, but due to hunting-based economy/survival, many births occurred in transit or at a hunting camp. In these cases, the elders report that either the men would assist or the woman would endure birth alone. Due to the uncertainty of their location at the time of birth, the woman often did not know who her midwife would be until birth.",
"In the community, a midwife (Kisuliuq, Sanariak) or \"maker\" was a highly revered female member of the community, who had acquired experience and skills in birth by attending births with their mother, an elder, or another midwife of the community; often beginning at a young age",
". The responsibilities of the midwife varied somewhat by geographic region and camp, but often included, 1) comforting the woman, 2) knowing a woman's body, including 'what was inside', 3) instructing the woman during labour on what to expect, 4) repositioning the woman to promote quick deliveries, and 5) dealing with complications.",
"In most communities, the only man who became intentionally involved in birth was an angakkuq. In cases when the midwife or elder suspected a \"spiritual or supernatural interference\", the angakkuq would intervene to remove the spiritual interference of a spirit or another malicious angakkuq, to restore the spiritual balance and normal birth conditions.\n\n Labour",
"Labour and birth were times of great celebration in the Inuit community. Traditionally, when a woman began having contractions, her midwife would gather other women of the community to help the labouring woman through the birthing process. Additional signs of labour noted by the Inuit midwife included a brown strip of discharge, broken water, stomachache, or the urge to pass a bowel movement",
". Although it was cause for great celebration, labour is traditionally a time of quiet and calm in the Inuit community, and the midwife would commonly whisper her counsel to the mother-to-be. If the woman had followed the traditions throughout her pregnancy, she could expect her labour to be quick and easy. Many of these also extended to the actions of the woman's midwife, who was also commanded to be swift in all aspects of her life so that her client would enjoy a quick delivery",
". Very often, women were expected to continue their daily chores up until the late stages of labour and endure labour pains without the aid of pain management.",
"The midwife's goals during labour typically included keeping the woman from becoming irritable or screaming, preventing her legs from opening, preventing her from peeing or having a bowel movement, and encouraging activity and position changes. The positions in which an Inuk woman laboured varied according to the midwife's preferences and her own comfort. These include lithotomy, side-lying, squatting, and standing positions have all been described in the literature",
". Often, a caribou pelt was placed under the woman and she was allowed to choose a bed or the floor. Some communities' midwives employed the use of equipment such as ropes to pull on or a box to lean over to help ease the pains of labour, but little evidence of either pharmacologic or homeopathic pain relief is described. Traditionally, the woman was required to have her spine completely straight for the entirety of her labour and delivery",
". To facilitate this, the midwife would often place a wooden board behind the woman to keep her back aligned. Additionally, a rolled towel or block of wood was used to keep the woman's legs and feet apart during labour, which, in the midwives' view, helped to speed the labour along.",
"Birth",
"In traditional Inuit birth culture, the birth event was handled almost exclusively by the midwife. However, the woman played an active role in her own birth experience and was encouraged to follow her body's own physiologic cues regarding pushing and rest. When she was ready to push, the midwife would tell the woman to pull on her hair with both hands and bear down",
". While most Inuit women gave birth at home, in some Alaskan communities women gave birth in separate birthing huts (aanigutyak) built exclusively for this purpose. If this was not done, the place where the woman gave birth had to be abandoned.",
"Once the baby had crowned and was born, the midwife would cut the still-pulsating umbilical cord with a special knife and tie it with caribou sinew. The midwives knew that the sinew carried a much lower risk of infection than other materials available to them. The cord was cut with enough length to pull out the placenta by hand if necessary. After the child was born and the placenta was ready for delivery, many Inuit midwives would instruct the woman to get on all fours and push in this position",
". Midwives were also versed in providing fundal massage to reduce the risk of postpartum hemorrhage. Some Inuit communities wrapped the placenta in cloth and buried it among the rocks of the tundra.",
"Postpartum \n\nSources on traditional Inuit birth practices provide little reference to the postpartum period. One elder midwife in Nunavut described that after birth her mother-in-law very briefly cared for the house and chores until she felt better. She also described, however, that she was feeling better soon after birth and eagerly performing chores behind her mother-in-law's back.",
"In regards to physical care after birth, the information is also minimal. Women, who are able to breastfeed, do so immediately after birth, often continuing for two years or longer. Breastfeeding served as their only method of contraception and birth spacing. While breastfeeding, the elders describe the importance of keeping the breasts warm to prevent cracking and drinking broth for nutrition",
". If perineal tears have occurred during the delivery, they are left to heal on their own; the Inuit do not traditionally perform episiotomies or suture tears.",
"The newborn \n\nThe birth of a newborn into the camp is cause for widespread celebration in the community and everyone, including children, would shake hands at its arrival. And it was believed that if the mother followed the pittailiniq in pregnancy, the child would be healthy and follow a good life in the community.",
"Immediately after birth, the infant was assessed for breathing. If the infant was not breathing, then the midwife would hang the infant upside by his feet and slap his buttocks. The midwife also removed mucus from the infant's mouth, using either a wipe or her own mouth, to ensure that the baby was able to \"fatten\" in the coming days. The exposed cord stump was then covered with burnt arctic moss and the infant was placed in a rabbit fur or cloth pouch, sewn by the sinaji",
". The pouch served not only to keep the infant warm but also as a diaper and protection for the healing umbilical cord stump. It was believed that the cord stump should fall off on its own and not be looked for by the parents. If the mother found the cord stump, it indicated that the child would become hyperactive around age four. The infant was not routinely washed after birth.",
"Traditional Inuit midwives describe that the first stool (meconium) should be observed outside the womb, as it could cause clotting and complications if left in the mother. The treatment for which was to massage the woman's stomach, promoting blood flow. The midwives also expected the infant to urinate almost immediately after birth, indicating that there was no obstruction or genital abnormality",
". Infants, as well as the rabbit or cloth pouch, were always dried promptly after urinating or having a bowel movement. And by a year of age, elders claim that children were toilet trained.",
"Also occurring immediately after birth, a designated person, often the midwife, felt the infant's genitalia to determine its gender. This person then became the infant's sanaji (for an infant boy) or arnaliaq (for an infant girl) and assumed a lifelong role in the child's life. If the infant was a boy, he would later call this person his arnaquti and give her his first catch as a child",
". The sanaji was also responsible for cutting the umbilical cord, providing the infant's first clothes, naming the child (tuqurausiq), blessing the child (kipliituajuq) and conferring the desired characteristics onto the child. It was believed that the child's direction was shaped from the earliest days of life and consequently, these practices were held in high esteem as they determined the child's future.",
"In rare instances, the child might be considered sipiniq (), meaning the infant is believed to have changed their physical sex from male to female at the moment of birth. This concept has primarily been historically attested in areas of the Canadian Arctic, such as Igloolik and Nunavik. Sipiniq children were regarded as socially male, and would be named after a male relative, perform a male's tasks, and would wear traditional Inuit clothing tailored for men's tasks",
". This generally lasted until puberty, but in some cases continued into adulthood and even after the sipiniq person married a man.",
"Once assessed by the midwife and/or sanaji, the infant was promptly given to the mother for initiation of breastfeeding. According to elders, the infant remained in nearly constant physical contact with her mother from the day of birth; sleeping on the family platform, riding in the amauti (baby carrier and parka worn by the mother), or nestled in her parka for feeding.\n\nNaming the newborn",
"Performed by the sanaji or midwife, the tuqurausiq was the highly-valued naming practice that linked the child to a relative or deceased family friend. The Inuit believed that when the infant was born, he/she took on the soul or spirit of a recently deceased relative or community member. Through the name, the child literally assumed the relationship of his/her namesake",
". Through the name, the child literally assumed the relationship of his/her namesake. For example, if a child were named for someone's mother, family members would then call that child \"mother\" and give the child the same respect given to that mother. The infant's name also represented an important factor in his/her behaviour. In particular, the Inuit believed that crying was an indication that the infant wanted to have a particular name. And that often once named, the infant would stop crying",
". And that often once named, the infant would stop crying. In addition, as the infant or child is a representative of their namesake, they are considered to generally know what they want or need. For example, when they are hungry or tired. Given this belief, it was also considered inappropriate to tell an infant or child what to do, as it was similar to commanding an elder or another adult, which violated social rule in Inuit culture",
". When an infant or child exhibited the same behaviour as their namesake it was called atiqsuqtuq''. Children in the 21st century are still named for other family members but the name may be an English one rather than a traditional Inuit name.",
"Other responsibilities \nAlong with childbirth and childcare, women were responsible for sewing skins to make clothes; preserving, processing, and cooking food (as mentioned above); caring for the sick and elderly; and helping to build and take care of the family's shelter. Warm, light, and serviceable clothing was perhaps the greatest achievement of the Inuit. For protection against the bitter Arctic winter, it has not been surpassed by even the best modern clothing.",
"The clothing created by women was vital because life in Arctic conditions was not possible without extremely well-made clothing to protect from the bitter cold. The clothing was created by the careful sewing of animal skins and furs using ivory needles, which were highly valuable in Inuit society. The process of preparing skins to be sewn together for creating clothes was done by women and was an arduous task. Skins had to be scraped, stretched, and softened before they were ready to be sewn.",
"In addition to this, the households that Inuit women were expected to help construct and care for could range from igloos, to semi-subterranean sod houses, to tents in the summer months. This required an understanding of complex architectural concepts, as well as the principles of insulation. A good amount of strength was required to construct Inuit shelters. Because of this, Inuit women often worked together and enlisted the help of men to build their homes",
". For both practical and social purposes, these houses would be built close together or were made large enough for more than one family to live in.",
"Status in Inuit culture\n\nSexual division of labour\nJobs in Inuit culture were not considered men's work or women's work, but the Inuit did believe in men's skills and women's skills. For example, hunting was generally done by men. Sewing clothes, cooking and preparing food, gathering food outside of hunting, and caring for the home were generally done by women. This does not mean that women never hunted, nor that men never helped with other jobs. This was just how the work was traditionally divided.",
"Women hunted and boated for enjoyment or when food was scarce and the community needed extra hunters. Men and women worked together to create a functioning culture. The men would not be able to go hunting without the warm clothes the women sewed for them, and the women would not have enough food without the meat the men brought back from their hunting trips.",
"Because of this, the work done by women received equal respect to the work done by men. While men and women generally did different work, one type of work was not considered better or more important than other types. It is easy to think that because men only had one job that they did less work. The truth is that hunting was extremely physically demanding and time-consuming, and often required traveling for days or weeks at a time",
". As a result, the sexual division of labour in Inuit culture was relatively equal in the amount of work done.",
"Lack of power and influence\nWhile women were respected by men, and often treated as equals, they did not have equal power in the community. Important decisions, such as when to migrate and where to, could be made exclusively by men. Inuit had as little government as any group on earth, but some groups did have tribal councils or groups of elders who made decisions for the community. These councils were almost exclusively male.",
"Because of this, the Inuit women had little to no say in some of their communities' most important decisions. Men usually had the final say in issues such as arranging marriages and adoption or infanticide, which have a huge impact on women's lives. Although women had a relatively high position socially, and had significant control of their own home, as well as ceremonially important jobs such as lighting and tending to lamps and distributing food, their power was usually limited to those areas.",
"In addition to this, if men were unhappy with how a woman was handling her responsibilities, they could take over or transfer her work to another woman in the community whom they considered more capable. With women having less power, they are often put in difficult positions when they are not involved in the decision-making process. For example, a pregnant woman, or a woman with a newborn child, may not be able to migrate hundreds of miles through Arctic conditions in search of better hunting grounds",
". Factors such as these are rarely taken into account when men are the sole decision-makers for a community.",
"Effects of modernization and change on Inuit women\n\nAfter contact with other cultures, the Inuit were introduced to new technologies and modernization, which changed their lives drastically. The Inuit are now a modern people and, like almost all indigenous peoples, no longer live the way their ancestors did. This is especially true of Inuit women.",
"New role in the culture\nAfter modernization, the Inuit began to move into Arctic towns and participate in wage labor, government employment, community councils, and the acquisition of modern clothing, housing, and vehicles. Male Inuit initially took the lead in assimilation by learning the language of the arriving culture and taking on modern, wage-earning jobs; however, a lack of education began to hinder the men's ability to find and keep jobs.",
"As a result of this, women began to lead the way in cultural assimilation. Women started by finding work as domestic servants, store clerks, hospital aides, classroom assistants, interpreters, and in weaving and knitting shops. Inuit women tend to go to school more than Inuit men, and this is especially true of college. Some universities in regions where the Inuit are prominent, such as the Nunavut Arctic College, have programs designed specifically for the Inuit",
". Women, much more often than men, take advantage of these programs.",
"Because Inuit women seek more education and, subsequently, better jobs, they have increasingly taken on the role of primary wage earner for the family. This has caused men to assume responsibilities in the house that were traditionally done by the women, such as raising children and keeping the home in order.",
"Changes in status and power",
"The \"role reversal\" that has begun to occur in Inuit society has given women a major increase in power and influence. Women have begun to seek more power for themselves, both in decision-making in the family and the culture as a whole. As the primary wage earners, working women are now considered the heads of their families and have the upper hand in making decisions for them. This has complicated the relationship between Inuit men and women",
". This has complicated the relationship between Inuit men and women. Some men have begun to resent women for \"stealing their rightful place as the head of the family\" and may turn to drinking and/or drug abuse to deal with these issues. Reactions such as these perpetuate the cycle, as men are less likely to be employed after exhibiting these behaviours.",
"Another change that has begun is that Inuit women have increasingly started to run for political office. Although the positions they seek are often at the community and local levels, this increase in activism reflects the new confidence Inuit women have found in the modern world.",
"The second premier of Nunavut was a woman, Eva Aariak, who was one of two female MLAs in the Legislative Assembly of Nunavut at the time. Other women in elected positions include Elisapee Sheutiapik, also a MLA, and Madeleine Redfern, both mayors of Iqaluit. Four out of five members of parliament for the Nunavut electoral district have been women, Nancy Karetak-Lindell, Leona Aglukkaq, Mumilaaq Qaqqaq, and Lori Idlout",
"Health issues\nScientists have found that the Inuit seem to experience more illness and health issues than other groups, especially the women and children, and especially in the post-modernization period. A possible explanation is that the Inuit diet was traditionally high in fat and protein and low in fruits and vegetables.",
"More likely explanations include a change in diet after modernization, a decrease in physical activity as traditional jobs such as hunting and constructing homes are practised less, or exposure to alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs. Whatever the cause, diabetes, heart disease, and high cholesterol are known recurring health problems for the Inuit. Studies have shown that these issues are worse for women than other groups.",
"Another major issue facing the Inuit is that, after modernization, suicide among Canadian and Greenlandic Inuit, violence, depression, and substance abuse have become increasingly prevalent.\n\nThe pressure for Inuit women to conform to the dress and behavior of modern Western culture is immense; however, many aspects of modern culture are foreign to the Inuit women and are at odds with the traditional practices of their culture.\n\nSee also\nInuit art\nInuit languages\nInuit religion\nLists of Inuit\n\nReferences",
"See also\nInuit art\nInuit languages\nInuit religion\nLists of Inuit\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\nInuit Culture, Traditions, and History\nAlaskool: Alaska Native Curriculum and Teacher Development Project\nInuktitut\n\n \nInuit culture\nIndigenous health in Canada\nNorth American women\nWomen in Alaska"
] |
Molten salt reactor
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molten%20salt%20reactor
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[
"A molten salt reactor (MSR) is a class of nuclear fission reactor in which the primary nuclear reactor coolant and/or the fuel is a mixture of molten salt with a fissionable material.\n\nTwo research MSRs operated in the United States in the mid-20th century. The 1950s Aircraft Reactor Experiment (ARE) was primarily motivated by the technology's compact size, while the 1960s Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE) aimed to demonstrate a nuclear power plant using a thorium fuel cycle in a breeder reactor.",
"Increased research into Generation IV reactor designs renewed interest in the 21st century. Multiple nations started projects. As of May 2023, China had not announced the ignition of its TMSR-LF1 thorium unit following its scheduled date of February 2023.",
"MSRs eliminate the nuclear meltdown scenario present in water-cooled reactors, because the fuel mixture is kept in a molten state. The fuel mixture is designed to drain without pumping from the core to a containment vessel in emergency scenarios, where it solidifies, quenching the reaction. In addition, hydrogen evolution does not occur. This eliminates the risk of hydrogen explosions (as in the Fukushima nuclear disaster)",
". This eliminates the risk of hydrogen explosions (as in the Fukushima nuclear disaster). They operate at or close to atmospheric pressure, rather than the 75–150 times atmospheric pressure of a typical light-water reactor (LWR). This reduces the need and cost for reactor pressure vessels",
". This reduces the need and cost for reactor pressure vessels. The gaseous fission products (Xe and Kr) have little solubility in the fuel salt, and can be safely captured as they bubble out of the fuel, rather than increasing the pressure inside the fuel tubes, as happens in conventional reactors",
". MSRs can be refueled while operating (essentially online-nuclear reprocessing) while conventional reactors shut down for refueling (notable exceptions include pressure tube heavy water reactors like the CANDU or the Atucha-class PHWRs, and British-built gas-cooled reactors such as Magnox, AGR). MSR operating temperatures are around , significantly higher than traditional LWRs at around . This increases electricity-generation efficiency and process-heat opportunities.",
"Relevant design challenges include the corrosivity of hot salts and the changing chemical composition of the salt as it is transmuted by the neutron flux.",
"Properties\nMSRs, especially those with fuel in the molten salt, offer lower operating pressures, and higher temperatures. In this respect an MSR is more similar to a liquid metal cooled reactor than to a conventional light water cooled reactor. MSR designs are often breeding reactors with a closed fuel cycle—as opposed to the once-through fuel currently used in conventional nuclear power generators.",
"MSRs exploit a negative temperature coefficient of reactivity and a large allowable temperature rise to prevent criticality accidents. For designs with the fuel in the salt, the salt thermally expands immediately with power excursions. In conventional reactors the negative reactivity is delayed since the heat from the fuel must be transferred to the moderator. An additional method is to place a separate, passively cooled container below the reactor",
". An additional method is to place a separate, passively cooled container below the reactor. Fuel drains into the container during malfunctions or maintenance, which stops the reaction.",
"The temperatures of some designs are high enough to produce process heat, which led them to be included on the GEN-IV roadmap.",
"Advantages\nMSRs offer many potential advantages over light water reactors:\nPassive decay heat removal is achieved in MSRs. In some designs, the fuel and the coolant are a single fluid, so a loss of coolant carries the fuel with it. Fluoride salts dissolve poorly in water, and do not form burnable hydrogen. The molten salt coolant is not damaged by neutron bombardment, though the reactor vessel is.",
"A low-pressure MSR does not require an expensive, steel core containment vessel, piping, and safety equipment. However, most MSR designs place radioactive fluid in direct contact with pumps and heat exchangers.",
"MSRs enable cheaper closed nuclear fuel cycles, because they can operate with slow neutrons. Closed fuel cycles can reduce environmental impacts: chemical separation turns long-lived actinides into reactor fuel. Discharged wastes are mostly fission products with shorter half-lives. This can reduce the needed containment to 300 years versus the tens of thousands of years needed by light-water reactor spent fuel.",
"The fuel's liquid phase can be pyroprocessed to separate fission products from fuels. This may have advantages over conventional reprocessing.\nFuel rod fabrication is replaced with salt synthesis.\nSome designs are compatible with fast neutrons, which can \"burn\" transuranic elements such as , (reactor grade plutonium) from LWRs.\nAn MSR can react to load changes in under 60 seconds (unlike LWRs that suffer from xenon poisoning).",
"Molten salt reactors can run at high temperatures, yielding high thermal efficiency. This reduces size, expense, and environmental impacts.\nMSRs can offer a high \"specific power\", (high power at low mass), as demonstrated by ARE.\nPotential neutron economy suggests that MSR may be able to exploit the neutron-poor thorium fuel cycle.",
"Disadvantages",
"In circulating-fuel-salt designs, radionuclides dissolved in fuel contact equipment such as pumps and heat exchangers, potentially requiring fully remote maintenance.\nSome MSRs require onsite chemical processing to manage core mixture and remove fission products.\nRegulatory changes to accommodate non-traditional design features\nSome MSR designs rely on expensive nickel alloys to contain the molten salt. Such alloys are prone to embrittlement under high neutron flux.",
"Corrosion risk. Molten salts require careful management of their oxidation state to manage corrosion risks. This is particularly challenging for circulating designs, in which a mix of isotopes and their decay products circulate through the reactor",
". Static designs benefit from modularising the problem: the fuel salt is contained within fuel pins whose regular replacement, primarily due to neutron irradiation, is normalized; while the coolant salt has a simpler chemical composition and does not pose a corrosion risk either to the fuel pins or to the reactor vessel. (Regarding redox state management, see the descriptions for the stable salt reactor's fuel and coolant salts)",
". MSRs developed at ORNL in the 60s were safe to operate only for a few years, and operated at only about . Corrosion risks include dissolution of chromium by liquid fluoride thorium salts at greater than , hence endangering stainless steel components. Neutron radiation can transmute common alloying agents such as Co and Ni, shortening lifespan",
". Neutron radiation can transmute common alloying agents such as Co and Ni, shortening lifespan. Lithium salts such as FLiBe warrant the use of to reduce tritium generation (tritium can permeate stainless steels, cause embrittlement, and escape into the environment). ORNL developed Hastelloy N to help address these issues, while other structural steels may be acceptable, such as 316H, 800H, and inco 617.",
"Some MSR designs can be turned into a breeder reactor to produce weapons-grade nuclear material.\nMSRE and ARE used high enriched uranium approaching weapons-grade. These levels would be illegal in most modern power plant regulatory regimes. Most modern designs employ lower-enriched fuels.",
"Neutron damage to solid moderator materials can limit the core lifetime. For example, MSRE was designed so that its graphite moderator had loose tolerances, so neutron damage could change them without consequences. \"Two fluid\" MSR designs do not use graphite piping because graphite changes size when bombarded with neutrons. MSRs using fast neutrons cannot use graphite to avoid moderation.\nThermal MSRs have lower breeding ratios than fast-neutron breeders, though their doubling time may be shorter.",
"Coolant \nMSRs can be cooled in various ways, including using molten salts.\n\nMolten-salt-cooled solid-fuel reactors are variously called \"molten salt reactor system\" in the Generation IV proposal, molten salt converter reactors (MSCR), advanced high-temperature reactors (AHTRs), or fluoride high-temperature reactors (FHR, preferred DOE designation).",
"FHRs cannot reprocess fuel easily and have fuel rods that need to be fabricated and validated, requiring up to twenty years from project inception. FHR retains the safety and cost advantages of a low-pressure, high-temperature coolant, also shared by liquid metal cooled reactors. Notably, steam is not created in the core (as is present in BWRs), and no large, expensive steel pressure vessel (as required for PWRs)",
". Since it can operate at high temperatures, the conversion of the heat to electricity can use an efficient, lightweight Brayton cycle gas turbine.",
"Much of the current research on FHRs is focused on small, compact heat exchangers that reduce molten salt volumes and associated costs.",
"Molten salts can be highly corrosive and corrosivity increases with temperature. For the primary cooling loop, a material is needed that can withstand corrosion at high temperatures and intense radiation. Experiments show that Hastelloy-N and similar alloys are suited to these tasks at operating temperatures up to about 700 °C. However, operating experience is limited. Still higher operating temperatures are desirable—at thermochemical production of hydrogen becomes possible",
". Materials for this temperature range have not been validated, though carbon composites, molybdenum alloys (e.g. TZM), carbides, and refractory metal based or ODS alloys might be feasible.",
"Fused salt selection\n\nThe salt mixtures are chosen to make the reactor safer and more practical.",
"Fluorine",
"Fluorine has only one stable isotope (), and does not easily become radioactive under neutron bombardment. Compared to chlorine and other halides, fluorine also absorbs fewer neutrons and slows (\"moderates\") neutrons better. Low-valence fluorides boil at high temperatures, though many pentafluorides and hexafluorides boil at low temperatures. They must be very hot before they break down into their constituent elements",
". They must be very hot before they break down into their constituent elements. Such molten salts are \"chemically stable\" when maintained well below their boiling points. Fluoride salts dissolve poorly in water, and do not form burnable hydrogen.",
"Chlorine \nChlorine has two stable isotopes ( and ), as well as a slow-decaying isotope between them which facilitates neutron absorption by .\n\nChlorides permit fast breeder reactors to be constructed. Much less research has been done on reactor designs using chloride salts. Chlorine, unlike fluorine, must be purified to isolate the heavier stable isotope, , thus reducing production of sulfur tetrachloride that occurs when absorbs a neutron to become , then degrades by beta decay to .",
"Lithium \nLithium must be in the form of purified , because effectively captures neutrons and produces tritium. Even if pure is used, salts containing lithium cause significant tritium production, comparable with heavy water reactors.\n\nMixtures \nReactor salts are usually close to eutectic mixtures to reduce their melting point. A low melting point simplifies melting the salt at startup and reduces the risk of the salt freezing as it is cooled in the heat exchanger.",
"Due to the high \"redox window\" of fused fluoride salts, the redox potential of the fused salt system can be changed. Fluorine-lithium-beryllium (\"FLiBe\") can be used with beryllium additions to lower the redox potential and nearly eliminate corrosion. However, since beryllium is extremely toxic, special precautions must be engineered into the design to prevent its release into the environment",
". Many other salts can cause plumbing corrosion, especially if the reactor is hot enough to make highly reactive hydrogen.",
"To date, most research has focused on FLiBe, because lithium and beryllium are reasonably effective moderators and form a eutectic salt mixture with a lower melting point than each of the constituent salts. Beryllium also performs neutron doubling, improving the neutron economy. This process occurs when the beryllium nucleus emits two neutrons after absorbing a single neutron. For the fuel carrying salts, generally 1% or 2% (by mole) of is added. Thorium and plutonium fluorides have also been used.",
"Fused salt purification\nTechniques for preparing and handling molten salt were first developed at ORNL. The purpose of salt purification is to eliminate oxides, sulfur and metal impurities. Oxides could result in the deposition of solid particles in reactor operation. Sulfur must be removed because of its corrosive attack on nickel-based alloys at operational temperature. Structural metal such as chromium, nickel, and iron must be removed for corrosion control.",
"A water content reduction purification stage using HF and helium sweep gas was specified to run at 400 °C. Oxide and sulfur contamination in the salt mixtures were removed using gas sparging of HF/ mixture, with the salt heated to 600 °C. Structural metal contamination in the salt mixtures were removed using hydrogen gas sparging, at 700 °C. Solid ammonium hydrofluoride was proposed as a safer alternative for oxide removal.",
"Fused salt processing\nThe possibility of online processing can be an MSR advantage. Continuous processing would reduce the inventory of fission products, control corrosion and improve neutron economy by removing fission products with high neutron absorption cross-section, especially xenon. This makes the MSR particularly suited to the neutron-poor thorium fuel cycle. Online fuel processing can introduce risks of fuel processing accidents, which can trigger release of radio isotopes.",
"In some thorium breeding scenarios, the intermediate product protactinium would be removed from the reactor and allowed to decay into highly pure , an attractive bomb-making material. More modern designs propose to use a lower specific power or a separate thorium breeding blanket",
". More modern designs propose to use a lower specific power or a separate thorium breeding blanket. This dilutes the protactinium to such an extent that few protactinium atoms absorb a second neutron or, via a (n, 2n) reaction (in which an incident neutron is not absorbed but instead knocks a neutron out of the nucleus), generate . Because has a short half-life and its decay chain contains hard gamma emitters, it makes the isotopic mix of uranium less attractive for bomb-making",
". This benefit would come with the added expense of a larger fissile inventory or a 2-fluid design with a large quantity of blanket salt.",
"The necessary fuel salt reprocessing technology has been demonstrated, but only at laboratory scale. A prerequisite to full-scale commercial reactor design is the R&D to engineer an economically competitive fuel salt cleaning system.\n\nFuel reprocessing \n\nReprocessing refers to the chemical separation of fissionable uranium and plutonium from spent fuel. Such recovery could increase the risk of nuclear proliferation. In the United States the regulatory regime has varied dramatically across administrations.",
"Costs and economics \nA systematic literature review from 2020 concludes that there is very limited information on economics and finance of MSRs, with low quality of the information and that cost estimations are uncertain.\n\nIn the specific case of the stable salt reactor (SSR) where the radioactive fuel is contained as a molten salt within fuel pins and the primary circuit is not radioactive, operating costs are likely to be lower.",
"Types of molten salt reactors \nWhile many design variants have been proposed, there are three main categories regarding the role of molten salt:\n\nThe use of molten salt as fuel and as coolant are independent design choices - the original circulating-fuel-salt MSRE and the more recent static-fuel-salt SSR use salt as fuel and salt as coolant; the DFR uses salt as fuel but metal as coolant; and the FHR has solid fuel but salt as coolant.",
"Designs",
"MSRs can be burners or breeders. They can be fast or thermal or epithermal. Thermal reactors typically employ a moderator (usually graphite) to slow the neutrons down and moderate temperature. They can accept a variety of fuels (low-enriched uranium, thorium, depleted uranium, waste products) and coolants (fluoride, chloride, lithium, beryllium, mixed). Fuel cycle can be either closed or once-through. They can be monolithic or modular, large or small",
". Fuel cycle can be either closed or once-through. They can be monolithic or modular, large or small. The reactor can adopt a loop, modular or integral configuration. Variations include:",
"Molten salt fast reactor",
"The molten salt fast reactor (MSFR) is a proposed design with the fuel dissolved in a fluoride salt coolant. The MSFR is one of the two variants of MSRs selected by the Generation IV International Forum (GIF) for further development, the other being the FHR or AHTR. The MSFR is based on a fast neutron spectrum and is believed to be a long-term substitute to solid-fueled fast reactors",
". They have been studied for almost a decade, mainly by calculations and determination of basic physical and chemical properties in the European Union and Russian Federation. A MSFR is regarded sustainable because there are no fuel shortages. Operation of a MSFR does in theory not generate or require large amounts of transuranic (TRU) elements. When steady state is achieved in a MSFR, there is no longer a need for uranium enrichment facilities.",
"MSFRs may be breeder reactors. They operate without a moderator in the core such as graphite, so graphite life-span is no longer a problem. This results in a breeder reactor with a fast neutron spectrum that operates in the Thorium fuel cycle. MSFRs contain relatively small initial inventories of . MSFRs run on liquid fuel with no solid matter inside the core. This leads to the possibility of reaching specific power that is much higher than reactors using solid fuel",
". The heat produced goes directly into the heat transfer fluid. In the MSFR, a small amount of molten salt is set aside to be processed for fission product removal and then returned to the reactor. This gives MSFRs the capability of reprocessing the fuel without stopping the reactor. This is very different compared to solid-fueled reactors because they have separate facilities to produce the solid fuel and process spent nuclear fuel",
". The MSFR can operate using a large variety of fuel compositions due to its on-line fuel control and flexible fuel processing.",
"The standard MSFR would be a 3000 MWth reactor that has a total fuel salt volume of 18 m3 with a mean fuel temperature of 750 °C. The core's shape is a compact cylinder with a height to diameter ratio of 1 where liquid fluoride fuel salt flows from the bottom to the top. The return circulation of the salt, from top to bottom, is broken up into 16 groups of pumps and heat exchangers located around the core. The fuel salt takes approximately 3 to 4 seconds to complete a full cycle",
". The fuel salt takes approximately 3 to 4 seconds to complete a full cycle. At any given time during operation, half of the total fuel salt volume is in the core and the rest is in the external fuel circuit (salt collectors, salt-bubble separators, fuel heat exchangers, pumps, salt injectors and pipes). MSFRs contain an emergency draining system that is triggered and achieved by redundant and reliable devices such as detection and opening technology",
". During operation, the fuel salt circulation speed can be adjusted by controlling the power of the pumps in each sector. The intermediate fluid circulation speed can be adjusted by controlling the power of the intermediate circuit pumps. The temperature of the intermediate fluid in the intermediate exchangers can be managed through the use of a double bypass",
". This allows the temperature of the intermediate fluid at the conversion exchanger inlet to be held constant while its temperature is increased in a controlled way at the inlet of the intermediate exchangers. The temperature of the core can be adjusted by varying the proportion of bubbles injected in the core since it reduces the salt density. As a result, it reduces the mean temperature of the fuel salt. Usually the fuel salt temperature can be brought down by 100 °C using a 3% proportion of bubbles",
". Usually the fuel salt temperature can be brought down by 100 °C using a 3% proportion of bubbles. MSFRs have two draining modes, controlled routine draining and emergency draining. During controlled routine draining, fuel salt is transferred to actively cooled storage tanks. The fuel temperature can be lowered before draining, this may slow down the process. This type of draining could be done every 1 to 5 years when the sectors are replaced",
". This type of draining could be done every 1 to 5 years when the sectors are replaced. Emergency draining is done when an irregularity occurs during operation. The fuel salt can be drained directly into the emergency draining tank either by active devices or by passive means. The draining must be fast to limit the fuel salt heating in a loss of heat removal event.",
"Fluoride salt-cooled high-temperature reactor \nThe fluoride salt-cooled high-temperature reactor (FHR), also called advanced high temperature reactor (AHTR), is also a proposed Generation IV molten salt reactor variant regarded promising for the long-term future. The FHR/AHTR reactor uses a solid-fuel system along with a molten fluoride salt as coolant.",
"One version of the Very-high-temperature reactor (VHTR) under study was the liquid-salt very-high-temperature reactor (LS-VHTR). It uses liquid salt as a coolant in the primary loop, rather than a single helium loop. It relies on \"TRISO\" fuel dispersed in graphite. Early AHTR research focused on graphite in the form of graphite rods that would be inserted in hexagonal moderating graphite blocks, but current studies focus primarily on pebble-type fuel",
". The LS-VHTR can work at very high temperatures (the boiling point of most molten salt candidates is >1400 °C); low-pressure cooling that can be used to match hydrogen production facility conditions (most thermochemical cycles require temperatures in excess of 750 °C); better electric conversion efficiency than a helium-cooled VHTR operating in similar conditions; passive safety systems and better retention of fission products in the event of an accident.",
"Liquid fluoride thorium reactor \n\nReactors containing molten thorium salt, called liquid fluoride thorium reactors (LFTR), would tap the thorium fuel cycle. Private companies from Japan, Russia, Australia and the United States, and the Chinese government, have expressed interest in developing this technology.",
"Advocates estimate that five hundred metric tons of thorium could supply U.S. energy needs for one year. The U.S. Geological Survey estimates that the largest-known U.S. thorium deposit, the Lemhi Pass district on the Montana-Idaho border, contains thorium reserves of 64,000 metric tons.\n\nTraditionally, these reactors were known as molten salt breeder reactors (MSBRs) or thorium molten salt reactors (TMSRs), but the name LFTR was promoted as a rebrand in the early 2000s by Kirk Sorensen.",
"Stable salt reactor \n\nThe stable salt reactor is a relatively recent concept which holds the molten salt fuel statically in traditional LWR fuel pins. Pumping of the fuel salt, and all the corrosion/deposition/maintenance/containment issues arising from circulating a highly radioactive, hot and chemically complex fluid, are no longer required. The fuel pins are immersed in a separate, non-fissionable fluoride salt which acts as primary coolant.",
"Dual-fluid molten salt reactors \nA prototypical example of a dual fluid reactor is the lead-cooled, salt-fueled reactor.\n\nHistory\n\n1950s\n\nAircraft Reactor Experiment, US \n\nMSR research started with the U.S. Aircraft Reactor Experiment (ARE) in support of the U.S. Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion program. ARE was a 2.5 MWth nuclear reactor experiment designed to attain a high energy density for use as an engine in a nuclear-powered bomber.",
"The project included experiments, including high temperature and engine tests collectively called the Heat Transfer Reactor Experiments: HTRE-1, HTRE-2 and HTRE-3 at the National Reactor Test Station (now Idaho National Laboratory) as well as an experimental high-temperature molten salt reactor at Oak Ridge National Laboratory – the ARE.\n\nARE used molten fluoride salt (53-41-6 mol%) as fuel, moderated by beryllium oxide (BeO). Liquid sodium was a secondary coolant.",
"The experiment had a peak temperature of 860 °C. It produced 100 MWh over nine days in 1954. This experiment used Inconel 600 alloy for the metal structure and piping.",
"An MSR was operated at the Critical Experiments Facility of the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in 1957. It was part of the circulating-fuel reactor program of the Pratt & Whitney Aircraft Company (PWAC). This was called Pratt and Whitney Aircraft Reactor-1 (PWAR-1). The experiment was run for a few weeks and at essentially zero power, although it reached criticality. The operating temperature was held constant at approximately . The PWAR-1 used as the primary fuel and coolant",
". The PWAR-1 used as the primary fuel and coolant. It was one of three critical MSRs ever built.",
"1960s and 1970s\n\nMSRE at Oak Ridge, US \n\nOak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) took the lead in researching MSRs through the 1960s. Much of their work culminated with the Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE). MSRE was a 7.4 MWth test reactor simulating the neutronic \"kernel\" of a type of epithermal thorium molten salt breeder reactor called the liquid fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR). The large (expensive) breeding blanket of thorium salt was omitted in favor of neutron measurements.",
"MSRE's piping, core vat and structural components were made from Hastelloy-N, moderated by pyrolytic graphite. It went critical in 1965 and ran for four years. Its fuel was (65-29-5-1)mol%. The graphite core moderated it. Its secondary coolant was FLiBe (). It reached temperatures as high as and achieved the equivalent of about 1.5 years of full power operation.\n\nTheoretical designs at Oak Ridge, US",
"Molten salt breeder reactor",
"From 1970 to 1976 ORNL researched during the 1970–1976 a molten salt breeder reactor (MSBR) design. Fuel was to be (72-16-12-0.4)mol% with graphite moderator. The secondary coolant was to be . Its peak operating temperature was to be . It would follow a 4-year replacement schedule. The MSR program closed down in the early 1970s in favor of the liquid metal fast-breeder reactor (LMFBR), after which research stagnated in the United States. , ARE and MSRE remained the only molten-salt reactors ever operated.",
"The MSBR project received funding from 1968 to 1976 of (in dollars) $.",
"Officially, the program was cancelled because:\n The political and technical support for the program in the United States was too thin geographically. Within the United States the technology was well understood only in Oak Ridge.",
"The MSR program was in competition with the fast breeder program at the time, which got an early start and had copious government development funds with contracts that benefited many parts of the country. When the MSR development program had progressed far enough to justify an expanded program leading to commercial development, the United States Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) could not justify the diversion of substantial funds from the LMFBR to a competing program.",
"Denatured molten salt reactor\nThe denatured molten salt reactor (DMSR) was an Oak Ridge theoretical design that was never built.",
"Engel et al 1980 said the project \"examine[ the conceptual feasibility of a molten-salt power reactor fueled with denatured uranium-235 (i.e. with low-enriched uranium) and operated with a minimum of chemical processing.\" The main design priority was proliferation resistance. Although the DMSR can theoretically be fueled partially by thorium or plutonium, fueling solely with low enriched uranium (LEU) helps maximize proliferation resistance.",
"Other goals of the DMSR were to minimize research and development and to maximize feasibility. The Generation IV international Forum (GIF) includes \"salt processing\" as a technology gap for molten salt reactors. The DMSR design theoretically requires minimal chemical processing because it is a burner rather than a breeder.\n\nUnited Kingdom",
"United Kingdom \n\nThe UK's Atomic Energy Research Establishment (AERE) was developing an alternative MSR design across its National Laboratories at Harwell, Culham, Risley and Winfrith. AERE opted to focus on a lead-cooled 2.5 GWe Molten Salt Fast Reactor (MSFR) concept using a chloride. They also researched helium gas as a coolant.\n\nThe UK MSFR would have been fuelled by plutonium, a fuel considered to be 'free' by the program's research scientists, because of the UK's plutonium stockpile.",
"Despite their different designs, ORNL and AERE maintained contact during this period with information exchange and expert visits. Theoretical work on the concept was conducted between 1964 and 1966, while experimental work was ongoing between 1968 and 1973. The program received annual government funding of around £100,000–£200,000 (equivalent to £2m–£3m in 2005)",
". This funding came to an end in 1974, partly due to the success of the Prototype Fast Reactor at Dounreay which was considered a priority for funding as it went critical in the same year.",
"Soviet Union \n\nIn the USSR, a molten-salt reactor research program was started in the second half of the 1970s at the Kurchatov Institute. It included theoretical and experimental studies, particularly the investigation of mechanical, corrosion and radiation properties of the molten salt container materials. The main findings supported the conclusion that no physical nor technological obstacles prevented the practical implementation of MSRs.",
"Twenty-first century \nMSR interest resumed in the new millennium due to continuing delays in fusion power and other nuclear power programs and increasing demand for energy sources that would incur minimal greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.\n\nCommercial/national/international projects\n\nCanada",
"Terrestrial Energy, a Canadian-based company, is developing a DMSR design called the Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR). The IMSR is designed to be deployable as a small modular reactor (SMR). Their design currently undergoing licensing is 400MW thermal (190MW electrical). With high operating temperatures, the IMSR has applications in industrial heat markets as well as traditional power markets",
". The main design features include neutron moderation from graphite, fueling with low-enriched uranium and a compact and replaceable Core-unit. Decay heat is removed passively using nitrogen (with air as an emergency alternative). The latter feature permits the operational simplicity necessary for industrial deployment.",
"Terrestrial completed the first phase of a prelicensing review by the Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission in 2017, which provided a regulatory opinion that the design features are generally safe enough to eventually obtain a license to construct the reactor.\n\nChina",
"China initiated a thorium research project in January 2011, and spent about 3 billion yuan (US$500 million) on it by 2021. A 100 MW demonstrator of the solid fuel version (TMSR-SF), based on pebble bed technology, was planned to be ready by 2024. A 10 MW pilot and a larger demonstrator of the liquid fuel (TMSR-LF) variant were targeted for 2024 and 2035, respectively",
". China then accelerated its program to build two 12 MW reactors underground at Wuwei research facilities by 2020, beginning with the 2 megawatt TMSR-LF1 prototype. The project sought to test new corrosion-resistant materials. In 2017, ANSTO/Shanghai Institute Of Applied Physics announced the creation of a NiMo-SiC alloy for use in MSRs.",
"In 2021, China stated that Wuwei prototype operation could start power generation from thorium in September, with a prototype providing energy for around 1,000 homes. It is the world's first nuclear molten salt reactor after the Oak Ridge project. \nThe 100 MW successor was expected to be 3 meters tall and 2.5 meters wide, capable of providing energy to 100,000 homes.",
"Further work on commercial reactors was announced with the target completion date of 2030. Chinese government plans to realize similar reactors in deserts and plains of western China as well as up to 30 in countries involved in China's \"Belt and Road\" initiative.\n\nIn 2022, Shanghai Institute of Applied Physics (SINAP) was given approval by the Ministry of Ecology and Environment to commission an experimental thorium-powered MSR.",
"Denmark",
"Copenhagen Atomics is a Danish molten salt technology company developing mass manufacturable molten salt reactors. The Copenhagen Atomics Waste Burner is a single-fluid, heavy water moderated, fluoride-based, thermal spectrum and autonomously controlled molten salt reactor. This is designed to fit inside of a leak-tight, 40-foot, stainless steel shipping container. The heavy water moderator is thermally insulated from the salt and continuously drained and cooled to below",
". A molten lithium-7 deuteroxide () moderator version is also being researched. The reactor utilizes the thorium fuel cycle using separated plutonium from spent nuclear fuel as the initial fissile load for the first generation of reactors, eventually transitioning to a thorium breeder. Copenhagen Atomics is actively developing and testing valves, pumps, heat exchangers, measurement systems, salt chemistry and purification systems, and control systems and software for molten salt applications.",
"Seaborg Technologies is developing the core for a compact molten salt reactor (CMSR). The CMSR is a high temperature, single salt, thermal MSR designed to go critical on commercially available low enriched uranium. The CMSR design is modular, and uses proprietary NaOH moderator. The reactor core is estimated to be replaced every 12 years. During operation, the fuel will not be replaced and will burn for the entire 12-year reactor lifetime",
". The first version of the Seaborg core is planned to produce 250 MWth power and 100 MWe power. As a power plant, the CMSR will be able to deliver electricity, clean water and heating/cooling to around 200,000 households.",
"France \n\nThe CNRS project EVOL (Evaluation and viability of liquid fuel fast reactor system) project, with the objective of proposing a design of the molten salt fast reactor (MSFR), released its final report in 2014. Various MSR projects like FHR, MOSART, MSFR, and TMSR have common research and development themes.",
"The EVOL project will be continued by the EU-funded Safety Assessment of the Molten Salt Fast Reactor (SAMOFAR) project, in which several European research institutes and universities collaborate.\n\nGermany",
"Germany \n\nThe German Institute for Solid State Nuclear Physics in Berlin has proposed the dual fluid reactor as a concept for a fast breeder lead-cooled MSR. The original MSR concept used the fluid salt to provide the fission materials and also to remove the heat. Thus it had problems with the needed flow speed. Using 2 different fluids in separate circles solves the problem.\n\nIndia",
"India \n\nIn 2015, Indian researchers published a MSR design, as an alternative path to thorium-based reactors, according to India's three-stage nuclear power programme.\n\nIndonesia \n\nThorcon is developing the TMSR-500 molten salt reactor for the Indonesian market. National Research and Innovation Agency, through its Research Organization for Nuclear Energy announced its renewal of interest on MSR reactor research on 29 March 2022 and planned to study and develop MSR for thorium-fueled nuclear reactors.",
"Japan \n\nThe Fuji Molten Salt Reactor is a 100 to 200 MWe LFTR, using technology similar to the Oak Ridge project. A consortium including members from Japan, the U.S. and Russia are developing the project. The project would likely take 20 years to develop a full size reactor, but the project seems to lack funding.",
"Russia \nIn 2020, Rosatom announced plans to build a 10 MWth FLiBe burner MSR. It would be fueled by plutonium from reprocessed VVER spent nuclear fuel and fluorides of minor actinides. It is expected to launch in 2031 at Mining and Chemical Combine.",
"United Kingdom \nThe Alvin Weinberg Foundation is a British non-profit organization founded in 2011, dedicated to raising awareness about the potential of thorium energy and LFTR. It was formally launched at the House of Lords on 8 September 2011. It is named after American nuclear physicist Alvin M. Weinberg, who pioneered thorium MSR research.",
"The stable salt reactor, designed by Moltex Energy, was selected as the most suitable of six MSR designs for UK implementation in a 2015 study commissioned by the UK's innovation agency, Innovate UK. UK government support has been weak, but Moltex has obtained support from New Brunswick Power for the development of a pilot plant in Point Lepreau, Canada, and financial backing from IDOM (an international engineering firm) and is currently engaged in the Canadian Vendor Design Review process.",
"United States \n\nIdaho National Laboratory designed a molten-salt-cooled, molten-salt-fuelled reactor with a prospective output of 1000 MWe.",
"Kirk Sorensen, former NASA scientist and chief nuclear technologist at Teledyne Brown Engineering, is a long-time promoter of the thorium fuel cycle, coining the term liquid fluoride thorium reactor. In 2011, Sorensen founded Flibe Energy, a company aimed at developing 20–50 MW LFTR reactor designs to power military bases. (It is easier to approve novel military designs than civilian power station designs in the US nuclear regulatory environment).",
"Transatomic Power pursued what it termed a waste-annihilating molten salt reactor (WAMSR), intended to consume existing spent nuclear fuel, from 2011 until ceasing operation in 2018 and open-sourcing their research.\n\nIn January 2016, the United States Department of Energy announced a $80m award fund to develop Generation IV reactor designs.",
"One of the two beneficiaries, Southern Company will use the funding to develop a molten chloride fast reactor (MCFR), a type of MSR developed earlier by British scientists.",
"In 2021, Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) and Kairos Power announced a TRISO-fueled, fluoride salt-cooled 50MWt test reactor would be deployed at Oak Ridge, Tennessee. Also in 2021, Southern Company, in collaboration with TerraPower and the U.S. Department of Energy announced plans to build the Molten Chloride Reactor Experiment, the first fast-spectrum salt reactor at the Idaho National Laboratory.",
"Abilene Christian University (ACU) has applied to the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) for a construction licence for a 1MWt molten salt research reactor (MSRR), to be built on its campus in Abilene, Texas, as part of the Nuclear Energy eXperimental Testing (NEXT) laboratory. ACU plans for the MSRR to achieve criticality by December 2025.\n\nSee also\n\n Aqueous homogeneous reactor\n Integral fast reactor\n Nuclear aircraft\n Nuclear waste\n\nNotes\n\nReferences",
"Notes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\nEnergy from Thorium's Document Repository Contains scanned versions of many of the U.S. government engineering reports, over ten thousand pages of construction and operation experience. This repository is the main reference for the aircraft reactor experiment and molten-salt fueled reactor's technical discussion.",
"Bruce Hoglund's Eclectic Interests Home Page Nuclear Power, Thorium, Molten Salt reactors, etc.\nGeneration IV International Forum MSR website\nINL MSR workshop summary\n\nMaterial Considerations for Molten Salt Accelerator-based Plutonium Conversion Systems J.H. Devan et al.\nNuclear goes retro – with a much greener outlook M. Mitchell Waldrop\n\nExternal links\n\nPacific Northwest National Laboratory – Molten Salt Reactor Fundamentals YouTube\nInternational Thorium Energy Organisation – www.IThEO.org",
"Idaho National Laboratory Molten Salt Reactor Fact Sheet\nEnergy from Thorium Blog / Website\nGoogle TechTalks – \"Liquid Fluoride Thorium Reactor: What Fusion Wanted To Be\" by Dr. Joe Bonometti NASA / Naval Postgraduate School YouTube\nPebble Bed Advanced High Temperature Reactor\nThorium Remix LFTR in 5 Minutes and other LFTR Documentaries.\nKun Chen from Chinese Academy of Sciences on China Thorium Molten Salt Reactor TMSR Program\nReview of Molten Salt Reactor Technology",
"Graphite moderated reactors\nMolten salt reactors"
] |
Martial law under Ferdinand Marcos
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martial%20law%20under%20Ferdinand%20Marcos
|
[
"At 7:15 p.m. on September 23, 1972, President Ferdinand Marcos announced on television that he had placed the entirety of the Philippines under martial law. This marked the beginning of a fourteen-year period of one-man rule that would effectively last until Marcos was exiled from the country on February 25, 1986. Even though the formal document proclaiming martial law—Proclamation No",
". Even though the formal document proclaiming martial law—Proclamation No. 1081, which was dated September 21, 1972—was formally lifted on January 17, 1981, Marcos retained essentially all of his powers as dictator until he was ousted.",
"While the period of Philippine history in which Marcos was in power actually began seven years earlier, when he was first inaugurated president of the Philippines in late 1965, this article deals specifically with the period where he exercised dictatorial powers under martial law and the period in which he continued to wield those powers despite technically lifting the proclamation of martial law in 1981.",
"When he declared martial law in 1972, Marcos claimed that he had done so in response to the \"communist threat\" posed by the newly founded Communist Party of the Philippines (CPP), and the sectarian \"rebellion\" of the Muslim Independence Movement (MIM). Opposition figures of the time, such as Lorenzo Tañada, Jose W",
". Opposition figures of the time, such as Lorenzo Tañada, Jose W. Diokno, and Jovito Salonga, accused Marcos of exaggerating these threats, using them as a convenient excuse to consolidate power and extend his tenure beyond the two presidential terms allowed by the 1935 constitution.",
"After Marcos was ousted, government investigators discovered that the declaration of martial law had also allowed the Marcoses to hide secret stashes of unexplained wealth that various courts later determined to be \"of criminal origin\".",
"This nine-year period in Philippine history is remembered for the administration's record of human rights abuses, particularly targeting political opponents, student activists, journalists, religious workers, farmers, and others who fought against the Marcos dictatorship",
". Based on the documentation of Amnesty International, Task Force Detainees of the Philippines, and similar human rights monitoring entities, historians believe that the Marcos dictatorship was marked by 3,257 known extrajudicial killings, 35,000 documented tortures, 77 \"disappeared\", and 70,000 incarcerations.",
"Administration and cabinet\n\nExplanations for the declaration of martial law\nNumerous explanations have been put forward as reasons for Marcos to declare martial law in September 1972, some of which were presented by the Marcos administration as official justifications, and some of which were dissenting perspectives put forward by either the mainstream political opposition or by analysts studying the political economy of the decision.",
"Official justifications \nIn his 1987 treatise, Dictatorship & Martial Law: Philippine Authoritarianism in 1972, University of the Philippines public administration professor Alex Brillantes Jr. identifies three reasons expressed by the Marcos administration, saying that martial law:\n was a response to various leftist and rightist plots against the Marcos administration;\n was just the consequence of political decay after American-style democracy failed to take root in Philippine society; and",
"was a reflection of Filipino society's history of authoritarianism and supposed need for iron-fisted leadership.",
"The first two justifications were explicitly stated in Proclamation 1081, which cited two explicit justifications: \"to save the republic\" (from various plots); and \"to reform society\" (after the failure of American-style democracy). The third rationalization arose from the administration's propaganda, which portrayed Marcos as a hypermasculine or ultranationalist figure able to compel the obedience of supposedly \"spoiled\" Filipinos.\n\nDissenting perspectives",
"Political mainstream",
"Opposition to Marcos' declaration of martial law ran the whole gamut of Philippine society – ranging from impoverished peasants whom the administration tried to chase out of their homes; to the Philippines' political old-guard, whom Marcos had tried to displace from power; to academics and economists who disagreed with the specifics of Marcos' martial law policies. All of these, regardless of their social position or policy beliefs, subscribed to the interpretation that Marcos declared martial law:",
"as a strategy to enable Ferdinand Marcos to stay in power past the two Presidential terms allowed him under Philippine Constitution of 1935; and\n as a technique for covering up the ill-gotten wealth of Marcos, his family, and his cronies.",
"Economic interpretations \nIn addition, some critics who ascribe an economic component to Marcos' motivations, suggesting that martial law:\n was an acquiescence to the global market system, which required tight control of sociopolitical systems so that the country's resources could be exploited efficiently;\n was a product of the infighting among the families that formed the upper socioeconomic class of Philippine society; and",
"was a connivance between the state powers and the upper-class families to keep the members of the country's lower classes from becoming too powerful.",
"Planning and preparation for martial law",
"Although Marcos initially claimed that he had declared martial law in response to violent acts that took place in 1971–72 – such as the Plaza Miranda bombing and the alleged assassination attempt on Defense Secretary Enrile – the groundwork for its implementation had been laid down much earlier",
". Marcos aide-turned whistleblower Primitivo Mijares noted that \"The beginning infrastructure for martial law was actually laid down as early as the first day of his assumption of the Philippine presidency on December 30, 1965.\"",
"Most notably, by the time Marcos declared martial law in September 1972, he had: \n assured the loyalty of state institutions – especially the Armed Forces – to himself;\n appointed 8 out of 11 justices of the Philippines' Supreme Court;\n gained the support of the Nixon administration; and \n carefully crafted a public relations environment that ensured that the majority of Filipino citizens would at least initially accept martial law.\n\nControlling the armed forces and police",
"Defense secretary portfolio",
"Marcos began increasing his influence over the armed forces of the Philippines as soon as he became president in 1965 by following President Ramon Magsaysay's precedent of concurrently hold the portfolio of defense secretary in the first thirteen months of his presidency. American defense analyst Donald Berlin notes that this gave Marcos an opportunity for direct interaction with the AFP's leaders, and a hand in the military's day-to-day operationalization",
". Singaporean author and political science professor Terence Lee notes that this had the effect of \"develop[ing] a patronage system within the defense establishment.\" Professor Albert Celoza, in his 1997 book on the political economy of authoritarianism in the Philippines, notes that: \"It was alleged that a plan of action had existed as early as 1965...no one opposed the plan because no one was certain that the plan would be carried out.\"",
"Armed Forces of the Philippines reshuffle \nMarcos soon carried out the \"largest reshuffle in the history of the armed forces\" when he forcibly retired fourteen of the AFP's twenty-five flag officers, including the AFP Chief of Staff, the AFP Vice Chief of Staff, the commanding general of the Philippine Army, the Chief of the Philippine Constabulary, the commanders of all four Constabulary Zones, and one third of all Provincial Commanders of the PC.",
"One prominent early example of an officer forced to resign his commission was Navy Commodore Ramon Alcaraz – a World War II hero who would eventually be dubbed the \"father of the Philippine Marines\", and have a Philippine Navy ship named after him. Alcaraz was forced to resign from the Armed Forces because his success in the Navy's anti-smuggling operations had come into conflict with Marcos accommodations with alleged \"smuggler-king\" Lino Bocalan.",
"In their place, Marcos appointed officers from his home region, the Ilocos, the most significant of whom had familial connections to Marcos – ensuring their familial and regionalistic loyalties to him. The practice was so pervasive that it quickly earned a moniker: \"Ilocanization\"",
". The practice was so pervasive that it quickly earned a moniker: \"Ilocanization\". The most important of these appointments included Juan Ponce Enrile as Secretary of Defense, and Fidel Ramos as Armed Forces Vice Chief of Staff, who were both related to Marcos; and Fabian Ver, Marcos' townmate from Sarrat, Ilocos Norte, as Armed Forces Chief of Staff.",
"In tandem with this \"Ilocanization\", generals loyal to Marcos were allowed to stay in their positions past their supposed retirement age, or were rewarded with civilian government posts. This led to a loss of morale among the middle-ranks of the AFP, because it meant a significant slowdown in promotions and caused many officers to retire with ranks much lower than they would otherwise have earned.",
"As a result, Security Affairs Professor Douglas J. Macdonald noted that \"near the end of the dictatorship, the Military and the Intelligence organizations were badly polarized along generational lines, as they are today.\"",
"Barangay Self Defense Units and Civilian Home Defense Forces \nIn June 1970, Marcos authorized the creation of civil militias called \"Barangay Self Defense Units\", which would be renamed the Civilian Home Defense Forces in 1977 through Presidential Decree 1016. At its inception, the CHDF numbered 73,000 men, and it earned a reputation as the perpetrators of the worst human rights violations during martial law.\n\nThe \"Oplan Sagittarius\" expose",
"When Marcos was ready to declare martial law, copies of the plan for its implementation were distributed to key officials within the Armed Forces. As a way of assuring that any whistleblowers would be easily accounted for, the copies of the plan were distributed with codeword titles taken from the signs of the Zodiac. The copy marked \"Sagittarius\" was given to General Marcos \"Mark\" Soliman who commanded the National Intelligence Coordinating Agency. Thus, when Senator Benigno \"Ninoy\" Aquino Jr",
". Thus, when Senator Benigno \"Ninoy\" Aquino Jr. exposed the existence of \"Oplan Sagittarius\" a week before martial law was declared, other generals were able to deny that they had heard of any operation under the said code title, and it was easy for Marcos to pinpoint Soliman as the whistleblower who gave the information to Aquino.",
"Not long after the declaration of martial law, the controlled press reported that Soliman had died of a heart attack, but his family believed that Marcos had ordered that he be killed. Marcos then dissolved the National Intelligence Coordinating Agency (NICA) and put a powerful super-agency, the National Intelligence and Security Authority (NISA) in its place, with steadfast Marcos follower General Fabian Ver in command.",
"Ensuring political support from the United States government",
"By 1971, Marcos had reached out to US Ambassador to the Philippines Henry Byroade, with the question of whether the United States, then under the administration of President Richard Nixon, would support him should he choose to proclaim Martial Law. Byroade brought the matter up with Nixon in a conversation in January 1971",
". Byroade brought the matter up with Nixon in a conversation in January 1971. According to the US National Archives' copy of the Memorandum of Conversation between Nixon and Byroade: The president declared that we would \"absolutely\" back Marcos up, and \"to the hilt\" so long as what he was doing was to preserve the system against those who would destroy it in the name of liberty. The President indicated that..",
". The President indicated that... we would not support anyone who was trying to set himself up as military dictator, but we would do everything we can to back a man who was trying to make the system work and to preserve order. Of course, we understood that Marcos would not be entirely motivated by national interests, but this was something which we had come to expect from Asian leaders.",
"Marcos informed the US Ambassador to the Philippines about his intent to declare Martial Law plan as early as September 17, 1972, just a few days before Martial Law was announced on September 23, 1972.\n\nThe role of the Communist Party of the Philippines",
"The role of the Communist Party of the Philippines \n\nOf the various threats cited in the Proclamation 1081 document as rationalizations for declaration of Martial Law, the most extensively described was the threat supposedly posed by Communist insurgents – specifically the newly formed Communist Party of the Philippines, a Maoist organization which had only recently broken off from the Marxist–Leninist Partido Komunista ng Pilipinas.\n\nThe \"Red Scare\" in the Philippines and the Anti-Subversion Act",
"When Marcos became president in 1965, Philippine policy and politics functioned under a Post-World War II geopolitical framework",
". After gaining independence from the US after the war, the Philippines had retained strong economic, political and military ties to the United States, manifested in a Mutual Defense Treaty (MDT), Military Assistance Agreement (MAA), a US Military Advisory Group (JUSMAG), and the physical presence of several Military Bases where the US Military could conduct \"unhampered US military operations\" for 99 years (later reduced to 50).",
"Filipino presidents were very politically dependent on American support, and this did not change until the end of the Cold War in 1989, and the termination of the 1947 US Military Bases Treaty, in 1992.",
"With its close ties to the US, the Philippines was ideologically caught up in the anticommunist scare perpetuated by the US during the Cold War. The government was not yet strongly-established, and it was \"fearful of being swept away by [communism]'s rising tide\", so in 1957, it passed Republic Act (RA) No. 1700, known as the \"Anti-Subversion Act of 1957\", which made mere membership in any communist party illegal",
". The Philippines would take three and a half decades to repeal it, through Republic Act 7636, in 1992.",
"RA No. 1700 was originally meant to counter the Partido Komunista ng Pilipinas (PKP) and its armed force, the Hukbalahap (also called the \"Huks\"). The campaign against the PKP and the Huks was bloody, but it had basically ended by 1954",
". The campaign against the PKP and the Huks was bloody, but it had basically ended by 1954. Throughout the 60s, the remnants of the PKP pursued \"a course of peaceful action\" while working to rebuild their organisation, but, this was later challenged by a youth-based Maoist group within the organization created by University Professor Jose Maria Sison, who joined the PKP in 1962",
". Clashing with the PKP party leaders' view that armed struggle was an exercise in futility, Sison and his group were expelled from the PKP in 1967, and on December 26, 1968 founded the Communist Party of the Philippines (CPP) along Maoist lines. While the PKP sought to marginalize this new group, it soon became the leading communist party in the Philippines.",
"Marcos and anti-communist rhetoric \nWhen Marcos became president in 1965, the PKP was a weakened organization, and the Hukbalahap reduced to \"what amounted to banditry.\" But Marcos immediately made noise about the supposed \"communist threat\" – drawing on images of the bloody Huk encounters of the 1950s, and courting the Johnson administration's political support in light of the U.S.' recent entry into the Vietnam war.",
"Marcos continued using communism as a bogeyman after 1968, as the PKP faded into obscurity and the nascent CPP became more prominent. The Armed Forces of the Philippines did likewise in 1969, when the CPP allied with Huk commander Bernabe Buscayno to create the nascent New People's Army. Although the CPP-NPA was only a small force at the time, the AFP hyped up its formation, partly because doing so was good for building up the AFP budget. As a result, notes security specialist Richard J",
". As a result, notes security specialist Richard J. Kessler, \"the AFP mythologized the group, investing it with a revolutionary aura that only attracted more supporters.\"",
"Even in the days immediately before Marcos' declaration of Martial Law on September 23, 1972, the Philippine National Security Council did not consider the two communist movements to represent a sizeable threat. At around that time, the US Senate Committee on Foreign Relations received notice that as of September 19, 1972, the Philippine Council had set their threat assessment at \"between 'normal' and 'Internal Defense Condition 1'\" on a scale where 3 was the highest Defense condition",
". In 1971, AFP Chief of Staff Manuel T. Yan had prominently told media that the grounds for Marcos to either impose of martial law or suspend the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus did not exist. One of the generals serving under General Fabian Ver of the National Intelligence and Security Authority later recalled that \"Even when Martial Law was declared, the communists were not a real threat. The military could handle them.\"",
"Confirmed incidents",
"Despite historical consensus that the Marcos administration willfully exaggerated the capabilities and actions of the Communist Party of the Philippines, a few of the incidents cited by Marcos have been confirmed as genuine activities of the CPP",
". These included: the December 1970 raid on the Philippine Military Academy's armory by defecting army officer Victor Corpus; and the July 1972 MV Karagatan incident in which a secret arms shipment from China, meant for Communist Party forces, sank just off Digoyo Point in Palanan, Isabela.",
"Disputed incidents \nNumerous other incidents cited by Marcos as rationalizations for his declaration of Martial Law have either been discredited or disputed, in light of Marcos' known tactic of undertaking false flag operations as a propaganda technique.\n\nThis includes: the August 1971 Plaza Miranda bombing; the 1972 Manila bombings from March to September of that year; and the alleged September 1972 ambush of Defense Minister Juan Ponce Enrile.",
"Radicalization of moderate activists \nThe social unrest of 1969 to 1970, and the violent dispersal of the resulting \"First Quarter Storm\" protests were among the early watershed events in which large numbers of Filipino students of the 1970s were radicalized against the Marcos administration. Due to these dispersals, many students who had previously held \"moderate\" positions (i.e., calling for legislative reforms) became convinced that they had no choice but to call for more radical social change.",
"Other watershed events that would later radicalize many otherwise \"moderate\" opposition members include the February 1971 Diliman Commune; the August 1971 suspension of the writ of habeas corpus in the wake of the Plaza Miranda bombing; the September 1972 declaration of Martial Law; the 1980 murder of Macli-ing Dulag; and the August 1983 assassination of Ninoy Aquino.",
"This radicalization led to a significant growth of the Communist Party of the Philippines under the Marcos administration. Writer and peace advocate Gus Miclat cites the example of Mindanao: \"There was not one NPA cadre in Mindanao in 1972. Yes, there were activists, there were some firebrands... but there were no armed rebels then except for those that eventually formed the Moro National Liberation Front",
". When Marcos fled in 1986, the NPA was virtually in all Mindanao provinces, enjoying even a tacit alliance with the MNLF.\"",
"Signing of Proclamation No. 1081 \n\nSeveral conflicting accounts about exist regarding the exact date on which Marcos signed the physical Proclamation No. 1081 document, which placed the entirety of the Philippines under martial law.",
"Whichever the case, the document was formally dated September 21 because of his superstitions and numerological beliefs concerning the number seven. The Official Gazette of the republic of the Philippines, in a retrospective article on Marcos' proclamation of martial law, comments on the differences in the accounts:",
"\"Whether they conflict or not, all accounts indicate that Marcos' obsession with numerology (particularly the number seven) necessitated that Proclamation No. 1081 be officially signed on a date that was divisible by seven. Thus, September 21, 1972 became the official date that martial law was established and the day that the Marcos dictatorship began. This also allowed Marcos to control history on his own terms.\"",
"Announcement and implementation of martial law\n\nSeptember 22, 1972, marked a brief period in which Proclamation No. 1081 was formally in place, but without the knowledge of the public. For most of the Philippines, therefore, martial law was thus properly implemented when it was announced on the evening of September 23, 1972.",
"The implementation of martial law began sometime before midnight on September 22, with the arrest of the two main opposition leaders, Ninoy Aquino, who on September 21 held a Congress speech to denounce impending martial law, and Jose W. Diokno, who held a rally with 50,000 people from the Movement of Concerned Citizens for Civil Liberties (MCCCL) at Plaza Miranda on the same day",
". By dawn of the following day, many of the 400 individuals listed on the military's priority arrest list—journalists, members of the political opposition, constitutional convention delegates, outspoken lawyers, teachers, and students—had been detained.",
"Media outlets were shuttered, although those linked with Marcos crony Roberto Benedicto were allowed to reopen within the day. Soon after, Congress was abolished, mass activities were prohibited, political parties were outlawed, a curfew was put in place, and civil and political rights were suspended.",
"First wave of arrests \nThe first wave of arrests under Marcos' declaration of martial law began with the arrest of Senator Benigno Aquino Jr. late in the evening of September 22, during a late meeting of the Joint Congressional Committee on Tariff Reforms at the Manila Hilton Hotel. Aquino was one of Marcos' most prominent critics, and had exposed the plan to proclaim martial law in a speech in the Philippine Senate the week before.",
"Juan Ponce Enrile would later acknowledge that the first wave of arrests focused on political figures and journalists \"in the initial stages, we must emasculate all the leaders in order to control the situation.\"",
"The arrest of others took place after midnight in the early morning hours of September 23. Martial law forces were sent out to arrest 400 individuals on their priority target list. By 1:00 am, Senator Jose W. Diokno had been arrested at his residence in Makati, as had poet-Senator Soc Rodrigo as of 2:00 a.m. that day",
".m. that day. Vice President Fernando Lopez, who had resigned from his cabinet positions in the Marcos administration after accusing Marcos of corruption and power-grabbing, was on the priority list but was overseas at the time of the declaration. Sergio Osmeña Jr., who had run against Marcos in the contentious election of 1969, was also abroad at the time and was not caught. In their place, Lopez's nephew Eugenio Lopez Sr",
". In their place, Lopez's nephew Eugenio Lopez Sr. and Osmeña's son Sergio Osmeña III were arrested in what international media described as an act of extortion designed to undermine their families' financial empires.",
"By the dawn of September 23, 100 of the 400 individuals on the list were in detention centers, with detainees including Senator Ramon Mitra, JRU history teacher Etta Rosales, University of the Philippines College of Social Work professor Flora Lansang, human rights lawyer Haydee Yorac, Manila Times publisher Chino Roces, and a plethora of journalists. Student leaders were arrested regardless of whether their organizations were \"radical\" or \"moderate\".",
"Newspaper editors arrested that night included Amando Doronila of the Daily Mirror, Luis Mauricio of the Philippine Graphic, Teodoro Locsin Sr. of the Philippine Free Press, and Rolando Fadul of the vernacular broadsheet Taliba. Also arrested were reporters Robert Ordoñez of the Philippine Herald, Rosalinda Galang of the Manila Times; columnists Ernesto Granada of the Manila Chronicle and Maximo Soliven of the Manila Times, and Luis Beltran and Ruben Cusipag of the Evening News.",
"Philippines Free Press associate editor Napoleon Rama and ABS-CBN broadcaster Jose Mari Velez also happened to be delegates to the 1971 Constitutional Convention, and were among the 11 outspoken convention delegates to be arrested. The others included Heherson Alvarez, Alejandro Lichuaco, Voltaire Garcia, and Teofisto Guingona Jr.",
"Media lockdown",
"Marcos reacted with fear of deposition and immediately finalized Proclamation No. 1081, which declared nationwide martial law at 8:00 p.m. later that evening. One day before the proclamation, on September 22, 1972 at 8:00 p.m., Defense Minister Juan Ponce Enrile was told to exit his white Mercedes-Benz sedan near Wack-Wack village. Another vehicle carrying gunmen arrived and stopped near an electrical post, right beside Enrile's vehicle",
". They then alighted from their vehicle and began to fire at the large sedan of Enrile to give an impression of a terrorist ambush, setting the stage for Marcos's theatrical television announcement.",
"By the morning of September 23, 1972, martial law forces had successfully implemented a media lockdown, with only outlets associated with Marcos crony Roberto Benedicto allowed to operate. In the afternoon, Benedicto-owned television channel KBS-9 went back on air playing episodes of Hanna-Barbera's Wacky Races cartoon series, which was interrupted at 3:00 PM, when Press Secretary Francisco Tatad went on air to read Proclamation No. 1081, through which Marcos declared martial law",
". 1081, through which Marcos declared martial law. Ferdinand Marcos himself went on air at 7:17 that evening to formalize the announcement. On the following Morning, September 24, the headline of Benedicto's Daily Express announced \"FM Declares Martial Law\" – the only national newspaper to come out in the immediate aftermath of martial law. (The Mindanao Tribune, which had not received notification of the media lockdown, had been able to put out an edition by the evening of September 23.)",
"The declaration shut down 7 television stations, 16 national daily newspapers, 11 weekly magazines, 66 community newspapers, and 292 radio stations; as well as public utilities such as Meralco, PLDT, and airlines such as Philippine Airlines (later redesignated in 1973 by Marcos as the flag carrier), Air Manila and Filipinas Orient Airways.\n\nImpact of martial law on the 1971 Constitutional Convention",
"Marcos' September 1972 proclamation of martial law had major repercussions for the 1971 Constitutional Convention. Marcos arrested the leadership of the \"opposition bloc\" of the convention, who wanted to make sure that Marcos would not stay in power longer than the two terms allowed him under the 1935 constitution",
". Eventually, a group of Marcos-supporting delegates led by Gilberto Duavit came up with an entirely new draft of the constitution, which they submitted to Malacañang for ratification only two months after the proclamation of martial law.",
"Arrested delegates and detention of Aquino and Diokno\n\nThe work of the convention was affected by the declaration of martial law in September 1972 by President Ferdinand Marcos; the military units assigned to implement martial law were given a list of 400 individuals to arrest, consisting mostly of outspoken critics of Ferdinand Marcos' administration. This included a number of members of the Constitutional Convention.",
"Some of the individuals on the list, such as Raul Manglapus, were not in the Philippines when martial law was declared, while some, such as Raul Roco, were in the country but managed to evade arrest.",
"However, numerous members of the Constitutional Convention's opposition bloc were among those arrested in the early hours of September 22, 1972. Convention members arrested included Antonio Araneta, Jose Concepcion, Voltaire Garcia, Bren Guiao, Teofisto Guingona Jr., Alejandro Lichuaco, Jose Nolledo, Philippines Free Press associate editor Napoleon Rama, and ABS-CBN broadcaster Jose Mari Velez.",
"With nearly a dozen of its members in jail and some of its most prominent leaders overseas or in hiding, the \"progressive faction\" of the convention that spoke against Marcos was no longer able to contribute to the discussion.",
"Diokno and Aquino, whom the dictatorship considered their foremost opponents, were later handcuffed, blindfolded, and transferred to Fort Magsaysay in Laur, Nueva Ecija in March 1973. They were placed in solitary confinement for 30 days after an article by Aquino published in the Bangkok Post further revealed abuses under martial law. Marcos accused Diokno and Aquino for this article as it was printed while both were in prison at Fort Bonifacio",
". Aquino and Diokno were kept in solitary in the enclosed and air-sealed Alpha and Delta rooms. Aquino spent his days counting through chalk on the wall, while Diokno counted using the knots of ropes from his mosquito net as well as the back of a soap packaging box and crossed out each day in the manner of a calendar.",
"They both learned of each other's presence through singing. One of them would frequently sing the national anthem Lupang Hinirang or \"Chosen Land\", to which the other would reply by singing Bayan Ko or \"My Country\" to prove he was still alive. Their visiting family members were often strip-searched by soldiers. Diokno's wife Carmen would sneak in books in French and Spanish for him to read. Diokno and his wife talked in Spanish to keep the guards from eavesdropping on their conversation",
". Diokno and his wife talked in Spanish to keep the guards from eavesdropping on their conversation. Diokno would tell his family not to weep in front of the sadistic soldiers. Only his Aunt Paz Wilson, a woman in her 90s and a mother figure since his mother's passing, would frequently cry during every visit. She continued to visit despite also undergoing strip searches. The family would be in tears once they left the prison, where the Aquino family would see them",
". The family would be in tears once they left the prison, where the Aquino family would see them. This helped the Aquinos prepare themselves emotionally since they never saw the Diokno family manifest much pain before. Nena Diokno, suspicious of Marcos, took most of her husband's books at the library along Del Pilar Street and brought them home before the military burned down the library. Jose would thank her as he was very familiar with the library and memorized the location of each shelf and book he read",
". Aquino and Diokno could not keep glasses or pipes, and Diokno needed to request his rosary from time to time. After enduring 30 days they were transferred back to Fort Bonifacio. Diokno was released on September 11, 1974, Marcos's birthday, while Aquino would leave for the United States in 1980.",
"Rushed approval",
"The convention moved quickly after Marcos had declared martial law. The opposition bloc had effectively been decimated and the threat of imprisonment hung over any delegates who might voice opposition in the convention. The regular rules of the convention were suspended and a 166-member group headed by Marcos-supporting Delegate Gilberto Duavit came up with a new draft of the constitution",
". By November 29, 1972 – a little over two months after the declaration of martial law – the convention approved the draft, which was presented to Marcos in Malacañang Palace on December 1, 1972.",
"Rise of the Moro National Liberation Front",
"Sparked by revelations about the 1968 Jabidah massacre, tensions had been rising between the Marcos administration and the Moro peoples of Mindanao. Soon after Jibin Arula told the story of the Massacre story to the press, and Senate investigations suggested the involvement of the president, Lanao del Sur congressman Rashid Lucman called for Marcos' Impeachment",
". When the bid failed, he eventually founded the Bangsamoro Liberation Organization (BMLO), which initially called for Moro Independence, although it eventually shifted its positions and called for regional autonomy. Former Cotabato governor Datu Udtog Matalam likewise formed of the Muslim Independence Movement (MIM), which also called for Moro Independence. Neither group, however, drew enough followers to form a viable opposition until Marcos declared Martial Law",
". The BMLO remained small, while the MIM was dissolved when Matalam accepted a government post under Marcos.",
"With the declaration of Martial Law, on October 21, 1972, political parties, including the BMLO and the MIM, were dissolved. So when former MIM member Nur Misuari formed an armed secessionist group called the Moro National Liberation Front, he was quickly able to consolidate power. The MNLF became the single dominant voice calling for Moro independence, and was able to raise a significant armed force. The Philippines' decades-long Moro conflict had begun in earnest.\n\nHuman rights abuses",
"Scale of abuses",
"Marcos' 14 years as dictator is historically remembered for its record of human rights abuses, particularly targeting political opponents, student activists, journalists, religious workers, farmers, and others who fought against the Marcos dictatorship",
". Based on the documentation of Amnesty International, Task Force Detainees of the Philippines, and similar human rights monitoring entities, historians believe that the Marcos dictatorship was marked by 3,257 known extrajudicial killings, 35,000 documented tortures, 77 forced disappearances, and 70,000 incarcerations.",
"Some 2,520 of the 3,257 murder victims were tortured and mutilated before their bodies were dumped in various places for the public to discover – a tactic meant to sow fear among the public, which came to be known as \"salvaging\". Some bodies were even cannibalized.",
"International pressure, and knowledge of abuses by Marcos",
"The international community eventually got word of these human rights violations and applied pressure to the Marcos administration to end them. In 1975, Marcos aide and chief propagandist Primitivo Mijares defected from the Marcos administration and revealed in front of US lawmakers that torture was routinely practiced within the Marcos regime. Mijares' admission attracted international criticism, particularly from Amnesty International and Washington",
". Amnesty International's first report about the Philippines in December 1975 revealed the \"systematic and severe torture\" handled by the Fifth Constabulary Security Unit (5CSU). Amnesty International found convincing evidence of widespread torture among prisoners, enabled by Marcos's suspension of the writ of habeas corpus and the absence of judicial oversight",
". Evidence reveals that not only was he aware of tortures and murders enacted by his military and police force, but that he condoned and at times arranged for it. This caused tensions between the United States and the Philippines, pressuring Marcos to admit human rights violations during his regime.",
"Marcos initially denied knowledge of human rights violations. In 1974, he proclaimed in a televised address that \"No one, but no one was tortured\". But he eventually confessed at the 1977 World Peace through law Conference in Manila that \"there have been, to our lasting regret, a number of violations of the rights of detainees\".\n\nEconomy",
"Economy\n\nPhilippine economic history from Marcos' declaration of Martial Law to his ouster through the 1986 People Power Revolution was a period of significant economic highs and lows.",
"The September 1972 declaration of Martial Law coincided with an increased global demand for raw materials, including coconut and sugar, and the increase in global market prices for these commodities. This \"commodities boom\" allowed GDP growth to peak at nearly 9 percent in the years immediately after the declaration – in 1973 and 1976. The Philippine's Gross Domestic Product quadrupled from $8 billion in 1972 to $32.45 billion in 1980, for an inflation-adjusted average growth rate of 6% per year.",
"The commodities boom continued throughout most of the 70s, only slowing down towards the early 1980s when it left the Philippine economy vulnerable to the instability of the international capital market. As a result, the economy grew amidst the two severe global oil shocks following the 1973 oil crisis and 1979 energy crisis – oil price was $3 / barrel in 1973 and $39.5 in 1979, or a growth of 1200% which drove inflation.",
"The Heritage Foundation pointed that when the economy began to weaken in 1979, the government did not adopt anti-recessionist policies and instead launched risky and costly industrial projects. The overall economy experienced a slower growth GDP per capita, lower wage conditions and higher unemployment especially towards the end of Marcos' term after the 1983–1984 recession. The Philippine peso devalued sharply from 3.9 to 20.53",
". The Philippine peso devalued sharply from 3.9 to 20.53. The recession was triggered largely by political instability following Ninoy's assassination, high global interest rates, severe global economic recession, and significant increase in global oil price, the latter three of which affected all indebted countries in Latin America, Europe, and Asia. The Philippines was among these countries and was not exempted from the negative economic consequences.",
"Despite the 1984–1985 recession, GDP on a per capita basis more than tripled from $175.9 in 1965 to $565.8 in 1985 at the end of Marcos' term, though this averages less than 1.2% a year when adjusted for inflation.",
"The period is sometimes erroneously described as a golden age for the country's economy. However, by the period's end, the country was experiencing a debt crisis, extreme poverty, and severe underemployment. On the island of Negros, one-fifth of the children under six were seriously malnourished.\n\nRise in poverty incidence \nPoverty incidence grew from 41% in the 1960s at the time Marcos took the presidency to 59% when he was removed from power.",
"Rise in debt",
"The Philippines had a cautious borrowing policy as late as the early 1970s, but the Marcos administration borrowed a massive amount of foreign debt in the early 1980s amid high oil prices, high interest rates, capital flight, and falling export prices of sugar and coconut. The country's total external debt rose from US$2.3 billion in 1970 to US$26.2 billion in 1985",
". The country's total external debt rose from US$2.3 billion in 1970 to US$26.2 billion in 1985. Along with corruption and plunder of public funds by Marcos and his cronies, this held the country under a debt-servicing crisis which is expected to be fixed by only 2025.",
"Suppression of journalism \n\nThe shutdown of media and the mass arrests of publishers and journalists on the eve of the 1972 Martial Law declaration effectively silenced the Philippine culture of press freedom for several years. It also had a chilling effect on news coverage all the way until Marcos was deposed and exiled in 1986, despite the Marcos administration loosening press restrictions in light of international pressure, and despite the technical lifting of Martial Law in 1981.",
"The few publications who dared to criticize Marcos, such as the WE Forum and Ang Pahayagang Malaya, came to collectively be referred to \"the mosquito press,\" since they became a minor but persistent irritation to the dictatorship.",
"Key turning points in the history of Philippine journalism during this time included: the establishment of WE Forum in 1977 and of Ang Pahayagang Malaya in 1981; the landmark coverage murder of Macli-ing Dulag, a leader of indigenous opposition to the Chico River Dam Project; the 1982 expose of Ferdinand Marcos' fake military medals which led to the closure of WE Forum and the jailing of its prominent columnists; and the 1984 murder of leading Mindanao journalist Alex Orcullo in Davao City.",
"Proclamation No. 2045",
"On January 17, 1981, Marcos issued Proclamation No. 2045, which formally lifted the proclamation of martial law, but retained many of his powers. The lifting was timed to coincide with Pope John Paul II's visit to the Philippines and with the inauguration of new U.S. president and Marcos ally Ronald Reagan",
".S. president and Marcos ally Ronald Reagan. Reacting to the announcement, former president Diosdado Macapagal, who at the time was the leading member of the United Nationalist Democratic Organization, said that the lifting of martial law after eight years was \"in name only, but not in fact\". Marcos reacted to criticism by telling the national assembly, \"The opposition members want only to save their individual skins against national interests.\"",
"Amendment No. 6 to the new 1973 constitution allowed him to continue making laws, and the decrees issued during martial law were carried forward after the lifting of Proclamation No. 1081. He also retained the right to suspend the writ of habeas corpus for \"crimes related to subversion, insurrection, rebellion, and also conspiracy to commit such crimes.\"\n\nHuman rights abuses continued.\n\n1986 People Power Revolution and exile of the Marcos family",
"Human rights abuses continued.\n\n1986 People Power Revolution and exile of the Marcos family \n\nIncreasing unrest springing from the economic collapse of the Philippines in the years after the assassination of Senator Benigno Aquino in 1983 came to a head in February 1986, when the EDSA People Power Revolution succeeded in unseating the Marcoses from Malacañang Palace.",
"Fearful of a scenario in which Marcos' presence in the Philippines would lead to a civil war, the Reagan administration flew Marcos and a party of about 80 individuals – the extended Marcos family and a number of close associates – from the Philippines to Hawaii despite Marcos' objections.",
"The exiles stayed at Hickam Air Force Base at the expense of the U.S. government. A month later, they moved into a pair of residences in Makiki Heights, Honolulu, which were registered to Marcos cronies Antonio Floirendo and Bienvenido and Gliceria Tantoco.\n\nMarcos would eventually die in exile in 1989.",
"Marcos would eventually die in exile in 1989.\n\nPresident Corazon Aquino eventually allowed the remaining members of the Marcos family to return to the Philippines to face various charges. News reports from the period record that Marcos supporters organized crowd from Manila's slums to welcome the Marcoses on their return.\n\nSee also \n Martial law in the Philippines\n History of the Philippines (1965–1986)\n Economic history of the Philippines (1965–1986)\n Proclamation No. 1081\n 1972 Manila bombings",
"References \n\n \n1972 establishments in the Philippines\n1986 disestablishments in the Philippines\nAnti-communism in the Philippines\nDictatorship\nPoliticides\nFascism in Asia\nPresidencies of the Philippines\nFerdinand Marcos\n1970s in the Philippines\n1980s in the Philippines"
] |
Narita International Airport
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narita%20International%20Airport
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[
"Narita International Airport () , also known as Tokyo-Narita, formerly and originally known as , is one of two international airports serving the Greater Tokyo Area, the other one being Haneda Airport (HND). It is about east of central Tokyo in Narita, Chiba. The facility since July, 2019, covers 1,137 hectares (2,810 acres) of land and there are future plans to expand to nearly 1,200ha (3,000 acres)",
"The conceptualization of Narita was highly controversial and remains so to the present day, especially among local residents in the area. This has led to the Sanrizuka Struggle, stemming from the government's decision to construct the airport without consulting most residents in the area, as well as expropriating their lands in the process",
". Even after the airport was eventually completed, air traffic movements have been controlled under various noise related operating restrictions due to its direct proximity with residential neighborhoods, including a house with a farm that is located right in between the runways. As a result, the airport must be closed from 00:00 (12:00am) to 06:00 (6:00am) the next day to minimize the noise pollution impact around the airport.",
"Narita is the busiest airport in Japan by international passenger and international cargo traffic. In 2018, Narita had 33.4 million international passengers and 2.2 million tonnes of international cargo. In 2018, Narita was also the second-busiest airport in Japan in terms of aircraft movements (after Haneda Airport in Tokyo) and the tenth-busiest air freight hub in the world. Its main runway shares the record for longest runway in Japan with the second runway at Kansai International Airport in Osaka",
". Narita serves as the main international hub of Japan Airlines, All Nippon Airways and Nippon Cargo Airlines, and as a hub for low-cost carriers Jetstar Japan and Peach.",
"History\n\nConstruction and local resistance",
"Before Narita opened, Tokyo International Airport (Haneda) was Japan's main international airport. Haneda, on Tokyo Bay near densely populated residential and industrial areas, began to suffer capacity and noise issues in the early 1960s as jet aircraft became common. The Japanese transport ministry commissioned a study of alternate airport locations in 1963, and in 1965 selected a plan to build a five-runway airport in the village of Tomisato",
". The site was later moved northeast to the villages of Sanrizuka and Shibayama, where the Imperial Household had a large farming estate. This development plan was made public in 1966.",
"The government argued that one merit of the site was the relative ease of . However, local residents were not consulted during the initial planning phase, and learned of the selection of the airport site through the news. This led to shock and anger among the local community, which continued for many years. Though the Japanese government had eminent domain power by law, such power was rarely used due to a preference to resolve land disputes consensually.",
"At the time, the socialist movement still had considerable strength in Japan, evidenced by the large-scale student riots in Tokyo in 1960. Many in the \"new left\" such as Chūkaku-ha opposed building Narita, reasoning that the real purpose for the new airport was to promote capitalism and to provide additional facilities for US military aircraft in the event of war with the Soviet Union",
". These individuals sought to ally with the more conservative local farmers who simply did not want to give up their land for the airport.",
"About 1966, a group of local residents combined with student activists and left-wing political parties formed a popular resistance group, the (; ), which remained active until fracturing in 1983 and they started protest activity called Sanrizuka Struggle (; ). Similar strategies had already been employed during the postwar era to block the expansion of Tachikawa Air Base and other US military facilities in Japan",
". In June and July 1966, the Union sent formal protests to the mayor of Narita, the governor and vice-governor of Chiba Prefecture and the prefectural office of the Liberal Democratic Party. In November 1967, when the Transport Ministry began surveying the perimeter of the airport, Union members set up roadblocks. The Zengakuren radical student union then began sending students to Narita to help the local farmers. During eminent domain, three policemen were killed by activists.",
"Takenaka Corporation constructed the first terminal building, which was completed in 1972. The first runway took several more years due to constant fights with the Union and sympathizers, who occupied several pieces of land necessary to complete the runway and temporarily built large towers in the runway's path. In 1977, the government had finally destroyed the towers, but and .",
"The runway was completed and the airport scheduled to open on March 30, 1978, but this plan was disrupted when, on March 26, 1978, a and destroyed much of its equipment, causing about $500,000 in damage and delaying the opening until May 20.",
"The airport opened under a high level of security; the airfield was surrounded by opaque metal fencing and overlooked by guard towers staffed with riot police. 14,000 security police were at the airport's opening and were met by 6,000 protesters; a Japanese newscaster remarked at the time that \"Narita resembles nothing so much as Saigon Airport during the Vietnam War",
".\" Protestors attacked police on the opening day with rocks and firebombs while police responded with water cannons; on the other side of Tokyo, a separate group of protestors claimed responsibility for cutting the power supply to an air traffic control facility at Tokorozawa, which shut down most air traffic in the Tokyo area for several hours",
". The National Diet passed a special statute, the , specifically banning the construction and use of buildings for violent and coercive purposes relating to the new airport. Nevertheless, several people have been killed by terrorism, including in and in 1983 and 1990, respectively, as well as an in 1988.",
"The conflicts at Narita were a major factor in the decision to build Kansai International Airport in Osaka offshore on reclaimed land, instead of again trying to expropriate land in heavily populated areas.",
"Japan's international flag carrier, Japan Airlines, moved its main international hub from Haneda to Narita, and Northwest and Pan American also moved their Asian regional hubs from Haneda to Narita. Pan American transferred its Pacific Division, including its Narita hub, to United Airlines in February 1986. Japanese domestic carrier All Nippon Airways began scheduled international flights from Narita to Guam in 1986.",
"Security",
"From 1978 to 2015, Narita Airport was the only airport in Japan where visitors were required to show ID upon entry, due to the tumultuous history of the airport's construction and the violent protests before, during, and after its opening. By 2012, Narita's operator was considering dispensing with the security checks",
". By 2012, Narita's operator was considering dispensing with the security checks. Given that the number of flight slots at Narita are also increasing, the anti-airport struggles were a long time ago, and Haneda Airport began to re-instate international flights, a council headed by Chiba governor Kensaku Morita consisting of prefectural government officials, the Narita International Airport Corporation and business groups in Narita, proposed scrapping the ID checks",
". The Chiba prefectural police objected, stating that the checks were necessary to detect extremists and terrorists.",
"NAA experimented with a new threat detection system for two months in 2013, using a combination of cameras, explosive detectors, dogs and other measures in lieu of passport and baggage checks upon entering the terminal. In March 2015, NAA announced that the ID checks would cease and the new system would be used for terminal building security, effective as of the end of that month.",
"Narita Airport was the first Japanese airport to house millimeter wave scanners. The Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport announced in March 2010 that trials would be carried out at Narita from July 5 through September 10, 2010. Five types of machines were to be tested sequentially outside the Terminal 1 South Wing security checkpoint; the subjects were Japanese nationals who volunteered for trial screening, as well as airport security staff during hours when the checkpoint is closed.",
"Privatization\n\nIn 2003, a was passed to provide for the privatization of the airport. As part of this change, on April 1, 2004, New Tokyo International Airport was officially renamed Narita International Airport, reflecting its popular designation since its opening. The airport was also moved from government control to the authority of a new Narita International Airport Corporation, usually abbreviated to \"NAA.\"",
"The headquarters is on the airport grounds. The authority previously had its head office in Tokyo with some offices in and around Narita; the head office moved and the Narita offices consolidated according to the decision by the Japanese Cabinet in July 1988 making it a special corporation. The NAA head office started operations at the airport on July 1, 1996, in the former Japan Airlines operations center, acquired by NAA in July 1994. Renovations occurred from September 1995 to March 1996",
". Renovations occurred from September 1995 to March 1996. After the move, the Kishimoto Building in Marunouchi, Chiyoda, Tokyo housed the NAA's Tokyo functions.",
"To assist in the relationship with the local community, NAA operates the Community Consultation Center (地域相談センター) and the Airport Information Center (空港情報センター). The Community Consultation Center is in the Chiyoda Branch of Shibayama-machi Community Center in Osato, Shibayama, while the Airport Information Center is located in Sanrizuka, Narita.\n\nExpansion and increased capacity",
"New Tokyo International Airport was originally envisioned to have five runways, but the initial protests in 1965 led to a down-scaling of the plan to three runways: two parallel northwest–southeast runways in length and an intersecting northeast–southwest runway in length. Upon the airport's opening in 1978, only one of the parallel runways was completed (16R/34L, also known as \"Runway A\"); the other two runways were delayed to avoid aggravating the already tense situation surrounding the airport",
". The original plan also called for a high-speed rail line, the Narita Shinkansen, to connect the airport to central Tokyo, but this project was also cancelled with only some of the necessary land obtained.",
"By 1986, the strengthening Japanese yen was causing a surge of foreign business and leisure travel from Japan, which made Narita's capacity shortage more apparent. However, eight families continued to own slightly less than of land on the site that would need to be expropriated in order to complete the other two runways. Although the government could legally force a sale of the land, it elected not to do so \"because of fears of more violence",
".\" By 1991, Narita was handling 22 million passengers a year, despite only having a design capacity of 13 million.",
"Terminal 2 and the second runway \"B\"\n\nOn November 26, 1986, the airport authority began work on Phase II, a new terminal and runway north of the airport's original main runway. To avoid the problems that plagued the first phase, the Minister of Transport promised in 1991 that the expansion would not involve expropriation. Residents in surrounding regions were compensated for the increased noise-pollution with home upgrades and soundproofing.",
"Terminal 2 opened on December 4, 1992, at a cost of $1.36 billion. The new terminal had approximately 1.5 times the space of the older terminal, but its anti-congestion benefits were delayed because of the need to close and renovate much of the older terminal. The airport's land situation also meant that the taxiway to the new terminal was one-way for much of its length, and that taxi times between the terminal and runway were up to 30 minutes.",
"The Runway B (16L/34R) opened on April 17, 2002, in time for the World Cup events held in Korea and Japan that year. However, its final length of , much shorter than its original plan length of , left it too short to accommodate Boeing 747s. The runway was further impeded by a three-story concrete building in the path of its taxiway, which the Union had constructed in 1966, forcing the taxiway to bend inward toward the runway",
". This imposed restrictions on the number of aircraft that could use the runway, since it was impossible for an aircraft to safely pass through the curve in the taxiway while another aircraft was using the runway. Runway B's limitations were made particularly apparent following the 2009 crash of FedEx Express Flight 80, which shut down Runway A and forced some heavy aircraft to divert to other airports such as nearby Tokyo Haneda Airport.",
"The Runway B was extended northward to on October 22, 2009, allowing an additional 20,000 flights per year. In 2008, the Supreme Court of Japan ruled in favor of the airport authority regarding ownership of Union-occupied land in the path of the taxiway, allowing the taxiway to be modified to provide enough room for safe passing",
". The building remained in place until August 2011, when authorities removed it under a court order; 500 police officers were dispatched to provide security for the operation while 30 airport opponents protested. Beginning on October 20, 2011, the airport was approved to allow simultaneous landings and take-offs from the A and B runways. The approval allowed the airport to increase annual take offs from 220,000 to 235,000 and increase hourly departure capacity from 32 to 46. The parallel runways are apart.",
"Transit upgrades\n\nSince its construction, Narita has been criticized for its distance from central Tokyo, with journeys taking an hour by the fastest train and often longer by road due to traffic jams. Narita's distance is even more problematic for residents and businesses in west Tokyo and Kanagawa Prefecture, both of which are much closer to Tokyo International Airport (Haneda Airport).",
"Through the end of the 1980s, Narita Airport's train station was located fairly far from the terminal, and passengers faced either a long walk or a bus ride (at an additional charge and subject to random security screenings)",
". Transport Minister Shintaro Ishihara, who later served as governor of Tokyo, pressed airport train operators JR East and Keisei Electric Railway to connect their lines directly to the airport's terminals, and opened up the underground station that would have accommodated the Shinkansen for regular train service. Direct train service to Terminal 1 began on March 19, 1991, and the old Narita Airport Station was renamed Higashi-Narita Station.",
"The Narita Rapid Railway opened on July 17, 2010, and shaved 20 minutes off the travel time. The line's new Skyliner express trains with a maximum speed of are scheduled between Tokyo's Nippori Station and Narita Airport Terminal 2·3 Station in 36 minutes, which compares favourably with other major airports worldwide. A new expressway, the North Chiba Road, is also under construction along the Narita Rapid Railway corridor",
". Improvements such as the Wangan Expressway also shaved off travel time to Kanagawa Prefecture by bypassing Tokyo.",
"The Japanese government has also invested in several local infrastructure projects in order to address the demands of airport neighbors. The largest of these is the Shibayama Railway, a short railway connection between the Keisei Main Line and the area immediately east of Narita Airport. This line opened in 2002 with government and NAA support after extensive demands from Shibayama residents, and provides a direct rail link from Shibayama to Narita City, Chiba City and central Tokyo",
". Another such project is the Museum of Aeronautical Sciences in Shibayama Town, which draws tourists and student groups to the area.",
"Future developments\n\nRunway B extension\nA further extension of the Runway B to has been under official consideration since 2014. Permitting for the extension was approved in January 2020. The final plan calls for the runway to be extended to the northwest, and requires a section of the Higashi-Kanto Expressway to be replaced with a tunnel beneath the runway; construction is scheduled to be complete in fiscal year 2028.",
"Runway C",
"The airport's original master plan also included a planned third \"C\" runway, which would be a crossing runway south of the passenger terminals. Although the majority of the land and equipment required in order to build the runway are under NAA's ownership, small portions of land needed to be accessed in order to build the runway are still blocked by airport protesters, and areas south of the South Wing of the terminal are being used as aircraft parking and storage",
". Noise abatement would also be an issue, especially since there are major towns such as Yachimata on the planned departure/arrival routes. Noise abatement negotiations would have to be worked through in order to use the runway, otherwise a Kai-Tak style approach would be necessary, which is less than favourable. For these following reasons, building work on the third \"C\" runway was finally aborted.",
"In March 2018, NAA released a new masterplan for expansion, which included a third \"Runway C\" on the east side of the airport to be completed by 2028. The new runway will increase the airport's annual slot capacity from 300,000 to 460,000. The runway project will enable the airport to extend the airport's operating hours to cover the period between 12:30 a.m. and 5:00 a.m. Local authorities agreed to the expansion plan after an 18-month process due to the need for further local revitalization",
". The final plan, approved in January 2020 and published in December 2021, calls for a runway on the east side of the airport, built over two underground road tunnels, with completion by fiscal year 2028.",
"Terminals \nIn September 2022, NAA announced a conceptual plan to consolidate the three existing terminals into a single facility called \"One Terminal.\" Plans had previously called for a fourth terminal building to be added in conjunction with the construction of Runway C, but due to the aging of the older terminals, NAA opted to plan for the replacement of the older terminals with new structures. The plans also call for a new cargo facility and upgraded transit links to central Tokyo.",
"Terminals\nNarita was among the first airports in the world to align its terminals around the three major international airline alliances. Since 2006, the airport has arranged for SkyTeam carriers to use the North Wing of Terminal 1, Star Alliance carriers to use the South Wing of Terminal 1, and Oneworld carriers to use Terminal 2.",
"Terminal 1\nTerminal 1 uses a satellite terminal design divided into a , , and a . Two circular satellites, Satellites 1 (gates 11–18) and 2 (gates 21–24), are connected to the North Wing. Satellites 3 and 4 (gates 26–38 and gates 41–47) compose a linear concourse connected to the Central Building. Satellite 5 (gates 51–58) is connected to the South Wing. The terminal building has a floorspace of and equipped with 40 gates.",
"Check-in is processed on the fourth floor, and departures and immigration control are on the third floor. Arriving passengers clear immigration on the second floor, then claim their baggage and clear customs on the first floor. Most shops and restaurants are located on the fourth floor of the Central Building. The South Wing includes a duty-free mall called \"Narita Nakamise\", one of the largest airport duty-free brand boutique mall in Japan.",
"The North Wing has served as an alliance hub for SkyTeam since 2007, and previously housed the Northwest Airlines hub, which was acquired by Delta Air Lines in 2010. Delta transferred all of its Tokyo operations from Narita to Haneda in March 2020. Other carriers in the North Wing are Aero Mongolia, Aircalin, Aurora Airlines, China Southern Airlines, El Al, Etihad Airways, Hong Kong Airlines, Jin Air, Peach Aviation international flights, Royal Brunei Airlines, Sichuan Airlines, WestJet and Zipair Tokyo.",
"The South Wing and Satellite 5 opened in June 2006 as a terminal for Star Alliance carriers. The construction of the South Wing took nearly a decade and more than doubled the floor area of Terminal 1. Today, almost all Star Alliance members, including Japan's All Nippon Airways, use this wing, along with non-members Air Busan, Air Seoul, Scoot, Shandong Airlines, and Uzbekistan Airways.\n\nANA and Peach domestic flights use a separate area of the terminal accessed from the arrivals floor of the South Wing.",
"Terminal 2",
"Terminal 2, which opened in 1992, is divided into a and , both of which are designed around linear concourses. The two were connected by the Terminal 2 Shuttle System, which was designed by Japan Otis Elevator and was the first cable-driven people mover in Japan. A new walkway between the main and satellite buildings began operation on September 27, 2013, and the shuttle system was discontinued. Terminal 2 can handle large aircraft like the Airbus A380 (operated by Emirates) and the Boeing 747-8",
". Terminal 2 has an area of and 32 boarding gates.",
"Terminal 2 includes a duty-free mall called \"\", the largest duty-free mall in Japan.\n\nFor domestic flights, three gates (65, 66, and 67) in the main building are connected to both the main departures concourse and to a separate domestic check-in facility. Passengers connecting between domestic and international flights must exit the gate area, walk to the other check-in area, and then check in for their connecting flight.",
"Japan Airlines is currently the main operator in T2. The terminal has served as a hub for all Oneworld alliance carriers at NRT since 2010, when British Airways moved from Terminal 1",
". Several other airlines also use the terminal, these are SkyTeam carriers China Airlines and China Eastern Airlines, as well as Star Alliance carrier Air India and connecting partner Juneyao Air and non-affiliated carriers Air Macau, Air Premia, Bamboo Airways, Batik Air Malaysia, Cebu Pacific, Eastar Jet, Emirates, Fly Gangwon, Greater Bay Airlines, Hainan Airlines, MIAT, Nepal Airlines, Pakistan International Airlines, Philippine Airlines, Starlux Airlines, Thai AirAsia X, Tigerair Taiwan, T'way Air",
", Philippine Airlines, Starlux Airlines, Thai AirAsia X, Tigerair Taiwan, T'way Air, and VietJet",
".",
"All Nippon Airways and several other Star Alliance carriers used Terminal 2 prior to the expansion of the Terminal 1 South Wing in 2006.",
"Terminal 3",
"Terminal 3, a terminal for low-cost carriers, opened on April 8, 2015. It is located north of Terminal 2, where a cargo building used to sit, and has a capacity of 50,000 flights per year",
". The new terminal incorporates several cost-cutting measures, including using decals instead of lighted directional signs and using outdoor gates and airstairs instead of jet bridges, which are intended to reduce facility costs for airlines and their passengers by around 40% on international flights and 15% on domestic flights. Taisei Corporation was awarded a ¥11.2 billion contract to build the terminal in January 2013",
". Taisei Corporation was awarded a ¥11.2 billion contract to build the terminal in January 2013. The airport also constructed a new LCC apron to the north of the terminal, with five additional parking slots for Airbus A320 and similarly sized aircraft.",
"Jeju Air, Jetstar, Jetstar Japan, Spring Airlines, and Spring Japan use Terminal 3. The terminal also includes a 24-hour food court, which is the largest airport food court in Japan, and a multi faith prayer room. It was built at a cost of 15 billion yen and covers of floor space.\n\nAirlines and destinations\n\nPassenger\n\nCargo\n\nStatistics\n\nBusiest routes\n\nAirport operation statistics\n\nNumber of passengers\n\nCargo volume (tons) \n\nSource: Japanese Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism",
"Cargo volume (tons) \n\nSource: Japanese Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism\n\nOther facilities\n\nAir traffic control towers",
"Other facilities\n\nAir traffic control towers\n\nThere are three air traffic control towers at Narita. The main control tower and one of the ramp control towers stand on the geographical center the airport, and another ramp tower is directly above Terminal 2. The main tower is used by Japan Civil Aviation Bureau's ATC, while the ramp towers are used by the NAA officers. The ramp control will be transferred to the brand new tower in 2020.",
"Jet fuel supply pipelines\nThe airport is connected by a pipeline to the port of Chiba City and to a fuel terminal in Yotsukaido. The pipeline opened in 1983, and had pumped 130 billion liters of fuel to Narita Airport by its thirtieth anniversary of operations in 2013.\n\nCorporate offices\nNippon Cargo Airlines (NCA) has its headquarters on the grounds of Narita Airport, in the . Previously NCA had its headquarters on the fourth floor of the ).",
"Japan Airlines operates the at Narita Airport. The subsidiary airline JALways once had its headquarters in the building. All Nippon Airways also has a dedicated \"Sky Center\" operations building adjacent to Terminal 1, which serves as the headquarters of ANA Air Service Tokyo, a ground handling provider that is a joint venture between ANA and the airport authority.",
"Airport hotels\nNRT has one on-site hotel, the Airport Rest House adjacent to Terminal 1. The hotel is operated by TFK, a company that also provides in-flight catering services from an adjacent flight kitchen facility. A capsule hotel opened adjacent to Terminal 2 in July 2014 in order to serve both transit passengers and passengers on early-morning low-cost carrier flights.",
"Museums\nThe Museum of Aeronautical Science is located on the south side of Narita Airport and has a number of aircraft on exhibit, including a NAMC YS-11 and a number of small piston aircraft.\n\nGround transportation\n\nRail",
"Ground transportation\n\nRail\n\nNarita Airport has two rail connections, with airport express trains as well as commuter trains running on various routes to Tokyo and beyond. Two operators serve the airport: East Japan Railway Company (JR East), and Keisei Electric Railway. Trains to and from the airport stop at Narita Airport Terminal 1 Station in Terminal 1 and Narita Airport Terminal 2·3 Station in Terminal 2.\n\nJR trains",
"Narita Express runs from the airport via the Narita and Sōbu lines to Tokyo Station. The trainsets divide at Tokyo, with one set looping clockwise around central Tokyo to the Shōnan–Shinjuku Line, stopping at Shibuya, Shinjuku, Ikebukuro, Ōmiya and/or Takao, while the other set proceeds south to Shinagawa, Yokohama and Ōfuna through the Yokosuka Line",
". Trains normally run non-stop between Narita Airport and Tokyo, but during rush hours they also stop at Narita, Sakura, Yotsukaidō and Chiba to accommodate commuters.",
"A rapid service train is the suburban JR service to the airport. It follows the same route to Tokyo Station but makes 15 intermediate stops en route, taking 80 min as opposed to the non-stop 55-min Narita Express. From Tokyo Station, most trains continue through the Yokosuka Line to Ōfuna, Zushi, Yokosuka and Kurihama in Kanagawa Prefecture. A single trip to Tokyo Station on this route costs ¥1,320.\n\n\"Green Car\" (first class) seats are available on both trains for an additional surcharge.",
"Keisei trains",
"Keisei operates two lines between Narita Airport and central Tokyo. The newer Keisei Narita Airport Line follows an almost straight path across northern Chiba Prefecture, while the older Keisei Main Line passes through the cities of Narita, Sakura and Funabashi. The lines converge at Keisei-Takasago Station in northeast Tokyo and then follow a common right-of-way to Nippori Station and Keisei Ueno Station, both located on the northeast side of the Yamanote Line that loops around central Tokyo.",
"Keisei operates a number of trains between the airport and Tokyo:\nSkyliner is the fastest train between the airport and the Yamanote Line. Travel time is 36 min to Nippori and 41 min to Keisei Ueno. Tokyo Station can be reached in 50 min with a transfer to the Yamanote Line. A single trip from the airport to Nippori Station costs ¥2,470, making the Skyliner one of the cheapest limited express train options between the airport and Tokyo.",
"Morningliner and Eveningliner trains respectively operate toward Tokyo in the morning and away from Tokyo in the evening, and make intermediate stops at , , , and to accommodate commuters. A single trip to Nippori Station on this route costs ¥1,440.",
"Access Express suburban trains run through the Narita Sky Access Line but with intermediate stops en route. A single trip from the airport to Nihombashi Station (on the Toei Asakusa Line) costs ¥1,330. Most Access Express trains run to Haneda Airport via the Toei Asakusa Line and Keikyu Main Line before 5pm, while after that most services run to Nippori and Keisei Ueno.",
"Limited Express suburban trains run through the Keisei Main Line. These are the cheapest and slowest trains between Narita and central Tokyo, reaching Nippori in 70–75 min and Keisei Ueno in 75–80 min. A single trip to Nippori Station on this route costs ¥1,030.\n\nAll seats are reserved on the express \"Liner\" services, while the suburban \"Express\" services use open seating.\n\nBus",
"Bus\n\nThere are regular bus (limousine) services to the Tokyo City Air Terminal in 55 minutes, and major hotels and railway stations in the greater Tokyo area in 35–120 minutes. These are often slower than the trains because of traffic jams. The chief operator of these services is Airport Transport Service under the \"Friendly Airport Limousine\" brand. Other operators include Keisei Bus, Chiba Kotsu and Narita Airport Transport.",
"There is also an overnight bus service to Kyoto and Osaka. Buses also travel to nearby US military bases, including Yokosuka Navy Base and Yokota Air Base.\n\nTaxi\nFixed rate taxi service to Tokyo, Kawasaki, Yokohama, Yokosuka, and Miura is available for 14,000 – 40,300 yen (expressway tolls, which cost 2,250 – 2,850 yen, are not included in the fixed fare, and need to be paid as a surcharge). Operated by Narita International Airport Taxi Council Members.",
"The main road link to Narita Airport connects to the Shuto Expressway network at Ichikawa, Chiba.\n\nHelicopter\nMori Building City Air Service offered a helicopter charter service between Narita and the Ark Hills complex in Roppongi, taking 35 minute and costing 280,000 yen each way for up to five passengers; however, the service was discontinued on December 1, 2015.",
"Transfer to/from Haneda Airport",
"Haneda Airport is approximately 1.5–2 hours from Narita Airport by rail or bus. By rail, the Keisei Electric Railway runs direct trains between Narita and Haneda in 101 minutes for ¥1740 as of May 2012. The Tokyo Monorail runs from Haneda to Hamamatsuchō Station in 15–20 minutes. A short transfer to a JR line train (e.g. Yamanote Line) to Tōkyō Station is required to connect to the Narita Express train to Narita airport. There are also direct buses between the airports operated by Airport Limousine Bus",
". There are also direct buses between the airports operated by Airport Limousine Bus. The journey takes 65–85 minutes or longer depending on traffic.",
"Accidents and incidents\n 1985: On June 22, a piece of luggage exploded while being transferred to Air India Flight 301, killing two baggage handlers and injuring four other staff. The luggage had originated at Vancouver International Airport. Fifty-five minutes later, another piece of luggage, also originating from Vancouver, exploded on Air India Flight 182, killing all on board.",
"1997: United Airlines Flight 826 experienced severe turbulence after leaving Narita en route for Honolulu. Due to injuries sustained by passengers, the aircraft made an emergency landing at Narita. One woman on the flight died of her injuries.",
"2003: January 27: All Nippon Airways Flight 908 (operated by Air Japan), a Boeing 767 aircraft arriving from Incheon International Airport, South Korea, overshot on Runway 16L/34R after landing. The runway was closed overnight due to necessary investigations and repairs. This was the first such incident of overrunning at Narita and an overnight closing to occur at the airport since its opening in 1978.",
"2009: On March 23, FedEx Express Flight 80, an MD-11 aircraft from Guangzhou Baiyun International Airport, China, crashed on Runway 16R/34L during landing, killing both the pilot and co-pilot. Runway 16R/34L, which is required for long-distance flights and heavier aircraft, was closed for a full day due to necessary investigations, repairs and removal of wreckage. This was the first fatal airplane crash to occur at the airport since its opening in 1978.",
"2018: On 5th June, a Korean Airways plane crash landed at Narita airport. The landing gear actually collapsed and there was smoke and flames. There were no fatalities. On July 31, Air Canada Flight 5, a Boeing 787–8 (reg: C-GHPV) aircraft from Montréal-Trudeau International Airport, entered a closed taxiway upon landing on Runway 16L/34R",
". No injuries were reported on this incident, but the aircraft was stuck for over five hours, as well as the incident resulting in Runway 16L/34R being closed for over 6 hours.",
"Current issues",
"Competitiveness",
"Complaints over slots and landing fees have plagued the busy airport. Because so many airlines want to use it, the Japanese aviation authorities extend use time for Narita International Airport until midnight, and cut cost by denationalization. In 2004, New Tokyo International Airport Authority (NAA) was privatized and turned into Narita International Airport Corporation (NIAC)",
". Narita's landing fees were once more than double of those of Incheon International Airport (¥195,000 in November 2012), Changi Airport, and Shanghai Pudong International Airport (¥170,000 in November 2012). In 2014, the policy of Open skies was implemented. Airlines can increase or decrease the number of its flights freely, and Narita's landing fees were cut by up to 50%.",
"LCC service\nIn October 2010, Narita announced plans to build a new terminal for low-cost carriers (LCCs) and to offer reduced landing fees for new airline service, in an attempt to maintain its competitiveness against Haneda Airport.",
"In July 2011, ANA and AirAsia announced that they would form a low-cost carrier subsidiary, AirAsia Japan, based at Narita. Later in 2011, JAL and Jetstar Asia announced a similar low-cost joint venture, Jetstar Japan, to be based at Narita. Skymark Airlines opened a domestic base at Narita in November 2011, and by February 2012 was operating 70 departures per week from NRT. Skymark cited the lower fees at NRT as a key reason for this move",
". Skymark cited the lower fees at NRT as a key reason for this move. Spring Airlines Japan, an LCC partly owned by Spring Airlines, plans to begin service in 2014 with NRT as its primary base.",
"Narita's restricted hours, congestion and landing fees have caused difficulties for LCCs operating at the airport. On Jetstar Japan's first day of operations in July 2012, a departing flight was delayed on the tarmac for one hour, forcing a cancellation. Less than two weeks later, a departing Jetstar Japan flight from Narita to New Chitose Airport was significantly delayed such that the return flight to Narita using the same aircraft could not arrive before the 11 PM curfew, forcing another cancellation",
". LCCs at Narita currently use the corner of Terminal 2, which is farthest from Runway A, often requiring a long taxi time.",
"See also\n\n Chōfu Airport\n Haneda Airport\n Ibaraki Airport\n Transport in Greater Tokyo\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\nHistorical and political\n \"Editorial – Narita fiasco: never again,\" The Japan Times, July 26, 2005\n Stephan Hauser, \"Field of dreams – filled with concrete,\" Tokyo Journal, Feb. 2000\n Appeal to Stop Use of the Second Runway at Narita Airport",
"1978 establishments in Japan\nTransport in Chiba Prefecture\nAirports in Japan\nTransport in the Greater Tokyo Area\nBuildings and structures in Chiba Prefecture\nAirports established in 1978\nReal estate holdout\nTransport in Narita, Chiba\nBuildings in Narita City"
] |
Vattisen Yaly
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vattisen%20Yaly
|
[
"Vattisen Yaly (, Ancestral traditions) is a contemporary revival of the ethnic religion of the Chuvash people, a Turkic ethnicity of Bulgar ancestry mostly settled in the republic of Chuvashia and surrounding federal subjects of Russia.",
"Vattisen Yaly could be categorised as a particular form of Tengrism, a related revivalist movement of Central Asian traditional religion. However, Vattisen Yaly differs significantly from other forms of Tengrism in that the Chuvash have been heavily influenced by Finnic and Slavic cultures as well as those of other Indo-European speaking ethnicities (they were also never fully Islamised, unlike most other Turkic peoples)",
". Their religion shows many similarities with Finnic and Slavic Paganisms; moreover, the revival of \"Vattisen Yaly\" in recent decades has occurred following Neopagan patterns. Today the followers of the Chuvash Traditional Religion are called \"the true Chuvash\". Their main god is Tura, a deity comparable to the Estonian Taara, the Germanic Thunraz and the pan-Turkic Tengri.",
"The Chuvash traditional religion boasts an unbroken continuity from pre-Christian times, having been preserved in a few villages of the Chuvash diaspora outside Chuvashia until modern times. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, together with the demise of the Soviet Union, a cultural and national revival blossomed among the Chuvash, and its leaders gradually embraced the idea of a return to indigenous Paganism, as did Chuvash intellectuals",
". The Chuvash identity movement looked to movements in the Baltic states for inspiration.",
"The national movement, meanwhile embodied in a Chuvash National Congress, carried on its \"national religion\" idea during the 1990s. Intellectuals started to recover and codify ancient rituals and started practicing them among the population both in cities and countryside villages, declaring themselves the guardians of tradition and the descendants of elder priests.",
"Groups",
"In the mid-1990s, the proponents of the movement felt that to fulfill the role of a \"national religion\" and stand against world religions and cultural assimilation, Vattisen Yaly should be reconstructed and reformulated in institutional forms. A variety of groups emerged dedicated to the goal of reviving the Chuvash religion. A lot of publications on the religion appeared, and artists and sculptors joined academic scholars in the creation of models for the construction of ritual-ceremonial complexes",
". Periodic prayers were introduced in public life by one of the groups, and it gave the religion the name of , which apparently comes from the Chuvash word , meaning \"yellow\". In Chuvash culture , is an epithet of the Sun.",
"Arguments emerged among the groups and factions over matters such as theology and national organisation of the religions. For instance, Iosif Dimitriev (Trer), an artist and enthusiastic follower of the religion and member of the \"Chuvash National Religion\" group, supports a tritheistic view centered on the god Tura, a mother goddess Ama, and a begotten god who is Tura reborn, and an organisation similar to that of the Catholic Church. V",
". V. Stan'ial, another influential intellectual of the same group, stands for a monistic view with god Tura as the main god and other gods as his manifestations, and an organisational model based on a traditional or national religious leader, and an or guardian of the faith in every town.",
"Another group is (meaning \"believer in the god Tura\"), started by F. Madurov, which favours a nature religion approach and a pantheistic worldview, asserting that the goal of Chuvash religion is the \"unity and harmony of nature, mankind and Tura\". The core of Madurov's position is the concept of the , the world tree, and the myth of Tura reborn in a tree growing from ashes, symbolizing the rebirth of man through nature.",
"The are also sacred trees and traditional worship sites spread on Chuvash lands. The immediate goals of the Turas group is the creation of spiritual revival complexes on the sites of the , and to turn them into cultural monuments and natural preserves.",
"Another phenomenon is the spontaneous revival of traditional village festivals (). On these occasions, reconstructed prayers and blessings (, ) are performed along with ritual sacrifices. Such rituals are connected to community and family life, often involving rites of passage such as weddings, births, and anniversaries.",
"Religion and Faith",
"Chuvash mythology and traditional religion - a complex of views, beliefs and cults of the Chuvash, many features of mythology and religion among unbaptized Chuvash are preserved in our time, including traditional burial rites, a system of holidays and rituals",
". The traditional religion among the unbaptized Chuvash is called the “custom of the ancestors” (vattisen yăli), as well as “tӗne” (world order), and its adherents are called “true Chuvashs” (chăn chăvash), believers in they called Islam tutar tĕni (Tatar worldview), Christianity they called vyrăs tĕni (Russian worldview) they call non-believers \"tĕne kĕmen\" - \"those who did not enter the world\"",
". Etymology The word \"Tĕne\" refers to the Chinese 天 \"Tian\" and the word Tĕncheri Tură (Creator of Heaven) to the Turkic God Tengri ( 𐱅𐰭𐰼𐰃 *teŋri).",
"Gods and spirits \nIn Chuvash mythology, according to V.K. Magnitsky, there were more than 210 gods and spirits of different ranks and functions devoted to them. They inhabited heaven, earth and the underworld. D. Meszaros pointed out about Chuvash monotheism, all the rest were only spirits (small creators).",
"The Chuvashs have only one main creator of \"Tĕncheri Tură\" - the Universal God, he is the creator of the world. He has many names and epithets, he is also called: the Supreme God (Şülti Tură), the Great God (Măn Tură), the God of the blue sky (Kăvak Tĕneri Tură), the One God (Pĕr Tĕncheri Tură), the Elder God (Aslă Tură) and Senior Father (Aslachi) and Father (Aşa). Initially, the word Aşa in the Chuvash language meant father heaven, and Ama meant mother earth",
". Initially, the word Aşa in the Chuvash language meant father heaven, and Ama meant mother earth. After that, everything in the world had a father and a mother, like yin and yang. All other small tură (creators) only serve him and are spirits (shiv turri - the creator of water, syvlash turri - the creator of air)",
". In fact, the Chuvashs do not have the concept of God, as such, rather, it is inherent in other peoples, the Chuvashs have the concept of only spirit creators, according to the Chuvash beliefs, everything that exists on earth and in heaven has its own creator spirits (tură) in the form father and mother, with no way to explain natural and physical phenomena, the occurrence of certain chemical processes, they attributed to this the term \"tură\" - \"creator\"",
". For example, \"Hĕvel amăshĕ\" and \"Hĕvel ashshĕ\" - the mother and father of the sun, a dualistic term for the emergence of all things was attributed to all things and phenomena. The rest of the characters are borrowed from the folklore of neighboring peoples: Vupăr - from the Russian Upyr (eng. Vampire), Albasta - Tatar \"Al bas\" (strangler), Shuitan - Arab \"Satan\" and so on. Kind:Tură - translated Creator (from Turĕ)",
"Tĕncheri Tură (Aslo Aşa) - the Creator of the Universe (world), the highest and most important in the pantheon (he has many epithets).\n\nAma (Kuk amay) - Goddess mother, mother earth, god of fertility, patroness of women and children (Turk. Umai)\n\nKebe - god distributor of fates (sometimes Kawaba - umbilical cord)\n\nPihampar - the god protector (patron), endows people with good qualities, sends prophetic visions; (fig. white wolf - prince of wolves)",
"Pyulekhsche - a savior, a keeper, a seer, gives people an unlucky or happy lot, the god of luck.\n\nSurlan - northern lights, childbearing kite, distributes the souls of babies\n\nIrih - the spirit of the guardian of the clan, family; the legacy of ancestors\n\nPireshti - good spirit, angel (translated as: faceless, without image)\n\nKhertsurt - Warming house, keeper of the hearth.\n\nKherle shyr is a kind spirit living in heaven, on the edge of the earth.",
"Kherle shyr is a kind spirit living in heaven, on the edge of the earth.\n\nVite husi - the owner of the barnHarmful:Uzal - the spirit of all evil in the world\n\nAlbasta - an evil creature in the form of a woman with four breasts (from Tat.)\n\nArzyuri - spirit, master of the forest, goblin\n\nVubar - an evil spirit, a ghoul, sent diseases, attacked a sleeping person (from Russian ghoul)\n\nWoodash - an evil spirit that lives in water (from Russian water)\n\nKele - is an evil spirit.",
"Woodash - an evil spirit that lives in water (from Russian water)\n\nKele - is an evil spirit.\n\nWupkan - is an evil spirit that sends diseases, invisible or in the form of a dog.\n\nEsrel - the spirit of death\n\nShuitan - Satan\n\nSekhmet - is the god of anger, wind, misfortune and misfortune. (Chuvash-Russian Dictionary of Nikolsky p.170)\n\nTecmele - the name of the spirit\n\nKhurachun - the owner of the black soul, darkness, cold and gloom",
"Iye - spirit, brownie, living in baths, mills, abandoned houses, barns, etc.IdolYĕrĕkh - a clay doll, according to the traditional beliefs of the Chuvash, this is the deity guardian of the hearth and family, in translation it means \"ancestral heritage\". It was presented mainly in a female form, more often as an invisible one. He was given a place to live - Yĕrĕkh pĕrni: a basket hung at a height inaccessible to children in a hut or other buildings, more often in a corner of the hut",
". The main requirement of the deity is a peaceful life in the family and society, the reproduction of the family and its protection. Typical was the prayer of Yorekh in the ancestral home. It was always given to girls getting married. So the erechs were passed down from generation to generation for centuries, so as not to lose touch with the roots, with the family, so that the ancestors protected the family. He was fed gruel and bread when family members were sick.",
"In some ethnographic groups, the Chuvash - Yĕrĕha was considered the first son of the god Tĕncheri Tură, from which he was given the following name: Heir. In honor of him, temples were built under the name \"Yrsamay\", which was later called \"Keremet\" during the Golden Horde and the Islamic period. It was believed that the son of Tură, whom the Chuvash called Yĕrĕkh, could punish for extra worry",
". It was believed that the son of Tură, whom the Chuvash called Yĕrĕkh, could punish for extra worry. Therefore, in the so-called Yrsamai (Keremet) sanctuaries, it was impossible to make noise, come with dirty thoughts, swear, or disturb for no reason. Instigated by Usal (Evil), people killed him and burned him. In order to hide what they had done from God, the ashes were scattered to the wind, and yrsamay (kiremet) were formed everywhere",
". Keremet (Arabic word) and Yrsamay (in Chuvash) is only the name of a temple, a prayer place, but in Russian in the source of the monuments that Keremet was a god - which was a mistake.",
"Yĕrĕkh was originally an image of the Turkic Erlik, one of the creators of the earth, many years later, with the advent of Christianity and the adoption of Orthodoxy by the Chuvash, he was renamed Shuitan (Satan). Christian missionaries considered the Chuvash idols to be pagan demons. After that, the Chuvashs began to get rid of the Yĕrĕhs and float them down a stream or river.",
"Following the example of Tĕncheri Tură, his son Yĕrĕkh also began to equip the land, to repeat after father, they were the first to create trees and grasses.",
"The Almighty Tură created beautiful trees and said: they will ripen various seeds, which will be scattered all over the world with the help of the wind and will sprout where they fall. Seeds ripened and scattered around the world. They sprouted into the most beautiful flowers and herbs, the most beautiful shrubs and trees, amazing and delicious fruits ripened on them, they were fragrant with delicious aromas. Yĕrĕhu also wanted to follow the example of his father and make his contribution to the universe",
". Yĕrĕhu also wanted to follow the example of his father and make his contribution to the universe. Tura at that time was creating Rowan. Yĕrĕh began to spy on his older brother. He looks, and the flowers are white, and the leaves are beautiful, and the berries are red. He wanted to do the same! He twists and turns, but the trees do not turn out beautiful like his brother's",
". It looks like it, but the flowers do not smell so delicious, the trunk is not so powerful and tall, the leaves stick together, and the berries are bitter-bitter ... Since then, the herbs and trees created by Yĕreh, unfortunately, have only thorns and bad properties. They have no fruits, and if they do, they are poisonous. So, according to the ideas of the Chuvash, good trees and bad trees appeared. Mythical creaturesAstakha",
"Ashapatman\n\nVery Sĕlen\n\nPireshti\n\nShorgons\n\nKuygarash\n\nSemrukConstellationsThe name of the constellations may differ for different groups of Chuvash.\n\nMount Aramazi - from it the Chuvash descended to earth along the rainbow (Asamat kepere)\n\nSurlan - northern lights (god of birth)\n\nUša (Aşa, Ulçebi, Тĕne Tĕnelĕ) - polar star (staff of Tĕncheri Tură)\n\nYuman - orion (tree of kind)\n\nYuman pisĕkhi - Orion's belt (Chuvash poles and keremets are tied with a towel in the middle)",
"Yuman pisĕkhi - Orion's belt (Chuvash poles and keremets are tied with a towel in the middle)\n\nPăshi (lashi) - Elk (sometimes Horse) / Big Dipper\n\nAvtan (akăsh) - Rooster (sometimes Swan) / Ursa Minor\n\nKăvakal yăvi - Duck's Nest (Pleiades)\n\nChulpan (Shuşămpuş) - the planet Venus\n\nAnd - rowan bush, ducks, swallow, raven, cuckoo, lion bird, and others.",
"And - rowan bush, ducks, swallow, raven, cuckoo, lion bird, and others.\n\nMigratory birds winter near Tĕncheri Tură. Most of all, he loves the swallow (constellation), which fearlessly nests under his very staff, while other birds (constellations) stay away from him. In accordance with this, the Milky Way was also called the \"road of the birds\"; birds (constellations) went to winter in this Milky Lake.",
"Ulyp was chained to Mount Aramazi (from the Chuvash Yrămaş - Paradise), corresponds to the constellation Orion.",
"The constellation of mountain ash is also an important element and a cult among the Chuvash. Rowan, in general, is considered one of the most characteristic trees for the Chuvash people. It is very important that it grows within the boundaries of each house. Mountain ash was especially revered by riding Chuvash. They planted it right in the garden. This is due to the fact that the tree was created by Tura himself. So it is sacred. Can consecrate the area in which it is located",
". So it is sacred. Can consecrate the area in which it is located. It can block the path of all evil creatures and people with evil thoughts. at the first pasture of cattle, animals are driven with rowan branches. Previously, animals were chased out with rowan rods and forced to cross over the poker. Rowan berries were placed in the foundation of the house. A wedding structure “Shilĕk” was created from young mountain ash, etc. Rowan was actively used in folk medicine",
". Rowan was actively used in folk medicine. The Chuvash appreciated its flowers, berries and bark. Rowan branches were also obligatorily used at weddings, decorating the yard with them. In the past, rowan groves grew on sacred shrine sites, as the rowan provided magical protection. Clusters of mountain ash are hung at the entrance to the cattle pen and at the door lintel, or planted at the gate to protect themselves from the evil eye and damage",
". Rowan beads are considered the strongest remedy for any alien witchcraft. Rowan was also used to protect small children and babies from the evil eye and damage. Chuvash for this purpose put on a child a necklace of mountain ash. Protective runes were usually cut on rowan wood. A shaky (săpka) was hung to a pole from a flexible and durable young trunk of Rowan. A tincture was made from its bark, frozen berries were eaten after burning, it increases resistance to oxygen starvation",
". There was a belief that the supreme god Tĕncheri Tură found refuge from his enemies on Rowan. According to some beliefs, she is a distant ancestor of the first sacred tree of goodness on Earth, which withered with the advent of evil forces on our planet. At the end of the rite of public sacrifice Uchuk, boys and teenagers cut rowan rods with which they beat the walls of buildings in order to expel evil spirits from there",
". In the rite \"Sĕren\" for the same purpose, they went around the huts with freshly cut rods of Rowan, whipped households, clothes, buildings, inventory, cattle. Rowan leaves and branches were also used as elements protecting against spoilage, the leaves were stabbed into the hair and attached to the bride's headdress. A rowan amulet in the form of a hammer or a trident (Symbols of Tĕncheri Tură) was worn as a talisman against evil spirits (goblin, vulture, etc.) and corruption (evil eye)",
".) and corruption (evil eye). For the \"liberation\" of the Moon (lunar eclipse), a split forked branch of Rowan was thrown from the mouth of the spirit of Vubyr to the sky. It was believed that a plentiful harvest of Rowan fruits precedes a difficult year for children. If you stand under a mountain ash, then lightning will not strike you. You can’t cut down a mountain ash, otherwise your family will disappear.",
"The name of the constellations in dialects may differ.",
"Priests",
"Yrămsă , Yumsă, Machavar - - people with mythical power; among the people he was called a miracle creator, sage, prophetic, healer, sorcerer, benefactor, etc. His actions aimed at achieving goodness were presented as the creation of a microcosm and were accompanied by spells, incantations, hymns-recitatives. Their text often contained the formula for calling Ash, which was repeated 3, 5, 7, 9 times, which was associated with ideas about the magical power of odd numbers",
". The number of repetitions of the formula depended on the strength of the desire to achieve the goals. In the practice of priests, during sacrificial ceremonies, they played with the creations of the world, and for healing people they used a dualistic system, a system of counting and four elements (earth and air, fire and water)",
". If the goal of the healer is to cure a person, return him to our world, make sure that he can function calmly and without obstacles and fulfill his duties in the Light-Middle World. The healer must return him, dying, to the kingdom of the living, to create life again. Return the world of a specific, individual person to the number of seventy-seven worlds. Therefore, he starts from the very beginning: he pronounces the sequence of the creation of the world. But words alone are not enough",
". But words alone are not enough. This whole process still needs to be beaten. He begins to create fire (stone against stone, ignites herbs and mushrooms), begins to spray the patient with the purest spring water, blows on him (creates wind) and pours all the dirt into the ground (she gave birth, she will take away). All these phenomena are the primary elementals, the foundations of our universe.",
"Kelepuse - head of prayers, assistant priest.\n\nTuhatmăsh - witch\n\n Temple \nThe Chuvash went to pray at their temples, which were called Yrsamay (Keremet) - according to the Chuvash, this is a miniature version of the universe. It comes from the word \"yră - good, good\" suffix -sam (plural) and the Turkic suffix -ay \"holy\" (approx. Aya Sophia - saint). The word \"Keremet\" has a similar translation from Arabic. کرامة “karamat” is a miracle.",
"Usha yubi (Ulchepi, Ulche yubi) - The Chuvash considered the kitchen to be the main place in the house and called it \"tĕpel\" (the main place) it served as an atrium, there they put a \"pillar of Usha\" in front of the stove. The most ancient version, about which information has been preserved, was a hollow pillar",
". The most ancient version, about which information has been preserved, was a hollow pillar. It was placed under the mat in the front corner of the stove in the middle of the hut, from it under the ceiling at a level higher than human height, to the front and side walls, there were crossbeams (bast kashta) and a bench [ear (osh) puççi or kămak sakki] cut into the stoves",
". Under the ear of the jubilee is the cellar \"Tăpsakai\" - a symbol of the earth, harvest and fertility, responsible for the growth and maturation of cereals, seeds (vărlăkh) were buried there. From Ush yupi, the hut was conditionally divided into parts: front (tĕpel-kitchen) and back (alăk kukri), left (male) and right (female) halves. Usha Yubi is the messenger of God, the connection with God, the conductor of the souls of the dead",
". Usha Yubi is the messenger of God, the connection with God, the conductor of the souls of the dead. Through it, the Chuvash connect with their spirits of dead ancestors and with the gods, through it passes the connection between all the worlds - the upper, middle, lower. According to the Chuvash mythological legends, the dwelling was a miniature model of the universe",
". According to the Chuvash mythological legends, the dwelling was a miniature model of the universe. Usha yubi symbolized the axis of the world (tĕnche tĕnĕlĕ), according to legend, Tĕncheri Tură (Creator of the universe) stuck 5 pillars between heaven and earth to separate the upper and middle worlds. The first 4 pillars were installed along the edges of the earth and the Ulypy giants held it with their backs, and the main fifth central golden pillar Usha yubi (in",
". Ulchebi, Tĕp yuba) was the main one, connecting all three worlds and holding \"kăvak huppi\" - \"blue cover\" in the form of a tukhya (dome), its top can be seen every morning, ear vĕşĕ - Venus. Near him, prayers were uttered for well-being in the house. During prayers, as well as during night vigils, a lit candle was attached to Usha near the body of the deceased, which symbolized the star of the morning dawn of Usha, the fire of the candle was maintained until dawn",
". A clean towel was hung on the Usha yubi (sometimes tied in the middle) during the funeral (it was believed that the soul of the deceased was wiped off when leaving the house), the newlywed during the wedding ceremony hung a towel in honor of Pirĕshti.",
"Tĕp yuba - this pillar was located in the corner of the front part of the garden (sometimes the outermost pillar of the gate) from the side of the street, symbolized one of the pillars of the earth and sky, had the same function as Usha yubi, during çimek all the sacrificial food collected in cast irons, the heirs of the clan carried out and poured out, poured to this pillar, served as an altar.",
"Yerekh Kĕtesĕ - The corner of the erech, for the Chuvash, the corners are considered holy, since the ocean erodes the shores of the earth, and when the waters reach the center, the end of the world will come, in connection with this, the Chuvash have always strongly protected the corners, even on embroideries, like a talisman. Therefore, in the front corner of the house, a basket of Erekhom (a doll of the spirit of ancestors) was placed, which was supposed to protect the clan, home and family",
". After baptism, they were replaced with icons.",
"World structure",
"Chuvash paganism is characterized by a multi-tiered view of the world. The world consisted of three parts and seven layers: a three-layer upper world, one-layer our world and a three-layer lower world",
". In the ancient beliefs of the Chuvashs, the Earth was square in shape on 4 cardinal points (north, south, west, east), the world ocean surrounded it from all sides, the earth was covered with an eggshell dome in the form of Tukhya (Chuvash headdress), another group of Chuvashs had the Earth covered with a tent (yurt) and it had 8 corners",
". In the center of the earth was the axis of the world - God's staff, the golden central pillar which was thrust by the god \"Măn Tură (Aslă Aşa)\" himself, he did this in order to separate heaven and earth when he created the world in his forge. On the four sides, along the edges of the earthly square, the firmament was supported by four pillars: silver, bronze, copper and iron. In every corner stood guard over the earth and human life, wonderful heroes who held the pillars with their powerful armor",
". On the tops of these pillars there were nests, in them there were three eggs, on the eggs - ducks. After that, the central pillar blossomed into a tree, took root in the ground and the branches rested in the sky. In the center of the earth was the world mountain Aramazi, on its top the age-old Yuman oak grows with roots connecting the lower world and branches of the upper worlds, this is a symbol of the Chuvash family - the tree of ancestors, connecting dead and living descendants",
". The Chuvashs believed that they lived in the center of the world on Mount Aramazi, but because of the great flood they were forced to descend along the rainbow to the earth, here they created their temples in this image and called it Yrsamai - Miracle, Holy Good, Paradise. Now every Chuvash plant a tree of his ancestors and pray to him.",
"Beliefs",
"The supreme god Tĕncheri Tură (Aslă Aşa) was in the uppermost world. He ruled the universe. Metal lightning and thunder, controlled rain. When a person died, his soul went up a narrow bridge (shinawat), passing to a rainbow, and ascended to the upper world. And if he was sinful, then, without passing through the narrow bridge (shinavat), the human soul fell into a ravine into the lower world (tamăk)",
". They believed that the shores of the earth were washed by the oceans, raging waves constantly destroy the shores. Therefore, the Chuvash were convinced that \"When the edge of the earth reaches the center of the earth where the Chuvash live, the end of the world will come, after which God will forge a new world.\" Also, by the end of the world, people will decrease in height, they used to say the Chuvash were giants",
". As a talisman against the end of the world, they embroidered amulets on clothes, carved them on utensils. They transmitted their legends and myths orally, through songs.",
"World creation",
"According to mythopoetic songs, the world was created by two ducks \"Chămka kăvakal\" (Podiceps cristatus) who dived into the oceans and got silt from the bottom, so a floating nest was built by one duck, and the second duck hid the earth in its beak, which it vomited up as a result, mountains and hills appeared from it. The world was created on Monday, the earth was created on Tuesday, man was molded on Wednesday, Thursday is a sacred day",
". The first giant man was molded by Tură from clay, the water became his blood, and the wind became his breath, the fire strengthened his bones and his name was Atăm (in the translation of Clay), the second man in his own image was blinded by Yĕrĕh himself, since he was sad, but so as he had no experience in the creation of man, he made a mistake and blinded a crooked figure from which the first woman Yăva (translated as Nest) appeared",
". Since then, the Chuvash have called ducks Kăvakal - which means \"Blue hand\" (heavenly). The symbol of other peoples is an amulet \"hamsa\" (Arabic: خمسة, romanized: khamsa).",
"The division of the world:\n\nAşa and Ama - two elements and the progenitor of everything in the world, translated as father and mother, male and female, masculine and feminine.",
"AŞA [azya] (kuk aşey, aslaşi) aka Tĕnçeri Tură (Creator of the Universe, Heaven) - in the pre-Christian beliefs of the Chuvash, the progenitor of all things, the spouse of Ama, the supreme god (God of Heaven). The image has a pronounced archaic character. Once he ascended to heaven with a terrible roar and remained there. In the hierarchy of the gods and their subordination, it occupies the first place. In the power of Aşa are çiçĕm (lightning) and tankăra (thunder)",
". In the power of Aşa are çiçĕm (lightning) and tankăra (thunder). The first makes it shine and illuminate the earth, the second makes it rattle (knock). In his intentions, he acts as the patron and protector of Ama (Goddess of the Earth), all noble creatures and a person who lives with kind and pure thoughts. At the same time, he also has a militancy. In an effort to destroy the demon, Aşa can also strike a sinless person, because. the first in a thunderstorm always tries to be close to the Good",
". the first in a thunderstorm always tries to be close to the Good. Everything that exists on earth is divided into two parts: one half belongs to Ama, the other to Aşa (Aşa vut - fire A., Aşa shyv - water A., etc.).",
"AMA (kuk amai) - in Chuvash mythology, it acts as the mother of all things as the Turkic Umai. The cult of Ama is similar to the ideas of many ancient religions. The image is not singled out in tangible, concrete details. Its location in one version is a huge space; existed forever. In the other, she was on the ground, next to her was Aşa",
". In the other, she was on the ground, next to her was Aşa. Ama is renounced from any actions, Aşa, on the contrary, rises up with noise and roar during the creation of the world [The sky breaks away from the Earth (It takes with it everything that is on earth: water, fire, stones, etc.]. After the separation of Aşa from Ama, the axis of the world (Aşa yupi) is built - the reproductive organ of Aşa and support pillars at 4 corners of a square and flat earth",
". Mothers of all creatures (females) were formed from Ama, even in nature (Shyv amăshĕ - the mother of Water, Vut amăshĕ - the mother of Fire, Ana amăshĕ - the mother of Arable land), the supreme gods themselves (Tură amăshĕ - the mother of Tură, Pÿlĕh amăshĕ - the mother of Pÿlĕh) and evil spirits.",
"Tĕnçeri Tură made any creation from clay. Therefore, both man and other living beings are based on clay. Sat, they say, somehow, Tĕnçeri Tură on the bank of a large river. He saw a heap of sticky clay. He pinched off a piece and began to sculpt some form. He turned out to be a wonderful human (man). Tura created man in the image of the world itself. The material from which the world is created is the earth. Human blood is water, hair is grass, bones are stones, body is earth",
". Human blood is water, hair is grass, bones are stones, body is earth. Yĕrĕh saw his creation and decided to create the same. But no matter how hard he tried, he managed to create only a woman. Tĕnçeri Tură created a dog (jytă) and ordered it to guard the first man. And Yĕrĕh created a cat. A person consists of several elements: çun, tăn, üt, yun (soul, consciousness, flesh, blood). God blew the first breath into a person - that's why it is called Vĕre (Aura) - a breath in translation.",
"Tĕnçeri Tură decided to create an amazing animal. He took the best clay in his hands and worked on his creation for three days and three nights. By dawn, he had a kind, beautiful cow. With gentle and good treatment, she gave delicious milk in large quantities. God was very pleased with his creation. He shared his joy with brother Yĕrĕh. Yĕreh was inspired by this work by Tĕnçeri Tură when he saw a cow. He decided that he could do the same! Unfortunately, no matter what he did, he still failed",
". He decided that he could do the same! Unfortunately, no matter what he did, he still failed. He already put the cow in front of him: he blinded the head, and the horns, and the body, and the udder ... But instead of “muuuuuk”, she said “meeek”, and when Yĕrĕkh wanted to stroke his “cow”, she began to butt him, so the Goat appeared … People have nicknamed this animal: “Cow Yĕrĕha”.",
"Tĕnçeri Tură had a lot of ideas, so next time he decided to create an extremely cute, kind, but very useful animal. For five days and nights he worked on it, and by dawn he had a lamb. She gave wool, milk, brought a large offspring, and was also distinguished by very tasty meat. Yĕrĕhu also liked this animal very much. He also wanted to do something similar. And the body is small, and the hooves are beautiful, and the tail is curly ... He tried, tried, but his animal turned out bald all the time",
"... He tried, tried, but his animal turned out bald all the time. He couldn't make it beautiful. It turned out to be a pretty cute animal: a pig. She grunted sweetly when Yĕrĕh stroked the pig. But at some point, the pig bit off Yĕrĕhu's finger and ate it. She, it turns out, eats meat.",
"Therefore, Chuvash people do not use goat and pig meat in traditional prayers, in remembrance of the dead and in other important ceremonies.",
"Vegetation was created in the same way. Tĕnçeri Tură created trees with tasty and healthy fruits, and Yĕrĕkh with bitter and poisonous ones. Tĕnçeri Tură created beautiful trees. He was the first to create the \"Golden Poplar\" and said: various magical seeds will ripen on it, which, with the help of the wind, will scatter around the world and sprout where they fall. They will give many good plants and fruits. The seeds ripened and scattered around the world",
". They will give many good plants and fruits. The seeds ripened and scattered around the world. They sprouted with the most beautiful flowers and herbs, the most beautiful shrubs and trees, amazing and delicious fruits ripened on them, they were fragrant with the most delicious aromas. Since then, the Chuvash have called all Turks the word \"tĕrĕk - poplar\" (that is, those praying, worshiping the poplar). According to the etymology of the words tĕrĕk (tÿrĕk) means straight (tree)",
". According to the etymology of the words tĕrĕk (tÿrĕk) means straight (tree). Yĕrĕh also wanted to follow his brother's example and contribute to the universe. Tura at that time created Rowan. Yĕrĕh began to spy on his father. He looks, and the flowers are white, and the leaves are beautiful, and the berries are red. He wanted to do the same! He turns and turns, but the trees don't turn out as beautiful as his father's",
". It looks like it, but the flowers do not smell so delicious, the trunk is not so powerful and tall, the leaves stick together, and the berries are bitter-bitter... Since then, the herbs and trees created by Yĕrĕh, unfortunately, have only thorns and bad properties. They do not have fruits, and if they do, they are poisonous. So, according to the ideas of the Chuvash, good trees and bad trees appeared.",
"Holidays \nMoon Kun - \"Great day\" (creation of the world according to Chuvash beliefs)\n\nAka Tuy - \"Sowing wedding\" (the wedding of heaven and earth, the plow represents intercourse) \n\nVyrma - Harvest. It was a tense and difficult, but at the same time a very responsible period in the annual labor cycle of a farmer. Bread is the crown of all peasant labor.",
"Avon (Avăn) is a polysemantic word. This is a threshing. This holiday was accompanied by many obligatory rituals due to the great importance of grinding bread. It was especially pleasant, solemn for the peasants. Threshing is just as exciting as harvesting.\n\nChuk - is a sacrifice\n\nUchuk - the common prayer of the Chuvash people (uy-khir chukĕ - sacrifice in the field)",
"Uchuk - the common prayer of the Chuvash people (uy-khir chukĕ - sacrifice in the field)\n\nChukleme is a celebration of the consecration of the offering of a new harvest to the spirits of nature, dead ancestors, accompanied by a treat for all relatives. In late autumn, after the end of threshing, the Chuvash peasants carefully sorted and divided the grain: the best - for seeds, the worst - for fodder, and this for flour.",
"Sora chyuge (Săra çükĕ) - prayers with beer, beer is sacrificed to the spirits. At this festivities, a ladle of beer is sacrificed to the following personalities: Tĕncheri turra, tură amăshĕpe ashshĕne, sĕvere vyrtakan yrra, hĕvel ashshĕpe amăshne, çil ashshĕpe amăshne, pylak parana, pikhampara, hĕrlĕ çyra...",
"Ker Sori (Kĕr sări) - \"Autumn beer\" is a rite of worship and autumn thanksgiving for the new harvest to the spirits of ancestors. It was performed in late October - early November with a waning moon. Be sure to temper a rooster or chicken by brewing beer. The participants of the holiday walked around the houses of all relatives in turn, treated them to beer and tasted the beer of the owners. Similar to the German Oktoberfest. Some Chuvash people call him Avdan Sori (Avtan sări)",
". Similar to the German Oktoberfest. Some Chuvash people call him Avdan Sori (Avtan sări). Autumn commemoration of the dead among the unbaptized Chuvash. After completion of field work and threshing, part of the September harvest was organized on the night of the first Friday after the full moon.",
"Khyor Sori (Hĕr sări) - girl's beer, girl's holiday, winter youth holiday. This is an echo of the rites of initiation - the transition of girls into the girlish age group - associated with rites associated with the winter solstice; 15-20 girls from the street gathered for the performance, one of them was chosen as the head, others as the treasurer to collect money. The feast was held in a hut kept for a fee or on other terms",
". The feast was held in a hut kept for a fee or on other terms. Girls brought flour, malt, grain, hops, oil and other products, brought beer, prepared ritual food. If the beer was prepared in advance by each girl separately, the participants poured their shares into a common keg (just a couple of buckets). The holiday began with a prayer. The girls led the festival and showed their skills in running and brewing beer. The girls' parents, fellow villagers, and boys were visiting",
". The girls' parents, fellow villagers, and boys were visiting. The girls entertained them, singing and dancing to the playing of musical instruments. They were accompanied by several married men so as not to be offended. It was practically a demonstration by the girls that they were ready to get married and attract a future husband.",
"Surkhuri - in Chuvash coincided with Christmas, is considered the Chuvash holiday of the winter solstice. Another ethnographic group of the Chuvashs called this holiday \"Šuşi\" - \"Dawn\", since the morning star in their dialect is \"Šuşămpuş\" - the Head of the dawn.\n\nSyovarni (Şăvarni, Şu erni) is a holiday of spring awakening, Maslenitsa.",
"Syul Puze (Şul Puşĕ) — New Year, the holiday of the beginning of the year, is celebrated on March 20-21 on the day of the spring equinox. The Chuvash counted the year by summer (çulla). Navruz coincided with the Muslim holiday, so the Chuvash used to call March \"narăs uyăhĕ\", but due to some events, the names of the months were changed. Corresponding to the Roman first month of the year, named after Mars, the god of agriculture and cattle breeding, Martius - March.",
"Seren (Seren) is a spring holiday of the lower Chuvash, dedicated to the expulsion of evil spirits from the village. And the very name of the holiday means “exile”. Seren was held on the eve of the great day (mun kun), and in some places before the summer commemoration of dead ancestors - on the eve of Simek.\n\nSinze (Şinşe) is a traditional pre-Christian rite dedicated to the time of the summer solstice.",
"Sinze (Şinşe) is a traditional pre-Christian rite dedicated to the time of the summer solstice.\n\nNime - charity, collective assistance arranged by fellow villagers in laborious and tedious work. Help each other build houses, bridges to the village, a fence to the cemetery, a road to the village. All this for free, everyone brought what he had, women cooked food for the hard workers in huge boilers.",
"Simek (Şimĕk) - commemoration of all the dead relatives, people take a bath in the morning, dress in clean white clothes and go to the cemetery, where they call the souls of their dead relatives to the family home for a meal, where they put food (cakes, beer) in a vat and they take it out to the \"usha yupi\" (sometimes tyop yuba) which stands in the corner of the garden, all other treats (leftover food) cannot be removed from the table until the next morning.Rites'''",
"AMA Kurgi - one of the rituals of the funeral rite, is held in honor of the soul of a woman leaving for the other world, and therefore the woman treats the audience with beer. According to the beliefs of the Chuvash, during the ceremony, the struggle between Good and Evil takes place in the microcosm, in order to represent the image in the macrocosm. Ama (Goddess) is the mother earth herself, she was given the body of the dead in her womb of the earth, and the soul went to heaven to Aça (Tĕncheri Tură).",
"Yuba - a grave monument of the Chuvash in the form of a wooden pillar, on the graves of the dead. It was installed with the root part towards the sky, since the Chuvash considered the earth to be a reflection of the sky (kĕske), so dead souls fall back to heaven from where they were lowered down. Yuba was an anthropomorphic pillar, on the grave of a man it was made of oak, on the grave of a woman it was made of linden. Men's tombstones were dressed in a hat and cap",
". Men's tombstones were dressed in a hat and cap. Women's tombstones differed depending on the age of the buried (a surpan, tutor, masmak headdress was tied on Yuba of older women). Symbolizing the image of an ancestor-intermediary between Tură and man, Yuba personified a model of the world (as the sun - a lit candle or a coin or a piece of metal on top)",
". Dimples for candles (from one to five) in the upper part of the Jup, being transformed, later began to be understood as a place for \"heavenly water\", \"water for birds\", etc. After a certain time, next to the wooden tombstones, a permanent epitaph was placed on the grave of a man - made of stone with a flat top, a woman - made of stone with a rounded top. Usually this was done in a special month called Yuba (October) dedicated to the ancestors",
". Usually this was done in a special month called Yuba (October) dedicated to the ancestors. The anthropomorphic pillar Yuba, which was laid on the bed in the clothes of the deceased, after a home commemoration with a plentiful meal, was taken to the cemetery with dancing, singing and playing musical instruments, while observing all the elements of the funeral rite",
". Participants in the ritual at the gates of the deceased arranged the bridge of Shinavi (Shinavat), after a small fire was kindled from straw, chips and sawdust left over from the cleaning and processing of the Yuba wooden pillar, a cult of worship of fire and a dance ceremony were performed, they led a round dance around the fire, played the harmonica and sang ritual songs. After that, the Yuba pillar on long white towels was carried exclusively by men in the cemetery (Masar)",
". Having installed a tombstone, they lit a candle on it and, accompanied by music, arranged a feast, using one-legged tables and benches. The ritual of Yuba is characterized by sitting in the night before sunrise with lit candles.",
"Kěbe - It was believed that winter colds begin from this time. People began to dress warmer, just as the earth dressed in snow. On this day, all relatives gathered at one of the relatives, performed rituals related to preparation for winter. Kĕbe - placenta (afterbirth) shirt of a newborn baby. After the birth of the child, they sacrificed a white ram, to the god Кеbе. Kebe - god distributor of fates.",
"Pănçă - a red dot on the forehead that was drawn to babies from the evil eye. Especially on the holiday of Acha Yashki (Soup for the Baby), which was celebrated when the child had the first tooth. Since all the people who came to the celebration could jinx the child. Also in the future, women sewed in the form of a central coin on their headdresses (Tuhya, Hushpu, Masmak).",
"Ritual games",
"Syumor potty (Şumăr pătti) - Rain porridge, in some unbaptized villages it is still carried out, each street (kassi) has its own designated place, prayer porridge is cooked there, children collect food from each house, who gives cereals, who gives eggs, who milk. The ceremony is performed during dry times to bring rain",
". The ceremony is performed during dry times to bring rain. While adults are preparing food, young people run around the village with buckets and pour water on each other (shyvpa vylyany), even adult passers-by, no one is offended by this, otherwise they will cause sin on themselves. There are also village-wide and even bush \"humor pottas\" (several villages) if there are very severe droughts.",
"Por Yany (Păr Yani) - Seeing off the ice, with the advent of spring, the male population begins to help the river open up from the ice, they cut through ice floes with axes, with cuttings and in other ways and push the ice, a very dangerous occupation where women and children are not allowed, they watch from the side and sing , it tests male courage and courage, there are times when people fall into icy water, but they prepare rescue ropes in advance",
". After that, fires of straw and firewood are made on the ice floes, and they sing a song: \"Păr kayat, păr kayat, părpa pĕrle hĕl kayat!\" (Ice leaves and with it winter).",
"Ulah (Ulăh) - Unity, at this time the girls found their future husbands, and the grooms the bride. Guys and girls gather in the evenings in one of the houses, the girls take a spindle or embroidery with them, and some of the guys weave bast shoes, who take a violin, harp with them. They spin, they sing, they all play together. Riddles are made, fairy tales are told, boys meet girls.",
"Oyăha lăpăr şini - Everyone, except for two, stand in a circle; of the rest, one depicts the moon and remains in the middle of the circle, the other - \"Lăpăr\" - remains outside the circle. The purpose of lăpăr is to catch oyăh, so he wants to get into the circle, but they try not to let him in; if he enters, then oyăkh rather runs out of the circle - he is released freely. Lăpăr is now striving for the circle, but again they are trying not to let him in",
". Lăpăr is now striving for the circle, but again they are trying not to let him in. The game sometimes drags on for a long time: the lăpăr’u fails to catch the oyăh. As soon as the lăpăr catches oyăh, then “oyăha çiyaççĕ”, i.e. oyăh lies down on the ground and plugs his ears; but he is not allowed to do this: all the players gather to him and shout directly into his ears, at the top of their lungs.",
"Traditional calendar \nThe months of the Chuvash were interconnected with mythological ideas, rituals and the agricultural way of life. The modern form of the sequence of months and some of their names are slightly changed from its original form, due to the influence of neighboring cultures of Muslims and Christians.",
"Kărlach (January) - the month of cold weather\n Narăs (February) - the month of Navruz\n Push (March) - empty month, free time, matchmaking month\n Aka (April) - the month dedicated to the sowing season, during this period, the virgin land is opened with a plow, after hibernation (plowing and sowing)\n Syu (May) - the month of summer, dedicated to the goddess of the earth and fertility Ama (Umai)\n Sĕrtme (June) - the month of steam, steam arable land.\n Ută (July) - the month of haymaking",
"Sĕrtme (June) - the month of steam, steam arable land.\n Ută (July) - the month of haymaking\n Surla (August) - sickle month, harvest\n Avăn (September) - month of threshing\n Yupa (October) - the month of commemoration, literally the month of the ritual pillar (axis of the world), which connects all three worlds, the dead, the gods and ours\n Chuk (November) - the month of sacrifices, gratitude to God, gifts of spirits, ancestors, for a good harvest next year\n Rashtav (December) - the month of Christmas",
"Instead of \"ear uyăhĕ\" (month of Venus) - January (tur.oҗak), the Tatar \"kărlach\" (kyrlach) appeared, and instead of \"nartukhan\" - December, the Orthodox \"rashtav\" (Christmas) appeared, but the word \"nartăvan\" also did not is primary and was previously borrowed from the Muslim \"nardugan\", there is a dialect variant \"khurakaç\" uyăhĕ - December. The month \"narăs\" from the Muslim \"navruz\" also belongs there",
". The month \"narăs\" from the Muslim \"navruz\" also belongs there. There is also a dialectal difference in the months: xĕr uyăhĕ - June (maiden month), çăvarni uyăhĕ - March (lit",
". the month of carnival), çĕrtme uyăhĕ - June-July (literally the month of couple), măn kărlachă - December (1st cold month of the year), kĕçĕn kărlachă - January (the 2nd cold month of a 13-month year), yĕtem uăhĕ - September (threshing floor, current), nurăs uyăhĕ - the month of March (navrus), çeçke uyăhĕ - May (the month of flowers).",
"See also \n Chuvash National Congress\n\n References \n\n Bibliography \n \n \n Valentin Stetsyuk. Introduction to the Study of Prehistoric Ethnogenic Processes in Eastern Europe and Asia, The Turkic Tribe Bulgar in Eastern Europe. Lviv, Ukraine.\n \n Marc Ira Hooks. The Chuvash People - An Ethnographic Study & Missiological Strategy Analysis''. Engage Russia.\n\nExternal links \n Чӑваш тӗнне ӗненекенсем валли ҫӗр ыйтнӑ\n Чӑвашсем Сурхурие пуҫтарӑннӑ\n Шура Шурумбус: Чувашские Боги Асы (Астурри)",
"Eurasian shamanism\nModern pagan traditions\nModern paganism in Russia\nReligion in Chuvashia\nTengriism\nTurkic mythology\nChuvash people\n1990s in modern paganism"
] |
Raphael Semmes
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raphael%20Semmes
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[
"Raphael Semmes ( ; September 27, 1809 – August 30, 1877) was an officer in the Confederate Navy during the American Civil War. Until then, he had been a serving officer in the US Navy from 1826 to 1860.",
"During the American Civil War, Semmes was captain of the cruiser , the most successful commerce raider in maritime history, taking 65 prizes. Late in the war, he was promoted to rear admiral and also acted briefly as a brigadier general in the Confederate States Army. His appointment or arrangement to act as a temporary brigadier general from April 5 to April 26, 1865, was never submitted to or officially confirmed by the Confederate Senate.",
"Early life and education\nSemmes was born in Charles County, Maryland, on Tayloe's Neck, a cousin of future Confederate general Paul Jones Semmes and of future Union Navy Captain Alexander Alderman Semmes.",
"He graduated from Charlotte Hall Military Academy",
"and entered the U.S. Navy as a midshipman in 1826. Semmes first served on the Lexington, cruising the Caribbean and the Mediterranean until September 1826, when he was placed on leave for reasons of ill health. After a short convalescence he served on the U.S.S. Erie for part of 1829 and on the U.S.S. Brandywine (formerly Susquehanna) for the rest of 1829 and the first nine months of the following year. On September 29, 1830, he was posted to the U.S.S",
". On September 29, 1830, he was posted to the U.S.S. Porpoise of the West Indies squadron, which was attempting to suppress piracy in the Caribbean. Semmes then studied law and was admitted to the bar. He was promoted to lieutenant in February 1837.",
"Career\nDuring the Mexican–American War, he commanded the in the Gulf of Mexico. In December 1846 a squall hit the ship while under full sail in pursuit of a vessel off Veracruz. Somers capsized and was lost along with 37 sailors. Semmes then served as first lieutenant on the , accompanied the landing force at Veracruz, and was dispatched inland to catch up with the army proceeding to Mexico City.",
"Following the war, Semmes went on extended leave at Mobile, Alabama, where he practiced law and wrote Service Afloat and Ashore During the Mexican War. He became extremely popular, and the nearby town of Semmes, Alabama was named after him. Semmes also maintained a home in Josephine, Alabama on Perdido Bay. He was promoted to the rank of commander in 1855 and was assigned to lighthouse duties until 1860",
". He was promoted to the rank of commander in 1855 and was assigned to lighthouse duties until 1860. Following Alabama's secession from the Union, Semmes was offered a Confederate naval appointment by the provisional government; he resigned from the U.S. Navy the next day, February 15, 1861.",
"Confederate service\n\nAfter appointment to the Confederate Navy as a commander and a futile assignment to purchase arms in the North, Semmes was sent to New Orleans to convert the steamer Habana into the cruiser/commerce raider . In June 1861, Semmes, in Sumter, outran the , breaching the Union blockade of New Orleans, and then launched a brilliant career as one of the greatest commerce raider captains in naval history.",
"Semmes' command of CSS Sumter lasted only six months, but during that time he ranged wide, raiding U.S. commercial shipping in both the Caribbean Sea and Atlantic Ocean; his actions accounted for the loss of 18 merchant vessels, while always eluding pursuit by Union warships. By January 1862, Sumter required a major overhaul. Semmes' crew surveyed the vessel while in neutral Gibraltar and determined that the repairs to her boilers were too extensive to be completed there",
". Semmes paid off the crew and laid up the vessel. U.S. Navy vessels maintained a vigil outside the harbor until she was disarmed and sold at auction in December 1862, eventually being renamed and converted to a blockade runner.",
"Semmes and several of his officers traveled to England where he was promoted to captain. He then was ordered to the Azores to take up command and oversee the coaling and outfitting with cannon of the newly built British steamer Enrica as a sloop-of-war, which thereafter became the Confederate commerce raider . Semmes sailed on Alabama from August 1862 to June 1864. His operations carried him from the Atlantic to the Gulf of Mexico, around Africa's Cape of Good Hope, and into the Pacific to the East Indies",
". During this cruise, Alabama captured 65 U.S. merchantmen and quickly destroyed the , off Galveston.",
"Alabama finally sailed back to the Atlantic and made port in Cherbourg, France, for a much-needed overhaul; she was soon blockaded by the pursuing Union steam sloop-of-war, . Captain Semmes took Alabama out on June 19, 1864, and met the similar Kearsarge in one of the most famous naval engagements of the Civil War.",
"The commander of Kearsarge had, while in port at the Azores the year before, turned his warship into a makeshift partial ironclad; of the ship's port and starboard midsection were stepped-up-and-down to the waterline with overlapping rows of heavy chain armor, hidden behind black-painted wooden deal board covers. Alabamas much-too-rapid gunnery and misplaced aim, combined with the deteriorated state of her gunpowder and shell fuses, enabled a victory for both of Kearsarges Dahlgren smoothbore cannon",
". While Alabama opened fire at long range, Kearsarge steamed straight at her, exposing the Union sloop-of-war to potentially devastating raking fire. In their haste, however, Alabama's gunners fired many shells too high.",
"At , Kearsarge turned broadside to engage and opened fire. Soon the heavy Dahlgren cannon began to find their mark. After receiving a fatal shell to the starboard waterline, which tore open a portion of Alabamas hull, causing her steam engine to explode from the shell's impact, Semmes was forced to order the striking of his ship's Stainless Banner battle ensign and later to display a hand-held white flag of surrender to finally halt the engagement.",
"As the commerce raider was going down by the stern, Kearsarge stood off at a distance and observed at the orders of her captain (John Ancrum Winslow); Winslow eventually sent rescue boats for survivors after taking aboard Alabama survivors from one of the raider's two surviving longboats. As his command sank, the wounded Semmes threw his sword into the sea, depriving Kearsarges Captain Winslow of the traditional surrender ceremony of having it handed over to him as victor",
". Semmes was eventually rescued, along with forty-one of his crewmen, by the British yacht Deerhound and three French pilot boats. He and his forty-one men were taken to England where all but one recovered; while there they were hailed as naval heroes, despite the loss of Alabama",
"From England, Semmes made his way back to America via Cuba and from there a safe shore landing on the Texas gulf coast. It took his small party many weeks of journeying through the war-devastated South before he was finally able to make his way to the Confederate capital. He was promoted to rear admiral in February 1865, and during the last months of the war he commanded the James River Squadron from his flagship, the heavily armored ironclad .",
"With the fall of Richmond, in April 1865, Semmes supervised the destruction of all the squadron's nearby warships and thereafter acted as a brigadier general in the Confederate States Army, the implication being that he was appointed to that grade. Historians John and David Eicher show Semmes as appointed to the grade of temporary brigadier general (unconfirmed) on April 5, 1865.",
"Semmes' appointment as a brigadier general was at most an informal arrangement made four days before General Robert E. Lee's surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia at the Battle of Appomattox Courthouse on April 9, 1865. That appointment was not and could not have been submitted to or confirmed by the Confederate Senate, since the Second Confederate Congress adjourned for the last time on March 18, 1865",
". Historian Bruce Allardice notes that Semmes was vague about this appointment in his memoirs and considered his naval rank of rear admiral to be the equivalent of a brigadier general.",
"After the destruction of the naval squadron, Semmes' sailors were turned into an infantry unit and dubbed the \"Naval Brigade\"; Semmes was then placed in command. His intention for the brigade was to join Lee's army after burning their vessels. Lee's army, however, was already cut off from Richmond, so most of Semmes' men boarded a train and escaped to join General Joseph E. Johnston's army in North Carolina",
". Johnston's army in North Carolina. A few men of the Naval Brigade were able to join with Lee's rear guard and fought at the Battle of Sailor's Creek.",
"Semmes and the Naval Brigade were surrendered to Union Major General William T. Sherman with Johnston's army at Bennett Place near Durham Station, North Carolina; he was subsequently paroled on May 1, 1865. Semmes' parole notes that he held commissions as both a brigadier general and rear admiral in the Confederate service when he surrendered with General Johnston's army",
". He insisted on his parole being written to include the brigadier general commission in anticipation of being charged with piracy by the United States government.",
"After the war",
"The U.S. briefly held Semmes as a prisoner after the war, but released him on parole, then later arrested him for treason on December 15, 1865. After a good deal of behind-the-scenes political machinations, all charges were eventually dropped, and he was finally released on April 7, 1866. After his release, Semmes worked as a professor of philosophy and literature at Louisiana State Seminary (now Louisiana State University), as a county judge, and then as a newspaper editor",
". Semmes later returned to Mobile and resumed his legal career.",
"In October 1866 the Louisiana State Seminary offered Semmes a position as Professor of Moral Philosophy and English Literature. The position paid $3,000 per year. Semmes assumed this role on January 1, 1867. His fellow faculty-members described him as \"dignified and easy to talk with\". His teaching method in classes incorporated mainly formal lectures, with very little discussion. In May 1867 Semmes resigned from academia to take over as editor of a newspaper, the Memphis Bulletin.",
"He defended both his actions at sea and the political actions of the southern states in his 1869 Memoirs of Service Afloat During The War Between the States. Semmes is credited with helping to popularize the phrase “War Between the States\" to refer to the American Civil War.",
"In 1871 the citizens of Mobile presented Semmes with what became known as the Raphael Semmes House, and it remained his residence until his untimely death in 1877 from complications that followed food poisoning from eating contaminated shrimp. Semmes was then interred in Mobile's Old Catholic Cemetery.\n\nClaimed links between Raphael Semmes and Captain Nemo",
"In 1998 the Jules Verne scholar William Butcher was the first to identify a possible link between the Birkenhead, England built CSS Alabama and Captain Nemo's Nautilus from the Jules Verne 1869 novel Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas. Butcher stated that The Alabama, which claimed to have sunk 75 merchantmen, was destroyed by the Unionist Kearsarge off Cherbourg on 11th June 1864…. This battle has clear connections with Nemo’s final attack, also in the English Channel.",
"Jules Verne had himself made a previous comparison between the Birkenhead built CSS Alabama and the Nautilus in a letter to his publisher Pierre-Jules Hetzel in March 1869.",
"In September 2021 the Birkenhead born geography teacher John Lamb noted that both the hull of the fictional Nautilus and the hull of the real-life Confederate warship CSS Alabama had been built in secret at the Laird's shipyard in Birkenhead, lying opposite the port of Liverpool. Furthermore, both vessels had been completed on a ‘desert island’ - in the case of the Alabama on the Azores Island of Terceira",
"In Jules Verne's Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas (1869) Captain Nemo explains how he built the Nautilus... \"Each of its components, Dr Aronnax, was sent to me from a different point on the globe via a forwarding address. .... the iron plates for its hull by Laird’s of Liverpool.... I set up my workshops on a small desert island in the middle of the ocean. There with my workmen, that is my good companions whom I instructed and trained, I completed our Nautilus.\"",
"According to the historian Stephen Fox, Captain Raphael Semmes had portraits of General Robert E Lee and the Confederate President Jefferson Davis on the cabin wall of the CSS Alabama. In Jules Verne's Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas, Captain Nemo has portraits of Abraham Lincoln and the radical abolitionist John Brown adorning the cabin walls of the Nautilus. Raphael Semmes was a supporter of slavery",
". Raphael Semmes was a supporter of slavery. while Captain Nemo is a militant anti-slaver who adopts the same 'ambush' tactics at sea as John Brown had used on land.",
"The two-year voyage of the CSS Alabama had covered a distance of approximately 75,000 miles which equates to just over 21,700 leagues and Jules Verne may have chosen Captain Nemo's motto of ‘Mobilis in Mobile’ quite simply because the captain of the CSS Alabama – Raphael Semmes, was a resident of Mobile, Alabama.",
"In 1869 Captain Raphael Semmes released his American Civil War memoirs entitled Memoirs of Service Afloat During the War Between the States. In the same year of 1869, Jules Verne released his classic novel Twenty Thousand leagues Under the Seas John Lamb catalogued the many similarities between the two books on his website Jules Verne and the Heroes of Birkenhead in August 2022.",
"John Lamb hypothesized that to Jules Verne the CSS Alabama and Captain Nemo's Nautilus might essentially be one and the same and that the militant abolitionist Captain Nemo is the ‘alter ego’ of the pro slavery Raphael Semmes - i.e. the ‘opposite of oneself’",
"In their respective books, Memoirs Afloat During the War Between the States (1869) and Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas (1869), both Raphael Semmes and Jules Verne mention world shipping being alarmed by a destructive maritime force which is compared to a ‘sea monster’, in both books the monster is jeered at in the press and celebrated in song.",
"Raphael Semmes was denounced by Abraham Lincoln as a ‘pirate’ and a bounty put on his head by the U.S. Navy Department of Admiral David Farragut. The fictional Captain Nemo is also denounced as a pirate in Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea and chased by a warship called the USS Abraham Lincoln, whose commander, a Captain Farragut offers a reward for the first sighting of the ‘sea monster’.",
"Both Raphael Semmes and Jules Verne talk about their respective vessels as being illuminated by an eerie light and slowly moving in circles around their ‘prey’. The CSS Alabama and the Nautilus both have a specialized recess in their hull, and a state-of-the-art water condenser on board to provide fresh water for their multinational crews.",
"Both the CSS Alabama and the Nautilus encounter an imaginary island, sail through a patch of white water, have an aversion for the coast of Brazil, but still pause to describe the fresh waters of the Amazon as they pour in to the sea.",
"Raphael Semmes seeks sanctuary for the CSS Alabama on the Brazilian volcanic island of Fernando de Noronha, where he takes on coal from his supply ship Agrippina whereas Captain Nemo seeks sanctuary for the Nautilus within the flooded crater of a secret volcanic island where his crew proceed to mine their own coal.",
"On the respective voyages of both the CSS Alabama and the Nautilus an elaborate funeral is described in detail and both captains are visibly overcome with emotion. while both authors talk about a grave / mausoleum sealed up by coral over time.",
"Both Raphael Semmes and Captain Nemo describe the nature and the effects of the Gulf Stream in detail, both have a ‘museum of curiosities’ gathered on dingy trips, and while Raphael Semmes collects an Amazonian seed pod that looks like a Havanna cigar, Captain Nemo gives Doctor Aronnax a seaweed cigar which Doctor Aronnax mistakes for a Havanna cigar.",
"Both Raphael Semmes and Captain Nemo talk about sleeping sperm whales and highlight the dangers to right whales in venturing into the warm waters near the equator. Both Raphael Semmes and Captain Nemo kill a single albatross, sail through swarms of argonauts / nautilus, and refer to food that a Malay would cook.\n\nRaphael Semmes claims a fully grown swordfish can pierce a ship's wooden hull while Doctor Aronnax claims a giant Narwhal's tusk can pierce a ship's hull.",
"Both Raphael Semmes and Jules Verne describe the journey across the Indian Ocean as tedious to everyone but the natural historian, and then come across ships from the P and O Line. Both Raphael Semmes and Captain Nemo pride themselves on their good manners and hospitality, but both lament the passing of sail to be replaced by steam.",
"Whereas Raphael Semmes comments at length on the sinking of the Liverpool built Confederate commerce raider CSS Florida it is Captain Nemo and the Nautilus who come across the remains of a ship called the Florida (a Confederate link first identified by the Jules Verne scholar William Butcher in 1998).",
"Both Raphael Semmes and Captain Nemo pay tribute to the oceanographer Matthew Fontaine Maury and comment on his fall from grace after the American Civil War. Whereas Captain Semmes compares the CSS Alabama to his wife Captain Nemo compares the Nautilus to himself.",
"Raphael Semmes laments the loss of the British built CSS Alabama and its largely British crew as if it were the loss of his wife and children, whereas Captain Nemo laments the actual loss of his wife and children – killed by the British. Whereas Raphael Semmes states that India should never be free from British rule, Captain Nemo is later revealed to be an Indian who fought to be free from British rule.",
"In the 1874 sequel novel to Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea entitled The Mysterious Island Captain Nemo returns and is revealed as the rebel Indian Prince Dakkar a possible derivation of the Afrikaan CSS Alabama celebratory song Daar Kom die Alibama ('Here Comes the Alabama') whereby moving the letter 'k' two spaces to the left gives the phrase Dakar om die Alibama.\n\nRaphael Semmes visits Paris after the sinking of the CSS Alabama.",
"Raphael Semmes visits Paris after the sinking of the CSS Alabama.\n\nOn 19 June 1864 the CSS Alabama was sunk by the USS Kearsarge off the coast of Cherbourg, France. Raphael Semmes was rescued from the waters of the English Channel by the yacht Deerhound of the Royal Mersey Yacht Club of Tranmere, Birkenhead.",
"Semmes' journals were saved from the waters of the English Channel by the CSS Alabama crewman Michael Mars and returned to him aboard the Deerhound. Semmes was then taken by John Lancaster, the owner of the Deerhound to the Port of Southampton, where according to Semmes' memoirs he was met by the Reverend Francis Tremlett. Tremlett was also a member of the Royal Mersey Yacht Club of Tranmere Birkenhead.",
"The following evening Raphael Semmes dined with John Laird, the Member of Parliament for Birkenhead, the builder of the CSS Alabama and by literary association, the builder of Captain Nemo's Nautilus. John Laird M.P. was also a member of the Royal Mersey Yacht Club of Tranmere, Birkenhead.",
"According to the Semmes biographer Stephen Fox, once Semmes had recovered at Belsize Park parsonage, in London, the Reverend Francis Tremlett then obtained a forged passport for Semmes under the name of ‘Raymond Smith’ and together with Tremlett's sister, Louisa and two other friends, they took Semmes on a European tour to Belgium and the Swiss Alps.\n\nFox writes in his biography of Semmes Wolf of the Deep (2007)",
"On the fifth of September they took a train from Geneva to Paris, “where we remained for a week and did the city.” On September 15 the rest of the party left for England. Semmes remained in Paris for a few days longer, perhaps preferring the more discrete safety of travelling alone after the conspicuous company of his English friends. While he stayed on, Semmes received a letter from his faithful clerk, Breedlove Smith, in Liverpool asking for instructions",
". “My movements will be so uncertain for some weeks yet,” Semmes wrote him, “that I think that you had better not wait longer for me, but make the best of your way home by the first opportunity that offers.”",
"Wolf of the Deep. Stephen Fox (2007)\n\nJohn Lamb hypothesized that it must have been at this time that Raphael Semmes handed over his journals to the French author Jules Verne as those same journals were to become the literary template of Verne's 1869 masterpiece Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas.",
"In November 2021, Alan Evans the Director of Regeneration and Place at Wirral Borough Council, endorsed the further claim of John Lamb that Jules Verne had set his sequel novel The Mysterious Island in Birkenhead and the Wirral Peninsula, so confirming that the Nautilus and Captain Nemo had indeed returned to their 'home port' of Birkenhead - also the home port of the CSS Alabama.\n\nOther Claimed References to Raphael Semmes in the works of Jules Verne.",
"The Adventures of Captain Hatteras (1864) \nThe Adventures of Captain Hatteras is Jules Verne's first novel in his 56 volume of works called the Voyages Extraordinaires and it begins in Birkenhead, England with a ship called the Forward, which like the CSS Alabama is built in secret in Birkenhead of unusual design, for an unknown Captain on an unspecified mission. The USS Hatteras was the name of the United States warship sunk by Raphael Semmes on 11 January 1863.",
"A Journey to the Centre of the Earth (1864)",
"The novel follows the route of the 16th century Icelandic explorer Arne Saknussemm to the very core of the planet. Saknussemm has left a note in an ancient Icelandic runic script that must be translated into Latin and then read backwards to be deciphered. This translation locates the volcanic chimney in Iceland that leads to the centre of the earth. The cipher of Arne Saknussemm is claimed to be the most celebrated cipher in world fiction. ..",
". The cipher of Arne Saknussemm is claimed to be the most celebrated cipher in world fiction. ...When we look at into the types of cryptograms other writers of romantic tales and detective stories have employed, we must recognise that he stands head and shoulders above them all, not excluding even Poe..…Verne’s genius calls for admiration and respect – even on the part of professional cryptographers... Jules Verne as Cryptographer. Lt Colonel William. F Friedman. The Signal Corps Bulletin (1940).",
"In January 2019 Ken Lamb claimed that the name ‘Arne Saknussemm’ itself was a cipher relating directly to Raphael Semmes.\n\nARNE SAKNUSSEMM.\nMove the first ‘E’ and ‘S’ to the end, and this gives... ARNA KNUS SEMMES\n\nThen read the last two words backwards and this gives... SEMMES SUNK ARNA\n\n‘Arna’ is Icelandic for ‘the powerful eagle’ SEMMES SUNK THE POWERFUL EAGLE",
"The American Bald Eagle is the symbol of the United States Navy.\n\nAround the Moon (1869) \n\nIn Jules Verne's 1869 novel Around the Moon the three astronauts and their ‘lunar module’ splash down in the Pacific Ocean and are rescued by two boats from the Susquehanna. \nJules Verne writes of the captain of the Susquehanna.",
"The captain of the Susquehanna, as brave a man as need be, and the humble servant of his officers, returned to his cabin, took a brandy-grog, which earned for the steward no end of praise, and turned in, not without having complimented his servant upon his making beds, and slept a peaceful sleep.\n\nJules Verne - Around the Moon (1869) Chapter XX The Soundings of the Susquehanna. Wordsworth Classics p392",
"Raphael Semmes sailed on the Brandywine (formerly Susquehanna) as a young midshipman in the 1820s. John Lamb hypothesized that Jules Verne uses the coded term ‘brandy grog’ to refer to Semmes' ship Brandywine (formerly Susquehanna) as Raphael Semmes had used the word ‘grog’ dozens of times in his Memoirs of a Service Afloat. Jules Verne's description of the captain of the Susquehanna also matched the description of Raphael Semmes in his own Memoirs of Service Afloat During the War Between the States (1869)",
".",
"The reader has been introduced to my Malayan steward, John, on several occasions. John’s black, lustrous eyes filled with ill-concealed tears, more than once, during the last days of the Sumter, as he smoothed the pillow of my cot with a hand as tender as that of a woman …I consigned my weary head to my pillow, and permitted myself to be sung to sleep by the lullaby chanted by the storm.\n\nRaphael Semmes – Memoirs of Service Afloat during the War Between the States (1869) page 264 and page 343.",
"A Floating City (1871) \n\nA Floating City is a semi-autobiographical account of Jules Verne's journey aboard the ship Great Eastern as Verne sailed from Tranmere Sloyne, Birkenhead, England to New York in March 1867.\n\nAs well as being the birthplace of the CSS Alabama, Birkenhead, England is also the scene of the final surrender of the American Civil War, when the CSS Shenandoah, a successor to the CSS Alabama lowered the Confederate flag at Tranmere Sloyne for the last time on November 6, 1865.",
"Jules Verne writes’.\n\nA quarter past one sounded from the Birkenhead clock-towers, the moment of departure could not be deferred, if it was intended to make use of the tide. The greater part of the passengers on the poop were gazing at the double landscape of Liverpool and Birkenhead, studded with manufactory chimneys...\n\n...Captain Semmes, Minister of War, has made the South compensate for its ravages in Alabama.\n\nAround the World in Eighty Days (1873)",
"Around the World in Eighty Days (1873) \n\nThis question of the Journey Round the World was commented on, discussed and analysed with as much passion and ardour as a new Alabama Claim. Some took sides with Phileas Fogg...\n\n‘It’s obviously a political meeting,’ said Fix, ‘and the subject must be a very important one. I wouldn’t be surprised if they weren’t still discussing the Alabama Claim, although it’s been settled.’ ‘Possibly,’ was all that Mr Fogg said.",
"Around the World in Eighty Days by Jules Verne (1873) Oxford World Classics page 25 and page 137.",
"In 1870 the American entrepreneur George Francis Train became the first person to travel around the world in eighty days. In 1860, Train had previously been celebrated for setting up Europe's first tram system in Birkenhead. The Alabama Claims refer to the $15million compensation paid by the British government to the United States as compensation for the damage inflicted by Confederate warships (the foremost being the CSS Alabama) built in Britain during the American Civil War.\n\nNorth Against South (1887)",
"North Against South (1887)\n\nThe naval events which caused so much stir were the appearance of the Sumter and her famous Captain Semmes;\n\nNorth Against South by Jules Verne (1887)\n\nNorth Against South (Texar's Revenge) is an adventure story set during the American Civil War. The Jules Verne Encyclopedia has criticized it as a padded to almost unwieldy proportions by a quantity of remarkably inaccurate information about the rebellion.",
"American Secretary of State William Seward accuses the Birkenhead yacht Deerhound of disappearing with the CSS Alabama's 'valuables'.",
"On July 8, 1864, Abraham Lincoln's Secretary of State, William Seward wrote a strongly worded letter to the American ambassador in London Charles Francis Adams complaining about the activities of the yacht Deerhound of the Royal Mersey yacht Club of Tranmere, Birkenhead. Seward was adamant that missing ‘valuables’ from the CSS Alabama were last accounted for being loaded on to the Deerhound a vessel that would ultimately be bound for Birkenhead, England. Seward wrote.",
"…the presence and the proceedings of a British yacht, the Deerhound, at the battle, require explanation. On reading the statements which have reached this government, it seems impossible to doubt that the Deerhound went out to the place of conflict by concert and arrangement with the commander of the Alabama, and with at least a conditional purpose of rendering her aid and assistance",
". She did effectually render such aid by rescuing the commander of the Alabama and a portion of his crew from the pursuit of the Kearsarge, and by furtively and clandestinely conveying them to Southampton, within British jurisdiction....",
"Moreover, we are informed from Paris, that the Deerhound, before going out, received from Semmes, and that she subsequently conveyed away to England, a deposit of money, and other valuables, of which Semmes, in his long piratical career, had despoiled numerous American merchantmen.”…The President will expect you to carefully gather information, to weigh it well, and then to make a proper representation to her Majesty’s government upon the whole subject I have thus presented.",
"(Office of the Historian, Department of State, United States of America).\n\nArthur Sinclair, an officer on board the CSS Alabama, in his 1896 memoirs Two Years on the Alabama gave more information on William Seward's 'valuables' prior to docking at Cherbourg.….. \n\nour strong box was liberally filled with sovereigns at this visit, the proceedings of the wool sale in England, part cargo of the Tuscaloosa, transferred at Angra Pequefia some months since. The Alabama is now as wealthy as a bold buccaneer.",
"Arthur Sinclair Two Years on the Alabama (1896)\n\nClaimed Links between Captain Raphael Semmes and Robert Louis Stevenson’s novel Treasure Island. \n\nAfter taking command of the James River Fleet at Richmond, Virginia, Raphael Semmes was visited by Thomas Connolly, the forty-two-year-old Irish Member of Parliament for Donegal. Connolly reported that he found Captain Semmes “looking as hard & determined as flint”",
"John Lamb hypothesized that Robert Louis Stevenson would give one of Raphael Semmes’s characters in Treasure Island, the same name that Thomas Connolly had given Semmes …that of Captain Flint. The plot of Treasure Island revolves around looking for the late Captain Flint’s buried treasure.",
"John Lamb further hypothesized that Raphael Semmes, the burner of 52 ships would also ‘play’ the living pirate in Treasure Island known appropriately as ‘Barbeque’ or the ‘Sea Cook’, this pirate is more commonly known in world literature as Long John Silver",
". Lamb further claimed that William Seward would return at the start of the novel in the role of the pirate ‘Billy Bones’ the owner of the treasure map showing the location of Captain Flint’s treasure and cited several clues that he claimed were purposely given by Robert Louis Stevenson.",
"In his memoirs, Raphael Semmes would refer to William H Seward as ‘Billy’.\n\nthey had taken Billy's measure to a fraction ..... and call our cruisers, “corsairs,” or “pirates.”\n\nRaphael Semmes. Memoirs of Service Afloat During the War Between the States (1869).\n\nWilliam Seward's biographer Walter Stahr would describe Seward as.\n\na familiar figure around Washington, invariably disheveled, in an old jacket and trousers that hung limply on his narrow frame’",
"Walter Stahr. Seward: Lincoln's indispensable Man (2013)\n\nIn 2012 the journalist Dorothy Wickenden wrote in the New Yorker about William Seward stating\n\nAbraham Lincoln was warned about Seward’s drinking and smoking, a charge that Lincoln simply waved aside.\n\nDorothy Wickenden. Union Man - a new biography of an unlikely American statesman.\n\nAs a comparison, Robert Louis Stevenson would describe the character of Billy Bones in Treasure Island as.",
"that filthy, heavy, bleared scarecrow of a pirate of ours, sitting, far gone in rum...\n\nChapter 1: The Old Sea-dog at the Admiral Benbow.\n\nHe has a cut on one cheek and a mighty pleasant way with him, particularly in drink, has my mate Bill. We'll put it, for argument like, that your captain has a cut on one cheek—and we'll put it, if you like, that that cheek's the right one. Ah, well! I told you. Now, is my mate Bill in this here house?\n\nChapter 2. Black Dog Appears and Disappears",
"Chapter 2. Black Dog Appears and Disappears\n\nI got the rum, to be sure, and tried to put it down his throat, but his teeth were tightly shut and his jaws as strong as iron.\n\nChapter 2. Black Dog Appears and Disappears. Robert Louis Stevenson. Treasure Island (1881)",
"John Lamb decided to investigate as to whether William H Seward did indeed have a scar on his right cheek",
"What he found was that on April 14, 1865, the same night that Abraham Lincoln was assassinated, William Seward was attacked in his home by Lewis Powell a co-conspirator with John Wilkes Booth in the Lincoln Assassination Plot. The attempt on Seward's life failed but Powell managed to severely slash Seward's cheek with a Bowie knife. Seward was left permanently disfigured with a ‘cut on one cheek’ and ‘that cheek's the right one.",
"William Seward had sustained head injuries in a carriage accident just a few weeks before the Powell assassination attempt, he was already wearing an iron brace on his jaw, which deflected most of Powell's blows and probably saved his life, Seward did indeed, just like the character of Billy Bones have jaws as strong as iron..",
"Lamb theorized that not only had Jules Verne and Robert Louis Stevenson used many of the same real-life Birkenhead and Wirral 'stage set' locations in their respective novels Mysterious Island and Treasure Island, but all the characters in each novel were based on real historical figures or combinations of figures, some of whom may have known about their portrayals",
". Raphael Semmes would play many parts in Treasure Island including Captain Flint the Pirate, Captain Flint the Parrot, the disciplinarian Captain Smollett, the pirate Black Dog as well as Long John Silver himself. Lamb also hypothesized that Jules Verne and Stevenson were influenced by the words of Jacques in William Shakespeare's comedy As You Like It.",
"All the world’s a stage,\n\nAnd all the men and women merely players;\n\nThey have their exits and their entrances;\n\nAnd one man in his time plays many parts.\n\nThe last words of Raphael Semmes in his 833-page Memoirs of Service Afloat During the War Between the States are.\n\nThere are still other acts of the drama to be performed.",
"In August 2022 the British Member of Parliament for Birkenhead, Mick Whitley, supported John Lamb's claim that Robert Louis Stevenson had set his entire classic pirate adventure novel Treasure Island (1881) in over 30 locations in the towns of Birkenhead and Wallasey on the Wirral Peninsula",
". His letter of support for the claims linking both Jules Verne's novel Mysterious Island and Robert Louis Stevenson's Treasure Island to Birkenhead were posted on the Jules Verne and the Heroes of Birkenhead website in August 2022.",
"On his Jules Verne and the Heroes of Birkenhead website John Lamb concluded that Raphael Semmes may have actively cooperated with the author Jules Verne as a sign of his own Christian repentance for having both supported slavery and inadvertently prolonging the American Civil War. This repentance was 'hidden in plain sight' in the novels Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas, The Mysterious Island and Treasure Island and perhaps sanctioned at the very highest level.",
"According to William H Seward, Abraham Lincoln's Secretary of State, the Alabama's piratical 'valuables' (reported by Arthur Sinclair as a strong box of gold sovereigns) was last said to be on board the yacht Deerhound, a yacht eventually bound for its home port of Birkenhead, England.",
"Semmes' giving up and hiding his 'Confederate gold' in Birkenhead would be an insignificant part of his possible repentance, but a highly symbolic affirmation of that possible repentance in its own right. Lamb finally concluded that reading the entirety of Robert Louis Stevenson's novel rather than perusing his treasure map, would indeed point to the modern-day location of the CSS Alabama's missing treasure.\n\nLegacy",
"Legacy\n\nSemmes is a member of the Alabama Hall of Fame. One of the streets on the current Louisiana State University campus once carried his full name in his honor, as does Semmes Avenue in Richmond, Virginia. A life-sized statue of Admiral Semmes was removed by the city of Mobile early on the morning of June 5, 2020. A suburban area of western Mobile County is named for him, as well as a hotel in downtown Mobile named The Admiral Hotel.",
"When Semmes returned to the South from England, he brought a ceremonial Stainless Banner (the second national flag of the Confederacy) with him. It was inherited by his grandchildren, Raphael Semmes III and Mrs. Eunice Semmes Thorington. After his sister's death, Raphael Semmes III donated the ensign to the state of Alabama on September 19, 1929",
". Today, the battle ensign resides in the collection of the Alabama Department of Archives and History among its Confederate Naval collection, listed as \"Admiral Semmes' Flag, Catalogue No. 86.1893.1 (PN10149-10150)\". Their provenance reconstruction shows that it was presented to Semmes in England sometime after the sinking of the Alabama by \"Lady Dehogton and other English ladies\".",
"Dates of rank\n Midshipman, USN – April 1, 1826\n Passed midshipman, USN – April 26, 1832\n Lieutenant, USN – February 9, 1837\n Commander, USN – September 14, 1855\n Resigned from USN – February 15, 1861\n Commander, CSN – March 26, 1861\n Captain, CSN – July 15, 1862\n Rear admiral, CSN – February 10, 1865\n\nReferences\n\nCitations\n\nSources",
"Allardice, Bruce S. More Generals in Gray. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1995. .\n Delaney, Norman C. 'Old Beeswax': Raphael Semmes of the Alabama. Harrisburg, PA, Vol. 12, #8, December 1973 issue, Civil War Times Illustrated. No ISSN.\n Eicher, John H., and David J. Eicher, Civil War High Commands. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2001. .\n Fox, Stephen. Wolf of the Deep: Raphael Semmes and the Notorious Confederate Raider CSS Alabama . Vintage Books, 2007. .",
"Gindlesperger, James. Fire on the Water: The USS Kearsarge and the CSS Alabama . Burd Street Press, 2005. .\n Luraghi, Raimondo. A History of the Confederate Navy. Naval Institute Press, 1996. .\n Madaus, H. Michael. Rebel Flags Afloat: A Survey of the Surviving Flags of the Confederate States Navy, Revenue Service, and Merchant Marine. Winchester, MA, Flag Research Center, 1986. . (An 80-page special edition of The Flag Bulletin magazine, #115, devoted entirely to Confederate naval flags.)",
"Semmes, R., CSS, Commander. The Cruise of the Alabama and the Sumter (two volumes in one), Carlton, Publisher, New York, 1864. \n \n Secretary of the Navy. Sinking of the Alabama: Destruction of the Alabama by the Kearsarge . Washington, D.C., Navy Yard, 1864. (Annual report in the library of the Naval Historical Center.)\n Silverstone, Paul H. Civil War Navies, 1855–1883. Naval Institute Press, 2001. .",
"Further reading \n Semmes, Raphael. The Cruise of the Alabama and the Sumter, 2001. .\n Taylor, John M. Confederate Raider, Raphel Semmes of the Alabama, 1994. .\n\nExternal links\n\n \n \n \n Raphael Semmes article, Encyclopedia of Alabama",
"1809 births\n1877 deaths\nAmerican pirates\nBurials at the Catholic Cemetery (Mobile, Alabama)\nCatholics from Alabama\nCharlotte Hall Military Academy alumni\nConfederate States Army generals\nConfederate States Navy admirals\nCSS Alabama\nMilitary personnel from Mobile, Alabama\nPeople of Alabama in the American Civil War\nPeople of Maryland in the American Civil War\nUnited States Navy officers\nUnited States Navy personnel of the Mexican–American War\nPeople from Charles County, Maryland",
"United States Navy personnel of the Mexican–American War\nPeople from Charles County, Maryland\nMilitary personnel from Maryland\nCatholics from Maryland\nSouthern Historical Society\nAmerican proslavery activists"
] |
James Green (wrestler)
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Green%20%28wrestler%29
|
[
"James Malcom Green Jr. (born December 19, 1992 in Brooklyn, New York) is an American retired freestyle wrestler and graduated folkstyle wrestler who competes at 70 kilograms. His most successful year came in 2017, when he placed second at the World Championships and the World Cup and claimed the Pan American Continental Championship and the US Open National Championship, as well as other international titles",
". In college, Green was a four–time NCAA Division I All–American and a Big Ten Conference champion (two–time finalist) for the Nebraska Cornhuskers.",
"Background",
"Green was born in Brooklyn, New York and raised in Willingboro Township, New Jersey by his Jamaican father and American mother, along with two sister. His father had moved to the United States as a teenager and opened up a recording studio, where he helped upcoming music talent. In 2003, when James was 10 years of age, Green's father was shot and killed by one of the people he helped, whom he was arguing with about studio fees and money for rent",
". Green was shown wrestling by his father, who was also a beginner, and was motivated to continue in the sport despite the passing of the latter by Bob Acosta, a friend of Green Sr, who would drive him out of town to train and compete as the wrestling community was not big in South Jersey. Green's story was featured in the FloFilm \"Who is James Green?\".",
"Folkstyle career\n\nHigh school \nDuring his high school wrestling years, Green compiled a 148–8 record and claimed All–State honors three times, winning the NJSIAA state championship out of Willingboro High School as a senior in 2011, becoming the first to do so in the history of the school. After his championship season, Green claimed the NHSCA Senior National championship before being recruited by the Nebraska Cornhuskers.",
"College \nIn collegiate wrestling, Green went on to become a four–time NCAA Division I All–American (placing 7th, 7th, 3rd and 3rd) and a Big Ten Conference champion for the Cornhuskers, graduating in 2015 with a 124–18 record.\n\nFreestyle career",
"2013–2016",
"During 2013, his first year competing in senior freestyle, Green claimed the US University National championship, placing seventh at the Summer Universiade. In 2014, he made the move from 66 to 70 kilograms, and placed fifth at the US Open, became a two–time US University National champion, claimed the silver medal from the University World Championships and placed second at the US World Team Trials",
". In 2015, Green placed third at the US Nationals, claimed the Grand Prix of Spain while defeating recently crowned European Games silver medalist from Italy Frank Chamizo in the finale and made the US World Team, bringing a bronze medal from the World Championships.",
"During the 2016 Summer Olympic year, Green moved down to the Olympic weight class of 65 kilograms on the start of the year, and placed 17th at the Yasar Dogu International and second at the Pan American Continental Championships, before going 0–2 at the US Olympic Team Trials",
". Afterwards, Green moved up once again to his natural 70 kilogram class and went 4–0 at the World Cup, placed third at the Poland Open, once again grabbed the Grand Prix of Spain crown and made his second US World Team while defeating two–time NCAA champion Jordan Oliver, and finally placing seventh at the World Championships.",
"2017–2018",
"Green opened up what would end up being the most successful year of his career so far with a 3–1 record at the 2017 World Cup",
". After that, he went on to start a 20–match win–streak, where he claimed the Ukrainian Memorial International title, the US Open National championship, the Pan American Continental Championship, made his third–straight US World Team and placed himself on top of the Grand Prix of Spain podium before competing at the World Championships, defeating three opponents to make the gold–medal match, where he was derailed by '15 World Champion from Italy Frank Chamizo to claim the silver medal.",
"In 2018, Green once again opened up with a 3–1 record at the World Cup, helping Team USA reach the gold–medal. Afterwards, he claimed his second Pan American Continental title (helping the US sweep through all team titles), slipped past Cuba's two–time Pan American champion Franklin Maren for charity at Beat the Streets and made his fourth–straight US World Team, placing thirteenth at the World Championships",
". Before the year ended, Green competed one more time and placed third at the Alans International in Russia.",
"2019–2020",
"During his trip to Russia and Europe, Green also placed seventh at the prestigious Golden Grand Prix Ivan Yarygin 2019 in January. In his last tournament during the trip, he won bronze at the Dan Kolov – Nikola Petrov Memorial in Bulgaria",
". Green then went back to the United States, where after being upset in the US Open finale by Ryan Deakin, he downed recently crowned NCAA champion from Rutgers Anthony Ashnault for charity at Beat the Streets, ran through the US World Team Trials Challenge and defeated Deakin back–to–back in the rematches to make his fifth–straight US World Team",
". Afterwards, Green once again went overseas, placing eleventh at the Yasar Dogu International and the Aleksandr Medved Memorial, before his thirteenth–place finish at the World Championships.",
"During the 2020 Summer Olympic year, Green first intended to move up to 74 kilograms, but in his first tournament at the Matteo Pellicone Ranking Series, he was eliminated in the first round by technical fall. Green was then scheduled to compete at the US Olympic Team Trials, however, the event was postponed for the next year along with the Summer Olympics due to the rising COVID-19 pandemic. Green was able to compete once again in November, downing Iowa standout Alex Marinelli at the HWC Showdown Open",
". He then made the move down to 65 kilograms, competed at two of the series of events put on by FloWrestling, the RTC Cup and the Flo 8–man Challenge (150 pounds), where he racked up victories over the likes of U23 Cuban National champion Anthony Echemendia and multiple–time All–Americans Alec Pantaleo and Bryce Meredith, gave birth to a series with two–time Cadet World champion Yianni Diakomihalis and placed second at both tournaments.",
"2021",
"After downing another Iowa standout in Pat Lugo at another event by FloWrestling, Green competed at the Grand Prix de France Henri Deglane, where after notable wins over multiple–time South American champion Agustín Destribats and reigning U23 World champion from Azerbaijan Turan Bayramov, he was defeated by reigning Pan American Continental champion Yianni Diakomihalis in their rubber match, claiming silver",
". Green ultimately went 0–1 at the US Olympic Team Trials, falling to '18 US Open National champion Joseph McKenna in the first round.",
"After his failed attempt at 65 kg, Green returned to his competitive weight, going back up to 70 kilograms and claiming the US Open National Championship, defeating Matteo Pellicone Ranking Series 2021 winner Alec Pantaleo in the finale. Green had then been determined the U.S. representative for the Pan American Continental Championships, but did not attend the tournament, being replaced by Pantaleo",
". Instead, he competed at the prestigious 2021 Poland Open on June 8, where after a dominant win over Alec Pantaleo, Oleksii Boruta and World Champion Zurabi Iakobishvili on route to the finals, Green was upset by his now rival Pantaleo, claiming the silver medal.",
"Green competed at the 2021 US World Team Trials on September 11–12, intending to represent the country at the World Championships a sixth time. He downed everyone on his way to the top of the podium, most notably two-time NCAA champion Jordan Oliver and NCAA All-American Ryan Deakin. As a result, he represented the United States at the 2021 World Championships on October 4 in Oslo, Norway.",
"After two dominant victories to make the quarterfinals, Green was eliminated by U23 World Champion Turan Bayramov in a close match, and as the Azerbaijani lost his next bout to eventual champion Magomedmurad Gadzhiev, Green ended up placing seventh.",
"2022 \nIn his last year, Green competed at the prestigious Golden Grand Prix Ivan Yarygin on January 28, but failed to place by losing to 2020 European Champion Kurban Shiraev. He bounced back by beating Dillon Williams on February 12 at Bout at the Ballpark. Green competed at the prestigious Yasar Dogu International on February 27, claiming a silver medal on the last tournament of his career.\n\nOn April 8, Green announced he would retire from the competitive side of the sport.",
"On April 8, Green announced he would retire from the competitive side of the sport.\n\nCoaching career \nAfter retiring from competing in freestyle on April 8, 2022, Green was named the National Freestyle Developmental Coach for USA Wrestling. On his first tournament as a coach, Green led Team USA to the 2022 U17 World Championship in freestyle.\n\nFreestyle record",
"! colspan=\"7\"| Freestyle Matches\n|-\n! Res.\n! Record\n! Opponent\n! Score\n! Date\n! Event\n! Location\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 |\n|-\n|Loss\n|141–39\n|align=left| Amir Mohammad Yazdani\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|2–8\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=4|February 27, 2022\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=4|2022 Yasar Dogu International\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" rowspan=4|\n Istanbul, Turkey\n|-\n|Win\n|141–38\n|align=left| Viktor Rassadin\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|3–2\n|-\n|Win\n|140–38",
"|-\n|Win\n|141–38\n|align=left| Viktor Rassadin\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|3–2\n|-\n|Win\n|140–38\n|align=left| Aliakbar Fazlikhalili\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 10–0\n|-\n|Win\n|139–38\n|align=left| Khanburged Gankhuyag\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 11–0\n|-\n|Win\n|138–38\n|align=left| Dillon Williams\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 10–0\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|February 12, 2022\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|2022 Bout at the Ballpark\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\"|\n Arlington, Texas\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 |\n|-\n|Loss",
"Arlington, Texas\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 |\n|-\n|Loss\n|137–38\n|align=left| Kurban Shiraev\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|8–10\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|January 28, 2022\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|Golden Grand Prix Ivan Yarygin 2022\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\"| Krasnoyarsk, Russia\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 |\n|-\n|Loss\n|137–37\n|align=left| Turan Bayramov\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|5–6\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=3|October 4, 2021\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=3|2021 World Championships",
"|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=3|2021 World Championships\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" rowspan=3| Oslo, Norway\n|-\n|Win\n|137–36\n|align=left| Shamil Ustaev\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 10–0\n|-\n|Win\n|136–36\n|align=left| Lee Seung-chul\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 10–0\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 |\n|-\n|Win\n|135–36\n|align=left| Ryan Deakin\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|4–2\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=2|September 12, 2021\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=4|2021 US World Team Trials",
"|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=4|2021 US World Team Trials\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" rowspan=4| Lincoln, Nebraska\n|-\n|Win\n|134–36\n|align=left| Ryan Deakin\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|6–6\n|-\n|Win\n|133–36\n|align=left| Jordan Oliver\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|6–4\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=2|September 11, 2021\n|-\n|Win\n|132–36\n|align=left| Brock Mauller\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|Fall\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 |\n|-\n|Loss\n|131–36\n|align=left| Alec Pantaleo\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|3–5",
"|-\n|Loss\n|131–36\n|align=left| Alec Pantaleo\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|3–5\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=4|June 8, 2021\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=4|2021 Poland Open\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" rowspan=4|\n Warsaw, Poland\n|-\n|Win\n|131–35\n|align=left| Zurabi Iakobishvili\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|4–0\n|-\n|Win\n|130–35\n|align=left| Oleksii Boruta\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|2–1\n|-\n|Win\n|129–35\n|align=left| Alec Pantaleo\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|8–0\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 |\n|-\n|Win\n|128–35",
"|style=\"font-size:88%\"|8–0\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 |\n|-\n|Win\n|128–35\n|align=left| Alec Pantaleo\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|7–2\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=5|May 1–2, 2021\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=5|2021 US Open National Championships\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" rowspan=5| Coralville, Iowa\n|-\n|Win\n|127–35\n|align=left| Brayton Lee\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|4–2\n|-\n|Win\n|126–35\n|align=left| Elroy Perkin\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 12–2\n|-\n|Win\n|125–35\n|align=left| Cameron Harrell",
"|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 12–2\n|-\n|Win\n|125–35\n|align=left| Cameron Harrell\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 11–0\n|-\n|Win\n|124–35\n|align=left| Austin Braun\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 10–0\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 |\n|-\n|Loss\n|123–35\n|align=left| Joey McKenna\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 1–12\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" |April 2–3, 2021\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" |2020 US Olympic Team Trials\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" | Forth Worth, Texas\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 | \n|-\n|Loss\n|123–34",
"|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 | \n|-\n|Loss\n|123–34\n|align=left| Yianni Diakomihalis\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|0–5\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=4|January 16, 2021\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=4|Grand Prix de France Henri Deglane 2021\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" rowspan=4|\n Nice, France\n|-\n|Win\n|123–33\n|align=left| Turan Bayramov\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|2–0\n|-\n|Win\n|122–33\n|align=left| Agustín Destribats\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 11–0\n|-\n|Win\n|121–33\n|align=left| Marwane Yezza",
"|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 11–0\n|-\n|Win\n|121–33\n|align=left| Marwane Yezza\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 12–1\n|-\n|Win\n|120–33\n|align=left| Pat Lugo\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|3–2\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|January 9, 2021\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|FloWrestling: Mensah-Stock vs. Gray\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\"|\n Austin, Texas\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 |\n|-\n|Loss\n|119–33\n|align=left| Bajrang Punia\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|4–8\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=3|December 18, 2020",
"|style=\"font-size:88%\"|4–8\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=3|December 18, 2020\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=3|Flo 8-Man Challenge: 150 lbs\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" rowspan=3|\n Austin, Texas\n|-\n|Win\n|119–32\n|align=left| Alec Pantaleo\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|4–2\n|-\n|Win\n|118–32\n|align=left| Bryce Meredith\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 10–0\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 |\n|-\n|Loss\n|117–32\n|align=left| Yianni Diakomihalis\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|4–4",
"|-\n|Loss\n|117–32\n|align=left| Yianni Diakomihalis\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|4–4\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=4|December 4–5, 2020\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=4|FloWrestling RTC Cup\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" rowspan=4| Austin, Texas\n|-\n|Win\n|117–31\n|align=left| Brayton Lee\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 11–0\n|-\n|Loss\n|116–31\n|align=left| Yianni Diakomihalis\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|3–3\n|-\n|Win\n|116–30\n|align=left| Anthony Echemendia\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 14–4\n|-\n|Win\n|115–30",
"|-\n|Win\n|116–30\n|align=left| Anthony Echemendia\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 14–4\n|-\n|Win\n|115–30\n|align=left| Alex Marinelli\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|5–4\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|November 1, 2020\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|HWC Showdown Open\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" |\n Iowa City, Iowa\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 | \n|-\n|Loss\n|114–30\n|align=left| Yones Aliakbar Emamichoghaei\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 5–15\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|January 15–18, 2020",
"|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 5–15\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|January 15–18, 2020\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|Matteo Pellicone Ranking Series 2020\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" |\n Rome, Italy\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 |\n|-\n|Loss\n|114–29\n|align=left| Khetag Tsabolov\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|4–7\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=4|December 7–8, 2019\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=4|2019 Alans International\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" rowspan=4| Vladikavkaz, Russia\n|-\n|Win\n|114–28",
"|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" rowspan=4| Vladikavkaz, Russia\n|-\n|Win\n|114–28\n|align=left| Sumiyabazar Zandanbud\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|3–0\n|-\n|Win\n|113–28\n|align=left| Gadzhimurad Alikhmaev\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|8–4\n|-\n|Win\n|112–28\n|align=left| Ali Muhammed Ovezmuradov\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 11–0\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 |\n|-\n|Loss\n|111–28\n|align=left| Magomedmurad Gadzhiev\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|3–4\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=2|September 20, 2019",
"|style=\"font-size:88%\"|3–4\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=2|September 20, 2019\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=2|2019 World Championships\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" rowspan=2| Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan\n|-\n|Win\n|111–27\n|align=left| Vincent De Marinis\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|10–2\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 | \n|-\n|Loss\n|110–27\n|align=left| Ikhtiyor Navruzov\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|6–8\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|August 9–11, 2019\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|2019 Aleksandr Medved Prizes",
"|style=\"font-size:88%\"|August 9–11, 2019\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|2019 Aleksandr Medved Prizes\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" |\n Minsk, Belarus\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 | \n|-\n|Loss\n|110–26\n|align=left| Haydar Yavuz\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|2–4\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|July 11–14, 2019\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|2019 Yaşar Doğu International\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" |\n Istanbul, Turkey\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 |\n|-\n|Win\n|110–25\n|align=left| Ryan Deakin",
"Istanbul, Turkey\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 |\n|-\n|Win\n|110–25\n|align=left| Ryan Deakin\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|4–3\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=2|June 14–15, 2019\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=2|Final X: Lincoln\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" rowspan=2| Lincoln, Nebraska\n|-\n|Win\n|109-25\n|align=left| Ryan Deakin\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 11–0\n|-\n|Win\n|108–25\n|align=left| Anthony Ashnault\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 10–0\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=3|May 17–19, 2019",
"|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 10–0\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=3|May 17–19, 2019\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=3|2019 US World Team Trials Challenge\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" rowspan=3| Raleigh, North Carolina\n|-\n|Win\n|107–25\n|align=left| Brandon Sorensen\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 10–0\n|-\n|Win\n|106–25\n|align=left| Mario Mason\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|5–3\n|-\n|Win\n|105–25\n|align=left| Anthony Ashnault\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|8–4\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|May 6, 2019",
"|105–25\n|align=left| Anthony Ashnault\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|8–4\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|May 6, 2019\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|2019 Beat The Streets: Grapple at the Garden\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" |\n New York City, New York\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 |\n|-\n|Loss\n|104–25\n|align=left| Ryan Deakin\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|6–8\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=6|April 24–27, 2019\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=6|2019 US Open National Championships",
"|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=6|2019 US Open National Championships\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" rowspan=6| Las Vegas, Nevada\n|-\n|Win\n|104–24\n|align=left| Jason Nolf\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|6–6\n|-\n|Win\n|103–24\n|align=left| Anthony Collica\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|9–2\n|-\n|Win\n|102–24\n|align=left| Jeren Glosser\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|7–0\n|-\n|Win\n|101–24\n|align=left| Wyatt Sheets\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 10–0\n|-\n|Win\n|100–24\n|align=left| Kyle Kintz\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 10–0\n|-",
"|-\n|Win\n|100–24\n|align=left| Kyle Kintz\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 10–0\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 |\n|-\n|Win\n|99–24\n|align=left| Haitem Dakhlaoui\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 12–2\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=3|February 28 – March 3, 2019\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=3|2019 Dan Kolov - Nikola Petrov International\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" rowspan=3| Ruse, Bulgaria\n|-\n|Loss\n|98–24\n|align=left| Anzor Zakuev\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|3–4\n|-\n|Win\n|98–23\n|align=left| Evghenii Volcov",
"|align=left| Anzor Zakuev\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|3–4\n|-\n|Win\n|98–23\n|align=left| Evghenii Volcov\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 10–0\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 |\n|-\n|Loss\n|97–23\n|align=left| David Baev\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|2–10\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=2|January 26, 2019\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=2|Golden Grand Prix Ivan Yarygin 2019\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" rowspan=2| Krasnoyarsk, Russia\n|-\n|Win\n|97–22\n|align=left| Perman Hommadov\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 13–0\n|-",
"|-\n|Win\n|97–22\n|align=left| Perman Hommadov\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 13–0\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 |\n|-\n|Win\n|96–22\n|align=left| Alibek Akbaev\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|5–3\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=4|December 7–9, 2018\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=4|2018 Alans International\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" rowspan=4| Vladikavkaz, Russia\n|-\n|Loss\n|95–22\n|align=left| David Baev\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|6–8\n|-\n|Win\n|95–21\n|align=left| Chermen Valiev\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|3–3\n|-\n|Win",
"|-\n|Win\n|95–21\n|align=left| Chermen Valiev\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|3–3\n|-\n|Win\n|94–21\n|align=left| Saipulla Alibolatov\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|5–4\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 |\n|-\n|Loss\n|93–21\n|align=left| Bat-Erdeniin Byambadorj\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|2–4\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=2|October 22, 2018\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=2|2018 World Championships\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" rowspan=2| Budapest, Hungary\n|-\n|Win\n|93–20\n|align=left| Khadzhimurad Gadzhiyev",
"|-\n|Win\n|93–20\n|align=left| Khadzhimurad Gadzhiyev\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|6–5\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 |\n|-\n|Win\n|92–20\n|align=left| Jason Chamberlain\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|2–1\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=2|June 8–9, 2018\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=2|2018 Final X: Lincoln\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" rowspan=2| Lincoln, Nebraska\n|-\n|Win\n|91–20\n|align=left| Jason Chamberlain\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|2–0\n|-\n|Win\n|90–20\n|align=left| Franklin Maren\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|2–1",
"|style=\"font-size:88%\"|2–0\n|-\n|Win\n|90–20\n|align=left| Franklin Maren\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|2–1\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|May 17, 2018\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|2018 Beat The Streets: Team USA vs. The World All-Stars\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" |\n New York City, New York\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 |\n|-\n|Win\n|89–20\n|align=left| Hernán Guzmán Ipuz\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 10–0\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=4|May 3–6, 2018",
"|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 10–0\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=4|May 3–6, 2018\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=4|2018 Pan American Continental Championships\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" rowspan=4| Lima, Peru\n|-\n|Win\n|88–20\n|align=left| Marcos de Oliveira\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|Fall\n|-\n|Win\n|87–20\n|align=left| Hernán Guzmán Ipuz\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 11–1\n|-\n|Win\n|86–20\n|align=left| Anthony Montero\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|4–1\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 |\n|-\n|Loss\n|85–20",
"|style=\"font-size:88%\"|4–1\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 |\n|-\n|Loss\n|85–20\n|align=left| Joshgun Azimov\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|4–4\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=4|April 7–8, 2018\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=4|2018 World Cup\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" rowspan=4| Iowa City, Iowa\n|-\n|Win\n|85–19\n|align=left| Levan Kelekhsashvili\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|8–0\n|-\n|Win\n|84–19\n|align=left| Kirin Kinoshita\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|8–5\n|-\n|Win\n|83–19\n|align=left| Arun Kumar",
"|align=left| Kirin Kinoshita\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|8–5\n|-\n|Win\n|83–19\n|align=left| Arun Kumar\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 10–0\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 |\n|-\n|Loss\n|82–19\n|align=left| Frank Chamizo\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|0–8\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=4|August 20–25, 2017\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=4|2017 World Championships\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" rowspan=4| Paris, France\n|-\n|Win\n|82–18\n|align=left| Yuhi Fujinami\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|5–3\n|-\n|Win\n|81–18",
"|-\n|Win\n|82–18\n|align=left| Yuhi Fujinami\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|5–3\n|-\n|Win\n|81–18\n|align=left| Zurabi Erbotsonashvili\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|3–2\n|-\n|Win\n|80–18\n|align=left| Néstor Tafur\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|8–0\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 |\n|-\n|Win\n|79–18\n|align=left| Zsombor Gulyas\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 11–0\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=3|July 15–16, 2017\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=3|2017 Grand Prix of Spain\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" rowspan=3| Madrid, Spain\n|-\n|Win",
"|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" rowspan=3| Madrid, Spain\n|-\n|Win\n|78–18\n|align=left| Azamat Nurykau\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|6–0\n|-\n|Win\n|77–18\n|align=left| Andruse Aimar\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 12–2\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 |\n|-\n|Win\n|76–18\n|align=left| Jimmy Kennedy\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|8–5\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=2|June 9–10, 2017\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=2|2017 US World Team Trials\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" rowspan=2| Lincoln, Nebraska\n|-\n|Win\n|75–18",
"|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" rowspan=2| Lincoln, Nebraska\n|-\n|Win\n|75–18\n|align=left| Jimmy Kennedy\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|6–0\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 |\n|-\n|Win\n|74–18\n|align=left| Luis Portillo Mejia\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 10–0\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=4|May 5–7, 2017\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=4|2017 Pan American Continental Championships\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" rowspan=4| Salvador da Bahia, Brazil\n|-\n|Win\n|73–18",
"|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" rowspan=4| Salvador da Bahia, Brazil\n|-\n|Win\n|73–18\n|align=left| Lincoln Moreira dos Santos\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 10–0\n|-\n|Win\n|72–18\n|align=left| Julio Rodriguez Romero\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 10–0\n|-\n|Win\n|71–18\n|align=left| Mauricio Sánchez Saltos\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 10–0\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 |\n|-\n|Win\n|70–18\n|align=left| Nazar Kulchytskyy\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|4–1\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=5|April 26–29, 2017",
"|style=\"font-size:88%\"|4–1\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=5|April 26–29, 2017\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=5|2017 US Open National Championships\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" rowspan=5| Las Vegas, Nevada\n|-\n|Win\n|69–18\n|align=left| Jason Nolf\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|9–8\n|-\n|Win\n|68–18\n|align=left| Dylan Ness\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 11–0\n|-\n|Win\n|67–18\n|align=left| Jake Sueflohn\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 10–0\n|-\n|Win\n|66–18\n|align=left| Grant LaMont\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 10–0\n|-",
"|-\n|Win\n|66–18\n|align=left| Grant LaMont\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 10–0\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 |\n|-\n|Win\n|65–18\n|align=left| Hamed Rashidi\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|Fall\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=3|March 3–4, 2017\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=3|XXI Outstanding Ukrainian Wrestlers and Coaches Memorial\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" rowspan=3| Kiev, Ukraine\n|-\n|Win\n|64–18\n|align=left| Azamat Nurykau\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|5–3\n|-\n|Win\n|63–18\n|align=left| Surho Rashytkhanau",
"|style=\"font-size:88%\"|5–3\n|-\n|Win\n|63–18\n|align=left| Surho Rashytkhanau\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|7–6\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 |\n|-\n|Loss\n|62–18\n|align=left| Mostafa Hosseinkhani\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|0–2\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=4|February 16–17, 2017\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=4|2017 World Cup\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" rowspan=4| Kermanshah, Iran\n|-\n|Win\n|62–17\n|align=left| David Suynyuchkhanov\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 10–0\n|-\n|Win\n|61–17",
"|-\n|Win\n|62–17\n|align=left| David Suynyuchkhanov\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 10–0\n|-\n|Win\n|61–17\n|align=left| Magomedkhabib Kadimagomedov\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|8–6\n|-\n|Win\n|60–17\n|align=left| Levan Kelekhsashvili\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 10–0\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 |\n|-\n|Loss\n|59–17\n|align=left| Rashid Kurbanov\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|3–3\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=3|December 11, 2016\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=3|2016 World Championships",
"|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=3|2016 World Championships\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" rowspan=3| Budapest, Hungary\n|-\n|Win\n|59–16\n|align=left| Davit Tlashadze\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|4–1\n|-\n|Win\n|58–16\n|align=left| Gitinomagomed Gadzhiyev\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 12–1\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 |\n|-\n|Win\n|57–16\n|align=left| Jordan Oliver\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|4–3\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=2|November 10–12, 2016",
"|style=\"font-size:88%\"|4–3\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=2|November 10–12, 2016\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=2|2016 Bill Farrell Memorial International (US World Team Trials)\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" rowspan=2| New York City, New York\n|-\n|Win\n|56–16\n|align=left| Jordan Oliver\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|2–1\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 |\n|-\n|Win\n|55–16\n|align=left| Ildus Giniyatullin\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|4–3\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=3|July 9–10, 2016",
"|style=\"font-size:88%\"|4–3\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=3|July 9–10, 2016\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=3|2016 Grand Prix of Spain\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" rowspan=3| Madrid, Spain\n|-\n|Win\n|54–16\n|align=left| Hamed Vafaei\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 10–0\n|-\n|Win\n|53–16\n|align=left| Kubilay Cakici\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|7–5\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 |\n|-\n|Win\n|52–16\n|align=left| Dauren Zhumagaziev\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|10–4\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=3|June 17–19, 2016",
"|style=\"font-size:88%\"|10–4\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=3|June 17–19, 2016\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=3|2016 Poland Open\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" rowspan=3| Spala, Poland\n|-\n|Loss\n|51–16\n|align=left| Ikhtiyor Navruzov\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|8–10\n|-\n|Win\n|51–15\n|align=left| Zafer Dama\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|3–0\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 |\n|-\n|Win\n|50–15\n|align=left| Davit Tlashadze\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 10–0\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=4|June 11–12, 2016",
"|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 10–0\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=4|June 11–12, 2016\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=4|2016 World Cup\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" rowspan=4| Los Angeles, California\n|-\n|Win\n|49–15\n|align=left| Mostafa Hosseinkhani\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|5–2\n|-\n|Win\n|48–15\n|align=left| Omarov Gadzhimurad\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 10–0\n|-\n|Win\n|47–15\n|align=left| Vinod Kumar Omprakash\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 10–0\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 | \n|-\n|Loss\n|46–15",
"|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 10–0\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 | \n|-\n|Loss\n|46–15\n|align=left| Bernard Futrell\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|4–8\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"rowspan=2|April 9, 2016\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"rowspan=2|2016 US Olympic Team Trials\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" rowspan=2|\n Iowa City, Iowa\n|-\n|Loss\n|46–14\n|align=left| Zain Retherford\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|2–9\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 |\n|-\n|Loss\n|46–13\n|align=left| Anthony Montero\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|6–10",
"|-\n|Loss\n|46–13\n|align=left| Anthony Montero\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|6–10\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=3|February 26–28, 2016\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=3|2016 Pan American Continental Championships\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" rowspan=3| Frisco, Texas\n|-\n|Win\n|46–12\n|align=left| Brandon Díaz\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|3–2\n|-\n|Win\n|45–12\n|align=left| Dillon Williams\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 14–1\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 |\n|-\n|Loss\n|44–12\n|align=left| Safa Aksoy",
"|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 |\n|-\n|Loss\n|44–12\n|align=left| Safa Aksoy\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" |2–2\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" |February 5–7, 2016\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" |2016 Yaşar Doğu International\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" | Istanbul, Turkey\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 |\n|-\n|Win\n|44–11\n|align=left| Miroslav Kirov\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|Fall\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=5|September 12, 2015\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=5|2015 World Championships",
"|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=5|2015 World Championships\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" rowspan=5| Las Vegas, Nevada\n|-\n|Loss\n|43–11\n|align=left| Hassan Yazdani\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|4–9\n|-\n|Win\n|43–10\n|align=left| Kamar Arun\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 10–0\n|-\n|Win\n|42–10\n|align=left| Robert Olle\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 12–1\n|-\n|Win\n|41–10\n|align=left| Johnathan Scott Duque\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 10–0\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 |\n|-\n|Win\n|40–10\n|align=left| Nick Marable",
"|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 |\n|-\n|Win\n|40–10\n|align=left| Nick Marable\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|2–1\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=2|July 25, 2015\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=2|2015 US World Team Special Wrestle-off\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" rowspan=2| Fargo, North Dakota\n|-\n|Win\n|39–10\n|align=left| Nick Marable\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|4–0\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 |\n|-\n|Win\n|38–10\n|align=left| Frank Chamizo\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|5–5",
"|-\n|Win\n|38–10\n|align=left| Frank Chamizo\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|5–5\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=3|July 11, 2015\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=3|2015 Grand Prix of Spain\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" rowspan=3| Madrid, Spain\n|-\n|Win\n|37–10\n|align=left| Takojima Nobuyoshi\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|7–0\n|-\n|Win\n|36–10\n|align=left| Alec Bauer\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 10–0\n|-\n|Win\n|35–10\n|align=left| Dustin Schlatter\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|4–2\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=4|June 12–14, 2015",
"|style=\"font-size:88%\"|4–2\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=4|June 12–14, 2015\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=4|2015 US World Team Trials\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" rowspan=4| Madison, Wisconsin\n|-\n|Win\n|34–10\n|align=left| Dustin Schlatter\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|5–0\n|-\n|Win\n|33–10\n|align=left| Kevin LeValley\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 13–2\n|-\n|Win\n|32–10\n|align=left| Nazar Kulchytskyy\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|9–7\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 |\n|-\n|Win\n|31–10\n|align=left| Kevin LeValley",
"|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 |\n|-\n|Win\n|31–10\n|align=left| Kevin LeValley\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 13–0\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=7|May 7–9, 2015\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=7|2015 US National Championships\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" rowspan=7| Las Vegas, Nevada\n|-\n|Win\n|30–10\n|align=left| Moza Fay\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 15–4\n|-\n|Win\n|29–10\n|align=left| Adam Hall\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 10–0\n|-\n|Win\n|28–10\n|align=left| Mike Moreno\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 11–0\n|-\n|Loss",
"|-\n|Win\n|28–10\n|align=left| Mike Moreno\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 11–0\n|-\n|Loss\n|27–10\n|align=left| Kevin LeValley\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|5–5\n|-\n|Win\n|27–9\n|align=left| Chase Nelson\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 13–2\n|-\n|Win\n|26–9\n|align=left| Connor Keating\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 12–2\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 |\n|-\n|Loss\n|25–9\n|align=left| Nick Marable\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|2-8\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=5|July 18–24, 2014\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=5|2013 US World Team Trials Phase II",
"|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=5|2013 US World Team Trials Phase II\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" rowspan=5| Fargo, North Dakota\n|-\n|Loss\n|25–8\n|align=left| Nick Marable\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|1–2\n|-\n|Win\n|25–7\n|align=left| Kyle Ruschell\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|8–4\n|-\n|Win\n|24–7\n|align=left| Moza Fay\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|5–4\n|-\n|Win\n|23–7\n|align=left| Chase Pami\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|4–1\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 |\n|-\n|Loss\n|22–7\n|align=left| Evgheni Nedealco",
"|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 |\n|-\n|Loss\n|22–7\n|align=left| Evgheni Nedealco\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|Fall\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=3|July 8–12, 2014\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=3|2014 University World Championships\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" rowspan=3| Pécs, Hungary\n|-\n|Win\n|22–6\n|align=left| Shamil Magomedov\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|8–4\n|-\n|Win\n|21–6\n|align=left| Jere Kunnas\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|11–5\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 |\n|-\n|Win\n|20–6\n|align=left| Adam Hall",
"|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 |\n|-\n|Win\n|20–6\n|align=left| Adam Hall\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|4–2\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=8|May 22–25, 2014\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=8|2014 US University National Championships\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" rowspan=8| Akron, Ohio\n|-\n|Win\n|19–6\n|align=left| Adam Hall\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|4–1\n|-\n|Win\n|18–6\n|align=left| Steve Santos\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 11–0\n|-\n|Win\n|17–6\n|align=left| Josh Demas\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 11–0\n|-\n|Win\n|16–6",
"|-\n|Win\n|17–6\n|align=left| Josh Demas\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 11–0\n|-\n|Win\n|16–6\n|align=left| Chad Walsh\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 11–1\n|-\n|Win\n|15–6\n|align=left| Luke Blanton\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 12–0\n|-\n|Win\n|14–6\n|align=left| Brandon Nelsen\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 12–2\n|-\n|Win\n|13–6\n|align=left| Howell Clements\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|Fall\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 |\n|-\n|Loss\n|12–6\n|align=left| Kyle Ruschell\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|5–8",
"|-\n|Loss\n|12–6\n|align=left| Kyle Ruschell\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|5–8\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=5|April 17–19, 2014\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=5|2014 US Open National Championships\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" rowspan=5| Las Vegas, Nevada\n|-\n|Loss\n|12–5\n|align=left| Nick Marable\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|1–5\n|-\n|Win\n|12–4\n|align=left| Jason Welch\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|10–10\n|-\n|Win\n|11–4\n|align=left| Chase Nelson\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|9–8\n|-\n|Win\n|10–4\n|align=left| Devon Parrish",
"|11–4\n|align=left| Chase Nelson\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|9–8\n|-\n|Win\n|10–4\n|align=left| Devon Parrish\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 10–0\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 | \n|-\n|Loss\n|9–4\n|align=left| Ulukman Mamatov\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|1–3\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=2|July 11, 2013\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=2|2013 Summer Universiade\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" rowspan=2|\n Kazan, Russia\n|-\n|Win\n|9–3\n|align=left| Petteri Martikainen\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|4–0\n|-",
"Kazan, Russia\n|-\n|Win\n|9–3\n|align=left| Petteri Martikainen\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|4–0\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 |\n|-\n|Loss\n|8–3\n|align=left| Jason Chamberlain\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|4–8\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=2|June 21, 2013\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=2|2013 US World Team Trials Challenge\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" rowspan=2| Stillwater, Oklahoma\n|-\n|Loss\n|8–2\n|align=left| Drew Headlee\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|Fall\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 |\n|-\n|Win\n|8–1",
"|style=\"font-size:88%\"|Fall\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=7 |\n|-\n|Win\n|8–1\n|align=left| Jason Chamberlain\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|3–0\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=9|May 24–26, 2013\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=9|2013 US University National Championships\n|style=\"text-align:left;font-size:88%;\" rowspan=9| Akron, Ohio\n|-\n|Loss\n|7–1\n|align=left| Jason Chamberlain\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|4–5\n|-\n|Win\n|7–0\n|align=left| Jason Chamberlain\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|4–2\n|-\n|Win\n|6–0\n|align=left| Hunter Stieber",
"|align=left| Jason Chamberlain\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|4–2\n|-\n|Win\n|6–0\n|align=left| Hunter Stieber\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|Fall\n|-\n|Win\n|5–0\n|align=left| Nick Dardanes\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 13–2\n|-\n|Win\n|4–0\n|align=left| Zack Beitz\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 12–2\n|-\n|Win\n|3–0\n|align=left| Tyler Scotten\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 10–0\n|-\n|Win\n|2–0\n|align=left| Daniel White\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 10–0\n|-\n|Win\n|1–0\n|align=left| Zachary Stepan\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 10–0\n|-",
"NCAA record",
"! colspan=\"8\"| NCAA Championships Matches\n|-\n! Res.\n! Record\n! Opponent\n! Score\n! Date\n! Event\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=6 | 2015 NCAA Championships at 157 lbs\n|-\n|Win\n|18–6\n|align=left| Nick Brascetta\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|3–2\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=6|March 19–21, 2015\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=6|2015 NCAA Division I National Championships\n|-\n|Win\n|17–6\n|align=left| Ian Miller\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|MD 13–4\n|-\n|Loss\n|16–6\n|align=left| Isaiah Martinez",
"|align=left| Ian Miller\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|MD 13–4\n|-\n|Loss\n|16–6\n|align=left| Isaiah Martinez\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|2–3\n|-\n|Win\n|16–5\n|align=left| Mitchell Minott\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|MD 12–4\n|-\n|Win\n|15–5\n|align=left| Noel Blanco\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 20–5\n|-\n|Win\n|14–5\n|align=left| Markus Scheidel\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|MD 14–3\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=6 | 2014 NCAA Championships at 157 lbs\n|-\n|Win\n|13–5\n|align=left| Brian Realbuto\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|MFF",
"|-\n|Win\n|13–5\n|align=left| Brian Realbuto\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|MFF\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=6|March 20–22, 2014\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=6|2014 NCAA Division I National Championships\n|-\n|Win\n|12–5\n|align=left| Isaac Jordan\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 15–0\n|-\n|Win\n|11–5\n|align=left| Joey Lavallee\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|MD 12–2\n|-\n|Loss\n|10–5\n|align=left| Jayson Ness\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|Fall\n|-\n|Win\n|10–4\n|align=left| Zach Brunson\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|MD 14–3\n|-\n|Win\n|9–4",
"|-\n|Win\n|10–4\n|align=left| Zach Brunson\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|MD 14–3\n|-\n|Win\n|9–4\n|align=left| Josh Kreimier\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|MD 14–3\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=6 | 2013 NCAA Championships 7th at 157 lbs\n|-\n|Win\n|8–4\n|align=left| James Fleming\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|MD 14–4\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=6|March 21–23, 2013\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=6|2013 NCAA Division I National Championships\n|-\n|Loss\n|7–4\n|align=left| Jedd Moore\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|Fall\n|-\n|Win\n|7–3",
"|-\n|Loss\n|7–4\n|align=left| Jedd Moore\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|Fall\n|-\n|Win\n|7–3\n|align=left| Dylan Alton\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|MD 14–4\n|-\n|Win\n|6–3\n|align=left| Taylor Walsh\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|MD 19–8\n|-\n|Win\n|5–3\n|align=left| Bobby Barnhisel\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TF 21–6\n|-\n|Loss\n|4–3\n|align=left| Kyle Bradley\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|TB 5–6\n|-\n! style=background:white colspan=6 | 2012 NCAA Championships 7th at 157 lbs\n|-\n|Win\n|4–2\n|align=left| Walter Peppelman\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|9–1",
"|-\n|Win\n|4–2\n|align=left| Walter Peppelman\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|9–1\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=6|March 15–17, 2012\n|style=\"font-size:88%\" rowspan=6|2012 NCAA Division I National Championships\n|-\n|Loss\n|3–2\n|align=left| Dylan Alton\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|3–4\n|-\n|Win\n|3–1\n|align=left| Steve Monk\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|3–1\n|-\n|Loss\n|2–1\n|align=left| Jason Welch\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|1–2\n|-\n|Win\n|2–0\n|align=left| James Fleming\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|OT 8–3\n|-\n|Win\n|1–0\n|align=left| Brian Tanen",
"|2–0\n|align=left| James Fleming\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|OT 8–3\n|-\n|Win\n|1–0\n|align=left| Brian Tanen\n|style=\"font-size:88%\"|MD 16–7\n|-",
"Stats \n\n! Season\n! Year\n! School\n! Placement\n! Weigh Class\n! Record\n! Win\n|-\n|2015\n|Senior\n|rowspan=4|University of Nebraska\n|3rd\n|rowspan=4|157\n|30–5\n|85.71%\n|-\n|2014\n|Junior\n|3rd\n|35–2\n|94.60%\n|-\n|2013\n|Sophomore\n|7th\n|25–6\n|89.65%\n|-\n|2012\n|Freshman\n|7th\n|34–5\n|87.18%\n|-\n|colspan=5 bgcolor=\"LIGHTGREY\"|Career\n|bgcolor=\"LIGHTGREY\"|124–18\n|bgcolor=\"LIGHTGREY\"|92.12%\n\nReferences",
"References \n\nLiving people\n1992 births\nAmerican male sport wrestlers\nWorld Wrestling Championships medalists\nSportspeople from Willingboro Township, New Jersey\nWillingboro High School alumni\nNebraska Cornhuskers wrestlers\nPan American Wrestling Championships medalists\n21st-century American sportsmen"
] |
List of state leaders in the 9th century
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20state%20leaders%20in%20the%209th%20century
|
[
"This is a list of state leaders in the 9th century (801–900) AD.\n\nAfrica\n\nAfrica: Northeast\n\nMakuria (complete list) –\nMikhael, King (c.785/794–804/813)\nIoannes, King (early–mid 9th century)\nZakharias III, King (mid 9th century)\nGeorgios I, King (late 9th–early 10th century)\n\nAfrica: Northcentral",
"Africa: Northcentral\n\nRustamid dynasty (complete list) –\nʿAbdu l-Wahhab ibn Abd ar-Rahman, Imam (788–824)\nAflah ibn ʿAbdi l-Wahhab, Imam (824–872)\nAbu Bakr ibn Aflah, Imam (872–874)\nMuhammad Abu l-Yaqzan ibn Aflah, Imam (874–894)\nYusuf Abu Hatim ibn Muhammad Abi l-Yaqzan, Imam (894–895, 899–906) \nYaʿqub ibn Aflah, Imam (895–899)",
"Aghlabid Emirs\nIbrahim I ibn al-Aghlab ibn Salim (800–812)\nAbdallah I ibn Ibrahim (812–817)\nZiyadat Allah I ibn Ibrahim(817–838)\nal-Aghlab Abu Iqal ibn Ibrahim (838–841)\nMuhammad I ibn al-Aghlab Abi Affan (841–856)\nAhmad ibn Muhammad (856–863)\nZiyadat Allah II ibn Muhammad (863)\nAbu 'l-Gharaniq Muhammad II ibn Ahmad (863–875)\nAbu Ishaq Ibrahim II ibn Ahmad (875–902)\n\nAfrica: Northwest",
"Africa: Northwest\n\nBarghawata (complete list) –\nIlyâs ibn Sâlih, King (792–842) \nYunus ibn Ilyas, King (c.842–888)\nAbu Ghafir Muhammad, King (c.888–917)\n\nIdrisid dynasty of Morocco (complete list) –\nIdris II, Emir (791–828)\nMuhammad ibn Idris, Emir (828–836)\nAli ibn Idris, Emir (836–849)\nYahya ibn Muhammad, Emir (849–863)\nYahya ibn Yahya, Emir (863–866)\nAli ibn Umar, Emir (866–unknown)\nYahya ibn al-Qasim, Emir (unknown–905)",
"Emirate of Nekor (complete list) –\nSa'id I ibn Idris, Emir (760–803)\nSalih II ibn Sa'id, Emir (803–864)\nSa'id II ibn Salih, Emir (864–916)\n\nAmericas\n\nAmericas: Mesoamerica\n\nMaya civilization\n\nCalakmul (complete list) –\nChan Pet, King (c. 849)\n\nCopán (complete list) –\nYax Pasaj Chan Yopaat, King (763–post-810)\nUkit Took, King (822–?)\n\t\nPalenque (complete list) –\nJanaab Pakal III, Ajaw (799–?)",
"Tikal (complete list) –\nNuun Ujol K'inich, Ajaw (c.800)\nDark Sun, Ajaw (c.810)\nJewel K'awiil, Ajaw (c.849)\nJasaw Chan K'awiil II, Ajaw (c.869)\n\nAsia\n\nAsia: Central\n\nTibet\n\nTibetan Empire (complete list) –\nSadnalegs, Emperor (c.800/04–c.815)\nRalpacan, Emperor (815–836) \nLangdarma, Emperor (836–842)\n\nUzbekistan",
"Uzbekistan\n\nSamanid Empire (complete list) –\nNuh ibn Asad, Amir (819–841)\nYahya ibn Asad, Amir (819–855)\nAhmad ibn Asad, Amir (819–864)\nIlyas ibn Asad, Amir (819–856)\nIbrahim ibn Ilyas, Amir (856–867)\nNasr I, Amir (864–892)\nIsma'il ibn Ahmad, Amir (892–907)\n\nAsia: East\n\nTurks",
"Asia: East\n\nTurks\n\nUyghur Khaganate (complete list) –\nAi tengride ülüg bulmïsh alp qutlugh ulugh bilge, Khagan (795–808)\nAi tengride qut bulmïsh külüg bilge, Khagan (808–821)\nKün tengride ülüg bulmïsh alp küchlüg bilge, Khagan (821–824)\nAi tengride qut bulmïsh alp bilge, Khagan (824–832)\nAi tengride qut bulmïsh alp külüg bilge, Khagan (832–839)\nKürebir, Khagan (839–840)\nÖge, Khagan (841–847)\n\nChina",
"China\n\nTang dynasty (complete list) –\nDezong, Emperor (780–805)\nShunzong, Emperor (805)\nXianzong, Emperor (806–820)\nMuzong, Emperor (821–824)\nJingzong, Emperor (824–826)\nWenzong, Emperor (826–840)\nWuzong, Emperor (840–846)\nXuānzong, Emperor (846–859)\nYizong, Emperor (859–873)\nXizong, Emperor (873–888)\nZhaozong, Emperor (888–904)\n\nJapan",
"Japan\n\nHeian period Japan (complete list) –\nKanmu, Emperor (781–806)\nHeizei, Emperor (806–809)\nSaga, Emperor (809–823)\nJunna, Emperor (823–833)\nNinmyō, Emperor (833–850)\nMontoku, Emperor (850–858)\nSeiwa, Emperor (858–876)\nYōzei, Emperor (876–884)\nKōkō, Emperor (884–887)\nUda, Emperor (887–897)\nDaigo, Emperor (897–930)\n\nKorea: North–South States Period",
"Korea: North–South States Period\n\nBalhae (complete list) –\nGang, King (794–809)\nJeong, King (809–812)\nHui, King (812–817)\nGan, King (817–818)\nSeon, King (818–830)\nDae Ijin, King (830–857)\nDae Geonhwang, King (857–871)\nDae Hyeonseok, King (871–894)\nDae Wihae, King (894–906)",
"Later Silla (complete list) –\nAejang, King (800–809)\nHeondeok, King (809–826)\nHeungdeok, King (826–836)\nHuigang, King (836–838)\nMinae, King (838–839)\nSinmu, King (839)\nMunseong, King (839–857)\nHeonan, King (857–861)\nGyeongmun, King (861–875)\nHeongang, King (875–886)\nJeonggang, King (886–887)\nJinseong, King (887–897)\nHyogong, King (897–912)\n\nAsia: Southeast\n\nIndonesia: Java",
"Asia: Southeast\n\nIndonesia: Java\n\nMataram Kingdom: Shailendra dynasty/Sanjaya dynasty (complete list) –\nSamaragrawira, King (800—819)\nSamaratungga, King (812—833)\nPramodhawardhani, Queen (833—856)\nRakai Pikatan, King (838—850)\nBalaputra, King (835–860)\nBalitung, King (899–911)\n\nSunda Kingdom (complete list) –\nPucukbumi Darmeswara, Maharaja (795–819)\nPrabu Gajah Kulon Rakeyan Wuwus, Maharaja (819–891)\nPrabu Darmaraksa, Maharaja (891–895)\nWindusakti Prabu Dewageng, Maharaja (895–913)\n\nMalaysia: Peninsular",
"Malaysia: Peninsular\n\nKedah Sultanate (complete list) –\nMaha Jiwa, Maharaja (c.788–832)\nKarma II, Maharaja (c.832–880)\nDarma Raja II, Maharaja (c.880–956)\n\nThailand\n\nNgoenyang (complete list) –\nLao Gab, King (8th–9th century)\n\nVietnam\n\nChampa (complete list) –\nIndravarman I, King (c.787–c.803)\n\nAsia: South\n\nAfghanistan\n\nGhurid dynasty (complete list) –\nAmir Suri, Malik (9th–10th century)\n\nTurk Shahi (complete list) –\nPati Dumi, King (?–815)\nLagaturman, King (815–c.850)\n\nBengal and Northeast India",
"Bengal and Northeast India\n\nChavda dynasty (complete list) –\nVanaraja Chavda, King (c.765–780)\nYogaraja, King (c.806–841)\nRatnaditya, King (c.842–845)\nVairisimha, King (c.845–856)\nKshemaraja, King (c.856–880)\nChamunda or Bhuyada, King (c.881–908)\n\nKamarupa: Mlechchha dynasty (complete list) –\nSalambha, King (795–815)\nHarjjaravarman, King (815–832)\nVanamalavarman, King (832–855)\nJayamala, King (855–860)\nBalavarman III, King (860–880)\nTyagasimha, King (890–900)",
"Mallabhum (complete list) –\nKharga Malla, King (841–862)\n\nPala Empire (complete list) –\nDharmapala, King (8th–9th century)\nDevapala, King (9th century)\nMahendrapala, King (9th century)\nShurapala I, King (9th century)\nVigrahapala I, King (9th century)\nNarayanapala, King (9th–10th century)\n\nIndia\n\nChahamanas of Shakambhari (complete list) –\nGovindaraja I, King (c.809–836)\nChandraraja II, King (c.836–863)\nGovindaraja II, King (c.863–890)\nChandanaraja, King (c.890–917)",
"Chandelas of Jejakabhukti (complete list) –\nNannuka, King (c.831–845)\nVakpati, King (c.845–865)\nJayashakti (Jayaśakti) and Vijayashakti, King (c.865–885)\nRahila, King (c.885–905)\n\nEastern Chalukyas (complete list) –\nVishnuvardhana IV, King (772–808)\nVijayaditya II, King (808–847)\nKali Vishnuvardhana V, King (847–849)\nVijayaditya III, King (849–892)\nChalukya Bhima I, King (892–921)",
"Chera/Perumals of Makotai (complete list) –\nRama Rajasekhara, King (c.800–844)\nSthanu Ravi Varma, King (c.844–883)\nGoda Ravi, King (c.883–913)\n\nChola dynasty (complete list) –\nVijayalaya Chola, King (c.850–870)\nAditya I, King (870–907)\n\nEastern Ganga dynasty (complete list) –\nAnantavarman III, King (c.808–812)\nRajendravarman II, King (c.812–840)\nDevendravarman IV, King (893–?)\nDevendravarman V, King (c.885–895)\nGunamaharnava I, King (c.895–939)\nVajrahasta II (or Anangabhimadeva I), King (c.895–939)",
"Western Ganga dynasty (complete list) –\nShivamara II, King (788–816) \nRachamalla I, King (816–843) \nEreganga Neetimarga, King (843–870)\nRachamalla II, King (870–907)\n\nGurjara-Pratihara dynasty (complete list) –\nNagabhata II, King (800–833)\nRamabhadra, King (833–836)\nMihira Bhoja, King (836–885)\nMahendrapala I, King (885–910)\n\nKalachuris of Tripuri (complete list) –\nLakshmanaraja I, King (825–850)\nKokalla I, King (850–890)\nShankaragana II, King (890–910)",
"Kumaon Kingdom: Katyuri (complete list) –\nBasantana Dev, King (850–870)\nKharpar Dev, King (870–880)\nAbhiraj Dev, King (880–890)\nTribhuvanraj Dev, King (890–900)\nNimbarta Dev, King (900–915)\n\nPandyan dynasty (complete list) –\nParantaka Nedunjadaiyan, King (765–815)\nVaragunan I, King (800–830)\nSrimara Srivallabha, King (815–862) \nVaragunavarman II, King (862–880)\nParantaka Viranarayana, King (880–900)\nMaravarman Rajasimha II, King (900–920)",
"Paramara dynasty of Malwa (complete list) –\nThe Pallava dynasty has two chronologies of rulers.\nDantivarman, King (late 8th–early 9th century)\n\nNandivarman III, King (mid 9th century)\nNirupathungan, King (late 9th century, only in Aiyangar chronology)\nAparajitavarman, King (882/879–897)\nThe Pallava dynasty has two chronologies of rulers.\nUpendra, King (c.800–c.818)\nVairisimha I, King (9th century)\nSiyaka I, King (9th century)\nVakpati I, King (9th–10th century)",
"Rashtrakuta dynasty –\nGovinda III, King (793–814)\nAmoghavarsha, King (814–878)\nKrishna II, King (878–914)\n\nSisodia (complete list) –\nBhathabhatt, Rajput (790–813)\nRawal singh, Rajput (813–820)\nKhumman II, Rajput (820–853)\nMahayak, Rajput (853–878)\n\nSri Lanka",
"Sri Lanka\n\nAnuradhapura Kingdom, Sri Lanka (complete list) –\nMahinda II, King (787–807)\nDappula II, King (807–812)\nMahinda III, King (812–816)\nAggabodhi VIII, King (816–827)\nDappula III, King (827–843)\nAggabodhi IX, King (843–846)\nSena I, King (846–866)\nSena II, King (866–901)\n\nAsia: West\n\nMesopotamia",
"Asia: West\n\nMesopotamia\n\nAbbasid Caliphate, Baghdad (complete list) –\nHarun al-Rashid, Caliph (786–809)\nal-Amin, Caliph (809–813)\nal-Ma'mun, Caliph (813–833)\nal-Mu'tasim, Caliph (833–842)\nal-Wathiq, Caliph (842–847)\nal-Mutawakkil, Caliph (847–861)\nal-Muntasir, Caliph (861–862)\nal-Musta'in, Caliph (862–866)\nal-Mu'tazz, Caliph (866–869)\nal-Muhtadi, Caliph (869–870)\nal-Mu'tamid, Caliph (870–892)\nal-Mu'tadid, Caliph (892–902)\n\nPersia",
"Persia\n\nSaffarid dynasty (complete list) –\nYa'qub ibn al-Layth al-Saffar, Amir (861–879)\nAmr ibn al-Layth, Amir (879–901)\n\nSamanid Empire (complete list) –\nNuh ibn Asad, Amir (819–841)\nYahya ibn Asad, Amir (819–855)\nAhmad ibn Asad, Amir (819–864)\nIlyas ibn Asad, Amir (819–856)\nIbrahim ibn Ilyas, Amir (856–867)\nNasr I, Amir (864–892)\nIsma'il ibn Ahmad, Amir (892–907)\n\nYemen",
"Yemen\n\nYemeni Zaidi State (complete list) –\nMuhammad ibn Ja'far al-Sadiq, Imam (783–818)\nMuhammad ibn Ja'far al-Sadiq, Caliph (815-818)\nal-Hadi ila'l-Haqq Yahya, Imam (897–911)\n\nEurope\n\nEurope: Balkans\n\nFirst Bulgarian Empire (complete list) –\nKardam, Khan (777–803)\nKrum, Khan (803–814)\nOmurtag, Khan (814–831)\nMalamir, Khan (831–836)\nPresian I, Khan (836–852)\nBoris I, Knyaz (852–889)\nVladimir, Knyaz (889–893)\nSimeon I, Emperor (893–927)",
"Byzantine Empire (complete list) –\nIrene, Regent (780–790, 792–797), Empress (797–802)\nNikephoros I, Emperor (802–811)\nStaurakios, Co-Emperor (802–811), Emperor (811)\nMichael I Rangabe, Emperor (811–813)\nTheophylact, Co-Emperor (811–813)\nLeo V the Armenian, Emperor (813–820)\nConstantine (Symbatios), Junior Emperor (813–820)\nMichael II the Amorian, Emperor (820–829)\nTheophilos, Emperor (829–842)",
"Michael III, Emperor (842–867)\nBasil I the Macedonian, Emperor (867–886)\nLeo VI the Wise, Co-Emperor (870–886), Emperor (886–912)\n\nEmirate of Crete (complete list) –\nAbu Hafs Umar al-Iqritishi, Emir (827/828–c.855)\nShu'ayb ibn Umar, Emir (c.855–880)\nAbu Abdallah Umar ibn Shu'ayb, Emir (c.880–895)\nMuhammad ibn Shu'ayb al-Zarkun, Emir (c.895–910)",
"Duchy of Croatia (complete list) –\nVišeslav, Duke (c.785–c.802)\nBorna, Duke (c.810–821)\nVladislav, Duke (821–c.823)\nLjudemisl, Duke (c.823–c.835)\nMislav, Duke (c.835–c.845)\nTrpimir I, Duke (845–864)\nDomagoj, Duke (864–876)\nIljko, Duke (876–878)\nZdeslav, Duke (878–879)\nMuncimir, Duke (892–910)",
"Principality of Serbia (complete list) –\nVišeslav, King (814–822)\nRadoslav, Prince (814–822)\nProsigoj, Prince (?–c.830)\nVlastimir, Prince (c.830–851)\nMutimir, Prince (c.850–891)\nPribislav, Prince (891–892)\nPetar, Prince (892–917)\n\nEurope: British Isles\n\nGreat Britain: Scotland",
"Europe: British Isles\n\nGreat Britain: Scotland\n\nDál Riata (complete list) –\nCaustantín mac Fergusa, King (unknown)\nConall mac Taidg, King (c.805–807)\nConall mac Áedáin, King (c.807–811)\nDomnall mac Caustantín, King (c.811–835)\nÓengus II, King (unknown)\nEóganán mac Óengusa, King (unknown)\nÁed mac Boanta, King (c.835–839)\nAlpín mac Echdach, King (unknown)\nCináed mac Ailpín, King (unknown)",
"Picts (complete list) –\nConstantine (I), King (789–820)\nÓengus II, King (820–834)\nDrest IX, King (834–837)\nEóganan, King (837–839)\nUurad, competitor King (839–842)\nBridei VI, competitor King (842–843)\nCiniod II, competitor King (843)\nBridei VII, competitor King (843–845)\nDrest X, competitor King (845–848)",
"The Picts, traditionally The Scots (complete list) –\nKenneth MacAlpin, King (843–858)\nDomnall mac Ailpí, or Donald I, King (858–862)\nCausantín mac Cináeda, or Constantine I (II), King (862–877)\nÁed mac Cináeda, King (877–878)\nGiric, King (878–889)\nEochaid, disputed King (c.878–889)\nDonald II, King (889–900)\nConstantine II (III), King (900–943)",
"Kingdom of Strathclyde / Alt Clut (complete list) –\nCynan, King (798–816)\nDumnagual IV, King (816–?)\nConstantine, King (? 859)\nNeithon, King (859–?)\nArtgal, King (?–872)\nRun, King (872–878)\nEochaid, King (uncertain)\nDonald I, King (889–900)\nDonald II, King (889–900)\nConstantine II (III), King (900–943)\n\nLochlann –\nGofraid of Lochlann, King (pre-872–873)\n\nIsle of Man (complete list) –\nGwriad, King (?–825)\nMerfyn Frych, King (825–836)",
"Isle of Man (complete list) –\nGwriad, King (?–825)\nMerfyn Frych, King (825–836)\n\nKingdom of the Isles (complete list) –\nKetill Flatnose, King (9th century)\n\nGreat Britain: Northumbria\n\nKingdom of Northumbria (complete list) –\nEardwulf, King (796–806/808)\nÆlfwald II, King (806/808–808/810)\nEanred, King (810–841)\nÆthelred II, King (840/841–844, 858–862)\nRedwulf, King (844)\nOsberht, King (844–848/849, 867)\nÆlla II, King (862/863–867)",
"Norse era Northumbria / Scandinavian York (complete list) –\nEcgberht, King (867–872)\nRicsige, King (872–876)\nHalfdan Ragnarsson, King (876–877)\nInterregnum\nGuthfrith I, King (c.883–895)\nSiefredus, King (c.895–900)\nCnut, King (c.900–905)\n\nGreat Britain: England\n\nThe Britons (complete list) –\nCynan Dindaethwy, King (798–816)\nMerfyn Frych, King (825–844)\nRhodri ap Merfyn, King (844–878)\nAnarawd ap Rhodri, King (878–916)",
"Kingdom of East Anglia (complete list) –\nCœnwulf, King (?–821), also King of Kent and of Mercia\nCeolwulf, King (821–823), also King of Kent and of Mercia\nBeornwulf, King (823–826), also King of Mercia\nÆthelstan, King post-827–840s)\nÆthelweard, King (840s–854)\nEdmund the Martyr, King (855–869)\nOswald, Sub-King (870s)\nÆthelred II, Sub-King (870s)\nGuthrum, King (879–890)\nEohric, King (890–902)\n\nKingdom of Essex (complete list) –\nSigered\nKing (798–812)\nDuke (812–825)",
"Kingdom of Essex (complete list) –\nSigered\nKing (798–812)\nDuke (812–825)\n\nKingdom of Kent (complete list) –\nCuthred, King (797/798–807)\nCoenwulf, King (fl. 809)\nCeolwulf I, King (fl. 822–823)\nBaldred, King (?–825)\nEgbert, King (825–839)\nÆthelwulf, King (825–858)\nÆthelstan, King (fl. 839–851)\nÆthelberht, King (fl. 855–866)\nÆthelred, King (866–871)",
"Mercia (complete list –\nCoenwulf, King (796–821), also King of Kent and of East Anglia\nCeolwulf I, King (821–823), also King of Kent and of East Anglia\nBeornwulf, King (823–826), also King of East Anglia\nLudeca, King (826–827)\nWiglaf, King (827–829, 830–839)\nEcgberht, King (829–830)\nWigmund, King (c.840)\nÆlfflæd, Regent (c.840)\nBeorhtwulf, King (840–852)\nBurgred, King (852–874)\nCeolwulf II, King (874–c.879)\nÆthelred II, Lord (c.881–911)",
"Kingdom of Wessex (complete list) –\nBeorhtric, King (786–802)\nEgbert, King (802–839)\nÆthelwulf, King (839–858)\nÆthelbald, King (858–860)\nÆthelberht, King (860–865)\nÆthelred, King (865–871)\nAlfred the Great, King (871–899)\nEdward the Elder, King (899–924)\n\nGreat Britain: Wales\n\nGlywysing (complete list) –\nArthfael Hen ap Rhys, King (785–c.825)\nRhys ap Arthfael, King (c.830–c.840)\nHywel ap Rhys, King (c.840–886)\nOwain ap Hywel, King (886–c.930)",
"Gwent (complete list) –\nAthrwys ap Ffernfael, King (774–810)\nIdwallon ap Gwrgant, King (810–842)\nIthel ap Hywel, King (842–848)\nMeurig ap Hywel, King (848–849)\nMeurig ap Arthfael Hen, King (849–874)\nFfernfael ap Meurig, King (874–880)\nBrochfael ap Meurig, King (880–920)\n\nKingdom of Gwynedd (complete list) –\nCynan Dindaethwy ap Rhodri, King (c.798–816)\nHywel ap Rhodri Molwynog, King (814–825)\nMerfyn Frych, King (825–844)\nRhodri the Great, King (844–878)\nAnarawd ap Rhodri, King (878–916)",
"Seisyllwg –\n, King (770–807)\nGwgon ap Meurig, King (808–872)\nCadell ap Rhodri, King (872–909)\n\nKingdom of Powys (complete list) –\nCadell ap Brochfael, King (773–808)\nCyngen ap Cadell, King (808–854)\nRhodri Mawr, King (854–878)\nMerfyn ap Rhodri, King (878–900)\nLlywelyn ap Merfyn, King (900–942)\n\nIreland",
"Ireland\n\nIreland (complete list) –\nÁed Oirdnide, High King (793–817)\nConchobar mac Donnchada, High King (819–833)\nFedelmid mac Crimthainn, High King (836–841)\nNiall Caille, High King (832–846)\nMáel Sechnaill mac Máele Ruanaid, High King (846–860)\nÁed Findliath, High King (861–876)\nFlann Sinna, High King (877–914)",
"Kingdom of Ailech (complete list) –\nÁed Oirdnide mac Néill, King (788–819)\nMurchad mac Máele Dúin, King (819–823)\nNiall Caille mac Áeda, King (823–846)\nMáel Dúin mac Áeda, King (846–?)\nÁed Findliath mac Néill, King (c.855–879)\nMurchad mac Máele Dúin, King (879–887)\nFlaithbertach mac Murchado, King (887–896)\nDomnall mac Áeda, King (887–915)\nNiall Glúndub mac Áeda, King (896–919)",
"Airgíalla (complete list) –\nCu Masach mac Cathal, King (?–825)\nGofraidh mac Fearghus, King (fl.835)\nFoghartaigh mac Mael Breasal, King (?–850/852)\nCongalach mac Finnachta, King (?–874)\nMael Padraig mac Mael Curarada, King (?–882)\nMaol Craoibh ua Duibh Sionach, King (?–917)\n\nKingdom of Breifne (complete list) –\nMuircheartach mac Donnghal, King (c.800–806)\nMael Dúin mac Échtgal, King (?–822)\nCeallach son of Cearnach, King (?)\nTighearnán mac Seallachan, King (c.888)\nRuarc mac Tighearnáin, Lord (c.893)",
"Connachta (complete list) –\nMuirgius mac Tommaltaig, King (796–815)\nDiarmait mac Tommaltaig, King (815–833)\nCathal mac Muirgiussa, King (833–839)\nMurchad mac Áedo, King (839–840)\nFergus mac Fothaid, King (840–843)\nConchobar mac Taidg Mór, King (872–882)\nÁed mac Conchobair, King (882–888)\nTadg mac Conchobair, King (888–900)\nCathal mac Conchobair, King (900–925)",
"Kingdom of Dublin (complete list) –\nAmlaíb Conung, King (c.853–871)\nÍmar, King (c.857–873)\nAuisle, King (c.863–867)\nOistin mac Amlaíb, possibly king (873–875)\nHalfdan Ragnarsson, disputed king (875–877)\nBárid mac Ímair, King (873–881)\nSichfrith mac Ímair, King (?–888)\nSitriuc mac Ímair, King (?–896)\nSichfrith Jarl, disputed king (893–?)\nGlúniarann, King (c.895)\nÍmar ua Ímair, King (?–904)",
"Leinster (complete list) –\nFínsnechta Cethardec, King (795–808)\nMuiredach mac Brain (died 818), King (808–818)\nMuiredach mac Ruadrach, King (818–829)\nCellach mac Brain, King (829–834)\nBran mac Fáeláin, King (834–838)\nTúathal mac Máele-Brigte, King (851–854)\nRuarc mac Brain, King (854–862)\nMuirecán mac Diarmata, King (862–863)\nDúnlaing mac Muiredaig, King (863–869)\nAilill mac Dúnlainge (died 871), King (869–871)\nDomnall mac Muirecáin, King (871–884)\nMuiredach mac Brain, King (884–885)",
"Domnall mac Muirecáin, King (871–884)\nMuiredach mac Brain, King (884–885)\nCerball mac Muirecáin, King (885–909)",
"Kingdom of Meath (complete list) –\nMuiredach mac Domnaill Midi, King (799–802)\nDiarmait mac Donnchado, King (802–803)\nConchobar mac Donnchado, King (803–833)\nNiall mac Diarmato, King (?–826)\nMáel Ruanaid mac Donnchada Midi, King (833–843)\nFland mac Maele Ruanaid, King (843–845)\nMáel Sechnaill mac Maíl Ruanaid, King (845–862)\nLorcán mac Cathail, King (862–864)\nConchobar mac Donnchado, King (?–864)\nDonnchad mac Aedacain, King (864–877)\nFlann Sinna mac Maíl Sechnaill, King (877–916)",
"Uí Maine (complete list) –\nDub Dá Leithe mac Tomaltach, King (?–816)\nCathal mac Murchadh, King (794–816)\nCathal mac Ailell, King (834–844)\nMughroin mac Sochlachan, King (?–904)",
"Ulaid / Ulster (complete list) –\nEochaid mac Fiachnai, King (790–810)\nCairell mac Fiachnai, King (810–819)\nMáel Bressail mac Ailillo, King (819–825)\nMuiredach mac Eochada, King (825–839)\nMatudán mac Muiredaig, King (839–857)\nLethlobar mac Loingsig, King (857–873)\nCathalán mac Indrechtaig, King (857–871)\nAinbíth mac Áedo, King (873–882)\nEochocán mac Áedo, King (882–883)\nAiremón mac Áedo, King (882–886)\nFiachnae mac Ainbítha, King (886–886)\nBécc mac Airemóin, King (886–893)",
"Fiachnae mac Ainbítha, King (886–886)\nBécc mac Airemóin, King (886–893)\nMuiredach mac Eochocáin, King (893–895)\nMáel Mocheirge mac Indrechtaig, King (893–896)\nAitíth mac Laigni, King (896–898)\nCenn Etig mac Lethlobair, King (896–900)\nÁed mac Eochocáin, King (898–919)",
"Europe: Central\n\nEast Francia, later Kingdom of Germany (complete list) –\nLouis the German, King (843–876)\nLouis the Younger, King (880–882)\nCharles the Fat, King (882–887)\nArnulf, King (887–899)\nLouis the Child, King (899–911)\n\nDuchy of Alsace (see also) –\nCharles, Duke (829–831)\nHugh, Duke (867–885)\n\nPrince-Bishopric of Augsburg (complete list) –\nAdalbero, Prince-bishop (887–909)",
"Prince-Bishopric of Augsburg (complete list) –\nAdalbero, Prince-bishop (887–909)\n\nDuchy of Bavaria (complete list) –\nLouis II the German, King (817–843)\t\nCarloman, King (876–880)\t\nLouis III the Younger, King (880–882)\t\nCharles the Fat, King (882–887)\t\nEngeldeo, Margrave (890–895)\t\nLuitpold, Margrave (895–907)\n\nBohemians –\nLech, Prince (?–805)\n\nDuchy of Bohemia (complete list) –\nBořivoj I (c.867–c.889)\nSpytihněv I (c.894–915)\n\nMarch of Carinthia –\nGundachar, Margrave (858–863), Prefect (863–869)",
"March of Carinthia –\nGundachar, Margrave (858–863), Prefect (863–869)\n\nDuchy of Franconia (complete list) –\nHenry, Margrave (882–892)\n\nCounty of Hainaut (complete list) –\nReginar I, Count (870–898, 908–915)\nSigard, Count (898–908)\n\nCounty of Frisia / County of Holland (complete list) –\nGerolf, Count (880–896)\nDirk I, Count (896–931)",
"Lotharingia (complete list) –\nLothair II, King (855–869)\nCharles the Bald, King (869–870)\nLouis the Younger, King (880–882)\nCharles the Fat, King (882–887)\nArnulf of Carinthia, King (887–895)\nZwentibold, King (895–900)\nLouis the Child, King (900–911)\n\nMagyar tribes (complete list) –\nÁlmos, Grand Prince (c.850–c.895)\nÁrpád, Grand Prince (c.895–c.907)",
"Prince-Bishopric of Mainz (complete list) –\nRichholf, Prince-archbishop (787–813)\nAdolf, Prince-archbishop (813–826)\nOdgar, Prince-archbishop (826–847)\nRabanus Maurus, Prince-archbishop (848–856)\nKarl, Prince-archbishop (856–863)\nLudbert, Prince-archbishop (863–889)\nSunderhold, Prince-archbishop (889–891)\nHatto I, Prince-archbishop (891–913)",
"Great Moravia (complete list) – \nMojmir I, Duke (c.830–846)\nRastislav, Duke (846–870)\nSlavomir, Duke (871)\nSvatopluk I, Duke (870–871, (871–pre-885), King (pre-885–894)\nMojmír II, Duke (894–906)\n\nMargraviate of the Nordgau –\nErnest, Margrave (?–861)\nRodold, Margrave (861–c.880)\nEngeldeo, Margrave (c.880–895)\nLuitpold, Margrave (895–903)\n\nObotrites (complete list) –\nThrasco, Prince (?–c.800)\nSlavomir, Prince (pre-810–819)\nCeadrag, Prince (819–post-826)\nSelibur, Prince (9th century?)",
"Duchy of Saxony (complete list) –\nAbo, Duke (fl.c.785–811)\nWidukind, Duke (fl.c.777–810)\nLiudolf I, Duke (850–864/866)\nBruno, Duke (864/866–880)\nOtto I, Duke (880–912)\n\nMarch of Pannonia (complete list) –\nRadbod, Margrave/Prefect (833–854)\nCarloman of Bavaria, Margrave/Prefect (856–?)\nWilliam, co-Margrave (?–871)\nEngelschalk I, co-Margrave (?–871)\nAribo, Margrave (871–909)\nEngelschalk II, Margrave in opposition (c.871–893)\nLuitpold, Margrave (893–907)",
"Sorbs –\nMiliduch, Duke (fl.790–806)\nTunglo, Duke (?–826)\nCzimislav, King (fl.830–840)\nČestibor, King (c.840–859)\nSlavibor, Prince (c.859–894)\nDragomir, Prince (894–?)\n\nPrince-Bishopric of Speyer (complete list) –\nGoddank, Prince-bishop (881–895/898)\nEinhard, Prince-bishop (895/898–913)\n\nLandgraviate of Sundgau –\nHugo, Graf, Count (866–869)\nLiutfrid, Count (876–902)",
"Landgraviate of Sundgau –\nHugo, Graf, Count (866–869)\nLiutfrid, Count (876–902)\n\nDuchy of Thuringia (complete list) –\nThachulf, Duke (849–873)\nRadulf II, Duke (874–880)\nPoppo, Duke (880–892)\nEgino, Duke (882–886)\nConrad, Duke (892–906)\n\nElector-Bishopric of Trier (complete list) –\nRadbod, Prince-bishop (898–915)\n\nPrince-Bishopric of Worms (complete list) –\nGunzo, Prince-bishop (859–872)\nAdelhelm, Prince-bishop (873–890)\nDietlach, Prince-bishop (890–914)\n\nEurope: East",
"Europe: East\n\nVolga Bulgaria (complete list) –\nTuqyi, ruler (765–815)\nAidar, ruler (815–865)\nŞilki, Iltäbär (865–882)\nBatyr Mö'min, ruler (882–895)\nAlmış, Emir (895–925)",
"Khazar Khaganate (complete list) –\nAshina dynasty: Khazar Khagans\nKhan-Tuvan, Khagan (c.825–830)\nTarkhan, Khagan (840s)\nZachariah, Khagan (c.861)\nBulanid dynasty\nObadiah, ruler (c.786–809)\nHezekiah, ruler (mid 9th-century)\nManasseh I, ruler (mid 9th-century)\nChanukkah, ruler (mid 9th-century)\nIsaac, ruler (late 9th-century)\nZebulun, ruler (late 9th-century)\nManasseh II, ruler (late 9th-century)\nNisi ben Menasseh, ruler (late 9th-century)\nAaron I, ruler (c.900)",
"Slavs of Lower Pannonia –\nVojnomir, Duke (c.790–810)\nLjudevit (Lower Pannonia), Duke (c.810–823)\nRatimir, Duke (c.829–838)\nPribina, Prince (c.846–861)\nKocel, Prince (c.861–c.876)\nBraslav, Duke (c.882–896)\n\nEurope: Nordic\n\nKingdom of Norway (872–1397) (complete list) –\nHarald Fairhair, King (c.872–930)",
"Europe: Nordic\n\nKingdom of Norway (872–1397) (complete list) –\nHarald Fairhair, King (c.872–930)\n\nKingdom of Sweden (complete list) –\nBjörn Ironside, King (early 9th century)\nErik Björnsson, King (early 9th century)\nErik Refilsson, King (early 9th century)\nAnund Uppsale, King (early 9th century)\nBjörn at Hauge, King (c.829–831)\nOlof I of Sweden, King (mid 9th century)\nErik Anundsson, King (mid 9th century)\n\nEurope: Southcentral\n\nHoly Roman Empire in Italy",
"Kingdom of Italy (complete list) –\nPepin, King (781–810)\nBernard, King (810–818)\nLouis I, King (818–822)\nLothair I, King (822–855)\nLouis II, King (844–875)\nCharles II the Bald, King (875–877)\nCarloman, King (877–879)\nCharles III the Fat, King (879–887)\nIntegrum: Simultaneous claimants\nBerengar I, King (888–896)\nGuy of Spoleto, King (889–894)\nLambert of Spoleto, King (891–896)\nArnulf of Carinthia, King (894–899)\nRatold, sub-King (896)\nBerengar I, King (896–924)\nLambert of Spoleto, King (896–898)",
"Ratold, sub-King (896)\nBerengar I, King (896–924)\nLambert of Spoleto, King (896–898)\nLouis III of Provence, King (900–905)",
"Principality of Benevento (complete list) –\nGrimoald III, Prince (787–806)\nGrimoald IV, Prince (806–817)\nSico I, Prince (817–832)\nSicard, Prince (832–839)\nRadelchis I, Prince (839–851)\nRadelgar, Prince (851–854)\nAdelchis, Prince (854–878)\nWaifer, Prince (878–881)\nRadelchis II, Prince (881–884, 897–900)\nAiulf II, Prince (884–890)\nOrso, Prince (890–891)\nGuy, Prince (895–897)\nPeter of Benevento, Regent (897)\nRadelchis II, Prince (881–884, 897–900)\nAtenulf I, Prince (900–910)",
"March of Istria –\nJohn, Duke (c.804)",
"Papal States (complete list) –\nLeo III, Pope (795–816)\nStephen IV, Pope (816–817)\nPaschal I, Pope (817–824)\nEugene II, Pope (824–827)\nValentine, Pope (827)\nGregory IV, Pope (827–844)\nSergius II, Pope (844–847)\nLeo IV, Pope (847–855)\nBenedict III, Pope (855–858)\nNicholas I, Pope (858–867)\nAdrian II, Pope (867–872)\nJohn VIII, Pope (872–882)\nMarinus I, Pope (882–884)\nAdrian III, Pope (884–885)\nStephen V, Pope (885–891)\nFormosus, Pope (891–896)\nBoniface VI, Pope (896)\nStephen VI, Pope (896–897)",
"Formosus, Pope (891–896)\nBoniface VI, Pope (896)\nStephen VI, Pope (896–897)\nRomanus, Pope (897)\nTheodore II, Pope (897)\nJohn IX, Pope (898–900)\nBenedict IV, Pope (900–903)",
"Duchy of Spoleto (complete list) –\nWiniges, Duke (789–822)\nSuppo I, Duke (822–824)\nAdelard, Duke (824)\nMauring, Duke (824)\nAdelchis I, Duke (824–834)\nLambert of Nantes, Duke (834–836)\nBerengar, Duke (836–841)\nGuy I, Duke (842–859)\nLambert I, Duke (859–871)\nSuppo II, Duke (871–876)\nLambert I, Duke (876–880)\nGuy II, Duke (880–883)\nGuy III, Duke (883–894)\nLambert II, Duke (894–898)\nGuy IV, Duke (895–898)\nAlberic I, Duke (898–922)\nPietro I Candiano, Doge (887–888)\nPietro Tribuno, Doge (888–912)",
"March of Tuscany (complete list) –\nBoniface I, Margrave (812–813)\nBoniface II, Margrave (828–834)\nAganus, Margrave (835–845)\nAdalbert I, Margrave (847–886)\nAdalbert II the Rich, Margrave (886–915)",
"Republic of Venice (complete list) –\nGiovanni Galbaio, Doge (787–804)\nObelerio Antenoreo, Doge (804–811)\nAgnello Participazio, Doge (811–827)\nGiustiniano Participazio, Doge (827–829)\nGiovanni I Participazio, Doge (829–837)\nPietro Tradonico, Doge (837–864)\nOrso I Participazio, Doge (864–881)\nGiovanni II Participazio, Doge (881–887)\nPietro I Candiano, Doge (887–888)\nPietro Tribuno, Doge (888–912)\n\nEurope: Southwest\n\nIberian Peninsula",
"Europe: Southwest\n\nIberian Peninsula\n\nKingdom of Asturias (complete list) –\nAlfonso II, King (791–842)\nNepotian, King (842)\nRamiro I, King (842–850)\nOrdoño I, King (850–866)\nAlfonso III, King (866–910)\n\nEmirate of Córdoba (complete list) –\nal-Hakam I, Emir (796–822)\nAbd ar-Rahman II, Emir (822–852)\nMuhammad I, Emir (852–886)\nAl-Mundhir, Emir (886–888)\nAbdallah ibn Muhammad, Emir (888–912)\n\nMarca Hispanica",
"Marca Hispanica\n\nCounty of Osona (complete list) –\nBorrell, Count (798–820)\nRampon, Count (820–825)\nBernard, Count (825–826)\nAisso, Count (826–827)\nGuillemó, Count (826–827)\n\nCounty of Cerdanya (complete list) –\nBorrell, Count (798–820)\nAznar Galíndez, Count (820–824)\nGalindo Aznárez, Count (824–834)\nSunifred I, Count (834–848)\nSolomon, Count (848–869)\nWilfred I the Hairy, Count (869–897)\nMiró II, Count (897–927)",
"County of Urgell (complete list) –\nBorrell, Count (798–820)\nAznar I Galíndez, Count (820–824)\nGalindo I Aznárez, Count (824–834)\nSunifred I, Count (834–848)\nSolomon (or Miró), Count (848–870)\nWilfred the Hairy, Count (870–897)\nSunifred II, Count (898–948)\n\nEurope: West\n\nFranks\n\nFrankish Empire (complete list) –\nCharlemagne, King (768–814), Holy Roman Emperor (800–814)\nLouis I the Pious, King and Holy Roman Emperor (813–840)\n\nMiddle Francia\n\nMiddle Francia –\nLothair I, King (843–855)",
"Middle Francia\n\nMiddle Francia –\nLothair I, King (843–855)\n\nUpper Burgundy (complete list) –\nLothar II, King (855–869)\nRudolph I, King (888–912)\n\nLotharingia (complete list) –\nLothair II, King (855–869)\nCharles the Bald, King (869–870)\nLouis the Younger, King (880–882)\nCharles the Fat, King (882–887)\nArnulf of Carinthia, King (887–895)\nZwentibold, King (895–900)\nLouis the Child, King (900–911)\n\nWest Francia",
"West Francia\n\nWest Francia (complete list) –\nCharles II, called the Bald, 843–877\nAquitaine: Charles the Child, 855–866; Louis the Stammerer, 866–877\nNeustria: Louis the Stammerer, 856–877\nLouis II, called the Stammerer, 877–879\nLouis III, 879–882, jointly with\nCarloman II, 879–884\nCharles the Fat, 884–888, Emperor 881\nOdo,* 888–898\nAquitaine: Ranulf II, 888–889 (Ramnulfid, not Carolingian)\nCharles the Simple, King (898–922)\n\nDuchy of Aquitaine (complete list) –\nWilliam I (893–918)",
"Duchy of Aquitaine (complete list) –\nWilliam I (893–918)\n\nCounty of Artois (complete list) –\nOdalric, Count (c.850s)\nAltmar, Count (c.890s)\nAdelelm, Count (?–932)\n\nAuvergne (complete list) –\nGuerin of Provence, Count (819–839)\nGerard, Count of Auvergne, Count (839–841)\nWilliam I, Count (841–846)\nBernard I, Count (846–858)\n\nCounty of Boulogne (complete list) –\nBaldwin I, Count (896–918)\n\nDuchy of Brittany (complete list) –\nAlan I (876–907)",
"Duchy of Brittany (complete list) –\nAlan I (876–907)\n\nDuchy of Burgundy (complete list) –\nRichard the Justiciar (898–921)\n\nDuchy of Gascony (complete list) –\nGassia II (893–c.930)\n\nCounty of Paris (complete list) –\nStephen, Count (778–811)\nBeggo, Count (815–816)\nLeuthard I of Paris, Count (816)\nGerard II, Count (816)\nLeuthard II of Paris, Count (816–?)\nConrad, Count (858–859)\nAdalard, Count (877)",
"County of Poitou (complete list) –\nRenaud, Count (795–843)\n, Count (814–828)\nBernard II, Count (840–844)\nEmenon, Count (828–839)\nRanulph I, Count (839–866)\nRanulph II, Count (866–890)\nRobert I, Count (866–923)\nAymar, Count (892–902)\nEbalus, Count (890–893, 902–935)\n\nKingdom of Provence (complete list) –\nLouis the Blind, King (887–928)",
"County of Toulouse (complete list) –\nWilliam of Gellone, Count (790–806)\nBeggo, Count (806–816)\nBerengar, Count (816–835)\nBernard of Septimania, Count (835–842)\nAcfred, Count (842–843)\nWilliam of Septimania, Count (844–849)\nFredelon, Count (844–852)\nRaymond I, Count (852–863)\nHumfrid, Count (863–865)\nSunyer, Count (863–865)\nBernard II, Count (865–877)\nBernard III Plantapilosa, Count (877–886)\nOdo, Count (886–918)\nWilliam II of Aquitaine, Count (858–862, 918–926)\nStephen, Count (862–863)",
"Odo, Count (886–918)\nWilliam II of Aquitaine, Count (858–862, 918–926)\nStephen, Count (862–863)\nBernard Plantapilosa, Count (864–886)\nWilliam I of Aquitaine, Count (886–918)",
"Eurasia: Caucasus\n\nKingdom of Abkhazia (complete list) –\nLeon II, King (c.767–811)\nTheodosius II, King (c.811–837)\nDemetrius II, King (c.837–872)\nGeorge I, King (c.872–878)\nBagrat I, King (c.887–898)\nConstantine III, King (c.898–916)",
"Arminiya (complete list) –\nYazid ibn Mazyad al-Shaybani, Emir (799–801)\nAsad ibn Yazid al-Shaybani, Emir (801–802)\nMuhammad ibn Yazid al-Shaybani, Emir (802–803)\nKhuzayma ibn Khazim, Emir (803–?)\nAsad ibn Yazid al-Shaybani, Emir (c. 810)\nIshaq ibn Sulayman, Emir (c. 813)\nKhalid ibn Yazid ibn Mazyad, Emir (813–?)\nKhalid ibn Yazid ibn Mazyad, Emir (828–832)\nKhalid ibn Yazid ibn Mazyad, Emir (841)\nKhalid ibn Yazid ibn Mazyad, Emir (c. 842–844)\nMuhammad ibn Khalid al-Shaybani, Emir (c. 842/844–?)",
"Khalid ibn Yazid ibn Mazyad, Emir (c. 842–844)\nMuhammad ibn Khalid al-Shaybani, Emir (c. 842/844–?)\nAbu Sa'id Muhammad al-Marwazi, Emir (849–851)\nYusuf ibn Abi Sa'id al-Marwazi, Emir (851–852)\nMuhammad ibn Khalid al-Shaybani, Emir (857–862)\nAli ibn Yahya al-Armani, Emir (862–863)\nIsa ibn al-Shaykh al-Shaybani, Emir (870–878)",
"Bagratid Armenia (complete list) –\nAshot I, King (884–890)\nSmbat I, King (890–912)\n\nKingdom of Hereti (complete list) –\nSahl Smbatean, Prince (815–840)\nAdarnase I, Prince (840–865)\nHama I, Prince (865–893)\nAdarnase II, King (897–943)\n\nPrincipality of Iberia (complete list) –\nAshot I, Prince (813–830)\nBagrat I, Prince (842/843–876)\nDavid I, Prince (876–881)\nGurgen I, Prince (881–891)\n\nKingdom of the Iberians (complete list) –\nAdarnase IV, King (888–923)",
"Kingdom of the Iberians (complete list) –\nAdarnase IV, King (888–923)\n\nFirst Kingdom of Kakheti (complete list) –\nJuansher, Prince (786–807)\nGrigol, Prince (786–827)\nVache Kvabulidze, Prince (827–839)\nSamuel, Donauri, Prince (839–861)\nGabriel, Donauri, Prince (861–881)\nPadla I Arevmaneli, Prince (881–893)\nKvirike I, Prince (893–918)\n\nKlarjeti (complete list) –\nSumbat I Mampali, King (870–889)\nBagrat I, King (889–900)\nDavid I, King (900–943)\n\nOceania\n\nEaster Island",
"Oceania\n\nEaster Island\n\nEaster Island (complete list) –\nOuaraa, King (c.800)\nKoroharua, King (?)\nMahuta Ariiki, King (?)\nAtua Ure Rangi, King (?)\nAtuamata, King (?)\nUremata, King (?)\n\nSee also\n List of political entities in the 9th century\n\nReferences \n\nLeaders\n \n-"
] |
21 (Adele album)
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/21%20%28Adele%20album%29
|
[
"21 is the second studio album by English singer-songwriter Adele. It was released on 24 January 2011 in Europe by XL Recordings and on 22 February 2011 in North America by Columbia Records. The album was named after the age of the singer during its production. 21 shares the Motown/soul influences of her 2008 debut album 19, but also draws influence from the American country and Southern blues music that Adele started listening to during the North American leg of her tour An Evening with Adele",
". Composed in the aftermath of the singer's separation from her then partner, the album explores themes of heartbreak, healing, introspection, and forgiveness.",
"Adele began writing 21 in April 2009, while still involved in the relationship that subsequently inspired the record. Looking to deviate from the brooding sound of her first album, she had intended to compose a more upbeat and contemporary follow-up. However, studio sessions ended prematurely due to a lack of inspiration. She resumed production immediately after the breakdown of her relationship, channelling her heartbreak and depression into her songs",
". Adele collaborated with various songwriters and producers, including Columbia Records co-president at the time Rick Rubin, Paul Epworth, Ryan Tedder, Jim Abbiss, and Dan Wilson.",
"A sleeper hit, 21 defied the modest commercial expectations of Adele's independent record label, XL. It topped record charts in more than 30 countries and became the world's best-selling album of the year for both 2011 and 2012, helping to revitalise the lagging sales of the global music industry",
". In the United Kingdom, it is the best-selling album of the 21st century, the fourth best-selling album in the UK, and one of the best-selling albums of all time, while its 23-week tenure atop the UK Albums Chart is the longest by a female solo artist. In the United States, it is the best-performing Billboard 200 album of all time, holding the top position for 24 weeks, longer than any other album since 1985 and the longest by a female solo artist in Billboard 200 history",
". It was certified Diamond by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), denoting sales of over 10 million copies in the US. In addition, three of the five singles released in its promotion – \"Rolling in the Deep\", \"Someone like You\", and \"Set Fire to the Rain\" – became international number-one songs, while \"Rumour Has It\" charted in the top 20 in countries across Europe and North America",
". With sales of over 31 million copies worldwide, 21 is the best-selling album of the 21st century, and one of the best-selling albums of all time.",
"Praised for its understated production, vintage aesthetic, and Adele's vocal performance, 21 was shortlisted for the 2011 Mercury Prize, and won the 2012 Grammy Award for Album of the Year and the Brit Award for British Album of the Year. It has since been ranked amongst Rolling Stones 500 Greatest Albums of All Time and is included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die.\n\nWriting and production",
"Early writing sessions",
"In April 2009, 20-year-old Adele, who had recently embarked on her first serious relationship with a man 10 years her senior, began composing the follow-up to her 2008 debut album 19. In response to the media's typecasting her as an \"old soul\" due to the vintage production and sentimental nature of her songs, Adele decided on a more upbeat and contemporary second album",
". However, studio sessions were generally unproductive, and after two weeks, yielded only one song recorded to the singer's satisfaction—the Jim Abbiss-produced \"Take It All,\" a lovelorn piano ballad not unlike the songs on 19. Disillusioned with lack of inspiration and the slow progress of the studio sessions, she cancelled the remaining recording session dates.",
"Adele had written \"Take It All\" during a difficult moment in her 18-month relationship, which ended shortly after she first played this song for her boyfriend. Heartbroken but musically stimulated, Adele channelled her rush of emotions into her music, crafting songs that examined her failed relationship from the perspectives of a vengeful ex-lover, a heartbroken victim, and a nostalgic old flame.",
"Sessions with Epworth, Smith, and Tedder",
"Writing for the album began shortly after Adele separated from her lover. Within a day of her break-up, she contacted producer Paul Epworth, intent on capturing her emotion in a song: \"We'd had a fuming argument the night before, I'd been bubbling. Then I went into the studio and screamed.\" Although she had initially planned on completing a ballad that she had begun writing with Epworth more than a year ago, the producer suggested that she aim for a more aggressive sound",
". Together, they restructured the song and rewrote lyrics to reflect Adele's recent experience, deciding on the title \"Rolling in the Deep.\" The instrumentation evolved organically—after trying out various jazz riffs, Adele attempted the first verse a cappella, inspiring Epworth to improvise a melody on his acoustic guitar. A thumping drum beat was set to mimic her racing heartbeat. In two days, a demo was recorded to be produced by Columbia Records co-president Rick Rubin later that year",
". However, Adele re-approached Epworth months later to complete production of the song.",
"British producer Fraser T Smith recalled following a similar trajectory when he teamed up with Adele to compose the subsequent third single \"Set Fire to the Rain\" at his MyAudiotonic Studios in London. After the two had created the demo, Adele revisited her co-writer to record the song with him, instead of the intended producer Rick Rubin",
". Smith thought Adele's first attempt superior to subsequent takes and used the demo as the final production of the song, complete with live drum sounds and an elaborate strings section (arranged by British musician Rosie Danvers).",
"With the demos of two songs recorded, Adele approached American musician and OneRepublic frontman Ryan Tedder, who was in London at the time for a radio show. Tedder had expressed interest in collaborating with the singer after they met at the 2009 Grammy Awards ceremony in February. He arrived four hours early to their first studio session, buying time to better familiarise himself with some of her previous work",
". Although unaware of Adele's personal predicament, he composed the opening piano sequence and the first few lines of what became the lovelorn ballad \"Turning Tables\": \"Close enough to start a war/All that I have is on the floor.\" Coincidentally, it perfectly captured the experience of the singer, who arrived at the studio moments after another altercation with her former lover",
". Angry and unfocused, she denounced her ex-lover's tendency to \"turn the tables\" on her during their arguments, an expression that Tedder decided to reference in the song's lyrics. Adele recorded the demo with Jim Abbiss the following day.",
"Adele and Tedder arranged a second meeting and reconvened at Serenity West Studios in Los Angeles weeks later to write and record \"Rumour Has It\". In an interview, Tedder recalled his astonishment at the singer's musicality and vocal prowess after she completed the main vocals to the song in 10 minutes: \"She sang it once top to bottom, pitch perfect, she didn't miss a note. I looked at the engineer then at her and said, 'Adele, I don't know what to tell you but I have never had anyone do that in ten years'",
".\"",
"Sessions with Rubin, Wells, and Wilson",
"After working with Smith, Tedder, and Epworth, Adele travelled to the United States for the remainder of the album's production. At the suggestion of Columbia Records group president Ashley Newton, she met with songwriter Greg Wells at his studio in Culver City, Los Angeles, where they co-wrote the gospel-tinged ballad \"One and Only\". The song evolved from a four-chord piano progression in a 6/8-metre, which Wells had conceived before meeting with the singer",
". The lyrics, aimed at the singer's new love interest, came together quickly and were later completed with Dan Wilson, with whom she also composed \"Someone like You\".",
"In 2008, Adele's appearance on the NBC sketch comedy show Saturday Night Live caught the attention of producer Rick Rubin. In the initial stage of the album's production, Rubin had signed on as its sole producer and was scheduled to produce all of its songs. The demos she had recorded with Epworth, Smith, and Tedder (including \"Rolling in the Deep\" and \"Set Fire to the Rain\") were subsequently rerecorded by Rubin when she met with him in his Shangri-La Studio in Malibu, California, in April 2010.",
"Rubin, notorious for his unorthodox production style, pushed the singer beyond her comfort zone, and despite being drawn to his unconventional methods, Adele described working with the producer as daunting. Rubin had attended many of her shows throughout 2008–2009, and after a Hollywood Bowl performance, approached her to compliment her live sound",
". When they met in Malibu, he attempted to \"capture her live show across on [her] record,\" assembling a team of musicians—including drummer Chris Dave, guitarist Matt Sweeney, James Poyser on piano, and Pino Palladino on bass—to contribute live instrumentation to the recording sessions. He also decided against the use of music samples and electronic instruments",
". He also decided against the use of music samples and electronic instruments. An advocate of a more free-form approach to music-making, Rubin relied on the moods and feelings behind the music itself to guide the instrumental and melodic arrangement of the songs. He isolated the singer in the studio and encouraged her, as well as his team of musicians, to approach the production process with more spontaneity and less restraint",
". The singer even recalled moving the musicians and production team to tears while recording some of the songs. In an interview, he commented on the nature of the recording sessions:",
"After recording the album with Rubin, Adele was dissatisfied with many of the songs. Ultimately, she decided to scrap most of the work done in favour of the early takes she did with other producers, including Epworth and Tedder, in order for the music to reflect the raw emotion felt immediately after her break-up. From her collaboration with Rubin, only five songs appeared on the album: \"Don't You Remember,\" \"He Won't Go,\" \"I'll Be Waiting,\" \"One and Only,\" as well as the U.S.-only track \"I Found a Boy.\"",
"Weeks after her stint with Rubin, Adele learned of her ex-lover's recent engagement, inspiring the composition of the album's final track \"Someone like You.\" Adele's record label was initially dissatisfied with the song's sparse production, which comprised Adele's voice alongside a sole piano, and requested that it be re-recorded with Rubin's band. However, the singer opted to keep the arrangement, stating that the song was personal to her and that she wrote it to \"free herself.\"",
"Titling",
"Adele first intended to title the album Rolling in the Deep, her adaptation of the slang phrase \"roll deep,\" which summarises how she felt about her relationship; in her loose translation, the phrase refers to having someone \"that has your back\" and always supports you. However, the singer later deemed the title too confusing for some of her audiences",
". However, the singer later deemed the title too confusing for some of her audiences. Although she had wanted to avoid the number motif of her debut, Adele considered \"21\" the most fitting title as it represented her age at the time of the album's composition, serving as an autobiographical period piece and symbolising the personal maturity and artistic evolution since her debut.",
"Music and influence",
"21 bears influences of Adele's extended exposure to the music of the Southern United States during the North American leg of her 2008–2009 tour An Evening with Adele. Frequent smoke breaks with her tour bus driver, a Nashville, Tennessee native, resulted in her introduction to bluegrass and rockabilly, and the music of Garth Brooks, Wanda Jackson, Alison Krauss, Lady Antebellum, Dolly Parton, and Rascal Flatts",
". Adele developed an appreciation for the country genre, praising what she described as the immediacy of the themes and the straightforward narrative structure of many of the songs she listened to.",
"She also expressed her enthusiasm at simply learning a new style of music. Although influenced by Adele's interest in country music at the time, 21 remains faithful to the Motown influences of 19 and exhibits both gospel and soul music inflections. Instruments such as the saxophone, harp, banjo, and the accordion contributed to its exploration of blues and soul. The singer drew from the music of Mary J",
". The singer drew from the music of Mary J. Blige, Kanye West, Elbow, Mos Def, Alanis Morissette, Tom Waits, and Sinéad O'Connor in the cultivation of the album's sound and credited Yvonne Fair, Andrew Bird, Neko Case, and The Steel Drivers with its musical direction.",
"Adele's style on 21 is generally characterised by critics as soul, although some suggest that the album eschews any distinct stylistic epithet. John Murphy of musicOMH characterises the album as British soul. Jon Caramanica of The New York Times wrote that the album's music is a part of a recent British soul revival that \"summoned styles dating back to Motown girl groups and Dusty Springfield\"",
". Ryan Reed of Paste calls Adele a \"British alt-soul prodigy\" and the album's music \"the stuff of sensual modern pop-noir landscape, heavy on retro textures and relationship drama\". Danyel Smith of Billboard views that Adele's music exhibits influences from Northern soul, Aretha Franklin, Sade, and Bette Midler.",
"Larry Flick of SiriusXM called 21 \"a pop record with soul leanings\", while The Washington Posts Allion Stewart commented on the album's eclectic nature: \"Everything on [21] is precisely calibrated to transcend genres, to withstand trends ... It's slightly angled toward country, even more toward R&B\", and \"informed, but never overwhelmed, by roots music\"",
". Mike Spies of Slate argues that soul music is inextricably linked to the political, historical, and cultural experience of African Americans, and that Adele and her contemporaries, far removed from this socio-cultural milieu, can offer only a mere duplicate of actual \"soul\", despite a capacity to convincingly channel the sound.",
"Songs",
"The sequence of the tracks on the deeply autobiographical album correlates with the range of emotions Adele experienced after the break-up, progressing from themes of anger and bitterness to feelings of loneliness, heartbreak, and regret, and finally, acceptance",
". The revenge song \"Rolling in the Deep,\" a \"dark, bluesy, gospel, disco tune\" in the singer's own words, was written as a \"fuck you\" to her ex-lover after his disparaging remarks that she was weak and that her life without him would be \"boring and lonely and rubbish.\" Opening with an understated acoustic guitar strum, the song's first lines set the foreboding tone of the album",
". Pounding martial beats, shuffling percussion, and piano coalesce into a dramatic, multilayered chorus over which \"Adele's voice ranges, dramatizing her search for just the right tone and words to express her dismay that a man would dare break her heart.\" The first single from 21, \"Rolling in the Deep,\" is one of the more apparent influences of the bluesy Americana music that framed the album's sound.",
"\"Rumour Has It,\" the singer's tongue-in-cheek retort to the hurtful gossip that surrounded her break-up, was aimed at her own friends for their part in spreading these rumours. Fusing elements of doo-wop and Tin Pan Alley blues, the percussion-driven song is built on girl-group harmonies, piano chords, pounding kick drum, and handclaps, and finds the singer \"channeling a '40s, piano-vixen lounge singer",
".\" Jon Caramanica of The New York Times pointed out the song's \"hollow counterpoint vocals\" and slow, \"daringly morbid\" bridge that veers from the pounding rhythm before once again acceding to it. In the studio, Tedder experimented with a riff inspired by Radiohead's \"I Might Be Wrong,\" crediting the song's drop D tuning and American blues vibe as impetus for \"Rumour Has It.\" In \"Turning Tables,\" a song of domestic dispute, its narrator assumes a defensive stance against a manipulative ex-lover",
". Reconciling herself with the termination of a contentious relationship, she vows emotional distance to shield herself from future heartbreak. Bryan Boyd of The Irish Times likened the singer to 1980s Welsh rocker Bonnie Tyler in delivering the vocals with a mixture of anger, pain, and pathos. According to Paste magazine, cinematic strings \"serve as fitting counterpoint to [the song's] heartbroken, hollowed-out lyrics.\"",
"The Rick Rubin-produced fourth track \"Don't You Remember,\" co-written by Adele and Dan Wilson, marks a shift in the album's theme, from anger and defensiveness to reflection and heartbreak. A downtempo country music-styled ballad, the song was added late to the production of the album after the singer grew ashamed of her continued negative portrayal of her ex-lover throughout the album. Its lyrics entreat a past lover to remember the happier moments at the beginning of a now broken relationship",
". \"Don't You Remember\" was the most challenging song on 21 for Adele to record. In \"Set Fire to the Rain,\" the singer delineates the conflicting stages of a troubled union and wrestles with her inability to fully let go. Accentuated by ornate orchestral flourishes, swirling strings, crescendos, and dramatic vocal effects towards its climactic end, the song stands in stark contrast to the otherwise understated production of the album and, in reviews, was characterised by critics as a pop rock power ballad",
". To achieve a fuller sound, producer Fraser T Smith incorporated the popular \"wall of sound\" reverberative technique in framing the song's dense instrumentation.",
"\"Take It All,\" the seventh track, written and recorded with Francis \"Eg\" White and Jim Abbiss before the breakdown of Adele's relationship, is a piano and vocal ballad that borrows heavily from pop, soul, and gospel. In his review of 21, Allmusic's Matt Collar called the song the album's centrepiece, \"an instant classic\" in the same vein as \"And I Am Telling You I'm Not Going\" and \"All by Myself,\" a \"cathartic moment for fans who identify with their idol's Pyrrhic lovelorn persona",
".\" The track precedes \"I'll Be Waiting,\" the second of two songs produced by Epworth, which diverges from the scathing \"Rolling in the Deep\" in its optimistic tone and brisk, lilted melody. A protagonist's mea culpa for a relationship gone wrong, she declares to wait patiently for her lover's inevitable return",
". The song was compared to the work of Aretha Franklin for its \"huge vocal sound on the chorus, rolling piano, and boxy snare,\" while Tom Townshend of MSN Music described its brass section as a Rolling Stones-esque \"barroom gospel.\"",
"Although the album predominantly explores the singer's failed relationship, not all songs were geared towards her ex-lover. \"He Won't Go,\" a nod to hip-hop and contemporary R&B, was a tribute to a friend who battled heroin addiction. The ninth track \"One and Only,\" noted for its gospel-tinged vocals, organ, and choir, was directed at a close friend for whom Adele shared romantic feelings",
". And \"Lovesong\" (a cover of a song by The Cure) was dedicated to Adele's mother and friends, in whom she found solace when she grew homesick and lonely while recording in Malibu.",
"The album closes with the \"heartbreak Adagio\" \"Someone like You,\" a soft piano ballad that pairs Adele's vocals with a piano playing mostly an arpeggiated ostinato. In interviews, the singer described it as the summation of her attitude towards her ex-lover by the end of the album's production. The song's lyrics describe a protagonist's attempt at dealing with her heartbreak after she learns of her ex-lover's recent marriage and happy new life",
". Sean Fennessey of The Village Voice praised the singer's nuanced vocal performance in the song, which ascends \"into a near-shrieked whisper\" during parts of the chorus, after which she once again regains composure. One of the more commended songs on the album, \"Someone like You\" was praised for its lyrical depth and understated simplicity.",
"Release and promotion",
"For the North American release of 21 on 22 February, Columbia Records executives employed the \"'long tail' sales theory\" to shape its marketing campaign, which, according to Columbia Senior VP of Marketing Scott Greer, involved \"building a critical mass throughout February to reach all those people who bought 19.\" A key part of this strategy was the record company approaching internet and media partners Vevo, AOL, and VH1 to commence the promotion of Adele's old and new songs",
". In the months leading up to the European release of 21, Adele embarked on a promotional tour across Europe, performing on the UK's Royal Variety Performance on 9 December 2010, the finale of the reality singing competition The Voice of Holland on 21 January 2011, and on BBC Radio 1's Live Lounge six days later",
". On 24 January 2011, during the week of the album's UK release, she performed an acoustic set of selected songs from 21 at London's Tabernacle music hall, which was screened live on her personal website. Adele performed \"Someone like You\" at the 2011 BRIT Awards ceremony, which was well received and resulted in a sales increase for both 19 and 21.",
"From September to October 2010, Adele embarked on a mini-promotional tour of the US, which included stops in New York and Minneapolis, as well as an exclusive appearance at the famous Club Largo in Los Angeles. Although she did not use Twitter at the time, Columbia created an account that redirected followers to the singer's personal blog",
". Throughout February, Adele's personal site hosted a \"21 Days of Adele\" promotion, which featured exclusive daily content, including a live chat and a video of the singer explaining the inspiration for each album track. The week of release was also accompanied by a spate of television appearances on many American daytime and late-night talk shows, such as the Today Show on 18 February, Late Show with David Letterman on 21 February, and The Ellen DeGeneres Show and Jimmy Kimmel Live! on 24 February",
". Adele performed \"Someone like You\" at the 2011 MTV Video Music Awards ceremony.",
"Adele embarked on her second concert tour, Adele: Live, in support of 21, scheduling more than 60 shows across Europe and North America. The shows received positive reviews, with many noting the show's understated nature, the singer's vocal performance, and her accessible persona. However, recurring health and vocal problems led to numerous alterations to the tour itinerary. The cancellation of the North American leg of the tour was due to a vocal haemorrhage on her vocal cords",
". The singer underwent corrective vocal surgery in November 2011 and cancelled all public appearances until February 2012.",
"Adele performed \"Rolling in the Deep\" at the 2011 ECHO Awards, 2012 Grammy Awards, and 2012 BRIT Awards ceremonies.",
"21 yielded five singles in total, including four worldwide releases. The lead single \"Rolling in the Deep\" was released in November 2010 and peaked on the charts in the Netherlands, Germany, Belgium, Italy, and Switzerland. It became a top-ten hit in Austria, Canada, Denmark, Ireland, New Zealand, and Norway. Released in the UK on 16 January 2011, it peaked at number two",
". Released in the UK on 16 January 2011, it peaked at number two. In the US, the song became \"the most widely crossed-over song of the past twenty-five years,\" appearing on a record 12 different Billboard charts (including the Rock Songs chart, R&B/Hip-Hop Songs, and Hot Latin Songs charts). The song spent seven consecutive weeks at the top of the Hot 100, and was ranked as the top song and the best-selling song of the year.",
"\"Someone like You\" debuted at number 36 on the UK Singles Chart due to strong digital sales, and after falling to number 47, it ascended to number one when the singer performed it at the 2011 BRIT Awards. It peaked at number one in Australia, New Zealand, Italy, Finland, France, Switzerland, and the US. \"Set Fire to the Rain,\" the third single, topped the singles chart in the US, the Netherlands and Belgium (Flanders), and reached the top five in Switzerland, Italy and Austria.",
"\"Rumour Has It\" was confirmed as the fourth and final official US single from the album by Ryan Tedder at the Grammy Awards in 2012, and was released on 1 March 2012. In some countries, \"Turning Tables\" was released as the fourth single. It was the fifth single to be released to US mainstream stations, although it received limited airplay due to an unofficial release. Even though \"I'll Be Waiting\" was never released as a single, it charted at No. 29 on the US Triple A chart.\n\n Critical reception",
"21 received generally positive reviews from music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications, the album received an average score of 76, based on 34 reviews. In the Chicago Tribune, Greg Kot deemed the music an improvement over 19, writing that \"21 beefs up the rhythmic drive and the drama of the arrangements.\" Simon Harper of Clash wrote, \"[In] two years ... she's clearly seen the world",
".\" Simon Harper of Clash wrote, \"[In] two years ... she's clearly seen the world. Where 19 marked the turbulent swan song to a teenage life, 21 introduces the realities of adult life, where grown-up responsibilities collide with heartache and emotional scars run deep.\" John Murphy of MusicOMH said that it shared the themes of \"pain, sadness and anger\" explored on Amy Winehouse's Back to Black (2006), while hailing 21 as \"one of the great 'break-up' albums, and the first truly impressive record of 2011",
".\" Sputnikmusic's Joseph Viney stated that 21 combined the \"best bits of Aretha Franklin's old-school soul with Lauryn Hill's sass and sense of cynical modern femininity.\"",
"Sean Fennessey from The Village Voice wrote that the album \"has a diva's stride and a diva's purpose. With a touch of sass and lots of grandeur, it's an often magical thing that insists on its importance ... the line here between melodrama and pathos is wafer-thin, and Adele toes it deftly. It's what separates her from her contemporaries in the mid-'00s wave of British white-girl r&b-dom.\" Q commented that, despite a \"slightly scattershot quality ... greatness is tantalizingly within reach",
"... greatness is tantalizingly within reach.\" In The New York Times, Jon Pareles applauded the singer's emotive timbre, comparing her to Dusty Springfield, Petula Clark, and Annie Lennox: \"[Adele] can seethe, sob, rasp, swoop, lilt and belt, in ways that draw more attention to the song than to the singer.\" Ryan Reed of Paste regarded her voice as \"a raspy, aged-beyond-its-years thing of full-blooded beauty\", while MSN Musics Tom Townshend declared her \"the finest singer of [our] generation\".",
"Matthew Cole from Slant Magazine was less impressed, believing Adele's vocals masked the \"blandness\" of many of the songs, a fault that he said would have been more apparent had they been performed by a lesser talent. Allison Stewart of The Washington Post claimed that many tracks were remarkable \"only because Adele is singing them",
".\" Robert Christgau gave the album a two-star honourable mention in his consumer guide for MSN Music, writing that \"part of me likes how many albums this proud white-soul normal has sold, but the part that likes fast ones wins\".",
"Commercial performance",
"Globally, 21 is the best-selling album of the past decade according to the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry, and topped the charts in more than 30 countries. Sales of 21 helped increase XL Recordings', Adele's record label, bank balance from £3 million to £32 million in the space of 12 months. 21 was the best-selling worldwide release in 2011 with 18 million units sold, and it remained the best-selling release with an additional 8.3 million units sold the following year.\n\n Europe",
"21 debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart on 30 January 2011 with first-week sales of 208,000 copies. 21 achieved separate consecutive number-one spells during its 2011 chart run, amassing 23 weeks at number one to date. Midway through 2012, 21 was the best-selling album of the year despite being released in early 2011. 21 sold over 5.08 million copies as of May 2018, making it the biggest-selling album since 2000 in the UK. As of October 2018, the album sold 5",
". As of October 2018, the album sold 5.11 million copies, making it the second biggest-selling studio album in the UK, and fourth best-selling album of all time. The success of 21 brought attention to Adele's previous work. 19 climbed to number four on the UK Albums Chart, making Adele the first living act since The Beatles in 1964 to have two UK top five albums and singles simultaneously",
". A week later, 19 rose to number 2 in its 102nd week of release, making Adele the first act to occupy the chart's top two spots since The Corrs in 1999.",
"Adele claimed the Guinness World Records for becoming the first female artist to have two singles and two albums in the UK top five simultaneously. 21 also became the first album in UK chart history to reach sales of three million copies in a calendar year, and set records for the most consecutive weeks with a UK number-one album (solo female) with 11 weeks, and the most cumulative weeks at number one (solo female) in the UK",
". 21 has been certified 16-times platinum by the British Phonographic Industry for shipments of 4,500,000 units. It is also the most downloaded album in UK history, the biggest-selling album of the 21st century in the UK, and the 4th best-selling album in the UK of all time. In December 2019, 21 was unveiled by the Official Charts Company as the decade's best-seller, with 5.17 million chart sales.",
"In July 2012, the album was certified decuple platinum by the IFPI, denoting sales of ten million copies across Europe, making it the highest-certified album in Europe since the IFPI Platinum Europe award was launched in 1996. The album lodged 35 weeks atop the Irish Albums Chart, the longest in the chart's history, and sold over 270,000 copies",
". Charting 124 weeks in Finland from early 2011 to summer of 2013 (with 11 weeks atop) and re-entering in early 2014, 21 became the second-longest-charting album of all time in the country.",
"Americas",
"Released on 22 February in the US, 21 debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 with first-week sales of 352,000 copies. The album remained in the top three for its first 24 weeks, the top five for a record 39 consecutive weeks, and the top 10 for a total of 84 weeks. That staggering sum ties the album with Bruce Springsteen's Born in the U.S.A. for the second-most weeks in the region. 21 became the best-selling digital album of all time in the US, selling 1.879 million copies by January 2012",
".879 million copies by January 2012. On 17 May 2012, 21 became the 29th album since 1991 to sell over 9 million copies in the United States and became the first album in the United States to sell that amount since Usher's Confessions reached sales of 9 million in 2005. By November 2012, it had sold 10 million copies, a feat achieved in 92 weeks, making it the fastest album to sell 10 million since 'N Sync's No Strings Attached in 2000",
". In February 2015, the album reached 208 straight weeks, or four years, on the Billboard 200 chart, spending only 24 of those weeks outside the Top 100.",
"21 is credited with saving the first quarter album sales of 2012 in the United States. Without 21, the first quarter of 2012 would have been down 3.4% compared to the first quarter of 2011. 21 sold more copies in the first quarter of 2012 than any album since 2005 and is the oldest album to be the best-selling album in the first quarter of the year since No Doubt's Tragic Kingdom in 1997",
". On 28 November 2012, the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) certified it Diamond after having sold more than 10 million copies in the United States alone, made it the first album released in the 2010s to achieve Diamond certification. In December 2012, it was announced that 21 was the best-selling album on iTunes for two years in a row.",
"21 was the best-selling album of both 2011 and 2012 in the United States and Canada despite being over a year old. It is the first album to be the best-selling album two years in a row since Michael Jackson's Thriller was the best-selling album of 1983 and 1984. Despite being over a year old, 21 sold more copies in 2012 than the best-selling albums of 2006 through 2010 sold in their respective years",
". It is also one of only four albums in the Nielsen SoundScan era to sell over 4 million copies in each of two calendar years. Due to these successes, Billboard declared Adele the Artist of the Year for the second year in a row, making her the first solo female artist to receive the honor twice.",
"In February 2013, 21 reached two full years on the Billboard 200, never charting lower than number 35 on the chart. This makes 21 the best-selling album of the past 10 years and the fifth best-selling album released since January 2000. In March 2013, after Adele won an Academy Award for \"Skyfall\", the album reentered the top 10 of the Billboard 200. This marked the album's 81st week in the top 10. Only two other albums have spent as much time in the top 10: Born in the U.S.A. and The Sound of Music",
".S.A. and The Sound of Music. In November 2013, it was announced that 21 had become the first album to sell three million digital copies in the United States and that the album is the 13th best-selling overall in the United States since Nielsen SoundScan began tracking sales in 1991.",
"In November 2019, Billboard named 21 the best selling album of the 2010s. As of January 2020, 21 has sold 12 million copies in the United States, becoming the ninth largest-selling album since Nielsen Music started tracking sales in 1991 and best selling album of the 2010s decade. The album's performance on the Billboard 200 chart earned 21 the distinction of all-time number one album on the chart, according to a summary performed by Billboard in November 2015",
". In spring of 2017, the album broke the record for the longest-charting album by a female artist on the Billboard 200, surpassing Tapestry by Carole King. In February 2019, 21 has been listed on the Billboard 200 album chart for 400 non-consecutive weeks. 21 also became the first album by a woman to reach 450 weeks on the Billboard 200 in February 2020. In February 2021, 21 made history as the first album by a woman to reach 500 weeks on the Billboard 200",
". In December 2021, it was announced that 21 was the first album by a woman to spend an entire decade on the Billboard 200 chart.",
"In Canada, 21 spent 35 weeks at number one and was certified diamond in January 2012 by Music Canada for the shipment of 800,000 copies of the album. 21 had sold over 1.489 million copies by January 2013, making it the third best-selling album in Canada since Nielsen SoundScan started tracking sales.\n\nAsia–Pacific",
"21 spent 32 weeks at number one on the Australian ARIA Top 50 Albums Chart, 10 of which were consecutive. Adele also replicated her UK chart record when she achieved two titles in the top five of the ARIA Album and Singles chart simultaneously. In December 2012, it was announced that 21 was nearing sales of one million in Australia. This makes 21 only the seventh album to ever achieve this feat in Australia and the first to do so since Delta Goodrem's Innocent Eyes",
". In January 2020, 21 was announced as the biggest album of the 2010s in Australia. On the New Zealand RIANZ Albums Chart, 21 debuted at number one in January 2011 and spent 28 weeks at the summit in 2011. Its 38 accumulated weeks at the top are the longest in New Zealand chart history.",
"Accolades \n Rankings",
"21 was ranked as the number one album of all time on the Billboard Top 200 Albums of All Time. 21 appeared on many year-end best-of lists. Metacritic ranked 21 at number two on their list of 2011's most well-received records, based on inclusions in publications' year-end lists. The album was ranked the best album of the year by the Associated Press, The Austin Chronicle, Entertainment Weekly, Star Tribune, Digital Spy, MSN Music, New York Daily News, Rolling Stone, TIME magazine, and editors of USA Today",
". Critics at Billboard voted the album number-one of the year, while Scottish newspaper the Daily Record, editors of Amazon and the editors at Rhapsody also ranked the album at number one. The album appeared in the runner-up spot on MTV's list of the Best Albums of 2011 as well as lists produced by The Boston Globe, The Hollywood Reporter and Toronto Sun. It placed within the top 10 on lists produced by American Songwriter, Q, Los Angeles Times, Clash, and The Washington Post",
". \"Rolling in the Deep\" consistently placed high on various year-end critics' list, and was ranked the best song of the year in The Village Voices Pazz and Jop mass critics' poll.",
"In 2012, Rolling Stone ranked the album number six on its list of Women Who Rock: The 50 Greatest Albums of All Time. As of January 2015, Billboard named 21 as the third-best album of the 2010s (so far). The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die. In 2019, Rolling Stone, Consequence of Sound, Cleveland.com, Paste, and The Sydney Morning Herald named it the 8th, 19th, 47th, 55th, and 1st best album of the 2010s, respectively",
". Consequence of Sound also named it the fifth-best pop album of the 2010s. In 2020, the album was ranked at 137 on Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time list. Consequence of Sound ranked the album at number seven on their list of \"The 10 Greatest Second Albums of All Time\". 21's commercial success effectively transformed Adele's image from a blue-eyed soul singer-songwriter to a global pop phenomenon",
". Entertainment Weekly considered it the record representing the year of 2011 on their 2020 list of the \"30 essential albums from the last 30 years\".",
"Industry awards",
"The album was nominated for the 2011 Barclaycard Mercury Prize but lost to Let England Shake by PJ Harvey. In November 2011, Adele won three American Music Awards including Favorite Pop/Rock Album for 21 at the American Music Awards of 2011. At the 2012 Billboard Music Awards, the singer was nominated for twenty categories, winning a record-breaking twelve, including Top Billboard 200 Album and Top Pop Album for 21, and Top Streaming Song (Audio) for \"Rolling in the Deep\"",
". In May 2013, Adele received five nominations at the 2013 Billboard Music Awards, including Top Billboard 200 Album and Top Pop Album for 21 two years in a row; she won the latter award.",
"The album earned Adele seven Grammys. In February 2012, she won the Grammy Awards for Album of the Year and Best Pop Vocal Album for 21, Record of the Year, Song of the Year, and Best Short Form Music Video for \"Rolling in the Deep,\" and Best Pop Solo Performance for \"Someone like You\" at the 54th Annual Grammy Awards. Additionally, her producer Paul Epworth won Producer of the Year, Non-Classical",
". Additionally, her producer Paul Epworth won Producer of the Year, Non-Classical. Adele, who was named Best New Artist in 2009, is only the second artist and the first female in history to win all four major Grammy categories. Christopher Cross achieved the same feat in 1981 with a four-award sweep. She is only the eighth artist in Grammy history to win six or more awards in one night, matching the record set among female artists by Beyoncé in 2010.",
"With her wins, Adele became only the sixth artist to win \"Grammy's Triple Crown\" in one night. She was only the second female solo artist to achieve this feat, following Carole King in 1972, and only the second British artist, after Eric Clapton in 1993. At the age of 23, Adele was the youngest artist at the time to achieve this feat.",
"That record was later broken by Billie Eilish, who was 18 years old when she won all \"big four\" Grammys in one night in 2020. In February 2013, a live rendition of the album's third single \"Set Fire to the Rain,\" included on Live at the Royal Albert Hall, won the Grammy for Best Pop Solo Performance at the 55th Annual Grammy Awards, making her the first artist to win consecutively in this category.",
"On 21 February 2012, 21 won the British Album of the Year at the 2012 BRIT Awards. It also won the International Album of the Year at the Juno Awards of 2012.",
"Legacy",
"The album's success has been attributed to its cross-cultural appeal, which has catered to fans of various genres of pop, adult contemporary, and R&B, as well as various generations and musical timelines. According to Sasha Frere-Jones of The New Yorker, the album's success in the US can be attributed to its target audience—that is, \"middle-aged moms ... the demographic that decides American elections",
"... the demographic that decides American elections.\" Critics also suggest that the album's understated musical production and relative lack of artifice are striking deviations from the \"bombastic theatrics\" of the mainstream music industry. Ethan Smith of The Wall Street Journal found that Adele's \"deliberately unflashy\" nature, full figure, and \"everywoman\" appeal gave her a lucrative niche in the market, while her tendency to emphasize \"substance over style\" made her the \"Anti-Lady Gaga\"",
". Guy Adams of The Independent argued that 21s success signals the re-emergence of the more traditional approach to commercial success:",
"There are two approaches to the business of being noticed by today's record-buying public. The first ... revolves around oodles of hype and ever-more preposterous wardrobe selections. The second ... requires ... the confidence to let your music do the talking... Amazingly, given preconceived notions about America's supposed preference for style over substance, it is the second of these two sales techniques which appear to be working better.",
"With the release of 21, critics began to tout Adele as the new torchbearer for the British soul music that ascended to the American mainstream via Duffy, Joss Stone, Amy Winehouse and Lily Allen. Although the initial popularity of these artists in the early 2000s incited the media to declare a \"new wave of British invasion\", Joseph Viney of Sputnikmusic saw their subsequent absence as an opportunity for Adele to \"stake her claim as the UK's leading solo female artist\"",
". John Murphy of MusicOMH declared the album \"a timely reminder that British soul hasn't lost its mojo\". Indie label XL Recordings founder Richard Russell discussed what he believed to be the quasi-subversiveness of 21s chart dominance",
". Characterising the success of 21 as \"almost political and sort of radical\", Russell stated that the lack of gimmicks in Adele's music undermined the widespread perception that female performers have to conform to specific body types, or imbue their music with gratuitous sexual imagery, in order to attain success.",
"Retrospectively, the album received widespread critical praise. Stereogum wrote that 21 established Adele as \"pop royalty\" and called the album \"one of history's great, resilient breakup albums\", while Pitchfork praised the album for \"cementing her legacy as an artist who could make once-in-a-generation milestones out of her music\"",
". Atwood Magazine compared the album to Frank Ocean's Blonde, as they are both sophomore albums, and commented that both albums \"could slide into the catalogues of greats like Amy Winehouse and Aretha Franklin and no one would be the wiser\" and called Adele \"one of the most captivating songwriters of the 21st century\". NME described 21 as a \"heartbreak pop classic\" and further emphasized that it is \"so classic in a way that stands the test of time\"",
". In an article explaining Adele's record-breaking achievements and impact, The Recording Academy wrote that \"Plenty of albums have tapped into emotional truths; few have endured like 21\", and further commented that 21 \"continues to resonate with audiences in 2021 as much as it did in 2011\". Both Junkee and Consequence of Sound credited the album for revitalizing pop music, heralding \"a new era of relatable pop\", and inspiring a new generation of artists.",
"Track listing \n\nNotes\n \"Lovesong\" is a The Cure cover.\n \"If It Hadn't Been for Love\" is a The SteelDrivers cover.\n \"Hiding My Heart\" is a Brandi Carlile cover.\n \"Need You Now\" is a Lady A cover.",
"Personnel \nAdapted from AllMusic and 21s liner notes.Production Jim Abbiss – producer and mixing (3, 7)\n Adele – design, producer (11)\n Philip Allen – engineer (11)\n Beatriz Artola – engineer (5)\n Phillip Broussard Jr. – assistant engineer (4, 6, 9, 10)\n Lindsay Chase – production co-ordination (4, 6, 9, 10)\n AJ Clark – assistant engineer (2)\n Tom Coyne – mastering\n Ian Dowling – mixing (3, 7)\n Lauren Dukoff – photography\n Tom Elmhirst – mixing (1, 2, 8, 11)\n Paul Epworth – producer (1, 8)",
"Lauren Dukoff – photography\n Tom Elmhirst – mixing (1, 2, 8, 11)\n Paul Epworth – producer (1, 8)\n Greg Fidelman – engineer (4, 6, 9, 10)\n Sara Lyn Killion – assistant engineer (4, 6, 9, 10)\n Phil Lee – design\n Dana Nielsen – editing, Pro Tools\n Dan Parry – assistant mixing (1, 2, 8, 11), vocal engineer (2)\n Steve Price – strings engineer (5)\n Mark Rankin – engineer (1, 8)\n Rick Rubin – producer (4, 6, 9, 10)\n Andrew Scheps – mixing (4, 6, 9, 10)\n Isabel Seeliger-Morley – assistant engineer (5)",
"Andrew Scheps – mixing (4, 6, 9, 10)\n Isabel Seeliger-Morley – assistant engineer (5)\n Fraser T Smith – producer and mixing (5)\n Ryan Tedder – producer, engineer, programming and arranger (2)\n Dan Wilson – producer (11)Music'''",
"Adele Adkins – lead vocals\n Jo Allen – violin (5)\n Stephanie Bennett – harp (4, 6, 9, 10)\n Jerrod Bettis – drums and acoustic guitar (2)\n Rachel Stephanie Bolt – strings (3)\n Natalie Bonner – violin (5)\n Harry Brown – horn arrangements and trombone (8)\n David Campbell – string arrangements (4, 6, 9, 10)\n Ray Carless – tenor saxophone (1, 8)\n Carmen Carter – choir (4, 6, 9, 10)\n Lenny Castro – percussion (4, 6, 9, 10)\n Stephanie Cavey - violin (5)\n Neil Cowley – piano (1, 3, 7, 8)",
"Stephanie Cavey - violin (5)\n Neil Cowley – piano (1, 3, 7, 8)\n Caroline Dale – strings (3)\n David Daniels – strings (3)\n Rosie Danvers – string arrangements and violin (5)\n Chris Dave – drums (4, 6, 9, 10)\n Chris Elliot – string arrangements (3)\n Paul Epworth – bass, acoustic guitar, electric guitar, percussion, and background vocals (1, 8)\n Jimmy Gilstrap – choir (4, 6, 9, 10)\n David Hidalgo – accordion and banjo (4, 6, 9, 10)\n Smokey Hormel – guitar (4, 6, 9, 10)\n Patrick Kiernan – strings (3)",
"Smokey Hormel – guitar (4, 6, 9, 10)\n Patrick Kiernan – strings (3)\n Boguslaw Kostecki – strings (3)\n Peter Lale – strings (3)\n Noel Langley – trumpet (1, 8)\n Chris Laurence – strings (3)\n Julian Leaper – strings (3)\n Rita Manning – strings (3)\n Eleanor Mathieson – violin (5)\n Stephen Morris – strings (3)\n Jane Oliver - strings (5)\n Emma Owens - strings (5)\n Pino Palladino – bass (4, 6, 9, 10)\n Tom Pigott-Smith – strings (3)\n Ruston Pomeroy – violin (5)\n Hayley Pomfrett – violin (5)",
"Tom Pigott-Smith – strings (3)\n Ruston Pomeroy – violin (5)\n Hayley Pomfrett – violin (5)\n Josef Powell – choir (4, 6, 9, 10)\n James Poyser – piano (4, 6, 9, 10)\n Jenny Sacha – violin (5)\n Kotono Sato – violin (5)\n Jackie Shave – strings (3)\n Lucy Shaw - strings (5)\n Emlyn Singleton – strings (3)\n Ash Soan – drums (5)\n Fraser T Smith – bass guitar and piano (5)\n Amy Stanford - strings (5)\n Matt Sweeney – guitar (4, 6, 9, 10)\n Leo Taylor – drums (1, 8)",
"Amy Stanford - strings (5)\n Matt Sweeney – guitar (4, 6, 9, 10)\n Leo Taylor – drums (1, 8)\n Ryan Tedder – electric guitar, bass, piano, Hammond B3, drums, and string arrangement (2)\n Ben Thomas – acoustic and electric guitar (8)\n Cathy Thompson – strings (3)\n Julia Tillman Waters – choir (4, 6, 9, 10)\n Carmen Twillie – choir (4, 6, 9, 10)\n Lorna Maxine Waters – choir (4, 6, 9, 10)\n Oren Waters – choir director (4, 6, 9, 10)\n Bruce White – strings (3)\n Dan Wilson – piano (11)",
"Oren Waters – choir director (4, 6, 9, 10)\n Bruce White – strings (3)\n Dan Wilson – piano (11)\n The Wired Strings – strings (5)\n Chris Worsey – strings (3)\n Terry Young – choir (4, 6, 9, 10)\n Warren Zielinski – strings (3)",
"Charts \n\n Weekly charts \n\n All-time charts \n\n Decade-end charts \n\n Year-end charts \n\n|-",
"|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Argentine Albums (CAPIF)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 10\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Australian Albums (ARIA)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 1\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Austrian Albums (Ö3 Austria)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 2\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Belgian Albums (Ultratop Flanders)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 1\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Belgian Albums (Ultratop Wallonia)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 1\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Brazilian Albums (ABPD)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 8\n|-",
"|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Brazilian Albums (ABPD)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 8\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Canadian Albums (Billboard)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 1\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Danish Albums (Hitlisten)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 2\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Dutch Albums (Album Top 100)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 1\n|-",
"|-\n! scope=\"row\"| French Albums (SNEP)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 1\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| German Albums (Offizielle Top 100)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 1\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Hungarian Albums (MAHASZ)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 33\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Irish Albums (IRMA)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 1\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Italian Albums (FIMI)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 4\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Mexican Albums (Top 100 Mexico)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 5\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| New Zealand Albums (RMNZ)",
"| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 5\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| New Zealand Albums (RMNZ)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 1\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Polish Albums (ZPAV)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 1\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| South African Albums (RiSA)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 1\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Spanish Albums (PROMUSICAE)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 5\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Swedish Albums (Sverigetopplistan)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 2\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Swiss Albums (Schweizer Hitparade)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 1\n|-",
"|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Swiss Albums (Schweizer Hitparade)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 1\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| UK Albums (OCC)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 1\n|-",
"|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Worldwide Albums (IFPI Global Music Report)\n| 1\n|-\n\n|-",
"|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Argentine Albums (CAPIF)\n|style=\"text-align:center;\"| 1\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Australian Albums (ARIA)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 3\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Austrian Albums (Ö3 Austria)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 1\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Belgian Albums (Ultratop Flanders)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 1\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Belgian Albums (Ultratop Wallonia)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 1\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Brazilian Albums (ABPD)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 6\n|-",
"|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Brazilian Albums (ABPD)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 6\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Canadian Albums (Billboard)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 1\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Danish Albums (Hitlisten)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 5\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Dutch Albums (Album Top 100)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 1\n|-",
"|-\n! scope=\"row\"| French Albums (SNEP)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 1\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| German Albums (Offizielle Top 100)\n|style=\"text-align:center;\"| 3\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Hungarian Albums (MAHASZ)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 6\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Irish Albums (IRMA)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 7\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Italian Albums (FIMI)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 2\n|-\n!scope=\"row\"|Japan Hot Albums (Billboard Japan)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 78\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Japanese Albums (Oricon)",
"| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 78\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Japanese Albums (Oricon)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 35\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Mexican Albums (Top 100 Mexico)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 2\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| New Zealand Albums (RMNZ)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 1\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Polish Albums (ZPAV)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 1\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Russian Albums (2M)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 4\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Spanish Albums (PROMUSICAE)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 4\n|-",
"|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Spanish Albums (PROMUSICAE)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 4\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Swedish Albums (Sverigetopplistan)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 15\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Swiss Albums (Schweizer Hitparade)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 1\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| UK Albums (OCC)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 2\n|-",
"|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Worldwide Albums (IFPI Global Music Report)\n| 1\n|-\n\n|-",
"|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Argentine Albums (CAPIF)\n| 39\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Australian Albums (ARIA)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 60\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Austrian Albums (Ö3 Austria)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 63\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Belgian Albums (Ultratop Flanders)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 8\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Belgian Albums (Ultratop Wallonia)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 32\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Canadian Albums (Billboard)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 21\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Danish Albums (Hitlisten)",
"| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 21\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Danish Albums (Hitlisten)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 48\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Dutch Albums (Album Top 100)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 23\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| German Albums (Offizielle Top 100)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 100\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Hungarian Albums (MAHASZ)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 35\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Italian Albums (FIMI)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 51\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| New Zealand Albums (RMNZ)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 18\n|-",
"|-\n! scope=\"row\"| New Zealand Albums (RMNZ)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 18\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Swedish Albums (Sverigetopplistan)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 93\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Swiss Albums (Schweizer Hitparade)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 15\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| UK Albums (OCC)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 72\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| US Billboard 200\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 21\n|-",
"|-\n\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Belgian Albums (Ultratop Flanders)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 33\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Belgian Albums (Ultratop Wallonia)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 108\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Dutch Albums (Album Top 100)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 98\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| New Zealand Albums (RMNZ)\n|42\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| US Billboard 200\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 76\n\n|-",
"|-\n\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Australian Albums (ARIA)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 32\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Dutch Albums (Album Top 100)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 26\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Italian Albums (FIMI)\n| 89\n|-\n\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| South Korean Albums International (Gaon)\n| 17\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Swedish Albums (Sverigetopplistan)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 38\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| UK Albums (OCC)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 45\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| US Billboard 200\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 74\n\n|-",
"|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Australian Albums (ARIA)\n| 29\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Canadian Albums (Billboard)\n| 25\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Danish Albums (Hitlisten)\n| 43\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Dutch Albums (Album Top 100)\n| 27\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| New Zealand Albums (RMNZ)\n| 31\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| South Korean Albums International (Gaon)\n| 10\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Swedish Albums (Sverigetopplistan)\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"| 32\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Swiss Albums (Schweizer Hitparade)\n| 49\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| UK Albums (OCC)\n| 47\n|-",
"|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Swiss Albums (Schweizer Hitparade)\n| 49\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| UK Albums (OCC)\n| 47\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| US Billboard 200\n| 24",
"|-\n\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Australian Albums (ARIA)\n| 26\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Danish Albums (Hitlisten)\n| 75\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Dutch Albums (Album Top 100)\n| 55\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| New Zealand Albums (RMNZ)\n| 16\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| South Korean International Albums (Gaon)\n| 27\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Swedish Albums (Sverigetopplistan)\n| 40\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| US Billboard 200\n| 107\n\n|-",
"|-\n\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Australian Albums (ARIA)\n| 87\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Icelandic Albums (Plötutíóindi)\n| 69\n|-\n!scope=\"row\"| South Korean International Albums (Gaon)\n| 55\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Swedish Albums (Sverigetopplistan)\n| 59\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| US Billboard 200\n| 179\n\n|-",
"|-\n\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Australian Albums (ARIA)\n| 90\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Belgian Albums (Ultratop Flanders)\n| 75\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"|Icelandic Albums (Plötutíóindi)\n| 76\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Swedish Albums (Sverigetopplistan)\n| 75\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| US Billboard 200\n| 158\n\n|-",
"|-\n\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Australian Albums (ARIA)\n| 92\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Belgian Albums (Ultratop Flanders)\n| 79\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Dutch Albums (Album Top 100)\n| 58\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Swedish Albums (Sverigetopplistan)\n| 80\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| UK Albums (OCC)\n| 98\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| US Billboard 200\n| 132\n\n|-",
"|-\n\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Australian Albums (ARIA)\n| 57\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Belgian Albums (Ultratop Flanders)\n| 40\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Belgian Albums (Ultratop Wallonia)\n| 141\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Danish Albums (Hitlisten)\n| 54\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Dutch Albums (Album Top 100)\n| 31\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Swedish Albums (Sverigetopplistan)\n| 38\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| UK Albums (OCC)\n| 49\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| US Billboard 200\n| 198\n\n|-",
"|-\n\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Australian Albums (ARIA)\n| 76\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Belgian Albums (Ultratop Flanders)\n| 37\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Belgian Albums (Ultratop Wallonia)\n| 130\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Danish Albums (Hitlisten)\n| 60\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Dutch Albums (Album Top 100)\n| 23\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Lithuanian Albums (AGATA)\n| 68\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| Swedish Albums (Sverigetopplistan)\n| 51\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| UK Albums (OCC)\n| 79\n|-\n! scope=\"row\"| US Billboard'' 200\n| 164\n\nCertifications and sales",
"Certifications and sales \n\n! scope=\"row\"|Iceland (FHF)\n|Gold\n|2,500\n|-\n\n|-\n\nRelease history",
"See also \n List of best-selling albums\n List of best-selling albums by women\n List of best-selling albums in the United Kingdom\n List of best-selling albums of the 21st century in the United Kingdom\n List of best-selling albums of the 2010s in the United Kingdom\n List of best-selling albums in Australia\n List of best-selling albums in Canada\n List of diamond-certified albums in Canada\n List of best-selling albums in France\n List of best-selling albums in Germany\n List of best-selling albums in New Zealand",
"List of best-selling albums in Germany\n List of best-selling albums in New Zealand\n List of best-selling albums in the United States\n List of best-selling albums by year in the United States\n List of best-selling albums in the United States of the Nielsen SoundScan era",
"Notes\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links \n \n Guitar Chords Adele",
"2011 albums\nAdele albums\nAlbums produced by Jim Abbiss\nAlbums produced by Paul Epworth\nAlbums produced by Rick Rubin\nAlbums produced by Fraser T. Smith\nAlbums produced by Ryan Tedder\nAlbums produced by Dan Wilson (musician)\nAlbums recorded at Shangri-La (recording studio)\nBrit Award for British Album of the Year\nColumbia Records albums\nGrammy Award for Album of the Year\nGrammy Award for Best Pop Vocal Album\nJuno Award for International Album of the Year albums\nXL Recordings albums"
] |
Enrico Berlinguer
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enrico%20Berlinguer
|
[
"Enrico Berlinguer (; 25 May 1922 – 11 June 1984) was an Italian politician. Considered the most popular leader of the Italian Communist Party (PCI), he led the PCI as the national secretary from 1972 until his death during a tense period in Italy's history, which was marked by the Years of Lead and social conflicts, such as the Hot Autumn of 1969–1970. Berlinguer was born into a middle-class family; his father was a socialist who became a deputy and later senator",
". After leading the party's youth wing in his hometown, he led the PCI's youth wing, the Italian Communist Youth Federation (FGCI), at the national level from 1949 to 1956. In 1968, he was elected to the country's Chamber of Deputies, and he became the leader of the PCI in 1972; he remained a deputy until his death in 1984. Under his leadership, the number of votes for the PCI peaked",
". Under his leadership, the number of votes for the PCI peaked. The PCI's results in 1976 remain the highest for any Italian left-wing or centre-left party both in terms of votes and vote share, and the party's results in 1984, just after his death, remain the best result for an Italian left-wing party in European elections, and were toppled, in terms of vote share in a lower-turnout election, in the 2014 European Parliament election in Italy.",
"During his leadership, Berlinguer distanced the party from the influence of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and pursued a moderate line, repositioning the party within Italian politics and advocating accommodation and national unity. This strategy came to be termed Eurocommunism, and he was seen as its main spokesperson",
". This strategy came to be termed Eurocommunism, and he was seen as its main spokesperson. It came to be adopted by Western Europe's other significant like-minded parties, such as the Communist Party of Spain and later the French Communist Party; its significance as a political force was cemented by a 1977 meeting in Madrid between Berlinguer, Georges Marchais, and Santiago Carrillo",
". Berlinguer described his alternative model of socialism, distinct from both the Soviet bloc and the capitalism practised by the Western bloc during the Cold War, as terza via",
". His usage of the term has no relation to the Third Way practised by subsequent prime ministers Romano Prodi and Matteo Renzi, who were at the head of an Italian centre-left coalition including, among others, communists, post-communists, and Christian democrats, as well as the PCI's legal successor parties, the Democratic Party of the Left, the Democrats of the Left, and the Democratic Party, the latter being a merger of the legal successors of both the PCI and the left-wing of Christian Democracy (DC)",
", such as Prodi's Democracy is Freedom – The Daisy Margherita",
". He saw democracy as a universal value.",
"Under Berlinguer, the PCI reached the height of its success, winning significant victories in the country's regional and local elections in 1975, and 34% of the vote in the 1976 Italian general election, its highest share of the vote and number of seats. With these gains, he negotiated the Historic Compromise with the DC, lending support to their government in exchange for consultation on policy decisions, as well as social reforms",
". He took a firm stand against terrorism after the kidnapping and murder of Aldo Moro, and used the PCI's influence to steer Italian labour unions towards moderating wage demands to cope with the country's severe inflation rate after the 1973 oil crisis. These stands were not reciprocated with sufficient concessions from Giulio Andreotti's government, leading the PCI to leave the coalition in 1979",
". The combination of austerity advocacy, hard line against the Red Brigades, and attempts at an accommodation with the DC affected the PCI's vote at the 1979 Italian general election and the compromise was ultimately ended in 1980. The PCI remained in national opposition for the rest of Berlinguer's tenure, retaining a solid core of support at the 1983 Italian general election; its main strength from that point would remain at the regional and local level",
". Also a member of the European Parliament from 1979 to 1982, the PCI became the largest party for the first and only time in the 1984 European Parliament election in Italy, which was held a week after his premature death.",
"One of the most important figures of the First Italian Republic, Berlinguer had an austere and modest but charismatic personality, and despite the difficulties that confronted the PCI during the Historic Compromise, he remained a popular politician, respected for his principles, conviction, and bold stands. He characterised the PCI as an honest party in Italy's corruption-ravaged politics, an image that preserved the party's reputation during the Mani pulite corruption scandals",
". He was characterised by Patrick McCarthy as \"the last great communist leader in Western Europe\", and remains identified with the causes of Eurocommunism, opposition to Soviet repression in Eastern Europe, and democratic change in Italy.",
"Family and early political career",
"The son of Mario Berlinguer and Maria \"Mariuccia\" Loriga, Enrico Berlinguer was born in Sassari on 25 May 1922, five months before the March on Rome orchestrated by Benito Mussolini and Italian fascists, to a noble Sardinian family in a notable cultural context, with family ties and political contacts that would heavily influence his life and career",
". On 29 March 1777, the family had obtained from Vittorio Amedeo III, the then King of Sardinia, the concession to Giovanni and Angelo Ignazio of the noble titles of Cavaliere and Nobile with the honorific of Don and Donna; it was also registered in the Stamenti nobiliari della Sardegna, Sardinia's Italian nobility register, and was linked by a dense network of relatives to other families of the Sardinian aristocracy and bourgeoisie.",
"Berlinguer's father was a socialist and anti-fascist; as many of his ancestors, he belonged to the Italian Freemasonry and was Great Master (33rd Scottish Rite Mason) of the regular lodge of Sassari. His cousin, Luigi Berlinguer, followed this tradition of left-wing members of Freemasonry. Another cousin of his was Sergio Berlinguer, who was a diplomat. His brother, Giovanni Berlinguer, was a medician and politician who died in 2015",
". His brother, Giovanni Berlinguer, was a medician and politician who died in 2015. His surname is of Catalan language origin, a reminder of the period when Sardinia was part of the dominions of the Crown of Aragon. He was a second cousin of Francesco Cossiga, who was a leader of Christian Democracy (DC) and later became president of Italy, and both were relatives of Antonio Segni, another DC leader and president of Italy.",
"Giovanni Loriga and Cossiga's maternal grandfather, Antonio Zanfarino, were half-brothers on their mother side; Loriga was Berlinguer's maternal grandfather. His paternal grandfather, Enrico Berlinguer Sr., was a co-founder of the Sardinian newspaper La Nuova Sardegna and a personal friend of Giuseppe Garibaldi and Giuseppe Mazzini, whom he had helped in his attempts, through his parliamentary work, to improve the sad conditions on the island",
". Berlinguer's grandmother, Giuseppina Satta Branca, had a brother, Pietro Satta Branca, who was an Italian Republican Party (PRI) member and progressive mayor of Sassari during an era marked by Giovanni Giolitti's rule; Berlinguer Sr. also took part in Satta Branca's administration. Pietro Sanna, one of Berlinguer's childhood friends, recalled: \"The Berlinguers, we called them Piringhieri because for us ordinary people a difficult name like theirs was difficult to pronounce",
". Giovanni, very open and carefree, played boccette, carambola, and sometimes cards, Enrico instead preferred to read.\"",
"About his adolescence, Berlinguer recalled the feeling of rebellion that was in him. He was against everything: the state, religion, clichés, and social customs. Politically, he felt anarchist when in the library of one of his uncles, a humanitarian socialist, he found a book of Mikhail Bakunin. As a member of the bourgeoisie, he was attracted to the world of the workers and craftsmen, who were followers of Amadeo Bordiga and kept their ideals even under Fascist Italy",
". He said: \"They exerted a strong attraction on me ... there was, in their stories, a lot of suggestion.\" When meeting Palmiro Togliatti, leader of the Communist Party of Italy (PCd'I), Berlinguer revoked the importance of Sardians to the PCd'I, citing Antonio Gramsci, Velio Spano, and Togliatti, the latter having moved to the Sardianian island.",
"In 1937, Berlinguer had his first contacts with Sardinian anti-fascists and formally entered the renamed Italian Communist Party (PCI) in 1943, soon becoming the secretary of the Sassari section. The following year, a riot exploded in the town, and he was involved in the disorders and arrested but was discharged after three months of prison",
". Immediately after his detention ended, his father brought him to Salerno, the town in which the House of Savoy, Italy's royal family, and the government had taken refuge after the armistice of Cassibile between Italy and the Allies of World War II. In Salerno, his father introduced him to Togliatti, the most important leader of the PCI. Togliatti sent Berlinguer back to Sardinia to prepare for his political career; he also met Benedetto Croce, and said that for a period he was a follower of his.",
"At the end of 1944, Berlinguer was appointed by Togliatti to the national secretariat of the Italian Communist Youth Federation (FGCI). As a secretary of the FGCI, Berlinguer at one point presented Maria Goretti as an example for activists. Berlinguer was soon sent to Milan, and he was appointed to the central committee as a member in 1945",
". In 1946, Togliatti became the national secretary (the highest political position) of the PCI and called Berlinguer to Rome, where his talents let him enter the national leadership two years later in 1948; at the age of 26, he was one of the youngest members to be admitted. In 1949, he was named national secretary of the FGCI, a post he held until 1956. In 1950, he became president of the World Federation of Democratic Youth, an international anti-fascist youth organisation.",
"In the post-war years, the PCI respected Joseph Stalin and the Soviet Union for their anti-fascist role in World War II and the Italian resistance movement, and thus avoided criticism; the PCI accepted the 1956 Soviet thesis that denounced Stalin's crimes and at the same time opened up the different national roads to communism",
". In 1957, as a member of the central school of the PCI, he abolished the obligatory visit to the Soviet Union, including political training there, which had been necessary for admission to the highest positions in the PCI. At the party's twelfth congress in 1969, Berlinguer reiterated the need to \"deepen the knowledge of the reality of the socialist countries ..",
"... through a historical, critical, objective judgement\", which would capture both the positive and negative elements, and \"their interweaving and contradictions that derive from it\". About the October Revolution and what ensued, he said that it remained \"the fundamental discriminant of the contemporary world\", and that the PCI would fight for socialism \"not looking at an abstract model, nor at the Soviet model ... but along an original path ..",
"... but along an original path ... that is profoundly new\", which entailed full autonomy of elaboration and judgement. In this sense, Berlinguer concluded that \"our way of placing ourselves in the face of this reality of socialist countries is therefore, today, new at least in part, and different from the past.\"",
"Secretary of the Italian Communist Party",
"Berlinguer's career was carrying him towards the highest positions in the party. After having held many responsible posts, he was elected in the 1968 Italian general election for the first time a member of the country's Chamber of Deputies in the electoral district of Rome. The following year, he was elected deputy national secretary of the party, the secretary being Luigi Longo",
". In this role, he took part in the 1969 International Meeting of Communist and Workers Parties in Moscow, where his delegation disagreed with the official political line and refused to support the final report. Berlinguer's unexpected stance made waves, as he gave the strongest speech by a major Communist leader ever heard in Moscow",
". He refused to excommunicate the Chinese Communists and directly told Leonid Brezhnev that the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia, which he termed \"the tragedy in Prague\", had made clear the considerable differences within the international Communist movement on fundamental questions, such as national sovereignty, socialist democracy, and the freedom of culture. This dissent, which was termed \"the new course\", was followed by further condemnations in the 1980s.",
"Already a prominent leader in the party, Berlinguer was elected to the position of national secretary in 1972, when Longo resigned on grounds of ill health. At the party's thirteenth congress that elected him, Berlinguer said that he would be neither Togliatti nor Longo",
". In 1973, having been hospitalised after a car accident during a visit to the People's Republic of Bulgaria, which is now widely considered an attempt on his life on orders from Moscow, Berlinguer wrote three famous articles (\"Reflections on Italy\", \"After the Facts of Chile\", and \"After the Coup [in Chile]\") for the party's intellectual weekly magazine Rinascita",
". In these, he presented the strategy of the Historic Compromise, a proposed coalition between the PCI and the DC to grant Italy a period of political stability, at a time of severe economic crisis, and in a context in which, after Piano Solo and Golpe Borghese had been revealed, some forces were allegedly manoeuvering for a coup d'état in Italy.",
"In \"Reflections of Italy\", Berlinguer explicitly cited the historic compromise and wrote: \"The seriousness of the country's problems, the ever looming threats of reactionary adventures, and the need to finally open up to the nation a sure path of economic development, social renewal, and democratic progress make it ever more urgent and mature that we reach what can be defined as the great new 'historic compromise' between the forces that gather and represent the great majority of the Italian people",
".\" By this, Berlinguer meant that it was illusory to believe that, even if left-wing parties had managed to reach 51 per cent of the votes and parliamentary representation, this would have guaranteed the life of a government that was the expression of that 51 per cent as opposed to the oppositional front at 49 per cent. Within this context, over a left-wing alternative, he proposed a democratic alternative that would have resulted in a collaboration between communists, socialists, and Christian democrats",
". This policy was not popular among the party and its base. It was not well-received by Longo, who became the party's president in August 1972 and did not like the compromise phrasing. Among the working-class base, Berlinguer was asked in some meetings with workers whether there was no \"risk of yielding to the bosses\" or whether this policy did not \"weaken the spirit of the Communists\".",
"International relations",
"In 1973, Berlinguer went to Belgrade, the capital of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, to meet with Yugoslav president Josip Broz Tito, with a view to further developing his relationships with the major Communist parties of Europe, Asia, and Africa. In 1976, Berlinguer confirmed the autonomous position of the PCI vis-à-vis the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU)",
". Before 5,000 Communist delegates in Moscow, he spoke of pluralistic system, which was translated by the interpreter as multiform, and referred to the PCI's intentions to build \"a socialism that we believe necessary and possible only in Italy\". In one of his speeches in Moscow, Igor Ponomariov, Leonid Brezhnev's closest collaborator, left the room visibly annoyed",
". In September 1976, during the Festa dell'Unità in Turin, Mikhail Gorbachev, the then secretary of the Russian district of Stavropol, having learned about his speeches in Moscow, asked to meet Berlinguer. In November 1977, upon the celebration of the 60th anniversary of the October Revolution, Berlinguer held another speech in Moscow titled \"Democracy is a Universal Value\".",
"When Berlinguer secured the PCI's condemnation of any kind of interference, the rupture with the Soviets was effectively complete, although the party still for some years received money from Moscow. Since Italy was suffering the interference of NATO, the Soviets said it seemed that the only interference that the Italian Communists could not suffer was the Soviet one. In an interview held on 10 June 1976 with Corriere della Sera, Berlinguer declared that he felt \"safer under NATO's umbrella\"",
". Berlinguer's acceptance of NATO did not dent American suspicion of him; appearing on the cover of Time on 14 June 1976, he was named \"The Red Threat\". In a 1975 speech to Italy's Chamber of Deputies, Berlinguer had said that the Italian Communists had sympathy for the American people and wanted to cultivate a friendship with the United States but that the \"respect for alliances does not mean that Italy has to keep its head down\"",
". At the same time, he ruled out Italy leaving NATO on the grounds that unilateral exits of individual countries from the NATO or the Warsaw Pact would have disturbed the process of international détente.",
"Eurocommunism",
"In a 1975 speech for Dolores Ibárruri, Berlinguer stated: \"It is necessary that with audacity and intelligence we know how to free ourselves from any scholastic application of our doctrine understood as dogma, or from orientations that are no longer adequate to current experience and historical conditions, to walk towards new ways of advancing towards socialism",
".\" That same year also saw the joint statement of Berlinguer and Santiago Carrillo of the Spanish Communist Party, which said: \"The Italian and Spanish Communists solemnly declare that — in their conception of a democratic advance towards socialism in peace and freedom — what is expressed is not a tactical attitude but a strategic conviction",
".\" Berlinguer reiterated this feeling in a 1976 meeting in Moscow, where he said: \"We are fighting for a socialist society which is the highest point in the development of all democratic achievements and guarantees respect for all individual and collective freedoms, religious freedoms and freedom of culture, art and science. We think that in Italy we can and must ..",
". We think that in Italy we can and must ... build a socialist society with the contribution of political forces, organisations, different parties, and that the working class can and must affirm its historical function in a pluralistic and democratic system.\"",
"In 1977, at a meeting in Madrid between Berlinguer, Carrillo, and Georges Marchais of the French Communist Party, the fundamental lines of Eurocommunism were laid out. A few months later, Berlinguer was again in Moscow, where he gave another speech that was poorly received by his hosts and published by Pravda, the PCSU's official newspaper, in a censored version",
". About democracy, Berlinguer said: \"The experience gained has led us to the conclusion that democracy today is not only the ground on which the class adversary is forced to retreat, but it is also the historically universal value on which to found an original socialist society",
".\" The years after Communists first joined the European Parliament in 1969 saw a process towards pro-Europeanism that culminated, for the 1976 Italian general election, in the candidacy within the PCI's electoral list of Altiero Spinelli, the Italian father of European federalism and one of the founding fathers of the European Union",
". In the words of historian Antonio Varsori, the PCI interpreted the pro-European option as \"an opportunity to overcome the division of the old continent and for the birth of a socialist, neutralist, and tendentially pro-Third World Europe\".",
"Historic Compromise",
"Moving step by step, Berlinguer was building a consensus in the PCI towards a rapprochement with other components of society",
". After the surprising opening of 1970 toward conservatives and the still discussed proposal of the Historic Compromise, he published a correspondence with Monsignor Luigi Bettazzi, the Bishop of Ivrea; it was an astonishing event since Pope Pius XII had excommunicated the communists soon after World War II and the possibility of any relationship between communists and Catholics seemed very unlikely",
". This act also served to counteract the allegation, commonly and popularly expressed, that the PCI was protecting leftist terrorists in the harshest years of terrorism in Italy. In this context, the PCI opened its doors to many Catholics and a debate started about the possibility of contact. Notably, Berlinguer's Catholic family was not brought in out of its strictly respected privacy",
". Notably, Berlinguer's Catholic family was not brought in out of its strictly respected privacy. In the 1975 Italian regional elections, the left-wing coalition led by the PCI added to Emilia-Romagna, Tuscany, and Umbria the regions of Piedmont, Liguria, Marche, and Lazio. As a party, the PCI confirmed itself in the 1975 Italian local elections, which were held on the same day on 15–16 June, where it won 33.4% of the votes compared to the 35.3% of the votes of the DC",
".4% of the votes compared to the 35.3% of the votes of the DC. In June 1976, the PCI obtained what would be its best result in the party's history and gained 34.4% of the vote.",
"In Italy, while a government of national solidarity was ruling, Berlinguer said that in an emergency government a strong and powerful cabinet to solve a crisis of exceptional gravity was needed. On 16 March 1978, Aldo Moro, president of the DC, was kidnapped by the Red Brigades, a Marxist–Leninist terrorist group, on the day that the new government was going to be sworn in before the Italian Parliament",
". During this crisis, Berlinguer adhered to the fronte della fermezza (front of firmness), refusing to negotiate with terrorists, who had proposed to liberate Moro in exchange for the release of some imprisoned terrorists. Despite the PCI's firm stand against terrorism, the Moro incident left the party more isolated",
". Despite the PCI's firm stand against terrorism, the Moro incident left the party more isolated. In June 1978, the PCI gave its approval and ultimately active support to a campaign against Giovanni Leone, the then president of Italy who was accused of being involved in the Lockheed bribery scandal, which resulted in his resignation. Berlinguer supported the election of the veteran socialist Sandro Pertini as president of Italy; his presidency did not produce the effects that the PCI had hoped for",
". In Italy, after a new president is elected, the government resigns. The PCI expected Pertini to use his influence in its favour but was instead influenced by other political leaders like Giovanni Spadolini of the PRI and Bettino Craxi of the Italian Socialist Party (PSI), and thus the PCI remained out of the government. About Craxi, Berlinguer said: \"The thing that worries me about Craxi is that sometimes it seems to me that he thinks only of power for power's sake.\"",
"The Historic Compromise ended in 1979 when the PCI exited from the parliamentary majority, amid negative electoral trends",
". The policy was unpopular among its base and was criticised for its contradictions, such as how to start a path towards socialism through a compromise with the DC, which was not economically socialist and from 1947 onwards had always been considered by the PCI as its historical enemy, what would have been the most urgent socialist-leaning measures, and the fact that on those points Berlinguer remained vague",
". Another contradiction was that, in the winter of 1976–1977, severe deflationary economic maneuvers were implemented and mostly hit the working class; before the Historic Compromise, the PCI would have defined those maneuvers as a sting to be fought firmly but now accepted it as part of a two-stage policy (first the recovery measures, then the reforms), which was similar to that adopted by the PSI in the Organic centre-left governments that the PCI had criticised",
". At the same time, the policy is praised for its uncompromising support of democracy and civil rights.",
"Berlinguer continued with the policy on the grounds that the process of legitimising communists would be long (the United States were bitterly opposed even under Jimmy Carter), and that choosing the election route, in the middle of serious economic and terrorist crises, would favour the political right",
". In early 1978, the Historic Compromise led to the contracted, recognised, and explicit\" participation of the PCI in the majority government that would support Giulio Andreotti's new cabinet that was defined as one of national solidarity",
". The beginnings of this government were negative for the PCI because Moro had introduced personalities deeply disliked by Communists, in order to bring the whole DC to this agreement with the PCI, including the currents that opposed it, and Berlinguer thought of voting negative in a motion of confidence. Before this could happen, Moro was kidnapped and killed, and the PCI suffered losses in the 1979 Italian general election held in June.",
"Domestic policies and views",
"During the 1970s, the PCI governed many Italian regions, sometimes more than half of them. Notably, the regional governments of Emilia-Romagna and Tuscany were concrete proof of PCI's governmental capabilities. In this period, Berlinguer turned his attention to the exercise of local power to show that \"the trains could run on time\" under the PCI. He personally took part in electoral campaigns in the provinces and local councils",
". He personally took part in electoral campaigns in the provinces and local councils. While other parties sent only local leaders, this helped the party to win many elections at these levels. In the June 1975 regional elections, the PCI's gap from the DC, which had been 10% points in the 1970 Italian regional elections, narrowed to less than two per cent at 1.8%, the PCI having jumped to 33.4% after a surge of 6.2%, while the DC fell to 35.2%, with a loss of 3.6%",
".4% after a surge of 6.2%, while the DC fell to 35.2%, with a loss of 3.6%. In the June 1976 national elections, the PCI continued to grow at 34.4%; while the DC recovered and achieved 38.7%, the minor parties had dropped, and there were no longer the numbers for centrist governments. About the future, in an interview in June 1981 to Moby Dick, the monthly of the Sicilian FGCI, Berlinguer said: \"We save ourselves and move forward if we act together and not just one by one.\"",
"In a 1980 interview with Oriana Fallaci, Berlinguer said: \"We are communists. We are communists with originality and peculiarity, distinguishing ourselves from all the other communist parties: but we are communists, we remain communists.\" About fanaticism, he told Fallaci: \"I don't throw rants at anyone, I don't like to hurl curses, curses are expressions of fanaticism and there is too much fanaticism in the world",
".\" That same year, he stated on Tribuna politica that communism is \"the just transformation of society\". In an interview in 1981 with Eugenio Scalfari of la Repubblica, Berlinguer outlined the questione morale, or moral question. He said: \"Today's parties are above all machines of power and clientela",
". He said: \"Today's parties are above all machines of power and clientela.\" About the moral question, he addded: \"The moral question has existed for some time, but it has now become the first and essential political question because the recovery of trust in the institutions, the effective governance of the country, and the stability of the democratic regime depend on its solution",
".\" About capitalism, he said: \"We think that the capitalist type of economic and social development is the cause of serious distortions, of immense costs and social inequalities, of enormous waste of wealth.\"",
"In a 1981 interview to Critica marxista, Berlinguer outlined the difference from other parties. He said: \"Our main difference from the others is that we Communists do not give up working and fighting for a radical transformation of society and the construction of a society of free and equal people. They would like left-wing parties that would limit themselves to correcting some flaws in the current system: we are not that type of party and we never will be",
".\" In the same interview, he reiterated: \"We do not give up building a 'society of free and equal', we do not give up leading the struggle of men and women for the production of the conditions of their lives.\" He stated that this was the main difference from social democrats and other socialists, and said that \"they put the commitment to change the given structure between parents, leading them to the obfuscation and loss of their own ideal and political autonomy",
". Our difference from social democracy lies in the fact that we communists will never give up that transforming commitment. About other Communist parties, he said: \"Our main 'anomaly' compared to several other communist and workers' parties is that we are convinced that in the process towards this goal we must remain — and we will remain — faithful to the method of democracy",
". The 'assault on heaven' — this beautiful image of Marx — is not for us Italian communists a project of irrationalistic climbing to the absolute.\" In a speech delivered by Berlinguer at the FGCI congress held in Milan in 1982, he said: \"If young people organise themselves, take over every branch of knowledge, and fight with the workers and the oppressed, there is no escape for an old order founded on privilege and injustice.\"",
"In an article written for Rinascita on 6 December 1982, titled \"Party and Society in the Reality of the 1980s\", Berlinguer said: \"There can be no inventiveness, imagination, creation of the new if you start by burying yourself, your history and reality.\" In an interview in 1983 with Ferdinando Adornato, he said about communism that \"scientists are discussing more about the sole dell'avvenire [the establishment of socialism] today than the communists",
".\" That same year, in an interview with Giovanni Minoli about the labour movement, he stated: \"We refuse to let the usual ones pay, the workers, the popular masses. And we believe that if there must be sacrifices, and everyone must contribute proportionately, they must contribute to achieving certain goals, not to make the country go backwards",
".\" In his last rally, held on 7 June 1984, before his death, Berlinguer said: \"We are convinced that the world, even this terrible, intricate world of today, can be known, interpreted, transformed, and put at the service of man, his well-being, his happiness. The test for this goal is a test that can worthily fill a life",
". The test for this goal is a test that can worthily fill a life.\" During his final rally, held just days later in Padua, he stated: \"Everyone work, house by house, company by company, street by street, in dialogue with the citizens, with trust for the battles we have waged, for the proposals we are presenting, for what we were and are. It is possible to win new and wider support for our lists, for our cause, which is the cause of peace, freedom, work, the progress of our civilisation!\"",
"Break with the Soviet Union and the Democratic Alternative",
"In 1980, the PCI publicly condemned the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, and Moscow then immediately sent Georges Marchais to Rome to try to bring Berlinguer into line; he was received with perceptible coldness. The break with the Soviets and other Communist parties became clear when the PCI did not participate in the 1980 International Conference of Communist Parties held in Paris. Instead, Berlinguer made an official visit to China",
". Instead, Berlinguer made an official visit to China. In November 1980, Berlinguer declared in Salerno that the idea of a possible Historic Compromise had been put aside, and it would be replaced with the idea of the Democratic Alternative to both the real socialism of the East and the then social democracy of the West.",
"In 1981, Berlinguer said that, in his personal opinion, the progressive force of the October Revolution had been exhausted",
". The PCI criticised the martial law in Poland and soon the PCI's split with the CPSU became definitive and official, followed by a long polemic between Pravda and l'Unità (the official newspaper of PCI)",
", not made any milder after an October meeting with Cuban leader Fidel Castro in Havana; the PCI joked that they succeeded where the CIA failed when Berlinguer closed the hand of Castro's security chief in the door of a GAZ Chaika who let out a single stoic moan (l'Unitàs Havana correspondent recalled that \"a sinister noise of broken bones\" was heard) before being hospitalised but the episode did not spoil Berlinguer's visit",
". Nonetheless, his last years were marked by attempts for unity among the national and international political left. He also continued to underline the necessary link between democracy and socialism, which was followed by a strong commitment on the issues of nuclear disarmament and détente.",
"Death and funeral",
"Berlinguer's last major statement was a call for the solidarity among the leftist parties. On 7 June 1984, he suffered a brain haemorrhage while giving a speech at a public meeting in Padua. He entered a coma on the same day and died on 11 June, four days later. During this time, Sandro Pertini, the then Italian president, remained at the hospital with Berlinguer's family. More than a million people attended his funeral in the Archbasilica of St",
". More than a million people attended his funeral in the Archbasilica of St. John Lateran at Piazza San Giovanni, the largest funeral in Italy's history at the time. Reflecting his stature in Italian politics, the leaders of all parties paid tribute to his career and the Vatican expressed condolences.",
"Apart from all the major politicians across the political spectrum, many international figures, such as the Soviet deputy leader Mikhail Gorbachev and Chinese prime minister Zhao Ziyang, attended his funeral",
". From Gorbachev and Zhao to Georges Marchais, Santiago Carrillo, Yasser Arafat, and the Communists of the Philippines, Israel, Yugoslavia, and North Korea, to Giancarlo Pajetta and Pietro Ingrao, who said that the party would not deny him and that Communists would try to carry his name, they respended him and recognised him as an international leader. At his funeral, Tomaso Albinoni's \"Adagio in G minor\" and Johann Sebastian Bach and Franz Schubert's music were played",
". Much discussed, including from other parties like the DC and PSI and their representatives, such as Ciriaco De Mita, who praised the Historic Compromise, and Rino Formica, who said that the PCI had to decide between the left-wing alternative and the Historic Compromise, was the future of the PCI.",
"After his funeral, Berlinguer was interred in Rome's Cimitero di Prima Porta. His death took place six days before the 1984 European Parliament election in Italy. The PCI gained a significant sympathy vote as a result, winning the most votes for the only time. His death remains controversial due to the fact he was taken back to the hotel to rest and an ambulance was called only two hours after he first fell ill",
". According to sociologist and journalist Rocco Turi, Berlinguer died not as a result of a cerebral stroke but for the direct responsibilities that he links to a series of delays in the same first aid operations. He said that \"we are now able to deny the theses of those years. They waited too long to take Berlinguer to the hospital; after the first illness, Berlinguer was in fact transported slowly first to the hotel, and then after more than two hours an ambulance was finally called",
". A completely crazy choice.\" Additionally, Turi said that Berlinguer was not operated on as soon as he arrived at the hospital, as is commonly understood, but that he was only taken to the operating room at 1:00 pm, after about two hours spent in the hotel, and two and a half hours later from his illness in Piazza della Frutta. He tied his death to that of Aldo Moro.",
"Personal life",
"A non-believer, Berlinguer married in a civil ceremony the religious Letizia Laurenti (1928–2017), whom he met during a holiday in the Aosta Valley, on 26 September 1957 in the Capitoline Hill; they had been engaged for ten years, and both the PCI and her family were against it. While seemingly cold in public and in front of their children, they relationship has been described as \"a love from Romeo and Juliet\"",
". Together, they had four children: former TG3 journalist Biancamaria (born 1959), RAI journalist Maria Stella (born 1961), Communist Refoundation Party politician Marco (born 1963), and Mediaset journalist Laura (born 1970). He often used to give his children tutoring lessons, including after a political meeting was concluded, on topics like Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel and pre-Socratic philosophers but never in a forceful way; he did not expect them to follow his path in politics",
". Berlinguer said that they \"must be able to make their choices freely, without any prejudice\".",
"As a Sardinian, Berlinguer said that he was a supporter of Cagliari Calcio; like many other communist and left-wing leaders, including Palmiro Togliatti and allegedly Antonio Gramsci, he was said to have been a supporter of Juventus. As many of his security escorts were supporters of SS Lazio, Berlinguer was forced to watch the club's matches. He once left in the middle of a lunch with party members to watch a Juventus match",
". He once left in the middle of a lunch with party members to watch a Juventus match. Another time, near the government building of the Palazzo della Farnesina, he saw a group of kids playing association football and started playing with them. Outside of politics and his passion for football, which he played as a child with his brother, Berlinguer played Rummy and loved the sea and sailing. Whenever he could, he would go on his cousin's boat in Stintino, manoeuvring the mainsails and jibs with dexterity",
". In 1977, he risked his life when, not following the recommendation by relatives and sailors, he went out by boat because he could not return to Stintino for safety reasons. When the wind picked up, the sea got rough, and for several hours no one heard news about Berlinguer until his cousin Francesco Cossiga, the then interior minister, sent patrol boats to search for him.",
"Berlinguer was a lover of ballet and opera, the last one he had seen was Wagner's Parsifal in Rome. Apart from philosophical and ideological readings, such as Gramsci's mistica and the modern Machiavellian Prince, Berlinguer was an avid reader of novels; before his death, he last finished reading one by Marguerite Yourcenar",
". Very close to his family, he spent every Christmas with his brother and sister-in-law, and never had an hour of vacation without at least one of his children; he also gave regular visits to his ninety-year-old aunt, Iole Siglienti, every time she came in Cagliari. He was a fan of Roberto Benigni, about whom he said that he made him laugh even before he said his jokes, and iconic is the photo of him, laughing in Benigni's arms at the Villa Borghese Festival",
". Berlinguer almost never understood Giorgio Forattini's cartoons, and said: \"He's our enemy.\" Within the context of the Years of Lead, Berlinguer had a security escort that included an armoured Alfa Romeo 2000 Berlina. Alberto Menichelli, Berlinguer's personal car driver, said that \"if Moro had had it, they wouldn't have been able to do what happened in via Fani\"",
". Menichelli, who said that it was an honour to be able to accompagny Berlinguer for fifteen years, continued to keep his memory alive with the Enrico Berlinguer Quadraro-Cinecittà cultural association, exhibitions, and other initiatives and about 300 members. A fan of motorcycles, Berlinguer came to be the owner of an Harley Davidson",
". A fan of motorcycles, Berlinguer came to be the owner of an Harley Davidson. Renzo Trivelli told Corriere della Sera that Berlinguer bought \"a Harley Davidson that [was] too big for him; when he arrives at the [PCI] offices, his supervisors help him get on and off the vehicle. A few months later, citing security reasons, the party forbade him to use it.\"",
"Legacy",
"Personality",
"Not many journalists could have interviewed Berlinguer, as he could not bear fame, and discourage anecdotes. He was described as reserved, \"bashful, probably shy\", and not much was known about his private life, including his music preferences, whether Bach or Wagner, when he was alive. A Sardinian fisherman who had known him in distant times told a reporter that \"[Berlinguer] was a serious, very reserved child. He never laughed",
". He never laughed.\" Berlinguer was so shy that, before a rally, he sipped a little whiskey that the driver Alberto Menichelli handed him from a small bottle kept in his jacket pocket. His notable 1983 television interview with Giovanni Minoli on Mixer is seen as evidence of Berlinguer not being corroded by vanity. In that same interview, asked about which was the quality he was most fond of, Berlinguer responded: \"That of having remained faithful to the ideals of my youth.\"",
"Berlinguer has been described in many ways but was generally recognised for political coherence and courage, together with a rare personal and political intelligence. A serious and morally rigorous man, he was sincerely respected even by his opponents, such as the Italian Social Movement leader Giorgio Almirante, who paid his homage to Berlinguer and lowered himself in front to his coffin at Botteghe Oscure",
". Riccardo Bisognero, the then Commander-General of the Carabinieri, said: \"He was not only the leader of a political party, but a point of reference for Italian democracy.\" His three days of agony were followed with great attention by the general population. Attended by more than a million people, his funeral was among the highest ever seen in Rome, and was reminiscent of the funeral of Palmiro Togliatti in 1964; in both cases, a group of directors filmed the event for a documentary",
". From Almirante to the then president of the Senate, Francesco Cossiga, to then interior minister Oscar Luigi Scalfaro, from all the major Italian personalities across the political spectrum to common people, including women and the youth, they all paid their respect to Berlinguer.",
"Politics",
"Berlinguer's most important political act of his career in the PCI was the break with Soviet Communism, together with the creation of Eurocommunism and his substantial work towards contact with the moderate and particularly the Catholic half of the country. As evidence of his legacy, the Five Star Movement (M5S) put him in their pantheon and the former M5S leader Luigi Di Maio, who culturally formed himself on the political right, claimed Berlinguer's legacy",
". Pierpaolo Farina, a young blogger, built a website about Berlinguer for the youth and those who had not known him, and soon reached 300,000 contacts. The fact that Berlinguer went down in history for preaching austerity, in Pier Paolo Pasolini's terms expressed as a warning in 1974 that \"true fascism is the consumer society\", is seen as a testament to his durature legacy and thinking",
". Even after 35 years since his death, in the words of Eugenio Scalfari, \"Enrico Berlinguer had a somewhat similar role in Italian politics (and not only) to the one Pope Francis is having today in the Catholic religion (and not only). Both followed a path of reformism so radical as to produce revolutionary effects; both were loved and respected even by their adversaries; both had a charisma that grasped reality and fueled a dream.\"",
"In the words of Giorgio Bocca, in his analysis after his death, Berlinguer had understood that, after \"the lacerations, the convulsions, the loss of prestige, of dynamism, of leadership of the PCI and of the left in general in the Seventies\" that had derived \"above all from the cultural inadequacy of a sclerotic Marxism and a formalist anti-fascism\", he needed \"to bring back to the party and the left what remains alive of Marxism, its humanism",
", he needed \"to bring back to the party and the left what remains alive of Marxism, its humanism, the defence of man from the exploitation and alienation that continue and perhaps worsen in post-industrial society",
".\" In the words of sociologist Francesco Alberoni, Berlinguer's critique of Soviet Communism was \"never crude or hostile\", and he had \"always considered it a deviation from an original project, an error, understandable in those historical situations, and correctable in the future. This is typical of the great ideological, intellectual leader who interprets history with a view to the future",
". It was these merits of him, as leader of an Italian party, as a democrat, as an outstanding ideological figure of international Communism, that provoked the sense of loss everywhere and even the homage of enemies.\"",
"Berlinguer's search for a new socialism was to find a solution to the bipolar international blocs, and his name is thus associated to that of Willy Brandt and Olof Palme. In October 2012, Nichi Vendola said of his alternative Europeanism that \"the one that we continue to dream is not the unbalanced power that rules today, with an unknown identity. No: it is the Europe of Willy Brandt, of Olof Palme, of Enrico Berlinguer.\" Within the broad international Communist movement, Berlinguer had many opponents",
".\" Within the broad international Communist movement, Berlinguer had many opponents. The more orthodox Marxist–Leninist opposition argued that he had turned a workers' party into a bourgeois, revisionist one. External opponents said that the strappo, the break with the CPSU, took several years to be completed; this was seen as evidence that there had been no definitive decision on the point",
". The acceptance of NATO is generally seen as evidence of the genuine autonomy of the PCI's position, and Berlinguer was seen in declassified CIA documents as the strongest critic of Soviet actions, such as their role in suppressing the Prague Spring of 1968, which was a turning point. Despite notably successful Communist local governments, Berlinguer's efforts failed to bring the PCI into government. His final platform, \"The Democratic Alternative\", was never realised",
". His final platform, \"The Democratic Alternative\", was never realised. Within a decade of his death, the Soviet Union and the DC and PCI parties all disappeared, leading to the Second Italian Republic and transforming Italian politics beyond recognition. For some, for the vast population on the political left, which felt dispersed, his death marked the end of the PCI",
". On his death, not only the head of the largest Communist party in the West died but also an idea to which millions of Italians had dedicated a good part of their existence during the 20th century, what Francesco Guccini called \"the timeless dreams\".",
"Impact on Italian society",
"As one of the most important figures of the First Italian Republic, Berlinguer's impact on Italian society is reflected in references in popular culture, with a general love, admiration, and respect that transcended political affiliations. Italian actor and director Roberto Benigni declared publicly his admiration and personal love for Berlinguer",
". Besides making him the protagonist of the movie Berlinguer, I Love You, Benigni appeared with Berlinguer during a public political demonstration of the PCI, of which he was a sympathiser. Italian singer-songwriter Antonello Venditti posthumously dedicated a song, \"Dolce Enrico\" (\"Sweet Enrico\"), to Berlinguer",
". Italian folk music band Modena City Ramblers wrote a song about Berlinguer's funeral, which was published on their first full-length album Riportando tutto a casa and was titled \"I funerali di Berlinguer\".",
"An il Giornale nuovo article after his death proposed the psychological thesis that Berlinguer was not really loved but that people were forced to admire him and recognise his virtues. His qualities, such as reserve, honesty, seriousness, and puritanical rigour, made him a foreigner at home, and his death freed many people of a burden but also created a sense of guilt that was reflected in collective mourning and tributes from his adversaries.\n\nElectoral history\n\nBooks\n\nReferences\n\nBibliography",
"Electoral history\n\nBooks\n\nReferences\n\nBibliography\n\nExternal links \n Enrico Berlinguer at Camera.it\n Translations on Western Europe. Number 1321. Communism and Socialism in Italy: Enrico Berlinguer, Bettino Craxi Vie for Power at the Defense Technical Information Center",
"1922 births\n1984 deaths\nBurials at the Cimitero Flaminio\nDeputies of Legislature IX of Italy\nDeputies of Legislature V of Italy\nDeputies of Legislature VI of Italy\nDeputies of Legislature VII of Italy\nDeputies of Legislature VIII of Italy\nItalian Communist Party politicians\nItalian atheists\nItalian people of Catalan descent\nItalian resistance movement members\nPeople from Sassari\nPoliticians of Sardinia\nNeurological disease deaths in Veneto"
] |
Drax Power Station
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drax%20Power%20Station
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[
"Drax power station is a large biomass power station in Drax, North Yorkshire, England, capable of co-firing petroleum coke. It has a 2.6 GW capacity for biomass and 1.29 GW capacity for coal. Its name comes from the nearby village of Drax. It is situated on the River Ouse between Selby and Goole. Its generating capacity of 3,906 megawatts (MW) is the highest of any power station in the United Kingdom, providing about 6% of the United Kingdom's electricity supply.",
"Opened in 1974 and extended in the 1980s, the station was initially operated by the Central Electricity Generating Board. Since privatisation in 1990 ownership has changed several times, and it is operated by the Drax Group. Completed in 1986, it is the newest coal-fired power station in England. Flue gas desulphurisation equipment was fitted between 1988 and 1995. The high and low pressure turbines were replaced between 2007 and 2012.",
"By 2010, the station was co-firing biomass. In 2012, the company announced plans to convert three generating units to solely biomass, burning 7.5 million tonnes imported from the United States and Canada. This work was completed in 2016 and a fourth unit was converted in 2018. The company now plans to convert its remaining two coal units to Combined Cycle Gas Turbine units and 200 MW battery storage.",
"History\nDrax was initially conceived by the Central Electricity Generating Board (CEGB) in 1962 as the country's largest power station thus far, at about 3,000 MW. Subsequently, it was decided to use this opportunity as their first station to use the 660 MW turbogenerator sets which were planned to become the new standard, so the planning consents were revised to about 4,000 MW.",
"Following the Selby Coalfield discovery in 1967 the Board would build three large power stations to use its coal. These were an expansion of the station at Ferrybridge, a new station at Eggborough, and Drax, which would be the largest.\n\nConstruction",
"Construction\n\nAuthority to carry out preparatory works was granted in December 1964, leading to full permission in March 1966, on the basis that the station would be designed to accommodate six 660 MW units, but that only the first three be proceeded with for the time being.\n\nGround work for these three units, known at the time as 'Drax First Half', started in 1967. Two units were synchronised to the grid in 1973, and the third in 1974.",
"Although authorised, the second half of the project – known as 'Drax Completion' – was deferred, because during the project's gestation the Board's energy mix policy shifted to working towards a majority nuclear system. The Board decided in 1977 that construction of the final three units would commence in 1979 with the target of commissioning in 1985/6, as part of meeting load growth with an adjusted mix policy aiming for a balance of coal, nuclear, and oil",
". However, later that year in July, the Government requested that Drax Completion proceed immediately, ahead of requirements, in order to secure jobs in the North East's heavy manufacturing industries. The Board agreed to this subject to being compensated.",
"The architects were Jeff King and Dennis Merritt of Clifford, Tee and Gale. The architectural critic Reyner Banham was scathing of the design: 'less a brick cathedral than a concrete bunker... obsession with ribbed surfaces and forceful projections that have their origins in brutalism'. Costain constructed the foundations and cable tunnels; Sir Robert McAlpine Ltd",
". Costain constructed the foundations and cable tunnels; Sir Robert McAlpine Ltd. laid the roads and built the ancillary buildings; Mowlem laid the deep foundations; Alfred McAlpine built the administration and control buildings; Balfour Beatty undertook general building works; and James Scott installed cabling.",
"Tarmac Construction undertook the civil engineering works; Holst Civil Engineers built the chimney; Bierrum & Partners built the cooling towers; N.G. Bailey installed cabling; Reyrolle, English Electric and South Wales Switchgear produced and installed the switchgear; English Electric manufactured the generator cooling water pumps; T.W. Broadbent maintained the temporary electrical supplies; and Sulzer Brothers manufactured the boiler feed pumps",
". In both phases the boilers were made by Babcock Power Ltd and the generators by C. A. Parsons and Company.",
"The second phase was completed in 1986.\n\nConstruction of the power station entailed the demolition of a farm known as Wood House.\n\nMitsui Babcock fitted flue-gas desulphurisation (FGD) equipment between 1988 and 1995.",
"Post-privatisation\nOn privatisation of the CEGB in 1990, the station was transferred from the CEGB to the privatised generating company National Power, which sold it to the AES Corporation in November 1999 for £1.87 billion (US$3 billion). AES relinquished ownership in August 2003, after falling into £1.3 billion of debt. Independent directors continued the operation to ensure security of supply. In December 2005, after refinancing, ownership passed to the Drax Group.",
"Separate acquisition offers from International Power, private equity group Texas Pacific, and a private equity backed bid from Constellation Energy were rejected for undervaluing the company. The company's valuation subsequently increased to 2005 as a result of rising electricity prices, and on 15 December 2005 Drax Group plc floated its shares on the London Stock Exchange, issuing £400 million worth of shares, on a valuation of £2.6 billion.",
"In 2009, Drax Group submitted a planning application for the 300 MW biomass Ouse Renewable Energy Plant next to the power station. Government approval was obtained in mid 2011. In February 2012 the company ceased planning development of the plant, citing logistics costs, and uncertainty concerning government financial support for biomass.",
"Carbon capture and storage\nIn 2006 Drax Power Limited, in response to a government consultation, stated they were sponsoring development studies into carbon capture and storage (CCS), but noted that it was not then commercially viable, with costs comparable with nuclear or offshore wind power. On 17 June 2009, Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change Ed Miliband announced plans that would require all UK coal-fired power stations to be fitted with CCS technology by the early 2020s or face closure.",
"In 2012 a CCS project at Drax was shortlisted for government funding. In 2013 the White Rose Carbon Capture and Storage project (formerly the UK OXY CCS project) was shortlisted for the UK government's CCS scheme and in late 2013 was awarded a two-year FEED contract (Front End Engineering Design) for the CCS project. As of June 2014, Drax is engaged in a joint venture with Alstom and BOC to build a 626 MW oxygen-fuelled combustion power station adjacent to the existing Drax site",
". National Grid would simultaneously construct a pipeline to transport to the Yorkshire coast for sequestration.",
"In July 2014 the project was awarded €300 million funding from the European Commission.",
"In September 2015 Drax announced it would not be making any further investments into the CCS scheme after completion of the feasibility study because negative changes to government support for renewable energy had made the project too financially risky, plus drops in the company's share price due to the same uncertainty had reduced Drax's ability to raise funds. Front End Engineering Design was expected to continue under Alstom and BOC with the project still being hosted at Drax",
". In late 2015 the UK Government withdrew its potential financial support for CCS projects – up to £1 billion of funding, reversing support promised in the governing party's 2015 election manifesto. As a result, Leigh Hackett, CEO of Capture Power stated that \"[I]t is difficult to imagine its continuation in the absence of crucial government support\".",
"In May 2018, Drax announced a new carbon capture and storage pilot scheme that it would undertake in conjunction with the Leeds-based firm, C-Capture. The focus of this pilot will be on capturing carbon post combustion from the biomass burners as opposed to the coal burners. Drax will invest £400,000 into the project. The company, C-Capture, is a side company of the Department of Chemistry established at the University of Leeds",
". This would yield about of stored per day from the process, which could be sold on for use in the drinks industry. The pilot scheme was launched in February 2019. The capture of carbon from biomas burners is known as Bio Energy with Carbon Capture and Storage (BECCS).",
"Design and specification\n\nThe main buildings are of steel frame and metal clad construction. The main features are a turbine hall, a boiler house, a chimney and 12 cooling towers. The boiler house is high, and the turbine hall is long.",
"The chimney stands tall, with an overall diameter of , and weighs 44,000 tonnes. It consists of three elliptical flues of reinforced concrete, each serving two of the six boilers, set within a cylindrical 'wind shield', also of reinforced concrete. The topmost elements, the three cap rings of the flues which extend above the wind shield, are of cast iron. When finished, the chimney was the largest industrial chimney in the world, and is still the tallest in the United Kingdom",
". The chimney's dimensions, including the height, were dictated by a design total capacity of 5,100 m3/s of gases at 26 m/s. As the station was designed and constructed prior to the CEGB's commitment to Flue Gas Desulpurisation, extensive measures were made to limit acid attack from 'sulphurous condensate', namely the lining of the flues with a fluoroelastomer, and coating of the upper of the external surfaces with a mix of acid-resisting tiles and said fluoroelastomer.",
"The twelve tall natural draft cooling towers stand in two groups of six to the north and south of the station. They are made of reinforced concrete, in the typical hyperboloid design, and each have a base diameter of .",
"The station is the third-largest coal-fired power station in Europe, after Bełchatów Power Station in Poland, and Neurath Power Station in Germany. It produces around 24 terawatt hours (TWh) (86.4 petajoules) of electricity annually. Although it generates around 1,500,000 tonnes of ash and 22,800,000 tonnes of carbon dioxide each year, it is the most carbon-efficient coal-fired power plant in the United Kingdom.",
"The design life was set out in terms of number of start-ups and operating \"cycles\", but with the presumption that the station would operate as a standard 2nd-tier (nuclear stations being 1st-tier) baseload generator in the pattern well established under the centralised state-owned electricity system, it was summarised as \"in the order of 40 years\". The minimum requirement was for providing 'full load for weekdays, over a spell of 3 months' with an availability over 85%",
". Weekend operations were expected to be between 50–100% of full power. Despite this intent for baseload operation, it was designed with a reasonable ability for load-following, being able to ramp up or down by 5% of full power per minute within the range of 50–100% of full power.",
"Ouse jetty \nThe power station also has a jetty on the River Ouse, with a loading capacity of 200 tonnes. Historically the jetty was built and used for the construction of the power station in the 1960s/70s – such as the delivery of equipment. In 2015 a planning application was submitted for the improvement of the jetty's load capacity to 500 tonnes by White Rose CCS developer Capture Power Limited (Drax/Alstom/BOC joint venture), for the construction of the CCS project.",
"Fuel supply\nThe main transport route to the power station for fuel (originally coal) is train via a -long freight-only section of the former Hull and Barnsley Railway, from the Pontefract Line at Hensall Junction. A balloon loop rail layout is used so that wagons of coal do not need to be shunted after being unloaded. Merry-go-round trains are used, so that wagons can be unloaded without the train stopping as it passes through an unloading house. On average, there are 35 deliveries a day, 6 days a week.",
"The power station also has a jetty (see § Jetty) – imports via the jetty ended c.1980 – in 2004 the jetty was trialled for the import of Tall Oil by barge.\n\nCoal supply until 2021",
"Coal supply until 2021\n\nIn its original form, the station had a maximum potential consumption of 36,000 tonnes of coal a day. In 2011, it consumed 9.1 million tonnes of coal. This coal came from a mixture of both domestic and international sources, with domestic coal coming from mines in Yorkshire, the Midlands and Scotland, and foreign supplies coming from Australia, Colombia, Poland, Russia and South Africa. As of 2020, all coal was sourced internationally.",
"Fuel and other bulk commodities are supplied via a 6 mile stretch of the old Hull and Barnsley Railway line off the Wakefield and Goole railway line",
". Rail facilities include a west-facing junction on the Goole line, gross-weight and tare-weight weighbridges, limestone and gypsum handling facilities, including a handling building and control room for the FGD plant, FGD Sidings G and H, biomass offload (Track A), coal offload (Tracks A, B and C), bypass line (Track D), oil siding (Track E) and ash loading (Track F) and an unloading building and control room.",
"When the station opened, most of the coal burned was from local collieries in Yorkshire, including Kellingley Colliery, Prince of Wales, Ackton Hall, Sharlston Colliery, Fryston Colliery, Askern Colliery and Bentley Colliery. Following the miners' strike in the mid-1980s, by 2006, all but Kellingley had closed. (Kellingley closed at the end of 2015.) UK Coal had a five-year contract to supply coal, which ended at the end of 2009, from Kellingley, Maltby and, until its closure in 2007, Rossington",
". Coal was also brought from Harworth Colliery until it was mothballed, and was supplied by Daw Mill in Warwickshire.",
"The foreign coal is brought via various ports by rail. In c.2007 GB Railfreight won a contract to move coal brought from the Port of Tyne, celebrated by the company naming one of their locomotives Drax Power Station in 2007. DB Cargo UK haul coal from the nearby ports of Hull and Immingham, and from Hunterston Terminal on the west coast of Scotland.",
"In 2021, all coal supplies to Drax Power Station and commercial electricity generation from coal ended in accordance with the plan to end coal fired generation announced in 2020 which will see Drax transition to biomass ahead of the deadline to phase out coal from the UK energy system.\n\nBiomass\n\nCo-firing",
"The station tested co-firing biomass in the summer of 2004, and in doing so was the first power station in the UK to be fuelled by wood. The initial trial of 14,100 tonnes of willow was locally sourced from nearby Eggborough. Since the trial, the station's use of biomass has continued. It uses direct injection for firing the biomass, whereby it bypasses the pulverising mills and is either injected directly into the boiler or the fuel line, for greater throughput. In 2009 a target was set for 12",
". In 2009 a target was set for 12.5% of the station's energy to be sourced from biomass, and the shift to biomass was intended to contribute to the aim of cutting emissions by 15%.",
"The station burns a large range of biomass, mostly wood pellets, sunflower pellets, olive, peanut shell husk and rape meal. The majority comes from overseas. A 100,000 tonne pa capacity straw pelletization facility was constructed at Capitol Park, Goole in 2008, opened 2009. Construction of specialised biomass handling facilities began in 2009 at the Port of Tyne and at Drax.",
"New biomass plants",
"In the 2000s Drax Group applied for planning permission to build a new 300 MW power station, fuelled entirely by biomass, to the north of the station; the Ouse Renewable Energy Plant was expected to burn 1,400,000 tonnes of biomass each year, saving 1,850,000 tonnes of emissions, and expected to create 850 construction jobs and 150 permanent jobs created once opened, through direct and contract employment",
". Plans were submitted to the Department of Energy and Climate Change in July 2009 for review; if permission was granted, construction was scheduled begin in late 2010 and to take up to three and a half years. Two other 300 MW biomass plants were planned by Drax at the ports of Hull and Immingham.",
"In 2012 Drax group abandoned plans for the discrete biomass plant development, due to changes in government subsidies for biomass energy production favouring plant conversions over newly built plants. It switched to a project to convert half of the units at its existing plant to biomass firing.",
"Full firing with biomass",
"In September 2012 Drax Group announced the conversion to full firing with biomass of three of its six units. The first unit was scheduled to be online by June 2013, the second unit in 2014, and the third by 2017; initially a biomass supply had been secured for the first unit. The cost was estimated at £700 million ($1.13 billion), including modifications to fuel mills and boilers and the construction of storage structures and conveyors for the wood pellet fuel. Each unit will consume about 2",
". Each unit will consume about 2.3 million tonnes of biomass yearly, requiring an estimated annual total of 7.5 million tonnes in 2017. This is equivalent to two-thirds of Europe's entire energy biomass consumption in 2010, and requires of forest to supply on a continuous basis. North America was expected to be the source of the vast majority of the biomass, although some would be domestically sourced willow and elephant grass.",
"Drax Group's decision was enabled by a new UK government policy, effective in April 2013, to award 1.0 tradable ROCs (renewable obligation certificates) per megawatt of power generation from coal power plants that are fully converted to burn biomass; CEO Dorothy Thompson stated the company intended to become a predominately biomass-fuelled energy producer",
". By April 2013 financing for the scheme include £190 million through sale of shares, £100 million from Prudential/ M&G UK Companies Financing Fund, £50 million from the UK Green Investment Bank, and £75 million Friends Life (underwritten by HM Treasury), as well as a £400 million credit facility.",
"As of 2013 there were plans to install 1 million tonne per year wood pellets pelletizing plants at Morehouse Parish, Louisiana, and Gloster, Mississippi, which would be shipped by road and rail to the port of Baton Rouge, Louisiana then shipped in 50,000-tonne cargo ships to UK. In the financial report for 2013, Drax announced that an additional 2 million tons pelletisation capacity was being considered, likely to be built in the US.",
"In 2013 the company signed an agreement with Associated British Ports to develop handling facilities at the Hull, Immingham and Grimsby; construction of automated facilities began in 2013, creating capacities of 3 and 1 million tonnes per year at the ports of Immingham and Hull respectively, adding to the 1.4 million tonne per year Port of Tyne biomass facility built in 2009",
".4 million tonne per year Port of Tyne biomass facility built in 2009. In the same year a new design covered rail wagon with high volumetric capacity for transporting the low density biomass pellets was unveiled for use by Drax in the UK; 200 wagons of the type were ordered. At Drax pellets would be stored in domes, and transferred by a conveyor system before grinding to dust for use.",
"The Shepherd Building Group was contracted to construct the biomass handling and storage facilities at Drax, with RPS Group as the civil engineer. The design included automated rail to storage handling, screening and storage facilities consisting of four high by wide storage domes with a capacity of . The concrete dome technology was supplied by E & D Company, PLLC (trading as Engineering System Solutions, ES2) and Dome Technology LLC.",
"By July 2013 one firing unit had been converted, and was reported to be functioning correctly; by 2013 the conversion of the second and third units was scheduled for 2014 and during or before 2016 respectively. The second unit was converted by May 2014, initially co-firing an 85% biomass/coal mix due to limited biomass supply.",
"In April 2014 Drax was awarded a renewable contract for difference (CFD) subsidy for biomass based power generation on another converted coal firing unit, but a third unit, which had been previously marked as eligible for CFD funding was excluded; Drax Group then legally challenged the decision, initially obtaining a ruling in its favour, which was overturned in the Court of Appeal. In July 2014 the High Court ruled in Drax's favour.",
"Biomass conversion at Drax led to it requiring 82% of UK biomass imports from the US in 2014 (60% overall of all US wood pellet export), a large factor in a 40% yearly increase in biomass export from that country; US sourced imports represented 58% of Drax's biomass use in 2014, with 22% from Canada.",
"A port facility in Baton Rouge, Louisiana was completed by April 2015. In mid-2015 Drax reached an agreement with Peel Ports to construct a 3 million ton per year biomass importation facility at the Port of Liverpool, estimated cost £100 million. The rail connected facility was to include 100,000 tonnes storage, and be constructed by Graham Construction.",
"In September 2015 Drax Group and Infinis began a legal action against the UK government due to claimed insufficient notice being given about the withdrawal of a climate related tax exemption (see Climate Change Levy) – Drax claimed the change would reduce its earnings by £30 million. The claim was rejected by the High Court in February 2016.\n\nIn December 2016 the European Competition Commission approved UK government subsidies for the conversion of the third unit to biomass burning.",
"The Guardian reported, in December 2011, that the company intended to invest money with a view to doubling production of wood pellets by 2030.",
"Petroleum coke",
"The station started to trial the co-firing of petroleum coke (petcoke) in one of its boilers in June 2005, ending in June 2007, burning 15% petcoke and 85% coal. Petcoke was burned to make the electricity more competitive as the price of running the FGD equipment was making the electricity more expensive. The Environment Agency (EA) granted permission for the trial in June 2004, despite the plans being opposed by Friends of the Earth and Selby Council",
". To meet their concerns, emissions were constantly monitored through the trial, and they were not allowed to burn petcoke without operating the FGD plant to remove the high sulphur content of the emissions. The trial proved that there were no significant negative effects on the environment, and so in late 2007 Drax Group applied to move from trial conditions to commercial burning",
". The EA granted permission in early 2008 after agreeing with Drax's findings that the fuel had no significant negative effects on the environment. The station can now burn up to 300,000 tonnes of the fuel a year, and stock up to 6,000 tonnes on site.",
"Electricity generation\n\nCoal is fed into one of 30 coal bunkers, each with a capacity of 1,000 tonnes. Each bunker feeds two of the 60 pulverisers, each of which can crush 36 tonnes of coal an hour. The station has six Babcock Power boilers, each weighing 4,000 tonnes. The powdered coal from ten pulverisers is blasted into each boiler through burners, which are ignited by propane. In 2003 the original burners were replaced by low nitrogen oxide burners.",
"Each of the six boilers feed steam to a steam turbine set, consisting of one high pressure (HP) turbine, one intermediate pressure (IP) turbine and three low pressure (LP) turbines. Each HP turbine generates 140 MW. Exhaust steam from them is fed back to the boiler and reheated, then fed to the 250 MW IP turbines and finally passes through the 90MW LP turbines. This gives each generating set a generating capacity of 660 MW: with six generating sets, the station has a total capacity of 3,960 MW",
". Each of the generating units is equipped with the Advanced Plant Management System (APMS), a system developed by RWE npower and Thales, and implemented by Capula.",
"The station also has six gas turbines providing backup for breakdowns, or shut downs in the National Grid. Their annual output is generally low, generating 75 MW and three of the units have been mothballed and are out of operation, but they could be refurbished. Emissions from these units are released through the station's second, smaller chimney, to the south of the main stack.\n\nBetween 2007 and 2012 the high and low pressure turbines were replaced by Siemens in a £100 million programme.",
"Cooling system",
"Water is essential to a thermal power station, heated to create steam to turn the steam turbines. Water used in the boilers is taken from two licensed boreholes on site. Once this water has been through the turbines it is cooled by condensers using water taken from the nearby River Ouse. Water is pumped from the river by a pumphouse on the river, north of the station",
". Water is pumped from the river by a pumphouse on the river, north of the station. Once it has been through the condenser, the water is cooled by one of the natural draft cooling towers, with two towers serving each generating set. Once cooled, the water is discharged back into the river.",
"Waste products\n\nFlue gas desulphurisation\n\nAll six units are served by an independent wet limestone-gypsum FGD plant, which was installed between 1988 and 1996. This diverts gases from the boilers and passes them through a limestone slurry, which removes at least 90% of the sulphur dioxide. This is equivalent to removing over 250,000 tonnes of SO2 each year. The process requires 10,000 tonnes of limestone a week, sourced from Tunstead Quarry in Derbyshire.",
"A byproduct of the process is gypsum, with 15,000 tonnes produced each week. This goes to be used in the manufacture of plasterboard. The gypsum is sold exclusively to British Gypsum, and it is transported by rail to their plants at Kirkby Thore (on the Settle-Carlisle Line), East Leake (on the former Great Central Main Line) and occasionally to Robertsbridge (on the Hastings Line). DB Cargo UK transport the gypsum.",
"In 2023, Drax announced a full withdrawal from using coal power past the winter contingency agreement, Drax announced that it will now embark on a decommissioning process to remove coal-related infrastructure from the site. This will commence with the removal of the flue gas desulphurisation plant that was built in the 1990s to remove 90% of the sulphur from the plant’s air emissions.",
"Ash use and disposal\nPulverised fuel ash (PFA) and furnace bottom ash (FBA) are two byproducts from the burning of coal. Each year, the station produces about 1,000,000 tonnes of PFA and around 220,000 tonnes of FBA: all FBA and 85% of PFA is sold. Under the trade name Drax Ash Products, the ash is sold to the local building industry, where it is used in the manufacture of blocks, cement products, grouting and the laying of roads. The ash is also used in other parts of the UK.",
"Between 2005 and 2007, PFA was used as an infill at four disused salt mines in Northwich in Cheshire. 1,100,000 tonnes was used in the project, which was to avoid a future risk of subsidence in the town. Ash was delivered by DB Schenker in ten trains a week, each carrying 1,100 tonnes. Following a trial in January 2010, PFA is also transported to Waterford, Ireland by boat. One ship a month will transport 1,200 tonnes for the manufacture of construction materials",
". One ship a month will transport 1,200 tonnes for the manufacture of construction materials. This will replace 480 lorry journeys annually and is deemed more environmentally friendly.",
"The unsold PFA is sent by conveyor belt to the Barlow ash mound, which is used for disposal and temporary stockpile. Three conveyors feed the mound, with a total capacity of 750 tonnes an hour. FGD gypsum is disposed of on the mound if it is not of a high enough grade to be sold. The mound has won a number of awards for its nature conservation work.\n\nEnvironmental effects",
"Environmental effects\n\nThe environmental effects of coal burning are well documented. Coal is considered to be \"easily the most carbon-intensive and polluting form of energy generation available\". In 2007 the station produced 22,160,000 tonnes of , making it the largest single source of in the UK. Between 2000 and 2007, there has been a net increase in carbon dioxide of over 3,000,000 tonnes. The station also had the highest estimated emissions of nitrogen oxides in the European Union.",
"In 2007, in a move to try to lower emissions, Drax Group signed a £100 million contract with Siemens Power Generation to re-blade the steam turbines over four years. This is the largest steam turbine modernisation ever undertaken in the UK, and will increase efficiency. Coupled with the co-firing of biomass, this is part of a target to reduce emissions by 15% by 2011.",
"Drax's annual report for 2013 reported that Drax's annual emissions were at 20,612,000 tonnes of . This was a slight decrease from 2007 levels due to the burning of biomass. Drax remained the UK's largest single emitter of carbon dioxide up until 2016, when the power station claimed that its improvement programmes and conversion to burning biomass, had meant a drastic decrease in greenhouses gases being released into the atmosphere.",
"Drax has opted in to the Large Combustion Plant Directive (LCPD) and thus is permitted to continue operating beyond 2015. The use of flue gas desulfurisation ensures that the limits on sulphur dioxide emissions are not exceeded.\n\nProtests, industrial action and incidents\n\nClimate Camp (2006)",
"Protests, industrial action and incidents\n\nClimate Camp (2006)\n\nOn 31 August 2006, over 600 people attended a protest against the high carbon emissions. It was coordinated by the Camp for Climate Action group. At least 3,000 police officers from 12 forces were reported to have been drafted in for the duration of the protest, to safeguard electricity supplies and prevent the protesters from shutting the station down. Thirty-nine people were arrested after trying illegally to gain access to the plant.",
"Train protest (2008)",
"At 8:00 am on 13 June 2008, more than 30 climate change campaigners halted an EWS coal train en route to the station by disguising themselves as rail workers by wearing high-visibility clothing and waving red flags. Stopping the train on a bridge across the River Aire, they scaled the wagons with the aid of the bridge's girders. They then mounted a banner reading \"Leave it in the ground\" on the side of the wagon and tied the train to the bridge, preventing it moving",
". They then shovelled more than 20 tonnes of coal on to the railway line. The protest lasted the whole day, until several protesters were removed from the train by police that night. The station's management said that the protest had no effect on output. The action was coordinated by Camp for Climate Action.",
"Worker strike (2009)\nOn 18 June 2009, fewer than 200 contractors walked out of or failed to show up in a wildcat strike, showing solidarity with workers at the Lindsey Oil Refinery in Lincolnshire where 51 workers had been laid off while another employer on the site was recruiting more staff. A spokeswoman said the strike did not affect electricity output.",
"Biomass fires (2011, 2013)\nIn October 2011 a fire started by spontaneous combustion in a stockpile at the Port of Tyne biomass facility. Another fire occurred at the same facility in a conveyor transfer tower in October 2013.\n\nSee also\n\nAire valley power stations\nEnergy use and conservation in the United Kingdom\nEnergy policy of the United Kingdom\nList of power stations in England\nList of tallest buildings and structures in Great Britain\nTimeline of the UK electricity supply industry\n\nReferences",
"References\n\nExternal links\n\n Turbine replacement programme.\nDrax Power Station details\n\nBiofuel power stations in England\nBuildings and structures in North Yorkshire\nCoal-fired power stations in England\nEnvironmental protests in the United Kingdom\n1974 establishments in England\nEnergy infrastructure completed in 1986\nPetcoke power stations in England\nPower stations in Yorkshire and the Humber\nSelby District"
] |
2009 swine flu pandemic
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2009%20swine%20flu%20pandemic
|
[
"The 2009 swine flu pandemic, caused by the H1N1/swine flu/influenza virus and declared by the World Health Organization (WHO) from June 2009 to August 2010, is the third recent flu pandemic involving the H1N1 virus (the first being the 1918–1920 Spanish flu pandemic and the second being the 1977 Russian flu). The first two cases were discovered independently in the United States in April 2009",
". The first two cases were discovered independently in the United States in April 2009. The virus appeared to be a new strain of H1N1 that resulted from a previous triple reassortment of bird, swine, and human flu viruses which further combined with a Eurasian pig flu virus, leading to the term \"swine flu\".",
"Some studies estimated that the real number of cases including asymptomatic and mild cases could be 700 million to 1.4 billion people—or 11 to 21 percent of the global population of 6.8 billion at the time. The lower value of 700 million is more than the 500 million people estimated to have been infected by the Spanish flu pandemic. However, the Spanish flu infected approximately a third of the world population at the time, a much higher proportion.",
"The number of lab-confirmed deaths reported to the WHO is 18,449 and is widely considered a gross underestimate. The WHO collaborated with the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (USCDC) and Netherlands Institute for Health Services Research (NIVEL) to produce two independent estimates of the influenza deaths that occurred during the global pandemic using two distinct methodologies",
". The 2009 H1N1 flu pandemic is estimated to have actually caused about 284,000 (range from 150,000 to 575,000) excess deaths by the WHO-USCDC study and 148,000–249,000 excess respiratory deaths by the WHO-NIVEL study. A study done in September 2010 showed that the risk of serious illness resulting from the 2009 H1N1 flu was no higher than that of the yearly seasonal flu. For comparison, the WHO estimates that 250,000 to 500,000 people die of seasonal flu annually",
". For comparison, the WHO estimates that 250,000 to 500,000 people die of seasonal flu annually. However, the H1N1 influenza epidemic in 2009 resulted in a large increase in the number of new cases of narcolepsy.",
"Unlike most strains of influenza, the pandemic H1N1/09 virus did not disproportionately infect adults older than 60 years; this was an unusual and characteristic feature of the H1N1 pandemic. Even in the case of previously healthy people, a small percentage develop pneumonia or acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). This manifests itself as increased breathing difficulty and typically occurs three to six days after initial onset of flu symptoms",
". The pneumonia caused by flu can be either direct viral pneumonia or a secondary bacterial pneumonia. A November 2009 New England Journal of Medicine article recommended that flu patients whose chest X-ray indicates pneumonia receive both antivirals and antibiotics. In particular, it is a warning sign if a child seems to be getting better and then relapses with high fever, as this relapse may be bacterial pneumonia.",
"Name\n\nThe World Health Organization uses the term \"(H1N1) 2009 pandemic\" when referring to the event, and officially adopted the name \"A(H1N1)pdm09\" for the virus in 2010, after the conclusion of the pandemic.",
"Controversy arose early on regarding the wide assortment of terms used by journalists, academics,",
"and officials. Labels like \"H1N1 flu\", \"Swine flu\", \"Mexican flu\", and variations thereof were typical. Criticism centered on how these names may confuse or mislead the public. It was argued that the names were overly technical (e.g. \"H1N1\"), incorrectly implying that the disease is caused by contact with pigs or pig products, or provoking stigmatization against certain communities (e.g. \"Mexican\")",
".g. \"Mexican\"). Some academics of the time asserted there is nothing wrong with such names, while research published years later (in 2013) concluded that Mexican Americans and Latino Americans had indeed been stigmatized due to the frequent use of term \"Mexican flu\" in the news media.",
"Official entities adopted terms with varying consistency over the course of the pandemic. The CDC used names like \"novel influenza A (H1N1)\" or \"2009 H1N1 flu\". The Netherlands National Institute for Public Health and the Environment used the term \"Pig Flu\" early on. Officials in Taiwan suggested use of the names \"H1N1 flu\" or \"new flu\". The World Organization for Animal Health, an IGO based in Europe, proposed the name \"North American influenza\". The European Commission adopted the term \"novel flu virus\"",
". The European Commission adopted the term \"novel flu virus\". Officials in Israel and South Korea briefly considered adoption of the name \"Mexican virus\" due to concern about the use of the word \"swine\". In Israel, objections stemmed from sensitivity to religious restrictions on eating pork in the Jewish and Muslim populations, in South Korea, concerns were influenced by the importance of pork and domestic pigs.",
"As terminology changed to deal with these and other such issues, further criticism was made that the situation was unnecessarily confusing. For example, the news department at the journal Science produced an article with the humorous title \"Swine Flu Names Evolving Faster Than Swine Flu Itself\".\n\nHistory",
"Analysis of the genetic divergence of the virus in samples from different cases indicated that the virus jumped to humans in 2008, probably after June, and not later than the end of November, likely around September 2008. The research also indicated the virus had been latent in pigs for several months prior to the outbreak, suggesting a need to increase agricultural surveillance to prevent future outbreaks. In 2009, U.S",
". In 2009, U.S. agricultural officials speculated, although emphasizing that there was no way to prove their hypothesis, that \"contrary to the popular assumption that the new swine flu pandemic arose on factory farms in Mexico, [the virus] most likely emerged in pigs in Asia, but then traveled to North America in a human",
".\" However, a subsequent report by researchers at the Mount Sinai School of Medicine in 2016 found that the 2009 H1N1 virus likely originated from pigs in a very small region of central Mexico.",
"Initially called an \"outbreak\", widespread H1N1 infection was first recognized in the state of Veracruz, Mexico, with evidence that the virus had been present for months before it was officially called an \"epidemic\". The Mexican government closed most of Mexico City's public and private facilities in an attempt to contain the spread of the virus; however, it continued to spread globally, and clinics in some areas were overwhelmed by infected people",
". The new virus was first isolated in late April by American and Canadian laboratories from samples taken from people with flu in Mexico, Southern California, and Texas. Soon the earliest known human case was traced to a case from 9March 2009 in a 5-year-old boy in La Gloria, Mexico, a rural town in Veracruz. In late April, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared its first ever \"public health emergency of international concern\", or PHEIC, and in June, the WHO and the U.S",
".S. CDC stopped counting cases and declared the outbreak a pandemic.",
"Despite being informally called \"swine flu\", the H1N1 flu virus cannot be spread by eating pork products; similar to other influenza viruses, it is typically contracted by person to person transmission through respiratory droplets. Symptoms usually last 4–6 days. Antivirals (oseltamivir or zanamivir) were recommended for those with more severe symptoms or those in an at-risk group.",
"The pandemic began to taper off in November 2009, and by May 2010, the number of cases was in steep decline. On 10 August 2010, the Director-General of the WHO, Margaret Chan, announced the end of the H1N1 pandemic and announced that the H1N1 influenza event had moved into the post-pandemic period",
". According to WHO statistics (as of July 2010), the virus had killed more than 18,000 people since it appeared in April 2009; however, they state that the total mortality (including deaths unconfirmed or unreported) from the H1N1 strain is \"unquestionably higher\". Critics claimed the WHO had exaggerated the danger, spreading \"fear and confusion\" rather than \"immediate information\". The WHO began an investigation to determine whether it had \"frightened people unnecessarily\"",
". The WHO began an investigation to determine whether it had \"frightened people unnecessarily\". A flu follow-up study done in September 2010, found that \"the risk of most serious complications was not elevated in adults or children.\" In a 5August 2011 PLOS ONE article, researchers estimated that the 2009 H1N1 global infection rate was 11% to 21%, lower than what was previously expected",
". However, by 2012, research showed that as many as 579,000 people could have been killed by the disease, as only those fatalities confirmed by laboratory testing were included in the original number, and meant that many without access to health facilities went uncounted. The majority of these deaths occurred in Africa and Southeast Asia. Experts, including the WHO, have agreed that an estimated 284,500 people were killed by the disease, much higher than the initial death toll.",
"Signs and symptoms",
"The symptoms of H1N1 flu are similar to those of other influenzas, and may include fever, cough (typically a \"dry cough\"), headache, dizziness, sneezing, muscle or joint pain, sore throat, chills, fatigue, and runny nose. Diarrhea, vomiting, and neurological problems have also been reported in some cases",
". Diarrhea, vomiting, and neurological problems have also been reported in some cases. People at higher risk of serious complications include people over 65, children younger than 5, children with neurodevelopmental conditions, pregnant women (especially during the third trimester), and people of any age with underlying medical conditions, such as asthma, diabetes, obesity, heart disease, or a weakened immune system (e.g., taking immunosuppressive medications or infected with HIV)",
".g., taking immunosuppressive medications or infected with HIV). More than 70% of hospitalizations in the U.S. have been people with such underlying conditions, according to the CDC.",
"In September 2009, the CDC reported that the H1N1 flu \"seems to be taking a heavier toll among chronically ill children than the seasonal flu usually does\". Through 8August 2009, the CDC had received 36 reports of pediatric deaths with associated influenza symptoms and laboratory-confirmed pandemic H1N1 from state and local health authorities within the United States, with 22 of these children having neurodevelopmental conditions such as cerebral palsy, muscular dystrophy, or developmental delays",
". \"Children with nerve and muscle problems may be at especially high risk for complications because they cannot cough hard enough to clear their airways\". From 26 April 2009, to 13 February 2010, the CDC had received reports of the deaths of 277 children with laboratory-confirmed 2009 influenza A (H1N1) within the United States.",
"Severe cases",
"The World Health Organization reports that the clinical picture in severe cases is strikingly different from the disease pattern seen during epidemics of seasonal influenza. While people with certain underlying medical conditions are known to be at increased risk, many severe cases occur in previously healthy people. In severe cases, patients generally begin to deteriorate around three to five days after symptom onset",
". Deterioration is rapid, with many patients progressing to respiratory failure within 24 hours, requiring immediate admission to an intensive care unit. Upon admission, most patients need immediate respiratory support with mechanical ventilation.",
"Complications",
"Most complications have occurred among previously unhealthy individuals, with obesity and respiratory disease as the strongest risk factors. Pulmonary complications are common. Primary influenza pneumonia occurs most commonly in adults and may progress rapidly to acute lung injury requiring mechanical ventilation. Secondary bacterial infection is more common in children",
". Secondary bacterial infection is more common in children. Staphylococcus aureus, including methicillin-resistant strains, is an important cause of secondary bacterial pneumonia with a high mortality rate; Streptococcus pneumoniae is the second most important cause of secondary bacterial pneumonia for children and primary for adults. Neuromuscular and cardiac complications are unusual but may occur.",
"A United Kingdom investigation of risk factors for hospitalisation and poor outcome with pandemic A/H1N1 influenza looked at 631 patients from 55 hospitals admitted with confirmed infection from May through September 2009. 13% were admitted to a high dependency or intensive care unit and 5% died; 36% were aged <16 years and 5% were aged ≥65 years. Non-white and pregnant patients were over-represented",
". Non-white and pregnant patients were over-represented. 45% of patients had at least one underlying condition, mainly asthma, and 13% received antiviral drugs before admission. Of 349 with documented chest x-rays on admission, 29% had evidence of pneumonia, but bacterial co-infection was uncommon",
". Multivariate analyses showed that physician-recorded obesity on admission and pulmonary conditions other than asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) were associated with a severe outcome, as were radiologically confirmed pneumonia and a raised C-reactive protein (CRP) level (≥. 59% of all in-hospital deaths occurred in previously healthy people.",
"Fulminant (sudden-onset) myocarditis has been linked to infection with H1N1, with at least four cases of myocarditis confirmed in patients also infected with A/H1N1. Three out of the four cases of H1N1-associated myocarditis were classified as fulminant, and one of the patients died.",
"Also, there appears to be a link between severe A/H1N1 influenza infection and pulmonary embolism. In one report, five out of 14 patients admitted to the intensive care unit with severe A/H1N1 infection were found to have pulmonary emboli.",
"An article published in JAMA in September 2010 challenged previous reports and stated that children infected in the 2009 flu pandemic were no more likely to be hospitalised with complications or get pneumonia than those who catch seasonal strains. Researchers found that about 1.5% of children with the H1N1 swine flu strain were hospitalised within 30 days, compared with 3.7% of those sick with a seasonal strain of H1N1 and 3.1% with an H3N2 virus.\n\nDiagnosis",
"Confirmed diagnosis of pandemic H1N1 flu requires testing of a nasopharyngeal, nasal, or oropharyngeal tissue swab from the patient. Real-time RT-PCR is the recommended test as others are unable to differentiate between pandemic H1N1 and regular seasonal flu. However, most people with flu symptoms do not need a test for pandemic H1N1 flu specifically, because the test results usually do not affect the recommended course of treatment. The U.S",
". The U.S. CDC recommend testing only for people who are hospitalized with suspected flu, pregnant women, and people with weakened immune systems. For the mere diagnosis of influenza and not pandemic H1N1 flu specifically, more widely available tests include rapid influenza diagnostic tests (RIDT), which yield results in about 30 minutes, and direct and indirect immunofluorescence assays (DFA and IFA), which take 2–4 hours",
". Due to the high rate of RIDT false negatives, the CDC advises that patients with illnesses compatible with novel influenza A (H1N1) virus infection but with negative RIDT results should be treated empirically based on the level of clinical suspicion, underlying medical conditions, severity of illness, and risk for complications, and if a more definitive determination of infection with influenza virus is required, testing with rRT-PCR or virus isolation should be performed",
". The use of RIDTs has been questioned by researcher Paul Schreckenberger of the Loyola University Health System, who suggests that rapid tests may actually pose a dangerous public health risk. Nikki Shindo of the WHO has expressed regret at reports of treatment being delayed by waiting for H1N1 test results and suggests, \"[D]octors should not wait for the laboratory confirmation but make diagnosis based on clinical and epidemiological backgrounds and start treatment early.\"",
"On 22 June 2010, the CDC announced a new test called the \"CDC Influenza 2009 A (H1N1)pdm Real-Time RT-PCR Panel (IVD)\". It uses a molecular biology technique to detect influenza A viruses and specifically the 2009 H1N1 virus. The new test will replace the previous real-time RT-PCR diagnostic test used during the 2009 H1N1 pandemic, which received an emergency use authorization from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration in April 2009. Tests results are available in four hours and are 96% accurate.\n\nCause",
"The virus was found to be a novel strain of influenza for which existing vaccines against seasonal flu provided little protection. A study at the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention published in May 2009 found that children had no preexisting immunity to the new strain but that adults, particularly those older than 60, had some degree of immunity. Children showed no cross-reactive antibody reaction to the new strain, adults aged 18 to 60 had 6–9%, and older adults 33%",
". While it has been thought that these findings suggest the partial immunity in older adults may be due to previous exposure to similar seasonal influenza viruses, a November 2009 study of a rural unvaccinated population in China found only a 0.3% cross-reactive antibody reaction to the H1N1 strain, suggesting that previous vaccinations for seasonal flu and not exposure may have resulted in the immunity found in the older U.S. population.",
"Analyses of the genetic sequences of the first isolates, promptly shared on the GISAID database according to Nature and WHO, soon determined that the strain contains genes from five different flu viruses: North American swine influenza, North American avian influenza, human influenza, and two swine influenza viruses typically found in Asia and Europe",
". Further analysis has shown that several proteins of the virus are most similar to strains that cause mild symptoms in humans, leading virologist Wendy Barclay to suggest on 1May 2009, that the initial indications are that the virus was unlikely to cause severe symptoms for most people.",
"The virus was less lethal than previous pandemic strains and killed about 0.01–0.03% of those infected; the 1918 influenza was about one hundred times more lethal and had a case fatality rate of 2–3%. By 14 November 2009, the virus had infected one in six Americans with 200,000 hospitalisations and 10,000 deaths—as many hospitalizations and fewer deaths than in an average flu season overall, but with much higher risk for those under 50",
". With deaths of 1,100 children and 7,500 adults 18 to 64, these figures were deemed \"much higher than in a usual flu season\" during the pandemic.",
"In June 2010, scientists from Hong Kong reported discovery of a new swine flu virus: a hybrid of the pandemic H1N1 virus and viruses previously found in pigs. It was the first report of a reassortment of the pandemic virus, which in humans had been slow to evolve. Nancy Cox, head of the influenza division at the U.S",
". Nancy Cox, head of the influenza division at the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, has said, \"This particular paper is extremely interesting because it demonstrates for the first time what we had worried about at the very onset of the pandemic, and that is that this particular virus, when introduced into pigs, could reassort with the resident viruses in pigs and we would have new gene constellations. And bingo, here we are",
". And bingo, here we are.\" Pigs have been termed the mixing vessel of flu because they can be infected both by avian flu viruses, which rarely directly infect people, and by human viruses. When pigs become simultaneously infected with more than one virus, the viruses can swap genes, producing new variants which can pass to humans and sometimes spread amongst them. \"Unlike the situation with birds and humans, we have a situation with pigs and humans where there's a two-way street of exchange of viruses",
". With pigs it's very much a two-way street.\"",
"Transmission\n\nSpread of the H1N1 virus is thought to occur in the same way that seasonal flu spreads. Flu viruses are spread mainly from person to person through coughing or sneezing by people with influenza. Sometimes people may become infected by touching something—such as a surface or object—with flu viruses on it and then touching their face.",
"The basic reproduction number (the average number of other individuals whom each infected individual will infect, in a population which has no immunity to the disease) for the 2009 novel H1N1 is estimated to be 1.75. A December 2009 study found that the transmissibility of the H1N1 influenza virus in households is lower than that seen in past pandemics. Most transmissions occur soon before or after the onset of symptoms.",
"The H1N1 virus has been transmitted to animals, including swine, turkeys, ferrets, household cats, at least one dog, and a cheetah.\n\nPrevention",
"Prevention\n\nBecause the H1N1 vaccine was initially in short supply in the U.S., the CDC recommended that initial doses should go to priority groups such as pregnant women, people who live with or care for babies under six months old, children six months to four years old and health-care workers. In the UK, the NHS recommended vaccine priority go to people over six months old who were clinically at risk for seasonal flu, pregnant women and households of people with compromised immunity.",
"Although it was initially thought that two injections would be required, clinical trials showed that the new vaccine protected adults \"with only one dose instead of two;\" thus the limited vaccine supplies would go twice as far as had been predicted. Health officials worldwide were also concerned because the virus was new and could easily mutate and become more virulent, even though most flu symptoms were mild and lasted only a few days without treatment",
". Officials also urged communities, businesses, and individuals to make contingency plans for possible school closures, multiple employee absences for illness, surges of patients in hospitals, and other effects of potentially widespread outbreaks. Disaster response organizations such as Direct Relief helped by providing protective items to clinical workers to help them stay healthy throughout flu season.",
"In February 2010, the CDC's Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices voted for \"universal\" flu vaccination in the U.S. to include all people over six months of age. The 2010–2011 vaccine will protect against the 2009 H1N1 pandemic virus and two other flu viruses.\n\nPublic health response",
"On 27 April 2009, the European Union health commissioner advised Europeans to postpone nonessential travel to the United States or Mexico. This followed the discovery of the first confirmed case in Spain. On 6May 2009, the Public Health Agency of Canada announced that their National Microbiology Laboratory (NML) had mapped the genetic code of the swine flu virus, the first time that had been done. In the U.K",
". In the U.K., the National Health Service launched a website, the National Pandemic Flu Service, allowing patients to self-assess and get an authorisation number for antiviral medication. The system was expected to reduce the burden on general practitioners.",
"U.S. officials observed that six years of concern about H5N1 avian flu did much to prepare for the current H1N1 outbreak, noting that after H5N1 emerged in Asia, ultimately killing about 60% of the few hundred people infected over the years, many countries took steps to try to prevent any similar crisis from spreading further. The CDC and other U.S",
". The CDC and other U.S. governmental agencies used the summer lull to take stock of the United States response to H1N1 flu and attempt to patch any gaps in the public health safety net before flu season started in early autumn. Preparations included planning a second influenza vaccination program in addition to the one for seasonal flu, and improving coordination between federal, state, and local governments and private health providers. On 24 October 2009, U.S",
". On 24 October 2009, U.S. President Obama declared swine flu a national emergency, giving Secretary of Health and Human Services Kathleen Sebelius authority to grant waivers to requesting hospitals from usual federal requirements.",
"Vaccines\n\nBy 19 November 2009, doses of vaccine had been administered in over 16 countries. A 2009 review by the U.S. National Institutes of Health (NIH) concluded that the 2009 H1N1 vaccine has a safety profile similar to that of the seasonal vaccine.",
"In 2011, a study from the US Flu Vaccine Effectiveness Network estimated the overall effectiveness of all pandemic H1N1 vaccines at 56%. A CDC study released 28 January 2013, estimated that the Pandemic H1N1 vaccine saved roughly 300 lives and prevented about a million illnesses in the US. The study concluded that had the vaccination program started two weeks earlier, close to 60% more cases could have been prevented",
". The study was based on an effectiveness in preventing cases, hospitalizations, and deaths of 62% for all subgroups except people over 65, for whom the effectiveness was estimated at 43%. The effectiveness was based on European and Asian studies and expert opinion. The delay in vaccine administration demonstrated the shortcomings of the world's capacity for vaccine-production, as well as problems with international distribution",
". Some manufacturers and wealthy countries had concerns regarding liability and regulations, as well as the logistics of transporting, storing, and administering vaccines to be donated to poorer countries.",
"Accusations of conflict of interest",
"In January 2010, Wolfgang Wodarg, a German deputy who trained as a physician and chaired the health committee at the Council of Europe, claimed that major firms had organized a \"campaign of panic\" to put pressure on the World Health Organization (WHO) to declare a \"false pandemic\" to sell vaccines. Wodarg said the WHO's \"false pandemic\" flu campaign is \"one of the greatest medicine scandals of the century\"",
". He said that the \"false pandemic\" campaign began in May 2009 in Mexico City, when a hundred or so \"normal\" reported influenza cases were declared to be the beginning of a threatening new pandemic, although he said there was little scientific evidence for it",
". Nevertheless, he argued that the WHO, \"in cooperation with some big pharmaceutical companies and their scientists, re-defined pandemics,\" removing the statement that \"an enormous amount of people have contracted the illness or died\" from its existing definition and replacing it by stating simply that there has to be a virus, spreading beyond borders and to which people have no immunity.",
"The WHO responded by stating that they take their duty to provide independent advice seriously and guarded against interference from outside interests. Announcing a review of the WHO's actions, spokeswoman Fadela Chaib stated: \"Criticism is part of an outbreak cycle. We expect and indeed welcome criticism and the chance to discuss it\". The WHO also stated on their website that \"The world is going through a real pandemic. The description of it as a fake is wrong and irresponsible\"",
". The description of it as a fake is wrong and irresponsible\". In March 2010, the Council of Europe launched an enquiry into \"the influence of the pharmaceutical companies on the global swine flu campaign\", and a preliminary report was in preparation.",
"On 12 April 2010, Keiji Fukuda, the WHO's top influenza expert, stated that the system leading to the declaration of a pandemic led to confusion about H1N1 circulating around the world and he expressed concern that there was a failure to communicate in regard to uncertainties about the new virus, which turned out to be not as deadly as feared. WHO Director-General Margaret Chan appointed 29 flu experts from outside the organization to conduct a review of WHO's handling of the H1N1 flu pandemic",
". She told them, \"We want a frank, critical, transparent, credible and independent review of our performance.\"",
"In June 2010, Fiona Godlee, editor-in-chief of the BMJ, published an editorial which criticised the WHO, saying that an investigation had disclosed that some of the experts advising WHO on the pandemic had financial ties with drug companies which were producing antivirals and vaccines",
". Margaret Chan, Director-General of the WHO, replied stating, \"Without question, the BMJ feature and editorial will leave many readers with the impression that WHO's decision to declare a pandemic was at least partially influenced by a desire to boost the profits of the pharmaceutical industry. The bottom line, however, is that decisions to raise the level of pandemic alert were based on clearly defined virological and epidemiological criteria. It is hard to bend these criteria, no matter what the motive\".",
"Infection control\n\nTravel precautions\n\nOn 7 May 2009, the WHO stated that containment was not feasible and that countries should focus on mitigating the effect of the virus. They did not recommend closing borders or restricting travel. On 26 April 2009, the Chinese government announced that visitors returning from flu-affected areas who experienced flu-like symptoms within two weeks would be quarantined.",
"U.S. airlines had made no major changes as of the beginning of June 2009, but continued standing practices which include looking for passengers with symptoms of flu, measles or other infections, and relying on in-flight air filters to ensure that aircraft were sanitised. Masks were not generally provided by airlines and the CDC did not recommend that airline crews wear them. Some non-U.S",
". Some non-U.S. airlines, mostly Asian, including Singapore Airlines, China Eastern Airlines, China Southern Airlines, Cathay Pacific and Aeromexico, took measures such as stepping up cabin cleaning, installing state-of-the-art air filters and allowing in-flight staff to wear face masks.",
"According to studies conducted in Australia and Japan, screening individuals for influenza symptoms at airports during the 2009 H1N1 outbreak was not an effective method of infection control.\n\nSchools",
"U.S. government officials were especially concerned about schools because the H1N1 flu virus appeared to disproportionately affect young and school-age people, between six months and 24 years of age.",
"The H1N1 outbreak led to numerous precautionary school closures in some areas. Rather than closing schools, the CDC recommended that students and school workers with flu symptoms should stay home for either seven days total, or until 24 hours after symptoms subsided, whichever was longer. The CDC also recommended that colleges should consider suspending fall 2009 classes if the virus began to cause severe illness in a significantly larger share of students than the previous spring",
". They also urged schools to suspend rules, such as penalties for late papers or missed classes or requirements for a doctor's note, to enforce \"self-isolation\" and prevent students from venturing out while ill; schools were advised to set aside a room for people developing flu-like symptoms while they waited to go home and to have ill students or staff and those caring for them use face masks.",
"In California, school districts and universities were on alert and worked with health officials to launch education campaigns. Many planned to stockpile medical supplies and discuss worst-case scenarios, including plans to provide lessons and meals for low-income children in case elementary and secondary schools closed. University of California campuses stockpiled supplies, from paper masks and hand sanitizer to food and water",
". To help prepare for contingencies, University of Maryland School of Medicine professor of pediatrics James C. King Jr. suggested that every county should create an \"influenza action team\" to be run by the local health department, parents, and school administrators. By 28 October 2009, about 600 schools in the United States had been temporarily closed, affecting over 126,000 students in 19 states.",
"Workplace",
"Fearing a worst-case scenario, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) developed updated guidance and a video for employers to use as they developed plans to respond to the H1N1 outbreak",
". The guidance suggested that employers consider and communicate their objectives, such as reducing transmission among staff, protecting people who are at increased risk of influenza-related complications from becoming infected, maintaining business operations, and minimising adverse effects on other entities in their supply chains.",
"The CDC estimated that as much as 40% of the workforce might be unable to work at the peak of the pandemic due to the need for many healthy adults to stay home and care for an ill family member, and advised that individuals should have steps in place should a workplace close down or a situation arise that requires remote work. The CDC further advised that persons in the workplace should stay home sick for seven days after getting the flu, or 24 hours after symptoms end, whichever is longer.",
"In the UK, the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) also issued general guidance for employers.\n\nFace masks",
"The U.S. CDC did not recommend the use of face masks or respirators in non-health care settings, such as schools, workplaces, or public places, with a few exceptions: people who were ill with the virus when around other people, and people who were at risk for severe illness while caring for someone with the flu",
". There was some disagreement about the value of wearing face masks, as some experts feared that masks may have given people a false sense of security and should not have replaced other standard precautions.",
"Yukihiro Nishiyama, professor of virology at Nagoya University's School of Medicine, commented that the masks are \"better than nothing, but it's hard to completely block out an airborne virus since it can easily slip through the gaps\".",
"According to mask manufacturer 3M, masks will filter out particles in industrial settings, but \"there are no established exposure limits for biological agents such as swine flu virus\". However, despite the lack of evidence of effectiveness, the use of such masks is common in Asia.",
"They are particularly popular in Japan, where cleanliness and hygiene are highly valued and where etiquette obligates those who are sick to wear masks to avoid spreading disease.\n\nQuarantine",
"During the height of the fear of a pandemic, some countries initiated or threatened to initiate quarantines of foreign visitors suspected of having or being in contact with others who may have been infected. In May 2009, the Chinese government confined 21 U.S. students and three teachers to their hotel rooms. As a result, the US State Department issued a travel alert about China's anti-flu measures and warned travellers against travelling to China if ill",
". In Hong Kong, an entire hotel was quarantined with 240 guests; Australia ordered a cruise ship with 2,000 passengers to stay at sea because of a swine flu threat. Egyptian Muslims who went on the annual pilgrimage to Mecca risked being quarantined upon their return. Russia and Taiwan said they would quarantine visitors with fevers who come from areas where the flu was present",
". Japan quarantined 47 airline passengers in a hotel for a week in mid-May, then in mid-June India suggested pre-screening \"outbound\" passengers from countries thought to have a high rate of infection.",
"Pigs and food safety",
"The pandemic virus is a type of swine influenza, derived originally from a strain which lived in pigs, and this origin gave rise to the common name of \"swine flu\". This term is widely used by mass media, though the Paris-based World Organisation for Animal Health as well as industry groups such as the U.S",
".S. National Pork Board, the American Meat Institute, and the Canadian Pork Council objected to widespread media use of the name \"swine flu\" and suggested it should be called \"North American flu\" instead, while the World Health Organization switched its designation from \"swine influenza\" to \"influenza A (H1N1)\" in late April 2009. The virus has been found in U.S. hogs, and Canadian as well as in hogs in Northern Ireland, Argentina, and Norway",
".S. hogs, and Canadian as well as in hogs in Northern Ireland, Argentina, and Norway. Leading health agencies and the United States Secretary of Agriculture have stressed that eating properly cooked pork or other food products derived from pigs will not cause flu. Nevertheless, on 27 April Azerbaijan imposed a ban on the importation of animal husbandry products from the entire Americas. The Indonesian government also halted the importation of pigs and initiated the examination of pigs in Indonesia",
". The Egyptian government ordered the slaughter of all pigs in Egypt on 29 April.",
"Treatment\n\nA number of methods have been recommended to help ease symptoms, including adequate liquid intake and rest. Over-the-counter pain medications such as paracetamol and ibuprofen do not kill the virus; however, they may be useful to reduce symptoms. Aspirin and other salicylate products should not be used by people under 16 with any flu-type symptoms because of the risk of developing Reye's Syndrome.",
"If the fever is mild and there are no other complications, fever medication is not recommended. Most people recover without medical attention, although ones with pre-existing or underlying medical conditions are more prone to complications and may benefit from further treatments.",
"People in at-risk groups should be treated with antivirals (oseltamivir or zanamivir) as soon as possible when they first experience flu symptoms. The at-risk groups include pregnant and post partum women, children under two years old, and people with underlying conditions such as respiratory problems. People who are not in an at-risk group who have persistent or rapidly worsening symptoms should also be treated with antivirals",
". People who have developed pneumonia should be given both antivirals and antibiotics, as in many severe cases of H1N1-caused illness, bacterial infection develops. Antivirals are most useful if given within 48 hours of the start of symptoms and may improve outcomes in hospitalised patients. In those beyond 48 hours who are moderately or severely ill, antivirals may still be beneficial. If oseltamivir (Tamiflu) is unavailable or cannot be used, zanamivir (Relenza) is recommended as a substitute",
". Peramivir is an experimental antiviral drug approved for hospitalised patients in cases where the other available methods of treatment are ineffective or unavailable.",
"To help avoid shortages of these drugs, the U.S. CDC recommended oseltamivir treatment primarily for people hospitalised with pandemic flu; people at risk of serious flu complications due to underlying medical conditions; and patients at risk of serious flu complications. The CDC warned that the indiscriminate use of antiviral medications to prevent and treat influenza could ease the way for drug-resistant strains to emerge, which would make the fight against the pandemic that much harder",
". In addition, a British report found that people often failed to complete a full course of the drug or took the medication when not needed.",
"Side effects\n\nBoth medications mentioned above for treatment, oseltamivir and zanamivir, have known side effects, including lightheadedness, chills, nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, and trouble breathing. Children were reported to be at increased risk of self-injury and confusion after taking oseltamivir. The WHO warned against buying antiviral medications from online sources and estimated that half the drugs sold by online pharmacies without a physical address were counterfeit.\n\nResistance",
"Resistance\n\nIn December 2012, the World Health Organization (WHO) reported 314 samples of the 2009 pandemic H1N1 flu tested worldwide have shown resistance to oseltamivir (Tamiflu). It is not totally unexpected as 99.6% of the seasonal H1N1 flu strains tested have developed resistance to oseltamivir. No circulating flu has yet shown any resistance to zanamivir (Relenza), the other available anti-viral.\n\nAntivirals effectiveness questioned in healthy adults",
"On 8 December 2009, the Cochrane Collaboration, which reviews medical evidence, announced in a review published in BMJ that it had reversed its previous findings that the antiviral drugs oseltamivir (Tamiflu) and zanamivir (Relenza) can ward off pneumonia and other serious conditions linked to influenza",
". They reported that an analysis of 20 studies showed oseltamivir offered mild benefits for healthy adults if taken within 24 hours of onset of symptoms, but found no clear evidence it prevented lower respiratory tract infections or other complications of influenza",
". Of note, their published finding related only to use in healthy adults with influenza but not in patients judged to be at high risk of complications (pregnant women, children under five and those with underlying medical conditions), and uncertainty over its role in reducing complications in healthy adults still left it as a useful drug for reducing the duration of symptoms. In general, the Cochrane Collaboration concluded \"Paucity of good data\".",
"Epidemiology\n\nWhile it is not known precisely where or when the virus originated, analyses in scientific journals have suggested that the H1N1 strain responsible for the 2009 outbreak first evolved in September 2008 and circulated amongst humans for several months, before being formally recognised and identified as a novel strain of influenza.\n\nMexico",
"The virus was first reported in two U.S. children in March 2009, but health officials have reported that it apparently infected people as early as January 2009 in Mexico. The outbreak was first identified in Mexico City on 18 March 2009; immediately after the outbreak was officially announced, Mexico notified the U.S. and World Health Organization, and within days of the outbreak Mexico City was \"effectively shut down\". Some countries cancelled flights to Mexico while others halted trade",
". Some countries cancelled flights to Mexico while others halted trade. Calls to close the border to contain the spread were rejected. Mexico already had hundreds of non-lethal cases before the outbreak was officially discovered, and was therefore in the midst of a \"silent epidemic\". As a result, Mexico was reporting only the most serious cases which showed more severe signs different from those of normal flu, possibly leading to a skewed initial estimate of the case fatality rate.",
"United States\n\nThe new strain was first identified by the CDC in two children, neither of whom had been in contact with pigs. The first case, from San Diego County, California, was confirmed from clinical specimens (nasopharyngeal swab) examined by the CDC on 14 April 2009. A second case, from nearby Imperial County, California, was confirmed on 17 April. The patient in the first confirmed case had flu symptoms including fever and cough upon clinical examination on 30 March and the second on 28 March.",
"The first confirmed H1N1/09 pandemic flu death, which occurred at Texas Children's Hospital in Houston, Texas, was of a toddler from Mexico City who was visiting family in Brownsville, Texas, before being air-lifted to Houston for treatment. The Infectious Diseases Society of America estimated that the total number of deaths in the U.S. was 12,469.\n\nData reporting and accuracy",
"Influenza surveillance information \"answers the questions of where, when, and what influenza viruses are circulating. Sharing of such information is especially crucial during an emergent pandemic as in April 2009, when the genetic sequences of the initial viruses were rapidly and openly shared via the GISAID Initiative within days of identification, playing a key role in facilitating an early response to the evolving pandemic",
". Surveillance is used to determine if influenza activity is increasing or decreasing, but cannot be used to ascertain how many people have become ill with influenza.\" For example, as of late June, influenza surveillance information showed the U.S. had nearly 28,000 laboratory-confirmed cases including 3,065 hospitalizations and 127 deaths. But mathematical modelling showed an estimated Americans had the 2009 pandemic flu at the time, according to Lyn Finelli, a flu surveillance official with the CDC",
". Estimating deaths from influenza is also a complicated process. In 2005, influenza only appeared on the death certificates of 1,812 people in the US. The average annual US death toll from flu is, however, estimated to be 36,000. The CDC explains: \"[I]nfluenza is infrequently listed on death certificates of people who die from flu-related complications\" and hence, \"Only counting deaths where influenza was included on a death certificate would be a gross underestimation of influenza's true impact.\"",
"Influenza surveillance information on the 2009 H1N1 flu pandemic is available, but almost no studies attempted to estimate the total number of deaths attributable to H1N1 flu. Two studies were carried out by the CDC; the later of them estimated that between 7,070 and 13,930 deaths were attributable to H1N1 flu from April to 14 November 2009. During the same period, 1,642 deaths were officially confirmed as caused by H1N1 flu",
". During the same period, 1,642 deaths were officially confirmed as caused by H1N1 flu. The WHO stated in 2010 that total mortality (including unconfirmed or unreported deaths) from H1N1 flu was \"unquestionably higher\" than their own confirmed death statistics.",
"The initial outbreak received a week of near-constant media attention. Epidemiologists cautioned that the number of cases reported in the early days of an outbreak can be very inaccurate and deceptive, due to several causes, among them selection bias, media bias and incorrect reporting by governments. Inaccuracies could also be caused by authorities in different countries looking at differing population groups",
". Furthermore, countries with poor health care systems and older laboratory facilities may take longer to identify or report cases. \"[E]ven in developed countries the [numbers of flu deaths] are uncertain, because medical authorities don't usually verify who actually died of influenza and who died of a flu-like illness\". Joseph S",
". Joseph S. Bresee, then CDC flu division's epidemiology chief and Michael Osterholm, director of the Center for Infectious Disease Research and Policy pointed out that millions of people have had H1N1 flu, usually in a mild form, so the numbers of laboratory-confirmed cases were actually meaningless, and in July 2009, the WHO stopped keeping count of individual cases and focused more on major outbreaks.",
"Follow-up",
"A Wisconsin study published in the Journal of the American Medical Association in September 2010, reported that findings showed that the 2009 H1N1 flu was no more severe than the seasonal flu. \"The risk of most serious complications was not elevated in adults or children\", the study's authors wrote. \"Children were disproportionately affected by 2009 H1N1 infection, but the perceived severity of symptoms and risk of serious outcomes were not increased",
".\" Children infected in the 2009 H1N1 flu pandemic were no more likely to be hospitalized with complications or get pneumonia than those who catch seasonal strains. About 1.5% of children with the H1N1 swine flu strain were hospitalized within 30 days, compared with 3.7% of those sick with a seasonal strain of H1N1 and 3.1% with an H3N2 virus.",
"CDC illness and death estimates from April 2009 to April 2010, in the US are as follows:\n between 43 million and 89 million cases of 2009 H1N1 occurred between April 2009 and 10 April 2010. The mid-level in this range is about 61 million people infected with 2009 H1N1.\n between about 195,000 and 403,000 H1N1-related hospitalizations occurred between April 2009 and 10 April 2010. The mid-level in this range is about 274,000 2009 H1N1-related hospitalizations.",
"between about 8,870 and 18,300 2009 H1N1-related deaths occurred between April 2009 and 10 April 2010. The mid-level in this range is about 12,470 2009 H1N1-related deaths.",
"It has been stated that about 36,000 die from the seasonal flu in the U.S. each year, and this is frequently understood as an indication that the H1N1 strain was not as severe as seasonal influenza. The 36,000 estimate was presented in a 2003 study by CDC scientists and refers to a period from 1990 to 1991 through 1998–99. During those years, the number of estimated deaths ranged from 17,000 to 52,000, with an average of about 36,000",
". Throughout that decade, influenza A (H3N2) was the predominant virus during most of the seasons, and H3N2 influenza viruses are typically associated with higher death rates. The JAMA study also looked at seasonal influenza-associated deaths over a 23-year period, from 1976 to 1977 and 1998–99 with estimates of respiratory and circulatory influenza-associated deaths ranging from about 5,000 to about 52,000, and an average of about 25,000",
". CDC believes that the range of deaths over the past 31 years (~3,000 to ~49,000) is a more accurate representation of the unpredictability and variability of flu-associated deaths. The annual toll from seasonal influenza in the US between 1979 and 2001 is estimated at 41,400 deaths on average. Therefore, the H1N1 pandemic estimated mortality of 8,870 to 18,300 is just below the mid-range of estimates.",
"The 2009 pandemic caused US hospitals to make significant preparations in terms of hospital surge capacities, especially within the emergency department and among vulnerable populations. In many cases, hospitals were relatively successful in making sure that those patients most severely affected by the influenza strain were able to be seen, treated, and discharged in an efficient manner",
". A case-study of the preparation, planning, mitigation, and response efforts during the fall of 2009 is that of the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia (CHOP) which took several steps to increase the emergency department (ED) surge capacity response",
". CHOP used portions of the main lobby area as an ED waiting room; several of the region's hospital-based outpatient facilities were in use during evening and weekend hours for non-emergency cases; the ED's 24-hour short-stay unit was utilized to care for ED patients in a longer-term capacity; non-board certified physicians (in pediatric emergency medicine) and inpatient-unit medical nurses were utilized for ED patient care; hospital units normally utilized for other medical or therapeutic purposes were",
"ED patient care; hospital units normally utilized for other medical or therapeutic purposes were transformed into ED patient rooms; and rooms normally used for only one patient were expanded to at least a capacity of 2",
".",
"Comparisons to other pandemics and epidemics",
"Annual influenza epidemics are estimated to affect 5–15% of the global population. Although most cases are mild, these epidemics still cause severe illness in people and 290,000–650,000 deaths worldwide every year. On average 41,400 people die of influenza-related illnesses each year in the United States, based on data collected between 1979 and 2001",
". In industrialised countries, severe illness and deaths occur mainly in the high-risk populations of infants, the elderly and chronically ill patients, although the H1N1 flu outbreak (like the 1918 Spanish flu) differs in its tendency to affect younger, healthier people.",
"In addition to these annual epidemics, Influenza A virus strains caused three global pandemics during the 20th century: the Spanish flu in 1918, Asian flu in 1957, and Hong Kong flu in 1968–69. These virus strains had undergone major genetic changes for which the population did not possess significant immunity",
". Recent genetic analysis has revealed that three-quarters, or six out of the eight genetic segments, of the 2009 flu pandemic strain arose from the North American swine flu strains circulating since 1998, when a new strain was first identified on a factory farm in North Carolina, and which was the first-ever reported triple-hybrid flu virus.",
"The Spanish flu began with a wave of mild cases in the spring, followed by more deadly waves in the autumn, eventually killing hundreds of thousands in the United States and 50–100 million worldwide. The great majority of deaths in the 1918 flu pandemic were the result of secondary bacterial pneumonia. The influenza virus damaged the lining of the bronchial tubes and lungs of patients, allowing common bacteria from the nose and throat to infect their lungs",
". Subsequent pandemics have had many fewer fatalities due to the development of antibiotic medicines which can treat pneumonia.",
"The influenza virus has caused several pandemic threats over the past century, including the pseudo-pandemic of 1947 (thought of as mild because although globally distributed, it caused relatively few deaths), the 1976 swine flu outbreak and the 1977 Russian flu, all caused by the H1N1 subtype. The world has been at an increased level of alert since the SARS epidemic in Southeast Asia (caused by the SARS coronavirus)",
". The level of preparedness was further increased and sustained with the advent of the H5N1 bird flu outbreaks because of H5N1's high fatality rate, although the strains currently prevalent have limited human-to-human transmission (anthroponotic) capability, or epidemicity.",
"People who contracted influenza before 1957 appeared to have some immunity to H1N1 flu. According to Daniel Jernigan, head of flu epidemiology for the U.S. CDC \"Tests on blood serum from older people showed that they had antibodies that attacked the new virus ... That does not mean that everyone over 52 is immune, since Americans and Mexicans older than that have died of the new flu\".",
"In June 2012, a model based study found that the number of deaths related to the H1N1 influenza may have been fifteen times higher than the reported laboratory confirmed deaths, with 80% of the respiratory and cardiovascular deaths in people younger than 65 years and 51% occurring in southeast Asia and Africa. A disproportionate number of pandemic deaths might have occurred in these regions and that efforts to prevent future influenza pandemics need to effectively target these regions.",
"A WHO-supported 2013 study estimated that the 2009 global pandemic respiratory mortality was ~10-fold higher than the World Health Organization's laboratory-confirmed mortality count (18.631). Although the pandemic mortality estimate was similar in magnitude to that of seasonal influenza, a marked shift toward mortality among persons less than 65 years of age occurred, so that many more life-years were lost",
". Between 123,000 and 203,000 pandemic respiratory deaths were estimated globally for the last nine months of 2009. The majority (62–85%) were attributed to persons under 65 years of age. The burden varied greatly among countries. There was an almost 20-fold higher mortality in some countries in the Americas than in Europe. The model attributed 148,000–249,000 respiratory deaths to influenza in an average pre-pandemic season, with only 19% in persons <65 years of age.",
"The COVID-19 pandemic is not caused by an influenza virus but SARS-CoV-2, a coronavirus which also primarily affects the respiratory system.\n\nSee also\n\n SARS\n 2009 swine flu pandemic tables\n 2015–16 Zika virus epidemic\n Black Death\n COVID-19 pandemic\n G4 EA H1N1\n Health crisis\n MERS\n Public health emergency (United States)\n Western African Ebola virus epidemic\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n\nExternal links",
"References\n\nFurther reading\n\nExternal links\n\n \n Pandemic (H1N1) 2009 at the World Health Organization (WHO)\n International Society for Infectious Diseases PROMED-mail news updates\n\n \n2009 disease outbreaks\n2010 disease outbreaks\n21st-century epidemics\nInfluenza A virus subtype H1N1\nInfluenza pandemics\nPublic health emergencies of international concern"
] |
Law of succession in South Africa
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law%20of%20succession%20in%20South%20Africa
|
[
"The South African law of succession prescribes the rules which determine the devolution of a person's estate after his death, and all matters incidental thereto. It identifies the beneficiaries who are entitled to succeed to the deceased's estate, and the extent of the benefits they are to receive, and determines the different rights and duties that persons (for example, beneficiaries and creditors) may have in a deceased's estate. It forms part of private law.",
"The manner in which assets are distributed depends on whether the deceased has left a valid will or other valid document containing testamentary provisions, such as an antenuptial contract. If the deceased has not left a valid will or valid document containing testamentary provisions, the deceased dies intestate; similarly, if the deceased leaves a valid will which does not dispose of all property, there is an intestacy as to the portion not disposed of",
". In the event of intestacy, the assets are distributed in a definite order of preference among the heirs, as stipulated by the Intestate Succession Act, 1987. Until recently, the Act (and its common-law precursor) existed side by side with a statutorily-regulated customary-law regime of intestate succession, applied on a racial basis, but this was brought to an end when the Constitutional Court, in Bhe v Magistrate, Khayelitsha, made the Intestate Succession Act applicable to all.",
"Where the deceased dies leaving a valid will, the rules of testate succession apply. These are derived from common law and the Wills Act, 1953. Testate succession is governed by the general premise that the assets of the deceased are distributed in accordance with the provisions of the will. If specified property is left to a person, the disposition is termed a \"legacy.\" Legacies are distributed first; any residue in the estate is given to the person, if any, who is appointed as heir",
". If the will appoints more than one heir, the residue is divided among them.",
"Dual character \nThe law of succession comprises two branches, namely the common law of succession and the customary law of succession. These enjoy equal status and are subject to the Constitution of South Africa and other legislation. The common law of succession is divided into the testate law of succession and the intestate law of succession, whereas the customary law of succession only operates intestate.",
"Conflict of laws \nThere are various rules for determining whether the common-law rules or the customary-law rules are applicable:\n\n The common law of succession applies to testate succession except if a testator, living under customary law prescribed otherwise in his or her will or if a court decides otherwise.\n The Intestate Succession Act applies to all intestate estates irrespective of the cultural affiliations of the deceased.\n\nSuccession may take place in three ways:",
"Succession may take place in three ways:\n\n in accordance with a valid will (testamentary succession);\n through the operation of intestate succession (without a valid will); and\n in terms of a succession agreement (pactum successorium) contained in a duly registered antenuptial contract or a gift mortis causa.\n\nScope of succession \nThe capacity to have rights and duties is called legal subjectivity, which is terminated by death. The consequences of the termination of legal subjectivity are as follows:",
"The subject is known as the deceased.\n If the deceased has a valid will, he or she is known as a testator or testatrix respectively.\n The deceased's estate—all of the deceased's assets and liabilities—is gathered together.\n The deceased's debts and administration costs are paid.\n The remainder of the assets then pass to persons qualified to succeed him.",
"When a person dies, everything remaining of his assets (once debts, obligations and administrative costs have been reclaimed) passes by inheritance to those qualified to succeed him.\n\nThe law of succession is the totality of the legal rules which control the transfer of those assets of the deceased which are subject to distribution among beneficiaries, or those assets of another over which the deceased had the power of disposal.",
"If there is a valid will which sets out the wishes of the testator, the estate is administered in terms of the law of testate succession. A will is a unilateral declaration regarding how the estate is to be apportioned. A person may make also bequests in terms of an ante-nuptial contract. Both natural and juristic persons may be beneficiaries in terms of a will.\n\nIf there is no will, or if the will is invalid, the estate devolves in terms of the law of intestate succession.",
"Ground rules for succession \nThere are a few requirements (with exceptions) that must be fulfilled before the rules of succession can come into operation:",
"The testator must have died.\n There must be a transfer of rights or duties with regard to the estate or the status of the deceased, depending on the nature of the succession rules (common law or customary law).\n At the time of dies cedit, the beneficiary has to be alive or have been conceived.\n The beneficiary must be competent to inherit. (According to the Dutch rule de bloedige hand neemt geen erf a person convicted of either the murder or culpable homicide of the testator is not eligible to inherit.)",
"Person must have died \nIn both the common and customary law of succession (in the case of property), a prerequisite for succession is that the owner of the estate must have died. In customary law, succession to status positions takes place only on the death of a family head, while the deaths of another family member does not give rise to succession to his or her status. The application of the rule is illustrated in Estate Orpen v Estate Atkinson.",
"Although the requirement of the death of the testator seems so obvious, it is not always a simple matter. There are various examples of situations where the application of the rule has been problematic or deviated from.",
"Presumption of death",
"The first exception to the rule that a person must be dead before succession can occur, is where a court pronounces a presumption of death and makes an order for the division of the estate. Those who allege that a person is dead have to prove it. Where the body is present and can be identified, death can easily be proved. However, where a person has disappeared and a body has not been found, death is difficult to prove",
". However, where a person has disappeared and a body has not been found, death is difficult to prove. Only when a court makes a presumption of death order can the disappeared person's estate be administered. Because it is possible that the deceased might still be alive, this case constitutes an exception to the rule that he or she must be dead before succession can occur",
". For this reason, it is also customary for a court to order that the estate of the person presumed to be dead should be distributed amongst his heirs subject to the provision of security that the estate can be returned to him should he reappear. Factors which a court may take into consideration in making such an order include the length of time that the person has been missing, the age, health and position in society of the missing person, as well as the circumstances of the disappearance",
". The principles applicable to judicial presumption of death have been reviewed in detail by the higher courts.",
"Beneficiaries must be alive at the time of the testator's death, unless the testator makes provision for the benefit of persons born later. Death is proved by reporting the death to the Master and obtaining a death certificate signed by a medical practitioner. This is important: Without proof of death, the estate cannot be administered, and one's affairs cannot remain indefinitely in limbo.",
"In such circumstances, a person may approach the High Court for an order, granted on a balance of probabilities, presuming the death of another person. The effect of the order is to create a rebuttable presumption that the specified person is dead. The court may later reverse the order if the presumption is rebutted; it may also order that all persons who received a benefit from the devolved estate return the assets in terms of the law of unjustified enrichment.",
"If a person cannot get a presumption order, he may apply for an order for administration of the estate. In this case, all beneficiaries must furnish security for the assets received.",
"Estate massing \nA second exception to the rule that a person must be dead can be found in the case of estate massing. When estates are massed, the entire estates or parts of the estates of various testators are consolidated into a single economic unit for the purpose of testamentary disposal. The effect of estate massing is that the surviving testator's estate dissolves according to the will of the first-dying whilst he or she is still alive.",
"Either party to a mutual will may, while both are alive, revoke his or her share of the mutual will with or without communication to the other party. But after the death of one party the survivor may not revoke his or her share of the mutual will where both the following further conditions or circumstances occur:\n\n the mutual will effects a \"massing;\" and\n the survivor has accepted some benefit under the will.",
"the mutual will effects a \"massing;\" and\n the survivor has accepted some benefit under the will.\n\nThe term \"massing\" will first be explained, then the survivor's election will be discussed, and thereafter effect of the survivor repudiating or accepting benefits respectively will be considered.",
"Massing is a disposition by the testators in a mutual will of their joined property or of a portion of it in favour of the survivor, giving him or her a limited interest in the joined property, and providing that on his or her death such property is to go to some other person or persons. The limited interest conferred on the survivor is, as a rule, either a usufructuary or a fiduciary interest",
". For example, the testators leave \"all property belonging to us to our children, subject to a usufruct in favour of the survivor;\" in this case the survivor acquires a usufructuary interest in the massed property. Or, again, the testators may leave \"our joint estate to the survivor, and after the death of the survivor to our children;\" in this case the survivor acquires a fiduciary interest.",
"It will be seen that the effect of massing, if carried out, is to give the survivor one benefit and to deprive him or her of another. The survivor acquires a beneficial interest in the property of the first-dying which otherwise (in the absence of any will) the survivor would not have obtained, but the survivor no longer has the full ownership of his or her own share of the property which otherwise he or she would have retained",
". The survivor, however, is not bound to allow the mutual will to be carried into effect. If the survivor accepts the benefit, he or she must also accept the loss of an interest in his or her own property; the survivor cannot accept the benefit without its accompanying liability. It follows that the survivor has a choice or election whether to abide by the terms of the mutual will or to repudiate them.",
"Exercise of election by survivor",
"Whether the survivor has elected to abide by the terms of the mutual will or to repudiate them is a question of fact. The election is generally effected by the survivor in his or her capacity as executor (for the survivor is usually appointed executor testamentary) in framing the liquidation and distribution account. If the survivor takes the interest in the share of the first-dying in terms of the mutual will the survivor is deemed to have accepted the benefits and to have adiated",
". Vice versa, the survivor is held to repudiate the terms of the will if he or she does not take the interest in the share of the first-dying but assigns the estate of the deceased to the other beneficiaries.",
"If the survivor elects to abide by the will, or \"adiates,\" the survivor can be relieved of the consequences of such action if the survivor acted under a reasonable and excusable ignorance of his or her legal rights, but not if the survivor erroneously thought that adiation would be of greater benefit than it turned out to be. If, after adiation, a new will is discovered which adds to or alters the provisions of the earlier will, the survivor has a further opportunity to adiate or repudiate.",
"Effect of repudiation by survivor",
"If the survivor elects to take no benefit under the mutual will and thereby repudiates the will he or she is not bound by its terms. It follows that the survivor reverts to the legal position which he enjoyed before the death of the testator. The survivor accordingly may revoke his or her share of the mutual will, retain personal property and be free of the will's terms",
". The consequence is that the mutual will remains in force only in so far as it is the will of the first-dying and it operates only upon the latter's share of the property.",
"Effect of adiation by survivor",
"If the survivor accepts the benefits under the mutual will he or she becomes bound by its terms. The survivor is consequently under an obligation (of a contractual or quasi-contractual nature) to allow the jointly disposed of property to devolve in terms of the joint will. In other words, the mutual will now comes fully into operation and the survivor cannot revoke his or her share of it",
". The mutual will operates in effect as the will of the first-dying party and the survivor is a beneficiary under that will.",
"The rights of the ultimate beneficiaries in the massed estate have undergone considerable change. Under the common law their rights in the first-dying testator's share of the massed property were real rights, being conferred by will, while their right in the survivor's share were personal rights only since they were of a semi-contractual nature and since the will of one person cannot confer a real right in the property of another person",
". It followed that the survivor retained the dominium in his or her share of the property even after adiation, and could thus validly alienate or mortgage such share. If the survivor went insolvent after adiation and before transfer of the property to’ the beneficiaries the latter would rank merely as concurrent creditors in the insolvent estate",
". To remedy this state of affairs a vitally important change was made in 1913 by the Administration of Estates Act in respect of mutual wills of spouses married in community of property. Where such a will effected a massing and the survivor adiated, the Act in effect placed the two halves of the joint estate upon exactly the same footing by giving the beneficiaries the same rights in respect of the survivor's half as they possessed in the half of the first-dying spouse",
". Given the state of the common law at the time this meant that the beneficiaries acquired real rights in the entire estate. Under the modern system of administering deceased estates, however, the beneficiaries under a will acquire only personal rights against the executor before transfer to them of the bequeathed property.",
"It follows in the case of a massed estate that the ultimate beneficiaries acquire personal rights only in the first-dying's share of the estate and thus, by virtue of the legislation, in the half of the survivor too, on his or her adiation",
". This remains the position under the Administration of Estates Act of 1965, which re-enacted the earlier provision in somewhat wider terms, as follows: \"If any two or more persons have by their mutual will massed the whole or any specific portion of their joint estate and disposed of the massed estate or of any portion thereof after the death of the first-dying, conferring upon the survivor or survivors any limited interest in respect of any property in the massed estate",
", then upon the death after the commencement of this Act [October 2, 1967] of the first-dying, adiation by the survivor or survivors shall have the effect of conferring upon the persons in whose favour such disposition was made, such rights in respect of any property forming part of the share of the survivor or survivors of the massed estate as they would by law have possessed under the will if that property had belonged to the first-dying",
".\"",
"The 1965 Act, unlike the 1913 Act, is not, it is submitted, confined to spouses married in community of property despite the use of the words \"joint estate\" in the quoted extract. The intention of the legislature seems clear.\n\nIt must be noted that if the mutual will masses not the whole, but a portion merely of their estates, the will is irrevocable by the survivor in respect of the massed portion only.",
"Sequence of death \nAnother aspect worth mentioning, occurs when a number of people are killed in the same disaster (commorientes) and it is difficult to determine who died first. It might be important to be able to determine who died first in order to choose the beneficiaries, especially if the victims are family members. It could happen that the estate of the victims is devolved as if they died simultaneously whilst in fact one or more of them died at a later time.",
"Consider the following example: Corbin and Armand die in a plane crash in which there are no survivors. In terms of Corbin's will, Cameron is his only heir. Corbin's estate is only worth R100. In terms of Armand's will, Corbin is her only heir, and Armand was wealthy. If Corbin died after Armand and could first inherit from him, then Cameron, who inherits from Corbin, is in a favourable position. Cameron would want to prove that Armand died before Corbin",
". Cameron would want to prove that Armand died before Corbin. If Corbin and Armand died simultaneously and on impact, Corbin cannot inherit anything from Armand, as he was not alive at dies cedit: that is, upon Armand's death.",
"The cardinal rule is that an heir, in order to inherit, must survive or outlive the deceased. When two persons die at the same time, it is important to know who died first, so as to determine if they may inherit.",
"In Roman-Dutch law, certain presumptions existed when members of the same family died in circumstances where it was difficult to determine who died first. It was always presumed that the wife died first. In England, there was a presumption that, when two persons died at the same time, the older of the two had died first.",
"The South African courts, however, did not apply these presumptions. The general rule is that, where there is no evidence of who survived whom, it is to be presumed that they died simultaneously. In Greyling v Greyling, a husband and wife were killed in a car accident. According to the evidence, the husband probably lived longer than his wife. In their joint will, the spouses had a provision to the effect that, if they died simultaneously, their estate had to devolve in a certain way",
". The Court held that the words ‘gelyktydig te sterwe kom’ (to die simultaneously) meant the death of the testators as the result of a single incident, irrespective of the fact that there was a difference in the exact time at which they died.",
"Transfer of rights and/or duties with regard to assets and/or the status of the deceased",
"This ground rule is linked to the issue of dies cedit and dies venit. The fact that there has to be a transfer of rights and/or duties with regard to the bequest and/or status of the deceased can also be regarded as a ground rule of the law of succession. Somebody must take the place of the deceased testator with regard to ownership of his assets, or in the case of customary law, with regard to status",
". In the case of the common law of succession, there is a transfer of rights (and sometimes also responsibilities) which belonged to the deceased.",
"In the case of the customary law of succession, the situation is more complicated. It depends on the type of property and the status of the deceased. In general, it can be said that succession to status positions takes place only after the death of a family head. Distinction is made between general succession (succession to the general status of the deceased) and special succession (succession to the position of the head of the various houses of the deceased)",
". Although there have been exceptions to the rule, succession to status is mainly limited to male. Succession follows the rule of male primogeniture, which means that a family head is succeeded by his firstborn son of a particular house.",
"Beneficiary should at the time of dies cedit be alive or have been conceived",
"The transfer of rights (and occasionally also responsibilities) is a prerequisite for succession. There must be somebody on whom the rights (or responsibilities) can devolve. Where a beneficiary has already died (is predeceased) when the bequeathed benefit vests, there can be no succession except if the deceased made provision in his or her will or antenuptial contract for the predecease of the beneficiary or in circumstances where ex lege substitution applies.",
"An exceptional situation is where a beneficiary has been conceived but not yet born when the bequeathed benefit vests. Since an unborn child is incapable of bearing rights and cannot inherit, the vesting of the bequest is held over until the child is born alive",
". This situation is referred to as the nasciturus fiction (a common law concept) in terms of which a child who survives birth is regarded as having obtained rights from the moment of conception, provided that conception took place before the death of the testator.",
"Customary law does not have a similar fiction, but some communities have customs that are meant to produce heirs for a husband after his death. Ukungena, for example, is a custom which expects a widow to marry one of her husband's brothers after his death. If a man dies childless, the custom of ukungena allows for the continuation of his family line",
". If a man dies childless, the custom of ukungena allows for the continuation of his family line. Another custom, ukuvusa, allows for the natural heir of the deceased (for example, his brother) to take the deceased's property and then to take a wife who will be regarded as the deceased's wife and whose children will be known as the deceased's children. It is, however, difficult to determine to what extent these customs are still followed by indigenous communities",
". In addition, the nasciturus fiction has been codified in the testate law of succession by section 2D(l)(c) of the Wills Act, which provides that any benefit allocated to the children of a deceased shall vest in such children as are alive at the time of the devolution of the benefit, or as have already been conceived at the time of the devolution of the benefit and who are later born alive.",
"Beneficiary must be competent to inherit \nThe mere fact that somebody has been named as heir or legatee in a will, or in terms of the rules of intestate succession, does not necessarily mean that the person has the right to the relevant benefit. Although most persons are competent to inherit, there are some who do not have the competence to take up a benefit in terms of a specific will. There are also certain persons who are not competent to benefit intestate from a specific deceased.",
"In customary law, the competence of the beneficiary is often linked to the rule of male primogeniture. The customary rule of male primogeniture was declared unconstitutional by the Constitutional Court in Bhe v Magistrate, Khayelitsha. This case brought about fundamental changes to the customary law of succession and the administration of estates.",
"Deceased estate \nThe aggregate of assets and liabilities of the deceased is termed the deceased estate. The deceased estate is not a juristic person. Consequently, the only legal person in connection with the estate is the executor in his representative capacity. The estate ‘vests’ originally in the Master of the High Court, and subsequently in one or more executors, appointed by the Master, who bear the responsibility of administering the estate:",
"first, by gathering in all the assets;\n next, by liquidating the deceased's liabilities; and\n lastly, by distributing the balance of the estate assets to the beneficiaries entitled thereto.",
"Due to this administration process, the estate does not initially vest in the heir. The executor becomes the legal ‘owner’ of the assets. The executor, however, acquires the bare dominium only, and not the beneficial use and enjoyment of the assets. Similarly, the debts of the deceased are binding on the executor in his representative capacity only.",
"It follows that the executor alone can sue and be sued in respect of estate matters. Legal proceedings are brought or defended by the executor acting in a representative capacity, for the executor is the legal representative of the deceased",
". A legatee, for example, has no locus standi to claim from a third person assets which the former alleges to form part of the estate; still less does the heir acquire the ownership of the assets upon the death of the testator: The heir has merely a vested claim (personal right) against the executor, enforceable after confirmation of the liquidation and distribution account.",
"Executor \nThe estates of all persons, whether dying testate or intestate, are administered and wound up by executors under letters of executorship granted to them by the Master of the High Court. If the deceased's will appoints specified persons as executors, the Master grants the letters to such persons; they are termed executors testamentary.",
"Where no executors are appointed by will, and after consulting the heirs, the legatees and the creditors of the deceased, the Master appoints one or more persons as executors; they are termed executors dative.\n\nExecutors testamentary who are conferred the power of assumption by a will may appoint co-executors; the latter are termed executors assumed.",
"Winding up \nAn estate is wound up when it has fallen into possession and is cleared of liabilities, and so left free for enjoyment by the beneficiaries. The executor's first duty is to gather in all the estate's assets in the possession of other persons, unless the Master of the High Court authorises such other persons to retain the property. Excluded from ingathering are life assurance benefits, retirement assets, and assets held in trust.",
"Debts due to the deceased include not merely pecuniary debts, but also any other obligations which can be specifically performed, such as an obligation to transfer land to the deceased. The executor may enforce such an obligation even if the deceased has died insolvent.",
"It is not the duty of an executor to realise the estate assets—that is, to turn them into money—unless the will directs him to do so, or unless it is necessary to raise money in order either to pay estate debts or to divide the assets properly among the beneficiaries. If empowered by the will, the executor may carry on the business of the testator, but without the authority of the court he may not pledge the credit of the estate in order to maintain it as a going concern.",
"Liquidation \nThe next duty of the executor is to settle the liabilities against the deceased's estate, after satisfying himself that the estate is solvent, and after framing and lodging a liquidation and distribution account, to which there has been no valid objection, with the Master of the High Court within six months from the date of death.",
"An executor is liable in respect of any contractual obligation of the deceased which could have been enforced against him had he been alive, unless the obligation is of a personal nature or was clearly not intended by the parties to be transmissible",
". It follows that the executor must not only pay the pecuniary debts of the deceased, but must also perform obligations incurred by the deceased to transfer or to grant real rights in his property (like a sale of his land, or a contract to grant a servitude over his land, or a lease, or a mortgage).",
"The debts due by the estate include the deceased's obligation to maintain his spouse and minor children (and, in appropriate circumstances, even major children) if the benefits coming to them from the deceased's estate are insufficient to maintain them. Such a claim is preferent to the claims of heirs and, if the inheritances are insufficient, to the claims of legatees, but it cannot compete with the claims of normal creditors.",
"The executor is liable for the debts only to the extent of the assets in the estate. If the estate is solvent, the executor must pay the creditors as soon as funds sufficient for that purpose have been raised out of the estate, subject to there being no valid objection to his liquidation and distribution account",
". If the executor does not have sufficient free cash in assets belonging to the estate in order to raise the necessary amount, but he may not sell assets bequeathed as legacies unless there are no other assets to meet the debts.",
"If the estate is insolvent, the executor must inform the creditors of this fact in writing; thereafter, provided he is instructed by a majority in number and value of all the creditors to surrender the estate under the Insolvency Act, he must realise and distribute the estate in terms of the procedure laid down for insolvent estates in the Administration of Estates Act.",
"Distribution",
"After lodging a liquidation and distribution account to which there has been no objection, or any objections made have been overruled by the court, the executor must distribute the balance of the assets to the beneficiaries. Where there is no will, the assets are distributed among the heirs according to the rules of intestate succession; where there is a will, the assets are distributed according to the provisions of that will",
". In the latter case, the legacies are paid or distributed first, the balance going to the heirs; the consequence is that the heirs are in effect residuary legatees.",
"The distribution of the assets to the beneficiaries is effected:\n\n by transferring immovable property to them;\n by delivering movable property to them; or\n by paying money to them,",
"as the case may be. If a usufruct or other limited interest in immovable property has been bequeathed to any person, along with a direction that, upon the expiry of the interest, the property shall devolve upon some uncertain person, the executor must, instead of transferring the property, ensure that the terms of the will are endorsed against the title deeds",
". An endorsement is intended to safeguard the contingent rights of the uncertain persons; it does not vest the ownership or any other real right in them.",
"Beneficiaries’ title \nUnder the Roman-Dutch system of universal succession, the beneficiaries’ right to their portions of the deceased's assets was a real right, since the right was said to vest in the beneficiaries at the death of the deceased, without any formal delivery or transfer; so it was said that a real right is conferred on the beneficiaries, be they legatees or heirs.",
"However, after adoption of the English system of estate administration in the 19th century, the beneficiaries’ right to inherit is no longer absolute, nor is it assured. If the deceased's estate, after confirmation of the liquidation and distribution account, is found to be insolvent, none of the beneficiaries will obtain any assets at all. In the case of a legacy, the legatee will obtain the property bequeathed to him only:",
"if the property belonged to the testator (for the will of one person cannot confer a real right in favour of another person over property belonging to a third person); and\n if the deceased's assets not left as legacies are sufficient to pay his debts.\n\nIn any event, an heir may not vindicate from a third person property which the heir alleges forms part of the deceased estate; only the executor has that power.",
"It follows from these considerations that an heir or legatee does not, upon the death of the testator, acquire the ownership of the assets; he merely has a vested claim (personal right) against the executor for payment, delivery or transfer of the property comprising the inheritance. This claim is enforceable only when the liquidation and distribution account has been confirmed",
". This claim is enforceable only when the liquidation and distribution account has been confirmed. The heir or legatee, in fact, becomes owner of movable property only on its delivery, and of immovable property on its registration.",
"The modern position, therefore, is that a beneficiary has merely a personal right, ius in personam ad rem acquirendam, against the executor; he does not acquire ownership by virtue of a will. The heir obtains ownership, or a lesser real right (such as a usufruct), only on delivery or transfer in pursuance of a testamentary disposition or intestate succession. Consequently, succession is merely a causa habilis, or appropriate cause, for transfer of ownership.",
"Overpayment by executor \nIf an executor pays the heirs or legatees more than they were entitled to, there is unjustified enrichtment, so the executor may recover the excess from them by means of the condictio indebiti. Similarly, an executor may reclaim from concurrent creditors an overpayment made to them if the estate is subsequently found to be insolvent.",
"Estate duty \nBy virtue of the Estate Duty Act, estate duty is payable on all property of a deceased person, and on all property which is deemed to be his property at the date of death.",
"Testamentary trustees",
"The executor's duty is finished when the estate has been liquidated and distributed. Once the estate is distributed, the executor is entitled to be discharged as executor by the Master. Frequently, however, a will directs that the estate property or some portion of it must not be distributed immediately, but must be administered by some person, who is termed the testamentary \"trustee\" or \"administrator",
".\" It then becomes the duty of the executor to cause the terms of the will, insofar as they relate to the administration of the immovable property, to be endorsed against the title deeds of such immovable property.",
"The will usually, but not always, appoints the same persons as executors and as trustees. The functions of an executor and of a trustee are, however, quite separate and distinct. Further, the source of their authority is different. While the Master has the power of appointment of executors, a trustee's authority is derived from the will or some other document executed by the testator.",
"Where the executors are also appointed trustees, they first have to perform their duties as executors, and then as trustees. In the latter capacity, they have to administer and deal with the balance of the assets as directed by the will. The trustees must keep the assets properly invested, due regard being had to the production of fruits and the safety of the corpus of the estate.",
"A trustee must furnish security to the satisfaction of the Master for the due and faithful performance of his duties, unless he has been exempted from doing so by a court order or by the Master or in terms of the will. In the latter case, the Master may override the terms of the will and insist on security being furnished, if the Master is of the opinion that there are sound reasons for doing so.",
"Collation \nCollation (collatio bonorum or hotchpot) is an obligation imposed by law on all descendants who wish to share as heirs in the deceased's estate, either by will or on intestacy. The obligation is to account to the estate for any gifts or advances received by them from the deceased, or debts incurred to him, during his lifetime.",
"Collation is effected by adding to the inheritance the amount due by each heir. The new total is then divided among all the heirs. An heir cannot, as long as he refuses to collate, enforce legal remedies to claim his share of the inheritance.",
"The basis of collation is that a parent is presumed to have intended that there should be equality in the distribution of his estate among his children. Collation, however, may be dispensed with by the will of a testator, or waived by those entitled to the benefit thereof.\n\nWhat property must be collated \nAmong the classes of property which must be collated is property which has been given to a descendant",
"as a portion of his inheritance;\n to start him in trade or business;\n as a dowry or marriage gift; or\n as a gift of a substantial nature resulting in inequitable treatment so far as the other children are concerned.",
"A descendant is expected to collate debts due by him to the deceased, whether arising from contract, delict or any other source. This is the case even if the debt has prescribed by lapse of time, been extinguished under the provisions of the Agricultural Credit Act, or been discharged by the insolvency and the subsequent rehabilitation of the descendant.",
"Indeed, since the executor is obliged to recover all debts owing to the estate, for the benefit of creditors as well as beneficiaries, it is only debts that are not legally recoverable that should be collated",
". On the other hand, money spent on the maintenance of the descendant need not be collated; nor need money spent on his education, nor a simple and unconditional gift—provided that such expenditure is not substantial in relation to the deceased's means and disproportionate to what other descendants have received.",
"Who is liable to collate \nThe only persons liable to collate are descendants who are heirs on intestacy or legatees under a deceased's will (provided that they would have been his heirs had there been no will); and hence a grandchild, whose father is alive, and who is a legatee under his grandfather's will, need not collate. If his father is dead, however, he must collate not only what he has received from his grandfather, but also amounts his father received.",
"Collation applies only to heirs who have adiated. If an inheritance is repudiated, the heirs who receive the inheritance by accrual will be required to collate what the repudiating heir would have had to collate.\n\nLegatees and pre-legatees are not liable to collate unless the will provides to the contrary.\n\nWho benefits from collation \nThe only persons who may insist on collation, and share in the benefit thereof, are\n\n descendants who would themselves be under a duty to collate;",
"descendants who would themselves be under a duty to collate; \n\nIt follows, therefore, that legatees who are not obliged to collate, and the estate's creditors who can recover their debts in the ordinary course, cannot benefit from what is collated.\n\nBeneficiaries\n\nHeirs and legatees \nThe persons upon whom the testator's inheritance devolves are the called the beneficiaries. Beneficiaries may be divided into two categories:\n\n heirs; and\n legatees.",
"heirs; and\n legatees.\n\nAnyone may be appointed as an heir or a legatee, including a natural person, a fixed or fluctuating class of persons, a company, a public corporation or a government department.\n\nHeirs \nAn heir inherits\n\n the entire inheritance;\n a proportional part of it;\n a particular part of it; or\n the residue of the inheritance.\n\nA testator may nominate one heir or many heirs. An heir may be nominated in a will or in an antenuptial contract. An heir may also inherit intestate.",
"Legatees \nLegatees are beneficiaries in testate succession only. They inherit a specific or determinable asset (like a car) or a specified amount of money (exactly R10,000, for example). A legatee may be nominated only in a will or in an ante-nuptial contract. It is not possible for legatees to exist where the deceased died intestate.\n\nA pre-legacy is a special bequest which has preference over all other bequests in terms of the testamentary instructions.",
"The testator may only bequeath his assets, or the assets of a third party, by means of a legacy.\n\nA legacy will fail under the following circumstances:",
"A legacy will fail under the following circumstances:\n\n if the testator voluntarily alienates the subject-matter of a legacy during his lifetime, in which case it is said that the legacy fails through ademption;\n if the legatee dies before the legacy passes to him or her;\n in the event that the legatee repudiates;\n in the event that the legatee is unfit to inherit;\n if the bequeathed asset is destroyed; and\n if the legacy is made for a specific purpose, which purpose becomes impossible to execute.",
"Differences and similarities \nThe differences between heirs and legatees may be summarised as follows:",
"Heirs occur in both testate and intestate succession; legatees occur only in testate succession.\n After the estate debts are paid, the executor must pay the legatees first. The legatees, therefore, have a better right and are in a stronger position than heirs.\n At common law, heirs are obliged to collate: that is, to return any benefit received during the currency of the testator's life, over and above reasonable support and maintenance. Legatees do not have this obligation.",
"Adiation and repudiation \nHeirs and legatees have no obligation to receive an inheritance; they have the choice to accept or reject what has been bequeathed. In this context,\n\n adiation refers to the acceptance of a benefit; and\n repudiation (or renunciation) refers to the refusal to accept a benefit, or the rejection or renunciation thereof.",
"Adiation \nAcceptance of a benefit under a will, generally referred to as \"adiation,\" is the act of a beneficiary in signifying an intention to take the benefit. A beneficiary is not obliged to accept a benefit under a will. However, if he accepts the benefit, he incurs any liability which may be involved in it. The general rule is that a person is assumed to have adiated unless he expressly repudiates. Nothing express or explicit is required by way of acceptance.",
"The acceptance of an unconditional benefit, therefore, is generally taken for granted, but not where the acceptance involves a liability, in which event the beneficiary has a choice or election whether to accept or to repudiate the benefit. For example, where the will leaves property to a person on condition that he or she pays a sum of money to another person, or that he or she gives another person some of his or her own property, or that he or she maintains and supports some other person.",
"The Wills Act provides that if any descendant of a testator, excluding a minor or mentally ill descendant, who together with the surviving spouse of the testator, is entitled a benefit in terms of the will, renounces his or her right to receive such a benefit, such benefit shall vest in the surviving spouse. Where the surviving spouse does not stand to inherit, and unless the will indicates otherwise, the renounced benefit must devolve on the descendants of that descendant per stirpes.",
"The effect of adiation is that the heir or legatee acquires a vested personal right against the executor for delivery of the asset once the estate has been liquidated.\n\nRepudiation \nThe effect of repudiation is enunciated in the relevant provisions of the Wills Act and the Intestate Succession Act. The former provides as follows:",
"If any descendants of a testator, excluding a minor or a mentally ill descendant, who, together with the surviving spouse of the testator, is entitled to a benefit in terms of a will renounces his right to receive such benefit, such benefit shall vest in the surviving spouse.",
"If a descendant of the testator, whether as a member of a class or otherwise, would have been entitled to a benefit in terms of the provisions of a will if he had been alive at the time of death of the testator, or had not been disqualified from inheriting, or had not after the testator’s death renounced his right to receive such a benefit, the descendants of that descendant shall, subject to the provisions of subsection (1), per stirpes be entitled to the benefit",
", subject to the provisions of subsection (1), per stirpes be entitled to the benefit, unless the context of the will otherwise indicates",
".",
"The Intestate Succession Act contains the following provisions:",
"If a descendant of a deceased, excluding a minor or mentally ill descendant, who, together with the surviving spouse of the deceased, is entitled to a benefit from an intestate estate renounces his right to receive such a benefit, such benefit shall vest in the surviving spouse.",
"If a person is disqualified from being an heir of the intestate estate of the deceased, or renounces his right to be such an heir, any benefit which he would have received if he had not been so disqualified or had not so renounced his right shall, subject to the provisions of subsection (6), devolve as if he had died immediately before the death of the deceased and, if applicable, as if he was not so disqualified.",
"Capacity to inherit \nThe general rule is that all persons, born or unborn, natural or juristic, and regardless of their general legal capacity—minor children, too, therefore—may take validly any benefit conferred on them by will or on intestacy. There are, however, various factors that may influence a beneficiary's capacity to inherit. Persons who have limited legal capacity are still capable of inheriting. However, their ability to enjoy their inheritance as they see fit is affected.",
"Nasciturus fiction \nA conceived but unborn foetus (the nasciturus) is not a legal subject, but the law takes into account the fact that, in the normal course of events, the foetus will one day become a legal subject. The nasciturus fiction states that, if an advantage accrues whilst a child, later born alive, is a foetus, he is deemed to have the requisite legal personality from the time that the benefit accrues.\n\nThe requirements for the nasciturus fiction are",
"The requirements for the nasciturus fiction are\n\n that the child have been conceived by the time the benefit accrues (the date of the death of the deceased);\n that the child subsequently be born alive; and\n that the fiction work to the advantage of the nasciturus.\n\nIntestate succession and division of assets are postponed until there is certainty as to whether the foetus is born alive or not, to see whether the nasciturus fiction is applied.\n\nTestate succession looks at the intention of the testator:",
"Testate succession looks at the intention of the testator:\n\n If the testator's intention shows specific beneficiaries, the nasciturus fiction will not apply.\n If it shows members of a class of persons, the nasciturus fiction will apply.\n\nThe fiction will apply unless it has been specifically excluded from the will.\n\nThe fiction has gained statutory recognition in the Wills Act.",
"The fiction has gained statutory recognition in the Wills Act.\n\nAdopted and extra-marital children \nAdopted children are regarded, for all purposes, as the natural children of their adopted parents. The legal link between the child and his actual biological parents is severed, therefore.",
"Under the common law, extra-marital or illegitimate children were not qualified to inherit from their father's intestate estate, but could inherit from that of their mother. There is no longer any distinction between legitimate and extra-marital children; both are now in the same position.",
"Indignus",
"An indignus (which is to say, an unworthy heir) is precluded from inheriting because his conduct makes him unworthy, in a legal sense, to take a benefit from the deceased's estate. The basis for this ground of disqualification lies in the general principle that no-one may benefit from his own wrongdoing, or from conduct which the law regards as punishable. This principle is expressed by the maxim de bloedige hand neemt geen erf ‘the bloodied hand may not benefit’",
". Unworthiness is not a general principle; an individual can only be unworthy in respect of a particular person or that person's conjunctissimi (parent, spouse or child).",
"There are common-law and statutory grounds for disqualification that prevent beneficiaries from inheriting, and the courts have, over time, developed the law relating to these. Although the courts have recognised certain conduct as distasteful, the grounds of unworthiness are not limited. In consequence, and relying on prevailing values of public policy, new grounds of unworthiness may arise in the future. Instances where the courts have rendered a person unworthy to inherit are as follows:",
"Below are listed various categories of unworthy persons. It is not a closed list.\n\nFraud, duress and undue influence \nA person may not inherit who, by fraud, duress or undue influence, has induced the testator to make a disposition in his or her favour. The amount of pressure which leads to the invalidity of a disposition on the ground of undue influence depends on various factors, such as the mental state of the testator and the relationship between the persons concerned.",
"Inducing immorality or degradation \nA person who induces the deceased to lead an immoral or degrading lifestyle may not inherit either.",
"Unlawfully causing or contributing to the death of another \nThis can be either the intentional or negligent unlawful causing of death of another. At common law, somebody who has negligently caused the death of a deceased (of the testator's conjunctissimi) is also unworthy of inheriting from the deceased. It is evident, therefore, that unworthiness is not contingent on a criminal act.",
"Where, therefore, the deceased does not die immediately, and does not revoke a bequest conferred on the killer, the latter is still precluded from inheriting. It is an open question whether a person who has killed his spouse may claim the survivor's share in terms of the matrimonial property regime governing their marriage.",
"Justifiable homicide \nA person is only disqualified if he caused the death of the deceased unlawfully and intentionally. If a person has successfully raised a defence of justifiable homicide, this is a full defence, and the accused is entitled to inherit from the deceased.\n\nPerpetrator not criminally responsible \nA person who is incapable of forming the necessary intention will not be regarded as being unworthy to inherit.",
"Forging, hiding or destroying a will \nForging, hiding or destroying a will is not only civil wrong (in that a person who does so will not be entitled to inherit); it is also a criminal wrong (in terms of section 102 of the Administration of Estates Act). A person is guilty of a crime, therefore, who steals, wilfully destroys, conceals, falsifies or damages a will, and may not inherit in terms of that will.",
"Pension benefits \nA pension benefit is not considered to be an asset of a deceased estate. Pension benefits are dealt with outside the estate. The deceased may not bequeath these benefits to an heir or legatee. If pension benefits are due to the deceased, the trustees will decide to whom they are awarded. The bloedige hand principle has been extended to cover pension benefits.",
"Insurance benefits \nWhen taking out an insurance policy, one must nominate a beneficiary. The bloedige hand principle has been extended to cover insurance benefits.\n\nPersons involved in executing a will \nSection 4A(1) of the Wills Act disqualifies four categories of people form receiving a benefit from a will:",
"a person who signs the will as a witness;\n a person who signs the will as a proxy;\n a person who signs the will in the presence of and by the direction of the testator;\n a person who writes out the will or any part of it in his own handwriting; and\n the spouse of any of the above persons.\n\nFor the purposes of this provision, \"any benefit\" includes nomination as an executor, trustee or guardian. The rationale for such disqualifications is that they prevent fraud.",
"A beneficiary will not be disqualified, however, in the following circumstances:",
"A court may declare a person or spouse competent to receive a benefit if it is satisfied that the testator was not defrauded or unduly influenced.\n If a person would have been entitled to receive a benefit in terms of intestate succession, he will not be disqualified, provided that the value of the benefit in terms of the will does not exceed what would have been received in terms of intestate succession.",
"If a person who is entitled to receive a benefit in terms of the will has signed the will as a witness, along with two other competent witness who will not receive a benefit, that first person may inherit.",
"Section 4A does not apply where a beneficiary under a will witnesses a subsequent codicil made by the testator; similarly, a witness to a will may take a benefit under a subsequent codicil made by the testator.",
"Animals \nAnimals are not legal persons and, therefore, may not be beneficiaries in a will. When receiving a benefit, the heir must sign a receipt; obviously animals are unable to do so. Provision may be made for animals, however: trust funds to care for them, conditions that a person only inherits if they take care of the animal, etc.",
"Who inherits in the case of disqualification?",
"Where an heir who is a descendant of the testator, whether as a member of a class or otherwise, is disqualified from inheriting on any one of the grounds treated above, the benefit that he would have received devolves to his descendants per stirpes. This statutory rule is subject to there being no contrary intention in the will. It is implied that if the heir was NOT a descendant of the testator, then the benefit he/she would have received will NOT devolve upon his/her descendants per stirpes.",
"Customary law \nAlthough the customary law of intestate succession has been abolished to a great extent by means of court judgments, there are customary law impediments influencing a beneficiary's capacity to inherit in terms of the customary law of succession. Cognisance must be taken of certain rules if a testator uses the principle of freedom of testation to stipulate in his or her will that the customary law of succession must apply.\n\nIntestate succession\n\nTestate succession",
"Intestate succession\n\nTestate succession\n\nAdministration of deceased estates",
"Security \nAny person who has not been nominated as executor in a will, or who has not been exempted from providing security in terms of a will, must furnish security to the Master for the proper performance of their duties. Security is in the form of a bond of security, which is usually obtained from an insurance company against payment of a premium. If the executor later defaults and causes loss to the estate, the Master can enforce the security and recover the loss from the executor or the surety.",
"The amount of security is determined by the value of the assets in the estate. The cost of furnishing security is a liability against the estate, and is paid as an administration cost. The executor will not be required to furnish security\n\n where that person is the parent, spouse or child of the deceased; or\n where that person has been exempted from providing security in the deceased's will.\n\nDespite the above, the Master will call for security",
"Despite the above, the Master will call for security\n\n where the executor's estate has been sequestrated;\n where the executor has committed an act of insolvency;\n where the executor resides outside South Africa; or\n for any other good reason which, in the opinion of the Master, necessitates security.",
"Advertising for creditors \nIn terms of section 29 of the Administration of Estates Act, as soon as letters of executorship have been granted, the executor must immediately advertise for creditors to submit claims against the estate within thirty days for publication.",
"The advertisements are required to be published on the same day in the Government Gazette, and in a newspaper that circulates in the district where the deceased was ordinarily resident at the time of death. If, at any time within twelve months prior to death, the deceased resided in any other district, the advertisement must also appear in a newspaper circulating in that district.",
"If a creditor does not lodge a claim in terms of the notice, the creditor runs the risk of having that claim excluded from the liquidation and distribution account. It has become customary to call upon debtors to pay their debts to the estate within the same period, even though this is not prescribed.",
"Advertising the liquidation and distribution account to lie for Inspection \nIn terms of section 35 of the Administration of Estates Act, once the account has been submitted to the Master, it is examined by one of the officials of the Master's Office to establish whether or not it is in order. If it is not found to be in order, the executor will be instructed to amend it to the satisfaction of the Master.",
"Once it has been approved by the Master, the executor advertises the account to lie for inspection. The advertisements are required to be published on the same date in the Government Gazette and a newspaper that circulates in the district where the deceased was ordinarily resident. If, at any time within twelve months prior to death, the deceased resided in any other district, the advertisement must also appear in a newspaper circulating in that district.",
"The advertisement must state the dates on which the account will lie for inspection, and the places at which it can be inspected. The account will lie for inspection at the relevant Master's Office, and at the offices of the Magistrate in the district where the deceased was ordinarily resident. If the deceased resided in more than one district during the twelve months prior to death, the account lies at that district's Magistrate as well.",
"The purpose of the account lying for inspection is to enable any interested party to object to the account if that party is of the opinion that it is incorrect. Any objections to the account must be submitted to the Master, who will then forward the objection to the executor for his comments, in terms of the audi alterem partem principle.",
"On receipt of the executor's comments, the Master makes a ruling. If the Master is of the opinion that the objection is well founded, the executor will be directed to amend the account. The Master may also refuse to sustain an objection.\n\nAny person aggrieved by the Master's decision may approach the court within thirty days. The court may make any order it deems fit.\n\nCases",
"Cases\n\nEx Parte Dittmarn\nIn Ex Parte Dittmarn NO and another (1919) OPD 103, sometimes called Ex Parte Dittmarn, the testator’s will provided that a farm should be sold by public auction. A sale was advertised, but the highest bid was not considered high enough to be a true reflection of its value. The farm was therefore withdrawn and sold out of hand for a price considerably higher than the bid. The court confirmed this sale to be valid, as sale by public auction would have resulted in serious loss.",
"Notes \nEx Parte Dittmarn NO and another (1919) OPD 103\n\"Executor\" (1920) 37 South African Law Journal 222\nThe Digest of South African Case Law. Consolidated Edition. 1926. Volume 1. p 13. \nThe Law of South Africa. Second Edition. LexisNexis. 2003. Volume 31. para 391.\nDavid Meyerowitz. The Law and Practice of Administration of Estates. Fourth Edition. Juta & Co. 1966. pp 118 & 129.\nErasmus and De Waal. The South African Law of Succession. Butterworths. 1989. para 214 at p 137.",
"Erasmus and De Waal. The South African Law of Succession. Butterworths. 1989. para 214 at p 137. \nEx Parte Coetzee (1949) 2 SA 533 (O) at 534",
"Ex Parte Douallier\nIn Ex parte De Douallier (1907) 24 SC 282, 17 CTR 147, 17 CTR 391, sometimes called Ex Parte Douallier certain premises had been bequeathed to the petitioner, and after her death to her eldest child, on the condition that she was not to mortgage or alienate the property. The petitioner was too poor to pay the costs of transfer or to repair the premises, which were fast becoming uninhabitable. The eldest child was a minor.",
"The court, in the interest of the minor, and in order to prevent the bequest from failing altogether, granted leave to mortgage the premises for such sum as would be sufficient to enable the petitioner to obtain transfer and place the premises in a habitable state of repair, and directed that the interest should be paid by her during her life.",
"Notes \nEx parte De Douallier (1907) 24 SC 282, 17 CTR 147 and 391\nThe Digest of South African Case Law. Consolidated Edition. Juta & Co. Cape Town and Johannesberg. 1927. Volume 3. pp 869 & 871.\nScott and Scott. Wille's Law of Mortgage and Pledge in South Africa. Third Edition. Juta & Co. 1987. p 10.\nDavid Meyerowitz. The Law and Practice of Administration of Estates. Fourth Edition. Juta & Co. 1966. pp 310 & 320.",
"Erasmus and De Waal. The South African Law of Succession. Butterworths. 1989. para 214 at p 137.",
"Ex Parte Sidelsky\nIn Ex Parte Sidelsky, the deceased made a provision in his will (executed in 1944) to pay his daughter £55 per month out of his deceased estate. In 1982, the daughter requested the court to increase this amount, as the Consumer Price Index (CPI) had increased by 825% between 1944 and 1982. The court held that the testator could not have envisaged such a large increase. Accordingly, the amount was increased to R1500 per month, and annual increases linked to the CPI were provided for.",
"Notes\n Ex parte Sidelsky 1983 (4) SA 598 (C).\nErasmus and De Waal. The South African Law of Succession. Butterworths. 1989. p 137. \nThe Law of South Africa. Butterworths. 1988. Volume 31. p 206.\nTony Honoré. The South African Law of Trusts. Third Edition. Juta & Co. 1985. p 406.\nLevin v Levin 1984 (2) SA 298 at 304",
"Other cases\n Blom and Another v Brown and Others [2011] 3 All SA 223 (SCA).\nEx Parte Boedel Steenkamp 1962 (3) SA 954 (O).\n Ex Parte Graham 1963 (4) SA 145.\n Ex Parte Meier en Andere 1980 (3) SA 154 (T).\n Gafin NO v Kavin 1980 (3) SA 1104 (W).\n Kidwell v The Master 1983 (1) SA 509 (E).\n Pillay and Others v Nagan and Others 2001 (1) SA 410 (D).\n Theron and Another v Master of the High Court [2001] 3 All SA 507 (NC).\n\nSee also \n South African law\n South African law of persons\n\nReferences",
"Books \nM. M. Corbett, Gys Hofmeyr, & Ellison Kahn. Law of Succession in South Africa, 2nd edn. Lansdowne: Juta, 2001.\nMarius de Waal, Mohamed Paleker, & G. Bradfield, eds. South African law of succession and trusts: the past meeting the present and thoughts for the future. Cape Town: Juta, 2014.\nMarius de Waal & M. C. Schoeman. Introduction to the law of succession, 3rd edn. Lansdowne: Juta, 2003.",
"H. J. Erasmus & Marius de Waal. The South African Law of Succession. Durban: Butterworths, 1989. Google Books.\nJacqueline Heaton & Anneliese Roos. Family and Succession Law in South Africa, 2nd edn. Alphen aan den Rijn: Wolters Kluwer, 2016.\nJuanita Jamneck & Christa Rautenbach, eds. The Law of Succession in South Africa, 3rd edn. Cape Town: Oxford University Press Southern Africa, 2017.",
"W. A. Joubert & J. A. Faris, eds. The Law of South Africa, 3rd edn. Vol. 31: Wills and Succession, Administration of Deceased Estates and Trusts. Durban: LexisNexis, 2012. Volume 31.\nAlistair J. Kerr. The Native Law of Succession in South Africa. London: Butterworths, 1961. Google Books.\nKenneth Reid & Marius de Waal, eds. Exploring the Law of Succession: Studies National, Historical and Comparative. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2007.",
"Notes"
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Sligo Rovers F.C.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sligo%20Rovers%20F.C.
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[
"Sligo Rovers Football Club () is an Irish professional football club playing in the Premier Division of the League of Ireland. The club is based in Sligo in the west of Ireland.",
"The club was founded in 1928 and have been in the League of Ireland since 1934. The club is a co-operative venture, owned by the people of Sligo. Rovers have played at The Showgrounds since their inception. In 2013, they won a third FAI Cup in four years, and also became the 2012 Premier Division Champions, winning the league with two games to spare. In total, they have won three league titles, five FAI Cups and two League Cups.\n\nHistory",
"Beginnings",
"Sligo Rovers Football Club was formed on 17 September 1928 as a result of an amalgamation of two junior sides, Sligo Town and Sligo Blues. Their first game was a 9–1 victory against Ballyshannon, a team from County Donegal in Ulster, on 23 September 1928 in the qualifying round of the Connacht Cup. The club, elected to the League of Ireland in 1934, hails from Sligo and play their home matches at the Showgrounds and have done so ever since their inception",
". The home colours are red with white sleeve uppers, with white shorts and socks while the away colours are black with yellow sides, black shorts and yellow socks. The third alternative kit is navy with red sleeve uppers, navy shorts and navy socks with a red upper part.",
"1928–1940: Early success",
"The club started well by winning the FAI Junior Cup in their first season, beating Grangegorman in the final at the Showgrounds 3–0. The following season also brought silverware in the shape of the Connacht Junior Cup with Rovers beating Galway in the final 1–0 after a replay",
". At the beginning of the 1931–32 season the club successfully applied to join the Dublin-based Sunday Alliance League and won their first game at this level by beating Windy Arbour 4–2 at the Showgrounds and went on to win the league, finishing four points ahead of Westland Sligo. After this success the club moved up another level the following season by joining the Leinster Senior League and played their first game away to UCD in August 1932 and won 4–2",
". The club performed well in their first season at this level eventually finishing third as Brideville won the league. This season also saw The Bit O' Red make their first appearance in the FAI Cup, winning in the first round against Brideville 3–1 before going out to Shelbourne in the next round 5–2. The next year, the club won the Leinster Senior League in only their second year at this level by beating Distillery in a play-off at Tolka Park 3–2 after the teams had finished the league level on points",
". The team also won the Intermediate Cup, winning 5–1 against Waterford side Tramore Rookies in the final at Dalymount Park, as well as the Metropolitan Cup, beating Queens Park 3–0 in the final at Tolka Park to secure a remarkable treble for the young club.",
"Following this achievement the club was elected to the Free State League on 28 June 1934 along with Waterford as both Shelbourne and Cork Bohemians resigned from the league. Scotsman Bob Preston, ex-Heart of Midlothian, Plymouth Argyle and Torquay United player, managed the team in their first season at the highest level of Irish football with the first game being a 3–1 defeat in the Shield at the Iveagh Grounds in Dublin against St. James Gate. Tommy Callaghan scored Rovers' goal",
". James Gate. Tommy Callaghan scored Rovers' goal. The team finished third in that season with Gerry McDaid finishing as top scorer. During this season local Paddy Monaghan won two caps for the Irish national team and is still the only man to have achieved this while at the club.",
"The 1936–37 season began in spectacular fashion with Sligo winning their first 11 games and they clinched their first league title by beating Cork 4–3 with two games of the season remaining. Trainer and captain that year was Jimmy Surgeoner in his only season at the club. Top scorer was Englishman Harry Litherland whose record of 19 league goals that season was surpassed by Eoin Doyle in 2011 season scoring 20 league goals. The club also won the Dublin City Cup this year beating Dundalk in the final",
". The club also won the Dublin City Cup this year beating Dundalk in the final. Two years later, in 1939, the club reached their first FAI Cup final by beating Dundalk 2–1 in the semi-final. A crowd of 30,601 went to Dalymount Park to see Rovers take on Shelbourne in the final which ended in a 1–1 draw. The replay was held at Dalymount Park 10 days later on 3 May with 28,369 in attendance to see the Dublin side record a 1–0 victory thanks to an early goal",
". The club were also runners-up in the league that year finishing nine points behind winners Shamrock Rovers making it another good season for the club.",
"The following season once again saw the club come close to winning a trophy on two occasions. First was a 3–2 defeat to Bohs in a play-off for the shield after the two sides finished level on points. Also that year the club reached its second consecutive FAI Cup final with Shamrock Rovers providing the opposition in front of a crowd of 38,500 on 21 April. Unfortunately for Rovers, it was Shams who ran out 3–0 winners",
". Unfortunately for Rovers, it was Shams who ran out 3–0 winners. Despite this success the club decided that because of The Emergency the club could no longer compete in the league and withdrew from football.",
"Dixie Dean",
"Before the cup campaign of 1939 the club's committee decided they needed a big name to fill the vacant centre-forward position. They got in touch with some contacts in England, one of whom was the manager of Everton who suggested that Dixie Dean, who was at Notts County at the time, could be available",
". Although coming to the end of his career Dean was still one of the biggest names in football due to his goalscoring feats during his time at Everton where he is still the club's all-time leading scorer and also holds the record for having scored the highest number of league goals in a single season – 60 in 1927–28. Despite rejecting Rovers' initial offer the club's improved second offer was accepted by Dean and a massive coup was pulled off by the club",
". A huge crowd turned up at Sligo Railway Station to give Dean a hero's welcome. Dean duly scored on his debut, a game against Shelbourne in the Showgrounds on 29 January and went on to score nine more in his seven league appearances for the club, including five in a single game against Waterford. He also scored in the FAI cup final of that year in the 1–1 draw with Shelbourne though the replay would be lost 1–0",
". Dean's runners-up medal was stolen after the game but he did however have it returned to him seven years later when he was back in England. Dean returned to Ireland in 1978 to see Sligo Rovers play in the FAI Cup final of that year.",
"1948–1976: Return to football and trophyless years",
"Following the end of the war Rovers began attempts to return to the league. In 1945 the club couldn't raise sufficient funds to facilitate this and the following year improvement works at the Showgrounds delayed the return by another year. In 1947 Rovers applied to rejoin the league but were unsuccessful as the league decided to maintain its structure of eight teams. A year later and the club were this time successful and were readmitted to the league along with Transport for the 1948–49 season",
". After two quiet seasons Rovers were once again challenging for honours, this time going close to winning the league title. Going into the final game of the season against Transport, Rovers needed a win to finish level on points with Cork Athletic and force a play-off but they could only draw 0–0 and finished second, a point behind Athletic. The Cork side also denied Rovers in the FAI Cup knocking them out 2–0 at the semi-final stage",
". The Cork side also denied Rovers in the FAI Cup knocking them out 2–0 at the semi-final stage. At the beginning of the next season the club signed Scottish forward Johnny Armstrong who would go on to stay with the club for several years and become the all-time leading goalscorer.",
"The next few seasons saw Rovers finish around mid-table. On 6 March 1955 one of the most famous games the Showgrounds has seen took place when Rovers were drawn to face Shamrock Rovers in the FAI Cup. Before the match Rovers announced that they had signed Austrian International Albert Straka to play in the game and this attracted much attention resulting in a crowd of over 7,000. In the final minute with Rovers 2–1 down a penalty was awarded and up stepped Straka to equalise and create jubilant scenes",
". Rovers would go on to lose the replay. Rovers finished the 1956–57 season in third place however it would be another nine seasons before they would finish inside the top three again. The slump began in the 1957–58 season with the club finishing in the bottom two and therefore having to apply for re-election for the first time. During the next few years Rovers struggled on the pitch as well as off it with persistent financial difficulties blighting the club",
". This came to a head at the end of the 1961–62 season when the decision was made to cut the league from 12 clubs to 10. With Rovers having finished bottom for the last two seasons they, along with Transport, were dismissed from the league despite the club making an appeal to the FAI.",
"The absence would only last one year however, when the decision was made to bring the league's numbers back up to 12, Rovers were re-admitted along with Drogheda. The club's fortunes improved after their return and they had three consecutive top half finishes from 1965 to 1967, a feat not matched until 2008 and they also reached an FAI Cup semi-final in 1966 but lost to Limerick after a replay",
". A significant achievement was made in 1968 when Rovers were able to take full ownership of the Showgrounds, which enabled them to begin work on improving facilities at the venue. One of the worst moments of the club's history occurred in 1969 when the club were beaten by non-league opposition in the FAI Cup for the first time as Longford Town won 2–0 in Longford. Rovers fared better in the cup the following year as they reached their first final in 30 years where they faced Bohs",
". After the first two games ended scoreless Bohs came out on top in the second replay winning 2–1 despite Johnny Cooke giving Rovers the lead. The following years saw Rovers struggle towards the bottom end of the table, and they had to apply for re-election on two occasions as financial constraints forced the club to adopt a part-time policy. Rovers reached their first League Cup final but lost 4–1 over two legs to Limerick.",
"1977–1985: Second league title and first FAI Cup",
"The 1976–77 season would be one of the most successful in the club's history as the club won its first league title for 40 years and its second ever. Manager Billy Sinclair assembled a talented squad with a mix of local and British talent that pipped Bohs to the title by a point with the title being clinched with a famous 3–1 victory over Shamrock Rovers at the Showgrounds on Easter Sunday",
". In the squad that year was goalkeeper Alan Paterson; defenders McManus, Sinclair, Fox (captain), Rutherford, Stenson; midfielders Fagan, Fielding, McGee, Betts, Ferry, Walker and forwards Leonard and Hulmes. The club also reached their second successive League Cup final but lost 1–0 to Shamrock Rovers",
". The club also reached their second successive League Cup final but lost 1–0 to Shamrock Rovers. Sligo native Paul 'Ski' McGee played a big part in the title win and was transferred to English side QPR at the end of the season and would go on to have a successful time in England as well as earning 16 caps for the Ireland national side. The league win gave Rovers their first opportunity to play in Europe and they were drawn to play Red Star Belgrade of Yugoslavia in the first round of the European Cup",
". They would lose both legs 3–0.",
"The next season saw another cup run for Rovers as they reached the final of the FAI Cup again and this time Shamrock Rovers, managed by Irish football legend Johnny Giles, were their opponents. A controversial penalty scored by Ray Treacy gave the Dublin side a 1–0 win and prolonged Rovers search for their first FAI Cup",
". After one more season manager Billy Sinclair announced his departure and he would eventually be replaced by ex-Finn Harps manager Patsy McGowan who brought with him several players from the Donegal side. This included Brendan Bradley the league's all-time top scorer. In his second season at the club McGowan led Rovers to their fifth FAI Cup final where they this time met Dundalk. A 2–0 defeat left many wondering would Rovers ever get their hands on the famous trophy",
". A 2–0 defeat left many wondering would Rovers ever get their hands on the famous trophy. At the end of the following season when Rovers finished in 5th position McGowan left to return to Finn Harps. He would be replaced by long-serving player Paul Fielding.",
"With financial difficulties persisting the club finished towards the bottom of the table however the 1983 season will always be remembered at the club for the FAI Cup run of that year. Rovers made their way to the semi-finals by beating Shamrock Rovers and were drawn to face junior side Cobh Ramblers in what looked to be a straightforward tie",
". However it took a late equaliser for Rovers to force the first game to a replay and in that Cobh came from two down to force a second replay back at Flower Lodge which saw another draw. Rovers eventually came out on top in the third replay, despite going two down, to book their place in the final. The tie earned Cobh the respect of Rovers and the Irish footballing public. A week later, on 24 April, Rovers were facing Bohs in the cup final at a rain-soaked Dalymount Park",
". Bohs took the lead in the first half and it was looking like Rovers would lose their sixth cup final. However an equaliser from Tony Stenson brought Rovers back into it and a lob by local winger Harry McLoughlin won it for Rovers. The final result of 2–1 meant that club captain and long-serving local hero Tony Fagan could finally get his hands on the FAI Cup for the club 50 years after the club first entered it. Huge celebrations were had in Sligo following the victory",
". Huge celebrations were had in Sligo following the victory. The following season Rovers were in the Cup Winners' Cup but lost to Finnish side FC Haka 1–0 and 3–0.",
"1986–1993: Moving between divisions",
"For the 1985–86 season the league expanded to incorporate a First Division as well as the Premier. This meant the bottom four sides would be relegated. By this stage most of the Cup winning side had moved on and manager Paul Fielding had been replaced by Gerry Mitchell, with financial difficulties forcing the club into having a part-time squad. Despite Rovers coming from three down on the final day of the season to draw 3–3 with Drogheda it wasn't enough and Rovers were relegated on goal difference",
". Rovers bounced back the following year with Gerry Mitchell still in charge and much of the previous season's squad still there they finished runners-up behind Bray Wanderers which was enough to secure their way back to the Premier Division. At the end of this season, an Extraordinary General Meeting was held where the decision was made to structure the club as a co-op, and that structure is still in existence today",
". Back in the Premier, Rovers managed to stay up and also had a run to the semi-finals of the FAI Cup where they were defeated by Shamrock Rovers. The next season was a poor one with Rovers finishing bottom and never looking capable of survival which meant a return to First Division football for the 1988–89 season",
". Things were to get even worse the following year with David Pugh replacing Mitchell as manager and an all local policy the club finished bottom of the First Division in what is still their worst ever finish.",
"Things were to improve dramatically the following year under new manager Dermot Keely, who was able to bring in some experienced players from Dublin. A 1–1 draw with Kilkenny City on the final day was enough to secure promotion back to the top flight. Although beaten by Waterford United in a play-off for the title the club were back in the Premier Division for the 1990–91 season",
". After finishing in a respectable mid-table position upon their return Rovers were back fighting relegation the following year, although they did survive courtesy of loanee Colin Cameron's hat-trick on the final day of the season in Drogheda. Keely resigned after the first three games of the following season which led to Rovers appointing Willie McStay as manager but he couldn't keep them up and Rovers returned to the First Division for the 1993–94 season.",
"1994–2000: Treble win and European exploits",
"Despite this 1994 proved to be one of the most successful of the club's history under the popular Scot. The first trophy was won early in the season in the First Division Shield with Waterford United being beaten 2–1 over two legs. Another addition that year was the installation of floodlights at the historic Showgrounds. Rovers began with a 4–0 over Home Farm",
". Rovers began with a 4–0 over Home Farm. With three games to spare, promotion was guaranteed with a 2–0 away win over Athlone Town, with the First Division title secured with a 1–0 home win over Bray Wanderers. The club's best day of the season was set up by Eddie Annand's winning goal in the FAI Cup semi-final over Limerick at the Showgrounds. The final against Premier Division Derry City was fixed for 15 May at Lansdowne Road on what proved to be another wet day",
". The game was won by Gerry Carr's header and captain Gavin Dykes lifted the trophy. McStay left at the end of the season to return to Celtic and he would be replaced by Wimbledon cup final hero Lawrie Sanchez but only after caretaker Chris Rutherford had guided Rovers to their first European win, beating Maltese side Floriana 3–2 on aggregate in the Cup Winners' cup. Padraig Moran, one of the club's all-time leading goalscorers, scored Rovers' first European goal",
". Padraig Moran, one of the club's all-time leading goalscorers, scored Rovers' first European goal. The next round pitted Rovers against big name opposition in the shape of Belgian side Club Brugge. Despite Johnny Kenny's goal in the first leg Rovers lost 2–1 at the Showgrounds and then 3–1 in the return leg.",
"At one stage of the 1994–95 season, Rovers were contending for the title but a bad run at the end of the season, largely due to a backlog of fixtures, meant they eventually finished 8th. Rovers put up a good defence of the cup but Shelbourne's 3–1 win at the Showgrounds ended their hopes. Sanchez would leave the club at the end of the season to return to England but his replacement and former Wimbledon team-mate Steve Cotterill continued the success of recent seasons",
". He guided them to their first League cup final since 1977. Despite a 1–0 home win in the first leg of the final and going one up in the second opponents Shelbourne fought back and a last minute equaliser forced a penalty shoot-out which Shelbourne were to win. Another run in the cup was also enjoyed but Shelbourne were to prove Rovers nemesis again, beating Rovers at the Showgrounds 1–0",
". A strong league campaign ended with Rovers finishing in third, their highest position since the league winning year of 1977, and that qualified Rovers for the Intertoto Cup. Rovers did well in Europe again recording draws at home to Nantes and Heerenveen but away defeats of Lillestrøm and Kaunas meant Rovers failed to progress beyond the group stages.",
"Shortly after, Cotterill departed the club and was replaced by former Burnley manager Jimmy Mullen who, despite guiding Rovers to a mid-table finish, left Rovers at the end of the year. His replacement was player-manager Nicky Reid, a former Man City defender. Rovers gained revenge for their defeat to Shelbourne in the League Cup two years earlier by beating them in the final for Rovers' first win in the competition",
". The next season was not as successful with Rovers needing a fantastic run at the end of the season to stay up by a single point. With Reid now replaced by Scot Jim McInally the trick could not be repeated the next year and the club lost their Premier division status finishing second from bottom but eight points from safety.",
"2000–2005: Dark days in the First Division",
"Rovers began life in the First Division under former Northern Ireland manager Tommy Cassidy who had come to the club before relegation but too late to save the club. The club maintained its full-time policy in the First Division in a bid to go straight back up but despite challenging up until the final day of the season they missed out on a play-off spot by two points",
". This resulted in the departure of Cassidy who was replaced by former Torquay United and Galway United manager Don O'Riordan who due to financial constraints was forced to blood several local youngsters. One of these was Keith Gilroy who was transferred to Middlesbrough. Results were poor however under O'Riordan with the side finishing in 6th place for three successive years without challenging for promotion",
". During this period the league made the switch to summer soccer, but for Rovers it proved to be one of the darkest periods in its history. With the club again not challenging for promotion in O'Riordan's fourth year he was eventually sacked and replaced towards the end of that year by untried Northern Irishman Sean Connor",
". He quickly set about building a much stronger squad from all parts of the world and the club found themselves towards the top of the league throughout the 2005 season with promotion being clinched with a scoreless home draw with Athlone Town on 12 November to end the years of misery in the division often referred to as the graveyard.",
"2006–2011: Return to the Premier Division and cup successes",
"Connor continued to inspire Rovers to success on their return to the Premier Division and they finished fifth that year. The club also enjoyed its first significant cup run in a decade and faced Derry City in a home semi-final which finished all square in front of one of the biggest crowds the Showgrounds had seen for a long time. The replay would prove to be a disaster, however, with Rovers losing 5–0 on 31 October 2006 in the Brandywell",
". Shortly after Connor stunned the club by announcing his departure to join Bohs before the season had even ended. His departure left a lot of resentment towards him in Sligo which remains to this day. His replacement, Rob McDonald, a former PSV Eindhoven player would only last one game in charge, that being the final game of the 2006 season",
". He was sacked only a couple of weeks before the new season was to begin which left Rovers in the temporary control of caretakers Leo Tierney and Dessie Cawley as the new season began until a new man could be appointed.",
"That man was former Coventry City and Wigan Athletic scouser Paul Cook. He immediately got the team playing an attractive brand of passing football and despite all the turmoil steered the side to a respectable 6th place in the 12 team league. The club would build on this the following year by finishing in fourth position and thereby qualifying Rovers for Europe for the first time in 12 years. At the end of that season Rovers sold right-back Seamus Coleman to English Premiership side Everton for £60,000",
". Coleman made his debut under Sean Connor and the Killybegs man quickly established himself as one of the most exciting players in the league thanks to his quality dribbling skills up the right wing. Coleman has since established himself as a regular in the first-team at Everton. He has gone on to win caps for the Ireland national team and was nominated for the PFA Young Player of the year in 2011",
". The European campaign proved to be a disappointment, however, with Rovers going out to Albanian side KS Vllaznia Shkodër 3–2 on aggregate in their first game",
". Despite the club failing to compete as high up the league as the previous year, eventually finishing 6th, the club performed much better in the cup and knocked out Derry City, Cork City and Bohs before then beating Waterford 1–0 in the semi-final at the Showgrounds to book their place in the first FAI Cup final for 15 years courtesy of Matthew Blinkhorn's header",
". The final was played at Tallaght Stadium against big spending new First Division side Sporting Fingal and despite Eoin Doyle giving Rovers the lead early in the second half, Fingal came back with two late goals.",
"The following season would see Rovers go on to surpass its recent success. Rovers picked up their first piece of silverware by winning the EA Sports Cup with a 1–0 win over surprise finalists Monaghan United. Matthew Blinkhorn scored the winning goal. The goalscoring feats of Pádraig Amond resulted in his sale to Portuguese side Paços de Ferreira during the season",
". The club also performed well in the league with a run during the second half of the season enough to leave them in third place, their joint highest since winning it in 1977, only four points from being champions. This also guaranteed a return to European football for the next year. The highlight of the year however would be in the final game of the season, the 2010 FAI Cup Final.",
"On 14 November 2010, the FAI Cup Final took place in the new Aviva Stadium. Sligo Rovers and Shamrock Rovers drew 0–0 before Sligo won on penalties. The Sligo second choice keeper, Ciarán Kelly, saved four penalties in the shootout. Joseph Ndo won the Man of the Match.",
"The 2011 season was also a huge success for the club. Paul Cook guided Rovers to second place in the Airtricity League, with a record number of points and record number of goals scored. 15 of these came in two games against Galway United, 8–0 away and 7–1 at home. Despite the club going out of the Europa League to Ukrainians Vorskla Poltava, Rovers reached the semi-finals of the EA Sports Cup, and made it to the final of the FAI Ford Cup for a third successive season, this time against Shelbourne",
". Paul Cook's efforts saw him linked to the vacant position at SPL side St Johnstone, but failed to agree terms with them. After John Coleman was appointed Rochdale manager, Accrington Stanley were granted permission to speak to Cook but talks broke down. However, 2 days later Rovers and Accrington agreed compensation for Cook and on 13 February 2012 Cook was appointed manager two weeks before the Airtricity League began.",
"2012–2013: A third league title and more cup success",
"On 27 February 2012, former Scunthorpe United boss Ian Baraclough was named Rovers new manager, describing the offer as a \"fantastic opportunity and I am very thankful for the offer\". In his first game as manager, Rovers drew 1–1 with Shelbourne at Tolka Park. Jason McGuinness rescued a point for Baraclough's side in the last minute. In the following game, he won his first game as manager against Glentoran 2–0 in the Setanta Cup thanks to goals from Romauld Boco and Mark Quigley.",
"Rovers beat reigning champions Shamrock Rovers 3–0 in the Showgrounds on 13 May 2012 to open up an 8-point gap between themselves and 3rd placed Shamrock Rovers and a 6-point gap over second-placed St. Pats. This meant Rovers were unbeaten in the first third of the season along with 2nd placed St. Patrick's Athletic — the first time two sides have achieved this in the same season since the 1980–81 season.",
"Rovers came unstuck in their Europa League adventure, against Slovaks FC Spartak Trnava losing 3–1 in Slovakia in the first leg, but recovered and obtained a creditable 1–1 draw in the second leg. However Rovers loosened their grip on the FAI Cup losing 3–1 at home to Monaghan United F.C. who later resigned from the league. Another setback occurred during the Spartak Trnava tie when top-scorer Danny North's injury meant he would miss the remainder of the season",
". However other players particularly Mark Quigley took on the goalscoring responsibilities and Rovers also remained solid defensively. During this period Rovers thrashed rivals Drogheda United 4–1 at the Showgrounds and drew away to the other chasers St. Patrick's Athletic and Shamrock Rovers.",
"The unbeaten league run meant Rovers could win the title with two games to spare if they beat second placed St. Patrick's Athletic at the Showgrounds. The game became like a cup final with extra seating installed to meet demand and it looked good when Rovers went 2–0 ahead by the middle of the first half. St. Pats needed a win to keep their own aspirations alive and after a half time reshuffle they soon levelled the game at 2–2 with most of the second half remaining",
". Rovers were still determined to clinch the title that day and pressed on after this eventually winning a late penalty that Mark Quigley converted followed minutes later by the final whistle and celebrations as the ecstatic supporters rushed onto the pitch. Sligo Rovers had won their third league title.",
"Despite being champions Rovers lost two of their big names, Mark Quigley and Jason McGuinness to Shamrock Rovers before the start of the 2013 season, bringing in Bohemians defender Evan McMillan and re-signing Aaron Greene as replacements. Recruits from the UK were also brought in such as wide midfielder Kieran Djilali and much traveled center-forward Anthony Elding who made a prolific start to his Rovers career as the defending champions won their opening eight games",
". After that run was ended a spell of games shortly after saw Elding and Rovers struggle to score and slip away from the top of the table. With the Champions League tie looming Baraclough signed striker David McMillan from UCD to try and bolster the attack but he failed to make an impact and struggled to get a game after Danny North's return from injury.",
"The Bit O'Red's Champions League tie was against strong Norwegian champions Molde FK. Sligo narrowly lost the home leg giving Molde the edge they never let slip. After this Rovers tried to resurrect their title bid but defeats against surprise contenders Dundalk and home draws meant that in almost a mirror image of the previous season St. Patrick's Athletic won the title after beating Sligo with 2 games to spare.",
"This season however saw Sligo resurrect their FAI cup form and they followed up an away win at Waterford United with 1–0 victories over Cork City and Derry City. The semi final against Shamrock Rovers saw the highlight of the season so far as Sligo Rovers comfortably won 3–0. Rovers would face Drogheda United who had knocked them out of the Setanta Cup and a sluggish first half saw the Louth men go a goal up",
". With fifteen minutes to go they still trailed but suddenly the whole game came to life as substitute Danny North equalized and a few minutes later gave Sligo the lead with a goal from a clever but controversial free kick routine. The protests over the goal led to a Drogheda player getting sent off but Sligo were also reduced to ten men as Gavin Peers was forced off with injury after all the substitutions had been made",
". Drogheda took advantage of this to equalize and another Sligo Rovers cup final looked on its way to extra time. However, with injury time running out Danny North turned provider setting up Anthony Elding for a great finish and a third FAI Cup for Sligo Rovers in four seasons.",
"2014–2019: End of glory days and survival battles",
"The 2014 season started badly when, after a narrow opening day win, Rovers lost four in a row. A pick up in form saw them beat Dundalk in the final Setanta Cup final but the same opposition soon thrashed Rovers 3–0 twice in two weeks including the FAI cup. Further poor league results led to the decision to sack Ian Baraclough. Sligo Rovers quickly found a replacement from North West England in John Coleman and he oversaw Sligo's second European success when they defeated FK Banga of Lithuania 4–0",
". This was twenty years after their first success and Sligo followed this with a shock 2–1 away first-leg win at Rosenborg. They then took the lead in the second leg but Rosenborg, who had changed managers after the first leg, bounced back to win 3–1. After the European adventure ended, the downward spiral continued with players including Joseph N'Do being let go to reduce the wage bill",
". Come September, Coleman also left to manage Accrington Stanley leaving Gavin Dykes as caretaker where he only managed four points in their last eight games. However, before the season's end, the club had arranged for Owen Heary of Bohemians to become manager for 2015.",
"Owen Heary bolstered the squad with promising former Bohs players but they struggled only getting 2 victories in 13 games. Heary was dismissed but only after a period in limbo where the club were hoping he'd just resign. He was replaced initially by Joseph N'Do but after he lost at bottom club Limerick F.C. they hired a former English Premier league manager Micky Adams who kept them safe with a victory in the penultimate game at St. Patrick's Athletic.",
"With Micky Adams not staying on, the 2016 season saw Rovers hire former Peterborough Utd manager Dave Robertson. His first season veered between surprise wins at Cork City and champions Dundalk to bad defeats against Bray and a FAI cup exit at struggling Wexford Youths, where Rovers had won 5–0 two weeks prior. Still this season was the more encouraging of this period and a top half finish saw them become one of the first League of Ireland clubs invited to take part in the Scottish League Challenge cup",
". A bad opening day defeat in the 2017 season and resultant poor form led to Robertson's sacking. Three sides would be automatically relegated as the Premier Division was being reduced to ten teams and this hastened the dismissal. Irish League manager Gerard Lyttle was hired but struggled to move the club out of the relegation zone. The turning point came in a televised August success at runaway leaders Cork City with more victories following, though safety was only assured on the final day of the season.",
"Much of the 2018 season yet again saw Sligo Rovers flirting with relegation assisted by poor home form as any stand out victories came away from home. When safety was assured, with two weekends to spare, the club still decided to dismiss Gerard Lyttle and waited for the season's end to confirm that Liam Buckley would take charge after his departure from St. Patrick's Athletic. Sligo finished the 2019 campaign in seventh place, comfortably above the relegation places",
". Sligo finished the 2019 campaign in seventh place, comfortably above the relegation places. Liam Buckley's appointment in 2019 proved to be somewhat of a turning point within the club, with Rovers reaching the semi-finals of the FAI Cup in 2019, losing to Dundalk at the Showgrounds.",
"2020-present: European ventures and league stability\n\nLiam Buckley's appointment at the club was a huge turning point at Sligo Rovers, avoiding relegation in 2019 and earning his way to a cup semi final V dundalk (listed above).",
"The 2020 season proved to be Rovers' best since 2013, finishing in fourth place and ending the season in a European spot, which meant they were to partake in the inaugural UEFA Conference League qualifiers in mid-2021. Buckley's men also put together somewhat of a cup run, beating Derry City 3–1 on penalties in the FAI Cup Quarter-finals at the Showgrounds, fighting their way to a semi-final bout away to Shams (Shamrock Rovers)",
". Rovers lost 2–0 in a COVID-19 restricted Tallaght stadium, ending their cup run.",
"The good form continued in 2021, with the bit o' red flying high in the first few months of league competition, leading up to their UEFA Europa Conference League game against Icelandic opposition, Fimleikafélag Hafnarfjarðar. Sligo Rovers lost the away leg 1–0 on 8 July, and disappointingly lost the covid-restricted home leg 2-1 a week later, with the only Rovers goal being a Johnny Kenny penalty",
". The league form dropped massively after Sligo were knocked out of Europe, as they failed to win in 5 straight games, and were also beaten by first division side Cork City FC in the first round of the FAI Cup. They still however finished the domestic season in third place, solidifying a European return in 2022.",
"Rovers started off 2022 well, with an away win against St Patrick's Athletic, followed by two consecutive 0-0 draws, and two back to back wins, the latter being a win at home to Finn Harps, when Aidan Keena bagged his first professional hattrick. After an 2-2 thriller away to south dublin rivals Shamrock Rovers, the bit o' red's league form dipped, with two consecutive home losses against Shelbourne FC and Bohemians respectively",
". After a bad string of results, collecting just 8 points out of an available 27, manager Liam Buckley was sacked, and former Rovers midfielder John Russell took the reins. His first game as interim manager proved a success, with Rovers beating second placed side Derry City 2–1 in the Showgrounds, with Seamus Keogh scoring an injury time winner for Rovers. Subsequently, on 2 June 2022, Russell was named the manager of the club on a permanent basis",
". Subsequently, on 2 June 2022, Russell was named the manager of the club on a permanent basis. European football soon followed with Rovers being drawn against Welsh outfit, Bala Town F.C.. Come 7 July, Sligo Rovers won the away leg 2–1, with goals from Aidan Keena and Max Mata respectively. Rovers hosted the Welsh side 7 days later on 14 July 2022 in the Showgrounds, losing 1–0 in 120 minutes, with the game finishing 2–2 on aggregate",
". The result was to be decided on penalties, with Edward McGinty making the crucial save to give Rovers the win and help them advance to the second round of qualifying. Sligo Rovers were then drawn to take on SPFL side Motherwell FC in the second qualifying round, a fixture Sligo people looked upon with weariness and excitement. To add to Rovers' misfortune, star keeper Edward McGinty completed a transfer to Oxford United, just hours before the match was to commence",
". Rovers had to rely on young goalkeeper Luke McNicholas to make his European debut. The winner of the tie was to take on Norwegian team Viking FK. Much to the surprise of the Scottish media, Rovers stunned Motherwell FC in Fir Park, beating the Scottish side 1-0 thanks to an Aidan Keena lob, capitalizing on a Bevis Mugabi defensive error. Young goalkeeper Luke McNicholas shined in his debut, making numerous important saves to deny the Steelmen",
". Rovers took the fixture back to the Showgrounds, easing past the Scottish minnows in a 2–0 win, which included a Shane Blaney wonderstrike of a free kick from 35 yards out, and a Max Mata goal late into injury time, securing one of the bit o' red's most famous wins ever. This was the furthest the club had ever gotten in European competition. The European run was all but over, when on 4 August Sligo Rovers lost 5–1 away to Viking FK in Stavanger, David Cawley's late penalty a consolation goal",
". The team came back to a town proud of the team, eagerly awaiting the second leg in the Showgrounds. The game was not one to be missed, with regards to the game and the atmosphere, as 3,800 people filled a packed out Showgrounds. Rovers came out on top on the day, finishing their European adventure with a 1–0 win at home to Viking FK, a Will Fitzgerald header proving the winning goal",
". The bit o' red would go on to finish the domestic season in 5th place, hoping for better things to come in 2023 under John Russell.",
"Supporters",
"Since its foundation, the club has had a small but loyal following in Sligo town, where it has been an outpost for football since its inception into the League of Ireland. Sligo Rovers currently averages gates of around 2,000. The average attendance for 2012 season was 3,007. Sligo Rovers has many supporters clubs which work on raising funds for the club, particularly the Bit O'Red Supporters Trust which has recently tried to launch some innovative fundraisers to help the club in the long term .",
"The Dublin Supporters Club (DSC) is another prominent supporters club, as are the South Sligo Supporters Club and the North Sligo Supporters Club, both of which take part in fundraising work within their catchment areas and regularly organise buses to Rovers games both home and away.",
"The most noticeable supporters group at Sligo Rovers on match days due to their visual and vocal support for Sligo Rovers is the independently formed supporters group Forza Rovers (FR08), a group of fans inspired by the ultras movement which is prominent throughout Europe. However, they have received plaudits from players and supporters for the colourful and passionate displays its members have produced since the group was formed in 2008",
". The group has also been involved in small fundraisers for club but the group's main goal is to support the club with vocal and visual support on match days. Some of the choreographed displays by the group have involved all stands in the Showgrounds and have been described as \"extraordinary\" and made the Showgrounds \"feel like a 50,000 capacity as the teams walked out to massive noise\"",
". Sligo Rovers is the subject of a popular memoir, There's Only One Red Army by journalist and novelist Eamonn Sweeney, published in 1997.",
"Honours\nLeague of Ireland/Premier Division: 3\n1936–37, 1976–77, 2012\nFAI Cup: 5\n1982–83, 1993–94, 2010, 2011, 2013\nLeague of Ireland Cup: 2\n1997–98, 2010\nDublin City Cup: 1\n1936–37\nSetanta Sports Cup: 1\n2014\nLeague of Ireland First Division: 2 \n 1993–94, 2005\nLeague of Ireland First Division Shield: 1\n1993–94\nLeinster Senior League: 1\n1933–34\nFAI Intermediate Cup: 1\n1933–34\nFAI Junior Cup: 1\n1928–29\nConnacht Senior League\nWinners: 1981–82, 1991–92, 1993–94: 3\nRunners Up: 1982–83, 1990–91, 1992–93: 3",
"Winners: 1981–82, 1991–92, 1993–94: 3\nRunners Up: 1982–83, 1990–91, 1992–93: 3\nConnacht Senior Cup\nWinners: 1981–82: 1\nConnacht Senior League Challenge Cup\nWinners: 1990–91, 1993–94: 2\nConnacht Junior Cup\nWinners: 1929–30: 1",
"European record\n\nOverall\n\nMatches\n\nNotes\n 1R: First round\n QR: Qualifying round\n 1Q: First qualifying round\n 2Q: Second qualifying round\n 3Q: Third qualifying round\n\nRecords and statistics\n\nMost overall appearances\n\nAll-time top scorers\n\nTop scorers in history\n\nPlayers\n\nCurrent squad\n\nOut on loan",
"Technical staff\n{| class=wikitable\n|-\n! style=\"color:white; background:red\"|Position\n! style=\"color:white; background:red\"|Staff\n|-\n| Manager || John Russell\n|-\n| Assistant Manager || Ryan Casey\n|-\n| Head of academy || Conor O'Grady\n|-\n| Head of Performance Analysis || Christopher Jenkins\n|-\n| Strength and Conditioning Coach || Sean Flannery\n|-\n| Kit manager || Darragh Healy\n|-\n| Physiotherapist || Cian McBride\n|-\n| Under-19s Manager || Declan Boyle\n|-\n| Under-19s Coach || Barry Mullen\n|-",
"|-\n| Under-19s Manager || Declan Boyle\n|-\n| Under-19s Coach || Barry Mullen\n|-\n| Under-19s Strength and Conditioning Coach || Ross Chrystal \n|-\n| Under-17s Manager || Darragh O’Reilly\n|-\n| Under-15s Manager || Paul Masterson\n|-\n| Under-15s Coach || Kevin McCarthy\n|-\n| Under-14s Manager || Daryl Keaney\n|-",
"Managerial history\n\n2018\nLiam Buckley was appointed manager on 26 October 2018. The club finished seventh during his first season in charge. Buckley guided the team to a fourth-place finish in 2020, securing European football for the following season. Buckley went one better in the 2021 season, finishing in third place and again securing European football.\n\n2017\nGerard Lyttle managerial post ran from 21 April 2017 – 16 October 2018.",
"2017\nGerard Lyttle managerial post ran from 21 April 2017 – 16 October 2018.\n\n2015\n Dave Robertson managerial post ran from 19 November 2015 – 5 April 2017.\n Micky Adams managerial post ran from 4 August 2015 – 2 November 2015.\n Joseph N'Do & Gavin Dykes caretaker posts ran from 26 June 2015 – 4 August 2015.",
"2014\n Owen Heary managerial post ran from 26 October 2014 – 26 June 2015.\n Gavin Dykes caretaker post ran from 18 September 2014 – 26 October 2014.\n John Coleman managerial post ran from 21 June 2014 – 18 September 2014.",
"John Coleman and his assistant Jimmy Bell joined Sligo Rovers in June 2014, tasked with getting Rovers back into the Europa League for 2015. Ultimate Coleman failed in his goals, although Rovers did get through a round against FK Banga Gargždai. Rovers went on to Beat Rosenborg BK away, but lost the home leg and were eliminated. John and Jimmy left for Accrington Stanley F.C. in September but are returning for a friendly against Sligo Rovers.",
"2012\n Ian Baraclough managerial post ran from 27 February 2012 – 19 June 2014.\n\nFormer Scunthorpe United boss Baraclough succeeded Cook after he left for Accrington Stanley. He became boss 5 days before the 2012 Airtricity League began. The job is the 41 year old's first since being sacked by \"The Iron\" in March 2011. Guided Sligo to their first league title since 1977, in 2012.\n\n2007\n Paul Cook managerial post ran from 27 April 2007 – 13 February 2012.",
"Liverpool born Cook is a former professional footballer whose clubs included Burnley and Coventry City. He previously managed Southport, becoming their first full-time manager since 1978. Prior to this Cook was a first-team coach with Accrington Stanley In the 2010 season Cook led the club to its most successful season ever winning the FAI Ford Cup and the EA Sports Cup and finishing 3rd in the Airtricity League",
". In 2011 he achieved back-to-back FAI Ford Cup victories, beating Shelbourne in the final on penalties. Cook left for Accrington on 13 February 2012 two weeks before the new season.",
"2006 \n Rob McDonald managerial post ran from 14 November 2006 – 6 March 2007. Took charge of only one competitive game, a 1–1 draw on 18 November 2006 against Bray Wanderers at the Carlisle Grounds, Bray.\n Sean Connor resigned 2 November 2006. Belfast native succeeded in getting the team promoted to the Premier Division in 2005 but left in controversial circumstances with only a few games left in the 2006 season.",
"2001 \n Don O'Riordan came to the club after a successful period with Galway United. However, with Rovers he failed to build a side capable of challenging for promotion although he did lay the groundwork for the club's highly successful Youth policy and he gave a number of locals their Senior debuts in the eircom League. O'Riordan and Sligo Rovers parted ways in the summer of 2004.",
"1999 \n Tommy Cassidy had previously managed in Cyprus and Northern Ireland, could do little to reverse the slide in Rovers' fortunes following the departure of previous manager Jim McInally and they were relegated from the Premier Division. Cassidy came close to getting Rovers back up as they were in contention right up until the final day of the 2000–01 season when they lost 4–1 to Home Farm Everton.",
"Jim McInally came to the Showgrounds at the start of the 1999–00 season but early results didn't go his way and he left the club due to personal reasons.",
"Nicky Reid was one of Jimmy Mullen's last signings and the former Manchester City player was asked to take charge. In his first season as player-manager, he took the club on its longest ever unbeaten run – which saw them claim the League Cup in February 1998, beating Shelbourne over two legs in the final (Reid also captained the side). His second season didn't go as well and the club just escaped relegation from the top flight on the final day thanks to a 2–0 win against Derry City",
". Reid was then released from his contract and he returned to England, where he went back to university to study for a degree in Sports Rehabilitation.",
"1996 \n Jimmy Mullen came to the club after a good spell with Burnley but his reign at the Showgrounds was short-lived and he left the club due to family reasons in July 1997.",
"1995 \n Steve Cotterill. Before Lawrie Sanchez left in 1995, he recommended that Sligo appoint Cotterill and that proved to be a wise decision as he led the club to third place in the Premier Division of the National League and his side also reached the League Cup final (Rovers were beaten on penalties by Shelbourne). Cotterill was then offered the position of manager of Cheltenham Town, who he brought from non-League football into the Football League winning the FA Trophy along the way.",
"1994 \n Lawrie Sanchez. Prior to his appointment with Rovers, Sanchez was best known for scoring the winning goal for Wimbledon in the 1988 FA Cup Final against Liverpool. Sanchez built on the good work done by McStay with his professionalism rubbing off on everyone at the Showgrounds. He led the club to semi-final of the FAI Cup where they were beaten by Shelbourne.",
"1992 \n Willie McStay. In two years McStay lead Rovers to an historic treble, when they won the 1993–94 First Division, First Division Shield and the FAI Cup. In 1994, the Scot left Rovers just before the start of the new season after being approached by Celtic, his former club as a player.\n\n1989 \n Dermot Keely guided Sligo to their highest finish in a decade in the Premier Division with a fifth-place finish in 1990–91.",
"1934-1988 \n 1988 David Pugh\n 1986 Gerry Mitchell\n 1982 Paul Fielding\n 1979 Patsy McGowan\n 1979 Ian McKechnie\n 1974 Billy Sinclair\n 1973 Len Vallard\n 1972 Jim McDonnell\n 1971 David Pugh and Gerry Mitchell\n 1968 Ken Turner\n 1967 Ken Bartley\n 1966 Shay Keogh\n 1963 Johnny Robinsonl\n 1961 Peter Farrell\n 1960 Alex Rollo\n 1959 Seán Thomas\n 1955 Tommy McLead\n 1955 Hugh Colvin\n 1953 Jimmy Batten\n 1953 Jock McCosh and Charlie Howley\n 1953 John Black\n 1951 Jock Shearer\n 1951 Dick Groves\n 1950 Bob Mooney",
"1953 John Black\n 1951 Jock Shearer\n 1951 Dick Groves\n 1950 Bob Mooney\n 1950 Tommy Wright\n 1949 Alan Fletcher\n 1948 Sam Waters\n 1937 Billy Miller\n 1937 Bob McAuley\n 1936 Jimmy Surgeoner\n 1935 James McCann\n 1934 Bob Preston",
"The Showgrounds",
"Sligo Rovers have played their entire history at the Showgrounds, located in the Maugheraboy area of Sligo town. They are one of very few League of Ireland clubs never to have changed grounds. The Showgrounds takes its name from the annual show held at the grounds by the County Sligo Agricultural Society. It is owned by the people of Sligo and cannot be sold for use for any purpose other than sport and leisure",
". It is one of the oldest grounds in the country but it has seen a lot of development in recent years thanks to the hard work of several volunteers.",
"Treacy Avenue Stand\nAlso known as the main stand this is the largest stand in the ground with 1,800 seats and also contains the dressing rooms, dugouts and press box. It was built in 2001 replacing a much older stand.",
"Jinks Avenue Stand\nThis is located opposite the Treacy Avenue stand has about 800 seats which were installed in the late nineties. Half of the stand is reserved for away support, while the other half contains Sligo Rovers' most vocal support known as Forza Rovers. They are renowned for their colourful and humorous displays. This stand recently also contains a TV gantry.",
"Railway end\nIn July 2012 a new stand was completed at the Railway End consisting of 1,300 seats. This stand is now known as the Volkswagen Stand as the project was funded by Volkswagen Bank.\n\nShed end\nThis end gets its name from the shed it used to have where Sligo Rovers' most vocal supporters would congregate until it had to be demolished for health and safety reasons. There is currently no structure at this end of the ground.\n\nNotable former players\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links",
"Notable former players\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\nSligo Rovers FC Website\nThe Showgrounds home of Sligo Rovers FC\nSligo Rovers Forum\n\n \nAssociation football clubs in Connacht\nAssociation football clubs established in 1928\nSport in Sligo (town)\nLeague of Ireland Premier Division clubs\n1928 establishments in Ireland\nFormer Leinster Senior League clubs\nConnacht Senior League (association football) clubs\nAssociation football in County Sligo\nSports clubs and teams in County Sligo"
] |
Gilgo Beach serial killings
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilgo%20Beach%20serial%20killings
|
[
"The Gilgo Beach serial killings were a series of killings between 1996 and 2011 in which the remains of 11 people were found in Gilgo Beach, located on the South Shore of Long Island, New York, United States. Most of the known victims were sex workers who advertised on Craigslist. The perpetrator in the case is known as the Long Island Serial Killer (LISK).",
"The victims' remains were found over a period of months in 2010 and 2011 after the disappearance of Shannan Gilbert resulted in a police search of the area along the Ocean Parkway, near the remote beach towns of Gilgo and Oak Beach in Suffolk County. The remains of four victims designated \"The Gilgo Four\" were found within a quarter of a mile of each other near Gilgo Beach in December 2010. Six more sets of remains were found in March and April 2011 in Suffolk and Nassau counties",
". Six more sets of remains were found in March and April 2011 in Suffolk and Nassau counties. Police believe the latter sets of remains predate the four bodies found in December 2010.",
"Gilbert's remains were found a year after the remains of \"The Gilgo Four\" were discovered. Her cause of death remains contested with police claiming accidental drowning while an independent autopsy determined possible strangulation.",
"In July 2023, Rex Heuermann, a resident of Massapequa Park in Long Island, was arrested in Midtown Manhattan and charged in the murders of three of \"the Gilgo Four\" victims: Megan Waterman, Melissa Barthelemy and Amber Costello. He was also named as the prime suspect in the murder of the fourth of the \"Gilgo Four\", Maureen Brainard-Barnes.\n\nPolice investigations",
"Bodies discovered",
"The first discovery of human remains was made by the side of Ocean Parkway in Oak Beach on December 11, 2010. The investigation was prompted by the search for Shannan Gilbert, a 24-year-old woman who had disappeared in the area in May that year after fleeing from a client's home and making a 23-minute-long emergency call to 911, saying, \"They are trying to kill me",
".\" A month after her disappearance, the Suffolk County Police Department's missing persons bureau asked Officer John Mallia to search for Gilbert with his trained cadaver dog, a German Shepherd named Blue. Over the course of summer 2010, Mallia unsuccessfully searched the gated beach community where Gilbert had last been seen.",
"The officer made a new attempt at a search on December 11, 2010, staying close to the shoulder of the parkway. Mallia based his choice of search area on FBI data indicating that dumped bodies are frequently found close to roadways. Despite thick vegetation and a light layer of snow, Mallia's cadaver dog alerted to a scent which the pair tracked to a skeleton in a disintegrating burlap bag. The remains were later identified as Melissa Barthelemy",
". The remains were later identified as Melissa Barthelemy. Police discovered three additional bodies while searching the scene for further evidence. The bodies of the four victims – Maureen Brainard, Melissa Barthelemy, Megan Waterman and Amber Costello – were found approximately from each other.",
"In March 2011, partial remains of Jessica Taylor were found along Ocean Parkway. Eight years earlier, in 2003, other parts of Taylor's remains had been found in Manorville, a town in Suffolk County. The next month, in April 2011, police discovered three additional sets of remains: an unidentified female toddler, an unidentified Asian person, and Valerie Mack, partial remains of whom – like those of Jessica Taylor – had been found in Manorville years earlier in November, 2000",
". Two more bodies were found in Nassau County: Karen Vergata, whose partial remains had previously been found on Fire Island in 1996, and an unidentified woman with a distinctive tattoo of peaches who was later found to be the mother of the unidentified toddler found in Suffolk County.",
"On May 9, 2011, police speculated that because of similarities in the cases, Valerie Mack (who at the time was unidentified) and Jessica Taylor may have been murdered by a second, separate killer. On November 29, 2011, police announced that they believed one person to be responsible for all ten murders and that the perpetrator is almost certainly from Long Island. The single killer theory stems from common characteristics between the condition of the remains and forensic evidence related to the bodies",
". In June 2011, Suffolk County police announced a $25,000 reward for information leading to an arrest in the Long Island murders. Shannan Gilbert's remains were located in Oak Beach in December 2011, 19 months after her disappearance. The cause of her death is contested.",
"FBI involvement",
"On December 10, 2015, Suffolk County Police Commissioner Tim Sini announced that the FBI had officially joined the investigation. The announcement came one day after former police chief James Burke was indicted for civil rights violations and conspiracy. Burke, who resigned from the department in October 2015, was reported to have blocked FBI involvement in the Gilgo Beach cases for years. The FBI had previously assisted in the search for victims but had never officially been a part of the investigation",
". In November 2016, Burke was sentenced to 46 months in federal prison for assault and conspiracy.",
"2020 release of evidence to the public",
"On January 16, 2020, Suffolk County Police Commissioner Geraldine Hart released images of a belt found at the crime scene with the letters \"HM\" or \"WH\" (depending on the orientation of the belt) embossed in black leather. The belt had been found during the initial investigation near Ocean Parkway in Gilgo Beach. Police believe that the belt was handled by the perpetrator and that it had not belonged to any of the victims",
". The police revealed few details about the belt's evidentiary value and would not comment on exactly where it had been found. It was also announced that new scientific evidence was being used in the investigation and that they had launched Gilgonews.com, a website enabling the department to share news and receive tips regarding the investigation.",
"Identification of remains through genetic genealogy\nIn June 2019, a proposal was made to use genetic genealogy to identify the unidentified victims and possibly the killer in the Gilgo Beach case. On May 28, 2020, \"Jane Doe No. 6\" was identified as Valerie Mack, who also went by the name of Melissa Taylor. On August 4, 2023, \"Jane Doe No. 7\" was revealed to be Karen Vergata, whose identity had been established during 2022.\n\nPerson of interest and suspect",
"Person of interest",
"On September 12, 2017, Suffolk County prosecutor Robert Biancavilla said that John Bittrolff, a Suffolk County resident convicted of murdering two sex workers and suspected in the murder of a third, may have committed some of the Gilgo Beach murders. Biancavilla said that Bittrolff was likely responsible for the deaths of other women and that there were similarities between the Gilgo Beach crime scenes and Bittrolff's known murders, for which he was convicted in May 2017 and sentenced in September.",
"Bittrolff was arrested in 2014 after his DNA was found on the bodies of two murder victims, Rita Tangredi and Colleen McNamee, whose bodies were found in 1993 and 1994, respectively. The match had been made through DNA submitted by his brother, who was convicted in 2013 on an unrelated case. Bittrolff was convicted in May 2017 of these murders, and in September sentenced to consecutive terms of 25 years for each murder",
". The Suffolk County police did not comment on the prosecutor's statement due to the active homicide investigation of the Gilgo Beach murders. Bittrolff's attorney rejected the prosecutor's assertion.",
"Bittrolff lived in Manorville, from where the torsos of Gilgo Beach victims Jessica Taylor and Valerie Mack were recovered. Bittrolff was a hunter who was said to enjoy killing animals. He was a carpenter by trade with access to hacksaws and electric saws. Because many of the bodies were found precisely dismembered, his access to and proficiency with these tools is of note.",
"The adult daughter of Rita Tangredi, who was murdered by Bittrolff, was also the best friend of Melissa Barthelemy, one of the Gilgo Beach victims. Barthelemy's mother said that her daughter Melissa \"had a lot of calls to Manorville from her phone\" before her death.",
"Suspect",
"In July 2023, Rex Andrew Heuermann (born February 12, 1964), a 59-year-old Nassau County resident, was arrested in Midtown Manhattan and subsequently charged with three counts of first-degree murder, as well as three counts of the lesser charge of second-degree murder, related to the deaths of Melissa Barthelemy, Megan Waterman, and Amber Costello. He is also the prime suspect in the death of Maureen Brainard-Barnes. Heuermann pleaded not guilty",
". He is also the prime suspect in the death of Maureen Brainard-Barnes. Heuermann pleaded not guilty. Heuermann is an architect and has lived much of his life in Massapequa Park on Long Island. In an interview on YouTube, Heuermann stated he has worked in Manhattan since 1987.",
"Authorities began to seriously consider Heuermann as a suspect in March 2022 after discovering that a Chevrolet Avalanche registered in his name had been linked to one of the killings by a witness. According to investigators, his cellphone records indicate he had been in contact with three of the four victims and an email account linked to Heuermann had conducted online searches of the investigation's progress",
". Court records also indicated that he had searched the internet for \"sadistic materials, child pornography, [and] images of the victims and their relatives.\" Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) testing indicated Heuermann as a potential match when hair found on the burlap wrappings of one of the bodies was compared to a sample gleaned from a pizza crust in a box he had discarded",
". A potential match to Heuermann's wife was also found when comparing hair found on or near three of the victims to samples taken from bottles found in the trash outside the Heuermann residence. Investigators stated that his wife and children were out of state at the time during which the killings were believed to have occurred.",
"The Gilgo Four: victims discovered in December 2010",
"Maureen Brainard-Barnes\nBrainard-Barnes of Norwich, Connecticut, was 25 when she disappeared. She was last seen on July 9, 2007, saying that she planned \"to spend the day in New York City.\" She was never seen again. Brainard-Barnes, a mother of two, worked as a sex worker via Craigslist to pay the mortgage on her house. She had been out of the sex industry for seven months but she returned to the work in order to pay her bills after receiving an eviction notice. Her body was found in December 2010.",
"Shortly after her disappearance, a friend of Brainard-Barnes's, Sara Karnes, received a phone call from a man on an unfamiliar number. The man claimed that he had just seen Brainard-Barnes and that she was alive and staying at a \"whorehouse in Queens.\" He refused to identify himself and could not tell Karnes the location of the house. He told Karnes he would call back and give her the address, but never called again. Karnes said that the man had no discernible New York, Boston, or Maine accent.",
"At the time of her disappearance, she was working at a Super 8 motel in Manhattan. On the night of July 9, 2007 she called a friend in Connecticut and told her that she was planning on meeting a client outside of the motel. Like many of the victims, Brainard-Barnes was very petite, at tall and .",
"Melissa Barthelemy",
"Barthelemy, 24, of Erie County, New York, went missing on July 12, 2009. She had been living in the Bronx in New York and working as a sex worker through Craigslist. On the night she went missing she met with a client, deposited $900 in her bank account, and attempted to call an old boyfriend, but did not get through",
". Beginning one week later, and lasting for five weeks, her teenage sister Amanda received a series of \"vulgar, mocking, and insulting\" calls from a man who may have been the killer using Melissa Barthelemy's cell phone. The caller asked if Amanda \"was a whore like her sister.\"",
"The calls became increasingly disturbing and eventually culminated in the caller telling Amanda that her sister was dead and that he was going to \"watch her rot.\" Police traced some of the calls to Madison Square Garden, midtown Manhattan, and Massapequa, but were unable to determine who was making them. Barthelemy's mother noted that there were \"a lot of calls to Manorville\" from her daughter's phone around the time of her disappearance",
". In September 2017, a prosecutor suggested John Bittrolff, a carpenter from that town convicted of two other murders, might be responsible for some of the Gilgo Beach cases. Barthelemy was tall and .",
"Megan Waterman\nWaterman, 22, of South Portland, Maine, went missing on June 6, 2010, after placing advertisements on Craigslist as an escort. The previous day she had told her 20-year-old boyfriend that she was going out and would call him later. At the time of her disappearance she was staying at a motel in Hauppauge, New York, 15 miles northeast of Gilgo Beach. Her body was recovered in December 2010. Waterman was a mother of one and had become a victim of sex trafficking. Waterman was tall.",
"Amber Lynn Costello",
"Costello, 27, of West Babylon, New York, a small town ten miles north of Gilgo Beach, was a sex worker and heroin user who went missing on September 2, 2010. That night she reportedly went to meet a stranger who had called her several times and offered $1,500 for her services. Born in Charlotte and raised in Wilmington, North Carolina, Costello was living in West Babylon, New York when she disappeared",
". Her family believed that she was in a residential drug rehabilitation center and so she was not immediately reported missing when she stopped responding to messages and phone calls.",
"Prior to moving to West Babylon, Costello had been living with her second husband in Clearwater, Florida and was working as a waitress. A strong student, Costello's drug addiction began when she was a teenager. She had been sexually assaulted by a neighbor when she was 6 years old. Costello was and weighed approximately .",
"Additional victims discovered in March and April 2011",
"Four more sets of remains were discovered on March 29 and April 4, 2011. All of the remains were found in another area off the parkway near Oak Beach and Gilgo Beach, within two miles and to the east of those found in December 2010. The newly discovered victims were Jessica Taylor, Valerie Mack, an unidentified woman designated \"Jane Doe No. 3\" or \"Peaches\", and an unidentified toddler who was the daughter of \"Peaches\"",
". 3\" or \"Peaches\", and an unidentified toddler who was the daughter of \"Peaches\". Suffolk Police subsequently expanded the search area up to the Nassau County border looking for more victims.",
"Two further sets of remains were discovered on April 11, 2011, after the search expanded into Nassau County. They were found about one mile apart, approximately five miles west of those found in December. One set of remains belonged to a victim now thought to be a transgender woman. Designated \"Asian Male\", police said that the victim had been dead for between five and ten years. The other remains were those of \"Jane Doe No. 7\" whose partial remains had been discovered on Fire Island in 1996.\n\nIdentified",
"Valerie Mack / Melissa Taylor / \"Manorville Jane Doe\" / \"Jane Doe No. 6\"",
"Valerie Mack, 24, also known as Melissa Taylor, was living in Philadelphia and working as an escort when she went missing in 2000. Like many of the victims, she was small in stature at approximately and weighing approximately . Mack's partial remains were discovered in Manorville on November 19, 2000, but were not identified until 2020",
". Her torso was found wrapped in garbage bags and dumped in the woods near the intersection of Halsey Manor Road and Mill Road, adjacent to a set of power lines and a nearby power line access road.",
"A head, right foot, and hands found on April 4, 2011, were at first determined to have belonged to an unidentified victim, dubbed \"Jane Doe No. 6\"; it was later determined that they belonged to the same woman whose torso had been found in 2000. Her right foot had been cut off high above the ankle, possibly to conceal an identifying mark or tattoo",
". On May 28, 2020, police announced that the remains had been identified as Valerie Mack, who had last been seen by family members in the spring or summer of 2000 in the area of Port Republic, New Jersey. The dismembered remains of Valerie Mack and Jessica Taylor were both disposed of in a similar manner, and in the same part of Manorville, suggesting a link.",
"Jessica Taylor",
"Jessica Taylor, 20, was living in Manhattan when she went missing on July 21, 2003. On July 26, 2003, her naked and dismembered torso, missing its head and hands, was discovered east of Gilgo Beach in Manorville, New York; these remains were identified by DNA analysis later that year. Taylor's torso was found atop a pile of scrap wood at the end of a paved access road off Halsey Manor Road, just north of where it crosses the Long Island Expressway",
". Plastic sheeting was found underneath the torso, and a tattoo on her body had been mutilated with a sharp instrument.",
"Further remains found on March 29, 2011, matched to Taylor, including a skull, a pair of hands, and a forearm. She had worked in Washington, D.C. and Manhattan as a sex worker. Taylor was last seen working around the Port Authority Bus Terminal in Manhattan between July 18 and 22, 2003.",
"Karen Vergata / \"Fire Island Jane Doe\" / \"Jane Doe No. 7\"\nKaren Vergata, a 34-year-old woman from Manhattan, was believed to have been working as a sex worker when she disappeared in 1996. Unidentified for 27 years, Karen Vergata was variously known as \"Jane Doe No. 7\" and \"Fire Island Jane Doe\" until she was publicly identified by Suffolk County District Attorney Ray Tierney in August 2023. She had been identified in 2022 through genetic genealogy.",
"Vergata's severed legs were found in a garbage bag on Fire Island on April 20, 1996. Fifteen years later, on April 11, 2011, her skull and several of her teeth were recovered at Tobay Beach, the second set of remains to be discovered in Nassau County that day. These remains were linked through DNA testing to the remains found on Fire Island in 1996.",
"Unidentified\nThree victims remain unidentified: \"Peaches\", \"Baby Doe\", and \"Asian Male\". \"Peaches\" has been identified through DNA testing as the mother of \"Baby Doe\".\n\n\"Peaches\" / \"Jane Doe No. 3\"",
"\"Peaches\" / \"Jane Doe No. 3\"\n\nOn June 28, 1997, the dismembered torso of an unidentified young African-American woman was found at Hempstead Lake State Park, in the town of Lakeview, New York. The torso was found in a green plastic Rubbermaid container, which was dumped next to a road along the west side of the lake. Investigators reported that the victim had a tattoo on her left breast of a heart-shaped peach with a bite out of it and two drips falling from its core.",
"On April 11, 2011, police in Nassau County discovered dismembered skeletal human remains inside a plastic bag near Jones Beach State Park. The victim was dubbed \"Jane Doe No. 3.\" In December 2016, \"Peaches\" and \"Jane Doe No. 3\" were positively identified through DNA testing as being the same person. DNA analysis also identified \"Peaches\" as the mother of \"Baby Doe\"; she was found wearing gold jewelry similar to that of her daughter.",
"\"Baby Doe\"\nA third set of remains – the skeleton of a female toddler between 16 and 24 months of age (or, by another account, 1 to 4 years of age) – was found on April 4, 2011, about away from the partial remains of Valerie Mack. The body was wrapped in a blanket and showed no visible signs of trauma. DNA tests determined that the child's mother was \"Jane Doe No. 3\", whose body was found east, near Jones Beach State Park. The toddler was wearing gold earrings and a gold necklace.",
"\"Asian male\"",
"The body of a young Asian male who had died from blunt-force trauma was also discovered on April 4, 2011, at Gilgo Beach, very close to where the first four sets of remains had been discovered in December 2010. The victim was found wearing women's clothing and may have possibly been a transgender woman. The victim was between 17 and 23 years of age, in height, missing four teeth, and may have had a musculoskeletal disorder which could affect gait. The victim had been dead between five and 10 years",
". The victim had been dead between five and 10 years. In September 2011, police released a male composite sketch of the victim.",
"Discovery of Shannan Gilbert's body\nOn December 13, 2011, police announced that the remains of Shannan Gilbert had been found in a marsh about half a mile from where she had disappeared. A week earlier, some of her clothing and belongings had been discovered in the same vicinity. Gilbert was last seen banging on a resident's door and screaming for help before running off into the night. Gilbert made an emergency 9-1-1 call that night, saying that she feared for her life.",
"Police have stated that the death of Gilbert, a woman whose disappearance triggered the search during which the first set of bodies was found, is unrelated to the Long Island serial killer case. Gilbert's now-deceased mother Mari Gilbert advocated for the theory that her daughter had been murdered by a serial killer.\n\nTimeline\n1996\n \n \n\n1997\n \n\n2000\n \n \n\n2003\n \n \n\n2007\n \n \n\n2009\n \n \n\n2010\n \n \n \n \n \n\n2011\n \n \n \n \n \n\n2016\n \n\n2020\n \n\n2023\n\nPossible victims\n\nIdentified",
"Tina Elizabeth Foglia",
"19-year-old Tina Foglia was last seen alive in the early morning hours of February 1, 1982, at the Hammerheads rock music venue on Sunrise Highway, West Islip. She had hitchhiked from her home to the venue to see a friend performing with a Queens-based band Equinox. Her remains were discovered by Department of Transportation workers on February 3 on a shoulder of the Sagtikos State Parkway in Suffolk County",
". Her dismembered body, which had been placed in three separate plastic garbage bags, was found a few miles north of the Robert Moses Causeway, which leads to Gilgo Beach and Oak Beach.",
"A diamond ring that Foglia was known to wear was missing and the DNA of an unknown male was found on the garbage bags. Police have not ruled out the possibility that Tina Foglia was an early victim of the Long Island Serial Killer but have stated that a connection is \"not an active avenue of the investigation.\"",
"Jacqueline Ashley Smith",
"Jacqueline Smith, 16, was last seen in Brooklyn, New York on August 7, 1999. She had left her home at 9 p.m. to visit friends and never came back. She was reported missing on August 12, 1999. On June 20, 2000, an unidentified female torso was recovered near Beach 88th Street in Rockaway Beach, Queens. The torso was found in plastic bags and wrapped with tape. No other body parts were recovered. The victim was later identified as Smith",
". No other body parts were recovered. The victim was later identified as Smith. Two years later, the torso of Andre Isaac was also recovered in Rockaway not far from where Smith was found.",
"Andre Jamal Isaac",
"Andre Isaac was a professional drag queen known by his stage name \"Sugar Bear\". He was 6'5\" inches tall and was 25-years-old when he disappeared from East New York in November 2002. According to a friend, Isaac was last seen shortly before Thanksgiving, getting into a car with a \"secret friend.\" The vehicle was described as a red BMW-type coupe driven by a Hispanic man. Isaac's torso was found close to the boardwalk on Beach 63 Street in Arverne, Queens on December 17, 2002",
". On January 25, 2003, his head was discovered by ice skaters in East Millpond in Moriches, New York in Suffolk County, with a single bullet wound to a temple. His arms and legs were later found several miles away in plastic bags. Isaac's case was added to the Suffolk County Police Department Gilgo News website on May 29, 2020.",
"Jamie Diane Seymour\nJamie Seymour, a 21-year-old, was last heard from in Brick, New Jersey, on July 22, 2005. She called her father on July 22 to let him know she needed a ride home from the Port Authority. Seymour used someone else's phone at the Manhattan Port Authority to call her mother later that day. She has not been seen or heard from since.",
"After the final phone call to her mother – when two weeks passed and no one heard from Seymour – the family became worried. On August 8, her father reported her missing to police. Seymour spent time prior to her disappearance in New York City and had a criminal record. There have been few leads in Seymour's case and her family believes that she met with foul play. Police have never indicated any connection between Seymour's disappearance and the Long Island serial killer",
". Seymour was a young woman with a small frame, like other victims of the Long Island serial killer. She vanished in July, similar to victims Melissa Barthelemy, Maureen Brainard Barnes, and Jessica Taylor. Seymour was also last seen at the same place as Jessica Taylor, the Port Authority bus station in midtown.",
"Tanya Rush",
"On June 23, 2008, Tanya Rush, 39, was last seen around 3 a.m. walking towards a subway station in Brooklyn. Her dismembered body was found by a state road-cleaning crew inside a black canvas suitcase on June 27, 2008, in plain sight on the Newbridge Road ramp leading to the westbound Southern State Parkway in Bellmore, New York. Rush was a mother of three who had been a Salvation Army volunteer and had worked in telemarketing. She took up sex work to support a drug addiction",
". She took up sex work to support a drug addiction. Rush was African-American and lived in the Van Dyke Houses, a Brownsville public housing complex in Brooklyn, New York.",
"Shannan Maria Gilbert",
"24-year-old Shannan Maria Gilbert was an escort who may have been a victim of the Long Island serial killer. She left for a client's residence in Oak Beach after midnight on May 1, 2010. At 4:51 in the morning, 911 dispatchers received a panicked phone call from Gilbert, who could be heard saying that there was someone \"after her\" and that \"they\" were trying to kill her",
". She was last seen a short time later banging on the front door of a nearby Oak Beach residence and screaming for help before running off into the night. After nineteen months of searching police found Gilbert's remains in a marsh, half a mile from where she was last seen.",
"In May 2012, the Suffolk County medical examiners ruled that Gilbert accidentally drowned after entering the marsh. They believe that she was in a drug induced panic and have concluded that hers was \"death by misadventure\" or \"inconclusive.\" Her family believes she was murdered. On November 15, 2012, a lawsuit was filed by her mother, Mari Gilbert, against the Suffolk County Police Department in the hopes of getting more answers about what happened to her daughter the night she went missing.",
"Due to the controversy about Gilbert's death, in September 2014, forensic pathologist Michael Baden agreed to conduct an independent autopsy of Gilbert's remains in hopes of determining a clear cause of death. Upon examination of Gilbert's remains Baden found damage to her hyoid bone suggesting that strangulation may have occurred. Baden also noted that her body was found face-up, which is not common for drowning victims. Despite this, her death is still officially listed as an accident.",
"On July 23, 2016, Mari Gilbert was murdered in her home in Ellenville, New York. Later that day, her younger daughter, Sarra Elizabeth Gilbert, was arrested and charged with the stabbing death of her mother. \n\nOn May 6, 2020, the New York State Supreme Court ordered Suffolk County Police to release Gilbert's 911 call recording, denying their request to withhold it after more than 10 years. On May 13, 2022, the Suffolk County Police Department released the 911 call.",
"Natasha Jugo",
"Natasha Jugo, 31, was last seen leaving her Queens Village, New York home on March 16, 2013, at 4:30 a.m. The following day, her wallet, her identification, and some clothing were discovered abandoned along Ocean Parkway close to Gilgo Beach. Jugo's 2009 Toyota Prius was also found abandoned near the beach with footprints in the sand leading towards the water. Jugo's body was eventually discovered floating in the water by beachgoers at 9:30 p.m. on June 24, 2013",
".m. on June 24, 2013. Jugo's body was the eleventh human body to be found at Gilgo Beach since December 2010. Her body showed no obvious signs of trauma.",
"Patricia Viola\nPatricia Viola, a 42-year-old woman and a mother of two children from Bogota, New Jersey, described as a 5-foot-2-inch brunette, vanished on February 13, 2001, and her partial remains were found from Rockaway Beach, Queens in July 2002. Her body was not identified until 2012. The New Jersey “Patricia’s Law,” which bars police from refusing to accept missing person reports and requires them to notify a missing person’s family of support services, is named after Patricia Viola.\n\nUnidentified",
"\"Cherries\" / Unidentified woman, Mamaroneck",
"On March 3, 2007, a suitcase containing the dismembered torso of an unidentified Hispanic or light-skinned African-American woman washed up on a beach at Harbor Island Park in the town of Mamaroneck. The victim had a tattoo of two cherries on her left breast, similar in appearance to the tattoo found on \"Peaches.\" She was determined to have been stabbed to death. Never identified, the victim is referred to as \"Cherries\" by investigators",
". Never identified, the victim is referred to as \"Cherries\" by investigators. One of her dismembered legs washed up at Cold Spring Harbor on March 21, 2007, and the other at Oyster Bay in the village of Cove Neck the following day. \"Cherries\" was dismembered in a fashion similar to three other victims (Jessica Taylor, Valerie Mack, and \"Peaches\") meaning she may be linked to the other official victims.",
"Unidentified woman, Lattingtown",
"On January 23, 2013, a woman walking her dog found human remains in a small patch of brush in a sandy area along the shore at the end of Sheep Lane in Lattingtown, near Oyster Bay. The skeletal remains showed signs of trauma and were wrapped in a particular type of material that police have not disclosed. The remains are believed to be those of a woman between the ages of 20 and 30 who was possibly Asian",
". She was wearing a 22-karat solid gold pig pendant which may be related to the Chinese zodiac \"Year of the Pig.\" The relevant birth years are 1971, 1983, and 1995, possibly suggesting that the woman died at the age of 29.",
"Investigators believe that her body had been dumped before Hurricane Sandy in late 2012. Her case may be connected to the other 10 bodies found away in and around Gilgo Beach, though unlike the other victims, her body was buried rather than left above ground.",
"Profile of killer",
"The media had speculated about a profile of the killer, referred to by police as \"Joe C\" (unknown subject). According to the New York Times, the perpetrator was most likely a white male in his mid-twenties to mid-forties and very familiar with the South Shore of Long Island and had access to burlap sacks used to hold the bodies for disposal. He may have a detailed knowledge of law enforcement techniques, and perhaps ties to law enforcement, which have thus far helped him avoid detection",
". According to investigators, there may be more than one killer.",
"In popular culture\nNumerous films, television programs, podcasts, and other media have covered or referenced the case. These include:\n 48 Hours: \"Long Island Serial Killer\" (Airdate July 12, 2011), re-aired on September 8, 2023 with information regarding the suspect\n Killing Time, a 2012 play by Tom Slot\n The Long Island Serial Killer (2013), also known as The Gilgo Beach Murders, an independent feature directed by Joseph DiPietro",
"Lyrics of the 2014 Panama Wedding song \"Feels Like Summer\" reference the events of the murders in Gilgo Beach.\n People Magazine Investigates: \"The Long Island Serial Killer: The Lost Girls\" (2016): season 1, episodes 1–2\n The Killing Season, 2016 docuseries episode\n Crime Junkie, episode 21: \"SERIAL KILLER: L.I.S.K\" (Released: April 16, 2018)\n Lost Girls, Netflix film (2020)\n60 Minutes Australia: \"Who is the Long Island serial killer?\" (2020)",
"60 Minutes Australia: \"Who is the Long Island serial killer?\" (2020)\nLISK: Long Island Serial Killer, Podcast from Mopac Audio (2020- )\n The Long Island Serial Killer: A Mother's Hunt for Justice, Lifetime television film (2021)\n Grim Tide, (2021) a five part series on Fox Nation\n Unraveled: The Long Island Serial Killer (2021), a seven-part podcast series released by Investigation Discovery",
"See also\nCleveland Torso Murderer\nInternet homicide\nList of serial killers in the United States\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n\n \n \n \n Kolker, Robert. Lost Girls. (Harper Perennial, 2011)\n\nExternal links",
"American murderers of children\nAmerican serial killers\nCrime in the New York metropolitan area\nCrimes against sex workers in the United States\nCrimes in New York (state)\nCrimes on Long Island, New York\nDeaths by strangulation in the United States\nHistory of women in New York (state)\nMurder in New York (state)\nNassau County, New York\nSerial killers from New York (state)\nSerial murders in the United States\nSuffolk County, New York\nUnidentified American serial killers",
"Serial murders in the United States\nSuffolk County, New York\nUnidentified American serial killers\nUnidentified murder victims in New York (state)\nUnsolved murders in the United States\nViolence against trans women"
] |
Green computing
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green%20computing
|
[
"Green computing, green IT (Information Technology), or ICT sustainability, is the study and practice of environmentally sustainable computing or IT.",
"The goals of green computing are similar to green chemistry: reduce the use of hazardous materials, maximize energy efficiency during the product's lifetime, increase the recyclability or biodegradability of defunct products and factory waste. Green computing is important for all classes of systems, ranging from handheld systems to large-scale data centers. Many corporate IT departments have green computing initiatives to reduce the environmental effect of their IT operations",
". Yet it is also clear that the environmental footprint of the sector is significant, estimated at 5-9% of the world's total electricity use and more than 2% of all emissions. Data centres and telecommunications will need to become more energy efficient, reuse waste energy, and use more renewable energy sources to stay competitive. Some believe they can and should become climate neutral by 2030.",
"Origins",
"In 1992, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency launched Energy Star, a voluntary labeling program that is designed to promote and recognize the energy efficiency in monitors, climate control equipment, and other technologies. This resulted in the widespread adoption of sleep mode among consumer electronics",
". This resulted in the widespread adoption of sleep mode among consumer electronics. Concurrently, the Swedish organization TCO Development launched the TCO Certified program to promote low magnetic and electrical emissions from CRT-based computer displays; this program was later expanded to include criteria on energy consumption, ergonomics, and the use of hazardous materials in construction.",
"Regulations and industry initiatives",
"The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) has published a survey of over 90 government and industry initiatives on \"Green ICTs\", i.e. information and communication technologies, the environment and climate change. The report concludes that initiatives tend to concentrate on the greening ICTs themselves rather than on their actual implementation to reduce global warming and environmental degradation",
". In general, only 20% of initiatives have measurable targets, with government programs tending to include targets more frequently than business associations.",
"Government\nMany governmental agencies have continued to implement standards and regulations that encourage green computing. The Energy Star program was revised in October 2006 to include stricter efficiency requirements for computer equipment, along with a tiered ranking system for approved products.",
"By 2008, 26 US states established statewide recycling programs for obsolete computers and consumer electronics equipment. The statutes either impose an \"advance recovery fee\" for each unit sold at retail or require the manufacturers to reclaim the equipment at disposal.",
"In 2010, the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA) was signed into legislation by President Obama. The bill allocated over $90 billion to be invested in green initiatives (renewable energy, smart grids, energy efficiency, etc.) In January 2010, the U.S. Energy Department granted $47 million of the ARRA money towards projects to improve the energy efficiency of data centers",
". The projects provided research to optimize data center hardware and software, improve power supply chain, and data center cooling technologies.",
"Green Digital Governance",
"Green digital governance refers to the use of information and communication technology (ICT) to support environmentally sustainable policies and practices. It describes a strategy with which an organisation strives to align its information and communications technology with sustainability goals. This can include using digital tools and platforms to monitor and regulate environmental impact, as well as promoting the development and use of clean and renewable energy sources in the technology sector",
". The goal of green digital governance is to reduce the carbon footprint of the digital economy and to support the transition to a more sustainable and resilient society.",
"Both the green and the digital transitions are on the agenda for most European countries, as well as the EU as a whole. Documents and goals such as the European Green Deal and the Sustainable Development Goals, fit for 55, Digital Europe and others have begun the transitions. These two transitions often contradict each other, as digital technologies have substantial environmental footprints that go against the targets of the green transition.",
"The European Union sees digitalisation and the adoption of ICT (Information and Communications Technology) solutions as an important tool for creating greener solutions, while also acknowledging that in order to achieve the desired positive environmental impact, the tools themselves must be environmentally sustainable. The green transition may accelerate innovation and adoption of digital solutions offering the ICT sector new opportunities for becoming more competitive",
". The synergy created as a result of the green transition and digitalisation brings social, economic and environmental benefits, which is a goal of environmentally friendly digital governments and the creation of green ICT solutions in general.",
"The digital component is expected to also be used to reach the ambitions of the European Green Deal and Sustainable Development Goals. As powerful enablers for the sustainability transition, digital solutions can advance the circular economy, support the decarbonisation of all sectors and reduce the environmental and social footprint of products placed on the EU market",
". For example, key sectors such as precision agriculture, transport and energy can benefit from digital solutions in pursuing the sustainability objectives of the European Green Deal.",
"E-government services can provide solutions to the environmental problem. The possibility for a citizen to fully request and get a service online would render, in addition to cost savings for the public authorities and increased citizen satisfaction, reductions of carbon emissions and paper consumption.",
"Industry\n iMasons Climate Accord Founded in 2022, the (ICA) is a historic cooperative of companies committed to reducing carbon in digital infrastructure materials, products, and power.",
"Climate Savers Computing Initiative (CSCI) is an effort to reduce the electric power consumption of PCs in active and inactive states. The CSCI provides a catalog of green products from its member organizations, and information for reducing PC power consumption. It was started on June 12, 2007. The name stems from the World Wildlife Fund's Climate Savers program, which began in 1999. The WWF is a member of the Computing Initiative.",
"The Green Electronics Council offers the Electronic Product Environmental Assessment Tool (EPEAT) to assist in the purchase of \"greener\" computing systems. The Council evaluates computing equipment on 51 criteria – 23 required and 28 optional - that measure a product's efficiency and sustainability attributes. Products are rated Gold, Silver, or Bronze, depending on how many optional criteria they meet. On January 24, 2007, President George W",
". On January 24, 2007, President George W. Bush issued Executive Order 13423, which requires all United States Federal agencies to use EPEAT when purchasing computer systems.",
"The Green Grid is a global consortium dedicated to advancing energy efficiency in data centers and business computing ecosystems. It was founded in February 2007 by several key companies in the industry – AMD, APC, Dell, HP, IBM, Intel, Microsoft, Rackable Systems, SprayCool (purchased in 2010 by Parker), Sun Microsystems and VMware. The Green Grid has since grown to hundreds of members, including end-users and government organizations focused on improving data center infrastructure efficiency (DCIE).",
"The Green500 list rates supercomputers by energy efficiency (megaflops/watt), encouraging a focus on efficiency rather than absolute performance.\n Green Comm Challenge is an organization that promotes the development of energy conservation technology and practices in the field of ICT.\n The Transaction Processing Performance Council (TPC) Energy specification augments existing TPC benchmarks by allowing optional publications of energy metrics alongside performance results.",
"SPECpower is the first industry standard benchmark that measures power consumption in relation to performance for server-class computers. Other benchmarks which measure energy efficiency include SPECweb, SPECvirt, and VMmark.",
"Approaches\nModern IT systems rely on a complicated mix of people, networks, and hardware; as such, a green computing initiative ideally covers these areas. A solution may also need to address end user satisfaction, management restructuring, regulatory compliance, and return on investment (ROI). There are also fiscal motivations for companies to take control of their own power consumption; \"of the power management tools available, one of the most powerful may still be simple, plain, common sense.\"",
"Product longevity\nGartner maintains that the PC manufacturing process accounts for 70% of the natural resources used in the life cycle of a PC. More recently, Fujitsu released a life-cycle assessment (LCA) of a desktop that show that manufacturing and end of life accounts for the majority of this desktop's ecological footprint. Therefore, the biggest contribution to green computing usually is to prolong the equipment's lifetime.",
"Another report from Gartner recommends to \"Look for product longevity, including upgradability and modularity.\" For instance, manufacturing a new PC makes a far bigger ecological footprint than manufacturing a new RAM module to upgrade an existing one.",
"Data center design\nData center facilities are heavy consumers of energy, accounting for between 1.1% and 1.5% of the world's total energy use in 2010. The U.S. Department of Energy estimates that data center facilities consume up to 100 to 200 times more energy than standard office buildings.",
"Energy efficient data center design should address all of the energy use aspects included in a data center: from the IT equipment to the HVAC (Heating, ventilation and air conditioning) equipment to the actual location, configuration and construction of the building.",
"The U.S. Department of Energy specifies five primary areas on which to focus energy efficient data center design best practices:\n Information technology (IT) systems\n Environmental conditions\n Air management\n Cooling systems\n Electrical systems\n\nAdditional energy efficient design opportunities specified by the U.S. Department of Energy include on-site electrical generation and recycling of waste heat.",
"Energy efficient data center design should help to better use a data center's space, and increase performance and efficiency.",
"In 2018, three new US Patents make use of facilities design to simultaneously cool and produce electrical power by use of internal and external waste heat. The three patents use silo design for stimulating use of internal waste heat, while recirculating the air cooling the silo's computing racks",
". US Patent 9,510,486, uses the recirculating air for power generation, while sister patent, US Patent 9,907,213, forces the recirculation of the same air, and sister patent, US Patent 10,020,436, uses thermal differences in temperature resulting in negative power usage effectiveness. Negative power usage effectiveness, makes use of differences between temperatures at times running the computing facilities, that they would run only from external sources other than the power use for computing.",
"Software and deployment optimization\n\nAlgorithmic efficiency",
"The efficiency of algorithms affects the amount of computer resources required for any given computing function and there are many efficiency trade-offs in writing programs. Algorithm changes, such as switching from a slow (e.g. linear) search algorithm to a fast (e.g. hashed or indexed) search algorithm can reduce resource usage for a given task from substantial to close to zero. In 2009, a study by a physicist at Harvard estimated that the average Google search released 7 grams of carbon dioxide (CO₂)",
". However, Google disputed this figure, arguing that a typical search produced only 0.2 grams of CO₂.",
"Resource allocation",
"Algorithms can also be used to route data to data centers where electricity is less expensive. Researchers from MIT, Carnegie Mellon University, and Akamai have tested an energy allocation algorithm that routes traffic to the location with the lowest energy costs. The researchers project up to 40 percent savings on energy costs if their proposed algorithm were to be deployed. However, this approach does not actually reduce the amount of energy being used; it reduces only the cost to the company using it",
". Nonetheless, a similar strategy could be used to direct traffic to rely on energy that is produced in a more environmentally friendly or efficient way. A similar approach has also been used to cut energy usage by routing traffic away from data centers experiencing warm weather; this allows computers to be shut down to avoid using air conditioning.",
"Larger server centers are sometimes located where energy and land are inexpensive and readily available. Local availability of renewable energy, climate that allows outside air to be used for cooling, or locating them where the heat they produce may be used for other purposes could be factors in green siting decisions.",
"Approaches to actually reduce the energy consumption of network devices by proper network/device management techniques have been surveyed Bianzino, et al. The authors grouped the approaches into 4 main strategies, namely (i) Adaptive Link Rate (ALR), (ii) Interface Proxying, (iii) Energy Aware Infrastructure, and (iv) Maximum Energy Aware Applications.\n\nVirtualizing",
"Computer virtualization refers to the abstraction of computer resources, such as the process of running two or more logical computer systems on one set of physical hardware. The concept originated with the IBM mainframe operating systems of the 1960s, and was commercialized for x86-compatible computers, and other computer systems, in the 1990s",
". With virtualization, a system administrator can combine several physical systems into virtual machines on one powerful system, thereby conserving resources by removing need for some of the original hardware and reducing power and cooling consumption. Virtualization can assist in distributing work so that servers are either busy or put in a low-power sleep state. Several commercial companies and open-source projects now offer software packages to enable a transition to virtual computing",
". Intel Corporation and AMD have also built proprietary virtualization enhancements to the x86 instruction set into each of their CPU product lines, in order to facilitate virtual computing.",
"New virtual technologies, such as operating-system-level virtualization can also be used to reduce energy consumption. These technologies make a more efficient use of resources, thus reducing energy consumption by design. Also, the consolidation of virtualized technologies is more efficient than the one done in virtual machines, so more services can be deployed in the same physical machine, reducing the amount of hardware needed.\n\nTerminal servers",
"Terminal servers have also been used in green computing. When using the system, users at a terminal connect to a central server; all of the actual computing is done on the server, but the end user experiences the system operating as if it were on the terminal. These can be combined with thin clients, which use up to 1/8 the amount of energy of a normal workstation, resulting in a decrease of energy costs and consumption",
". There has been an increase in using terminal services with thin clients to create virtual labs. Examples of terminal server software include Terminal Services for Windows and the Linux Terminal Server Project (LTSP) for the Linux operating system. Software-based remote desktop clients such as Windows Remote Desktop and RealVNC can provide similar thin-client functions when run on low power hardware that connects to a server.",
"Data Compression",
"Data compression, which involves using fewer bits to encode information, may also be used in green computing depending on the structure of the data. Since it is highly data specific, data compression strategies may result in using more energy or resources than necessary in some cases. However, choosing a well-suited compression algorithm for the dataset can yield greater power efficiency and reduce network and storage requirements. There is a tradeoff between compression ratio and energy consumption",
". There is a tradeoff between compression ratio and energy consumption. Deciding whether or not this is worthwhile depends on the dataset's compressibility. Compression improves energy efficiency for data with a compression ratio much less than roughly 0.3, and hurts for data with higher compression ratios.",
"Power management",
"The Advanced Configuration and Power Interface (ACPI), an open industry standard, allows an operating system to directly control the power-saving aspects of its underlying hardware. This allows a system to automatically turn off components such as monitors and hard drives after set periods of inactivity. In addition, a system may hibernate, when most components (including the CPU and the system RAM) are turned off",
". ACPI is a successor to an earlier Intel-Microsoft standard called Advanced Power Management, which allows a computer's BIOS to control power management functions.",
"Some programs allow the user to manually adjust the voltages supplied to the CPU, which reduces both the amount of heat produced and electricity consumed. This process is called undervolting. Some CPUs can automatically undervolt the processor, depending on the workload; this technology is called \"SpeedStep\" on Intel processors, \"PowerNow!\"/\"Cool'n'Quiet\" on AMD chips, LongHaul on VIA CPUs, and LongRun with Transmeta processors.",
"Data center power\nData centers, which have been criticized for their extraordinarily high energy demand, are a primary focus for proponents of green computing. According to a Greenpeace study, data centers represent 21% of the electricity consumed by the IT sector, which is about 382 billion kWh a year.",
"Data centers can potentially improve their energy and space efficiency through techniques such as storage consolidation and virtualization. Many organizations are aiming to eliminate underused servers, resulting in lower energy usage. The U.S. federal government set a minimum 10% reduction target for data center energy usage by 2011. With the aid of a self-styled ultra-efficient evaporative cooling technology. Google Inc. claims to have reduced its energy consumption to 50% of the industry average.",
"Operating system support",
"Microsoft Windows has included limited PC power management features since Windows 95. These initially provided for stand-by (suspend-to-RAM) and a monitor low power state. Further iterations of Windows added hibernate (suspend-to-disk) and support for the ACPI standard. Windows 2000 was the first NT-based operating system to include power management. This required major changes to the underlying operating system architecture and a new hardware driver model",
". Windows 2000 also introduced Group Policy, a technology that allowed administrators to centrally configure most Windows features. However, power management was not one of those features. This is probably because the power management settings design relied upon a connected set of per-user and per-machine binary registry values, effectively leaving it up to each user to configure their own power management settings.",
"This approach, which is not compatible with Windows Group Policy, was repeated in Windows XP. The reasons for this design decision by Microsoft are not known, and it has resulted in heavy criticism. Microsoft significantly improved this in Windows Vista by redesigning the power management system to allow basic configuration by Group Policy. The support offered is limited to a single per-computer policy",
". The support offered is limited to a single per-computer policy. Windows 7 retains these limitations but includes refinements for timer coalescing, processor power management, and display panel brightness. The most significant change in Windows 7 is in the user experience. The prominence of the default High Performance power plan has been reduced with the aim of encouraging users to save power.",
"Third-party PC power management software for adds features beyond those built-in to the Windows operating system. Most products offer Active Directory integration and per-user/per-machine settings with the more advanced offering multiple power plans, scheduled power plans, anti-insomnia features and enterprise power usage reporting. \n\nLinux systems started to provide laptop-optimized power-management in 2005, with power-management options being mainstream since 2009.",
"Power supply\nDesktop computer power supplies are in general 70–75% efficient, dissipating the remaining energy as heat. A certification program called 80 Plus certifies PSUs that are at least 80% efficient; typically these models are drop-in replacements for older, less efficient PSUs of the same form factor. As of July 20, 2007, all new Energy Star 4.0-certified desktop PSUs must be at least 80% efficient.",
"Storage\nSmaller form factor (e.g., 2.5 inch) hard disk drives often consume less power per gigabyte than physically larger drives. Unlike hard disk drives, solid-state drives store data in flash memory or DRAM. With no moving parts, power consumption may be reduced somewhat for low-capacity flash-based devices.",
"As hard drive prices have fallen, storage farms have tended to increase in capacity to make more data available online. This includes archival and backup data that would formerly have been saved on tape or other offline storage. The increase in online storage has increased power consumption. Reducing the power consumed by large storage arrays, while still providing the benefits of online storage, is a subject of ongoing research.\n\nVideo card\nA fast GPU may be the largest power consumer in a computer.",
"Video card\nA fast GPU may be the largest power consumer in a computer.\n\nEnergy-efficient display options include:\n No video card – use a shared terminal, shared thin client, or desktop sharing software if display is required.\n Use motherboard video output – typically low 3D performance and low power.\n Select a GPU based on low idle power, average wattage, or performance per watt.",
"Display",
"Unlike other display technologies, electronic paper does not use any power while displaying an image. CRT monitors typically use more power than LCD monitors. They also contain significant amounts of lead. LCD monitors typically use a cold-cathode fluorescent bulb to provide light for the display. Most newer displays use an array of light-emitting diodes (LEDs) in place of the fluorescent bulb, which further reduces the amount of electricity used by the display",
". Fluorescent back-lights also contain mercury, whereas LED back-lights do not.",
"A light-on-dark color scheme, also called dark mode, is a color scheme that requires less energy to display on new display technologies, such as OLED. This positively impacts battery life and energy consumption. While an OLED will consume around 40% of the power of an LCD displaying an image that is primarily black, it can use more than three times as much power to display an image with a white background, such as a document or web site",
". This can lead to reduced battery life and increased energy use, unless a light-on-dark color scheme is used. A 2018 article in Popular Science suggests that \"Dark mode is easier on the eyes and battery\" and displaying white on full brightness uses roughly six times as much power as pure black on a Google Pixel, which has an OLED display. Apple's iOS 13 and iPadOS 13 both feature a light-on dark mode, which would allow third-party developers to implement their own dark themes",
". Google's Android 10 features a system-level dark mode.",
"Materials recycling",
"Recycling computing equipment can keep harmful materials such as lead, mercury, and hexavalent chromium out of landfills, and can replace equipment that otherwise would need to be manufactured, saving further energy and emissions. Computer systems that have outlived their original function can be re-purposed, or donated to various charities and non-profit organizations. However, many charities have recently imposed minimum system requirements for donated equipment",
". However, many charities have recently imposed minimum system requirements for donated equipment. Additionally, parts from outdated systems may be salvaged and recycled through certain retail outlets and municipal or private recycling centers. Computing supplies, such as printer cartridges, paper, and batteries may be recycled as well.",
"A drawback to many of these schemes is that computers gathered through recycling drives are often shipped to developing countries where environmental standards are less strict than in North America and Europe. The Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition has estimated that 80% of the post-consumer e-waste collected for recycling is shipped abroad to countries such as China and India.",
"In 2011, the collection rate of e-waste remained low, even in the most ecology-responsible countries like France. In the U.S., e-waste collection was at a 14% annual rate between electronic equipment sold and e-waste collected for 2006 to 2009.",
"The recycling of old computers raises a privacy issue. The old storage devices still hold private information, such as emails, passwords, and credit card numbers, which can be recovered simply by using software available freely on the Internet. Deletion of a file does not actually remove the file from the hard drive. Before recycling a computer, users should remove the hard drive, or hard drives if there is more than one, and physically destroy it or store it somewhere safe",
". There are some authorized hardware recycling companies to whom the computer may be given for recycling, and they typically sign a non-disclosure agreement.",
"Cloud computing",
"Cloud computing addresses two major ICT challenges related to Green computing – energy usage and resource consumption. Virtualization, dynamic provisioning environment, multi-tenancy and green data center approaches are enabling cloud computing to lower carbon emissions and energy usage. Large enterprises and small businesses can reduce their direct energy consumption and carbon emissions by up to 30% and 90% respectively by moving certain on-premises applications into the cloud",
". One common example includes online shopping that helps people purchase products and services over the Internet without requiring them to drive, thus consuming fuel, to reach out to the physical shop, which, in turn, reduces greenhouse gas emission related to travel.",
"Edge Computing\n\nNew technologies such as edge and fog computing are a solution to reducing energy consumption. These technologies allow redistributing computation near its use, thus reducing energy costs in the network. Furthermore, having smaller data centers, the energy used in operations such as refrigerating and maintenance is reduced.",
"Remote work",
"Remote work using teleconference and telepresence technologies is often implemented in green computing initiatives. The advantages include increased worker satisfaction, reduction of greenhouse gas emissions related to travel, and increased profit margins as a result of lower overhead costs for office space, heat, lighting, etc. The average annual energy consumption for U.S",
". The average annual energy consumption for U.S. office buildings is over 23 kilowatt hours per square foot, with heat, air conditioning and lighting accounting for 70% of all energy consumed. Other related initiatives, such as Hoteling, reduce the square footage per employee as workers reserve space only when needed. Many types of jobs, such as sales, consulting, and field service, integrate well with this technique.",
"Voice over IP (VoIP) reduces the telephony wiring infrastructure by sharing the existing Ethernet copper. VoIP and phone extension mobility also made hot desking more practical. Wi-Fi consume 4 to 10 times less energy than 4G.",
"Telecommunication network devices energy indices",
"ICT energy consumption, in the US and worldwide, has been estimated respectively at 9.4% and 5.3% of the total electricity produced. The energy consumption of ICTs is today significant even when compared with other industries. Some studies have tried to identify the key energy indices that allow a relevant comparison between different devices (network elements). This analysis was focused on how to optimise device and network consumption for carrier telecommunication by itself",
". The target was to allow an immediate perception of the relationship between the network technology and the environmental effect. These studies are at the start and further research will be necessary.",
"Supercomputers\n\nThe Green500 list was first announced on November 15, 2007, at SC|07. As a complement to the TOP500, the listing of the Green500 began a new era where supercomputers can be compared by performance-per-watt. As of 2019, two Japanese supercomputers topped the Green500 energy efficiency ranking with performance exceeding 16 GFLOPS/watt, and two IBM AC922 systems followed with performance exceeding 15 GFLOPS/watt.\n\nEducation and certification",
"Green computing programs",
"Degree and postgraduate programs provide training in a range of information technology concentrations along with sustainable strategies to educate students on how to build and maintain systems while reducing its harm to the environment. The Australian National University (ANU) offers \"ICT Sustainability\" as part of its information technology and engineering masters programs. Athabasca University offers a similar course \"Green ICT Strategies\", adapted from the ANU course notes by Tom Worthington",
". In the UK, Leeds Beckett University offers an MSc Sustainable Computing program in both full- and part-time access modes.",
"Green computing certifications\nSome certifications demonstrate that an individual has specific green computing knowledge, including:\n Green Computing Initiative – GCI offers the Certified Green Computing User Specialist (CGCUS), Certified Green Computing Architect (CGCA) and Certified Green Computing Professional (CGCP) certifications.",
"Information Systems Examination Board (ISEB) Foundation Certificate in Green IT is appropriate for showing an overall understanding and awareness of green computing and where its implementation can be beneficial.",
"Singapore Infocomm Technology Federation (SiTF) Singapore Certified Green IT Professional is an industry endorsed professional level certification offered with SiTF authorized training partners. Certification requires completion of a four-day instructor-led core course, plus a one-day elective from an authorized vendor.",
"Australian Computer Society (ACS) The ACS offers a certificate for \"Green Technology Strategies\" as part of the Computer Professional Education Program (CPEP). Award of a certificate requires completion of a 12-week e-learning course designed by Tom Worthington, with written assignments.",
"Ratings\nSince 2010, Greenpeace has maintained a list of ratings of prominent technology companies in several countries based on how clean the energy used by that company is, ranging from A (the best) to F (the worst).\n\nICT and energy demand \nDigitalization has brought additional energy consumption; energy-increasing effects have been greater than the energy-reducing effects. Four energy consumption increasing effects are:",
"Direct effect – Strong increases of (technical) energy efficiency in ICT are countered by the growth of the sector.\n Efficiency and rebound effects – Rebound effects are high for ICT and increased productivity often leads to new behaviors that are more energy intensive.\n Economic growth – Positive effect of digitalization on economic growth.\n Sectoral change – Growth of ICT services tends not to replace, but come on top of existing services.\n\nSee also\n\n Computational sustainability\n Energy Star",
"Camara (charity) (Ireland)\n Challenging the Chip, a book about labor rights and environmental justice in the global electronics industry\n Desktop virtualization\n Data migration\n Digger gold\n e-cycling\n eDay, an electronic waste collection day in New Zealand\n California Electronic Waste Recycling Act\n Energy conservation\n Energy Efficient Ethernet\n Energy consumption of computers in the US\n IEEE 1680\n Interconnect bottleneck\n IT energy management\n Minimalism (computing)",
"IEEE 1680\n Interconnect bottleneck\n IT energy management\n Minimalism (computing)\n Light-on-dark color scheme (Dark Mode)\n Optical communication\n Optical fiber cable\n Parallel optical interface\n PC power management\n Plug computer\n Power factor\n Power usage effectiveness (PUE)\n Rebound effect (paradoxical negative effect)\n Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive (RoHS)\n Standby power\n Sustainable Electronics Initiative (SEI)",
"Standby power\n Sustainable Electronics Initiative (SEI)\n Takeback, when sellers or manufacturers accept returns of products at the end of their lives\n Time-sharing\n Virtual application",
"References\n\nFurther reading\n Green IT Factsheet by the University of Michigan's Center for Sustainable Systems\n\nSustainable technologies\nBright green environmentalism\nComputers and the environment"
] |
Geo Bogza
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geo%20Bogza
|
[
"Geo Bogza (; born Gheorghe Bogza; February 6, 1908 – September 14, 1993) was a Romanian avant-garde theorist, poet, and journalist, known for his left-wing and communist political convictions. As a young man in the interwar period, he was known as a rebel and was one of the most influential Romanian Surrealists",
". Several of his controversial poems twice led to his imprisonment on grounds of obscenity, and saw him partake in the conflict between young and old Romanian writers, as well as in the confrontation between the avant-garde and the far right. At a later stage, Bogza won acclaim for his many and accomplished reportage pieces, being one of the first to cultivate the genre in Romanian literature, and using it as a venue for social criticism.",
"After the establishment of Communist Romania, Bogza adapted his style to Socialist realism, and became one of the most important literary figures to have serviced the government. With time, he became a subtle critic of the regime, especially under the rule of Nicolae Ceaușescu, when he adopted a dissident position. Beginning in the late 1960s, he publicized his uncomfortable attitudes as subtext to apparently innocent articles and essays",
". An editor for Viața Românească and România Literară magazines, Geo Bogza was one of the leaders of the Romanian Writers' Union and a member of the Romanian Academy.",
"He was the older brother of Radu Tudoran, himself a known writer, whose political choices were in stark contrast with those of Geo Bogza, and made Tudoran the object of communist persecution. Bogza had lifelong contacts with some representatives of the Romanian avant-garde, among them Victor Brauner, Max Blecher, Sesto Pals, Sașa Pană, and Paul Păun, and was friends with, among others, the essayist and theologian Nicolae Steinhardt, the dissident Gheorghe Ursu, and the filmmaker Mircea Săucan.\n\nBiography",
"Early years and the avant-garde",
"Geo Bogza was born in Blejoi, Prahova County. At one point during the late 1930s, Bogza was irritated after reading an article authored by one of his fascist adversaries, Alexandru Hodoș (later a member of the Iron Guard). Hodoș implied that Bogza was not an ethnic Romanian, which prompted the latter to elaborate on his origins and his name",
". Bogza refuted the allegation by indicating that his father was originally from the village of Bogzești, in Secuieni, Neamț County, and that his mother (née Georgescu) was the daughter of a Romanian Transylvanian activist who had fled from Austria-Hungary to the Kingdom of Romania. The lineage was confirmed by literary critic George Călinescu as part of a short biographical essay.",
"Geo Bogza, who indicated that he was baptized Romanian Orthodox, also stressed that his given name, Gheorghe, had been turned into the hypocoristic Geo while he was still a child, and that he had come to prefer the shortened form. During the early stages of his career, he is known to have signed writings with the name George Bogza (George being a variant of Gheorghe).",
"Bogza attended school in Ploiești and trained as a sailor at the Naval Academy in Constanța, but never sought employment in the Romanian Naval Forces. Until the age of 28, he made part of his income as a sailor on a commercial vessel. He returned to his native Prahova County, lived in Buștenari, and eventually settled in Bucharest.",
"In 1927, he made his debut in poetry, writing for the Prahova-based modernist magazine Câmpina, which was edited by poet Alexandru Tudor-Miu. The following year, he contributed to Sașa Pană's avant-garde magazine unu (also known as Unu), edited a short-lived Surrealist and anti-bourgeois magazine that drew inspiration from Urmuz (and was titled after that writer), and published in Tudor Arghezi's Bilete de Papagal",
". Arghezi admired the younger writer, and he is credited with having suggested the name Urmuz for the magazine.",
"During that period, Geo Bogza became one of the most recognizable young rebellious authors, a category that also included, among others, Marcel Avramescu, Gherasim Luca, Paul Păun, Constantin Nisipeanu, and Sesto Pals. In time, he became a noted contributor to the leftist and socialist press, and one of the most respected Romanian authors of reportage prose",
". One of his articles-manifestos read: \"I always had the uncomfortable impression that any beauty may enter the consciousness of a bourgeois only on all fours [italics in the original].\" Writing for Urmuz, he condemned convention as \"a false sun\" and \"intellectual acrobatics\", depicting his magazine as \"a lash that whips the mind\".",
"Winning the praise of his fellow young authors Stephan Roll and Ilarie Voronca, he was criticized by prominent literary figure George Călinescu, who accused him of \"priapism\", based on Bogza's irreverent tone and erotic imagery. It was also during the late 1920s that Bogza began touring the Prahova Valley, becoming a close observer of local life in the shadow of the oil industry",
". He had a conflict with Tudor-Miu in August 1928, after the latter modified a poem Bogza sent to be published in Câmpina—the two reconciled later in the year, and later wrote a special poem for its one-year anniversary. His collaboration with Pană, Roll, Ion Vinea, Simion Stolnicu, and others led to the ad hoc establishment of a literary group, which was defined by writer and critic Camil Petrescu as \"the revolutionaries from Câmpina\" (after the town where Bogza spend much of his time)",
". Among other writers who joined Bogza in publishing the five issues of Urmuz were Voronca and the Dadaist Tristan Tzara.",
"He also established a friendship and collaboration with the photographer Iosif Bernea and the painter Victor Brauner, and was close to the writer and future Orthodox hermit Nicolae Steinhardt. After 1930, he was involved in polemics with traditionalist young authors, including poet Otilia Cazimir (whom he accused of writing with \"hypocrisy\") and members of the eclectic grouping known as Criterion (who, he claimed, were guilty of \"ridicule and opportunism\")",
". His relations with Arghezi also grew more distant, after Bogza expressed disapproval for Arghezi's 1930 decision to collaborate with the Romanian Radio—Geo Bogza drew attention to his older colleague's previous public statements, in which he had criticized the national station on various grounds.",
"Early in his youth, while in Buștenari, Geo Bogza met and fell in love with Elisabeta (also known as Bunty), whom he married soon after. Their love affair was celebrated by Bogza's friend Nicolae Tzone, who also stated that she \"lived simply and without any sort of commotion in his shadow\". Initially, the couple lived in Sașa Pană's Bucharest house, and, for a while afterwards, at the headquarters of unu",
". In old age, he spoke of one of these lodgings as \"an unsanitary loft, where one would either suffocate from the heat or starve with cold.\"",
"Trials and jail terms",
"Bogza's work was at the center of scandals in the 1930s: he was first arrested on charges of having produced pornography in 1930, for his Sex Diary, and was temporarily held in Văcărești Prison, until being acquitted. At the time, he responded to the hostile atmosphere by publishing an article in unu which included the words \"ACADEMICIANS, SHAVE YOUR BRAINS! [capitals in the original]\" (also rendered as \"disinfect your brains!\")",
". In reference to his trial, the magazine unu wrote: \"Bogza will be tried and receive punishment for having the imprudence of not letting himself be macerated by «proper behavior», for having dunked his arms down to the feces, for having raised them up to his nose, smelling them and then spattering all those who were dabbling with their nostrils unperceptive of his exasperated nature",
".\" Other positive reactions to his writings notably included that of teachers at a high school in Ploiești, who invited him to attend a celebration marking the start of the school year.",
"Reportedly, Bogza asked to be defended by Ionel Teodoreanu, a known writer who had training in law, but he was ultimately represented by Ionel Jianu. After his success in court, he issued business cards reading: \"GEO BOGZA/ACQUITTED/NOVEMBER 28, 1932 [capitals in the original]\". Late in 1933, he edited a new magazine, titled Viața Imediată (\"The Immediate Life\"), of which only one issue was ever published",
". Its cover photograph showed a group of derelict workers (it was titled Melacolia celor șezând pe lângă ziduri, \"The Melancholy of Those Sitting by the Walls\").",
"The same year, he was taken into custody for a second time, after publishing his Offensive Poem—which depicted his sexual encounter with a servant girl—and was sentenced to six days in jail; in 1937, at the same time as H. Bonciu, Bogza again served time for Offensive Poem, after the matter was brought up by Ioan Alexandru Brătescu-Voinești on behalf of the Romanian Academy. Similar demands for punishment were voiced by historian Nicolae Iorga and by the poet and fascist politician Octavian Goga",
". Bogza was frequently attacked by Iorga's nationalist magazine Cuget Clar. During the same period, his friends and fellow Surrealists Luca and Pals were also jailed on similar charges, after they were denounced by Iorga. Other young authors imprisoned on such grounds included Păun, Aurel Baranga, and Jules Perahim.",
"Writing for Azi, a review edited by Zaharia Stancu, Bogza dismissed the accusation as a cover-up for an increase in authoritarianism as King Carol II was attempting to compete with the fascist Iron Guard. The latter's press welcomed the move, and, using strong antisemitic language, instigated the authorities to intervene in similar cases of alleged obscenity—which it viewed as characteristic of both Surrealism and the Jewish-Romanian authors who were associated with Bogza.",
"In 1934, while visiting Brașov in the company of his wife, Bogza met Max Blecher, a young man who was beddriden by Pott's disease and had started work on the novel later known as Întâmplări din irealitatea imediată (\"Events in Immediate Unreality\"). The three were to become good friends, and Bogza encouraged him to continue writing.",
"Adoption of communism and official status",
"His growing sympathy for communism and his connections with the outlawed Romanian Communist Party (PCR) made Bogza a target of the authorities' surveillance. Siguranța Statului, the country's secret service, kept a file on him, which contained regular reports by unknown informers.<ref name=\"pcsubter\"> Paul Cernat, [http://www.observatorcultural.ro/informatiiarticol",
".<ref name=\"pcsubter\"> Paul Cernat, [http://www.observatorcultural.ro/informatiiarticol.phtml?xid=19652&print=true \"Subterana politică a avangardei românești\" (review of Stelian Tănase, Avangarda românească in arhivele Siguranței\")], in Observator Cultural, Nr. 417, April 2008; retrieved April 23, 2008</ref> One of them claims: \"given that he was a communist, [Bogza] covered the puberty of his writing in the cape of social revolt.\"",
"Late in 1937, Geo Bogza traveled to Spain as a war correspondent in the Civil War, supporting the Republican side.Mihai Dinu Gheorghiu, Lucia Dragomir, Littératures et pouvoir symbolique. Colloque tenu à Bucarest (Roumanie), 30 et 31 mai 2003, Maison des Sciences de l'homme, Editura Paralela 45, Paris, 2005, p.240. His position of the time drew comparisons with those of other leftist intellectuals who campaigned against or fought Nationalist forces, including W. H. Auden and George Orwell",
". H. Auden and George Orwell. He was accompanied on this journey by Constantin Lucreția Vâlceanu, who had ambitions of becoming a writer, and whom Bogza asked to contribute to a never-completed novel inspired by the war. Soon after their return, in what was a surprising gesture, Vâlceanu split with the leftist camp and rallied with the Iron Guard.",
"The writer had grown close to the PCR, but their relations soured 1940, when Bogza was confronted with news that the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany had signed a non-aggression pact. Physician G. Brătescu, who maintained contacts with Sașa Pană and other figures in the Romanian avant-garde and, like him, was then a Communist Party militant, recorded that, by 1943, there was a hint of tension between Pană and Bogza",
". Bogza did not however cut off links with Surrealism, and was one of the few to be acquainted with the literature of his friend Sesto Pals, which he later helped promote at home and abroad.",
"After World War II and the establishment of a communist regime, the writer adopted and included in his works the themes of Socialist realism, and was awarded several honors. During the 1950s, he traveled extensively to the Soviet Union and Latin America, writing several works on topics such as Decolonization. In 1955, Bogza became a full member of the Romanian Academy.",
"Historian Vladimir Tismăneanu indicated that he was one of the few genuine left-wing intellectuals associated with the regime during the 1950s—alongside Anatol E. Baconsky, Ovid Crohmălniceanu, Geo Dumitrescu, Petru Dumitriu, Paul Georgescu, Gheorghe Haupt, Eugen Jebeleanu, Mihail Petroveanu, and Nicolae Tertulian",
". According to Tismăneanu, this group was able to interpret the cultural policies endorsed by Romania's leader Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej after the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 threatened to disrupt communism in neighboring countries, when the regime turned against advocates of liberalization such as Miron Constantinescu, Mihail Davidoglu, Alexandru Jar, and Ion Vitner",
". Commenting on this, Tismăneanu noted that Geo Bogza and all others failed to distance himself from the new repressive mood, and that the group's silence indirectly helped chief ideologist Leonte Răutu and his subordinate Mihai Beniuc to restore effective control over the Romanian Writers' Union.",
"Bogza was, however, skeptical about the goals of the PCR, and his support for it was much reduced in time. Literary historian Eugen Simion discussed the writer's effort to tone down the scale of cultural repression, and included him among the \"decent men\" to have done so. Bogza's brother Radu Tudoran, an anti-communist who had risked a prison sentence in the late 1940s after attempting to flee the country, was condemned by the communist press, and lived in relative obscurity.",
"In 1958, Geo Bogza himself was exposed to official criticism in the official Communist Party paper, Scînteia, which claimed that he and other writers had been exposed to \"bourgeois tendencies\" and \"cosmopolitanism\", no longer caring about \"the desires of the Romanian people\"",
". This subject drew attention in the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, a country which, under Josip Broz Tito, had engaged on an independent path and was criticizing the Eastern Bloc countries for their commitment to Stalinism (see Titoism). In an article he contributed to Borba, Yugoslav writer Marko Ristić, who spoke of the Romanian as \"my friend [..",
"...], the nostalgic, gifted and loyal Geo Bogza\", took the Scînteia campaign as proof that the Gheorghiu-Dej regime was still reminiscent of Joseph Stalin's. Ristić, who feared the purpose and effect such attacks had on Romanian culture, noted that Bogza had \"in vain, done his utmost, by trying to adapt himself to the circumstances, not to betray himself, even in the period when Stalin alone [...] was solving esthetic problems, appraising artistic works and giving the tone in his well-known method.\"",
"In February 1965, as Gheorghiu-Dej was succumbing to cancer, the Writers' Union Conference facilitated an unprecedented attack on Socialist Realism. This dispute saw writers attacking Union president Beniuc, who was identified with Stalinism—as a result of the confrontation, in what was an early sign of liberalization, Beniuc was dismissed from his post, and replaced with Zaharia Stancu",
". Valeriu Râpeanu, \"Ce roman, viața lui Zaharia Stancu\" , in Magazin Istoric, September 1998 According to literary historian Valeriu Râpeanu, Bogza, who attended the Conference, went so far as to demand that Beniuc's chair be burned.",
"In opposition to Ceaușescu",
"A member of the Writers' Union leadership board after 1965, he was editor of the influential literary magazine Viața Românească. Despite his official status, Bogza himself was critical of the adoption of nationalist themes in official discourse after the ascendancy of Nicolae Ceaușescu in the 1960s. The new doctrine, eventually consecrated in Ceaușescu's July Theses, saw him taking the opposing side: during the early 1970s, Bogza published pieces in which he voiced covert criticism of the new policies",
". Tismăneanu cited him among the most important intellectuals of various backgrounds to have done so, in a class also comprising members of the Oniric group, as well as the cultural figures Jebeleanu, Ion Caraion, Ștefan Augustin Doinaș, Dan Hăulică, Nicolae Manolescu, Alexandru Paleologu, and Mircea Zaciu. His nonconformist stance drew comparisons with that assumed by his generation colleague, the ethnic Hungarian poet and prominent Writers' Union member József Méliusz",
". In 1976, Bogza discussed the issue of disappointment, stating: \"Life is not like a tournament, but like an outage. From the first to the last day.\" In reference to such an attitude, which believed was related the political context, literary critic and novelist B. Elvin, himself a former leftist and dissident, saw in Bogza a symbol of \"verticality, refusal, contempt\".",
"Bogza was nonetheless often ambiguous in his relations with the authorities, while his public statements oscillated between covert satire and open praise. Between 1966 and 1973, he was a contributor to Contemporanul magazine, and was well known in Romania for regularly publishing short essays in that magazine (some of them were also read on national radio). Bogza also had a permanent column in the influential magazine România Literară",
". Bogza also had a permanent column in the influential magazine România Literară. His gestures of defiance include his display of support for Lucian Pintilie, a director whose work was being censored",
". In 1968, having just seen Pintilie's subversive film The Reenactment shortly before it was banned, Bogza scribbled in the snow set on the director's car the words: \"Long live Pintilie! The humble Geo Bogza\"; the statement was recorded with alarm by agents of Romania's secret police, the Securitate, who had witnessed the incident.",
"In the 1970s, Bogza and several of his Writers' Union colleagues became involved in a bitter conflict with the nationalist Săptămâna magazine, which was led by novelist Eugen Barbu (who was also one of the persons overseeing censorship in Communist Romania). In 1979, România Literară published evidence that, in his writings, Barbu had plagiarized works of Russian literature",
". Rumors spread that Geo Bogza had orchestrated the scandal, after he had been confronted with an initiative to transform the Union into a \"Union of Communist Writers\". The latter initiative was recorded by the Securitate, who, in a report of 1978, attributed it to Barbu and poet Adrian Păunescu. According to various speculations made ever since, Bogza contacted one of Barbu's former protegés, who admitted that he had earlier copied texts by various authors to be selectively included in Eugen Barbu's novels",
".",
"In autumn 1980, the Securitate, was alarmed of his alleged intention to condemn the country's officials for allowing antisemitism to be expressed in the press. This came after nationalist poet Corneliu Vadim Tudor signed an article in Săptămâna, which outraged representatives of the Jewish community. Romania's Chief Rabbi, Moses Rosen, was quoted saying that Tudor's piece was evidence of \"fascism\" and the prosecutable offense of \"instigations to racial hatred\"",
". A Securitate note, published by Ziua journal in 2004, claimed that Rosen was preparing to bring up for debate the issue of antisemitism in Romanian society, and depicted Bogza, alongside Jebeleanu and Dan Deșliu, as \"exercising influence\" over the Rabbi in order to have him \"publicly demand the unmasking of «antisemitism» in the S[ocialist] R[epublic] of Romania\".",
"End of communism and final years\nBogza was also close to the outspoken dissident Gheorghe Ursu (who, in 1985, was beaten to death on orders from the Securitate), as well as to filmmaker Mircea Săucan, himself an adversary of the communist regime. One theory attributes Ursu's violent death to him having refused to incriminate his writer friends during interrogations—among those whose activities may have interested the investigators were Bogza, Nina Cassian, and Iordan Chimet.",
"In late March 1989, ten months before the Romanian Revolution overthrew communism, Bogza, together with Paleologu, Doinaș, Hăulică, Octavian Paler, Mihail Șora, and Andrei Pleșu, signed the Letter of the Seven, addressed to Dumitru Radu Popescu (head of the Writers' Union) in protest over poet Mircea Dinescu's house arrest by the Securitate.Detlef Pollack, Jan Wielgohs, Dissent and Opposition in Communist Eastern Europe, Ashgate Publishing, London, 2004, p.157",
".157. Yosef Govrin, who served as Israel's Ambassador to Romania during the era, commented on the document, which was sent to members of the diplomatic corps and to other circles: \"Despite its restrained style, the letter sharply accused the Writers' Union for not having defended its members and for the alienation rife between Romanian culture and its themes.\"",
"During the final stages of his life, Geo Bogza granted a series of interviews to journalist Diana Turconi, who published them as Eu sunt ținta (\"I Am the Target\"). He died in Bucharest, after a period during which he was interned at the local Elias Hospital.\n\nWork",
"Avant-garde aesthetics",
"Geo Bogza's lifelong but uneven involvement with Surrealism has endured as a topic of interest, and was considered by many to have resulted in some of his best writings. Bogza was defined by art critic S. A. Mansbach as \"the most scandalous of Romania's avant-garde poets and editor of and contributor to a plethora of its radical publications\", while Sex Diary was argued to be \"the touchstone of Romania's emerging Surrealist avant-garde\"",
". In 1992, the American avant-garde magazine Exquisite Corpse accompanied some of his early poems with the observation \"It is the younger Bogza we love.\"",
"Much of Bogza's work is related to social criticism, reflecting his political convictions. This was the case in many of his reportage and satirical pieces. In reference to this trait, Mihuleac commented that the 20-year-old Bogza was in some ways a predecessor of later generations of protesters, such as the American Beatniks and the United Kingdom's \"angry young men\"",
". In 1932, Bogza stated: \"We write not because we wish to become writers, but because we are doomed to write, just as we would be condemned to insanity, to suicide.\"",
"The young Bogza made obscenity an aesthetic credo. Shortly after his acquittal, he wrote: \"In order to reach a new form of nobility, one is required, beforehand, to vaccinate one's soul with mud.\" He elaborated: \"The word must be stripped of the unctuous senses that have come to depose themselves on it. Cleansed of ash. The flame inside kindled, for the introduction of words, like that of women, is [currently] a privilege reserved for the great landowners",
".\" Geo Bogza's spoke in defense of taboo words such as căcat (\"shit\") and țâță (\"tit\"), arguing that the original frankness of Romanian profanity had been corrupted by modern society. One of his usual and highly controversial poems of the period read:",
"As a youth, he extended his protest to the cultural establishment as a whole—while visiting the high school in Ploieşti, where he was supposed to address the staff, he attacked local educational institutions for \"taking care to castrate [...] the glands of any outright affirmation\", and for resembling \"the Bastille\"",
"...] the glands of any outright affirmation\", and for resembling \"the Bastille\". In his early prose poems, Bogza addressed workers in the oil industry in his native Prahova, claiming to define himself in relation to their work (while still appealing to the imagery of filth). The series has been defined by critic Constantin Stănescu as poems \"rehabilitating, among other things, the compromised «genre» of the social poem\"",
". One such piece, published in 1929 and titled Poem cu erou (\"Poem with a Hero\"), documented the unusual death of a roughneck named Nicolae Ilie, who burned after his clothes caught fire. The incident was discussed in the press of his day, and the poet is credited with having personally aided in publicizing it. Bogza allegorically spoke of feeling \"the țuică and pumpkin-like\" smell of Nicolae Ilie's feces \"every time I raise a loaf of bread or a mug of milk to my mouth\". He wrote:",
"He extended an appeal to the oil industry workers, in which he identify oil with foulness and with himself:\n\nIn another one of his earliest poetry works (Destrămări la ore fixe, \"Unravellings at Pre-Convened Hours\"), Geo Bogza elaborated on the theme of melancholy and loss:",
"Reportage and agitprop",
"One of the first and most acclaimed authors of reportage in Romanian literature, Bogza was credited by journalist Cătălin Mihuleac with establishing and \"ennobling\" the genre. He is occasionally cited alongside his contemporary F. Brunea-Fox, whose equally famous reportages were less artistic and had more to do with investigative journalism. Mihuleac, who noted that Bogza was \"unnervingly talented\", also argued that: \"Romanian journalism is indebted to Geo Bogza more than to anyone else.\"",
"Also according to Mihuleac, Bogza went through a radical change around 1935, when his writing turned professional and his subjects turned from \"himself\" to \"the multitudes\". This writings were eventually structured into two main series: Cartea Oltului (\"The Book of the Olt River\"), and Țări de piatră, de foc, de pământ (\"Lands of Stone, Fire, Earth\").Călinescu, p",
".Călinescu, p.891-892 The writer traveled the land in search of subjects, and the results of these investigations were acclaimed for their power of suggestion and observation.",
"One of his reportages of the period notably discussed the widespread poverty he had encountered during his travels to the eastern province of Bessarabia, and was titled Basarabia: Țară de pământ (\"Bessarabia: Land of Soil\"). In it, the writer spoke of how most tailors were almost always commissioned by locals not to produce new clothes, but to mend old ones (at a time when the larger part of family incomes in the region were spent on food and clothing)",
". He toured the impoverished areas of Bucharest, recording activities around the city landfill and the lives of dog catchers who gassed their victims and turned them into cheap soap.",
"George Călinescu proposed that, \"although written in the most normal of syntaxes\", his pieces were still connected with avant-garde styles such as Surrealism and Dada, and answered to a call issued by unu's Paul Sterian to seek life at its purest. In parallel, Călinescu contended, Bogza's path mirrored those of Italian Futurists such as Ardengo Soffici and Filippo Tommaso Marinetti and that of the French Hussards leader Paul Morand",
". A reportage authored after Bogza visited the town of Mizil was also a study in experimental literature. Titled 175 de minute la Mizil (\"175 Minutes in Mizil\"), it has been summarized as \"the adventure of the banal\", and, together with a satirical sketch by his predecessor Ion Luca Caragiale, credited with having helped impress on the public Mizil's image as a place where nothing important ever happens",
". Similarly, his travels in Bessarabia saw him depicting Hotin as the epitome of desert places and Bălți as the source of \"a pestilent stench\".",
"In one of his satirical pieces, Bogza mocked the Romanian Post seemingly excessive regulations to have writing utensils made available for the public, but secured in place with a string:\n\"A million penholders stolen in Romania would almost be an act of culture. And one would [consequently] forget the degrading spectacle of people writing with chained penholders. Of what importance would any loss be, compared with the beauty of penholders having been set free?\"",
"The next stage in Bogza's literary career was described by Mihuleac as \"embarrassing\". This was in reference to his assimilation of communist tenets, and his willingness to offer praise to the official heroes of Communist Party history such as Vasile Roaită (a participant in the Grivița Strike of 1933)",
". In one such article, Bogza claimed to have witnessed the sight of proletarians who were living in \"new and white-painted houses\" and had manufactured business cards for themselves, proudly advertising their qualifications in the field of work and positions in the state-run factory.",
"More controversial still was his agitprop piece of 1950, Începutul epopeii (\"The Start of the Epic\"). The text praised the regime for designing and ordering work to begin on the Danube–Black Sea Canal, which, in reality, was to prove one of the harshest sites for penal labor, where thousands of political prisoners were to be killed",
". Historian Adrian Cioroianu cited the reportage, alongside Petru Dumitriu's Drum fără pulbere and other writings of the time, as an example of \"mobilizing-deferential literature\". He summarized the content of such texts as claiming to depict a \"final battle, of mythological proportions, between the old and new Romania—offering [...] a clear prognostic in respect to who would win.\"",
"Subtle dissent\nDuring the Ceaușescu years, Bogza developed a unique style, which, under the cover of apparently insignificant and docile metaphors, hid subversive messages. According to Mihuleac, the writer was critical of his own position in relation to the Communist Party and explained it as a compromise—he believed this message to be evident in Bogza's poem Treceam (\"I Was Passing\"):",
"He thus wrote a piece entitled Bau Bau (Romanian for \"Bogeyman\"), telling of how his parents encouraged him to fear things watching him from outside his window as a means of ensuring he behaved himself while they were absent—the subtext was interpreted by journalist Victor Frunză as an allegory of Ceaușescu's anti-Soviet policies (which attempted to prevent opposition by, among other things, alluding to the threat of Soviet intervention)",
". At some point during the second half of 1969, instead of his usual column, Geo Bogza sent for publication a drawing of three poplars, with a caption which read:",
"\"The line of poplars above is meant to suggest not just the beauty of this autumn, but also my sympathy towards all things having a certain height and a verticality.\"",
"The poplar metaphor was one of Bogza's favorite: he had first used it in reference to himself, as early as 1931, in an interview with Sașa Pană. Facing a jail term for his scandalous poetry, he spoke of the tree as a symbol of both aloofness and his own fate.",
"His subtle technique, like similar ones developed by other România Literară contributors, was at times detected by the regime",
". Thus, a secret Securitate report of 1984, made available ten years later, read: \"The present line-up of România Literară magazine is characterized by a gap between the political content of its editorials (perfectly in line [and] in which declarations of adherence are being made in respect to the state and party policies) and the content of the magazine which, of course, is different; [..",
"...] the criticism of content which is discussed on [România Literară's] front page grows aesthetizing through the rest of the magazine.\"",
"Legacy",
"In literature",
"A central figure in Romanian literature for much of his life, Bogza took special interest in the works of other writers, and contributed to establishing their reputation. During his early period at Urmuz, he actively encouraged various avant-garde trends, and his eclectic interests, as well as his calls to intellectual rebellion played an important role in shaping the work and activity of both Constructivists and Surrealists",
". Among the most noted writers whom he aided to express themselves freely were his co-contributors Tristan Tzara, Stephan Roll and Ilarie Voronca, and he was also noted for being the first to publish Urmuz's Fuchsiada (a few years after its author committed suicide). Max Blecher also expressed gratitude to Geo and Ecaterina Bogza for helping him complete and publish Întâmplări din irealitatea imediată.",
"His role as critic, patron and promoter of art continued under the communist regime, and he kept a vivid interest in reviewing literature of all kinds. After the 1960s, he was involved in recuperating the Romanian avant-garde, and, together with Paul Păun and Marcel Avramescu, helped introduce the previously unpublished works of Sesto Pals to an international audience. In 1978, he also republished his earliest poems for Urmuz, as part of the new volume Orion",
". In 1978, he also republished his earliest poems for Urmuz, as part of the new volume Orion. His position also allowed him to extend a degree of protection to literary figures persecuted by the authorities. According to Eugen Simion, during the 1950s, a common initiative of Bogza and philosopher Tudor Vianu attempted to rescue the academic and essayist D. D. Panaitescu from Communist imprisonment",
". D. Panaitescu from Communist imprisonment. Antonie Plămădeală, a political prisoner of the communist regime and future Romanian Orthodox Metropolitan of Transylvania, credited Bogza and the writer and theologian Gala Galaction with having insured recognition for his debut novel in spite of political obstacles.",
"The relevancy of Bogza's dissidence, like the similar attitudes of Eugen Jebeleanu, Marin Preda and others, was nonetheless debated by author Gheorghe Grigurcu, who described it as a \"coffee-house opposition\"",
". Grigurcu, who placed stress on the closeness between these writers and dissenting but high-ranking Communist Party activists such as Gheorghe Rădulescu and George Macovescu, called attention to the fact that Bogza had refused to sign his name to an appeal for radical change, drafted by novelist Paul Goma in 1977. Reportedly, when confronted with Goma's grassroots movement, Geo Bogza had asked: \"Who is this Goma person?\"",
"Bogza often credited real-life events and persons in his poetry. Alongside Nicolae Ilie and his death, his early poems make direct references to Alexandru Tudor-Miu, to the poets Simion Stolnicu and Virgil Gheorghiu, and to Voronca's wife, Colomba",
". During the same stage of his career, Geo Bogza dedicated a short piece to the 19th century writer Mihai Eminescu, to whose sad poems he attributed his own momentary adolescent urge to commit suicide—as an old man, he would depose flowers at Eminescu's statue in front of the Romanian Athenaeum each January 15 (the poet's birthday)",
". A short essay he authored late in life, titled Ogarii (\"The Borzois\"), drew a comparison between the breed, seen as an example of elegance, and the eccentric Symbolist author Mateiu Caragiale.",
"The innovative reportages he authored later in life were credited with setting guidelines and opening the road for a series of notable authors, among whom were Paul Anghel...Te Deum la Grivita, Traian T. Coșovei, Ioan Grigorescu and Ilie Purcaru. Cornel Nistorescu, himself a columnist and author of reportage, is also seen as one of Bogza and F. Brunea-Fox's disciples. Critics have noted the potential impact his early poetry has or may have on Postmodern literature in Romania",
". Sorin Alexandrescu, \"Retrospectiva Nicolae Manolescu (V)\" , in Observator Cultural, Nr. 93, December 2001; retrieved November 23, 2007 Several commentators, including Nicolae Manolescu, have traced a connection between his poems of the 1920s and 1930s and many of those authored by Florian Iaru between 1982 and the early 2000s.",
"In contrast to both his status as a former political prisoner and his new-found Christian faith, Nicolae Steinhardt continued to value Bogza's contributions, and, in 1981, authored an essay dedicated to his work and their friendship.Brătescu, p",
".Brătescu, p.366-367 Titled Geo Bogza – un poet al Efectelor, Exaltării, Grandiosului, Solemnității, Exuberanței și Patetismului (\"Geo Bogza – a Poet of Impressions, Exaltation, Grandeur, Solemnity, Exuberance and Pathetism\") and edited by writer Mircea Sântimbreanu, it was characterized by literary critic Ion Bogdan Lefter as a \"eulogy [...] to their shared youth, seen as a paradise of liberty\". G",
"...] to their shared youth, seen as a paradise of liberty\". G. Brătescu, who was himself involved in editing and claims to have aided in publishing Steinhardt's volume, recalled being \"fascinated\" by both Bogza's \"impertuosity\", as well as by Steihardt's \"art of evidencing such an impertuousity.\"",
"Sesto Pals also authored Epitaf pentru Geo Bogza (\"Epitaph for Geo Bogza\"), first published by Nicolae Tzone in 2001. The writer was also the subject for one of B. Elvin's essays, collected as Datoria de a ezita (\"The Duty to Hesitate\") and first published in 2003. In the same year, his correspondence with various Transylvanian writers was published as Rânduri către tinerii scriitori ardeleni (\"Letters to the Young Transylvanian Writers\")",
". The relation between Bogza and Mircea Săucan served as the basis for a short work of fiction, which the latter authored and dictated as part of a 2007 book of interviews.",
"Other tributes\n\nBogza was the subject of a portrait painted by his friend Victor Brauner, which was itself the topic of scandal. The piece, defined by S. A. Mansbach as one of Brauner's \"most fully realized Surrealist canvases of [the early 1930s]\", depicted the subject nude, with a severed head and elongated sex organs (symbols which probably alluded to elements present in Bogza's own texts).",
"Bogza's novella, Sfârșitul lui Iacob Onisia (\"The End of Iacob Onisia\"), has served as the basis for a 1988 film, Iacob (translated into English as Jacob, or, in full, The Miseries of a Gold Miner – Jacob)",
". Doinel Tronaru, \"Iacob Onisia se pregătește să moară\", originally published in România Liberă (February 2003); at the LiterNet Publishing House; retrieved November 21, 2007 A story of violent workers leading miserable lives and tempted to steal for their livelihood, it was adapted for the screen and directed by Mircea Danieliuc, and starred Dorel Vișan in the title role (other actors credited include Cecilia Bîrbora, Ion Fiscuteanu and Dinu Apetrei)",
". Writing for The New York Times, American critic Vincent Canby described the production as \"uncharacterized and murky\". Nevertheless, Romanian critics saw Danieliuc's production as an accomplished piece of subversiveness, arguing that the director had used a Socialist realist pretext to comment on the conflict between the Ceauşescu regime and the Jiu Valley miners (see Jiu Valley miners' strike of 1977)",
". Bogza's trial has been the subject of an episode in the series București, strict secret (\"Bucharest, Top Secret\"), produced by writer and political scientist Stelian Tănase and aired by Realitatea TV in 2007.",
"A school in Bucharest and one in Bălan were named in Bogza's honor, as were a culture house and a street in Câmpina. A memorial plaque was raised on downtown Bucharest's Știrbei Vodă Street, at a house where he lived between 1977 and 1993. Câmpina also hosts the annual Geo Bogza Theater Festival.\n\nSelected works",
"Selected works\n\nCollected poemsJurnal de sex (\"Sex Diary\"), 1929Poemul invectivă (\"Offensive Poem\" or \"Contemptuous Poem\"), 1933Ioana Maria: 17 poeme (\"Ioana Maria: 17 Poems\"), 1937Cântec de revoltă, de dragoste și de moarte (\"Song of Revolt, Love and Death\"), 1947Orion, 1978",
"Collected journalismCartea Oltului (\"The Book of the Olt\"), 1945Țări de piatră, de foc, de pământ (\"Lands of Stone, Fire, Earth\"), 1939Oameni și carbuni în Valea Jiului (\"Men and Coal in the Jiu Valley\"), 1947Trei călătorii în inima țării (\"Three Journeys into the Heart of the Land\"), 1951Tablou Geografic (\"Geographical Survey\"), 1954Years of Darkness, 1955Meridiane sovietice (\"Soviet Meridians\"), 1956Azi, ín România: carte radiofonică de reportaj (\"Today, in Romania: a Radio Reportage Book\")",
", 1956Azi, ín România: carte radiofonică de reportaj (\"Today, in Romania: a Radio Reportage Book\"), 1972Statui în lună (\"Statues on the Moon\"), 1977",
"OtherSfârșitul lui Iacob Onisia (\"The End of Iacob Onisia\"), 1949; novellaEu sunt ținta: Geo Bogza în dialog cu Diana Turconi (\"I Am the Target: Geo Bogza Interviewed by Diana Turconi\"), 1994Rânduri către tinerii scriitori ardeleni (\"Letters to the Young Transylvanian Writers\"), 2003\n\nNotes\n\nReferences",
"Studia Universitas Babeș-Bolyai Ephemerides, LII, 1, 2007, at the Babeș-Bolyai University of Cluj-Napoca:\nMihai Lisei, \"Gabriel García Márquez şi romanul-reportaj\", p. 99–104\nClaudia Talașman Chiorean, \"Promovarea mitului Erei Noi în perioada 1989–2000 prin România Literară\", p. 121–150\nG. Brătescu, Ce-a fost să fie. Notații autobiografice, Humanitas, Bucharest, 2003. \nGeorge Călinescu, Istoria literaturii române de la origini până în prezent, Editura Minerva, Bucharest, 1986",
"Victor Frunză, Istoria stalinismului în România, Humanitas, Bucharest, 1990\nAndrew Hammond, The Balkans and the West, Ashgate Publishing, London, 2004. \nZ. Ornea, Anii treizeci. Extrema dreaptă românească, Editura Fundației Culturale Române, Bucharest, 1995. \nVladimir Tismăneanu, Stalinism pentru eternitate, Polirom, Iași, 2005. (translation of Stalinism for All Seasons: A Political History of Romanian Communism'', University of California Press, Berkeley, 2003. )",
"1908 births\n1993 deaths\nPeople from Blejoi\nRomanian communists\nRomanian erotica writers\nRomanian essayists\nRomanian humorists\nRomanian literary critics\nRomanian magazine editors\nRomanian magazine founders\nRomanian people of the Spanish Civil War\nRomanian male poets\nRomanian radio personalities\nRomanian sailors\nRomanian male short story writers\nRomanian short story writers\nRomanian surrealist writers\nRomanian travel writers\nRomanian war correspondents\nSocialist realism writers\nCensorship in Romania",
"Romanian travel writers\nRomanian war correspondents\nSocialist realism writers\nCensorship in Romania\nObscenity controversies in literature\nTitular members of the Romanian Academy\nMembers of the Romanian Orthodox Church\nRecipients of the Order of the Star of the Romanian Socialist Republic\n20th-century Romanian poets\nMale essayists\n20th-century short story writers\n20th-century essayists"
] |
2002 Bali bombings
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2002%20Bali%20bombings
|
[
"A series of bombings occurred on 12 October 2002 in the tourist district of Kuta on the Indonesian island of Bali. The attack killed 202 people (including 88 Australians, 38 Indonesians, 23 Britons, and people of more than 20 other nationalities). A further 209 people were injured.",
"Various members of Jemaah Islamiyah, a violent Islamist group, were convicted in relation to the bombings, including three individuals who were sentenced to death. The attack involved the detonation of three bombs: a backpack-mounted device carried by a suicide bomber; a large car bomb, both of which were detonated in or near popular nightclubs in Kuta; and a third much smaller device detonated outside the United States consulate in Denpasar, causing only minor damage.",
"On 9 November 2008, Amrozi bin Nurhasyim, Imam Samudra and Huda bin Abdul Haq were executed by firing squad on the island prison of Nusakambangan. On 9 March 2010, Dulmatin, nicknamed \"the Genius\"—believed to be responsible for setting off one of the Bali bombs with a mobile phone—was killed in a shoot-out with Indonesian police in Pamulang, South Tangerang.\n\nAttack",
"Attack \n\nAt 11:05 p.m. on 12 October 2002, a suicide bomber inside the nightclub Paddy's Pub (sometimes referred to as Paddy's Irish Bar or Paddy's Bar) detonated a bomb in his backpack, causing many patrons, with or without injuries, to immediately flee into the street. Twenty seconds later, a second and much more powerful car bomb hidden inside a white Mitsubishi van was detonated by another suicide bomber outside the Sari Club, a renowned open-air thatch-roof bar located opposite Paddy's Pub.",
"The bombing occurred during one of the busiest tourist periods of the year in Kuta Beach, driven in part by many Australian sporting teams making their annual end-of-season holiday.\n\nDamage to the densely populated residential and commercial district was immense, destroying neighbouring buildings and shattering windows several blocks away. The car bomb explosion left a one metre deep crater.",
"The local Sanglah Hospital was ill-equipped to deal with the scale of the disaster and was overwhelmed with the number of injured, particularly burn victims. There were so many people injured by the explosion that some of the injured had to be placed in hotel pools near the explosion site to ease the pain of their burns. Many of the injured were forced to be flown extreme distances to Darwin () and Perth () for specialist burn treatment.",
"A comparatively small bomb detonated outside the U.S. consulate in Denpasar, which is thought to have exploded shortly before the two Kuta bombs, caused minor injuries to one person and property damage was minimal. It was reportedly packed with human excrement.",
"A report released in August 2005 by the United States-Indonesia Society (USINDO) described the events as follows:",
"The investigators were thus able to recreate the bombers activities. Amrozi, Idris and Ali Imron had simply walked into a dealership and purchased a new Yamaha motorbike, after asking how much they could re-sell it for if they returned it in a few days. Imron used the motorbike to plant the small bomb outside the U.S. Consulate. Idris then rode the motorbike as Imron drove two suicide bombers in the Mitsubishi to the nightclub district in Kuta",
". He stopped near the Sari Club, instructed one suicide bomber to put on his explosives vest and the other to arm the vehicle bomb. The first bomber headed to Paddy's Pub. Idris then left the second bomber, who had only learned to drive in a straight line, to drive the minivan the short distance to the Sari Club. Idris picked up Imron on the Yamaha and the duo headed back into Denpasar. Idris dialed the number of the Nokia to detonate the bomb at the Consulate. The two suicide bombers exploded their devices",
". The two suicide bombers exploded their devices. Imron and Idris dropped the motorbike at a place where it eventually attracted the attention of the caretaker.",
"The final death toll was 202, mainly comprising Western tourists and holiday-makers in their 20s and 30s who were in or near Paddy's Pub or the Sari Club, but also including many Balinese Indonesians working or living nearby, or simply passing by. Hundreds more people suffered horrific burns and other injuries. The largest group among those killed were tourists from Australia with 88 fatalities",
". The largest group among those killed were tourists from Australia with 88 fatalities. On 14 October, the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 1438 condemning the attack as a threat to international peace and security.",
"Awards \nThere were many acts of individual heroism in the aftermath of the bombings. Several of these acts would receive official recognition under Australia's honours and awards system, particularly in the Special Honours List for 2003.",
"Timothy Britten, a Senior Constable with the Western Australia Police Force, and Richard Joyes were both awarded the Cross of Valour, Australia's highest civilian honour, for entering the burning remains of the Sari Club to free a badly injured woman from the wreckage; after they had rescued the woman on the third attempt, both men then searched for other potential survivors until the increasing intensity of the flames and of secondary explosions made this impossible",
". Both men were aware of the possibility of being injured or even killed (Britten specifically believed in the possibility of yet another bomb being detonated at any moment in order to disrupt rescue efforts and kill emergency workers) and would indeed sustain several injuries during their efforts to rescue the woman and find other survivors.",
"Natalie Goold initially escaped from Paddy's Bar after the bombings but then went back into the now-burning building, sustaining burns to her right arm and hand in the process, in order to rescue her friend, Nicole McLean, who had been heavily injured by the blasts. After asking two men for their shirts in order to use these as improvised tourniquets for her friend's wounds, Goold secured McLean's transportation to a local hospital and then stayed with her during their medical evacuation to Australia.",
"Robert Meredith and his group of friends were caught up in the bombing of the Sari Club; he was thrown onto his back and badly winded",
". Despite intense heat and flames, Meredith and his friends managed to help about ten other survivors escape by lifting them over a wall; while the wall ended up collapsing under people's weight, injuring Meredith's feet and depriving him of the already limited protection of his thong sandals, he managed to get to a staircase from where he helped yet more survivors get to safety. Meredith would ultimately be left with several burns and cuts to his feet.",
"Lauren Munro was also caught up in the Sari bombing, being rendered unconscious; when he came to, he pulled free an injured woman who had been trapped under roof beams, and carried her out of the building and over a wall of rubble. Munro helped several other people get over the same wall before re-entering the Sari Club and spending the next two hours carrying out many more injured people and helping to fight the fire",
". Ben Clohessy was also rendered unconscious by the blast that destroyed the Sari Club and also rescued or helped to rescue other survivors after regaining consciousness. Goold, Meredith, Munro, and Clohessy were all awarded the Star of Courage (SC) on 17 October 2003 for their respective actions.",
"Awards of the Commendation for Brave Conduct were made to, among other people, Hanabeth Luke. Luke was in the Sari Club with her partner Marc Gajado at the time of the second bombing, with the explosion throwing her to the ground. After managing to escape the now-burning building by climbing through its collapsed roof using severed electrical wire, Luke began a search for Gajado, during which she came across a badly injured Tom Singer",
". Singer was lying close to a burning car and Luke believed that he would be engulfed in flames if he remained there.",
"When Singer confirmed that he could not stand up independently, Luke helped him to his feet and supported him in walking away. Luke then tried to return to the Sari Club to resume looking for Gajado, but was persuaded by a friend that it was too dangerous to do so (Gajado was ultimately determined to have been killed instantly); she thus went back to attending to Singer, helping other people to get him into a car to be taken to hospital. Singer died in hospital a month later",
". Singer died in hospital a month later. Separately from her Commendation for Brave Conduct award, a photograph of Luke helping Singer was published in news media around the world in the days after the bombings.",
"Kusitino 'Kossy' Halemai, a Wallis and Futuna-born Australian citizen who was managing the Bounty Hotel in Kuta at the time of the attacks, sheltered survivors in the immediate aftermath of the blasts. A makeshift triage area in the hotel's reception area was organised by Richard and Gilana Poore, with the couple also fielding phone calls from the media and from families trying to trace loved ones",
". After three days of this, the Poores flew to Richard's native New Zealand where they organised the collection of eighty boxes of medical supplies; they then returned to Bali with these supplies as well as two burns nurses. Halemai and the Poores were honoured with the Medal of the Order of Australia (OAM), with Gilana Poore's OAM being awarded on 26 January 2005, Halemai's OAM being awarded on 13 June 2005, and Richard Poore's OAM being awarded on 22 August 2005.",
"James Parkinson, an emergency nurse, worked alongside Doctor Hogg from Wollongong in the Denpasar Sanglah Hospital running the trauma centre for the bombing victims. After he disappeared in Africa and Europe for three years, the Governor General's department finally tracked him down and awarded Parkinson the Medal of the Order of Australia in 2005.",
"The bomb",
"The Mitsubishi L300 van bomb was initially thought to have consisted of C4, a military grade plastic explosive which is difficult to obtain. However, investigators discovered the bomb was made from potassium chlorate, aluminium powder, and sulfur. For the Sari club bomb with the L300 van, the terrorists assembled 12 plastic filing cabinets filled with explosives",
". The cabinets, each containing a potassium chlorate, aluminum powder, sulfur mixture with a TNT booster, were connected by of PETN-filled detonating cord. Ninety-four RDX electric detonators were fitted to the TNT. The total weight of the van bomb was .",
"The large, high-temperature blast damage produced by this mixture was similar to a thermobaric explosive, although the bombers may not have known this.",
"Suspects \nThe organization suspected of responsibility for the bombing was Jemaah Islamiyah, an Islamist group allegedly led by radical cleric Abu Bakar Bashir. A week after the blasts, Arab satellite channel Al-Jazeera put to air an audio-cassette purportedly carrying a recorded voice message from Osama bin Laden that stated the Bali bombings were in direct retaliation for support of the United States' War on Terror and Australia's role in the liberation of East Timor.",
"You will be killed just as you kill, and will be bombed just as you bomb. Expect more that will further distress you.\nThe recording did not however claim responsibility for the Bali attack. Former FBI agent Ali Soufan confirmed in his book, The Black Banners, that al-Qaeda did in fact finance the attack. In addition, Riduan Isamuddin confessed that al-Qaeda had sent him US$30,000 to fund the bombings of the two nightclubs.",
"The Indonesian chief of police, General Da'i Bachtiar said that the bombing was the \"worst act of terror in Indonesia's history\".",
"Aris Munandar (aka Sheik Aris) is a Jemaah Islamiyah associate linked to Bashir. He is believed to have assisted the Bali bomber Amrozi in acquiring some of the explosives used in the Bali bombings. Philippine intelligence considers Munandar to be associated with Mohammad Abdullah Sughayer, a Saudi national Abu Sayyaf Group in southern Philippines. Munandar is still at large. A report by the United States-Indonesia Society describes the arrest of Amrozi and other suspects.",
"General Pastika ordered his men to make the arrest early the next morning, November. Amrozi was asleep in the rear of the house. According to Greg Barton's account, Amrozi did not attempt to escape, but laughed instead, later exclaiming, \"Gosh, you guys are very clever, how did you find me?\" Amrozi's mobile phone, a particularly important piece of evidence, was seized during his arrest",
". Bags of chemical ingredients for bombs were found in his workshop and soil samples taken from outside his home showed traces of the primary chemical used in the Sari Club bomb. Police found receipts for the purchase of chemicals used to make the bombs, as well as a list of expenses incurred in making the bombs. Further search of Amrozi's home revealed copies of speeches by Osama bin Laden, and Abu Bakar Bashir, the radical Indonesian Muslim cleric reputed to be the leader of Jemaah Islamiyah",
". The speeches exhorted listeners to wage jihad. Police also uncovered training manuals on ambush techniques and numerous articles on jihad. Under questioning Amrozi revealed the names of six others involved in the bombing: Ali Imron, Imam Samudra, Dul Matin, Idris, Abdul Ghani and Umar Patek. But Amrozi's mobile phone proved to be the real catch",
". But Amrozi's mobile phone proved to be the real catch. Indonesian investigators were able to print out a list of calls he had made immediately before, during and after the bombing, as well as the names and telephone numbers in the phone's memory. Pastika kept Amrozi's arrest secret for two days. After it was announced, Polri monitored the sudden flurry of communications among numbers listed in Amrozi's telephone before the calls abruptly ceased",
". The investigators were able to identify the location of a number of the telephones, leading to a series of arrests.",
"Indonesian authorities also believe more suspects remain at large. In 2005, Indonesian police arrested 24 additional people suspected of involvement in the Bali attacks and a 2003 bombing of the Marriott Hotel in Jakarta.\n\nOn 12 October 2005, a story in Australian broadcaster SBS's documentary series Dateline, called \"Inside Indonesia's War on Terrorism\", argued that the Indonesian military or police may have been involved in executing the attack.",
"On 13 June 2007, it was reported that Abu Dujana, who might have headed a terrorist cell in Bali, was captured.\n\nJust past midnight on 9 November 2008, the three convicted of carrying out the bombings (Imam Samudra, Amrozi Nurhasyim, and Ali Ghufron) were executed by a firing squad.\n\nUmar Patek was finally arrested in Abbottabad, Pakistan in early 2011. The U.S. government had offered a US$1 million reward for his arrest. Patek is a suspect in other bombings as well as the one in Bali.",
"Another suspect named Zulkarnaen was finally arrested in Lampung on 10 December 2020. He was also stated to have orchestrated numerous Jemaah Islamiyah-related incidents in the past and been one of the executives of said terrorist group.\n\nLegal proceedings",
"Initial charges and trials",
"In April 2003, Indonesian authorities charged Abu Bakar Bashir (also rendered \"Ba'asyir\"), the alleged spiritual leader of Jemaah Islamiyah, with treason. It was alleged that he tried to overthrow the government and establish an Islamic state. The specific charges against Bashir related to a series of church bombings on Christmas Eve in 2000, and to a plot to bomb United States and other Western interests in Singapore",
". He was initially not charged over the Bali attack, although he was frequently accused of being the instigator or inspirer of the attack. On 2 September, Bashir was acquitted of treason but convicted of lesser charges and sentenced to a prison term of four years. He said he would appeal.",
"On 15 October 2004, he was arrested by the Indonesian authorities and charged with involvement in another bomb attack, which killed 14 people at the J. W. Marriott hotel in Jakarta on 5 August 2003. Secondary charges in this indictment accused him of involvement in the Bali bombing, the first time he faced charges in relation to this attack.",
"On 3 March 2005, Bashir was found not guilty of the charges surrounding the 2003 bombing, but guilty of conspiracy over the 2002 attacks in Bali. He was sentenced to two and a half years imprisonment. The Australian, US, and many governments expressed its disappointment that the sentence was too short. In the outcome, Bashir was freed on 14 June 2006 having served less than 26 months for his conspiracy. On 21 December 2006, Bashir's conviction was overturned by Indonesia's Supreme Court.",
"On 30 April 2003, the first charges related to the Bali bombings were made against Amrozi bin Haji Nurhasyim, known as Amrozi, for allegedly buying the explosives and the van used in the bombings. On 8 August, he was found guilty and sentenced to death. Another participant in the bombing, Imam Samudra, was sentenced to death on 10 September. Amrozi's brother, Ali Imron, who had expressed remorse for his part in the bombing, was sentenced to life imprisonment on 18 September",
". A fourth accused, Ali Ghufron, the brother-in-law of Noordin Mohammed Top was sentenced to death on 1 October. Ali Ghufron, alias Mukhlas, told police that he was the head of one of Jemaah Islamiyah's four cells and had ordered the Bali bombings. He also confessed that a fellow leader Riduan Isamuddin, known as Hambali, had provided the funds for the attacks",
". He told police, I do not know for sure the source of the aforementioned money from Hambali; most probably it was from Afghanistan, that is, from Sheikh Usama bin Laden. As far as I know, Hambali did not have a source of funds except from Afghanistan. Another operative, Wan Min bin Wan Mat, revealed to police that he had given Mukhlas money, at Hambali's request and that he understood part of the money had come directly from al-Qaeda.",
"As noted below, all three were executed on 9 November 2008.",
"The Australian, US, and many other foreign governments expressed satisfaction with the speed and efficiency with which the Indonesian police and courts dealt with the bombings primary suspects, despite what they characterized as light sentences. All Australian jurisdictions abolished the death penalty more than 30 years ago, but a poll showed that 77% of Australians approved of the death sentence for Amrozi. The Australian government said it would not ask Indonesia to refrain from using the death penalty.",
"On 15 August, Riduan Isamuddin, generally known as Hambali, described as the operational chief of Jemaah Islamiyah was arrested in Ayutthaya, Thailand, the old capital one hour's drive north of Bangkok. He is in American custody in the Guantanamo Bay detention camp.",
"Constitutional appeals \nOn 23 July 2004, one of the convicted bombers, Maskur Abdul Kadir, successfully appealed his conviction. He had been tried under retroactive laws which were introduced after the bombing and which were employed to aid the prosecution of those involved in the attack. These laws were used by the prosecution instead of existing criminal laws as they allowed the death penalty to be imposed and lowered certain evidentiary restrictions.",
"The highest court in Indonesia, the Constitutional Court, found by a margin of five to four that trying the terrorist suspects under these retroactive laws violated Article 28I(1) of the constitution [2]. The minority judges argued that international human rights documents such as the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights allowed an exception to not applying retrospective legislation in the prosecution of crimes against humanity",
". The majority found that this argument was inconsistent with the text of Article 28I(1) which states that the rights listed there \"cannot be limited under any circumstances.\"",
"Following this decision, charges related to the bombings against Idris, who had confessed to participating in the attacks to the police and court, were dismissed. The legal status of Kadir, Idris and others who might have their convictions quashed following the ruling on the retrospective law is unclear.\n\nThe Constitutional Court is a relatively new body, created after the fall of Suharto, and this decision was one of the first to overrule the constitutionality of the government's application of a law.",
"Execution of perpetrators \nOn 24 October 2008, Bali officials announced that three men convicted of carrying out the bombings would be executed by firing squad in November 2008. On 25 October 2008, Communications and Information Minister asked the Indonesian media to stop calling the three \"heroes\".",
"The Denpasar District Court, on 3 November, accepted a reprieve motion to reconsider the death sentences. Fahmi Bachmid, a lawyer for the family of Jafar Sodiq, a brother of Amrozi and Mukhlas, stated: \"We lodged the judicial review to Denpasar court to question (previous) decisions.\" Lawyer Imam Asmara Hadi stated: \"We have lodged an appeal because we haven't received a copy of the Supreme Court rejection of our previous appeal.\"",
"Indonesia's Supreme Court denied previous petitions for judicial review amid the constitutional court's dismissal of the bombers' appeals. Denpasar court official Nengah Sanjaya said the 3-page appeal would be sent to a Cilacap, central Java court. But the Attorney General's office said on 1 November the execution was \"very close",
". But the Attorney General's office said on 1 November the execution was \"very close.\" Supreme Court judge Djoko Sarwoko, however, said a \"last-minute legal challenge by the relatives of Imam Samudra, Amrozi Nurhasyim and Ali Ghufron will not change or delay the execution.\" They were moved to isolation cells, and execution spots were ready on the Nusakambangan island prison where they were being held",
". Local chief prosecutor Muhammad Yamin said they would be \"executed simultaneously\" but at different locations.",
"Imam Samudra, Amrozi Nurhasyim and Ali Ghufron were executed by firing squad after midnight on 9 November 2008 (West Indonesian time). In the final moment, there was no remorse or repentance, and they shouted: Allahu Akbar, or \"God is great!\" Despite his carefree demeanor throughout his trial and incarceration, the Australian edition of The Daily Telegraph reported Amrozi was pale-faced and shaking in the moments before his execution",
". For burial, Mukhlas and Amrozi's bodies were flown by helicopter to Tenggulan, Lamongan, East Java, while Imam Samudra's body was flown to Serang, Banten, amid \"welcome martyrs\" banner displayed at the cemetery.",
"The execution caused high tension and sparked clashes in Tenggulan between hundreds of police and supporters. Indonesian singer and TV presenter Dorce Gamalama attended the funeral of Imam Samudra. After praying with the crowd, she spent half an hour in the house of the executed man and spoke with his mother. On leaving she was quoted as saying \"I'm certain he's gone to heaven\"",
". On leaving she was quoted as saying \"I'm certain he's gone to heaven\". Ma'ruf Amin, deputy chairman of the Indonesian Ulemas Council, the chief body for Islamic clerics in Indonesia said of the men: \"They did not die a holy death. That can only be in a war and Indonesia is not at war.\"",
"Memorials\n\nBali \n\nA permanent memorial was built on the site of the destroyed Paddy's Pub on Legian Street. (A new bar, named \"Paddy's: Reloaded\", was reopened further along Legian Street). The memorial is made of intricately carved stone, set with a large marble plaque, which bears the names and nationalities of each of those killed. It is flanked by the national flags of the victims. The monument is well-maintained and illuminated at night.",
"The memorial was dedicated on 12 October 2004, the second anniversary of the attack. The dedication included a Balinese Hindu ceremony and the opportunity for mourners to lay flowers and other offerings. The Australian ambassador and Indonesian officials attended the ceremony.",
"The Balinese mark their commitment in a nine-day-long event. After major cleansing ceremonies, establishing a memorial for the lost lives, and paying respect to those who left loved ones behind, the people of Kuta look forward to restoring Bali's image through an event named \"Kuta Karnival — A Celebration of Life\"",
". The community event consists of traditional art performances such as Balinese Sunset Dances, sports on the beach as well as in the water for young and old plus rows and rows of culinary displays along the one kilometre of sandy beach.",
"In line with the return of tourism to Kuta, Kuta Karnival has grown into a tourism promotional event with major coverage from television and newspapers from across the globe",
". Companies, embassies, Non-Government Organizations, associations and even individuals come forth to get involved in the various events such as a Balinese dance competition presented by a surf-wear company, an environment exhibition presented by an embassy, a fun cycle presented by a group of individuals, a seminar presented by an association and a parade on the streets presented by an NGO. Tourists and locals alike, more than ninety thousand people, participate in the numerous events year after year.",
"A repeated tragedy in Bali in 2005 did not reduce the Kuta community's determination to carry out this annual event. Kuta Karnival is conducted to commemorate and give respect to the victims of human violence and show the world the true spirit of local community survival despite terrorism attacks.\n\nOn 12 October 2010, Australian and Indonesian survivors of the 2002 bombings attended a solemn commemoration service to mark the eighth anniversary of the devastating attacks.\n\nMelbourne",
"Melbourne \n\nIn Lincoln Square on the western side of Swanston Street in Carlton, Melbourne, is a memorial representing the 88 Australians who died in the bombings, and notably the 22 from Victoria.\n\nThere are 88 jets in the fountain; at night, there are lights representing all those who died. The fountain shuts off and becomes a reflecting pool on 12 October each year.\n\nThis was one of the very few fountains allowed to operate during the drought in 2007.",
"This was one of the very few fountains allowed to operate during the drought in 2007.\n\nChristine Anu sang The Lighthouse by toxtwo at the opening ceremony.\n\nJason McCartney \n\nOne Melburnian survivor of the bombings was North Melbourne AFL player Jason McCartney. He suffered second-degree burns to over 50% of his body while helping carry others to safety and nearly died during surgery after being transported back to Melbourne.",
"After a long rehabilitation process, McCartney returned for a single AFL match: North Melbourne vs. Richmond at Docklands Stadium in Melbourne on 6 June 2003. He wore compression garments and protective gloves as well as the numbers \"88\" and \"202\" on his jersey, signifying the Australian and total numbers of victims, while many in the crowd held up signs saying \"Bali 88/202\"",
". Other Australian victims were honored in a video shown on the stadium's video screens before the game, with the attendees including Melbourne players Steven Febey and Steven Armstrong, who were both injured in the blast, and representatives from five Australian rules football clubs who lost players in the attacks were presented to the crowd",
". McCartney helped his team to a narrow win before announcing his retirement at the end of the game, and his comeback has been cited as one of the AFL's most inspirational stories.",
"Perth \n\nA memorial which lists the victims of the bombings from Western Australia was opened on the first anniversary, and is situated on the ridge of Mount Eliza in Kings Park, overlooking the city. The memorial is specifically designed to frame the sun's rays at dawn on 12 October each year and faces in the exact direction of Bali.",
"Gold Coast \nAn Indonesian-style stone memorial is situated in Allambe Memorial Park at Nerang. A bronze plaque lists the names of the 88 Australians who died in the bombings. An annual twilight service is held at the site of the memorial on each anniversary of the Bali bombings.\n\nSydney",
"Sydney \n\nOn the northern side of Coogee Beach a memorial to the Bali bombing victims comprises three interlocking bronze shapes that have an abstract resemblance to three bowed figures supporting each other. There are also some graffiti memorials in memory of the dead.",
"A memorial to seven residents of Sutherland Shire who were victims is at Cronulla. Called The Seed, the work is based on the seed and foliage of the Banksia robur, a native plant indigenous to the Shire. This sculpture of pink sandstone is the centrepiece of the memorial. It is set in a black granite pond located in 'Peryman Place' not far from North Cronulla Beach, frequented by many of the seven victims and their families. Two plaques are set into the granite surrounding the pond",
". Two plaques are set into the granite surrounding the pond. The plaques carry the victims' photos, names, and ages; and also details of the event, the design's symbolism, its dedication, and a poem written by the families of the victims. The work is by sculptor Chris Bennetts and Ishi Buki Sandstone Sculpture.",
"South of Sydney, in the town of Ulladulla, a large youth centre is being built as a memorial to Craig Dunn and Danny Lewis, two local victims of the bombings. Money is being raised through the Dunn & Lewis Youth Development Foundation.\n\nCanberra \nA granite cube serves as a memorial in the Eastern Formal Gardens of Parliament House.\n\nLondon",
"On the fourth anniversary of the bombings the Prince of Wales and Duchess of Cornwall (now Charles III and Queen Camilla) unveiled a memorial in London, at the rear of the Foreign and Commonwealth Office Main Building, facing St. James's Park. The memorial consists of a 1.5-metre marble globe, to represent that people from 21 countries were killed, and has 202 doves carved into it. The names of all 202 victims are on a curved stone wall behind the globe",
". The names of all 202 victims are on a curved stone wall behind the globe. It is the work of the artist Gary Breeze and the sculptor Martin Cook.",
"There is a small stone memorial to the 28 British nationals who died, in the small country park of Ratby Burroughs in Leicestershire.\n\nHong Kong \nIn 2005, two marble wall placards were unveiled at Hong Kong Football Club in memory of the members of the club who were killed in the bombings.",
"Singapore",
"Every year since 2002, the Rugby Section of the Singapore Cricket Club (the \"SCC\") has held a dawn memorial service on the Padang (the SCC's rugby field in central Singapore) on the anniversary of the bombings, to honour the memory of the eight players which the SCC lost (Neil Bowler, Chris Redman, Dave Kent, Peter Record, Tim Arnold, Chris Bradford, Chris Kays and Charlie Vanrenen)",
". The service is attended by survivors of the 2002 rugby tour to Bali, friends and family of those who lost their lives, as well as current and past players of the club.",
"The SCC also maintains a permanent memorial to the players it lost inside the club's main lounge.\n\nVietnam \nA remembrance garden was constructed at the International School Ho Chi Minh City commemorating teachers from that school who were killed in the bombings.\n\nIn media",
"In 2006, Long Road to Heaven, an Indonesian feature film about the bombings, was released by Kalyana Shira Films. The film was directed by Enison Sinaro and written by Wong Wai Leng and Andy Logam-Tan. It stars Raelee Hill, Mirrah Foulkes, Alex Komang, Surya Saputra, John O' Hare, Sarah Treleaven, and Joshua Pandelaki",
". It tells the story during three different times: the planning a few months before the bombing, its execution in 2002, and the trials in 2003 through the viewpoints of both the victims and the bombers. The story is not chronologically linear, starting with the explosion and then moving from time to time so as all three plots are culminated one after the other. At the beginning of each scene, subtitles tell the date and location of the scene.",
"A comic book about the first Bali bombing was launched to promote peace and discourage radicalism and terrorism in Indonesia. The book, Ketika Nurani Bicara (When Conscience Speaks), tells about the bombing from the perspective of three people: a volunteer who helped evacuate a bombing victim who lost her husband in the blast; a victim who struggled to raise her children without her husband; and a terrorist who regrets his involvement in the bombing.",
"A Seconds from Disaster episode, \"Bali Bombings\", was a documentary telling the story of what happened, and looking at what happened after the incident.\n\nA Zero Hour documentary depicts the disaster.\n\nIn 2022 (20 years after the incident), the Australian-Indonesian historical drama Bali 2002, aired on Stan and Nine Network.\n\nSee also",
"See also \n\n 2005 Bali bombings\n Christmas Eve 2000 Indonesia bombings\n 2004 Jakarta embassy bombing\n Anti-Australian sentiment\n Bali Mandara Eye Hospital\n List of terrorist incidents\n List of terrorist incidents in Indonesia\n Terrorism in Indonesia\n Traumascapes\n\nReferences",
"References\n\nExternal links\n Remember Bali: a memorial website\n Australian Broadcasting Corp. Online, current affairs program Four Corners: \"The Bali Confessions\" (10 February 2003)\n Bali's message of dialogue- includes the Bali Declaration on Building Interfaith Harmony July 2005\n Moruning in Bali: Bali is Wounded",
"2002 in Australia\n2002 in Indonesia\n2002 in international relations\nTerrorist incidents in Indonesia in 2002\n21st century in Bali\nAttacks in Asia in 2002\nPost-Suharto era\nBali, 2002\nIslamic terrorist incidents in 2002\nImprovised explosive device bombings in Indonesia\nBali, 2002\nBali, 2002\nBali 2002\nBali, 2002\nAustralia–Indonesia relations\nAustralian terrorism victims\nMass murder in 2002\nCar and truck bombings in Indonesia\nAustralian people murdered abroad\nAnti-Australian sentiment",
"Car and truck bombings in Indonesia\nAustralian people murdered abroad\nAnti-Australian sentiment\nSuicide bombings in 2002\nAttacks on nightclubs\nOctober 2002 crimes\nOctober 2002 events in Asia\nAttacks on tourists\nAnti-Western sentiment\nBuilding bombings in Indonesia\nAnti-Americanism\nPersecution by Muslims\nSuicide car and truck bombings in Asia"
] |
New Zealand and Australian Division
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Zealand%20and%20Australian%20Division
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[
"The New Zealand and Australian Division was a composite army division raised for service in the First World War under the command of Major General Alexander Godley. Consisting of several mounted and standard infantry brigades from both New Zealand and Australia, it served in the Gallipoli Campaign between April and December 1915.",
"At Gallipoli, the division landed at Anzac Cove on 25 April 1915, coming ashore as follow-on troops to the initial assault force that had made it ashore earlier in the day, and later occupied the northern areas of the Allied lodgement. After the initial Allied assault at Anzac Cove, elements of the division were sent to Cape Helles in early May, where they participated in the Second Battle of Krithia, launching an unsuccessful attack towards the Achi Baba peak",
". The division's mounted units were sent to Gallipoli in mid-May without their horses, to serve as dismounted infantry, making up for previous losses. Later that month, the division helped repel an Ottoman counter-attack at Anzac Cove, after which it occupied the line until August, when the Allies launched an offensive designed to break the deadlock. During this period, the division attacked Chunuk Bair and Hill 971, and then later Hill 60",
". During this period, the division attacked Chunuk Bair and Hill 971, and then later Hill 60. These efforts failed, and as winter set in on the peninsula, the division was evacuated from Gallipoli in mid-December 1915 as part of a general Allied withdrawal.",
"Returning to Egypt, the division was disbanded in early 1916 following a reorganisation of the Australian and New Zealand forces. The division's constituent infantry brigades were then used to form the Australian 4th Division and the New Zealand Division",
". These two formations would then be sent to the Western Front where they would take part in further fighting throughout 1916–1918, while the division's former mounted elements went on to serve in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign as part of the Anzac Mounted Division.",
"History\n\nFormation",
"Following the outbreak of the First World War in early August 1914, the New Zealand government made an offer to the British War Office of a New Zealand Expeditionary Force (NZEF), which was duly accepted. Mobilisation quickly followed and by late September, the NZEF consisted of two brigades – the New Zealand Infantry Brigade and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade. This was insufficient to form a conventional infantry division, which usually consisted of three infantry brigades",
". In contrast, in Australia there were more than enough volunteers for the Australian Imperial Force (AIF). The original intention had been to form a single infantry division, along with a light horse brigade; however, there were enough volunteers to meet this with a surplus of infantrymen being sufficient to form another brigade",
". Initially, it had been planned to send the NZEF and the AIF to the United Kingdom for training prior to their deployment to the Western Front in France; however, as the convoy carrying the troops transited the Suez Canal they were disembarked in Egypt to temporarily help defend the canal following the Ottoman Empire's entry into the war. Later, overcrowding and a shortage of equipment in the United Kingdom resulted in the decision for the Australians and New Zealanders to remain in the Middle East.",
"In December 1914, the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps, under Lieutenant General William Birdwood, was formed to command both the Australian and New Zealand components, which were under the respective commands of Major Generals William Bridges and Alexander Godley. The headquarters staff for this formation amounted to 70 officers and 550 men. These were mostly provided by the British and it was formally part of the British Army",
". These were mostly provided by the British and it was formally part of the British Army. A corps normally had a complement of two infantry divisions, but given the numbers of mounted troops in the AIF and NZEF, Birdwood envisaged that the corps would include a mounted division. As only one complete infantry division (the 1st Australian Division) was present in Egypt, the NZEF and remaining AIF forces in Egypt were to form the other infantry division",
". Birdwood decided to combine the New Zealand Infantry Brigade with the Australian 4th Infantry Brigade, with a third brigade to be included if one could be formed. By early 1915, Birdwood scrapped the plans for the corps to have an integral mounted division and instead included two mounted infantry brigades with the two standard infantry brigades to form the second infantry division. This was to be known as the New Zealand and Australian Division, with Godley as its commander",
". This was to be known as the New Zealand and Australian Division, with Godley as its commander. A British Army officer, Godley had previously served as commandant of the New Zealand Military Forces from 1910. As well as the four infantry and mounted brigades, the division also included artillery. This was contributed by the NZEF, but only consisted of 16 guns, including four howitzers, much less than the normal divisional complement of artillery. Headquarters staff were also drawn from the NZEF",
". Headquarters staff were also drawn from the NZEF. Supporting arms included engineers, medical, signals, and service corps units. The division was initially short of engineers and transport personnel, with deficiencies being made good through recruitment of New Zealanders living in the United Kingdom, or through re-allocating reinforcements from other units.",
"While the division was forming and training in Egypt, elements were committed to the defence of the Suez Canal. On 26 January 1915, the four infantry battalions of the New Zealand Infantry Brigade – the Auckland, Canterbury, Wellington and Otago Battalions – and a supporting field ambulance were deployed in anticipation of an attack on the canal by Ottoman forces. This force was split between Ismailia and Kubri",
". This force was split between Ismailia and Kubri. On 2 February, after the Ottomans launched a raid on the Suez Canal, elements of the brigade took part in repelling the attack, with the Canterbury Battalion suffering the division's first losses in battle, with two men being wounded, one of whom later died.",
"Landing at Anzac Cove",
"The New Zealand and Australian Division was the second division of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps that landed at Anzac Cove on 25 April 1915. The Australian 1st Division made the initial landing and the New Zealand and Australian Division came ashore as the day progressed. For the initial landing, all troops coming ashore at Anzac Cove were under Bridges' command, although the division's headquarters was landed around 10:00 am. Command would revert to Godley the following day",
". Command would revert to Godley the following day. The New Zealand Infantry Brigade, temporarily commanded by Colonel Harold Walker, began coming ashore at 10:45 am. Meanwhile, Colonel (later General Sir) John Monash's Australian 4th Brigade was held in reserve offshore. The first to enter the battle was the Auckland Battalion, followed by half of the Canterbury Battalion, which had completed its embarkation just after noon",
". Tasked with extending the Allied line to the left of the Australian 3rd Brigade to the north of the landing beach, they were directed towards Walker's Ridge, advancing by way of Shrapnel and Monash Valley.",
"The advance proved heavy going, but they soon found themselves involved in the struggle around Baby 700, amidst chaotic fighting as the Ottomans launched a counter-attack. Baby 700 was subsequently lost, and in the aftermath the New Zealanders took up positions along Walker's Ridge, which formed the extreme left flank of the landing area, reinforcing the Australians around Russell's Top. The Otago Battalion landed between noon and 5:00 pm, and moved up to support the Aucklanders",
". The Otago Battalion landed between noon and 5:00 pm, and moved up to support the Aucklanders. Having failed to secure the key ridges of Chunuk Bair and Sari Bair, Godley and his Australian opposite, Bridges, advocated for the troops to be re-embarked at the end of the day; however, the decision was made to consolidate the lodgement despite the Ottomans holding the high ground.",
"The Wellington Battalion began arriving under darkness and were sent to Plugge's Plateau, while first elements of Australian 4th Brigade – three companies of the 15th Battalion – began coming ashore around midnight. As they arrived, they were sent to fill the gap between the left and right flanks of the Anzac perimeter, which required holding positions across the head of Monash Valley",
". As a result of these dispositions, by the end of the first day the New Zealand and Australian Division held the left flank of the landing and the 1st Division held the right and centre. Early morning on the second day, three battalions of the Australian 4th Brigade – the 13th, 15th and 16th – came ashore, along with some personnel from the Wellington Battalion and a section of the New Zealand Howitzer Battery, operating 4.5-inch howitzers",
".5-inch howitzers. Due to the confused and haphazard landing, many units had become disorganised and mixed in together upon coming ashore. Throughout the day, efforts were made to rectify this, and by the end of the day the New Zealand and Australian Division largely held the northern part of the Allied line, from Courtney's Post and beyond. Throughout the day, the Allied line was subjected to localised attacks.",
"On 27 April, the Ottomans launched a second counter-attack at Anzac Cove, resulting in heavy fighting around the perimeter. It was eventually repulsed with heavy losses. During this fighting, the New Zealand machine gun sections that were attached to each battalion were heavily committed. Having pushed as close to the front as possible to support their battalions, the crews suffered heavy casualties from Ottoman snipers",
". Meanwhile, the division's field artillery was landed throughout the day and with great effort the guns were moved into position to begin providing the indirect fire support that had been desperately needed during the first two days of fighting.",
"Throughout the remainder of the week, the Allied troops continued to consolidate their positions around Anzac Cove, digging in and establishing lines of communication and supply. The Ottoman troops continued to hold the high ground, and the Anzac positions remained under observation and fire from snipers and machine guns. Ottoman mountain guns also kept up a steady bombardment",
". Ottoman mountain guns also kept up a steady bombardment. As the landing around Anzac was consolidated throughout the first week ashore, efforts were made to destroy two observation posts overlooking the cove from its flanks: Gaba Tepe to the south, and Nibrunesi Point to the north, near Suvla Bay. Early on 2 May, a party of around 50 New Zealanders, drawn from the Canterbury Battalion, were assigned to attack Nibrunesi Point",
". Landing from a destroyer, they quickly overcame the small party of Ottoman troops holding the position. Although no guns were located, several buildings were then destroyed before the party re-embarked around midday. Meanwhile, two days later, a detachment from the Australian 1st Division's 11th Battalion unsuccessfully attempted to raid the position around Gaba Tepe.",
"Consolidation at Anzac Cove",
"In the second week after the landing, efforts were made to straighten the Allied line, to prevent a salient from forming between Pope's Hill and Quinn's Post. Godley was ordered to recapture Baby 700, which was considered a key feature of the northern perimeter, allowing the Ottoman troops observation and fields of fire down important Allied avenues of approach",
". On 1 May, an Ottoman counter-attack was held off, and at 7:00 pm the following night, the division launched its attack on the left flank: the Canterbury Battalion around Walker's and the Otago Battalion around Pope's, tasked with maintaining contact with the Australian 4th Brigade, which was to advance around the far end of Monash Gully (sometimes also called Shrapnel Gully)",
". Under Colonel Francis Johnston, who had been ill during the landing and had temporarily deferred his command to Walker, the New Zealand Infantry Brigade was tasked with assaulting the western aspect of Baby 700, while the Australians rushed the southern slope.",
"Commencing at 7:15 pm, the two Australian assault battalions – the 13th and 16th – were only able to push forward about , while the Otago Battalion was held up on its approach march from Walker's and were delayed by 90 minutes. Lacking artillery support to suppress the Ottoman defenders, upon their arrival the Otago Battalion took heavy fire",
". Almost half the battalion became casualties, but they managed to secure some of the lower parts of the feature, holding on overnight even though the Canterbury Battalion's attack was checked and turned back, having been hampered by poor maps and unfamiliarity with night attacks. Throughout the night, Ottoman troops attacked the Otago Battalion with grenades",
". Throughout the night, Ottoman troops attacked the Otago Battalion with grenades. At midnight, a company from the Australian 15th Battalion was pushed forward into the gap that had formed between the Otago Battalion and the Australian 13th",
". The following day a brief counter-attack was launched by the Ottomans, but the Anzac defensive line held, after which marines from the Royal Naval Division launched an attack between Quinn's and Pope's around Dead Man's Ridge, which was unsuccessful and resulted in heavy casualties. By the morning of 3 May, Dead Man's Ridge was firmly under Ottoman control.",
"The failure of the second attempt to take Baby 700 marked the end of the first phase of the fighting around Anzac Cove. Following this, the most forward part of the Anzac line was Quinn's Post. Having been occupied initially on the first day of the landing by troops from the Australian 4th Brigade, the position allowed Allied troops to move between several positions without observation",
". However, the Ottoman position around Dead Man's Ridge offered them a good firing position into the rear of the Allied position at Quinn's, and necessitated heavy sandbagging along the tracks to protect those moving up to the position. As a result, New Zealand engineers worked to build sandbag walls to protect the tracks around Quinn's, and to dig a sap trench to advance the Allied firing line.",
"Krithia",
"As the situation around Anzac Cove settled, the British commander, Hamilton, decided to advance the line that had been established around Cape Helles, south of the lodgement at Anzac. To assist the British, French and Indian troops, two brigades – the Australian 2nd and the New Zealand Infantry Brigades – were detached from Anzac Cove to help launch an attack on Krithia with a view to capturing the Achi Baba peak",
". Transported aboard several destroyers and barges from Anzac Cove south to Cape Helles, the detached New Zealanders were temporarily organised into an ad hoc composite division with the Australians and a naval brigade for the coming attack. On 7 May, ammunition and entrenching tools were issued before the New Zealanders began moving up towards Gully Beach, in the Gulf of Saros, on the Aegean side of the cape",
". Throughout the night, the brigade was tasked with forming a reserve for the 29th Division, but was not required to go into action.",
"On the morning of 8 May, the brigade received its orders to attack towards Krithia. Advancing along Fir Tree Spur, it would be a daylight assault with three battalions, while the Otago Battalion was placed in reserve, having suffered heavily at Baby 700. Planning for the attack was inadequate: there was no time given for preparation, and there was little knowledge of the objective, or the dispositions of the defending troops",
". Nevertheless, in the first effort, they attempted to charge across a position dubbed the Daisy Patch, near a dry creek bed and lacking any cover. As they went forward, the New Zealanders were engaged from both flanks. Coming under heavy machine gun and rifle fire from Ottoman defenders in the Gully Ravine, the attack was halted after only and the New Zealanders were forced to dig in by 3:00 pm",
". Throughout the afternoon, the New Zealanders endured constant fire on their positions, which continued to inflict casualties.",
"Around 5:00 pm, the Allies decided to make another effort, with the Australian 2nd Brigade launching a strong attack, which gained . The New Zealanders, on the left of the Australians, joined the attack, with the Auckland and Otago Battalions charging forward, alongside the British 88th Brigade, and clearing an Ottoman trench line with bayonets fixed",
". The main attack petered out after about two hours, having gained another , although the Canterbury Battalion worked throughout the evening to link up with the Australian 2nd Brigade. By the end of the day, the New Zealand Infantry Brigade had lost 835 casualties and was down to a strength of 1,700 men, having started the campaign with 4,000. Throughout the night, the New Zealanders consolidated their position and in the morning, took over part of the Allied line from the British 87th Brigade",
". They held this sector against several Ottoman counter-attacks until early morning on 12 May, when the New Zealanders were relieved by the British 42nd Division. Several days were then spent in camp around the Krithia road until the evening of 19 May when the brigade embarked to return to Anzac Cove, where an Ottoman counter-attack had begun. A New Zealand artillery battery, however, remained at Helles until August.",
"Reinforcement",
"Normally a British or dominion division contained three brigades. At the time of the landing at Anzac Cove, the intention had been to complete the New Zealand and Australian Division with the 29th Indian Brigade, commanded by Brigadier General Vaughan Cox; however, as the situation at the Helles landing deteriorated, General Sir Ian Hamilton directed Cox's brigade there to support the British 29th Division",
". Casualties had been heavy amongst the Australians and New Zealanders in the first period of fighting, with 1,395 casualties (killed, wounded and missing) among Australian units attached to the division and 1,667 from the New Zealand elements up to 15 May 1915. Total losses amongst the ANZAC Corps amounted to around 8,000 casualties in the period from the landing to 3 May",
". To make up for the deficiencies caused by the detachment to Krithia, and the losses from disease and combat, in mid-May 1915, Australian and New Zealand mounted soldiers began arriving at Gallipoli as reinforcements. Arriving without their horses, they were to serve in a dismounted role as normal infantry. At this time, the Australian 1st Light Horse Brigade, under Colonel Harry Chauvel, and Brigadier General Andrew Russell's New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade joined the division",
". As mounted brigades contained fewer men than infantry brigades, and these brigades had left a portion of their strength in Egypt to attend to the horses, each brigade mustered only about 1,500 men. Chauvel's men had reinforced the Royal Marines and Australian 4th Brigade, around Monash Valley, while the New Zealand Mounted Rifles reinforced Walker's Ridge and Russell's Top",
". Shortly after their arrival, 100 men from the Canterbury Mounted Rifles carried out another raid of Nibrunesi Point, which was being used by Ottoman artillery observers to direct fire onto the beachhead, although the position was found to be deserted at the time of the raid.",
"Ottoman counter-attack at Anzac",
"On 19 May, at Anzac, the Ottomans launched a determined counter-attack with the intention of forcing the Allies to evacuate. Forewarned, the Allies were ready for the counter-attack, having moved reinforcements up behind the line. Just after midnight, heavy grenade attacks began along the positions held by the New Zealanders, and an artillery duel began. The assault began at around 3:00 am, as several waves of Ottoman troops charged the Allied line",
". The assault began at around 3:00 am, as several waves of Ottoman troops charged the Allied line. Beaten back with determined machine gun and rifle fire, the effort was repelled with heavy losses being inflicted on the attackers. The defensive fighting during this period was the first major action fought by the newly arrived New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade who occupied a position around Walker's Ridge",
". The Australian 4th Brigade, at the head of Monash Valley, was also heavily involved in repulsing the attack, with the 14th Battalion heavily engaged around Courtney's Post and the 15th Battalion holding on around Quinn's. The 13th Battalion, and part of the 16th, were held in reserve in Monash Valley. One member of the 14th Battalion, Albert Jacka, received the Victoria Cross for his actions during the fighting on 19 May.",
"The attack had failed along the length of the line, and was halted the evening of the 19th. The attack was briefly resumed on 20 May, but again the machine guns turned back the attack, which was quickly halted. Losses during the counter-attack stretched the Allied reinforcement system and throughout May dismounted light horsemen arrived as replacements",
". A lull in the fighting followed, including a brief truce to bury the dead on 24 May, but the quiet was broken in the afternoon with a heavy exchange of fire before a quiet evening.",
"The next major action came on 28 May, when a squadron from the Canterbury Mounted Rifles attacked an Ottoman position which had been firing down on their position around Nelson Hill (No. 2 Post). Over the course of several days, during the Battle for No.3 Post the New Zealanders took the position and then attempted to hold it amidst heavy counter-attacks, before eventually retiring on 30 May. Meanwhile, on 29 May, the Ottomans attacked the Australian 4th Brigade around Quinn's",
". Meanwhile, on 29 May, the Ottomans attacked the Australian 4th Brigade around Quinn's. Mining operations had begun earlier in the month and although the Australians began counter-mining, early on 29 May, a large explosion destroyed part of the Australian line around Quinn's. A party of Turks then broke into the position, but after several hours of heavy close-quarters fighting, the Australian 15th Battalion restored their line. In the process, several trenches were heavily damaged and required repair",
". In the process, several trenches were heavily damaged and required repair. After the fighting, in early June, the Australian 4th Brigade – having been in the line for five weeks – was relieved by the New Zealand Infantry Brigade. Total losses for the division up to the end of June equated to 5,014 killed, wounded or missing.",
"August offensive\n\nChunuk Bair and Hill 971",
"After taking over the positions around Courtney's and Quinn's Posts, the New Zealanders sought to reorganise and improve each of these positions, under the command of Lieutenant Colonel William Malone. Throughout June, while the Third Battle of Krithia raged around Helles, operations around Anzac focused mainly on improving the positions around the Allied line, although there were several small scale skirmishes with both sides sniping at each other and making grenade attacks",
". Tunnelling and sapping was also undertaken, and several minor attacks were carried out by the Ottomans, with the last one coming on 29/30 June. In July, Allied efforts turned towards preparations for a final offensive around Anzac to break the deadlock. To provide cover to assaulting troops moving from the beachhead to the outposts in the northern sector of the perimeter, the communication trench was widened by the Australians and New Zealanders throughout July",
". Maoris from the Native Contingent (later known as the New Zealand (Māori) Pioneer Battalion) arrived during this time, and assisted with the construction work.",
"The plan for the offensive focused upon the capture of the Sari Bair Range, with preliminary objectives being Hill 971 and Chunuk Bair to its south-west. Meanwhile, another landing would be made by predominately British forces at Suvla Bay, to the north of Anzac Cove, under the command of Lieutenant General Frederick Stopford. Godley was placed in overall command of the offensive around Hill 971 and Chunuk Bair",
". Godley was placed in overall command of the offensive around Hill 971 and Chunuk Bair. In July, the New Zealand and Australian Division was reinforced by elements of the 29th Indian Infantry Brigade and the British 13th Division in preparation for the coming offensive. For the initial attack, the division was split into two elements",
". For the initial attack, the division was split into two elements. Johnston's New Zealand Infantry Brigade was to advance on the right up several steep features to capture Chunuk Bair via Rhododendron Ridge, while Monash and the Australian 4th Brigade was assigned to the left column under Cox, along with several British and Indian units, and was tasked with taking Hill 971.",
"Departing Anzac under cover of darkness on 6 August, the attack on Hill 971 went awry from the beginning. Hampered by poor maps and inadequate knowledge of the ground over which the assault was to take place, the 4th Brigade briefly became lost during the approach. In addition, as Monash's soldiers felt uncertainly for their objective, they were harassed by small groups of Ottoman troops. The Australians were still well short of Hill 971 by dawn on 7 August",
". The Australians were still well short of Hill 971 by dawn on 7 August. The following day, the 4th Brigade drove towards the Abdel Rahman spur line, where they came under heavy machine gun fire which halted their advance.",
"Meanwhile, the drive on Chunuk Bair by the New Zealand Infantry Brigade, spearheaded by the Aucklanders made better progress, but was stopped short of the summit. The delay subsequently impacted upon the Australian attack at the Nek. A renewed attack was made on 8 August by the Wellington Battalion, during which the New Zealanders pushed forward from the Pinnacle and up Rhododendron Ridge to capture the summit. The Aucklanders and two British battalions then reinforced the Wellingtons",
". The Aucklanders and two British battalions then reinforced the Wellingtons. As the offensive failed elsewhere, the Ottomans poured reinforcements against Chunuk Bair, subjecting the New Zealanders and British troops there to several determined counter-attacks. Finally, late on 9 August, the New Zealanders were relieved by two battalions of British troops. The position was finally retaken by the Ottomans on 10 August, following heavy close quarters fighting",
". For his actions on the summit, a New Zealand signaller, Cyril Bassett, received the Victoria Cross.",
"Elsewhere, while the majority of the division was focused on Chunuk Bair, Brigadier General Frederic Hughes' 3rd Light Horse Brigade – allocated as corps troops at Anzac, but assigned to Godley for the offensive – undertook a costly attack towards Baby 700 and the Nek. Ultimately a futile effort, it resulted in heavy casualties for no gain, partially due to the delays elsewhere",
". In support, two regiments of the Australian 1st Light Horse Brigade, positioned around Quinn's and Pope's, carried out several feint attacks. The attack around Quinn's began around 4:30 am on 7 August, when the 2nd Light Horse Regiment sent in the first of four waves of 50 troops. Coming under heavy machine gun fire, 49 of the 50 men in the first wave were killed and wounded, after which the attack was eventually called off",
". The attack around Pope's by the 1st Light Horse Regiment against the position dubbed the \"Chessboard\" fared little better, devolving into a series of grenade attacks that lasted three hours before the light horsemen withdrew, having lost 154 men out of the 200 that had been committed.",
"Hill 60",
"The final major attack at Gallipoli came at Hill 60, a small feature situated to the north-west of Hill 971, which offered the Allies a line of communications between the beach around Anzac Cove and Hill 971. This attack involved troops from the Australian 4th Brigade and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade (largely the Canterbury and Otago Rifles), as well as a battalion (the 18th) from the newly arrived 2nd Division, and the British Connaught Rangers and Hampshire Regiment",
". A supporting attack towards Susak Kuyu was also carried out on the left flank by two battalions of Gurkhas from the 29th Indian Infantry Brigade.",
"The first attempt, which was made on 21 August, managed to secure part of the hill, although Ottoman forces remained in possession of the top. A renewed effort on 22 August by 2nd Division troops resulted in heavy casualties due to hasty and poor planning. Some gains were made throughout the morning, but heavy grenade attacks ultimately forced the newly arrived troops back around 9:00 am",
". Two hours later, the New Zealand Mounted Rifles attacked again on the left, and took about of trench line, which was then secured with sandbags. A lull followed for several days, during which the two sides traded grenade attacks and sniped at each other while working to improve their positions.",
"The Australian 4th Brigade had been heavily depleted by the earlier fighting, and only 250 men remained available for the renewed attack on 27 August, which also involved troops from the New Zealand Mounted Rifles, reinforced by the Australian 9th and 10th Light Horse Regiments, and British troops from the Connaught Rangers. While the supporting preparatory artillery barrage proved ineffective, the assault eventually took some of the Ottoman trenches on the top of the hill",
". Nevertheless, it ultimately failed to secure the entire position. Three days of see-sawing close quarters fighting followed in which several counter-attacks were launched, and the position lost by the Allies, and then retaken. Finally, on 29 August, the fighting ended with the Allies occupying the southern half of the position, while the Ottomans held the northern half.",
"Losses during the fighting for Hill 60 had been heavy, and according to Harvey Broadbent it \"effectively ended the fighting capacity of the New Zealand Mounted Rifles\". Out of 2,000 troops originally assigned to the brigade, 730 had gone into the fighting around Hill 60, and only 365 were fit afterwards. Meanwhile, the Australian 4th Brigade had also been heavily depleted, with a strength of only 968.",
"Evacuation and disbandment",
"Following the failure of the August offensives, a period of stalemate followed around Gallipoli. As sickness rates began to rise British commanders began considering evacuation before winter, with some strategists arguing that they should focus their efforts on the Western Front",
". Between mid-September and early November, the New Zealand brigades – except the supporting engineers, artillery and medical personnel – were able to detach elements for rest at Sarpi, on Lemnos, as the Australian 2nd Division arrived to relieve the two original Anzac divisions. In November, now Major General Andrew Russell took over as division commander from Godley, who had been given command of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps",
". Later the same month a heavy blizzard blew, bringing snow to Gallipoli, and after Lord Kitchener carried out an inspection of the theatre, the decision was made to withdraw the Allied troops from Gallipoli. This was completed in several phases, with the final 3,000 rearguard troops from the division, which had been holding positions between Hill 60, Hill 100, Cheshire Ridge and the Apex, departing on 20 December 1915.",
"Following the division's evacuation, it moved back to Egypt via Lemnos. In January 1916, the two Australian divisions were moved to Tel-el-Kebir to help defend the Suez Canal, while the New Zealand and Australian Division was sent to Moascar camp, near Ismailia, in reserve. By this time, a large number of reinforcements from Australia and New Zealand had arrived in Egypt",
". By this time, a large number of reinforcements from Australia and New Zealand had arrived in Egypt. Numbers were so large that they could not be absorbed into the existing formations; as a result, new formations were planned and permission was sought from both the Australian and New Zealand governments to begin the reorganisation, prior to their dispatch to the Western Front",
". The process of splitting the division began in late February 1916, when the Australian 4th Brigade and the Australian support troops departed Moascar to join the other Australian troops around Tel-el-Kebir. In their stead, replacement New Zealand units were brought on strength. On 1 March 1916, the process was completed with the division assuming its new designation of the New Zealand Division.",
"While the 4th Brigade would be used to form part the Australian 4th Division, the New Zealand components were formed into the standalone New Zealand Division. As part of this process, the New Zealand Infantry Brigade was formed into the 1st Infantry Brigade, keeping most of its experienced personnel, and was joined by the 2nd Infantry Brigade and the New Zealand Rifle Brigade, formed mainly from reinforcements with a small cadre of veterans",
". Together with the Australian 4th and 5th Divisions, the New Zealand Division was then formed into II ANZAC Corps under Godley prior to its dispatch to the Western Front, where they would see further fighting over the course of 1916–1918. The division's mounted elements were re-united with their horses and organised into the Anzac Mounted Division, and took part in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign over the same period.",
"Commanders\nThe following officers commanded the division during the war:\n Major General Alexander Godley\nMajor General Andrew Russell\n\nSee also\n Military history of Australia during World War I\n Military history of New Zealand during World War I\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n Gallipoli campaign, NZ History\n Gallipoli timeline, NZ History \n Understanding Gallipoli, Australian War Memorial",
"Divisions of New Zealand in World War I\nDivisions of Australia in World War I\nANZAC units and formations\nMilitary units and formations established in 1915\nMilitary units and formations disestablished in 1916\n1915 establishments in Australia\n1915 establishments in New Zealand"
] |
History of Hungarian animation
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Hungarian%20animation
|
[
"The history of Hungarian animation begins in 1914 and carries through to the modern day. Starting with short promotional cartoons prior to the two World Wars, Hungarian animation underwent a sporadic and halting development during the turbulent war years which were characterized in large part by the emigration of much of the field's top talent. This exodus slowed dramatically during the 1950s when the Hungarian Communist Party took power and the Iron Curtain took shape.",
"With Communism came nationalization of the Hungarian animation studio—a fact that was to prove a mixed blessing for the nascent industry. While political pressures would strongly dictate the kinds of topics that animation could cover in the early years, state funding meant that even the relatively small postwar nation would be able to prove itself on the international stage",
". Indeed, subsequent to the 1956 revolution, the softening effects of Goulash Communism helped enable artists to begin to express themselves such that by the late 1970s, Pannónia Film Stúdió would rank among the top 5 major cartoon studios alongside Walt Disney, Hanna-Barbera, Soyuzmultfilm, and Toei.",
"With the end of Communism in 1989, state control of the animation industry dropped away and market forces prompted the rise of numerous independent animation studios. Lacking state funding and receiving mixed international response, Hungarian animation studios today have had to develop financing strategies consisting largely of working as production and development companies performing labor-intensive animation activities such as compositioning and inking for foreign studios",
". Despite this, Hungarian films continue to be produced every few years.",
"Overview",
"The history of Hungarian animation extends from its origin in István Kató Kiszly's 1914 cut-out caricatures to the modern time. Although a few boldly experimental films were made in the early years, it would not be until the 1930s that actual animation studios would be formed (under figures like Gyula Macskássy and János Halász) to produce promotional material in the form of newsreels and advertisements",
". International conflicts during both world wars as well as turbulent political climates in the pre-Iron Curtain period led to the emigration of many of Hungary's animation artists who famously established themselves in places like France, the U.K., and America. During the Communist era, all animation efforts are nationalized first as Magyar Szinkronfilmgyártó Vállalat in 1948 and later as Pannónia Film Stúdió in 1959",
". State control of animation on the one hand constrained artistic freedom of expression while simultaneously ensuring the survival of the medium.",
"During the 1950s, the first modern generation of Hungarian animators came to prominence, creating primarily short animations depicting the Hungarian folk tales and legends that would be a politically safe mainstay of Hungarian animation output throughout the Communist era. This generation would be responsible for creating the first colored animation",
". This generation would be responsible for creating the first colored animation. A second generation of animators would emerge in the 1960s under the less repressive system of Goulash Communism, and sociopolitical sentiment was for the first time gently hinted at as cartoons developed philosophical themes characterized by morbidity and black humor",
". Foreign animation studios began to reach out to Pannónia Film Stúdió during this period to subcontract some of the more laborious elements of cartoon production such as compositioning and inking. This introduced the concept of cartoon series/serials, and soon a number of Hungarian serials were created introducing the country's first recognizable cartoon character stars. This period also saw the production of the first adult animation",
". This period also saw the production of the first adult animation. The 1970s saw the rise of a third generation of animators even more intent on commentary on the social conditions in the country. Animations during this period were often marked by a muted subsurface emphasis on anxiety and a claustrophobic fear of persecution while the animation works of older (first and second generation) animators tended to emphasize morality and a development of the grotesque",
". This third generation would see the emergence of the country's first feature-length films as Pannónia Film Stúdió rose to international renown as one of the top 5 major cartoon studios alongside Walt Disney, Hanna-Barbera, Soyuzmultfilm, and Toei.",
"The 1980s would prove to be a peak of Hungarian animation efforts. Increasingly bold use of irony and allegory portrayed the Hungarian condition under Communist rule and during this period a number of Hungarian films received high accolades and prestigious awards including Ferenc Rofusz' 1981 Oscar for A Légy (\"The Fly\")",
". The decade would also mark a renaissance in technical experimentation with the exploration of many non-traditional graphic media such as plasticine, sand, coal, textiles, and computer animation. During this period the first feature-length films based on serials were created and proved to be quite popular. In 1989, Communist rule was cast off and with it State control of the animation arts in 1990. Due to free market pressures, a number of independent animation studios sprang up in the wake",
". Due to free market pressures, a number of independent animation studios sprang up in the wake. The novel issue of commercial financing proved to be a complex one as new studios struggled to make ends meet. A variety of solutions were adopted ranging from the active courting of foreign contract work, to specialization in the labor-intensive traditional hand-animation forms, to employee ownership",
". In 2002, the new Hungarian government began to take a role in the medium as well with funding from the Ministry of National Cultural Heritage going toward the development of further animations of Hungarian folk tales and legends which since the Communist era have become a source of national pride.",
"Pre-animation history\n1709 - Professor István Simándi of Sárospatak assembled and used his own projector (a variant of the magic lantern) for educational purposes. With this machine Simándi aimed to bring about the same animation effect as transparencies do today.",
"1889 - Hungarian-born Adolph Cukor (better known as Adolph Zukor) emigrates to the United States where he becomes invested in cinema in 1903. By 1912, Cukor established Famous Players Film Company which in turn became Famous Players–Lasky and eventually Paramount Pictures. As president of Paramount, Zukor produced numerous Color Classics cartoons during the 1930s.",
"1899 - Hungarian-born Margit Winkler (better known as Margaret J. Winkler) emigrates to the United States where in 1918 she becomes the first female film producer, playing an essential role in the production of Out of the Inkwell, and the early history of Felix the Cat, Krazy Kat and Disney's Oswald the Lucky Rabbit series with the help of her husband Charles Mintz.",
"Early animation efforts",
"The earliest period of Hungarian animation was marked by experimentation and the development of the first animation studio headed by pioneers, Gyula Macskássy and János Halász. Animations were primarily promotional in nature although throughout the 1930s more and more complex narrative structures were developed",
". Between 1932 and 1945, 150 promotional cartoons are produced including Családi kávépótló (\"Family Coffee Substitute\"), Estétől reggelig (\"Evening to Morning\"), A láthatatlan vendég (\"Invisible Visitor\"), Zeusz inkognitóban (\"Zeus in Cognito\"), Vidám suszterinas (\"The hilarious shoemaker's boy\"), Szerencsés flottás (\"Lucky Jim\"), and Izzó szerelem (\"Glowing Love\") During the lead-up to World War II and the turbulent war years, Hungary saw an exodus of artists and filmmakers",
", Hungary saw an exodus of artists and filmmakers, particularly among the Hungarian Jewish population",
". Seeking to continue their art in less politically fraught climates, several Hungarian cartoonists began to establish studios abroad.",
"1914 - István Kató Kiszly, creator of weekly news bulletins, creates Hungary's first animated film—an animated cut-out cartoon entitled Zrib Ödön. For the next few years he creates several more cut-out cartoons including János Vitez (1916) and the caricatures of Marcell Vértes made in 1918 for the evening news bulletin entitled \"Evening\" He would go on to animate Rómeó és Júlia (\"Romeo and Juliet\") in 1921, and Bogárorféum (\"The Music Hall of Insects\") in 1932.",
"1914 - Painter, Móric Gábor contracts to make and produces a short animation which is lost during World War I.\n1920s - Hungarian Dadaist, György Gerö creates a series of experimental animations including a short film depicting a blooming cactus. He would avoid political prison during the 1940s by committing himself to an asylum as a neurotic. Here, all traces of him were lost.",
"1920 - Bohemian-born Austro-Hungarian, Berthold Bartosch emigrates to Berlin where he worked with Lotte Reininger on silhouette animation techniques before moving to Paris in 1930 to create L'Idée.\n1922 - Hungarian-born Gyula Engel (anglicized as Jules Engel) emigrates to Chicago. He would move to Los Angeles in 1937 to work with Margit Winkler, eventually settling in Hollywood in the late 1930s working for Disney on Fantasia and Bambi and later founding UPA.",
"1922 - Andor Weininger creates the earliest surviving animated film storyboard script made by a Hungarian.\n1924 - Hungarian-born stop-motion animator, István Rajk (Gallicized as Étienne Raïk) settles in Paris.",
"1928 - Graphic artist, Gyula Macskássy meets János Halász at Műhely, a Bauhaus art studio run by Sándor Bortnyik. Here, short experimental animations are produced under Bortnyik's direction including a piece drawn by Halász depicting a chicken walking in front of an egg—originally intended to become part of the chicken csárdás scene in Bortnyik's unreleased Királyfi és a Hattyútündér (\"The Prince and the Swan Fairy\"). Only a few fragments of Bortnyk's films remain today.",
"1929 - Painter, Róbert Berény joins Endre Gál's special effects atelier, Pantofilm, to produce limited animations including Az okos kandúr (\"The Clever Tomcat\"), and Sabol rovarirtó (\"Sabol Insect Repellent\").",
"1930 - Emigre artist, Győző Vásárhelyi (better known as Victor Vasarely) establishes himself in Paris where he develops his style of kinematic and kinetic art through the use of optical illusion and methods like flip animation. He is joined briefly in the early 1930s by Imre Hajdú who works together with him to paint background sets.",
"1930 - János Halász produces short interstitial animations together with György Marczincsák at studio Hunnia. These animations mostly consisted of title sequences and animated inserts to adapt foreign animations for Hungarian audiences.\nEarly 1930s - Emigre artists, Lenke Perényi (better known as Madeleine Steinfield) and Vilma Kiss (variously known as Vilma de Kiss, Vilma de Kish, and Wilma de Quiche) settle in Paris to produce French animations.",
"1932 - Together with graphic artist Félix Kassowitz, Macskássy and Halász form Hungary's first animation studio, Coloriton, which existed for 4 years, producing high-quality promotion-oriented animations for television and cinema including Boldog király kincse (\"The Treasure of the Joyful King\"). The three men are joined by caricaturist Ernő Szénássy and musician Gusztáv Ilosvay",
". The three men are joined by caricaturist Ernő Szénássy and musician Gusztáv Ilosvay. Toward the end of Coloriton's existence, the studio expanded briefly into the UK where the daughter studio, British Colour Cartoon Films Limited, was formed under Halász' supervision.",
"1932 - Emigre cartoonist, Imre Hajdú (better known by his stage name, Jean Image—\"Image\" is based upon the French pronunciation of \"Im-Haj\", the initial syllables of his full name) establishes himself in France to produce nearly two dozen animated films during his lifetime.\n1933 - Imre Tóth (better known as Amerigo Tot) works on an animated adaptation of Pinocchio. The film has since been lost.",
"1934 - Emigre cartoonist, György Pál Marczincsák (better known by his stage name, George Pal) first moves to Germany where he creates Habakuk and Der Kollege while developing the concept of Puppetoons (originally called Pal-dolls). He would move shortly afterward to Holland for Philips to create Philips Cavalcade (1934) and The Sleeping Beauty (1935), and then to Paris and then Eindhoven where he founded and worked at puppet animation studio Dollywood until 1939",
". Establishing himself in Hollywood in 1940, Pal worked for Paramount where he produced several more shorts in the Puppetoons series and won several Oscars.",
"1934 - Artist Béla Balázs emigrates to the Soviet Union where he creates \"A Vor\" ().",
"1936 - Cartoonist János Halász (anglicized as John Halas) emigrates to found Halas and Batchelor Studio in London with his wife, Joy Batchelor in 1940. Here he finds the political freedom to produce a number of works including his most famous work, Animal Farm (1954). He would later be granted an OBE in 1972, would become the president of ASIFA in 1979, and would play an essential role in Hungary's first three animated film festivals (KAFF events).",
"Late 1930s - Hungarian animation within Hungary continues through the efforts of animators like István Balogh, Viktor Kálmán, Félix Kassowitz, and István Valker. During this period Valker famously creates Orosz álom (\"Russian Dream\"), Tiroli tánc (\"Dance of Tyrol\"), and Sztepptánc (\"Step-Dance\"), a series of three live action and animation pictures starring child actress, Ági Polly",
". Valker's techniques were developed independent of prior similar efforts abroad, but in Hungary the concept was considered unworkable, and the films met with poor reception.",
"1938-1944 - Valker creates Csavargó szerencséje (\"A Vagabond's Luck\") and, with the help of Teréz David, A molnár, a fia meg a szamár (\"The Miller, The Miller's Son, and the Donkey\"), the latter of which would be completed during the bombing campaign that preceded the 1944 Siege of Budapest.\n1940 - László Tubay creates A kis balta (\"Small Axe\")\n1946 - István Bessenyei creates Holdszerenád (\"Moon-Serenade\")",
"1946 - Emigre cartoonist, Péter Mihály Földes (anglicized as Peter Foldes) established himself in England where he works in collaboration with János Halász before marrying his wife Joan Foldes and establishing an independent studio. Here the couple create the politically charged A Short Vision which won critical acclaim on release in 1956. The couple live briefly in Paris before settling in Canada to produce a number of films for the National Film Board of Canada including the Oscar-nominated Hunger (1975)",
".",
"1948 - All film-making is nationalized by the Hungarian Communist Party. During the next few years Macskássy worked independently within national channels to create a series of educational films including Az egér és az oroszlán (\"The Mouse and the Lion\"), Hol az a macska? (\"Where's that Cat?\"), and Uhuka, a kis bagoly (\"Uhuka, the Little Owl\"). A number of short films were released at a slow rate by other artists as well.",
"1948 - Zoltán Olcsai Kiss creates the puppet-animation, Megy a juhász a szamáron (\"Shepherd's Riding a Donkey\"), the first animated film following nationalization of the industry. He creates Vitamin ABC two years later in 1950.\n1950 - Emigre cartoonist, Teréz David (anglicized as Tissa David), moves to Paris, eventually establishing herself in New York City in 1955.",
"Modern animation\n\nFirst generation animation\nFolktale animation is common and this period sees a rise in Hungarian animation establishing such animators as József Nepp, Attila Dargay, Tibor Csermák, Gyorgy Kovásznai, József Gémes, Szabolcs Szabó, György Várnai, Marcell Jankovics, Péter Szoboszlay, Zsolt Richly, Sándor Reisenbüchler, Béla Vajda, Tamás Szabó Sipos, János Mata, and also puppet animators like Ottó Foky and István Imre.",
"1941-1951 - Gyula Macskássy and Edit Fekete create the first color animation, A kiskakas gyémánt félkrajcárja (\"The Little Cock's Diamond Halfpenny\"). The film begins life as a black and white production in the Cartoon and Puppet Department of the wartime Newsreel and Documentary Studios, but due to delays relating to the war, the film isn't completed until 1951.\n1952 - Gyula Macskássy creates Erdei sportverseny (\"Sport Competition in the Forest\").",
"1952 - Gyula Macskássy creates Erdei sportverseny (\"Sport Competition in the Forest\").\n1953 - Gyula Macskássy and Edit Fekete create Kutyakötelesség (\"A Puppy's Strict Obligation\").\n1955 - Gyula Macskássy creates Két bors ökröcske (\"Two Peppercorn Steers\").",
"1955 - Gyula Macskássy creates Két bors ökröcske (\"Two Peppercorn Steers\").\n1956 - With the help of Hungarian emigre cartoonist Richard Fehsl, cartoonists Kalman Kozelka (anglicized as Kali Kozelka) and his wife, Ida Mocsary (better known as Ducika Mocsary) flee to Austria as political refugees. They settle in the Netherlands in the 1970s founding Kozelka Film Studios.\n1956 - Emigre cartoonist, Elek Imrédy exits the country to settle in the Canada.",
"1956 - Emigre cartoonist, Elek Imrédy exits the country to settle in the Canada.\n1958 - Gyula Macskássy creates A telhetetlen méhecske (\"The Greedy Bee\").\n1960 - Gyula Macskássy creates A ceruza és a radír (\"Pencil and Rubber\") and Párbaj (\"Duel\") which are the first Hungarian films to receive international acclaim. Párbaj is awarded the Special Jury Prize at the 1961 Cannes Film Festival.",
"Second-generation animation",
"Foreign animation teams begin to reach out to Pannónia Film Studio as a way to cut costs on some of the more labor-intensive aspects of cartoon production. In domestic productions, however, with the artistic community under strain from an authoritarian Communist government, morbidity and black humor become more common as cartoons were used to hint at and reflect the philosophy and conditions of the day",
". Due to Western influence, such cartoon serials emerged as Gyula Macskássy and György Várnai's Peti és a gépember (\"Peti and the Robot\"), Marci és a Cső (\"Marci in the Jungle\"), Vili és Bütyök (\"Vili and Bütyök\"), Üzenet a jövőből (\"Messages from the Future\"), Kérem a következőt! (\"Next, Please!\"), Varjúdombi mesék (\"Tales from Crow Hill\"), Tamás Szabó Sipos's Magyarázom... (\"Let Me Explain...\"), and Ottó Foky's Egy világhírű vadász emlékiratai (\"The Magic Snake\")",
"... (\"Let Me Explain...\"), and Ottó Foky's Egy világhírű vadász emlékiratai (\"The Magic Snake\"). With the emergence of cartoon serials came the country's first recognizable cartoon character stars such as Gergő, Peti, Gustav, Frakk, Kukori and Kotkoda, Mirr-Murr, Elek Mekk, Dr. Bubó, Mikrobi, Kockásfülű nyúl, TV Maci, and Mézga család, each of whom featured in several cartoons",
". Animation for adult entertainment also emerged during this period with such series as Gyula Macskássy and György Várnai's Ember és ember (\"Man and Human\").",
"1961 – József Nepp creates Szenvedély (\"Passion\").\n 1961 – Tibor Csermák creates A piros pöttyös labda (\"The Ball with White Dots\"), which wins the 1961 Venice Film Festival Golden Lion for best Children's Film.\n 1961 – Under Gyula Macskássy's leadership, work is completed for the Western film series, Arthur (itself directed by emigre Zoran Janjic).",
"1962 – Inspired by their work on Arthur, Gyula Macskássy and György Várnai create Peti és a gépember (\"Peti and the Robot\"), the first cartoon in what was to become the Peti series (26 episodes, 1963–1967). This marks Hungary's first animated series.\n 1963 – Gyorgy Kovásznai creates Monológ (\"Monologue\") which pushes the visual artistry of the medium.\n 1964 – Gyorgy Kovásznai creates Átváltozások (\"Metamorphoses\") which pushes the visual artistry of the medium.",
"1964 – Ottó Foky creates TV Maci (\"TV Little Bear\"). Inspired by the puppet-animations of Czech director Jiří Trnka, the popular TV Maci becomes the mascot of the Hungarian children's TV program Esti mese (\"Bed Time Story\").\n 1966 - József Nepp creates Öt perc gyilkosság (\"Murder For Five Minutes\")\n 1966 - Gyula Macskássy and György Várnai create Tíz deka halhatatlanság (\"Ten Dekagrams of Immortality\")\n 1967 - Gyorgy Kovásznai creates Hamlet, which pushes the visual artistry of the medium.",
"1967 - Gyorgy Kovásznai creates Hamlet, which pushes the visual artistry of the medium.\n 1968 - József Gémes creates Koncertisszimo (\"Concertissimo\"), one of the first animated paintings.\n 1968 - Sándor Reisenbüchler creates A Nap és a Hold elrablása (\"Sun and Moon Carried Off\"), which is considered to expand the narrative sophistication of the medium while introducing experimental collage techniques.\n 1969 - Marcell Jankovics creates Hídavatás (\"A Ceremonial Opening of a Bridge\")",
"1969 - Marcell Jankovics creates Hídavatás (\"A Ceremonial Opening of a Bridge\")\n 1970 - Gyula Macskássy creates Az öngyilkos (\"Self-Destroyer\")\n 1971 - József Gémes creates Temetés (\"Funeral\")",
"Third generation animation\nWith the artistic community still under government pressure, a third generation of films is marked by a muted subsurface emphasis on anxiety and a claustrophobic fear of persecution. Older (first and second generation) animators tended to emphasize morality and a development of the grotesque.",
"1970-1971 - Marcell Jankovics creates Mással beszélnek (\"The Line is Engaged\").\n1970 - The first feature-length cartoon script is created with the title Gusztáv bárkája (\"Gustav's Boat\") however the film is never produced.\n1971 - The animation workshop, Kecskeméti Animációs Filmstúdió, is founded as a subsidiary of Pannónia Film Studio. Shortly after this, another workshop would be established in Pécs.",
"1972 - Sándor Reisenbüchler creates Az 1812-es év (\"The Year 1812\") to win a Palme d'Or du court métrage in Cannes. He would go on to create Holdmese (\"Moon-Flight\") in 1975, and Pánik (\"Panic\") in 1978.\n1973 - Béla Vajda creates Jócselekedetek (\"Good-Deeds\")\n1973 - György Kovásznai creates Ca Ira (\"It Will Work\"). He would go on to create the feature-length musical cartoon, Habfürdő (\"Foam Bath\") in 1979.",
"1973 - Kati Macskássy greatly develops the genre of children's animation with Gombnyomásra (\"Push Button\") and later Nekem az élet teccik nagyon... (\"I Think Life's Great Fun\") in 1976. The latter film won 1st Prize at Melbourne.",
"1973 - Marcell Jankovics creates the first feature-length Hungarian film, János Vitéz (\"Johnny Corncob\") based on the poetry of Sándor Petőfi. He would go on to create the 1975 Academy Award nominee, Sisyphus, and later Küzdők (Fight) which won a Palme d'Or du court métrage in Cannes. These efforts were followed by the Magyar népmesék (\"Hungarian Folk Tales\") series in 1978.",
"1973 - Bill Feigenbaum and József Gémes create the feature-length Hugó a víziló (\"Hugo, the Hippopotamus\") under the commission of American Fabergé Brut.\n1975 - Ottó Foky creates Babfilm (\"Scenes With Beans\") to win the Grand Prix at the Lausanne Film Festival.",
"1975 - Emigre cartoonist Gábor Csupó moves to Sweden to escape the oppressive conditions of Soviet-era Hungary. He soon forms Klasky Csupo Studio with his wife, the Hungarian-born animator Arlene Klasky. The couple would go on to produce shows such as The Simpsons and Rugrats, and would win numerous Emmy awards for their efforts in animation.\n1976 - Péter Szoboszlay creates Hé, te! (\"Hey, You\")",
"1976 - Péter Szoboszlay creates Hé, te! (\"Hey, You\")\n1976 - Ferenc Varsányi creates Nagy mulatság (\"The Big Blow-Out\"). He would later help to further develop the genre of children's animation with Irka-firka (\"Graffiti\") in 1977.\n1976 - Attila Dargay creates the feature-length Lúdas Matyi (\"Matty the Gooseboy\")\n1977 - István Kovács creates Változó idők (\"Changing Times\")\n1977 - Csaba Szórady creates Rondinó (\"Rondino\")\n1978 - Pál Varga Géza creates Fair Play",
"The 1980s",
"A decade considered to have been responsible for the peak of Hungarian animation, the 1980s would see increasingly bold use of irony and allegory in portraying the Hungarian condition under Communist rule and would mark a renaissance in technical experimentation with the exploration of many non-traditional graphic media",
". Of particular note, several new experimental serials emerged during this period including Sándor Békési's Vázák meséi (\"Tales of Vases\"), Csaba Varga's Szekrénymesék (\"The Wardrobe's Tales\"), and plasticine animations including Csaba Varga's Auguszta (\"Augusta\") and Ferenc Cakó's Zénó",
". Feature-length films were made of a number of serials from the 1960s and 1970s, including Szabolcs Szabó and József Haui's Vízipók-csodapók (\"Water-Spider, Wonder-Spider\"), Ottó Foky's Misi Mókus kalandjai (\"The Adventures of Sam the Squirrel\"), Attila Dargay's Vuk, and Pál Tóth's Leo és Fred (\"Leo and Fred\")",
". New series were also launched including Attila Dargay's Pom-pom meséi (\"Tales of Pom Pom\") and A nagy hó-hó-horgász (\"The Grrreat Angler\"), Ferenc Cakó's Sebaj Tóbiás (\"Never Mind Toby\"), László Ujváry Jr",
".'s Mesék Mátyás királyról (\"Tales about King Matthias\"), Marcell Jankovics' Mondák a magyar történelemből (\"Hungarian Historical Legends\"), Zsolt Richly's Fabulák (\"Fables\") and Kíváncsi Fáncsi (\"Curious Fáncsi\"), Tibor Hernádi's Animália (\"Animalia\"), Líviusz Gyulai's Tinti kalandjai (\"Tinti's Adventures\") and Kentaurfi kalandjai (\"Adventures of Fanny the Elephant\"), Tamás Baksa's Trombi és a tűzmanó (\"Trombi and the Fiery Imp\"), and Ferenc Varsányi's Csepke (\"Droplet\")",
". Animators making a name for themselves in this period included Ferenc Varsányi, Miklós Kaim, István Kovács, Elek Lisziák, Zsolt Richly, Kati Macskássy, Béla Ternovszky, Tibor Hernádi, László Ujváry, Ferenc Cakó, László Hegyi Füstös, Csaba Varga, Ágnes Pásztor, Mária Horváth, István Orosz, and Ferenc Rofusz.",
"1980 - Csaba Varga creates Ebéd (\"The Luncheon\"), the first in a series starring Augusztá the rubber lady. He would go on to create the artistically significant A szél (\"The Wind\") in 1985.\n1980 - Béla Vajda creates Moto Perpetuo to win the Palme d'Or du court métrage at the Cannes Film Festival. He goes on to create the social message film, Teljesítmény és siker (\"Performance and Success\") in 1982.",
"1980 - Mária Horváth creates Ajtó (\"Doors\") and later the artistically significant Az éjszaka csodái (\"Miracles of the Night\") in 1982.\n1980 - Marcell Jankovics creates the experimental feature-length film, Fehérlófia (\"The Son of the White Horse\")",
"1981 - Third generation cartoonist, Ferenc Rofusz creates A Légy (\"The Fly\"), a darkly allegorical tale about loss of freedom and the consequences of desperate attempts to escape. The film is well-received internationally and it wins the 1981 Academy Award for best animated short film. Rofusz would go on to create Gravitáció (\"Gravitation\") in 1984 before emigrating to Toronto to work at Nelvana Studios in 1988.",
"1981 - János Kass' Dilemma becomes the first fully digital animated film and is nominated for a Palme d'Or du court métrage for Best Short Film at the Cannes Film Festival.\n1982 - Ferenc Cakó creates Autótortúra (\"Motorture\") and, later the same year, Ad Astra.\n1982 - Miklós Kaim creates Kutyagumi (\"Mad Rubber Dog\")\n1982 - László Hegyi Füstös creates Statisztikai zsebfilm (\"Statistical Pocketfilm\"), a social message film",
"1982 - György Kovásznai and Elek Lisziák create Riportré (\"Reportrait\"), a social message film\n1982 - Ottó Foky releases Misi Mókus kalandjai (\"The Adventures of Sam the Squirrel\")\n1982 - József Gémes creates the experimental feature-length film, Daliás idők (\"Heroic Times\"). This would be followed by Vili, a veréb (\"Willy the Sparrow\") in 1988.\n1982 - Pannónia Film Studio produces the French film, Les Maîtres du temps by director René Laloux",
"1982 - Pannónia Film Studio produces the French film, Les Maîtres du temps by director René Laloux\n1983 - Atilla Csáji creates the experimental laser animation, A hatodik vagy a hetedik (\"Sixth or Seventh...\")\n1983 - Annamária Zoltán creates the experimental textile animation, Rhapsody in Blue Jeans\n1983 - József Nepp creates the experimental feature-length film, Hófehér (\"No-White\")\n1983 - Zsolt Richly creates Háry János",
"1983 - Zsolt Richly creates Háry János\n1984 - Gyula Nagy creates Süti (\"Scones\"), followed soon afterward by the 1986 experimental film, Ujjhullám (\"Finger Wave\").\n1984 - István Orosz creates the social message film, Ah, Amerika! (\"Ah, America!\"), for which he would win the 1985 KAFF Award for Best Script. He would go on to win KAFF awards in 1993 and 2005 when he was awarded the Grand Prix for Az idõ látképei (\"Time Sights\").\n1984 - Atilla Dargay creates the feature-length Szaffi (\"Saffi\")",
"1984 - Atilla Dargay creates the feature-length Szaffi (\"Saffi\")\n1985 - The first tri-annual Kecskemét Animation Film Festival (Kecskeméti Animáció FilmFesztivál, or KAFF) is held in Kecskemét, Hungary.\n1986 - Béla Ternovszky creates the feature-length Macskafogó (\"Cat City\")\n1987 - Béla Weisz creates Ajtó l (\"Door I\")\n1987 - Sándor Reisenbüchler creates Isten veled kis sziget (\"Farewell Little Island\"), which pushes animation's visual artistry.",
"1987 - Ferenc Cakó creates a series of experimental animations starting with the sand animation, Ab ovo, which won the Palme d'Or du court métrage for Animation at the Cannes Film Festival. This was followed by the 1989 experimental plasticine and coal powder animation, Ad rém (\"Ad rem\")",
"1988 - The second Kecskemét Animation Film Festival is held with notable animators such as John Halas serving on the selection jury. Organization problems delay the third such festival until 1993 and the festival resumes in 1996 when it was broadened to include international participants in the concurrently run Festival of European Animated Feature Films and TV-Specials (Európai Animációs Játékfilm Fesztival).\n1989 - Zoltán Szilágyi Varga creates Ajtó 3 (\"Door 3\")",
"1989 - Zoltán Szilágyi Varga creates Ajtó 3 (\"Door 3\")\n1989 - Jánvári creates the experimental computer-animated Labiritmus (\"Labirythm\")",
"Current animation industry",
"The end of the century saw the end of Communism in Hungary. Although state support for Hungary's one animation studio (Pannónia Film Stúdió) came to an end, the free market quickly prompted the development of a number of independent animation studios. In order to gain funding in the absence of the state, studios such as Kecskemétfilm Kft turn to employee ownership strategies while other studios work primarily as contractors for foreign markets doing work such as compositioning and inking",
". Yet other studios such as the American-Hungarian joint venture Studio 2 have focused instead on traditional hand-drawn cell animation techniques to preserve this now niche animation style. Among other animation studios that were founded since the withdrawal of state control are included Pannónia rajzfilmgyártók, Videovox, Funny Film, Animex, Dana Film, Reflex, Puppet Film, Aladin stúdió, Firka, and the German-Hungarian joint venture Loonland",
". Several feature-length films have been released since the late 1980s including Albert mondja... (\"Albert Says...\") and Majmok kastélya (\"Monkey Castle\") among others. Animators who have risen to prominence since the end of the Communist era include Péter Szoboszlay, László Hegyi Füstös, Mária Horváth, Líviusz Gyulai, István Orosz, Dóra Keresztes, László Haris, Péter Molnár, Zoltán Szilágyi Varga, Árpád Miklós, Gizella Neuberger, Béla Weisz, and László Ujváry.",
"1988 - Independent animation studio, Varga Studio, first begins to form from Egyetemi Színpadon's 1974 amateur animation collective, IXILON, under the efforts of Csaba Varga as government policies relax and the Communist era draws to a close.\n 1990 - State support for Pannónia Film Stúdió ends.\n 1991 - József Gémes creates the feature-length Hercegnő és a kobold (\"The Princess and the Goblin\") with a now-independent Pannónia Film Stúdió.",
"1991 - Pannónia Film Studio subsidiary, Kecskeméti Animációs Filmstúdió becomes an independent entity eventually taking the name Kecskemétfilm Kft under the leadership of Ferenc Mikulás.\n 1992 - Independent studio, Magyar Rajzfilm is formed.\n 1993 - Two Kecskemétfilm animations are shortlisted for Cartoon d'or consideration: Zoltán Szilágyi Varga's Éjszakai kultúrtörténeti hadgyakorlat (\"Cultural Historical Manœuvre at Night\") and Mária Horváth's Zöldfa utca 66 (\"66, Zöldfa Street\") respectively.",
"1996 - Kecskemétfilm releases Rege a csodaszarvasról (\"Tale of the Miraculous Hind\")\n 1996 - Marcell Iványi creates Szél (\"Wind\"), winning a Palme d'Or du court métrage in Cannes.\n 1998 - Studio 2 releases Zoltán Szilágyi Varga's Egérút (\"Mouse Journey\"), a feature-length film that was marketed internationally but which met with poor reception.\n 2001 - 3D CGI-animation studio, Digic Pictures is founded to produce independent animations as well as animation for the video game industry.",
"2002 - Pannónia Film Studio releases Marcell Jankovics's Csodaszarvas (\"The Miraculous Hind\") with funding from the Ministry of National Cultural Heritage.\n 2002 - Ági Mészáros creates Eső Után (\"After Rain\"), winning the Palme d'Or for Short Film at the 2002 Cannes Film Festival.\n 2004 - Varga Studio releases Csudafa (\"Wonder Tree\") under the direction of Péter Halász\n 2004 - Áron Gauder and Erik Novák create Nyócker! (\"The District!\")",
"2004 - Áron Gauder and Erik Novák create Nyócker! (\"The District!\")\n 2007 - Ádám Magyar creates the first freely downloadable 3D computer-animated feature-film, Egon & Dönci\n 2007 - Géza M. Tóth creates the Oscar-nominated 3D animation, Maestro.\n 2008 - György Gát directs the Kis Vuk (\"Little Fox\"); the sequel of the Vuk which was based on A Kis vuk és a Simabőrüek. It failed at the movie theaters, due to the lack of graphic, and the incoherent story.",
"2009 - Rudolf Pap creates a music video for Kylie Minogue's Speakerphone.\n 2011 - Magyar Rajzfilm releases Az ember tragédiája (\"The Tragedy of Man\"), based on Imre Madách's magnum opus.",
"See also\nPannónia Filmstúdió (from hu.Wikipedia) - Discussion of the history of Hungarian animation\nA rajzfilm Magyarországon (from hu.Wikipedia) - Discussion of Hungarian animation in the general Animation article\nA magyar rajzfilmgyártás filmjei (from hu.Wikipedia) - List of Hungarian animated films\n\nReferences\n\nHungary\nHungarian animation\n\nhu:A magyar rajzfilmgyártás filmjei"
] |
Odin Sphere
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odin%20Sphere
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[
"Odin Sphere is an action role-playing game developed by Vanillaware for the PlayStation 2. It was published by Atlus (Japan and North America) in 2007, and by Square Enix (Europe) in 2008. A remake, titled Odin Sphere Leifthrasir (stylized as Leifþrasir), was released on PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, and PlayStation Vita in 2016: Atlus handled publishing duties in Japan and North America, while NIS America published the title in PAL territories.",
"Using a two-dimensional side-scrolling perspective, gameplay focuses on a beat em up-style fighting system while incorporating role-playing elements — Leifthrasir expands upon and refines these elements. The story, shared between both versions, follows five characters on the fantasy continent of Erion during a war between the nations of Ragnanival and Ringford over a weapon called the Crystallization Cauldron, and their roles in the Armageddon, a catastrophe which will destroy Erion.",
"The game was conceived by George Kamitani as first a sequel and then a spiritual successor to the 1997 Sega Saturn title Princess Crown. Development began in 2004 after the official formation of Vanillaware. The story was based around the concept of a Valkyrie princess. The scenario and world design incorporated Norse mythology, the works of William Shakespeare, fairy tales and early video games",
". 2D graphics were chosen over 3D graphics as Kamitani felt the style was stagnating, which necessitated presenting cutscenes as if on a stage rather than using traditional cinematography. Leifthrasir began development in 2013 as a means of addressing the issues both players and staff had with the original game while keeping the story intact. The music for both versions was composed by a team from Basiscape, led by company founder Hitoshi Sakimoto.",
"Prior to Atlus picking up the title, Vanillaware had encountered difficulties finding a publisher due to Kamitani's sparse record as a developer. Completed in 2006, Odin Sphere was delayed into the following year so it would not compete with Atlus' own titles. The localization was handled by Atlus USA, and proved challenging in multiple areas",
". The localization was handled by Atlus USA, and proved challenging in multiple areas. Upon release, it garnered a positive reception from video game journalists: praise was given to its story, visuals and old-school gameplay, with criticism focused on its inventory system and framerate issues. Leifthrasir was praised for its improved performance and reworked mechanics. The game was a commercial success, contributing to the rise of Vanillaware as a developer.",
"Gameplay",
"Odin Sphere is a two-dimensional (2D) side-scrolling action role-playing game where the player takes control of five different characters across six playable scenarios. Areas within levels are circular stages allowing movement left or right with exits leading to other areas; the main goal in each area is to eliminate all enemies and proceed to the next area",
". Combat—which uses a beat em up-style battle system—takes place within these areas, and revolves around the player character using a combination of physical attacks and Psypher skills, skills tied to each character's magical weapon. Combination attacks are triggered by attacking enemies continuously. Jumping can be used to reach airborne enemies within stages. At the end of each battle, grades are awarded based on the battle time, damage taken from enemies, and the amount of damage dealt",
". The amount of in-game currency the player receives as a reward after each battle depends on the battle grade.",
"Rather than the typical experience point-driven character growth of most role-playing games, each characters' abilities is linked to their Psyphers, and the amount of damage characters can inflict depends upon the strength of their Psypher. These two elements are upgraded by collecting Phozons, spirit energy released from defeated enemies. Phozons fill a magic meter, which is used to trigger special skills",
". Phozons fill a magic meter, which is used to trigger special skills. All physical attacks drain a character's POW (power) gauge, and if depleted entirely the character must rest until the gauge refills. Tied to Phozons and leveling is a farming system, where seeds planted and fueled with Phozons provide meals which raise a character's level, boosting their health and abilities. Food can be grown in the wild using seeds, but later two restaurants are available where prepared meals can be eaten",
". Various elements, such as food and material, can be used together using an Alchemy system which allows for the creation of potions with various effects, from dealing damage to healing the main character.",
"Leifthrasir adds to and augments the existing features. These include new battle arenas, and new vertical areas within environments to create platforming segments. Characters now have exclusive abilities and elemental affinities, such as Gwendolyn having access to ice attacks. Battle rankings now depend upon skills used and time taken rather than a quick clearing of arenas, with items as well as money being awarded for high scores",
". The POW system is redesigned so that only special attacks consume POW with the exception of one character. Some special attacks also consume a portion of phozons collected in battle. Each character also possesses skill and ability trees, which are unlocked with Phozons stored during and after battles. While skill trees are unlocked with Phozons, abilities are upgraded with Ability Points. The food and growing systems remain roughly similar, while the Alchemy system is streamlined",
". The food and growing systems remain roughly similar, while the Alchemy system is streamlined. Leifthrasir also includes a \"Classic\" mode, which switches from the redesigned look of Leifthrasir to the original version.",
"Synopsis",
"Setting and characters",
"Odin Sphere is set on the fictional continent of Erion, which is divided into multiple nations scattered across the land. The two main nations are the warrior land of Ragnanival, and the forest-bound Fairy Kingdom of Ringford, separated by a wasteland that was once the kingdom of Valentine. At the game's opening, Ragnanival is ruled by the Demon Lord , and Ringford is ruled by the Fairy Queen with help from her nephew",
". The other nations include the neutral land of Titania; the volcano-bound Fire Kingdom ruled by the one male resident King ; and the Netherworld, the land of the dead where natural crystals grow, ruled by the undead Queen . Two key elements in the game are psyphers, weapons incorporating crystals made from phozon life energy; and the Crystallization Cauldron, a weapon created by Valentine that crafts crystals by absorbing phozons from the land",
". A driving force of the plot is the tale of the Armageddon, a foretold catastrophe in which Erion is destroyed and the survivors rule the new world.",
"Many years prior to the game's events, the world was controlled by King , who ruled the kingdom bearing his name. Originally a kind man, a spell to bring his people prosperity drained his goodness, causing him to turn into a vicious dictator who declared war on the rest of Erion. During his conquests, the Cauldron went wild and destroyed the kingdom in a single night — everyone was cursed and transformed into Pookas, while Valentine's kingdom was reduced to a wasteland",
". In the aftermath of Valentine's fall, Ragnanival and Ringford had become Erion's most powerful nations, while the other nations have become weak in comparison. At the game's opening, Ragnanival and Ringford are at war over possession of the Cauldron in the wasteland of Valentine, as each see the Cauldron as too dangerous for the other to possess.",
"The story is told from the perspective of a young girl named Alice reading a series of books in her attic, with five initial storylines or \"books\" playing out between the five main characters and overlapping at multiple points",
". The five main protagonists are , a Valkyrie and daughter to the Demon Lord Odin who has lived for years in the shadow of her sister ; , the prince of Titania turned into a Pooka; , daughter of Elfaria and later the reluctant queen of Ringford; the \"Shadow Knight\" , a dark knight in service to Ringford who was found abandoned as a baby and adopted by Melvin; and , a survivor from the Kingdom of Valentine who hides her identity as Odin's illegitimate daughter and has been dubbed the \"Forest Witch\"",
". Other key characters outside the royalty of Erion's surviving nations include the Three Wise Men, a group manipulating Erion's nations to fulfill the ancient prophecies surrounding the Armageddon; , Velvet's brother who like Velvet retained his humanity and was key to the disaster that consumed his kingdom; and King Valentine, having escaped the Netherworld as an insane revenant bent on destroying Erion.",
"Plot",
"The game's opening sees Ringford holding the Cauldron and its controlling ring Titrel, having been given Titrel by Ingway as part of his vengeance against Odin. Elfaria is ultimately killed by Odin, who takes Titrel from her. Velvet steals it in turn and gives it to the dragon Wagner, hoping that this would prevent the Cauldron being used. Her lover Cornelius is meanwhile changed into a Pooka by Ingway and thrown into the Netherworld, escaping with the aid of his grandfather Gallon",
". He learns that the people of Valentine share his curse, and is embroiled in both the Pookas' efforts to collect wish-granting coins to reverse their condition and his attempts to save Velvet from danger. The Three Wise Men are attempting to fulfill the prophecies of the Armageddon — all but one Wise Man are killed during the course of the story, while the third Beldor is afflicted with the Pooka's curse and gains subsequent immortality",
". Cornelius rescues Velvet from their clutches, and despite his fears she reaffirms her love for him in his new form. Several characters also encounter King Valentine, who continues to be tormented by memories of murdering Velvet's mother in a rage — as part of his scheme to trigger the Armageddon, he hatches the dragon Leventhan.",
"Gwyndolyn's story focuses on the time after her sister Griselda is killed in battle — having always come second in her father's eyes, Gwyndolyn tries hard to impress him, but must ultimately defy him when his general Brigan attempts to undermine him. Gwyndolyn is placed in an enchanted sleep for her defiance, to be woken and fall in love with the first man who kisses her. After being spirited to the lands of Onyx by the Three Wise Men, Gwyndolyn's story becomes intertwined with Oswald's",
". Oswald is involved in an attempted coup against Mercedes by Melvin and is taken by Odette as payment for the power Melvin infused into Oswald's psypher. He is then used by Odin to take Titrel from Wagner by force, but ultimately rebels and rescues Gwyndolyn from Onyx after learning that Odin did not enchant her, giving Titrel to the awoken Gwyndolyn as a gift. Gwyndolyn, initially defiant, begins to fall in love, but is tricked into giving Titrel to Odin",
". Gwyndolyn, initially defiant, begins to fall in love, but is tricked into giving Titrel to Odin. Broken hearted and believing Gwyndolyn despises him due to her love being solely due to Odins spell, Oswald allows Odette to take him. Mercedes' story runs parallel to the others, chronicling her efforts to become queen in the wake of her mother's death and Melvin's attempted coup, aided by Ingway after he is turned into a frog by the Three Wise Men",
". With the help of the dwarf smith Brom, she refashions her psypher into a weapon powerful enough to destroy Odin's psypher, winning a battle against him and taking Titrel. She also breaks Ingway's curse, and the two grow attached to each other. Titrel is subsequently stolen by Gwyndolyn, who uses it as a bargaining chip to rescue Oswald from Odette, who is killed by Gwyndolyn",
". Initially torn between love for Oswald and duty to Odin, Gwyndolyn defies her father and leaves with Oswald and Titrel, which now acts as a symbol of their love. Odin is then accosted by Ingway and Velvet; Ingway transforms into a monster in an unsuccessful attempt to kill Odin, then Velvet and Ingway are rescued by Cornelius.",
"The sixth book shows the advent of Armageddon — King Valentine activates the Cauldron and uses it to absorb phozons from the land to feed the growth of Leventhan. Ingway attempts to destroy the Cauldron using his cursed form, but he falls under the control of Beldor, who has also led the monstrous Gallon and the Netherworld army into Erion. In the ensuing chaos, Odin is killed, and Onyx decides to destroy Ringford to avert a prophecy of his death at the \"World Tree\"",
". The story then divides between the main characters' battles in the wake of these events, with different endings playing out depending on who is matched with which battle; Erion's rebirth or absolute destruction depending on whether or not the choices are correct",
". In the canon series of events, Cornelius defeats Ingway and Beldor and is rescued by Velvet, who learns from the dying Ingway that the Cauldron can be used to reverse the destruction; Oswald defeats Gallon, learning that he is Gallon's grandson by his banished son Edgar and thus Titanian royalty; Mercedes, whose true name is \"Yggdrasil\" (World Tree), finds Ingway's corpse and dies in battle after fatally wounding Onyx; Velvet stops the Cauldron without destroying its core",
", but King Valentine curses the Cauldron before waking Leventhan and killing himself by jumping into its path; and Gwyndolyn kills Leventhan before it can destroy Erion, losing her wings in the process",
".",
"Having finished the books, Alice finds a magical coin on the front cover of the sixth book. Called downstairs by her mother, she misses seeing Cornelius and Velvet, both in Pooka form, take the coin and leave a seventh book. In this book, Gwyndolyn is rescued by Oswald, who carries her to the Cauldron before collapsing. Velvet and Cornelius are there, and Velvet finds Titrel on Gwyndolyn's hand",
". Velvet and Cornelius are there, and Velvet finds Titrel on Gwyndolyn's hand. Using Titrel, Velvet turns their psyphers back into phozons to power the Cauldron and revives the land, turning into a Pooka due to Valentine's curse. Oswald and Gwyndolyn bear witness to the rebirth of the land, and become the ancestors to the new humanity; Mercedes is reincarnated as its World Tree",
". In a special ending set thousands of years after the events of Odin Sphere, Cornelius and Velvet have successfully gathered all the coins and use their combined power to break their curse. A post-credits scene shows an unseen author, who is writing a book called \"Odin Sphere\", talking with a merchant while the main characters pass by. A new scene in Leifthrasir shows Ingway's spirit resting within the World Tree's roots, reunited with the reincarnated Mercedes.",
"Development",
"Odin Sphere was the brainchild of George Kamitani, a video game designer who had worked on Princess Crown, a 1997 Japan-exclusive side-scrolling action RPG developed by Atlus for the Sega Saturn. The game was developed by Vanillaware, a studio created by former Atlus staff including Kamitani to create successor projects to Princess Crown. Initially founded as \"Puraguru\" in 2002 when it worked on Fantasy Earth Zero, the company changed its name in 2004 when the staff moved to Kansai",
". It was during his time working on Fantasy Earth Zero that Kamitani met the founding members of Vanillaware. Odin Sphere, which began development in 2004, was designed as a spiritual successor to Princess Crown, specifically evolving the multi-layered narrative style of the original game. The game's programmer was Kentaro Ohnishi, one of the founding members of Vanillaware. The producer was Atlus staff member Akiyasu Yamamoto",
". The producer was Atlus staff member Akiyasu Yamamoto. According to Ohnishi, the project started as a direct sequel to Princess Crown, but later became a spiritual successor which incorporated multiple nods to the original game. The reason it changed was that the initial plan for the Princess Crown sequel was to have used 3D visuals, which would have looked wrong with Kamitani's character designs and artwork.",
"Development was difficult for the team due to its small size and hardware difficulties when trying to fit high-quality artwork onto the PlayStation 2 (PS2), resulting in compromises in the visual quality the team had initially planned for the project. This pressure lasted right up to release, as Ohnishi needed to do emergency work to fix game-breaking bugs. Development was completed in 2006",
". Development was completed in 2006. Vanillaware had great difficulty securing a publisher and the necessary funding for the project, as Kamitani's last project had been the unsuccessful Princess Crown over seven years before. They made unsuccessful pitches to multiple publishers before the title was finally accepted by Atlus, although there was some doubt as to whether it would prove a success",
". While the game was completed in 2006, Atlus delayed its release into 2007 as they did not want it to cannibalize the market for their other titles, particularly Persona 3. Odin Sphere was first revealed in February 2007, three months prior to release. Odin Sphere was eventually released on May 17.",
"Scenario and design",
"The initial concept for Odin Sphere was of a story revolving around a Valkyrie princess, inspired by Kamitani's wish to emulate the protagonist of Princess Crown and hearing at second hand about planning at tri-Ace for Valkyrie Profile 2: Silmeria, which involved Norse mythology and featured a princess as its main protagonist. Kamitani's Valkyrie protagonist, who would become Gwyndolin, was created before the rest of the game's world and story were finalized",
". Working from this initial idea and its roots in Norse mythology, Kamitani began writing a romantic storyline for Gwyndolin and Oswald as the central narrative, basing it on Der Ring des Nibelungen by Richard Wagner. He then added further elements inspired by the works of William Shakespeare and traditional European fairy tales",
". The other narratives focused on different themes: Mercedes' storyline focused on her maturation into a queen, Velvet's story focused on resolving a mystery, while Cornelius' story narrative modeled after traditional fairy tales as a homage to the early PC game Marchen Veil. Oswald was based directly on Siegfried, the protagonist of Der Ring des Nibelungen.",
"Odin Sphere was Kamitani's first time writing a large scenario mostly by himself. He began writing the scenario in July 2005, and while he was intended to be done by August, the writing lasted until February 2006. His original plan was something like a straight adaptation of Der Ring des Nibelungen and its associated Norse myths, but he reworked it to have more original features to incorporate more action while using its loose chronology to maintain a myth-like atmosphere",
". As with his other projects, Kamitani included strong female characters, as he felt a woman pushed into summoning the courage to fight deserved victory. There were plans to create backstory elements for characters like Odin and an extra book focusing on Ingway, but the negative impact those elements would have resulted in them being cut. Originally planned to have just an hour and a half of voiced dialogue, the final total was over five hours",
". Due to the large volume of story, dividing the narrative and dialogue into cutscenes took six months rather than the planned three.",
"Kamitani acted as art and character designer for the game, with additional art for elements such as food provided by Shigatake. So as to distance the appearance of Gwyndolin and other Valkyries in Odin Sphere from the Valkyries of the Valkyrie Profile series, Kamitani modeled their outfits after ballet tutus. The character Mercedes was a fairy version of Gradriel De Valendia, the main protagonist of Princess Crown. Velvet's design was described as an \"Arabic Little Red Riding Hood\"",
". Velvet's design was described as an \"Arabic Little Red Riding Hood\". More sensual elements of his female character designs came about through chance rather than deliberate design. A few monster designs were recycled from Princess Crown. The artwork was created at full scale, then shrunk down to fit within the PS2 hardware specifications.",
"Despite the general move to 3D graphics in the gaming industry, the team decided to use 2D graphics, as Kamitani felt the style was stagnating. The use of 2D graphics meant that traditional cinematographic camera work for cutscenes was impossible to achieve, so the team instead modeled them after scenes from a stage production. This style was also chosen due to the story's Shakespearean atmosphere. The character graphics were hand-drawn in a process Kamitani dubbed \"tebineri\", or hand-shaping",
". The character graphics were hand-drawn in a process Kamitani dubbed \"tebineri\", or hand-shaping. The toolset used to create the graphic animations was heavily inspired by the similar animation style used for Adobe Flash products. An element that proved troublesome was character movement, which was hard to make behave within the limited hardware specifications of the PS2. A cited example was how Velvet's breasts jiggle slightly when she stops moving",
". A cited example was how Velvet's breasts jiggle slightly when she stops moving. This was intended for more female characters, but due to the hardware limitations it was restricted to Velvet.",
"Localization",
"The game was localized for the West by Atlus USA. The project leader was Bill Alexander, the lead translator was Sammy Matsushima, while dialogue editing was handled by Mike Meeker. As with their other localizations such as for the Persona series, the team tried to stay faithful to the original text. This proved easier than for the Persona series as its fictional setting meant there were no cultural in-jokes that would not be understood outside Japan",
". The localization took place from 2006 to 2007: the project was an unusual one for Atlus, as it was an entirely new intellectual property from a studio that was still little known in the West",
". When tasked with localizing the game for Western markets, the team were told that the game had a Shakespearean feel, so Matsushima created a script that reflected that: with the concept of a play in mind, the dialogue was written to give a noble feel to the characters, in addition to fairy tale elements fitting in with its frame story of a girl reading books",
". For his part, Meeker read King Lear and A Midsummer Night's Dream to find the correct style for his writing, in addition to reading Beowulf to properly capture the narrative's darker elements.",
"The localization proved more challenging than other Atlus projects for multiple reasons. As the characters' text bubbles were designed to use Japanese kanji characters—which compress a lot of information into a single symbol in a way impossible in the English alphabet—each text bubble had to be individually resized and sometimes shifted so they would not intrude on other elements within scenes",
". The sheer amount of voice acting in the game meant that dubbing took far longer than other similar projects, running past its projected time and requiring Atlus staff members to voice very minor characters to save time. The main characters were a major focus due to the storytelling style of multiple interlinked narratives, with each character's personal growth needing to be reflected in their voice performance. This was particularly true of Mercedes",
". This was particularly true of Mercedes. The auto-scrolling nature of dialogue, which moved along at a set pace rather than through the player's button prompts, meant that performances needed to be correctly timed and balanced to the varying paces at which the actors read their lines. This led to lines being modified during recording to keep within schedule",
". This led to lines being modified during recording to keep within schedule. During the last stages, the team needed to rerecord some lines of dialogue, but to keep the localization in budget and on schedule it was done outside a professional recording studio, resulting in an audible drop in quality.",
"Odin Sphere was released in North America on May 22, 2007, less than a week after the game's Japanese release. In Europe, it was released on March 14, 2008, by Square Enix. Available with in-game text in English, French, German, Spanish and Italian, it was the first non-Square Enix title the company released in Europe. The European version also included technical improvements that allowed the game to run better than the North American version. It was also published in Australia on March 13",
". It was also published in Australia on March 13. The Japanese voice track was included in the game as a special extra feature for fans of anime. The localization process was timed so that the Japanese and North American releases were days apart rather than months, which put extra pressure due to some promotional assets still being in development in Japan.",
"Odin Sphere Leifthrasir",
"Odin Sphere Leifthrasir, a remake of Odin Sphere for PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4 and PlayStation Vita, began development in late 2013 alongside publisher Atlus changing ownership from Index Corporation to Sega. Ohnishi acted as the remake's director, while Kamitani produced",
". Ohnishi acted as the remake's director, while Kamitani produced. Atlus initially wanted to create a followup to Vanillaware's recent successful title Dragon's Crown, but when Odin Sphere came up in conversations, it was decided to work on that as it was both Vanillaware's first project and their first Atlus-published title. Initially planned to be an upgraded port, the availability of development resources allowed for the development of a full remake",
". The aim by Vanillaware was to keep the well-received story and visual design intact, while improving the RPG elements and ironing out technical issues that were criticized at the time. The game's title Leifthrasir was in reference to Líf and Lífþrasir, the two humans in Norse mythology who survive Ragnarok and repopulate the new world. The \"Leifthrasir\" spelling was chosen over the more common \"Lifthrasir\" as the former sounded better",
". It was also written with the Old Norse letter \"þ\" incorporated into the title.",
"There were a large number of changes made to the game. Additional stages and divisions between battle and exploration were created; defense and dodge actions were added for characters; extensive vertical plains were added to environments; enemy and boss AI was redesigned and refined; additional enemies and subbosses were included; a new difficulty level was added; and the POW gauge, inventory and Psypher systems were redesigned",
". At the time Odin Sphere was made, it was fully intended to be a successor to Princess Crown, but Vanillaware had since become better known for fast-paced action over simple side-scrolling combat. The gameplay was thus adjusted so that it would be familiar to players of the later and more refined Muramasa: The Demon Blade and Dragon's Crown",
". Kamitani later commented that he would have made extensive changes such as removing the alchemy system, but other staff members—who were fans of Odin Sphere and were employed after the game's release—successfully pushed to retain and improve rather than remove the original features. According to Ohnishi, how to adjust the gameplay was difficult for the team to decide: elements included the way health and magic energies were raised separately, and how the alchemy system worked",
". With this in mind, these systems were adjusted so they would be more accessible for people with varied playing styles. The revamped system drew from the team's work on Dragon's Crown. There was no original story content created, although additional text archives were created and the existing text was rewritten in places. The ability to skip story sequences, unavailable in the original release, was included",
". The ability to skip story sequences, unavailable in the original release, was included. It was also decided not to have the different sections be playable out of order, as that would negatively impact the story.",
"The high-definition upgrade was not as difficult as it might have been as all the art assets had been created in high definition and reduced for the PS2 hardware. Other aspects for the visuals, such as character faces, needed to be redrawn by Kamitani as they remained in low definition. There were also graphic elements remade as the team considered them to be rather poor quality when compared to their current work",
". Added shadow effects were created, but special parameters needed to be set as there were no 3D environments to use as reference. The 2D perspective also meant that the way enemies behaved needed to be adjusted, so they would not attack the player character while still off screen. In general, the overall graphical quality was improved, the resolution was increased, and the aspect ratio was changed from the original 4:3 to 16:9",
". The shift to 16:9 meant that character models needed to be re-positioned so as not to leave blank spaces on either side of the central scene. As they needed to analyse the original software to make such changes but had lost the original software used to create the cutscenes, they needed to hurriedly create alternate editing software that ran on a PC. In addition to changes to scenery and model positioning, the text font was resized to match the larger screen and the text bubbles were smoothed out.",
"Leifthrasir was first announced in July 2015, along with its planned release platforms. The game was published in Japan on January 14, 2016. In North America, it was released on June 7. While minimal work was done by Atlus' localization team for the remake, the amateur voice acting was replaced with professional performances. In Europe, it was published on June 24 by NIS America. NIS America also published Leifthrasir on June 24 in Australia and New Zealand",
". NIS America also published Leifthrasir on June 24 in Australia and New Zealand. Leifthrasir ended up being the last title published during the partnership between Atlus and NIS America, with the two parting following NIS America's growing dissatisfaction with Atlus' behavior with publishing partners since being purchased by Sega.",
"Music",
"The music of Odin Sphere was composed by a team from music company Basiscape. The team was led by company founder Hitoshi Sakimoto, and included Masaharu Iwata, Mitsuhiro Kaneda, Kimihiro Abe and Manabu Namiki. Sakimoto and Iwata created the majority of the soundtrack. Kamitani brought Basiscape and Sakimoto aboard as they had struck up an acquaintance while working on Fantasy Earth Zero",
". He supported Kamitani's team during the more troubling periods of production and was apparently retained for what Kamitani considered a too-small fee when compared to the final music quality. When Odin Sphere began development, Kamitani contacted Basiscape at once. The team worked from the concept of Norse mythology interpreted by Japanese, aiming for musical impact rather than cultural accuracy",
". The aim was to emulate the game's Shakespearean inspiration and evoke the feeling of opening a Harry Potter novel for the first time. The music production took two to three years overall.",
"When creating the music, particularly the main theme, Sakimoto tried to capture the feelings of the characters struggling to determine their futures and face the truth of their situations. The Celtic-styled \"Shanachie\" version, which played during the end credits, was performed by Kansai-based band Shanachie. Kaneda created the boss track \"A Hard Fight and then Hope\", wanting a theme that was indicative of the main characters fighting beings larger than them",
". Commenting on his track \"The Hero's Triumphant Return\", Iwata aimed at creating a hopeful and triumphant song for key story segments. The main theme's lyrics were written by Nami Uehara, who arranged the main theme's \"Shanachie\" version. It was translated into French by Maryvonne Nagel Okamoto. All versions of the main theme were sung by Noriko Kawahara.",
"Odin Sphere Original Soundtrack was released on October 14, 2007, by Five Records. Additional orchestral arrangements included on the disk were performed by Eminence Symphony Orchestra. A reprint was issued by Basiscape Records on April 18, 2012. Upon release, it reached #171 in the Oricon charts, remaining in the charts for one week. The album received positive reviews from music critics.",
"Leifthrasir made use of rearranged pieces, in addition to new tracks. These new tracks, 25 in all, were created for the new battle arenas. The music was composed by Sakimoto, Kaneda, Iwata, Abe, Namiki, Kazuki Higashihara, Azusa Chiba and Yoshimi Kudo. Uehara returned as arranger alongside Sakimoto, Kaneda, Iwata, Kudo, Higashihara and Chiba. During his work on the project, Sakimoto felt that the score needed minimal adjustment despite it being ten years since it was created",
". Shanachie returned to perform a rearranged version of the theme song. Vocals this time were performed by Rena and Miwa Horio. Odin Sphere Leifthrasir Original Soundtrack was released on January 14, 2016. In addition to the songs included in Leifthrasir, the soundtrack included five additional remixes of existing themes.",
"Reception",
"Odin Sphere scored 83/100 on the aggregate site Metacritic based on 49 reviews, denoting a generally positive reception and being the 7th best-reviewed PS2 game of the year. Editors of Famitsu Weekly magazine gave the Japanese version a 32 out of 40 cumulative score, earning it the publication's Silver Award, with critics praising the title's graphics and \"intuitive\" controls, but also remarked that its difficulty was high and many areas of the game looked too similar",
". Play Magazine awarded it a perfect score, stating that \"in the case of Odin Sphere, [we are] confident that this is a perfect game, and that anyone who comes to it will derive the same\", praising its 2D graphics, detailed storyline, and unique combat system as high points. Western reviewers generally praised the game highly: the story was cited as both compelling and well-told, with it being compared to the works of Shakespeare and the A Song of Ice and Fire book series",
". The gameplay systems and controls were generally praised, but the criticism was laid upon elements of repetition in its combat and progression, and its inventory system. The graphics were unanimously praised, with many comparing it to classic storybooks. A recurring criticism was slow-down during crowded battle sequences.",
"The PS4 version of Leifthrasir received an aggregate score of 87/100 based on 49 reviews, becoming the 15th best-reviewed title of 2016. The Vita version received a score of 93/100 based on five reviews. Reviewing Leifthrasir, Famitsu praised the increased smoothness and battle frequency, noting that the title still felt fresh despite being the remake of a 2007 title. They also praised the graphical upgrade and its effect on the artwork",
". They also praised the graphical upgrade and its effect on the artwork. Critics generally agreed that Leifthrasir was an improvement on the original game, praising its technical performance, lack of the original's framerate problems, graphical upgrade, and redesigned gameplay systems. Despite this, reviewers noted that the game could get repetitive, with a few noting incumbent issues with its story presentation.",
"Sales",
"In its debut week in Japan, Odin Sphere sold 59,248 units, reaching #3 in the charts. It went up to second place in the charts the following week. Sales capped out at 96,280 units in the region by the end of 2007. Upon release in North America, the game reached the top of sales charts and remained there into the following week. It was among the top 20 best-selling titles in North America during its debut month, and was the only title in that ranking not to be a sequel or belong to an established brand",
". Atlus kept their traditionally convervative sales expectations for the game, but critical and fan reception prompted it to quickly sell out. According to a later statement by Atlus' parent company, Odin Sphere had sold 350,000 units worldwide during the 2007 to 2008 period, placing it among the PS2's \"Greatest Hits\" line",
". Upon its release as a PS2 Classic on the PlayStation Network in October 2011, the game was the best-selling out of five concurrent releases including God Hand, and reached #15 in the PSN charts for that month. As of 2015, the game has sold over 500,000 copies worldwide. The financial success of the game for Vanillaware was contributed by Kamitani to high royalty payments set by Atlus as part of the publishing contract.",
"Leifthrasir reached the top of sales charts, claiming the spot Monster Hunter Generations which had held the position for three weeks on end. Sales were strong compared to the original version: selling 43,394 units on PlayStation Vita at #1, 42,263 units on PlayStation 4 at #2, and 9,771 units on PlayStation 3 at #10. All versions of Leifthrasir sold a total of 95,428, and marked an improvement in sales for Atlus after low sales for Tokyo Mirage Sessions ♯FE the previous month",
". Upon release in Western territories, the Vita version reached #2 on the PSN chart.",
"Awards",
"Odin Sphere became the recipient of several website and magazine distinctions, particularly during IGN's \"Best of 2007\" PlayStation 2 awards, where the game won \"Best Artistic Design\", \"Best Story\", \"Most Innovative Design\", and \"Best RPG\". It was a runner-up in the PlayStation 2 categories for \"Best Original Score\" and \"PS2 Game of the Year\", additionally earning its developer Vanillaware \"Best Developer\" along with GrimGrimoire, also released in 2007",
". It was favorably mentioned by multiple editors in RPGFan's \"Games of 2007\" awards, while it was in third place for the 2007 RPGamer Award for best PS2 title behind GrimGrimoire and Persona 3. The game also won GamesRadar's \"Pure Beauty\" award during their Platinum Chalice Awards, with the website remarking that \"the graphics here are so artistic it's hypnotic, if not literally breathtaking\".",
"Legacy",
"The delayed release of Odin Sphere led to issues with the company: they needed to start other projects to keep their company going, leading to the development of GrimGrimoire",
". The development of GrimGrimoire drained the company's funds, forcing Kamitani to take out a flexible loan of 20 million yen to keep the company afloat and fund development for their next projects, in addition to finding new publishers as Atlus refused to take any more of Vanillaware's products until they had seen how Odin Sphere performed commercially. Nippon Ichi Software would handle GrimGrimoire, while Marvelous Entertainment accepted their next project, Muramasa: The Demon Blade for the Wii",
". The commercial success of Odin Sphere both enabled the development of Muramasa: The Demon Blade and cleared Kamitani's debt. In tandem with their other titles, Odin Sphere helped establish Vanillaware as a respected developer.",
"Notes\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links",
"2007 video games\nAction role-playing video games\nAtlus games\nFantasy video games\nPlayStation 2 games\nPlayStation 3 games\nPlayStation 4 games\nPlayStation Network games\nPlayStation Vita games\nRole-playing video games\nSide-scrolling role-playing video games\nSingle-player video games\nSquare Enix games\nVanillaware games\nVideo games about valkyries\nVideo games based on Norse mythology\nVideo games developed in Japan\nVideo games featuring female protagonists\nVideo games scored by Hitoshi Sakimoto",
"Video games featuring female protagonists\nVideo games scored by Hitoshi Sakimoto\nVideo games scored by Manabu Namiki\nVideo games scored by Masaharu Iwata"
] |
Hamid Karzai
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamid%20Karzai
|
[
"Hamid Karzai (; Pashto/, , ; born 24 December 1957) is an Afghan politician who served as the fourth president of Afghanistan from July 2002 to September 2014, including as the first elected president of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan from December 2004 to September 2014. He previously served as Chairman of the Afghan Interim Administration from December 2001 to July 2002. He is the chief (khān) of the Popalzai Durrani tribe of Pashtuns in Kandahar Province.",
"Born in Kandahar, Karzai graduated from Habibia High School in Kabul and later received a master's degree in India in the 1980s. He moved to Pakistan where he was active as a fundraiser for the Afghan rebels during the Soviet–Afghan War (1979–1989) and its aftermath. He briefly served as Deputy Foreign Minister in the Islamic State of Afghanistan government. In July 1999, Karzai's father was assassinated and Karzai succeeded him as head of the Popalzai tribe",
". In October 2001 the United States invasion of Afghanistan began and Karzai led the Pashtun tribes in and around Kandahar in an uprising against the Taliban; he became a dominant political figure after the removal of the Taliban regime in late 2001. During the December 2001 International Conference on Afghanistan in Germany, Karzai was selected by prominent Afghan political figures to serve a six-month term as chairman of the Interim Administration.",
"He was then chosen for a two-year term as interim president during the 2002 loya jirga (grand assembly) that was held in Kabul, Afghanistan. After the 2004 presidential election, Karzai was declared the winner and became President of Afghanistan. He won a second five-year term in the 2009 presidential election; this term ended in September 2014, and he was succeeded by Ashraf Ghani.",
"During his presidency, Karzai was known in the international community for being an alliance builder between Afghanistan's communities. In later years, his relationship with NATO and the United States became increasingly strained, and he has been accused several times of corruption",
". He called the Taliban his brothers and warned that the heavy-handed counterinsurgency in Afghanistan would only revive the Taliban insurgency against the former Afghan government, urging the US to instead focus on bringing Pakistan's support for the Taliban leadership to heel, but the US largely ignored his requests. After the Taliban takeover of Kabul in 2021, Karzai stated the Taliban did not capture the city by force, but rather were invited by him in order to prevent chaos",
". He said that in order to gain international recognition, the new Taliban government needed internal legitimacy, which could be achieved through a general election or loya jirga.",
"Early life and beginning of political career",
"Karzai was born on 24 December 1957 in the Karz area of Kandahar City in southern Afghanistan. He is an ethnic Pashtun descended from the khans, or traditional chiefs, of the Popalzai Pashtun tribe. His father, Abdul Ahad Karzai, served as the Deputy Speaker of the Afghan Parliament during the 1960s. His grandfather, Khair Mohammad Khan, had fought in the 1919 Third Anglo-Afghan War and was the Deputy Speaker of the Senate",
". The Karzai family were monarchists and remained strong supporters of Mohammed Zahir Shah, the last king of Afghanistan. His uncle, Habibullah Karzai, served as the Afghan representative at the UN and is said to have accompanied King Zahir to the United States in the early 1960s for a special meeting with U.S. President John F. Kennedy.",
"Hamid Karzai attended Mahmood Hotaki Primary School in Kandahar and Sayed Jamaluddin Afghani School in Kabul. He graduated from Habibia High School in Kabul in 1976. After graduating, he went to India as an exchange student in 1976, and studied for a master's degree in international relations and political science at Himachal Pradesh University, obtaining his degree in 1983",
". Karzai then moved to Pakistan and worked as a fundraiser for the anti-communist Afghan rebels during their 1980s uprising against the rule of Soviet-backed Afghan Mohammad Najibullah.",
"Hamid Karzai returned to Afghanistan in early October 1988, late in the war, to assist in the rebel victory in Tarinkot. He assisted in mobilizing the Popalzai and the other Durrani tribes and helped to drive Najibullah's regime from the city. Karzai also helped negotiate the defection of five hundred of Najibullah's soldiers",
". Karzai also helped negotiate the defection of five hundred of Najibullah's soldiers. When Najibullah's pro-Soviet government collapsed in 1992, the Peshawar Accords agreed upon by the Afghan political parties established the Islamic State of Afghanistan and appointed an interim government to be followed by general elections. Karzai accompanied the first mujahideen leaders into Kabul after President Najibullah stepped down in 1992",
". He served as Deputy Foreign Minister in the government of Burhanuddin Rabbani. Karzai was arrested, however, by Mohammad Fahim (who would later become Karzai's Vice President) on charges of spying for Gulbuddin Hekmatyar in what Karzai claimed was an effort to negotiate between Hekmatyar's forces and Rabbani's government. Karzai fled from Kabul in a vehicle provided by Hekmatyar and driven by Gul Rahman.",
"When the Taliban emerged in the mid-1990s, Karzai initially recognized them as the legitimate government because he thought that they would stop the violence and corruption in the country. He was requested by the Taliban to serve as their ambassador, but refused, telling friends that he felt Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) was wrongly using them",
". Karzai then wanted to represent the Taliban government for the UN, but the Taliban leader did not trust Karzai due to him having many links with westerners. Karzai lived in the Pakistani city of Quetta among many other Afghan refugees, where he worked to reinstate former Afghan king Zahir Shah, meeting the king in Italy several times. He also visited the western embassies including the U.S",
". He also visited the western embassies including the U.S. embassy in Islamabad several times, talking with UN diplomat Norbert Holl, and attempted to gain American support for \"modern, educated Afghans\" to weaken the Taliban's views. Karzai's father was reportedly annoyed with him for not making clear-cut choices and wanting to be friends with everyone.",
"In July 1999, Karzai's father, Abdul Ahad Karzai, was shot dead early in the morning while returning home from a mosque in Quetta. Reports suggest that the Taliban carried out the assassination. Following this incident, Karzai took over as khan of the tribe and decided to work closely with the anti-Taliban Northern Alliance, which was led by Ahmad Shah Massoud.",
"In 2000 and 2001, he travelled to Europe and the United States to help gather support for the anti-Taliban movement. \"Massoud and Karzai warned the United States that the Taliban were connected with al Qaeda and that there was a plot for an imminent attack on the United States, but their warnings went unheeded. On September 9, 2001, two days before the September 11 attacks in the US, Massoud was assassinated by al Qaeda agents in a suicide bombing.\" As the U.S",
".\" As the U.S. Armed Forces were preparing for a confrontation with the Taliban in September 2001, Karzai began urging NATO states to purge his country of al-Qaeda. He said in a BBC interview, \"These Arabs, together with their foreign supporters and the Taliban, destroyed miles and miles of homes and orchards and vineyards ... They have killed Afghans. They have trained their guns on Afghan lives ... We want them out.\"",
"President and chairman of a transitional administration",
"Karzai had been a US CIA contact, and was well regarded by the CIA. After the 7 October 2001 launch of Operation Enduring Freedom, the United Front (Northern Alliance) worked with teams of U.S. special forces and together they overthrew the Taliban regime and mustered support for a new government in Afghanistan. Karzai and his group were in Quetta, where they began a covert operation. Later, many would claim that at this moment the US decided that Karzai should be the next leader of Afghanistan",
". Before entering Afghanistan, he warned his fighters:",
"Karzai gathered several hundred fighters from his tribe, but were attacked by the Taliban. Karzai barely survived, and used his contacts with the CIA to call for an airlift. On 4 November 2001, American special operation forces flew Karzai out of Afghanistan for protection. On 5 December 2001, Hamid Karzai and his group of fighters survived a friendly fire missile attack by U.S. Air Force pilots in southern Afghanistan",
".S. Air Force pilots in southern Afghanistan. The group suffered injuries and was treated in the United States; Karzai received injuries to his facial nerves, as can sometimes be noticed during his speeches.",
"In December 2001, political leaders gathered in Germany to agree on new leadership structures. Under 5 December Bonn Agreement, they formed an Interim Administration and named Karzai Chairman of a 29-member governing committee. He was sworn in as the leader on 22 December. The loya jirga of 13 June 2002 appointed Karzai as Interim President of the new position as President of the Afghan Transitional Administration",
". Former members of the Northern Alliance remained extremely influential, most notably Vice President Mohammed Fahim, who also served as the Defense Minister.",
"Karzai re-enacted the original coronation of Ahmad Shah Durrani at the shrine of Sher-i-Surkh outside Kandahar, where he had leaders of various Afghan tribes, including a descendant of the religious leader (Sabir Shah) who originally selected Ahmad Shah Durrani in 1747, as key players in this event. Further evidence that Karzai views himself fulfilling a Durrani monarch's role arises from statements furnished by close allies within his government",
". His late brother, Ahmed Wali Karzai, made statements to a similar effect.",
"As part of his efforts to unite Afghanistan's ethnicities, Karzai favored an Afghan dress that combines traditional design features from the various ethnics – Pashtun-style long shirt and loose trousers, an outer robe popular among the Tajiks and Uzbeks, and most distinctively a karakul hat worn by highlanders from the valley of Panjshir. In 2002 designer Tom Ford, who worked at the time for Gucci, was quoted calling Karzai \"the most chic man in the world\".",
"After Karzai was installed into power, his actual authority outside the capital city of Kabul was said to be so limited that he was often derided as the \"Mayor of Kabul\". The situation was particularly delicate since Karzai and his administration have not been equipped either financially or politically to influence reforms outside of the region around Kabul. Other areas, particularly the more remote ones, have historically been under the influence of various local leaders",
". Karzai has been, to varying degrees of success, attempting to negotiate and form amicable alliances with them for the benefit of Afghanistan as a whole, instead of aggressively fighting them and risking an uprising.",
"In 2004, he rejected an international proposal to end poppy production in Afghanistan through aerial spraying of chemical herbicides, fearing that it would harm the economic situation of his countrymen. Moreover, Karzai's younger brother, Ahmed Wali Karzai – who partially helped finance Karzai's presidential campaign – was rumored to be involved in narcotic deals. James Risen of The New York Times and others stated that Ahmed Wali Karzai may have been involved in the Afghan opium and heroin trade",
". This was denied by Karzai, who called the charges political propaganda and stated he was a \"victim of vicious politics\".",
"2004 Afghan presidential election\n\nWhen Karzai was a candidate in the October 2004 presidential election, he won 21 of the 34 provinces, defeating his 22 opponents and becoming the first democratically elected leader of Afghanistan.",
"Although his campaigning was limited due to fears of violence, elections passed without significant incident. Following an investigation by the United Nations of alleged voting irregularities, the national election commission in early November declared Karzai winner, without a runoff, with 55.4% of the vote. This represented 4.3 million of the total 8.1 million votes cast. The election took place safely in spite of a surge of insurgent activity.",
"Karzai was sworn in as President of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan on 7 December 2004, at a formal ceremony in Kabul. Many interpreted the ceremony as a symbolically important \"new start\" for the war-torn nation. Notable guests at the inauguration included the country's former King, Zahir Shah, three former U.S. presidents, and U.S. Vice President Dick Cheney.\n\nPresidency",
"Presidency\n\nFirst term (2004–2009)\nAfter winning a democratic mandate in the 2004 election, it was thought that Karzai would pursue a more aggressively reformist path in 2005. However, Karzai has proved to be more cautious than was expected. After his new administration took over in 2004, the economy of Afghanistan began growing rapidly for the first time in many years. Government revenue began increasing every year, although it is still heavily dependent on foreign aid.",
"During the first term in Karzai's presidency, public discontent grew about corruption and the civilian casualties in the 2001–14. In May 2006, an anti-American and anti-Karzai riot took place in Kabul which left at least seven people dead and 40 injured. In May 2007, after as many as 51 Afghan civilians were killed in a bombing, Karzai asserted that his government \"can no longer accept\" casualties caused by U.S. and NATO operations.",
"In September 2006, Karzai told the United Nations General Assembly that Afghanistan has become the \"worst victim\" of terrorism. Karzai said terrorism is rebounding in his country, with militants infiltrating the borders to wage attacks on civilians. He stated, \"This does not have its seeds alone in Afghanistan. Military action in the country will, therefore, not deliver the shared goal of eliminating terrorism",
".\" He demanded assistance from the international community to destroy terrorist sanctuaries inside and outside Afghanistan. \"You have to look beyond Afghanistan to the sources of terrorism\", he told the UN General Assembly, and \"destroy terrorist sanctuaries beyond\" the country, dismantle the elaborate networks in the region that recruit, indoctrinate, train, finance, arm, and deploy terrorists",
". These activities are also robbing thousands of Afghan children of their right to education, and prevent health workers from doing their jobs in Afghanistan. In addition, he promised to eliminate opium-poppy cultivation in his country, which is possibly helping fuel the ongoing Taliban insurgency. He has repeatedly demanded that NATO forces take more care to avoid civilian casualties when conducting military operations in residential areas",
". In a September 2006 video broadcast, Karzai stated that if the money wasted on the Iraq War had been actually spent on rebuilding Afghanistan, his country would \"be in heaven in less than one year\".",
"2009 re-election and second term",
"On the eve of 20 August presidential election, Karzai seemed at once deeply unpopular but also likely to win the majority of the votes. He was blamed by many for the failures that plagued the reconstruction of Afghanistan after the toppling of the Taliban government in 2001, from the widespread corruption and the resurgence of the (neo-)Taliban to the explosion of the poppy trade",
". His unpopularity and the likelihood of his victory formed an atmosphere with a kind of national demoralization, which could discourage many Afghans from voting and dash hopes for substantial progress after the election.",
"In this second presidential election, Karzai was announced to have received over 50% of the votes. The election was tainted by lack of security, low voter turnout and widespread ballot stuffing, intimidation, and other electoral fraud.",
"Two months later Karzai accepted calls for a second round run-off vote, which was scheduled for 7 November 2009. On 2 November 2009, Karzai's run-off opponent, Abdullah Abdullah, withdrew from the race and election officials announced the cancellation of the run-off race. Karzai, the only remaining contender, was declared the winner a short time later.",
"Karzai presented his first list of 24 cabinet nominees to the Afghan parliament on 19 December 2009; however, on 2 January 2010, the parliament rejected 17 of these. According to the parliament, most of the nominees were rejected due to having been picked for reasons other than their competency. A member of parliament said that they had been picked largely based on \"ethnicity or bribery or money\".",
"On 16 January 2010, the Afghan parliament rejected 10 of the Karzai's 17 replacement picks for the cabinet. MPs complained that Karzai's new choices were either not qualified for their posts or had close connections to Afghan warlords. Despite the second setback, by mid-January Karzai had 14 out of the 24 ministers confirmed, including the most powerful posts at foreign, defense and interior ministries",
". Shortly afterward, the parliament began its winter recess, lasting until 20 February, without waiting for Karzai to select additional names for his cabinet. The move not only extended the political uncertainty in the government but also dealt Karzai the embarrassment of appearing at the London Conference on Afghanistan with nearly half of his cabinet devoid of leaders.",
"Since late 2001 Karzai has been trying for peace in his country, going as far as pardoning militants that lay down weapons and join the rebuilding process. However, his offers were not accepted by the militant groups. In April 2007, Karzai acknowledged that he spoke to some militants about trying to bring peace in Afghanistan. He noted that the Afghan militants are always welcome in the country, although foreign insurgents are not",
". In September 2007, Karzai again offered talks with militant fighters after a security scare forced him to end a commemoration speech. Karzai left the event and was taken back to his palace, where he was due to meet visiting Latvian President Valdis Zatlers. After the meeting, the pair held a joint news conference, at which Karzai called for talks with his Taliban foes. \"We don't have any formal negotiations with the Taliban. They don't have an address. Who do we talk to?\" Karzai told reporters",
". They don't have an address. Who do we talk to?\" Karzai told reporters. He further stated: \"If I can have a place where to send somebody to talk to, an authority that publicly says it is the Taliban authority, I will do it.\"",
"In December 2009 Karzai announced to move ahead with a Loya Jirga (large assembly) to discuss the Taliban insurgency in which the Taliban representatives would be invited to take part in this Jirga. In January 2010, Karzai set the framework for dialogue with Taliban leaders when he called on the group's leadership to take part in the jirga to initiate peace talks. A Taliban spokesman declined to talk in detail about Karzai's offer and only said the militants would make a decision soon",
". In April 2010, Karzai urged Taliban insurgents to lay down their arms and air their grievances while visiting a violent northern province, adding that foreign forces would not leave the country as long as fighting continued. In July 2010, Karzai approved a plan intended to win over Taliban foot soldiers and low-level commanders. In mid-August 2013, Attorney General Mohammad Ishaq Aloko was said to have been fired after meeting with Taliban officials in the U.A.E. after being told not to meet with them",
".A.E. after being told not to meet with them. However, unnamed senior cabinet officials tried to persuade Karzai to not fire him, while an official in Aloko's office denied the dismissal saying instead that he was at the Presidential Palace \"celebrating Independence Day\".",
"Foreign relations",
"Karzai's relations with NATO countries was strong, especially with the United States, due to the fact that it was the leading nation helping to rebuild war-torn Afghanistan. Karzai enjoyed a very friendly and strong strategic partnership with the United States, despite various disagreements. The U.S. had supported him since late 2001 to lead his nation. He has made many important diplomatic trips to the United States and other NATO countries",
". He has made many important diplomatic trips to the United States and other NATO countries. In August 2007, Karzai was invited to Camp David in Maryland, USA, for a special meeting with U.S. President George W. Bush. The United States has set up a special envoy for Afghanistan and Pakistan, which is headed by Marc Grossman. His task is to serve as a mediator and solve issues between the three nations.",
"However, in later years the relations between U.S. and Karzai had become strained, particularly Karzai had been very critical of U.S. military because of their high-level of civilian casualties. In 2019 he described a \"major fight\" he had with American military officials back in 2007, when Karzai repeatedly told them: \"If you want to fight terrorism and bad people, I won't stop you, but please leave the Afghan people alone\"",
". In a retrospective interview, Karzai claimed he felt that he was being used as a tool by the United States.",
"Further strain in relations with the United States resulted in 2014, when Afghanistan, joined Cuba, Nicaragua, North Korea, Syria, and Venezuela as the only countries to recognize the Russian annexation of Crimea. The United States, European countries, and most other nations wholeheartedly condemned the Russian takeover, as well as the validity of the subsequent Crimean Referendum on its annexation to Russia",
". Citing \"the free will of the Crimean people\", the office of President Hamid Karzai said, \"We respect the decision the people of Crimea took through a recent referendum that considers Crimea as part of the Russian Federation.\"",
"Karzai's relations with neighboring Pakistan were good, especially with the Awami National Party (ANP) and Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP). He often describes his nation and Pakistan as \"inseparable twin brothers\", a reference to the disputed Durand Line border between the two states, despite the many border skirmishes that occurred during his presidency",
". In December 2007, Karzai and his delegates traveled to Islamabad, Pakistan, for a usual meeting with Pervez Musharraf on trade ties and intelligence sharing between the two Islamic states. Karzai also met and had a 45-minute talk with Benazir Bhutto on the morning of 27 December, hours before her trip to Liaquat National Bagh, where she was assassinated after her speech",
". After Bhutto's death, Karzai called her his sister and a brave woman who had a clear vision \"for her own country, for Afghanistan, and for the region – a vision of democracy, prosperity, and peace\". In September 2008, Karzai was invited on a special visit to witness the swearing-in ceremony of Asif Ali Zardari, who became the President of Pakistan. Relations between Afghanistan and Pakistan have improved after the PPP party took over in 2008",
". Relations between Afghanistan and Pakistan have improved after the PPP party took over in 2008. The two nations often make contacts with one another concerning the war on terrorism and trade. Pakistan even allowed NATO forces stationed in Afghanistan to launch attacks on militant groups in Pakistan. This was something strongly opposed by the previous government of Pakistan. The two states finally signed into law long-awaited Afghanistan–Pakistan Transit Trade Agreement in 2011, intended to improve trade",
". Karzai acknowledges Pakistan's meddling in Afghanistan's wars, but said in a 2015 interview that Afghanistan wants a \"friendly relationship but not to be under Pakistan's thumb\".",
"Karzai believed that Iran is a friend although the U.S. often claims that neighboring Iran is meddling in Afghanistan's affairs.",
"In 2007, Karzai said that Iran, so far, had been a helper in the reconstruction process. He acknowledged in 2010 that the Government of Iran had been providing millions of dollars directly to his office",
". In October 2007, Karzai again rejected Western accusations against Iran, stating, \"We have resisted the negative propaganda launched by foreign states against the Islamic Republic, and we stress that aliens' propaganda should not leave a negative impact on the consolidated ties between the two great nations of Iran and Afghanistan",
".\" Karzai added, \"The two Iranian and Afghan nations are close to each other due to their bonds and commonalities, they belong to the same house, and they will live alongside each other for good.\"",
"Some international criticism has centered around the government of Karzai in early 2009 for failing to secure the country from Taliban attacks, systemic governmental corruption, and widespread claims of electoral fraud in the 2009 Afghan presidential election. Karzai staunchly defended the election balloting, stating that some statements criticizing the balloting and vote count were \"totally fabricated\". He told the media that, \"There were instances of fraud, no doubt ... There were irregularities ..",
". He told the media that, \"There were instances of fraud, no doubt ... There were irregularities ... But the election as a whole was good and free and democratic.\" He further went on to say that, \"Afghanistan has its separate problems and we have to handle them as Afghanistan finds it feasible ... This country was completely destroyed ... Today, we are talking about fighting corruption in Afghanistan, improved legal standards ... You see the glass half empty or half full. I see it as half full",
"... You see the glass half empty or half full. I see it as half full. Others see it as half empty.\" A 2019 Washington Post report described Karzai as ruling a \"corrupt\" government that was tolerated by the United States.",
"In June 2010, Karzai travelled to Japan for a five-day visit where the two nations discussed a new aid provided by the hosting nation and the untapped mineral resources recently announced. Karzai invited Japanese companies such as Mitsubishi and others to invest in Afghan mining projects. He told Japanese officials that Japan would be given priority in the bid to explore its resources",
". He told Japanese officials that Japan would be given priority in the bid to explore its resources. He stated, \"morally, Afghanistan should give access as a priority to those countries that have helped Afghanistan massively in the past few years.\" While in Japan, Karzai also made his first visit to Hiroshima to pray for the atomic bomb victims. Japan has provided billions of dollars in aid to Afghanistan since the beginning of 2002.",
"On 16 July 2014, President Karzai held a special cabinet meeting where he condemned the Israeli attacks on Gaza and the killings of civilians while pledging $500,000 USD in aid to Gaza.",
"Relations between Karzai and India have always been friendly; he attended university there. Afghanistan–India relations began getting stronger in 2011, especially after the death of Osama bin Laden in Pakistan. In October 2011, Karzai signed a strategic partnership agreement with Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh. During his speech at the RK Mishra Memorial in New Delhi, Karzai told the audience that \"The signing of the strategic partnership with India is not directed against any country",
". It is not directed against any other entity. This is for Afghanistan to benefit from the strength of India.\"",
"Assassination attempts",
"Many people have plotted to assassinate Karzai in the last decade, especially the Taliban's Quetta Shura and the Taliban-allied Haqqani network which allegedly receives support and guidance from Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) spy network",
". As recent as October 2011, while Karzai was visiting India to sign an important strategic partnership agreement with Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh, Afghan agents of the National Directorate of Security (NDS) arrested 6 people in Kabul for planning to assassinate Karzai. Among those involved in the assassination plot were four Kabul University students and one of its professors, Dr. Aimal Habib, as well as Mohibullah Ahmadi who was one of the guards outside the Presidential Palace in Kabul",
". The alleged group of assassins were associates of al Qaida and the Haqqani network, and were paid $150,000 by Pakistani-based Islamic terrorists. A U.S. official said that \"Our understanding is that the threat against President Karzai was real, was credible, but it was only in the early stages of planning.\" The following is a list of other failed assassination attempts:",
"5 September 2002: An assassination attempt was made on Karzai in the city of Kandahar. A gunman wearing the uniform of the new Afghan National Army opened fire, wounding Gul Agha Sherzai (former governor of Kandahar) and an American Special Operations officer. The gunman, one of the President's bodyguards, and a bystander who knocked down the gunman were killed when Karzai's American bodyguards returned fire",
". Some pictures of the United States Naval Special Warfare Development Group (DEVGRU) responding to the attempt have surfaced.",
"16 September 2004: An attempted assassination on Karzai took place when a rocket missed the helicopter he was flying in while en route to the city of Gardez in eastern Afghanistan.\n 10 June 2007: Taliban insurgents attempted to assassinate Karzai in Ghazni where he was giving a speech to elders. Insurgents fired approximately 12 rockets, some of which landed away from the crowd. Karzai was not hurt in the incident and was transported away from the location after finishing his speech.",
"27 April 2008: Insurgents, reportedly from the Haqqani network, used automatic weapons and rocket-propelled grenades to attack a military parade that Karzai was attending in Kabul. Karzai was safe, but at least three people were killed, including a parliamentarian, a ten-year-old girl and a minority leader, and ten injured",
". Others attending the event included government ministers, former warlords, diplomats and the military top brass, all of whom had gathered to mark the 16th anniversary of the fall of the Afghan communist government to the mujahideen. Responding to the attack during the ceremony, the UN said the attackers \"have shown their utter disrespect for the history and people of Afghanistan\"",
". Taliban spokesman Zabiullah Mujahid claimed responsibility for the attack, stating, \"We fired rockets at the scene of the celebration.\" He went on to say there were six Taliban at the scene and that three were killed. \"Our aim was not to directly hit someone\", Mujahed said when asked if the intention was to kill Karzai. \"We just wanted to show to the world that we can attack anywhere we want to\". The ability of the attackers to get so close to Karzai suggested they had inside help",
". The ability of the attackers to get so close to Karzai suggested they had inside help. Defense minister Wardak confirmed that a police captain was connected with the group behind the assassination attempt and that an army officer supplied the weapons and ammunition used in the attack. Warlord insurgent Gulbuddin Hekmatyar also reportedly claimed responsibility.",
"Views on Taliban\nIn a 2013 interview with Al Jazeera, Karzai called the Taliban his 'brothers'. He claimed that the Afghan government and Afghan people did not want to eliminate the Taliban, but rather reintegrate the Taliban into society. It was not the first time he called the Taliban his brothers. Previously he called them brothers during his victory speech in 2009, a day after he was declared president.",
"Attack on Taliban training camp\nOn 14 September 2015, provincial police chief Gen. Daud Ahmadi claimed that Hamid Karzai had stopped an attack on a Taliban training camp in Logar province of Afghanistan. The camp was used as a launching pad and a military operation was being planned to deal with the camp. However, Karzai stopped them from attacking the camp. Ahmadi further claimed there were around 200 militants who were being trained at the camp at that time.",
"Post-presidency\nAfter the 2017 Nangarhar airstrike, Karzai condemned his successor, President Ashraf Ghani, labeling him a traitor.\n\nFollowing the fall of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan to the Taliban on 17 August 2021, the leader of the Taliban-affiliated Hezb-e-Islami party Gulbuddin Hekmatyar met with Karzai and Abdullah Abdullah, chairman of the High Council for National Reconciliation and former chief executive, in Doha, seeking to form an interim government with the Taliban.",
"In February 2022, Karzai condemned the Biden administration's decision to unfreeze $7 billion of Da Afghanistan Bank's assets and to divide the money between humanitarian aid to Afghanistan and the victims of the September 11, 2001 attacks. Karzai labelled the decision as an \"atrocity\" and, while saying that Afghans sympathized with the victims of 9/11, the money belonged to the Afghan people, who had also suffered from the attacks' consequences.",
"Karzai has been critical of the Taliban government's failure to fulfill promises regarding women's rights, and has asked the Taliban to reopen schools for girls. In an interview with CNN, he has also decried the demand for women to wear a burqa and cover their faces.\n\nPersonal life and tribal lineage",
"In 1999, Hamid Karzai married Zeenat Quraishi, a gynaecologist by profession who was working as a doctor with Afghan refugees living in Pakistan. They have a son, Mirwais, who was born in January 2007, a daughter, Malalai, born in 2012 and another daughter, Howsi, born in March 2014 in Gurgaon, India. He became a father once again at the age of 58 when another daughter was born in September 2016 in Apollo Hospital, New Delhi",
". According to a declaration of his assets by an anti-graft body, Karzai earns $525 monthly and has less than $20,000 in bank accounts. Karzai does not own any land or property.",
"Karzai has six brothers, including Mahmood Karzai and Qayum Karzai, as well as Ahmed Wali Karzai, deceased, who was the representative for the southern Afghanistan region. Qayum is also the founder of the Afghans for a Civil Society. Karzai has one sister, Fauzia Karzai. The family owns and operates several Afghan restaurants on the East Coast of the United States and in Chicago.",
"In initial biographical news reporting, there was confusion regarding his clan lineage; it was written that his paternal lineage derived from the Sadduzai clan. This confusion might have arisen from sources stating he was chosen as the tribal chief of the Popalzai. Traditionally, the Popalzai tribe has been led by members of the Sadozais",
". Traditionally, the Popalzai tribe has been led by members of the Sadozais. The first King of Afghanistan, Ahmad Shah Durrani, was the leader of the Sadozais, and the Sadozai lineage continued to rule Afghanistan until 1826 when the Barakzais ascended to the throne.",
"Karzai is believed to be from the Shamizai subtribe of the Popalzais. His grandfather, Khair Muhammad Karzai, was a head of the Popalzai tribe from Kandahar who relocated to Kabul and ran the business of a guest house. This allowed Karzai's father Abdul Ahad, to gain a foothold in the royal family, and subsequently, the parliament",
". These actions and upwards movement within the Popalzai tribal system, led to the Karzai family furnishing a viable Shamizai clan alternative to Sadozai leadership in the aftermath of the Soviet invasion when the Sadozai clan failed to provide a tribal leader. He is often seen wearing a Karakul hat, something that has been worn by many Afghan kings in the past.",
"Following the Fall of Kabul in 2021, Karzai decided to remain in Kabul with his daughters and he appealed to the Taliban to respect his life and that of his family as well as the civilians in Afghanistan. While he met with Hekmatyar to discuss the formation of a future Afghan government, it is unclear whether Karzai will serve any role in such.",
"On 27 August 2021, prominent activist Fatima Gailani criticized him whereas the United States urged the Taliban to include him in the new government along with Abdullah Abdullah.\n\nOn 1 September 2021, sources close to the Taliban said that it was \"unlikely\" for Karzai to be part of the new government, with a spokesperson for the group saying that the group was \"ready to recruit them\", referring also to Abdullah Abdullah but added that the Taliban did not want \"old horses\" in apparent reference to Karzai.",
"Honorary degrees and awards",
"Over the years Hamid Karzai has become a well recognized figure. He has received a number of awards and honorary degrees from famous government and educational institutions around the world. The following are some of his awards and honoraria.\n A commemorative medallion of 11 September 2001 attacks from the United States House of Representatives, presented to him by member of the House Jack Kingston on 29 January 2002.",
"In June 2002, received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement presented by Awards Council member James Earl Jones at the Achievement Summit at Dublin Castle in Dublin, Ireland.\n An honorary doctorate in literature from Himachal Pradesh University in India, his alma mater, on 7 March 2003.\n On 6 June 2003, Karzai was created an Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George by Queen Elizabeth II.",
"On 4 July 2004, Karzai was awarded the Philadelphia Liberty Medal in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. In his acceptance speech, Karzai stated: \"Where Liberty dies, evil grows. We Afghans have learned from our historical experiences that liberty does not come easily. We profoundly appreciate the value of liberty ... for we have paid for it with our lives. And we will defend liberty with our lives.\"\n On 22 May 2005, received an honorary Doctor of Laws Degree from Boston University.",
"On 22 May 2005, received an honorary Doctor of Laws Degree from Boston University.\n On 25 May 2005, received an honorary degree from the Center for Afghan Studies at the University of Nebraska — Omaha.\n On 25 September 2006, received an honorary Doctor of Laws Degree from Georgetown University.\n In June 2012, received an honorary Doctorate from Nippon Sport Science University.\n Lovely Professional University conferred an honorary Doctorate on Karzai on 20 May 2013.",
"Controversies\nIn August 2011, Karzai pardoned dozens of child would-be suicide bombers, and in February 2012 some of the pardoned children were re-arrested attempting to commit suicide bombings in Kandahar Province.\n\nKarzai has been accused of nepotism, corruption, electoral fraud, and being involved with his late half brother Ahmed Wali Karzai in the drug trade.",
"In 2009, Karzai antagonized the women's movement and NATO leaders by signing a draconian Shia Personal Status Law seen as legalizing marital rape within Afghanistan's minority Shia Muslim community.",
"Electoral fraud\nUnder Karzai's administration, electoral fraud was so apparent that Afghanistan's status as a democratic state came into question. Furthermore, a special court set up personally by Karzai in defiance of constitutional norms sought to reinstate dozens of candidates who were removed for fraud in the 2010 parliamentary elections by the Independent Electoral Commission.",
"Financial ties with CIA and the government of Iran",
"On 28 April 2013, The New York Times revealed that from December 2002 up to the publication date, Karzai's presidential office was funded with \"tens of millions of dollars\" of black cash from the CIA in order to buy influence within the Afghan government. The article stated that \"the cash that does not appear to be subject to the oversight and restrictions.\" An unnamed American official was quoted by The New York Times as stating that \"The biggest source of corruption in Afghanistan was the United States.\"",
"On 17 June 2013, Senator Bob Corker put a hold on $75 million intended for electoral programs in Afghanistan after his inquiries of 2 May, 14 May and 13 June to the Obama Administration regarding the CIA \"ghost money\" remained unanswered.",
"Karzai also admitted that his office received millions of dollars in cash from the Iranian government. Karzai stated that the money was given as gifts and intended for renovating his Presidential Palace in Kabul. \"This is transparent. This is something that I've even discussed while I was at Camp David with President Bush.\"\n\nCorruption",
"Corruption\n\nAccording to The New York Times, many members of the Karzai family have mixed their personal interests with that of the state, and become hugely influential and wealthy by murky means. In 2012 Afghanistan was tied with Somalia and EUA at the bottom of Transparency International's Corruption Perception Index, and it ranked 172/175 in 2014.",
"Mahmoud Karzai, the brother of President Karzai, was implicated in the 2010 Kabul Bank crisis. Mahmud Karzai was the 3rd largest shareholder in the bank with a 7% stake. Kabul Bank incurred huge losses on its investments in villas in Palm Jumeirah in Dubai. The real estate investments were registered in the name of Kabul Bank chairman, Sherkhan Farnood. Mahmud Karzai bought one such villa from Farnood for 7 million dirhams using money borrowed from Kabul Bank and in a matter of months sold it for 10",
".4 million dirhams. Mahmud Karzai's purchase of the 7% stake in Kabul Bank was also financed entirely through money lent by Kabul Bank with the shares as collateral.",
"Karzai has admitted that there is widespread corruption in Afghanistan, but has blamed the problem largely on the way contracts are awarded by the international community, and said that the \"perception of corruption\" is a deliberate attempt to weaken the Afghan government.",
"Unocal connection",
"There has been much debate over Karzai's alleged consultant work with Unocal (Union Oil Company of California since acquired by Chevron in 2005). In 2002, when Karzai became the subject of heavy media coverage as one of the front runners to lead Afghanistan, it was reported that he was a former consultant for them. Spokesmen for both Unocal and Karzai have denied any such relationship, although Unocal could not speak for all companies involved in the consortium",
". The original claim that Karzai worked for Unocal originates from a 6 December 2001 issue of the French newspaper Le Monde, Barry Lane UNOCAL's manager for public relations states in an interview on the website Emperor's Clothes that, \"He was never a consultant, never an employee. We've exhaustively searched through all our records.\" Lane however did say that Zalmay Khalilzad, the former United States Ambassador to the United Nations, was a Unocal consultant in the mid-1990s.",
"Communication with Taliban",
"In October 2013, Karzai's administration and the Afghan Intelligence agency were found to be communicating with the Pakistani Taliban about the shifting of power that was expected to occur if the U.S. forces withdrew in 2014. Karzai himself was in London at the time of the discovery, to participate in talks with Pakistan and the U.S. on the possible location of Taliban leader Mullah Baradar. At the time, it was unknown if Karzai was directly involved or even knew of such communications.",
"In May 2021, Karzai spoke with German newspaper Der Spiegel, where he expressed his sympathy with the Taliban, criticized the role of the United States in Afghanistan and praised the role of the European Union, at the same time, saying that the future of Afghanistan relies heavily on neighbor Pakistan. He also considered the Taliban \"victims of foreign forces\" and said that Afghans were being used to be \"each against the other\"",
". In November 2021, he told Yalda Hakim of BBC News that he considered the Taliban as \"brothers\".",
"View on ISIS in Afghanistan",
"Karzai, during an interview with Voice of America, claimed that ISIS in Afghanistan is a tool for the United States. He further claimed that he does not differentiate at all between ISIS and the United States. During an interview with Fox News, Karzai claimed that ISIS in Afghanistan is a product of the United States. He claimed that he routinely received reports regarding unmarked helicopters dropping supplies to support the terror faction",
". He asked for an explanation from the United States regarding the unmarked helicopter flights. He also claimed that the United States had made Afghanistan a testing ground for its weapons. Later on during an interview with Al Jazeera, Karzai again criticized the United States. He accused the United States of working with ISIS in Afghanistan",
". He accused the United States of working with ISIS in Afghanistan. Moreover, he said that the United States government had allowed ISIS to flourish in Afghanistan and that it had used ISIS as an excuse to drop the GBU-43 (Mother of all Bombs) in Afghanistan.",
"Karzai also accused Pakistan of supporting ISIS during an interview with ANI.\n\nIn popular culture\n In the film War Machine, Karzai was portrayed by Ben Kingsley.\n\nSee also\n\n List of presidents of Afghanistan\n Politics of Afghanistan\n Mahmoud Karzai\n Ahmed Wali Karzai\n Kabul Bank crisis\n Afghan Peace Jirga 2010\n Hamid Karzai International Airport\n\nReferences",
"References\n\nBooks/Articles\n Dam, Bette. A Man and a Motorcycle, Ipso Facto Publ., Sept. 2014.\n Dam, Bette. \"The Misunderstanding of Hamid Karzai\", Foreign Policy, Oc.t 3, 2014.\n\nExternal links",
"1957 births\n21st-century heads of state of Afghanistan\nPresidents of Afghanistan\nLiving people\nHamid\nAfghan exiles\nAfghan expatriates in Pakistan\nAfghan anti-communists\nHabibia High School alumni\nHimachal Pradesh University alumni\nHonorary Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George\nMujahideen members of the Soviet–Afghan War\nPashtun politicians\nPeople from Kandahar Province\nAfghan Sunni Muslims\nAnti-communism in Afghanistan\nPashtun nationalists\n21st-century Afghan writers"
] |
JJ Giltinan International Trophy
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JJ%20Giltinan%20International%20Trophy
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[
"The JJ Giltinan International Trophy is considered the world's premier 18-foot skiff open championship, the eponymous brainchild of noted Australian sports entrepreneur J. J. Giltinan.\n\nEarly days – 1930s and 1940s",
"In the early 20th century 18-foot skiff racing had gained ground as a spectator sport. The radical innovations introduced by Aberdare in 1933 (a narrow beam, reduced sail area, reduced crew, and flat bottom) made it significantly faster than contemporary designs, leading Aberdare to win four consecutive Australian championships",
". The Sydney Flying Squadron, at that time the leading organizer of 18-foot skiff racing, promptly banned Aberdares innovations, fearing the impact of these innovations on the established class.",
"The desire to race these faster skiffs using Aberdares innovations led J. J. Giltinan to found the New South Wales 18-Footers League in 1935 as a rival club to the Flying Squadron. With the success of the new league Giltinan planned a world championship event for 18-foot skiffs on Sydney Harbour to coincide with Sydney's 150th anniversary in 1938",
". The inaugural edition of the eponymously named contest was held in Sydney Harbor in 1938, won by Taree skippered by Bert Swinbourne (AUS), while Aberdare took third.",
"Advertisements were placed in major newspapers throughout the world with positive replies being received from England, the US, Hong Kong and New Zealand. Unfortunately, due to unsettled conditions in Europe at the time, only the New Zealanders were able to compete, sending three boats to the inaugural regatta in 1938, which produced a total fleet of 20 boats.",
"The carnival was a great success. A local newspaper reported on the day following the first race: \"The crowd at Circular Quay (ferry wharf) was so large that extra steamer accommodation had to be provided at the last moment, while craft of almost every conceivable description were in attendance. The foreshores were also thronged with spectators.\" The total crowd was estimated at more than 10,000 people.",
"Bert Swinbourne's Taree took the first championship with two wins and one second placing from the three-race regatta. Australia filled all three placings with Victor (Vic Lucas) in second place and Aberdare (Vic Vaughan) third while New Zealand's best performer was Irina, which finished in fifth place.",
"The success of the 1938 regatta led to a second championship being staged at Auckland in 1939 when three Australian 18 footers took on the Kiwi fleet of 21 boats. Unlike the original, this contest proved to be one of the most bitterly contested in the history of the championship. While the crowds on the foreshore were estimated at 25,000 people, it was marred by several protests, the latter of which saw the defending champion and provisional 1939 winner, Taree, being disqualified",
". Gordon Chamberlain's Manu was then declared the winner.",
"Tarees skipper Bert Swinbourne lodged an appeal against the decision, but when the appeal wasn't heard before the Australian team returned home, Swinbourne decided to hang on to the trophy. The Australian Board of Control later upheld the New Zealand decision in the best interests of keeping good will, but Swinbourne didn't agree and refused to hand over the trophy. He was expelled by the Australian League and for the next four years the Giltinan trophy remained hidden in Swinbourne's possession.",
"Swinbourne later apologized for his actions and returned the trophy to the League. It was then handed over to New Zealand and presented to the Manu owners.\n\nA third contest took place at Auckland in 1948. Due to the bad feelings which had resulted from the 1939 regatta, the League was determined to send the strongest team possible and recruited the great Billo Hayward to sail its top boat Crows Nest.",
"This regatta was a triumph for the Australians as the huge sail carriers totally dominated the smaller New Zealand 18s to finish first, second and fourth overall. Hayward took the title with two wins and a fifth placing from the three races.",
"Drama and conflict seemed to be a fact of life in the history of the 18 footer class and the late 1940s were no exception. Queensland was suffering from rising costs and went to 6 ft beam boats with a further reduced number of crewmen; the League sailors refused to agree to the change and wouldn't allow the new boats to be registered in their events.",
"The New Zealand governing body of the time tried to incorporate these new boats into the Giltinan Championship, a move which angered the League and resulted in the New Zealand body withdrawing its support of the championship. Several New Zealand sailors contacted the League, offering to take a private team of 18 footers to the 1949 championship in Sydney. The League agreed and even assisted the kiwis with their shipping costs.",
"The kiwis put up a good showing with their top boat Takiri finishing third overall behind Marjorie Too (Tony Russell) and Top Weight (Bish Bolton) of Australia. New Zealand's Jack Logan believed he would never beat the Australians in his boat, so began to browse through old plans of his late father, who was a master designer and builder. On a piece of 50-year-old parchment paper he saw a design which gave him an idea. He drew it out, chopped off the bow and gave her a transom in place of a pointed stern",
". He drew it out, chopped off the bow and gave her a transom in place of a pointed stern. The public called her a skimmer; Logan called her a frying pan, complete with handle.",
"1950s and 1960s\n\nLogan rigged her with the latest Bermudan rig, polished her hull to a mirror-finish and christened her Komutu, the Maori word for \"surprise\". When the Australians went to Auckland in 1950 they were unable to match the phenomenal speed of this most unusual boat and were convincingly defeated in the three race championship. The 1950 contest was significant for the introduction of a third competing country when Fiji was represented by O'vuka, skippered by Alex Bentley.",
"After Australia's Bill Barnett totally dominated the 1951 series in Myra Too, the 1952 contest was hosted for the first time at a venue other than Australia and New Zealand - the Royal Suva Yacht Club in Fiji. After a closely fought series Peter Mander's Intrigue won the title back for New Zealand. This contest was also memorable for the fact that Intrigues crew introduced the use of trapeze.",
"Peter Mander then became the first skipper to win two Giltinan Championships when he again skippered Intrigue to victory in the 1954 regatta at Auckland. New Zealand's domination resulted from the team's use of new cold-moulded hulls with two and three skins of diagonally laid planking and the fact that they carried three of the five crew on the trapeze wire.",
"New Zealand designers and sailors were becoming great innovators in the class during the 1950s. Not surprisingly, these moves immediately changed the style of 18 footers in Australia. It was back to Australia (Waterloo Bay, Brisbane) for the 1956 series and for the first time the regatta was sailed over five races and included the use of a discard. Queensland's Norm Wright used local knowledge to his advantage to win with Jenny VI.",
"Once again locals dominated the championship when the 1958 regatta was sailed on Sydney Harbour. Len Heffernan (Jantzen Girl) and Bill Barnett (SMV) dominated the racing as each skipper scored two wins in the five-race regatta. Only another local, Cliff Monkhouse (Toogara), was able to record a race win.",
"In the end the overall result was determined by an error from Barnett in the first race. SMV was leading by two minutes when Barnett failed to round the correct mark, allowing Heffernan through to take the win and title in Jantzen Girl.",
"Although only six boats contested the 1960 contest at Auckland the regatta was anything but uninteresting. As one leading New Zealand yachting journal said: \"The 18s are still the glamour boats with the general public. Even the weekday races saw the waterfront road and headlands thick with spectators and the starting wharf completely packed\".",
"There were great dramas even before the racing began when Bob Miller (later famously known as Ben Lexcen) arrived with his radically designed Taipan, which was the biggest break in tradition since the skimmer. She was a three-man boat, hard chine, plywood construction, reverse sheer, half-decked, heavily flared topsides and narrow (4 ft 3in) beam on the chine. She also had a smaller rig (similar to a Flying Dutchman), a big genoa and bending spars and was referred to by Miller as a supercharged FD.",
"Taipan had, however, far too much decking for the time and Miller was forced to do a major reconstruction job prior to the start of the regatta, reducing her deck by around fifty per cent, which made her very vulnerable in choppy conditions.\n\nBernie Skinner's Surprise won the title back for the kiwis with five good placings while the Australians couldn't match this consistency and suffered the consequences. Unfortunately for the New Zealanders, Skinner's victory was their only one during the 1960s.",
"Despite the problems experienced by Miller at Auckland, there was little doubt about Taipans design, and the follow-up Venom proved this emphatically by dominating the 1961 contest on the Brisbane River.",
"At the 1963 contest in Auckland, the 1958 champion Len Heffernan played an unusual role when he was responsible for the design and construction of Ken Beashel's winning skiff, Schemer. Heffernan had built two skiffs for the Australian season and elected to sail the Taipan-Venom type boat while handing over the more conventional four-man boat to Beashel.",
"Beashel and his crew recorded three wins and a second placing over the five races; their record could have been even greater but for an unfortunate incident in race three when she was hit by a Royal New Zealand Air Force launch, which was carrying a TV cameraman.\n\nIn the 1964 contest on Sydney Harbour, the overall consistency of Toogara proved the winning formula for Cliff Monkhouse and his crew.",
"The following regatta at Auckland in 1965 began a wonderful era for Australian skipper Bob Holmes who took the championship in Travelodge, which was the same boat Ken Beashel had sailed as Schemer to win the 1963 title, also at Auckland.",
"Holmes successfully defended his title with Travelodge in 1966 (to become the first Australian two-time winner), but his attempt to win a third consecutive championship was thwarted in 1967 at Sydney when Don Barnett narrowly and dramatically took the championship in Associated Motor Club. Barnett and team's consistency and good seamanship in very testing conditions won a hard-fought regatta against Holmes and Len Heffernan.",
"Auckland was the venue in 1968 and again three Australian boats dominated this series. There was, apparently, little harmony in the Australian team, as two protests were lodged against fellow team members.",
"Bob Holmes' Travelodge won each of the first two races only to be disqualified from the second following a protest by Ken Beashel in Daily Telegraph for a breach by Holmes against another Australian boat. Daily Telegraph then won races three and four, but had to survive a protest by Holmes in race three, before Beashel could regain the title he first won in 1963.",
"The 1969 series on the Brisbane River produced the championship's first tie which required a sail-off between two Australian boats Travelodge (Bob Holmes) and Rod Zemanek's Willie B. Again. A protest had a major effect on the overall result when Willie B. was disqualified for a breach of the port and starboard rule against Guinness Lady, after winning race three.",
"The special match race sail-off between Travelodge and Willie B. was a gripping race as the two skiffs were separated by just a few seconds around the entire course and the lead changed many times. Travelodge finally took line honours by just 26s which gave Holmes his third Giltinan title – the only skipper to do that at the time.",
"Bruce Farr skippered Guinness Lady into third place behind Holmes and Zemanek but was certainly unlucky not to be an even stronger challenger. Gear failures in each of the first two races robbed the young skipper who recorded two wins and a second placing in the final three races.\n\nInternational competition starts to rise - 1970s",
"International competition starts to rise - 1970s\n\nInternational competition took a major step forward in 1970 when a US entry competed in the Giltinan Championship for the first time. Roger Welsh skippered the 1969 champion Travelodge skiff as Travelodge International and sailed consistently to finish fourth overall behind three Australian boats. Hugh Treharne, skippering Thomas Cameron, scored four wins and a second placing for a well deserved win.",
"Bob Holmes and his Travelodge team returned to their consistent best to take out title number four at Auckland in 1971 but the writing was on the wall that the Bruce Farr design was starting to become a real force in 18 ft skiff racing and New Zealand were about to make a comeback.\n\nRoger Welsh again showed the US flag and became the first American to win a race at the Giltinan when he brought Travelodge International home a seven minutes winner over Willie B in the atrocious conditions of race 4.",
"The predicted Farr design breakthrough finally came in 1972 when Don Lidgard's Smirnoff totally dominated the 1972 series on Waterloo Bay at Brisbane. Smirnoff scored easy wins in each of the first four races when Lidgard and his crew successfully used the tactic of tacking downwind to make the skiff almost unbeatable off a wind.",
"Their only defeat came in the final race when they were recalled at the start. They managed to get back into the lead but capsized then recovered once more to finish an incredible second - only 16s behind Denis Lehany's Nick & Kirby, which took second overall.",
"The US team was so impressed with Farr's design it commissioned him to design and build a new hull, then make a complete set of sails for the new skiff in New Zealand. On completion they had it shipped to the US, gained a partial sponsorship from the Travelodge organization, then took it to Sydney for the 1973 regatta, where Roger Welsh skippered it as Travelodge International.",
"In complete contrast to the previous series, the 1973 regatta in Sydney was so wide open that it wasn't decided until the spinnaker run home in the final race. Bob Holmes took his fifth Giltinan Championship when Travelodge narrowly defeated Dave Porter's KB and Smirnoff.\n\nWelsh finished fourth in Travelodge International but could have been a challenger for overall victory with one race win and two second placings. Unfortunately, the skiff had gear failures in two races which led to retirements.",
"KB took race one by just 2s from Travelodge International, then moderate results in the following two races kept KB near the lead. Unfortunately for Porter the final two races were costly and once again it was the Holmes team's consistency which won the day to secure title number five.",
"New Zealand came back strongly at Auckland in 1974 when Terry McDell's Travelodge New Zealand dominated the series with four wins from the five races. Unfortunately for the kiwis it was their last Giltinan Championship victory to date.\n\nTravelodge New Zealands wins were dramatic as she totally dominated the strong fleet with winning margins from 1m 45s to 5m 2s. The crew conceded starts to their rivals in most heats but were so much faster they soon worked their way to the lead with precision sailing.",
"Dave Porter (KB) was the only Australian to threaten the New Zealand contingent, finishing second overall with a last race win and three second-place results, but never had any chance of beating Travelodge New Zealand.\n\nAn unfortunate sidelight to this contest was the news that Roger Welsh, who had shown such ability during previous challenges, was suffering from an incurable disease and was near death as this regatta was being sailed.",
"After being runner-up in the previous two Giltinan Championship contests, Dave Porter finally won the title when he successfully steered KB to victory in the 1975 series on the Brisbane River.\n\nThe sail handling by Porter and his crew, particularly on the long tacking downwind runs, was the winning factor and thrilled the large spectator following on the water and river banks.",
"A capsize in race one saw KB finish only seventh but from that point there was never a doubt about her victory as she recorded four consecutive race wins for a perfect score - after discarding the race one result.",
"This 1975 regatta is also remembered as the first to attract an entry from the UK when British pioneer Alf Reynolds skippered a chartered skiff. There was a real family influence about the 1976 winner Miles Furniture. Stephen Kulmar was the skipper, his brother Paul Kulmar and brother-in-law Paul Ziems were the crew, and father Les Kulmar was involved (with the others) in the skiff's design and construction.",
"The Sydney Harbour regatta was sailed in light winds on most race days. Defending champion Dave Porter started impressively in KB with a 2m win over Miles Furniture in race one.\n\nThough not noted for her ability in very light winds, Miles Furniture fought back with two wins in the next three races and went into the final race needing to finish no worse than one placing behind KB to take the championship.",
"A big crowd was attracted to the harbour for this final race and they weren't disappointed. Miles Furniture and KB had a great battle throughout but it was ultimately David Griffiths' Ansett Airlines which narrowly took race honours ahead of Miles Furniture. For the third time, Dave Porter had to be content with being runner up in the Giltinan.",
"The Giltinan Championship was continuing to gain more international appeal as another nation was represented for the first time in this regatta when French designer-builder Eric Lerouge skippered a locally chartered skiff.\n\nIain Murray era - 1977 to 1982",
"Iain Murray era - 1977 to 1982\n\nThe next six years of Giltinan Championship racing is the \"Iain Murray era\". Not only was he invincible in six consecutive contests from 1977 to 1982 (inclusive) but his design and technology innovations were responsible for some of the greatest changes in the class history.",
"After a moderate start to his first season in 1976–1977, Murray decided to modify the hull of his Color 7 skiff. The original design had flared sides and was nearly ten feet wide at the beam. Murray cut the sides and bow and changed the shape before shipping her off to New Zealand where he won the 1977 Giltinan Championship with an incredible final race win.",
"The contest was wide open throughout with no boat ever really having an edge. The first four races produced four different winners - KB and Color 7 went into the final race locked on points. A 20-knot northerly wind and big seas prevailed and all boats elected to carry their small rigs as the long course was going to be a real test and a battle for survival.",
"Defending champion Stephen Kulmar was recalled at the start in Miles Furniture (although he didn't know it at the time) and failed to return. His crew sailed brilliantly to cross the finishing line ahead of the fleet but the race for the official winner was amazing.",
"KB was 5½ minutes ahead of Color 7 at the final rounding mark and, along with the other leading skiffs, elected to sail a safety first course to the finishing line. Realising his only hope for victory was to sail the more direct, but more capsize likely, line, Murray and his crew pulled off the \"impossible\" with a brilliant exhibition of boat handling to grab race and championship victory.",
"Third place overall went to New Zealand's Russell Bowler, sailing a revolutionary foam-sandwich constructed Benson & Hedges, which was one-third lighter and had a comparatively smaller wetted surface area than other designs. It could have easily won the title had there been more favourable breezes and so impressed Australia's leading skippers that similar type boats were built for the following season's racing.",
"For the next five years (1978–1982, inclusive) Iain Murray, Andrew Buckland and Don Buckley were unbeatable in the Giltinan Championship despite the competition of some of the sport's greatest-ever skippers, and were also responsible for the design, construction and rigging of many of their opponents.",
"The likes of Trevor Barnabas, John Winning, Dave Porter, Peter Sorensen and Rob Brown tried in vain to unseat the master but the Color 7 team was magnificent as they re-wrote the history books - giving Murray his still unequalled six championship victories.\n\nSpecial mention has to be given to Dave Porter. One of the greatest 18 ft skiff sailors of all time, Porter won only one Giltinan Championship but had the unenviable record of being runner-up on six occasions.\n\nBeginning of the modern era",
"Beginning of the modern era\n\nWith the Murray influence gone, the 1983 championship looked likely to become a more even contest with so many talented skippers still in the fleet. Peter Sorensen, however, soon dispelled this theory when he skippered Tia Maria to five wins in the seven-race regatta at Auckland, then retained the crown the following year on Sydney Harbour (although this victory was much more hard fought).",
"Rob Brown and Trevor Barnabas shared the honours over the next four years (in 1988 they literally shared the honours). Brown won in 1985 with Bradmill on Waterloo Bay, Brisbane and with Entrad at Auckland in 1986 while Barnabas took victory with Chesty Bond at Perth in 1987. During the 1987 regatta, Barnabas' Chesty Bond carried a huge #1 mast, which measured an amazing 45 ft above the waterline.",
"There was always an \"extreme competitiveness\" between Brown and Barnabas and it more or less came to a head at Sydney in 1988. Brown had taken the championship on points but complicated new rules led to a protest against Brown at the conclusion of the contest for the use of an \"illegal\" spinnaker during the regatta.",
"The protest was upheld when the committee agreed that Barnabas had been prejudiced. They also determined that it was an official's error in not detecting the problem prior to the regatta and consequently declared Barnabas (Chesty Bond) and Brown (Southern Cross) as joint champions.",
"In complete contrast to the previous regatta, the 1989 contest on Sydney Harbour was an easy victory for Michael Walsh, who won each of the seven races in Prudential - the same skiff which had won the 1987 championship (as Chesty Bond) for Trevor Barnabas. Walsh had to fight hard at times but his winning margins were impressive - from 1min 40secs to 7mins.",
"In 1990 the Giltinan Championship returned to the Brisbane River for the first time since 1975 amid much controversy over the quality of racing conditions the river would provide for the skiffs of that time. One Sydney skipper was quoted: \"How the hell do you sail on that drain?\"",
"Windward speed was critical and Scott Ramsden's vBank of New Zealand was the fastest boat upwind. It enabled the young BNZ skipper to win four of the seven races and become Giltinan champion in his first season. For defending champion Michael Walsh, however, it was a most forgettable regatta as he and his team suffered gear failures, capsizes, 720-degree penalty turns and a collision with a ferry, all topped off when Walsh broke his leg in three places in the last race.\n\nEvolution - Bethwaite design boats",
"Evolution - Bethwaite design boats\n\nThe 1991 championship saw a major breakthrough in design by Julian Bethwaite, which enabled him to take his first Giltinan Championship (as a skipper). His skiff, AAMI, was built and rigged by Bethwaite for half the cost of the previous style boats and totally dominated the racing as she showed blistering speed across most wind ranges.",
"Bethwaite put the success down to 80 percent rig and the rest to the boat. The fleet in the regatta was reduced due to a split amongst Australian sailors, many of whom had chosen to compete in a privately funded national circuit. AAMI proved her champion status when Bethwaite and his crew also contested, and won, against all comers on the national circuit.",
"Bethwaite retained his Giltinan Championship title in 1992 with a clear victory over a 20-boat fleet on Sydney Harbour. He skippered a new AAMI skiff, which he designed and built for the championship and which won five of the seven races in a very impressive all round performance. The skiff had a slight boatspeed advantage but the racing was exciting for spectators as both Winfield Racing (Michael Spies) and Pace Express (David Witt) challenged strongly in most races.",
"Michael Spies had to recover from a less than spectacular start in the 1993 regatta before winning in Winfield Racing. He was forced to use all his experience to bring his skiff home with four consecutive wins in the final four races.",
"Neil Cashman, who was runner-up to Spies in 1993, led a talented team when he took the 1994 championship regatta in Nokia with a race to spare. The Nokia crew were among the heaviest in the fleet, which enabled them to gain upwind speed by carrying big rigs in the moderate winds throughout the series.\n\nModern rules are instated",
"Modern rules are instated\n\nThe 1994 championship was significant in that it was the first sailed under the rules which largely still prevail today, whereby all the hulls come from one mould design and all skiffs have a maximum 14-foot wing span.",
"After winning the championship in 1993, Michael Spies disappointed the following year, but in 1995 he again took the title with a race to spare in Winfield Racing. With good boat speed and sound tactics in the shifty south-easterly breezes, Spies and his crew established a championship-winning lead by mid-regatta.\n\nIt was in strict contrast for Stephen Quigley's AEI-Pace Express in 1996, which had to recover from a poor start in the last race to win the championship after an extremely close series.",
"Trevor Barnabas had retired in the early 1990s after winning two Giltinan Championships but a subsequent return to the class produced three more championship victories to become the second most successful skipper behind the great Iain Murray.",
"Barnabas won the 1997 regatta (Omega Smeg-2UE) on Sydney Harbour after an intensely close battle with Brad Gibson (Southern Cross) in the last race, then took the skiff to Europe during the same calendar year to win (under the name Smeg) at Sardinia in a regatta which was contested under a different format to the regular Giltinan Championships.",
"The final championship victory for Trevor Barnabas came in 1998 when he successfully defended his title in the same Omega Smeg-2UE skiff. This was not only the last win for Barnabas, but it also brought to an end the 25 straight winning run by Australia since Terry McDell's victory for New Zealand in 1974.",
"For the first time since the inception of the event in 1938, a boat from the northern hemisphere won the championship when UK skipper Tim Robinson took a closely fought 1999 regatta in Rockport. The series produced six different winners in the seven races with Robinson the only two race winner in the fleet. This skiff was the same one which was runner up in 1998 when it represented Australia with John Harris as skipper.",
"Without a doubt, one of the most popular wins in the long history of the championship came in 2000 when John Winning was successful in AMP Centrepoint. Winning had been trying for 26 years and had previously finished as runner up twice to Iain Murray in 1980 and 1981.",
"Despite winning three of the seven races, AMP Centrepoints victory was hard-fought with only 4.1 points separating the top three place getters in a very strong international fleet. There were also many anxious moments for Winning and his crew as they had to survive the re-opening of an earlier protest on the morning of the last race.",
"John Harris, who was runner up to Trevor Barnabas in 1998, became the youngest skipper for several years to take out the Giltinan Championship when, at the age of 24 years, he steered Rag & Famish Hotel to a narrow victory in 2001. Harris and his crew won a thrilling last race in front of the largest spectator fleet since the 1980s to secure the title.",
"Howie Hamlin became the second northern hemisphere and first US skipper to win the Giltinan Championship when he led an all-US team to victory on board General Electric-US Challenge in 2002. The win was far from clear cut in a regatta of changing fortunes and the final result had everyone struggling with mathematics on the finishing line of the last race to determine the overall winner. The outcome saw Hamlin take the title by two points from defending champion John Harris (Rag & Famish Hotel).",
"The 2003 regatta provided the closest racing in the history of the championship and even the final result surprised the winner, defending champion Howie Hamlin.",
"Hamlin (General Electric/US Challenge) went into the last race trailing Rob Greenhalgh (RMW Marine). GE/US needed to win or finish second and hope that the very fast and consistent RMW Marine would finish an unlikely worse than fifth. RMW was ahead of GE/US early in the race, was still fourth at the final leeward mark and looked to have the title won.",
"Unfortunately for Greenhalgh, RMW was on the wrong side of a wind shift and was passed by two competitors on the last beat and finished sixth, while Hamlin brought GE/US home in second place behind Tony Hannan's Total Recall. Hamlin returned to shore believing he had not won the title and took a lot of convincing by officials who showed him the final pointscore which gave him a 0.35 points victory.",
"While the northern hemisphere run of consecutive victories was extended to three in 2004, the result was totally unlike the previous two regattas when the UK champion Rob Greenhalgh (RMW Marine) was dominant with four race wins and two second placings. RMWs average winning margin was also a healthy two minutes.\n\nSeve Jarvin era - 2005 to 2014",
"Seve Jarvin era - 2005 to 2014\n\nSince 2005 when Euan McNicol won with Club Marine in his first season as a skipper (he had earlier crewed with John Winning in 2000), Australia has again dominated the championship.\n\nMichael Coxon took the title in 2006 (Casio Seapathfinder), then defended it successfully in 2007 (Fiat) while young Seve Jarvin won impressively with Gotta Love It 7 in 2008. It was Jarvin's first season as skipper, although he was a previous winner when he crewed with Euan McNicol in 2005.",
"The 2009 regatta produced the closest finish in the Giltinan history with as many as four potential champions at various stages of the last race. Ultimately, Euan McNicol became another two-time winning skipper when he steered Southern Cross Constructions to victory.",
"The 2010 and 2011 championships produced similar results with Seve Jarvin's Gotta Love It 7 defeating Michael Coxon's Thurlow Fisher Lawyers in each series. The two wins made Jarvin a four-time winner (three as skipper and the one with McNicol as crew in 2005). The 2010 win was by 4 points while 2011 was won only after a countback.Gotta Love It 7, skippered by Seve Jarvin (AUS) and crewed by Scott Babbage and Peter Harris, won the trophy in a dramatic race 7 on Feb 24, 2013",
". The team won heat 7 in a 30 knot nor'easter with Jarvin saying, \"it was the best one to win\". The team sailed a spectacular last race displaying great crew work and boat handling.",
"In 2014, Seve Jarvin, Sam Newton and Scott Babbage won the fifth consecutive trophy, amounting six titles for Jarvin, and so equalling the tally of the Gotta Love It 7 Program Manager, Iain Murray.\n\nIn 2015 Jarvin and his team won again on Gotta Love It 7.\n\nIn 2016 Jarvin's era came to an end. He sailed with a new crew and had a disappointing regatta finishing off the podium. The 2016 champions were Lee Knapton, Ricky Bridge and Mike McKensey sailing Smeg.",
"Controversy of 2017",
"The 2017 Championship was won by the Thurlow Fisher Lawyers team of Michael Coxon, Dave O'Connor and Trent Barnabas. 2nd place went to Coopers 62 Rag & Famish Hotel (Jack Macartney, Mark Kennedy and Peter Harris), and 3rd place and the final podium position went to the team from New Zealand on Yamaha (David McDairmid, Matt Steven and Brad Collins)",
". The Kiwi team did win 4 out of the 7 races and were unlucky not to win the regatta, but consistency is the key in this regatta and Michael Coxon and his team never finished worse than 5th. Yamaha had 4 wins, a 5th and a disastrous 19th along with a DNF. The DNF is where the controversy lies. Yamaha won their first protest and gained average points; however, this protest was appealed by skiff legend David Witt sailing Appliances Online",
". The original decision was overturned without a hearing and without Yamaha able to counter the evidence. Yamaha'' was not allowed to appeal.",
"List of past winners\n\nReferences \n\nSailing competitions\nSailing competitions in Australia\nRecurring sporting events established in 1938"
] |
Mesa Verde National Park
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesa%20Verde%20National%20Park
|
[
"Mesa Verde National Park is an American national park and UNESCO World Heritage Site located in Montezuma County, Colorado. The park protects some of the best-preserved Ancestral Puebloan archaeological sites in the United States.",
"Established by Congress and President Theodore Roosevelt in 1906, the park occupies near the Four Corners region of the American Southwest. With more than 5,000 sites, including 600 cliff dwellings, it is the largest archaeological preserve in the United States. Mesa Verde (Spanish for \"green table\", or more specifically \"green table mountain\") is best known for structures such as Cliff Palace, thought to be the largest cliff dwelling in North America.",
"Starting BC Mesa Verde was seasonally inhabited by a group of nomadic Paleo-Indians known as the Foothills Mountain Complex. The variety of projectile points found in the region indicates they were influenced by surrounding areas, including the Great Basin, the San Juan Basin, and the Rio Grande Valley. Later, Archaic people established semi-permanent rock shelters in and around the mesa",
". Later, Archaic people established semi-permanent rock shelters in and around the mesa. By 1000 BC, the Basketmaker culture emerged from the local Archaic population, and by 750 AD the Ancestral Puebloans had developed from the Basketmaker culture.",
"The Pueblonians survived using a combination of hunting, gathering, and subsistence farming of crops such as corn, beans, and squash (the \"Three Sisters\"). They built the mesa's first pueblos sometime after 650, and by the end of the 12th century, they began to construct the massive cliff dwellings for which the park is best known",
". By 1285, following a period of social and environmental instability driven by a series of severe and prolonged droughts, they abandoned the area and moved south to locations in Arizona and New Mexico, including the Rio Chama, the Albuquerque Basin, the Pajarito Plateau, and the foot of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains.",
"Inhabitants\n\nPaleo-Indians",
"The first occupants of the Mesa Verde region, which spans from southeastern Utah to northwestern New Mexico, were nomadic Paleo-Indians who arrived in the area BC. They followed herds of big game and camped near rivers and streams, many of which dried up as the glaciers that once covered parts of the San Juan Mountains receded. The earliest Paleo-Indians were the Clovis culture and Folsom tradition, defined largely by how they fashioned projectile points",
". Although they left evidence of their presence throughout the region, there is little indication that they lived in central Mesa Verde during this time.",
"After 9600 BC, the area's environment grew warmer and drier, a change that brought to central Mesa Verde pine forests and the animals that thrive in them. Paleo-Indians began inhabiting the mesa in increasing numbers , though it is unclear whether they were seasonal occupants or year-round residents. Development of the atlatl during this period made it easier for them to hunt smaller game, a crucial advance at a time when most of the region's big game had disappeared from the landscape.\n\nArchaic",
"6000 BC marks the beginning of the Archaic period in North America. Archaeologists differ as to the origin of the Mesa Verde Archaic population; some believe they developed exclusively from local Paleo-Indians, called the Foothills Mountain Complex, but others suggest that the variety of projectile points found in Mesa Verde indicates influence from surrounding areas, including the Great Basin, the San Juan Basin, and the Rio Grande Valley",
". The Archaic people probably developed locally, but were also influenced by contact, trade, and intermarriage with immigrants from these outlying areas.",
"The early Archaic people living near Mesa Verde utilized the atlatl and harvested a wider variety of plants and animals than the Paleo-Indians had while retaining their primarily nomadic lifestyle. They inhabited the outlying areas of the Mesa Verde region, but also the mountains, mesa tops, and canyons, where they created rock shelters and rock art, and left evidence of animal processing and chert knapping. Environmental stability during the period drove population expansion and migration",
". Environmental stability during the period drove population expansion and migration. Major warming and drying from 5000 to 2500 might have led middle Archaic people to seek the cooler climate of Mesa Verde, whose higher elevation brought increased snowpack that, when coupled with spring rains, provided relatively plentiful amounts of water.",
"By the late Archaic, more people were living in semi-permanent rock shelters that preserved perishable goods such as baskets, sandals, and mats. They started to make a variety of twig figurines that usually resembled sheep or deer. The late Archaic is marked by increased trade in exotic materials such as obsidian and turquoise. Marine shells and abalone from the Pacific coast made their way to Mesa Verde from Arizona, and the Archaic people worked them into necklaces and pendants",
". Rock art flourished, and people lived in rudimentary houses made of mud and wood. Their early attempts at plant domestication eventually developed into the sustained agriculture that marked the end of the Archaic period, .",
"Basketmaker culture",
"With the introduction of corn to the Mesa Verde region BC and the trend away from nomadism toward permanent pithouse settlements, the Archaic Pueblonians transitioned into what archaeologists call the Basketmaker culture. Basketmaker II people are characterized by their combination of foraging and farming skills, use of the atlatl, and creation of finely woven baskets in the absence of earthen pottery",
". By 300, corn had become the preeminent staple of the Basketmaker II people's diet, which relied less and less on wild food sources and more on domesticated crops.",
"In addition to the fine basketry for which they were named, Basketmaker II people fashioned a variety of household items from plant and animal materials, including sandals, robes, pouches, mats, and blankets. They also made clay pipes and gaming pieces. Basketmaker men were relatively short and muscular, averaging less than tall",
". Basketmaker men were relatively short and muscular, averaging less than tall. Their skeletal remains reveal signs of hard labor and extensive travel, including degenerative joint disease, healed fractures, and moderate anemia associated with iron deficiency. They buried their dead near or amongst their settlements, and often included luxury items as gifts, which might indicate differences in relative social status",
". Basketmaker II people are also known for their distinctive rock art, which can be found throughout Mesa Verde. They depicted animals and people, in both abstract and realistic forms, in single works and more elaborate panels. A common subject was the hunchbacked flute player that the Hopi call Kokopelli.",
"By 500 AD, atlatls were being supplanted by the bow and arrow and baskets by pottery, marking the end of the Basketmaker II Era and the beginning of the Basketmaker III Era. Ceramic vessels were a major improvement over pitch-lined baskets, gourds, and animal hide containers, which had been the primary water storage containers in the region. Pottery also protected seeds against mold, insects, and rodents. By 600, Pueblonians were using clay pots to cook soups and stews",
". By 600, Pueblonians were using clay pots to cook soups and stews. Year-round settlements first appear around this time. The population of the San Juan Basin increased markedly after 575, when there were very few Basketmaker III sites in Mesa Verde; by the early 7th century, there were many such sites in the mesa. For the next 150 years, villages typically consisted of small groups of one to three residences. The population of Mesa Verde was approximately 1,000 to 1,500 people.",
"Beans and new varieties of corn were introduced to the region . By 775, some settlements had grown to accommodate more than one hundred people; the construction of large, above-ground storage buildings began around this time. Basketmakers endeavored to store enough food for their family for one year, but also retained residential mobility so they could quickly relocate their dwellings in the event of resource depletion or consistently inadequate crop yields",
". By the end of the 8th century, the smaller hamlets, which were typically occupied for ten to forty years, had been supplanted by larger ones that saw continuous occupation for as many as two generations. Basketmaker III people established a tradition of holding large ceremonial gatherings near community pit structures.",
"Ancestral Puebloans\n\nPueblo I: 750 to 900",
"750 marks the end of the Basketmaker III Era and the beginning of the Pueblo I period. The transition is characterized by major changes in the design and construction of buildings and the organization of household activities. Pueblo I people doubled their capacity for food storage from one year to two and built interconnected, year-round residences called pueblos. Many household activities that had previously been reserved for subterranean pit-houses were moved to these above-ground dwellings",
". This altered the function of pit-houses from all-purpose spaces to ones used primarily for community ceremonies, although they continued to house large extended families, particularly during winter months. During the late 8th century, Pueblonians began building square pit structures that archaeologists call protokivas. They were typically deep and wide.",
"The first pueblos appeared at Mesa Verde sometime after 650; by 850 more than half of Pueblonians lived in them. As local populations grew, Puebloans found it difficult to survive on hunting, foraging, and gardening, which made them increasingly reliant on domesticated corn. This shift from semi-nomadism to a \"sedentary and communal way of life changed ancestral Pueblo society forever\"",
". Within a generation the average number of households in these settlements grew from 1-3 to 15-20, with average populations of two hundred people. Population density increased dramatically, with as many as a dozen families occupying roughly the same space that had formerly housed two. This brought increased security against raids and encouraged greater cooperation amongst residents",
". This brought increased security against raids and encouraged greater cooperation amongst residents. It also facilitated trade and intermarriage between clans, and by the late 8th century, as Mesa Verde's population was being augmented by settlers from the south, four distinct cultural groups occupied the same villages.",
"Large Pueblo I settlements laid claim to the resources found within . They were typically organized in groups of at least three and spaced about apart. By 860, there were approximately 8,000 people living in Mesa Verde. Within the plazas of larger villages, the Pueblo I people dug massive pit structures of that became central gathering places. These structures represent early architectural expressions of what would eventually develop into the Pueblo II Era great houses of Chaco Canyon",
". Despite robust growth during the early and mid-9th century, unpredictable rainfall and periodic drought led to a dramatic reversal of settlement trends in the area. Many late Pueblo I villages were abandoned after less than forty years of occupation, and by 880 Mesa Verde's population was in steady decline. The beginning of the 10th century saw widespread depopulation of the region, as people emigrated south of the San Juan River to Chaco Canyon in search of reliable rains for farming",
". As Pueblonians migrated south, to where many of their ancestors had emigrated two hundred years before, the influence of Chaco Canyon grew, and by 950 Chaco had supplanted Mesa Verde as the region's cultural center.",
"Pueblo II: 900 to 1150",
"The Pueblo II Period is marked by the growth and outreach of communities centered around the great houses of Chaco Canyon. Despite their participation in the vast Chacoan system, Pueblonians retained a distinct cultural identity while melding regional innovation with ancient tradition, inspiring further architectural advancements; the 9th century Pueblonian pueblos influenced two hundred years of Chacoan great house construction",
". Droughts during the late 9th century rendered Pueblonian dry land farming unreliable, which led to their growing crops only near drainages for the next 150 years. Crop yields returned to healthy levels by the early 11th century. By 1050 the population of the area began to rebound; as agricultural prosperity increased, people immigrated to Mesa Verde from the south.",
"Pueblonian farmers increasingly relied on masonry reservoirs during the Pueblo II Era. During the 11th century, they built check dams and terraces near drainages and slopes in an effort to conserve soil and runoff. These fields offset the danger of crop failures in the larger dry land fields. By the mid-10th and early 11th centuries, protokivas had evolved into smaller circular structures called kivas, which were usually across",
". These Mesa Verde-style kivas included a feature from earlier times called a sipapu, which is a hole dug in the north of the chamber and symbolizes the Ancestral Puebloan's place of emergence from the underworld. At this time, Pueblonians began to move away from the post and mud jacal-style buildings that marked the Pueblo I Period toward masonry construction, which had been utilized in the region as early as 700, but was not widespread until the 11th and 12th centuries.",
"The expansion of Chacoan influence in the Mesa Verde area left its most visible mark in the form of Chaco-style masonry great houses that became the focal point of many Pueblonian villages after 1075. Far View House, the largest of these, is considered a classic Chaco \"outlier,\" on which construction likely began between 1075 and 1125, although some archaeologists argue that it was begun as early as 1020. The era's timber and earth unit pueblos were typically inhabited for about twenty years",
". The era's timber and earth unit pueblos were typically inhabited for about twenty years. During the early 12th century, the locus of regional control shifted away from Chaco to Aztec, New Mexico, in the southern Mesa Verde region. By 1150, drought had once again stressed the region's inhabitants, leading to a temporary cessation of great house construction at Mesa Verde.",
"Pueblo III: 1150 to 1300",
"A severe drought from 1130 to 1180 led to rapid depopulation in many parts of the San Juan Basin, particularly at Chaco Canyon. As the extensive Chacoan system collapsed, people increasingly migrated to Mesa Verde, causing major population growth in the area. This led to much larger settlements of six to eight hundred people, which reduced mobility for Pueblonians, who had in the past frequently relocated their dwellings and fields as part of their agriculture strategy",
". In order to sustain these larger populations, they dedicated more and more of their labor to farming. Population increases also led to expanded tree felling that reduced habitat for many wild plant and animal species that the Pueblonians had relied on, further deepening their dependency on domesticated crops that were susceptible to drought-related failure.",
"The Chacoan system brought large quantities of imported goods to Mesa Verde during the late 11th and early 12th centuries, including pottery, shells, and turquoise, but by the late 12th century, as the system collapsed, the amount of goods imported by the mesa quickly declined, and Mesa Verde became isolated from the surrounding region. For approximately six hundred years, most Pueblonian farmers had lived in small, mesa-top homesteads of one or two families",
". They were typically located near their fields and walking distance to sources of water. This practice continued into the mid- to late 12th century, but by the start of the 13th century they began living in canyon locations that were close to water sources and within walking distance of their fields.",
"Pueblonian villages thrived during the mid-Pueblo III Era, when architects constructed massive, multi-story buildings, and artisans adorned pottery with increasingly elaborate designs. Structures built during this period have been described as \"among the world's greatest archaeological treasures\". Pueblo III masonry buildings were typically occupied for approximately fifty years, more than double the usable lifespan of the Pueblo II jacal structures",
". Others were continuously inhabited for two hundred years or more. Architectural innovations such as towers and multi-walled structures also appear during the Pueblo III Era. Mesa Verde's population remained fairly stable during the 12th century drought. At the start of the 13th century, approximately 22,000 people lived there. The area saw moderate population increases during the following decades, and dramatic ones from 1225 to 1260",
". Most of the people in the region lived in the plains west of the mesa at locations such as Yellow Jacket Pueblo, near Cortez, Colorado. Others colonized canyon rims and slopes in multi-family structures that grew to unprecedented size as populations swelled. By 1260, the majority of Pueblonians lived in large pueblos that housed several families and more than one hundred people.",
"The 13th century saw 69 years of below average rainfall in the Mesa Verde region, and after 1270 the area suffered from especially cold temperatures. Dendrochronology indicates that the last tree felled for construction on the mesa was cut in 1281. There was a major decline in ceramic imports to the region during this time, but local production remained steady",
". Despite challenging conditions, the Puebloans continued to farm the area until a severely dry period from 1276 to 1299 ended seven hundred years of continuous human occupation at Mesa Verde. Archaeologists refer to this period as the \"Great Drought\". The last inhabitants of the mesa left the area .",
"Warfare",
"During the Pueblo III period (1150 to 1300), Pueblonians built numerous stone masonry towers that likely served as defensive structures. They often incorporated hidden tunnels connecting the towers to associated kivas. Warfare was conducted using the same tools the Pueblonians used for hunting game, including bows and arrows, stone axes, and wooden clubs and spears. They also crafted hide and basket shields that were used only during battles",
". They also crafted hide and basket shields that were used only during battles. Periodic warfare occurred on the mesa throughout the 13th century. Civic leaders in the region likely attained power and prestige by distributing food during times of drought. This system probably broke down during the \"Great Drought\", leading to intense warfare between competing clans. Increasing economic and social uncertainty during the century's final decades led to widespread conflict",
". Evidence of partly burned villages and post-mortem trauma have been uncovered, and the residents of one village appear to have been the victims of a site-wide massacre.",
"Evidence of violence and cannibalism has been documented in the central Mesa Verde region. While most of the violence, which peaked between 1275 and 1285, is generally ascribed to in-fighting amongst Pueblonians, archaeological evidence found at Sand Canyon Pueblo, in Canyons of the Ancients National Monument, suggests that violent interactions also occurred between Pueblonians and people from outside the region",
". Evidence of the attacks was discovered by members of the Crow Canyon Archaeological Center during the 1990s. The assaults, which also occurred at the national monument's Castle Rock Pueblo, were dated to , and are considered to have effectively ended several centuries of Puebloan occupation at those sites. Many of the victims showed signs of skull fractures, and the uniformity of the injuries suggest that most were inflicted with a small stone axe. Others were scalped, dismembered, and cannibalized",
". Others were scalped, dismembered, and cannibalized. The anthropophagy (cannibalism) might have been undertaken as a survival strategy during times of starvation. The archaeological record indicates that, rather than being isolated to the Mesa Verde region, violent conflict was widespread in North America during the late 13th and early 14th centuries, and was likely exacerbated by global climate changes that negatively affected food supplies throughout the continent.",
"Migration",
"The Mesa Verde region saw unusually cold and dry conditions during the beginning of the 13th century. This might have driven emigration to Mesa Verde from less hospitable locations. The added population stressed the mesa's environment, further straining an agricultural society that was suffering from drought. The region's bimodal precipitation pattern, which brought rainfall during spring and summer and snowfall during autumn and winter, began to fail post-1250",
". After 1260, there was a rapid depopulation of Mesa Verde, as \"tens of thousands of people\" emigrated or died from starvation. Many smaller communities in the Four Corners region were also abandoned during this period. The Ancestral Puebloans had a long history of migration in the face of environmental instability, but the depopulation of Mesa Verde at the end of the 13th century was different in that the region was almost completely emptied, and no descendants returned to build permanent settlements",
". While drought, resource depletion, and overpopulation all contributed to instability during the last two centuries of Ancestral Puebloan occupation, their overdependence on maize crops is considered the \"fatal flaw\" of their subsistence strategy.",
"The vacating Pueblonians left almost no direct evidence of their migration, but they left behind household goods, including cooking utensils, tools, and clothing, which gave archaeologists the impression that the emigration was haphazard or hurried. An estimated 20,000 people lived in the region during the 13th century, but by the start of the 14th century the area was nearly uninhabited. Many surviving emigrants may have relocated to southern Arizona and New Mexico",
". Many surviving emigrants may have relocated to southern Arizona and New Mexico. Although the rate of settlement is unclear, increases in sparsely populated areas, such as Rio Chama, Pajarito Plateau, and Santa Fe, correspond directly with the period of migration from Mesa Verde",
". Archaeologists believe the Pueblonians who settled in the areas near the Rio Grande, where Mesa Verde black-on-white pottery became widespread during the 14th century, were likely related to the households they joined and not unwelcome intruders. Archaeologists view this migration as a continuation, versus a dissolution, of Ancestral Puebloan society and culture. Many others relocated to the banks of the Little Colorado River, in western New Mexico and eastern Arizona",
". While archaeologists tend to focus on the \"push\" factors that drove the Pueblonians away from the region, there were also several environmental \"pull factors\", such as warmer temperatures, better farming conditions, plentiful timber, and bison herds, which incentivized relocation to the area near the Rio Grande. In addition to numerous settlements along the Rio Grande, contemporary descendants of the Pueblonians live in pueblos at Acoma, Zuni, Jemez, and Laguna.",
"Organization",
"Although Chaco Canyon might have exerted regional control over Mesa Verde during the late 11th and early 12th centuries, most archaeologists view the Mesa Verde region as a collection of smaller communities based on central sites and related outliers that were never fully integrated into a larger civic structure. Several ancient roads, averaging wide and lined with earthen berms, have been identified in the region. Most appear to connect communities and shrines; others encircle great house sites",
". Most appear to connect communities and shrines; others encircle great house sites. The extent of the network is unclear, but no roads have been discovered leading to the Chacoan Great North Road, or directly connecting Mesa Verde and Chacoan sites.",
"Ancestral Puebloan shrines, called herraduras, have been identified near road segments in the region. Their purpose is unclear, but several C-shaped herraduras have been excavated, and they are thought to have been \"directional shrines\" used to indicate the location of great houses.\n\nArchitecture",
"Mesa Verde is best known for a large number of well-preserved cliff dwellings, houses built in alcoves, or rock overhangs along the canyon walls. The structures contained within these alcoves were mostly blocks of hard sandstone, held together and plastered with adobe mortar. Specific constructions had many similarities but were generally unique in form due to the individual topography of different alcoves along the canyon walls",
". In marked contrast to earlier constructions and villages on top of the mesas, the cliff dwellings of Mesa Verde reflected a region-wide trend towards the aggregation of growing regional populations into close, highly defensible quarters during the 13th century.",
"Pueblo buildings were built with stone, windows facing south, and in U, E and L shapes. The buildings were located more closely together and reflected deepening religious celebration. Towers were built near kivas and likely used for lookouts. Pottery became more versatile, including pitchers, ladles, bowls, jars and dishware for food and drink. White pottery with black designs emerged, the pigments coming from plants",
". White pottery with black designs emerged, the pigments coming from plants. Water management and conservation techniques, including the use of reservoirs and silt-retaining dams, also emerged during this period.",
"Styles for these sandstone/mortar constructions, both surface and cliff dwellings, included T-shaped windows and doors. This has been taken by some archaeologists, including Stephen H. Lekson, as evidence of the continuing reach of the Chacoan system. Other researchers see these elements as part of a more generalized Puebloan style or spiritual significance rather than evidence of a continuing specific elite socioeconomic system.",
"While much of the construction in these sites is consistent with common Pueblo architectural forms, including kivas, towers, and pit-houses, the space constrictions of these alcoves necessitated what seems to have been a far denser concentration of their populations",
". Mug House, a typical cliff dwelling of the period, was home to around 100 people who shared 94 small rooms and eight kivas built against each other and sharing many of their walls; builders in these areas maximized space in any way they could, with no areas considered off-limits to construction.",
"Astronomy\n\nPueblonians used astronomical observations to plan their farming and religious ceremonies, drawing on both natural features in the landscape and masonry structures built for this purpose. Several great houses in the region were aligned to the cardinal directions, which positioned windows, doors, and walls along the path of the sun, whose rays would indicate the passing of seasons. Mesa Verde's Sun Temple is thought to have been an astronomical observatory.",
"The temple is D-shaped, and its alignment is 10.7 degrees off true east–west. Its location and orientation indicate that its builders understood the cycles of both the sun and the moon. It is aligned to the major lunar standstill, which occurs once every 18.6 years, and the sunset during the winter solstice, which can be viewed setting over the temple from a platform at the south end of Cliff Palace, across Fewkes Canyon",
". At the bottom of the canyon is the Sun Temple fire pit, which is illuminated by the first rays of the rising sun during the winter solstice. Sun Temple is one of the largest exclusively ceremonial structures ever built by the Ancestral Puebloans.",
"Agriculture and water-control systems",
"Starting in the 6th century, the farmers living in central Mesa Verde cultivated corn, beans, squash, and gourds. The combination of corn and beans provided the Pueblonians with the amino acids of a complete protein. When conditions were good, of land would provide enough food for a family of three or four individuals for one year, providing they supplemented with game and wild plants",
". As Pueblonians increasingly relied on corn as a dietary staple, the success or failure of crop yields factored heavily into their lives. The mesa tilts slightly to the south, which increased its exposure to the sun. Before the introduction of pottery, foods were baked, roasted, and parched. Hot rocks dropped into containers could bring water to a brief boil, but because beans must be boiled for an hour or more their use was not widespread until after pottery had disseminated throughout the region",
". With the increased availability of ceramics after 600, beans became much easier to cook. This provided a high quality protein that reduced reliance on hunting. It also aided corn cultivation, as legumes add much needed nutrients to soils they are grown in, which likely increased corn yields.",
"Most Pueblonians practiced dry farming, which relied on rain to water their crops, but others utilized runoff, springs, seeps, and natural collection pools. Starting in the 9th century, they dug and maintained reservoirs that caught runoff from summer showers and spring snowmelt; some crops were watered by hand",
". Archaeologists believe that prior to the 13th century, springs and other sources of water were considered shared public resources, but as Pueblonians moved into increasingly larger pueblos built near or around water supplies control was privatized and limited to members of the surrounding community.",
"Between 750 and 800, Pueblonians began constructing two large water containment structures in canyon bottoms – the Morefield and Box Elder reservoirs. Soon afterward, work began on two more: the Far View and Sagebrush reservoirs, which were approximately across and constructed on the mesa top. The reservoirs lie on an east–west line that runs for approximately , which suggests builders followed a centralized plan for the system",
". In 2004, the American Society of Civil Engineers designated these four structures as National Civil Engineering Historic Landmarks. A 2014 geospatial analyses suggested that neither collection nor retention of water was possible in the Far View Reservoir. This interpretation views the structure as a ceremonial space with procession roads in an adaptation of Chacoan culture.",
"Hunting and foraging",
"Pueblonians typically harvested local small game, but sometimes organized hunting parties that traveled long distances. Their main sources of animal protein came from mule deer and rabbits, but they occasionally hunted Bighorn sheep, antelope, and elk. They began to domesticate turkeys starting around 1000, and by the 13th century consumption of the animal peaked, supplanting deer as the primary protein source at many sites",
". These domesticated turkeys consumed large amounts of corn, which further deepened reliance on the staple crop. Puebloans wove blankets from turkey feathers and rabbit fur, and made implements such as awls and needles from turkey and deer bones. Despite the availability of fish in the area's rivers and streams, archaeological evidence suggests that they were rarely eaten.",
"Pueblonians supplemented their diet by gathering the seeds and fruits of wild plants, searching large expanses of land while procuring these resources. Depending on the season, they collected piñon nuts and juniper berries, weedy goosefoot, pigweed, purslane, tomatillo, tansy mustard, globe mallow, sunflower seeds, and yucca, as well as various species of grass and cacti. Prickly pear fruits provided a rare source of natural sugar. Wild seeds were cooked and ground up into porridge",
". Wild seeds were cooked and ground up into porridge. They used sagebrush and mountain mahogany, along with piñon and juniper, for firewood. They also smoked wild tobacco. Because the Ancestral Puebloans considered all material consumed and discarded by their communities as sacred, their midden piles were viewed with reverence. Starting during the Basketmaker III period, , Pueblonians often buried their dead in these mounds.",
"Pottery",
"Scholars are divided as to whether pottery was invented in the Four Corners region or introduced from the south. Specimens of shallow, unfired clay bowls found at Canyon de Chelly indicate the innovation might have been derived from using clay bowls to parch seeds. Repeated uses rendered these bowls hard and impervious to water, which might represent the first fired pottery in the region",
". An alternate theory suggests that pottery originated in the Mogollon Rim area to the south, where brown-paste bowls were used during the first few centuries of the common era. Others believe pottery was introduced to Mesa Verde from Mexico, CE. There is no evidence of ancient pottery markets in the region, but archaeologists believe that local potters exchanged decorative wares between families",
". Cooking pots made with crushed igneous rock tempers from places like Ute Mountain were more resilient and desirable, and Puebloans from throughout the region traded for them.",
"Neutron activation analysis indicates that much of the black-on-white pottery found at Mesa Verde was produced locally. Cretaceous clays from both the Dakota and Menefee Formations were used in black-on-white wares, and Mancos Formation clays for corrugated jars. Evidence that pottery of both types moved between several locations around the region suggests interaction between groups of ancient potters, or they might have shared a common source of raw materials",
". The Mesa Verde black-on-white pottery was produced at three locations: Sand Canyon, Castle Rock, and Mesa Verde. Archeological evidence indicates that nearly every household had at least one member who worked as a potter. Trench kilns were constructed away from pueblos and closer to sources of firewood. Their sizes vary, but the larger ones were up to long and thought to have been shared kilns that served several families",
". Designs were added to ceramic vessels with a Yucca-leaf brush and paints made from iron, manganese, beeplant, and tansy mustard.",
"Most of the pottery found in 9th century pueblos was sized for individuals or small families, but as communal ceremonialism expanded during the 13th century, many larger, feast–sized vessels were produced. Corrugated decorations appear on Mesa Verde grey wares after 700, and by 1000 entire vessels were crafted in this way. The technique created a rough exterior surface that was easier to hold on to than regular gray wares, which were smooth",
". By the 11th century these corrugated vessels, which dissipated heat more efficiently than smoother ones, had largely replaced the older style, whose tendency to retain heat made them prone to boiling over. Corrugation likely developed as ancient potters attempted to mimic the visual properties of coiled basketry. Corrugated wares were made using clay from formations other than Menefee, which suggests that ancient potters selected different clays for different styles",
". Potters also selected clays and altered firing conditions to achieve specific colors. Under normal conditions, pots made of Mancos shale turned grey when fired, and those made of Morrison Formation clay turned white. Clays from southeastern Utah turned red when fired in a high-oxygen environment.",
"Rock art and murals",
"Rock art is found throughout the Mesa Verde region, but its dispersion is uneven and periodic. Some locations have numerous examples; others have none, and some periods saw prolific creation, while others saw little. Styles also vary over time. Examples are relatively rare on Mesa Verde proper, but abundant in the middle San Juan River area, which might indicate the river's importance as a travel route and key source of water",
". Common motifs in the rock art of the region include anthropomorphic figures in procession and during copulation or childbirth, handprints, animal and people tracks, wavy lines, spirals, concentric circles, animals, and hunting scenes. As the region's population plummeted during the late 13th century, the subject of Pueblonian rock art increasingly shifted to depictions of shields, warriors, and battle scenes",
". Modern Hopi have interpreted the petroglyphs at Mesa Verde's Petroglyph Point as depictions of various clans of people.",
"Starting during the late Pueblo II period (1020) and continuing through Pueblo III (1300), the Ancestral Puebloans of the Mesa Verde region created plaster murals in their great houses, particularly in their kivas. The murals contained both painted and inscribed images depicting animals, people, and designs used in textiles and pottery dating back as far as Basketmaker III, . Others depict triangles and mounds thought to represent mountains and hills in the surrounding landscape",
". The murals were typically located on the face of the kiva bench and usually encircled the room. Geometric patterns that resemble symbols used in pottery and zigzag that represent stitches used in basket making are common motifs. The painted murals include the colors red, green, yellow, white, brown, and blue. The designs were still in use by the Hopi during the 15th and 16th centuries.",
"Climate\n\nAccording to the Köppen climate classification system, Mesa Verde National Park has a dry-summer humid continental climate (Dsa). According to the United States Department of Agriculture, the Plant Hardiness zone at Mesa Verde National Park Headquarters at 6952 ft (2119 m) elevation is 6b with an average annual extreme minimum temperature of −0.1 °F (−17.8 °C).",
"The region's precipitation pattern is bimodal, meaning agriculture is sustained through snowfall during winter and autumn and rainfall during spring and summer. Water for farming and consumption was provided by summer rains, winter snowfall, and seeps and springs in and near the Mesa Verde villages. At , the middle mesa areas were typically ten degrees Fahrenheit (5.5 °C) cooler than the mesa top, which reduced the amount of water needed for farming",
".5 °C) cooler than the mesa top, which reduced the amount of water needed for farming. The cliff dwellings were built to take advantage of solar energy. The angle of the sun in winter warmed the masonry of the cliff dwellings, warm breezes blew from the valley, and the air was ten to twenty degrees warmer in the canyon alcoves than on the top of the mesa. In the summer, with the sun high overhead, much of the village was protected from direct sunlight in the high cliff dwellings.",
"Anthropogenic ecology and geography",
"Anthropogenic ecology refers to the human impact on animals and plants in an ecosystem. A shift from medium and large game animals, such as deer, bighorn sheep, and antelope, to smaller ones like rabbits and turkey during the mid-10th to mid-13th centuries might indicate that Pueblonian subsistence hunting had dramatically altered faunal populations on the mesa",
". Analysis of pack rat midden indicates that, with the exception of invasive species such as tumbleweed and clover, the flora and fauna in the area have remained relatively consistent for the past 4,000 years.",
"According to the A. W. Kuchler U.S. Potential natural vegetation Types, Mesa Verde National Park has a Juniper/Pinyon (23) potential vegetation type with a Great Basin montane forest /Southwest Forest (4) potential vegetation form.",
"Mesa Verde's canyons were created by streams that eroded the hard sandstone that covers the area. This resulted in Mesa Verde National Park elevations ranging from about , the highest elevation at Park Point. The terrain in the park is now a transition zone between the low desert plateaus and the Rocky Mountains.",
"Geology\nAlthough the area's first Spanish explorers named the feature Mesa Verde, the term is a misnomer, as true mesas are almost perfectly flat. Because Mesa Verde is slanted to the south, the proper geological term is cuesta, not mesa. The park is made up of several smaller cuestas located between canyons. Mesa Verde's slant contributed to the formation of the alcoves that have preserved the area's cliff dwellings.",
"In the late Cretaceous Period, the Mancos Shale was deposited on top of the Dakota Sandstone, which is the rock formation that can be found under much of Colorado. The beds of the Mancos Shale are \"fine-grained sand-stones, mudstones, and shales\" which accumulated in the deep water of the Cretaceous Sea. It has a high clay content which causes it to expand when wet leading to sliding of the terrain",
". It has a high clay content which causes it to expand when wet leading to sliding of the terrain. On top of this shale, there are three formations in the Mesaverde group which reflect the changes in depositional environment in the area over time. The first is the Point Lookout Sandstone, which is named for the Point Lookout feature in the park (elevation 8427 feet)",
". This sandstone, which formed in the marine environment of shallow water when the Cretaceous sea was receding, is \"massive, fine-grained, cross-bedded, and very resistant\", in its layers reflecting waves and currents that were present during the time of its formation. Its sediments are approximately 400 feet thick, and its upper layers feature fossiliferous invertebrates.",
"Next is the Menefee Formation, the middle formation whose content features interbedded carbonaceous shales, siltstones, and sandstones. These were deposited in semi-marine environments of brackish water, such as swamps and lagoons. Due to its depositional environment and the organic material in its composition, there are thin coal seams running through the Menefee Formation. At the top, this formation is intruded upon by the Cliff House Sandstone.",
"The Cliff House Sandstone is the area's youngest rock layer. It was formed after the Cretaceous sea had completely receded and as a result has a high sand content from beaches, dunes, etc. and from this receives its characteristic yellow tint to its canyon faces. Like the Point Lookout Sandstone, it is about 400 feet thick. It contains numerous fossil beds of different types of shells, fish teeth, and other invertebrate leftovers from the receded sea",
". The shale zones in this feature determine where alcoves formed where the Ancestral Puebloans constructed their dwellings.",
"Continuing through the Cretaceous period and into the early Tertiary, there was uplifting in the area of the Colorado Plateau, the San Juan Mountains, and the La Plata Mountains, which led to the formation of the Mesa Verde pediment with the help of erosion. Small channels of water ran across this formation depositing gravel",
". Small channels of water ran across this formation depositing gravel. Later in the tertiary, the last period of uplift and rock tilting towards the south caused these streams to cut rapidly into the rock removing loose sediment and forming the vast canyons seen today. This caused the isolation of the Mesa Verde pediment from surrounding rock. Today, since the climate is more arid, these erosional processes are slowed.",
"Rediscovery",
"Mexican-Spanish missionaries and explorers Francisco Atanasio Domínguez and Silvestre Vélez de Escalante, seeking a route from Santa Fe to California, faithfully recorded their travels in 1776. They reached Mesa Verde (green plateau) region, which they named after its high, tree-covered plateaus, but they never got close enough, or into the needed angle, to see the ancient stone villages",
". They were the first Europeans to travel the route through much of the Colorado Plateau into Utah and back through Arizona to New Mexico.",
"The Mesa Verde region has long been occupied by the Utes, and an 1868 treaty between them and the United States government recognized Ute ownership of all Colorado land west of the Continental Divide. After there had become an interest in land in western Colorado, a new treaty in 1873 left the Ute with a strip of land in southwestern Colorado between the border with New Mexico and 15 miles north. Most of Mesa Verde lies within this strip of land",
". Most of Mesa Verde lies within this strip of land. The Ute wintered in the warm, deep canyons and found sanctuary there and the high plateaus of Mesa Verde. Believing the cliff dwellings to be sacred ancestral sites, they did not live in the ancient dwellings.",
"Occasional trappers and prospectors visited, with one prospector, John Moss, making his observations known in 1873. The following year, Moss led eminent photographer William Henry Jackson through Mancos Canyon, at the base of Mesa Verde. There, Jackson both photographed and publicized a typical stone cliff dwelling. Geologist William H. Holmes retraced Jackson's route in 1875",
". Geologist William H. Holmes retraced Jackson's route in 1875. Reports by both Jackson and Holmes were included in the 1876 report of the Hayden Survey, one of the four federally financed efforts to explore the American West. These and other publications led to proposals to systematically study Southwestern archaeological sites.",
"In her quest to find Ancestral Puebloan settlements, Virginia McClurg, a journalist for the New York Daily Graphic, visited Mesa Verde in 1882 and 1885. Her party rediscovered Echo Cliff House, Three Tier House, and Balcony House in 1885; these discoveries inspired her to protect the dwellings and artifacts.",
"Wetherills",
"A family of cattle ranchers, the Wetherills, befriended members of the Ute tribe near their ranch southwest of Mancos, Colorado. With the Ute tribe's approval, the Wetherills were allowed to bring cattle into the lower, warmer plateaus of the present Ute reservation during winter",
". Word of the Ancestral Puebloan great houses had spread, and Acowitz, a member of the Ute tribe, told the Wetherills of a special cliff dwelling in Mesa Verde: \"Deep in that canyon and near its head are many houses of the old people – the Ancient Ones. One of those houses, high, high in the rocks, is bigger than all the others. Utes never go there, it is a sacred place.\"",
"On December 18, 1888, Richard Wetherill and cowboy Charlie Mason rediscovered Cliff Palace after spotting the ruins from the top of Mesa Verde. Wetherill gave the ruin its present-day name. Richard Wetherill, family and friends explored the ruins and gathered artifacts, some of which they sold to the Historical Society of Colorado and much of which they kept. Among the people who stayed with the Wetherills and explored the cliff dwellings was mountaineer, photographer, and author Frederick H",
". Chapin, who visited the region during 1889 and 1890. He described the landscape and ruins in an 1890 article and later in an 1892 book, The Land of the Cliff-Dwellers, which he illustrated with hand-drawn maps and personal photographs.",
"Gustaf Nordenskiöld",
"The Wetherills also hosted Gustaf Nordenskiöld, the son of polar explorer Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld, in 1891. Nordenskiöld was a trained mineralogist who introduced scientific methods to artifact collection, recorded locations, photographed extensively, diagrammed sites, and correlated what he observed with existing archaeological literature as well as the home-grown expertise of the Wetherills. He removed many artifacts and sent them to Sweden, where they eventually went to the National Museum of Finland",
". Nordenskiöld published, in 1893, The Cliff Dwellers of the Mesa Verde. When Nordenskiöld shipped the collection that he made of Mesa Verde artifacts, the event initiated concerns about the need to protect Mesa Verde land and its resources.",
"National park",
"In 1889, Goodman Point Pueblo became the first pre-Columbian archaeological site in the Mesa Verde region to gain federal protection. It was the first such site to be protected in the US. Virginia McClurg was diligent in her efforts between 1887 and 1906 to inform the United States and European community of the importance of protecting the important historical material and dwellings in Mesa Verde",
". Her efforts included enlisting support from 250,000 women through the Federation of Women's Clubs, writing and having published poems in popular magazines, giving speeches domestically and internationally, and forming the Colorado Cliff Dwellers Association.",
"The Colorado Cliff Dwellers' purpose was to protect the resources of Colorado cliff dwellings, reclaiming as much of the original artifacts as possible and sharing information about the people who dwelt there. A fellow activist for protection of Mesa Verde and prehistoric archaeological sites included Lucy Peabody, who, located in Washington, D.C., met with members of Congress to further the cause",
".C., met with members of Congress to further the cause. Former Mesa Verde National Park superintendent Robert Heyder communicated his belief that the park might have been far more significant with the hundreds of artifacts taken by Nordenskiöld.",
"By the end of the 19th century, it was clear that Mesa Verde needed protection from people in general who came to Mesa Verde and created or sold their own collection of artifacts. In a report to the Secretary of the Interior, Smithsonian Institution Ethnologist Jesse Walter Fewkes described vandalism at Mesa Verde's Cliff Palace:",
"Many artifacts from Mesa Verde are now located in museums and private collections in the US and across the world. A representative selection of pottery vessels and other objects, for example, is now in the British Museum in London. In 1906, President Theodore Roosevelt approved creation of the Mesa Verde National Park and the Federal Antiquities Act of 1906. The park was an effort to \"preserve the works of man\" and was the first park created to protect a location of cultural significance",
". The park was named with the Spanish term for green table because of its forests of juniper and piñon trees.",
"In 1976, was designated a wilderness area. These three small and separate sections of the National Park are located on the steep north and east boundaries and serve as buffers to further protect the significant Native American sites. Unlike most wilderness areas, visitor access to Mesa Verde Wilderness is prohibited, along with the rest of the park's backcountry.",
"Excavation and protection",
"Between 1908 and 1922, Spruce Tree House, Cliff Palace, and Sun Temple ruins were stabilised. Most of the early efforts were led by Jesse Walter Fewkes. During the 1930s and 40s, Civilian Conservation Corps workers, starting in 1932, played key roles in excavation efforts, building trails and roads, creating museum exhibits and constructing buildings at Mesa Verde. From 1958 to 1965, Wetherill Mesa Archaeological Project included archaeological excavations, stabilization of sites, and surveys",
". With excavation and study of eleven Wetherill Mesa sites, it is considered the largest archaeological effort in the US. The project oversaw the excavation of Long House and Mug House.",
"In 1966, as with all historical areas administered by the National Park Service, Mesa Verde was listed on the National Register of Historic Places, and in 1987, the Mesa Verde Administrative District was listed on the register. It was designated a World Heritage Site in 1978. In its 2015 travel awards, Sunset magazine named Mesa Verde National Park \"the best cultural attraction\" in the Western United States.",
"Conflicts with local tribes",
"Clashes between non-Indigenous environmentalists and local tribes surrounding the ruins at Mesa Verde began even before the park's official establishment. Conflicts over who laid claim to the land surrounding the ruins came to fruition in 1911, when the US government wanted to secure more land for the park that was owned by the Ute Indians. The Utes were reluctant to agree to the land swap proposed by the government, noting that the land they were seeking was the best land the tribe owned",
". Frederick Abbott, working with Indian Office official James McLaughlin, proclaimed to be an ally to the Ute in negotiations. Abbott later claimed that the \"government was stronger than the Utes,\" saying that when the government finds \"old ruins on land that it wants to take for public purposes, it has the right to take it ...\" Feeling they were left with no other options, the Utes reluctantly agreed to trade the 10,000 acres on Chapin Mesa for 19,500 acres on Ute Mountain.",
"The Utes continued to battle the Bureau of Indian Affairs to prevent more Ute land from being incorporated into the park. In 1935, the BIA attempted to gain back some the land traded in 1911. Additionally, superintendent Jesse L. Nusbaum later confessed that the Ute Mountain land traded for Chapin Mesa in 1911 belonged to the tribe anyway, meaning the government had traded land that never belonged to them in the first place.",
"Other issues unrelated to land disputes emerged as a result of park activities. In the 1920s, the park began offering \"Indian ceremony\" performances that gained popularity among visiting tourists; however, the ceremonies did not actually reflect the rites of the Ancient Puebloans who lived in the cliff dwellings nor the rites of the modern Ute. Navajo day laborers performed these rituals, resulting in \"the wrong Indians doing the wrong dance on ... the wrong land",
"... the wrong land.\" In addition to the inaccuracy of the ceremonies, a question of whether Navajo dancers were paid fairly also resulted in questions regarding the lack of local American Indians being employed in other capacities in the park. Additionally, the park offered little financial benefits to the Ute Mountain Ute despite their land swap making much of the park possible.",
"Services",
"The entrance to Mesa Verde National Park is on U.S. Route 160, approximately east of the community of Cortez and west of Mancos, Colorado. The park covers It contains 4,372 documented sites, including more than 600 cliff dwellings. It is the largest archaeological preserve in the US. It protects some of the most important and best-preserved archaeological sites in the country. The park initiated the Archaeological Site Conservation Program in 1995",
". The park initiated the Archaeological Site Conservation Program in 1995. It analyses data pertaining to how sites are constructed and utilized.",
"The Mesa Verde Visitor and Research Center is located just off of Highway 160 and is before the park entrance booths. The Visitor and Research Center opened in December 2012. Chapin Mesa (the most popular area) is beyond the visitor center. Mesa Verde National Park is an area of federal exclusive jurisdiction. Because of this all law enforcement, emergency medical service, and wildland/structural fire duties are conducted by federal National Park Service Law Enforcement Rangers",
". The Mesa Verde National Park Post Office has the ZIP code 81330. Access to park facilities vary by season. Three of the cliff dwellings on Chapin Mesa are open to the public. The Chapin Mesa Museum is open all year. Spruce Tree House is also open all year, weather permitting. Balcony House, Long House and Cliff Palace require tour tickets for ranger-guided tours. Many other dwellings are visible from the road but not open to tourists",
". Many other dwellings are visible from the road but not open to tourists. The park offers hiking trails, a campground, and, during peak season, facilities for food, fuel, and lodging; these are unavailable in the winter.",
"The park's early administrative buildings, located on Chapin Mesa, form an architecturally significant complex of buildings. Built in the 1920s, the Mesa Verde administrative complex was one of the first examples of the Park Service using culturally appropriate design in the development of park facilities. The area was designated a National Historic Landmark District in 1987.\n\nWildfires and culturally modified trees",
"During the years 1996 to 2003, the park suffered from several wildfires. The fires, many of which were started by lightning during times of drought, burned of forest, more than half the park. The fires also damaged many archaeological sites and park buildings. They were named: Chapin V (1996), Bircher and Pony (2000), Long Mesa (2002), and the Balcony House Complex fires (2003), which were five fires that began on the same day",
". The Chapin V and Pony fires destroyed two rock art sites, and the Long Mesa fire nearly destroyed the museum – the first one ever built in the National Park System – and Spruce Tree House, the third largest cliff dwelling in the park.",
"Prior to the fires of 1996 to 2003, archaeologists had surveyed approximately ninety percent of the park. Dense undergrowth and tree cover kept many ancient sites hidden from view, but after the Chapin V, Bircher and Pony fires, 593 previously undiscovered sites were revealed – most of them date to the Basketmaker III and Pueblo I periods",
". Also uncovered during the fires were extensive water containment features, including 1,189 check dams, 344 terraces, and five reservoirs that date to the Pueblo II and III periods.In February 2008, the Colorado Historical Society decided to invest a part of its $7 million () budget into a culturally modified trees project in the national park.",
"Ute Mountain Tribal Park",
"The Ute Mountain Tribal Park, adjoining Mesa Verde National Park to the east of the mountains, is approximately along the Mancos River. Hundreds of surface sites, cliff dwellings, petroglyphs, and wall paintings of Ancestral Puebloan and Ute cultures are preserved in the park. Native American Ute tour guides provide background information about the people, culture, and history of the park lands",
". National Geographic Traveler chose it as one of \"80 World Destinations for Travel in the 21st Century\", one of only nine places selected in the US.",
"Key sites\nIn addition to the cliff dwellings, Mesa Verde boasts a number of mesa-top ruins. Examples open to public access include the Far View Complex and Cedar Tree Tower on Chapin Mesa, and Badger House Community, on Wetherill Mesa.",
"Balcony House",
"Balcony House is set on a high ledge facing east. Its 45 rooms and 2 kivas would have been cold during the winter. Visitors on ranger-guided tours enter by climbing a 32-foot ladder and crawling through a small 12-foot tunnel. The exit, a series of toe-holds in a cleft of the cliff, was believed to be the only entry and exit route for the cliff dwellers, which made the small village easy to defend and secure",
". One log was dated at 1278, so it was likely built not long before the Mesa Verde people migrated out of the area. It was officially excavated in 1910 by Jesse L. Nusbaum, who was the first National Park Service Archeologist and one of the first Superintendents of Mesa Verde National Park. Visitors can enter Balcony House only through a ranger-guided tour, which involves numerous ladders up the cliff face and crawling through a small tunnel.",
"Cliff Palace",
"This multi-storied ruin, the best-known cliff dwelling in Mesa Verde, is located in the largest alcove in the center of the Great Mesa. It was south- and southwest-facing, providing greater warmth from the sun in the winter. Dating back more than 700 years, the dwelling is constructed of sandstone, wooden beams, and mortar. Many of the rooms were brightly painted",
". Many of the rooms were brightly painted. Cliff Palace was home to approximately 125 people, but was likely an important part of a larger community of sixty nearby pueblos, which housed a combined six hundred or more people. With 23 kivas and 150 rooms, Cliff Palace is the largest cliff dwelling in Mesa Verde National Park.",
"Long House",
"Located on the Wetherill Mesa, Long House is the second-largest Pueblonian village; approximately 150 people lived there. The location was excavated from 1959 through 1961, as part of the Wetherhill Mesa Archaeological Project. Long House was built ; it was occupied until 1280. The cliff dwelling features 150 rooms, a kiva, a tower, and a central plaza. Its rooms are not clustered like typical cliff dwellings. Stones were used without shaping for fit and stability",
". Stones were used without shaping for fit and stability. Two overhead ledges contain storage space for grain. One ledge seems to include an overlook with small holes in the wall to see the rest of the village below. A spring is accessible within several hundred feet, and seeps are located in the rear of the village.",
"Mug, Oak Tree, Spruce Tree, and Square Tower houses",
"Mug House is located on Wetherill Mesa; it contains 94 rooms, a large kiva, and a nearby reservoir. It received its name from four mugs the Charles Mason and the Wetherill brothers found strung together at the site. \nOak Tree House and neighboring Fire Temple can be visited via a 2-hour ranger-guided hike.",
"Oak Tree House and neighboring Fire Temple can be visited via a 2-hour ranger-guided hike. \nSpruce Tree House is the third-largest village, within several hundred feet of a spring, and had 130 rooms and eight kivas. It was constructed sometime between 1211 and 1278. It is believed anywhere from 60 to 80 people lived there at one time. Because of its protective location, it is well preserved. The short trail to Spruce Tree House begins at the Chapin Mesa Archeological Museum.",
"The Square Tower House is one of the stops on the Mesa Top Loop Road driving tour. The tower is the tallest structure in Mesa Verde.",
"See also\n (image gallery)\n List of national parks of the United States\n List of prehistoric sites in Colorado\nNational monuments with ruins/cliff dwellings in the Southwestern United States:\n\nReferences\nNotes\n\nCitations\n\nBibliography\n\nExternal links",
"External links\n\n (National Park Service)\n Interactive map of Mesa Verde National Park\n Interactive map of the National Park System\n Mesa Verde National Park (UNESCO World Heritage Centre)\n Mesa Verde Digital Media Archive (Creative Commons-licensed photos, laser scans, panoramas), data on Spruce Tree House, Fire Temple, and Square Tower House from a National Park Service/CyArk research partnership\nHistoric American Engineering Record (HAER) documentation, filed under Cortez, Montezuma County, CO:",
"Ancient Puebloan archaeological sites in Colorado\nArchaeological museums in Colorado\nArchaeological sites on the National Register of Historic Places in Colorado\nCliff dwellings\nDwellings of the Pueblo peoples\nDenver and Rio Grande Western Railroad\nMuseums in Montezuma County, Colorado\nNational parks in Colorado\nNative American history of Colorado\nNative American museums in Colorado\nOasisamerica cultures\nProtected areas established in 1906\nProtected areas of Montezuma County, Colorado",
"Protected areas established in 1906\nProtected areas of Montezuma County, Colorado\nPre-historic cities in the United States\nPuebloan buildings and structures\nRuins on the National Register of Historic Places\nWorld Heritage Sites in the United States\nAncestral Puebloans\n1906 establishments in Colorado\nNational Register of Historic Places in Montezuma County, Colorado\nNational Register of Historic Places in national parks"
] |
Washington Metro
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington%20Metro
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[
"The Washington Metro, often abbreviated as the Metro and formally the Metrorail, is a rapid transit system serving the Washington metropolitan area of the United States. It is administered by the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA), which also operates the Metrobus service under the Metro name. Opened in 1976, the network now includes six lines, 98 stations, and of route.",
"Metro serves Washington, D.C., as well as several jurisdictions in the states of Maryland and Virginia. In Maryland, Metro provides service to Montgomery and Prince George's counties; in Virginia, to Arlington, Fairfax and Loudoun counties, and to the independent city of Alexandria. The system's most recent expansion, serving Potomac Yard, opened on May 19, 2023. It operates mostly as a deep-level subway in more densely populated parts of the D.C",
". It operates mostly as a deep-level subway in more densely populated parts of the D.C. metropolitan area (including most of the District itself), while most of the suburban tracks are at surface level or elevated. The longest single-tier escalator in the Western Hemisphere, spanning , is located at Metro's deep-level station.",
"In , the system had a ridership of , or about per weekday as of , making it the second-busiest heavy rail rapid transit system in the United States, in number of passenger trips, after the New York City Subway, and the fifth-busiest in North America. In June 2008, Metro set a monthly ridership record with 19,729,641 trips, or 798,456 per weekday. Fares vary based on the distance traveled, the time of day, and the type of card used by the passenger",
". Riders enter and exit the system using a proximity card called SmarTrip.",
"History",
"During the 1950s, plans were laid for a massive freeway system in Washington, D.C. Harland Bartholomew, who chaired the National Capital Planning Commission, thought that a rail transit system would never be self-sufficient because of low-density land uses and general transit ridership decline. But the plan met fierce opposition, and was altered to include a Capital Beltway system plus rail line radials",
". The Beltway received full funding along with additional funding from the Inner Loop Freeway system project that was partially reallocated toward construction of the Metro system.",
"In 1960, the federal government created the National Capital Transportation Agency to develop a rapid rail system. In 1966, a bill creating WMATA was passed by the federal government, the District of Columbia, Virginia, and Maryland, with planning power for the system being transferred to it from the NCTA.",
"WMATA approved plans for a regional system on March 1, 1968. The plan consisted of a core regional system, which included the original five Metro lines, as well as several future extensions, many of which were not constructed. The first experimental Metro station was built above ground in May 1968 for a cost of $69,000. It was and meant to test construction techniques, lighting, and acoustics before full-scale construction efforts.",
"Construction began after a groundbreaking ceremony on December 9, 1969, when Secretary of Transportation John A. Volpe, District Mayor Walter Washington, and Maryland Governor Marvin Mandel tossed the first spade of dirt at Judiciary Square.",
"The first portion of the system opened March 27, 1976, with available on the Red Line with five stations from to , all in Washington, D.C. All rides were free that day, with the first train departing the Rhode Island Avenue stop with Metro officials and special guests, and the second with members of the general public",
". Arlington County, Virginia was linked to the system on July 1, 1977; Montgomery County, Maryland, on February 6, 1978; Prince George's County, Maryland, on November 17, 1978; and Fairfax County, Virginia, and Alexandria, Virginia, on December 17, 1983. Metro reached Loudoun County on November 15, 2022. Underground stations were built with cathedral-like arches of concrete, highlighted by soft, indirect lighting",
". The name Metro was suggested by Massimo Vignelli, who designed the signage for the system as well as for the New York City Subway.",
"The , 83-station system was completed with the opening of the Green Line segment to on January 13, 2001. However, this did not mean the end of the system's growth. A extension of the Blue Line to and opened on December 18, 2004. The first infill station, New York Ave–Florida Ave–Gallaudet University (now ) on the Red Line between and , opened on November 20, 2004. Construction began in March 2009 for an extension to Dulles Airport to be built in two phases",
". Construction began in March 2009 for an extension to Dulles Airport to be built in two phases. The first phase, five stations connecting East Falls Church to Tysons Corner and Wiehle Avenue in Reston, opened on July 26, 2014. The second phase to Ashburn opened November 15, 2022, after many delays. The second infill station, on the Blue and Yellow Lines between and , opened on May 19, 2023.",
"Metro construction required billions of federal dollars, originally provided by Congress under the authority of the National Capital Transportation Act of 1969. The cost was paid with 67% federal money and 33% local money. This act was amended on January 3, 1980, by the National Capital Transportation Amendment of 1979 (also known as the Stark-Harris Act), which authorized additional funding of $1",
".7 billion to permit the completion of of the system as provided under the terms of a full funding grant agreement executed with WMATA in July 1986, which required 20% to be paid from local funds. On November 15, 1990, the National Capital Transportation Amendments of 1990 authorized an additional $1.3 billion in federal funds for construction of the remaining of the system, completed via the execution of full funding grant agreements, with a 63% federal/37% local matching ratio.",
"In February 2006, Metro officials chose Randi Miller, a car dealership employee from Woodbridge, Virginia, to record new \"doors opening\", \"doors closing\", and \"please stand clear of the doors, thank you\" announcements after winning an open contest to replace the messages recorded by Sandy Carroll in 1996. The \"Doors Closing\" contest attracted 1,259 contestants from across the country.",
"Over the years, a lack of investment in Metro caused it to break down, and there have been several fatal incidents on the Washington Metro due to mismanagement and broken-down infrastructure. By 2016, according to The Washington Post, on-time rates had dropped to 84%, and Metro service was frequently disrupted during rush hours because of a combination of equipment, rolling stock, track, and signal malfunctions",
". WMATA did not receive dedicated funding from the three jurisdictions it served, Maryland, Virginia, and D.C., until 2018.",
"Seeking to address negative perceptions of its performance, in 2016, WMATA announced an initiative called \"Back2Good,\" focusing on addressing a wide array of rider concerns, from improving safety to adding Internet access to stations and train tunnels.",
"In May 2018, Metro announced an extensive renovation of platforms at 20 stations across the system, spanning all lines except the Silver Line. The Blue and Yellow Lines south of were closed from May 25 to September 9, 2019, in what would be the longest line closure in Metro's history. Additional stations would be repaired between 2020 and 2022, but the corresponding lines would not be closed completely",
". The project would cost $300 to $400 million and would be Metro's first major project since its construction.",
"In March 2022, Metro announced that beginning on September 10, 2022, it would suspend all service on the Yellow Line for seven to eight months to complete repairs and rebuilding work on its bridge over the Potomac River and its tunnel leading into the station at . Metro stated that this was the first significant work that the tunnel and bridge had undergone since they were first constructed over forty years prior",
". Service on the Yellow Line resumed on May 7, 2023, but with its northeastern terminus truncated from to .",
"Opening dates \nThe following is a list of opening dates for track segments and infill stations on the Washington Metro. The entries in the \"from\" and \"to\" columns correspond to the boundaries of the extension or station that opened on the specified date, not to the lines' terminals.\n\nRush+ and late-night service patterns",
"On December 31, 2006, an 18-month pilot program began to extend service on the Yellow Line to Fort Totten over existing Green Line trackage. This extension was later made permanent. Starting June 18, 2012, the Yellow Line was extended again along existing track as part of the Rush+ program, with an extension to Greenbelt on the northern end and with several trains diverted to Franconia–Springfield on the southern end. These Rush+ extensions were discontinued on June 25, 2017.",
"In addition to expanding the system, Metro expanded the operating hours over the first 40 years. Though it originally opened with weekday-only service from 6 a.m. to 8 p.m, financial paperwork assumed prior to opening that it would eventually operate from 5 a.m. to 1 a.m. seven days a week. It never operated exactly on that schedule but the hours did expand, sometimes beyond that. On September 25, 1978, Metro extended its weekday closing time from 8 p.m",
". On September 25, 1978, Metro extended its weekday closing time from 8 p.m. to midnight and 5 days later it started Saturday service from 8 a.m. to Midnight. Metrorail kicked off Sunday service from 10 a.m. to 6 p.m. on September 2, 1979, and on June 29, 1986, the Sunday closing time was pushed back to midnight. Metro started opening at 5:30 a.m., a half an hour earlier, on weekdays starting on July 1, 1988. On November 5, 1999, weekend service was extended to 1:00 a.m",
". On November 5, 1999, weekend service was extended to 1:00 a.m., and on June 30, 2000, it was expanded to 2:00 a.m. On July 5, 2003, weekend hours were extended again with the system opening an hour earlier, at 7:00 a.m. and closing an hour later at 3:00 a.m. On September 27, 2004, Metro again pushed weekday opening time half an hour earlier, this time to 5 a.m.",
"In 2016, Metro began temporarily scaling back service hours to allow for more maintenance. On June 3, 2016, they ended late-night weekend service with Metrorail closing at midnight. Hours were adjusted again the following year starting on June 25, 2017, with weeknight service ending a half-hour earlier at 11:30 p.m.; Sunday service trimmed to start an hour later – at 8 a.m. – and end an hour early at 11 p.m.; and late-night service partially restored to 1 a.m",
".m. – and end an hour early at 11 p.m.; and late-night service partially restored to 1 a.m. The service schedule was approved until June 2019.",
"On January 29, 2020, Metro announced that it would be activating its pandemic response plans in preparation for the looming COVID-19 pandemic, which would be declared a pandemic by the World Health Organization on March 11. At that time, Metro announced that it would reduce its service hours from 5:00 a.m. to 9:00 p.m. on weekdays and 8:00 a.m. to 9:00 p.m. on weekends beginning on March 16 to accommodate for train cleaning and additional track work",
".m. on weekends beginning on March 16 to accommodate for train cleaning and additional track work. As of 2022, pre-COVID service hours have been restored with pre-2016 Sunday service hours.",
"Busiest days",
"The highest ridership for a single day was on the day of the first inauguration of Barack Obama, January 20, 2009, with 1.12 million riders. It broke the previous record, set the day before, of 866,681 riders. June 2008 set several ridership records: the single-month ridership record of 19,729,641 total riders, the record for highest average weekday ridership with 1,044,400 weekday trips, had five of the ten highest ridership days, and had 12 weekdays in which ridership exceed 800,000 trips",
". The Sunday record of 616,324 trips was set on January 18, 2009, during Obama's pre-inaugural events, the day the Obamas arrived in Washington and hosted a concert on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial. It broke the record set on the 4th of July, 1999.",
"On January 21, 2017, the 2017 Women's March, set an all-time record in Saturday ridership with 1,001,616 trips.\nThe previous record was set on October 30, 2010, with 825,437 trips during the Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear. Prior to 2010, the record had been set on June 8, 1991, at 786,358 trips during the Desert Storm rally.",
"Architecture",
"Many Metro stations were designed by Chicago architect Harry Weese and are examples of late 20th century modern architecture. With their heavy use of exposed concrete and repetitive design motifs, Metro stations display aspects of Brutalist design. The stations also reflect the influence of Washington's neoclassical architecture in their overarching coffered ceiling vaults. Weese worked with Cambridge, Massachusetts-based lighting designer Bill Lam on the indirect lighting used throughout the system",
". All of Metro's original Brutalist stations are found in Downtown Washington, D.C., and neighboring urban corridors of Arlington, Virginia, while newer stations incorporate simplified cost-efficient designs.",
"In 2007, the design of the Metro's vaulted-ceiling stations was voted number 106 on the \"America's Favorite Architecture\" list compiled by the American Institute of Architects (AIA), and was the only Brutalist design to win a place among the 150 selected by this public survey.",
"In January 2014, the AIA announced that it would present its Twenty-five Year Award to the Washington Metro system for \"an architectural design of enduring significance\" that \"has stood the test of time by embodying architectural excellence for 25 to 35 years\"",
". The announcement cited the key role of Weese, who conceived and implemented a \"common design kit-of-parts\", which continues to guide the construction of new Metro stations over a quarter-century later, albeit with designs modified slightly for cost reasons.",
"Beginning in 2003, canopies were added to existing exits of underground stations due to the wear and tear seen on escalators due to exposure to the elements\n\nSystem",
"Since opening in 1976, the Metro network has grown to include six lines, 98 stations, and of route. The rail network is designed according to a spoke–hub distribution paradigm, with rail lines running between downtown Washington and its nearby suburbs. The system extensively uses interlining: running more than one service on the same track. There are six operating lines",
". There are six operating lines. The system's official map was designed by noted graphic designer Lance Wyman and Bill Cannan while they were partners in the design firm of Wyman & Cannan in New York City.",
"About of Metro's track is underground, as are 47 of the 98 stations. Track runs underground mostly within the District and high-density suburbs. Surface track accounts for about of the total, and aerial track makes up . The system operates on a track gauge of , which is narrower than but within the tolerance of standard-gauge railways.",
"Previously, the least time to travel through 97 stations using only mass transit was 8 hours 54 minutes, a record set by travel blogger Lucas Wall on November 16, 2022, the first full day that Phase 2 of the Silver Line was in passenger operation. This record was broken by a student named Claire Aguayo, who did it in 8 hours and 36 minutes on January 23, 2023. Both of these runs were before the station opened on May 19, 2023, making them no longer current.",
"To gain revenues, WMATA has started to allow retail ventures in Metro stations. WMATA has authorized DVD-rental vending machines and ticket booths for the Old Town Trolley Tours and is seeking additional retail tenants.",
"Financing",
"Metro relies extensively on passenger fares and appropriated financing from the Maryland, Virginia, and Washington D.C., governments, which are represented on Metro's board of directors. In 2018, Maryland, Virginia and Washington, D.C., agreed to contribute $500 million annually to Metro's capital budget. Until then, the system did not have a dedicated revenue stream as other cities' mass transit systems do",
". Critics allege that this has contributed to Metro's recent history of maintenance and safety problems.",
"For Fiscal Year 2019, the estimated farebox recovery ratio (fare revenue divided by operating expenses) was 62 percent, based on the WMATA-approved budget.\n\nInfrastructure\n\nStations",
"There are 40 stations in the District of Columbia, 15 in Prince George's County, 13 in Fairfax County, 11 in Montgomery County, 11 in Arlington County, 5 in the City of Alexandria, and 3 in Loudoun County. The most recent station was opened on May 19, 2023, an infill station at . At below the surface, the station on the Red Line is the deepest in the system. There are no escalators; high-speed elevators take 20 seconds to travel from the street to the station platform",
". The station, one stop to the north of the Forest Glen station, has the longest continuous escalator in the US and in the Western Hemisphere, at . The station is the deepest station on the Orange/Blue/Silver Line, at below street level. The station features the second-longest continuous escalator in the Metro system at ; an escalator ride between the street and mezzanine levels takes nearly two minutes.",
"The system is not centered on any single station, but is at the intersection of the Red, Orange, Blue, and Silver Lines. The station is also the location of WMATA's main sales office, which closed in 2022. Metro has designated five other \"core stations\" that have high passenger volume, including: , transfer station for the Red, Green, and Yellow Lines; , transfer station for the Orange, Blue, Silver, Green, and Yellow Lines; , the busiest station by passenger boardings; ; and .",
"To deal with the high number of passengers in transfer stations, Metro is studying the possibility of building pedestrian connections between nearby core transfer stations. For example, a passage between Metro Center and Gallery Place stations would allow passengers to transfer between the Orange/Blue/Silver and Yellow/Green Lines without going to one stop on the Red Line or taking a slight detour via L’Enfant Plaza",
". Another tunnel between Farragut West and Farragut North stations would allow transfers between the Red and Orange/Blue/Silver lines, decreasing transfer demand at Metro Center by an estimated 11%",
". The Farragut pedestrian tunnel has yet to be physically implemented, but was added in virtual form effective October 28, 2011: the SmarTrip system now interprets an exit from one Farragut station and entrance to the other as part of a single trip, allowing cardholders to transfer on foot without having to pay a second full fare.",
"Rolling stock \n\nMetro's fleet consists of 1,318 rail cars, each long, with 1,290 in active revenue service as of February 2020. Though operating rules currently limit trains to (except on the Green line, where they can go up to ), all trains have a maximum speed of , and average , including stops. All cars operate as married pairs (consecutively numbered even-odd with a cab at each end of the pair except 7000-series railcars), with systems shared across the pair.",
"In the \"Active railcars\" table, font in bold represents the railcars that are currently in service, while the regular font represents cars that are temporarily out of service\n\nMetro's rolling stock was acquired in seven phases, and each version of car is identified with a separate series number.",
"The original order of 300 railcars (all of which have been retired as of July 1, 2017) was manufactured by Rohr Industries, with final delivery in 1978. These cars are numbered 1000–1299 and were rehabilitated in the mid-1990s.\n\nBreda Costruzioni Ferroviarie (Breda), manufactured the second order of 76 cars delivered in 1983 and 1984. These cars, numbered 2000–2075, were rehabilitated in the early 2000s by Alstom in Hornell, New York.",
"A third order of 290 cars, also from Breda, were delivered between 1984 and 1988. These cars are numbered 3000–3289 and were rehabilitated by Alstom in the early 2000s.\n\nA fourth order of 100 cars from Breda, numbered 4000–4099, were delivered between 1991 and 1994. All 4000-series cars were retired by July 1, 2017.",
"A fifth order of 192 cars was manufactured by Construcciones y Auxiliar de Ferrocarriles (CAF) of Spain. These cars are numbered 5000–5191 and were delivered from 2001 through 2004. Most 5000-series cars were retired in October 2018 and the last few in spring 2019.\n\nA sixth order of 184 cars from Alstom Transportation, are numbered 6000–6183 and were delivered between 2005 and 2007. The cars have body shells built in Barcelona, Spain with assembly completed in Hornell, New York.",
"The 7000-series railcars, built by Kawasaki Heavy Industries Rolling Stock Company of Kobe, Japan, were delivered for on-site testing during winter 2013–2014, and first entered service on April 14, 2015, on the Blue Line. The cars are different from previous models in that while still operating as married pairs, the cab in one car is eliminated, turning it into a B car",
". This design allows for increased passenger capacity, elimination of redundant equipment, greater energy efficiency, and lower maintenance costs. The National Transportation Safety Board investigation of the fatal June 22, 2009 accident led it to conclude that the 1000-series cars are unsafe and unable to protect passengers in a crash. As a result, on July 26, 2010, Metro voted to purchase 300 7000-series cars, which replaced the remaining 1000-series cars",
". An additional 128 7000-series cars were also ordered to serve the Silver Line to Dulles Airport (64 for each phase). In April 2013, Metro placed another order for 100 7000-series cars, which replaced all of the 4000-series cars. On July 13, 2015, WMATA used their final option and purchased an additional 220 7000-series railcars for fleet expansion and to replace the 5000-series railcars, bringing the total order number to 748 railcars",
". On February 26, 2020, WMATA accepted the delivery of the final 7000-series car.",
"The 8000-series cars will be constructed by Hitachi Rail. While these railcars would have a similar appearance to the 7000-series, the 8000-series would include more features such as \"smart doors\" that detect obstruction, high-definition security cameras, more space between seats, wider aisles, and non-slip flooring. In September 2018, Metro issued a request for proposals from manufacturers for 256 railcars with options for a total of up to 800",
". The first order would replace the 2000 and 3000-series equipment, while the options, if selected, would allow the agency to increase capacity and retire the 6000-series.",
"Signaling and operation",
"During normal passenger operation on revenue tracks, trains are designed to be controlled by an integrated Automatic Train Operation (ATO) and Automatic Train Control (ATC) system that accelerates and brakes trains automatically without operator intervention. All trains are still staffed with train operators who open and close the doors, make station announcements, and supervise their trains. The system was designed so that an operator could manually operate a train when necessary.",
"Since June 2009, when two Red Line trains collided and killed nine people due in part to malfunctions in the ATC system, all Metro trains have been manually operated. The current state of manual operation has led to heavily degraded service, with new manual requirements such as absolute blocks, speed restrictions, and end-of-platform stopping leading to increased headways between trains, increased dwell time, and worse on-time performance",
". Metro originally planned to have all trains be automated again by 2017, but those plans were shelved in early 2017 in order to focus on more pressing safety and infrastructure issues. In March 2023, Metro announced plans to re-automate the system by December of that year.",
"The train doors were originally designed to be opened and closed automatically and the doors would re-open if an object blocked them, much as elevator doors do. Almost immediately after the system opened in 1976 Metro realized these features were not conducive to safe or efficient operation and they were disabled. Metro began testing reinstating automatic train door opening in March 2019, citing delays and potential human error",
". If a door tries to close and it meets an obstruction, the operator must re-open the door.",
"Hours and headways",
"Metrorail begins service at 5 am Monday through Friday, 7 am on Saturdays and Sundays; it ends service at midnight Monday through Thursday, 1:00 am Friday and Saturday, and midnight on Sundays, although the last trains leave the end stations inbound about half an hour before these times. Pre-pandemic, trains ran more frequently during rush hours on all lines, with scheduled peak hour headways of 4 minutes on the Red Line and 8 minutes on all other lines",
". Headways were much longer during midday and evening on weekdays and all day weekends. The midday six-minute headways were based on a combination of two Metrorail lines (Orange/Blue and Yellow/Green) as each route could run every 12 minutes; in the case of the Red Line, every other train bound for Glenmont terminated at Silver Spring instead. Night and weekend service varied between 8 and 20 minutes, with trains generally scheduled only every 15 to 20 minutes.",
"Other service truncations also occur in the system during rush hour service only. On the Red Line, every other train bound for Shady Grove terminated at until December 2018, in addition to the alternating terminations at Silver Spring mentioned above. For the Yellow Line, all non Rush+ trains bound for and all normal trains bound for terminate at . These are primarily instituted due to a limited supply of rail cars and the locations of pocket tracks throughout the system",
". However, as of July 2019, both Red Line service truncations have ended, and",
"as of April 2019, the Yellow Line serves at all times. When the Yellow Line reopened on May 7, 2023 following major maintenance work, the Mount Vernon Square turnback was reinstated at all times, which has not happened since 2006.",
"Until 1999, Metro ended service at midnight every night, and weekend service began at 8 am. That year, WMATA began late-night service on Fridays and Saturdays until 1 am. By 2007, with encouragement from businesses, that closing time had been pushed back to 3 am, with peak fares in effect for entries after midnight. There were plans floated to end late-night service due to costs in 2011, but they were met with resistance by riders.",
"WMATA temporarily discontinued late night rail service on May 30, 2016, so that Metro can conduct an extensive track rehabilitation program in an effort to improve the system's reliability.",
"On June 25, 2017, Metro cut its hours of operation with closing at 11:30 PM Monday–Thursday, 1 AM on Friday and Saturday, and 11 PM on Sunday, with the last trains leaving the end stations inbound about half an hour before these times. As of 2022, the pre-2017 service hours have been restored.\n\nSpecial service patterns",
"Metro runs special service patterns on holidays and when events in Washington may require additional service. Independence Day activities require Metro to adjust service to provide extra capacity to and from the National Mall. WMATA makes similar adjustments during other events, such as presidential inaugurations. Due to security concerns related to the January 6 United States Capitol attack, several Metro stations were closed for the 2021 Inauguration",
". Metro has altered service and used some stations as entrances or exits only to help manage congestion.",
"Rush Plus \nIn 2012, WMATA announced enhanced rush period service that was implemented on June 18, 2012, under the name \"Rush+\" (or \"Rush Plus\"). Rush Plus service occurred only during portions of peak service: 6:30–9:00 AM and 3:30–6:00 PM, Monday through Friday.",
"The Rush+ realignment was intended to free up space in the Rosslyn Portal (the tunnel between Rosslyn and Foggy Bottom), which operates at full capacity already. When Silver Line service began, those trains would be routed through the tunnel, and so some of what were Blue Line trains to were now diverted across the Fenwick Bridge to become Yellow Line trains running all the way along the Green Line to",
". Select Yellow Line trains running south diverted along the Blue Line to (as opposed to the normal Yellow line terminus at ). Until the start of Silver Line service, excess Rosslyn Tunnel capacity was used by additional Orange Line trains that traveled along the Blue Line to Largo (as opposed to the normal Orange Line terminus at )",
". Rush+ had the additional effect of giving some further number of passengers transfer-free journeys, though severely increasing headways for the portion of the Blue Line running between and . In May 2017, Metro announced that Yellow Rush+ service would be eliminated effective June 25, 2017.",
"COVID-19 and 7000-series derailment (2020–present)",
"Headways have been lengthened as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic in Washington, D.C., starting early 2020. Near-pre-pandemic service was restored at times until October 2021, but due to the 7000-series derailment near Arlington Cemetery, and subsequent removal of all 7000-series cars from service (which made up 60% of the WMATA fleet), headways were lengthened again to every 15 minutes on the Red Line and every 30 minutes on all other lines beginning October 19, 2021.",
"Since then, with more 7000-series cars returning, headways have been gradually restored to near-pre-pandemic levels, with ridership also increasing. As of July 2023, several lines are actually more frequent than before during weekday off-peak hours, weekends, and evenings. The Red Line now runs every 6 minutes all day on weekdays through its full length, and every 8 minutes all day on weekends (previously it ran every 12 minutes weekdays off-peak and on Saturdays, and every 15 minutes on Sundays)",
". The Green and Yellow Lines are now every 8 minutes all day as opposed to only during rush hours (pre-pandemic both lines were every 12–15 minutes off-peak and weekends, and every 15–20 minutes evenings), although the latter now turns back at Mount Vernon Square instead of continuing to Greenbelt",
". The Orange Line is now every 10 minutes daily before 9:30pm (still not reaching the pre-pandemic peak headway of 8 minutes, but an improvement over every 12–15 minutes off-peak and weekends, and every 15–20 minutes evenings)",
". All lines run consistently every 12 minutes or better on Sundays before 9:30pm, a huge improvement from 15-minute headways all day Sunday on all lines except the Red Line, and every 15 minutes or better after 9:30pm daily, a huge improvement from 20-minute headways in evening hours on all lines except the Red Line. The Red Line used to run every 15–18 minutes during evenings, but now runs every 10.",
"Current headways by line \nHeadways as of July 10, 2023.\n\nCurrent headways by line segment (average; approximate) \nHeadways as of June 26, 2023.\nVienna and Dunn Loring were closed until July 17. With them reopened, service will be equal to the current service from West Falls Church to East Falls Church.\n\nPassenger information systems",
"A Passenger Information Display System (PIDS) was installed in all Metrorail stations in 2000. Displays are located on all track platforms and at the mezzanine entrances of stations. They provide real-time information on next train arrivals, including the line, destination, number of cars in the train, and estimated wait time. The displays also show information about delayed trains, emergency announcements, and other bulletins",
". The signs were upgraded in 2013 to better reflect Rush Plus and Silver Line schedules, and to prioritize next-train arrival information over other announcements. New digital PIDS signs were installed at the six stations south of National Airport in summer 2019 as part of the Platform Improvement Project.",
"WMATA also provides current train and related information to customers with conventional web browsers, as well as users of smartphones and other mobile devices. In 2010 Metro began sharing its PIDS data with outside software developers, for use in creating additional real-time applications for mobile devices. Free apps are available to the public on major mobile device software platforms (iOS, Android, Windows Phone, Palm). WMATA also began providing real-time train information by phone in 2010.",
"Fare structure \n\nRiders enter and exit the system using a stored-value card in the form of a proximity card known as SmarTrip. The fare is deducted from the balance of the card when exiting. SmarTrip cards can be purchased at station vending machines, online or at retail outlets, and can store up to $300 in value. Metro also accepts Baltimore's CharmCard, a similar contactless payment card system.",
"Metro fares vary based on the distance traveled and the time of day at entry. During peak hours (weekdays from opening until 9:30 a.m. and 3–7 p.m.), fares (effective 2017) range from $2.25 to $6.00, depending on the distance traveled. At all other times, fares range from $2.00 to $3.85 based on the distance traveled. Discounted fares are available for school children, people with disabilities, and senior citizens. Metro charges off-peak fares on all federal holidays.",
"Parking fees at Metro stations range from $3.00 to $5.20 on weekdays for riders; non-rider fees range from $3.00 to $10.00. Parking is free on Saturdays, Sundays, and federal holidays.",
"Since June 25, 2017, the first fare hike in three years, peak-period rail fares increased 10 cents, with $2.25 as the new minimum and $6.00 as the maximum one-way fare. Off-peak fares rose 25 cents, to a $2.00 minimum and $3.85 maximum, as will bus fares. A new one-day unlimited rail/bus pass became available for $14.75, which is presently available for $13.00.",
"Passengers may purchase passes at farecard vending machines. Passes are loaded onto the same SmarTrip cards as stored value, but grant riders unlimited travel within the system for a certain period of time. The period of validity starts with the first use. Four types of passes are currently sold:\n A 1-Day Unlimited Pass for $13.00, valid for one day of unlimited Metrorail and Metrobus travel. The pass expires at the end of the operating day.",
"A 3-Day Unlimited Pass for $28.00, valid for three consecutive days of unlimited Metrorail and Metrobus travel.",
"A 7-Day Short Trip Unlimited Pass for $38.00, valid for seven consecutive days for Metrorail trips costing up to $3.85 (the maximum off-peak fare) during peak fare times and any trip during off-peak hours. If the trip costs more than $3.85, the difference is deducted from the cash balance of a SmarTrip card, possibly after the necessary value is added at the Exitfare machine. A non-negative stored value is required to enter the Metrorail system.",
"A 7-Day Unlimited Pass for $58.00, valid for seven consecutive days of unlimited Metrorail and Metrobus travel.",
"In addition, Metro sells the Monthly Unlimited Pass, formerly called SelectPass, available for purchase online only by registered SmarTrip cardholders, valid for trips up to a specified value for a specific calendar month, with the balance being deducted from the card's cash value similarly to the Short Trip Pass. The pass is priced based on 18 days of round-trip travel.",
"Users can add value to any farecard. Riders pay an exit fare based on time of day and distance traveled. Trips may include segments on multiple lines under one fare as long as the rider does not exit the faregates, with the exception of the \"Farragut Crossing\" out-of-station interchange between the and stations. At Farragut Crossing, riders may exit from one station and reenter at the other within 30 minutes on a single fare",
". When making a trip that uses Metrobus and Metrorail, a 50-cent discount is available when using a SmarTrip card.",
"When entering and exiting at the same station, users are normally charged a minimum fare ($2.25 peak / $2.00 off-peak). However, since July 1, 2016, users have had a 15-minute grace period to exit the station; those who do so will receive a rebate of the amount paid as an autoload to their SmarTrip card.",
"Students at District of Columbia public schools ride both Metrobus and Metrorail for free.\n\nFare history",
"The contract for Metro's fare collection system was awarded in 1975 to Cubic Transportation Systems. Electronic fare collection using paper magnetic stripe cards started on July 1, 1977, a little more than a year after the first stations opened. Prior to electronic fare collection, exact change fareboxes were used. Metro's historic paper farecard system is also shared by Bay Area Rapid Transit, which Cubic won a contract for in 1974",
". Any remaining value stored on the paper cards was printed on the card at each exit, and passes were printed with the expiration date.",
"Several adjustments were made to shift the availability of passes from paper tickets to SmarTrip cards in 2012 and 2013. In May 2014 Metro announced plans to retrofit more than 500 fare vending machines throughout the system to dispense SmarTrip cards, rather than paper fare cards, and eventually eliminate magnetic fare cards entirely. This was completed in early December 2015 when the last paper farecard was sold",
". This was completed in early December 2015 when the last paper farecard was sold. The faregates stopped accepting paper farecards on March 6, 2016, and the last day for trading in farecards to transfer the value to SmarTrip was June 30, 2016.",
"Safety and security\n\nSecurity",
"Metro planners designed the system with passenger safety and order maintenance as primary considerations. The open vaulted ceiling design of stations and the limited obstructions on platforms allow few opportunities to conceal criminal activity. Station platforms are built away from station walls to limit vandalism and provide for diffused lighting of the station from recessed lights",
". Metro's attempts to reduce crime, combined with how the station environments were designed with crime prevention in mind, have contributed to Metro being among the safest and cleanest subway systems in the United States. There are nearly 6,000 video surveillance cameras used across the system to enhance security.",
"Metro is patrolled by its own police force, which is charged with ensuring the safety of passengers and employees. Transit Police officers patrol the Metro and Metrobus systems, and they have jurisdiction and arrest powers throughout the Metro service area for crimes that occur on or against transit authority facilities, or within of a Metrobus stop. The Metro Transit Police Department is one of two U.S",
". The Metro Transit Police Department is one of two U.S. police agencies that has local police authority in three \"state\"-level jurisdictions (Maryland, Virginia, and the District of Columbia), the U.S. Park Police being the other.",
"Each city and county in the Metro service area has similar ordinances that regulate or prohibit vending on Metro-owned property, and which prohibit riders from eating, drinking, or smoking in Metro trains, buses, and stations; the Transit Police have a reputation for enforcing these laws rigorously. One widely publicized incident occurred in October 2000 when police arrested 12-year-old Ansche Hedgepeth for eating french fries in the station",
". In a 2004 opinion by John Roberts, now Chief Justice of the United States, the D.C. Circuit Court of Appeals upheld Hedgepeth's arrest. By then WMATA had answered negative publicity by adopting a policy of first issuing warnings to juveniles, and arresting them only after three violations within a year.",
"Metro's zero tolerance policy on food, trash and other sources of disorder embodies the \"broken windows\" philosophy of crime reduction. This philosophy also extends to the use of station restroom facilities. A longstanding policy, intended to curb unlawful and unwanted activity, has been to only allow employees to use Metro restrooms. One widely publicized example of this was when a pregnant woman was denied access to the bathroom by a station manager at the station",
". Metro now allows the use of restrooms by passengers who gain a station manager's permission, except during periods of heightened terror alerts.",
"On January 22, 2019, the D.C. Council voted 11–2 to override Mayor Muriel Bowser's veto of the Fare Evasion Decriminalization Act, setting the penalty for fare evasion at a $50 civil fine, a reduction from the previous criminal penalty of a fine up to $300 and 10 days in jail.",
"Random bag searches",
"On October 27, 2008, the Metro Transit Police Department announced plans to immediately begin random searches of backpacks, purses, and other bags. Transit police would search riders at random before boarding a bus or entering a station. It also explained its intent to stop anyone acting suspiciously",
". It also explained its intent to stop anyone acting suspiciously. Metro claims that \"Legal authority to inspect packages brought into the Metro system has been established by the court system on similar types of inspections in mass transit properties, airports, military facilities and courthouses.\" Metro Transit Police Chief Michael Taborn stated that, if someone were to turn around and simply enter the system through another escalator or elevator, Metro has \"a plan to address suspicious behavior\"",
". Security expert Bruce Schneier characterized the plan as \"security theater against a movie plot threat\" and does not believe random bag searches actually improve security.",
"The Metro Riders' Advisory Council recommended to WMATA's board of directors that Metro hold at least one public meeting regarding the search program. , Metro had not conducted a single bag search.",
"In 2010 Metro once again announced that it would implement random bag searches, and conducted the first such searches on December 21, 2010. The searches consist of swabbing bags and packages for explosive residue, and X-raying or opening any packages which turned up positive",
". On the first day of searches, at least one false positive for explosives was produced, which Metro officials indicated could occur for a variety of reasons including if a passenger had recently been in contact with firearms or been to a firing range. The D.C",
". The D.C. Bill of Rights Coalition and the Montgomery County Civil Rights Coalition circulated a petition against random bag searches, taking the position that the practice violates the Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution and would not improve security. On January 3, 2011, Metro held a public forum for the searches at a Metro Riders' Advisory Council meeting, at which more than 50 riders spoke out, most of them in opposition to the searches",
". However at the meeting Metro officials called random bag inspections a \"success\" and claimed that few riders had complained.",
"After a prolonged absence, , bag searches have resumed at random stations throughout the Washington Metro area.\n\nSafety\n\nAccidents and incidents",
"Several collisions have occurred on Washington Metro, resulting in injuries and fatalities, along with numerous derailments with few or no injuries. WMATA has been criticized for disregarding safety warnings and advice from experts. The Tri-State Oversight Committee oversaw WMATA, but had no regulatory authority. Metro's safety department is usually in charge of investigating incidents, but could not require other Metro departments to implement its recommendations",
". Following several safety lapses, the Federal Transit Administration assumed oversight at WMATA.",
"Collisions",
"During the Blizzard of 1996, on January 6, a Metro operator was killed when a train failed to stop at the station. The four-car train overran the station platform and struck an unoccupied train that was awaiting assignment. The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) investigation found that the crash was a result of a failure in the train's computer-controlled braking system",
". The NTSB recommended that Metro grant train operators the ability to manually control the braking system, even in inclement weather, and recommended that Metro prohibit parked rail cars on tracks used by incoming outbound trains.",
"On November 3, 2004, an out-of-service Red Line train rolled backwards into the station, hitting an in-service train stopped at the platform. The rear car (1077) was telescoped by the first car of the standing train (4018). No one died, 20 people were injured. A 14-month investigation concluded that the train operator was most likely not alert as the train rolled backwards into the station. Safety officials estimated that had the train been full, at least 79 people would have died",
". Safety officials estimated that had the train been full, at least 79 people would have died. The train operator was dismissed and Metro officials agreed to add rollback protection to more than 300 rail cars.",
"On June 22, 2009, at 5:02 pm, two trains on the Red Line collided. A southbound train heading toward Shady Grove stopped on the track short of the Fort Totten station and another southbound train collided with its rear. The front car of the moving train (1079) was telescoped by the rear car of the standing train (5066), and passengers were trapped. Nine people died and more than 70 were injured, dozens of whom were described as \"walking wounded\"",
". Nine people died and more than 70 were injured, dozens of whom were described as \"walking wounded\". Red Line service was suspended between the Fort Totten and Takoma stations, and New Hampshire Avenue was closed. One of the dead was the operator of the train that collided with the stopped train.",
"On November 29, 2009, at 4:27 am, two trains collided at the West Falls Church train yard. One train pulled in and collided with the back of the other train. No customers were aboard, and only minor injuries to the operators and cleaning staff were reported. However, three cars (1106, 1171, and 3216) were believed to be damaged beyond repair.\n\nDerailments",
"Derailments \n\nOn January 13, 1982, a train derailed at a malfunctioning crossover switch south of the station. In attempting to restore the train to the rails, supervisors failed to notice that another car had also derailed. The other rail car slid off the track and hit a tunnel support, killing three people and injuring 25 in its first fatal crash. Coincidentally, this crash occurred about 30 minutes after Air Florida Flight 90 crashed into the nearby 14th Street Bridge during a major snowstorm.",
"On January 20, 2003, during construction of a new canopy at the station, Metro began running trains through the center track even though it had not been constructed for standard operations, and a Blue Line train derailed at the switch. No injuries resulted but the crash delayed construction by a number of weeks.",
"On January 7, 2007, a Green Line train carrying approximately 120 people derailed near the station in downtown Washington. Trains were single-tracking at the time, and the derailment of the fifth car occurred where the train was switching from the south to northbound track. The crash injured at least 18 people and prompted the rescue of 60 people from a tunnel. At least one person had a serious but non-life-threatening injury",
". At least one person had a serious but non-life-threatening injury. The incident was one of a series of five derailments involving 5000-series cars, with four of those occurring on side tracks and not involving passengers.",
"On June 9, 2008, an Orange Line train (2000-series) derailed between the Rosslyn and Court House stations.\n\nOn March 27, 2009, a Red Line train derailed just before 4:30 pm just south of station causing delays but no injuries. A second train was sent to move the first train but it too derailed when it was about from the first train.",
"On February 12, 2010, a Red Line train derailed at about 10:13 am as it left the station in downtown Washington. After leaving the station, the train entered the pocket track north of the station. As it continued, an automatic derailer at the end of the pocket track intentionally derailed the train as a safety measure. If the train had continued moving forward on the pocket track, it would have entered the path of an oncoming train",
". The wheels of the first two cars in the six-car, White-Flint-bound train were forced off the tracks, stopping the train. Almost all of the estimated 345 passengers were evacuated from the damaged train by 11:50 am and the NTSB arrived on the scene by noon. Two minor injuries were reported, and a third passenger was taken to George Washington University Hospital",
". The NTSB ruled the crash was due to the train operator's failure to follow standard procedures and WMATA management for failure to provide proper supervision of the train operator which resulted in the incomplete configuration of the train identification and destination codes leading to the routing of the train into the pocket track.",
"On April 24, 2012, around 7:15 pm, a Blue Line train bound for Franconia–Springfield derailed near Rosslyn. No injuries were reported.\n\nOn July 6, 2012, around 4:45 pm, a Green Line train bound for downtown Washington, D.C., and Branch Avenue derailed near West Hyattsville. No injuries were reported. A heat kink, due to the hot weather, was identified as the probable cause of the accident.",
"On August 6, 2015, a non-passenger train derailed outside the station. The track condition that caused the derailment had been detected a month earlier but was not repaired.\n\nOn July 29, 2016, a Silver Line train heading in the direction of Wiehle–Reston East station derailed outside East Falls Church station. Service was suspended between Ballston and West Falls Church and McLean stations on the Orange and Silver Lines.",
"On September 1, 2016, Metro announced the derailment of an empty six-car train in the Alexandria Rail Yard. No injuries or service interruptions were reported and an investigation is ongoing.\n\nOn January 15, 2018, a Red Line train derailed between the Farragut North and Metro Center stations. No injuries were reported. This was the first derailment of the new 7000-series trains.\n\nOn July 7, 2020, a 7000-series Red line train derailed one wheelset on departure from around 11:20 in the morning.",
"On October 12, 2021, a 7000-series Blue Line train derailed outside the Arlington Cemetery station. This forced the evacuation of all 187 passengers on board with no reported injuries. Cause of the derailment was initially stated to be an axle not up to specifications and resulted in sidelining the entire 7000-series fleet of trains, approximately 60% of WMATA's current trains through Friday, October 29, 2021, for further inspection",
". On October 28, 2021, WMATA announced that the system would continue running at a reduced capacity through November 15, 2021 as further investigation took place. The inspection determined a defect causes the car's wheels to be pushed outward. As of July 2022, the system was still running without most 7000-series cars. Workers manually inspect wheels on eight trains daily to catch the defect before it becomes problematic; the remaining cars are out of service pending an automated fix.",
"Safety measures \nOn July 13, 2009, WMATA adopted a \"zero tolerance\" policy for train or bus operators found to be texting or using other hand-held devices while on the job. This new and stricter policy came after investigations of several mass-transit accidents in the U.S. found that operators were texting at the time of the accident. The policy change was announced the day after a passenger of a Metro train videotaped the operator texting while operating the train.",
"Smoke incidents \nDuring the early evening rush on January 12, 2015, a Yellow Line train stopped in the tunnel. It filled with smoke just after departing L'Enfant Plaza for Pentagon due to \"an electrical arcing event\" ahead in the tunnel. Everyone on board was evacuated; 84 people were taken to hospitals, and one died.",
"On March 14, 2016, an electrified rail caught fire between McPherson Square and Farragut West, causing significant disruptions on the Blue, Orange, and Silver lines. Two days later, the entire Metro system was shut down so its electric rail power grid could be inspected.",
"Future expansion \nWMATA expects an average of one million riders daily by 2030. The need to increase capacity has renewed plans to add 220 cars to the system and reroute trains to alleviate congestion at the busiest stations. Population growth in the region has also revived efforts to extend service, build new stations, and construct additional lines.\n\nPlanned or proposed projects",
"Line extensions",
"The original plan called for ten \"future extensions\" on top of the core system. The Red Line would have been extended from the Rockville station northwest to Germantown, Maryland. The Green Line would have been lengthened northward from to Laurel, Maryland, and southward from to Brandywine, Maryland. The Blue Line initially consisted of a southwestern branch to Backlick Road and Burke, Virginia, which was never built",
". The Orange Line would have extended westward through Northern Virginia past the Vienna station to Centreville or Haymarket, and northeastward past to Bowie, Maryland. Alternatively, the Blue Line would have been extended east past to Bowie. The future Silver Line was also included in this proposal.",
"In 2001, officials considered realigning the Blue Line between and stations by building a bridge or tunnel from Virginia to a new station in Georgetown. Blue Line trains share a single tunnel with Orange Line and Silver Line trains to cross the Potomac River. The current tunnel limits service in each direction, creating a choke point. The proposal was later rejected due to cost, but Metro again started considering a similar scenario in 2011.",
"In 2005 the Department of Defense announced that it would be shifting 18,000 jobs to Fort Belvoir in Virginia and at least 5,000 jobs to Fort Meade in Maryland by 2012, as part of that year's Base Realignment and Closure plan. In anticipation of such a move, local officials and the military proposed extending the Blue and Green Lines to service each base",
". The proposed extension of the Green Line could cost $100 million per mile ($60 million per kilometer), and a light rail extension to Fort Belvoir was estimated to cost up to $800 million. Neither proposal has established timelines for planning or construction.",
"The Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) announced on January 18, 2008, that it and the Virginia Department of Rail and Public Transportation (DRPT) had begun work on a draft environmental impact statement (EIS) for the I-66 corridor in Fairfax and Prince William counties",
". According to VDOT the EIS, officially named the I-66 Multimodal Transportation and Environment Study, would focus on improving mobility along I-66 from the Capital Beltway (I-495) interchange in Fairfax County to the interchange with U.S. Route 15 in Prince William County. The EIS also allegedly includes a four-station extension of the Orange Line past Vienna",
". The EIS also allegedly includes a four-station extension of the Orange Line past Vienna. The extension would continue to run in the I-66 median and would have stations at Chain Bridge Road, Fair Oaks, Stringfellow Road and Centreville near Virginia Route 28 and U.S. Route 29",
".S. Route 29. In its final report published June 8, 2012, the study and analysis revealed that an \"extension would have a minimal impact on Metrorail ridership and volumes on study area roadways inside the Beltway and would therefore not relieve congestion in the study corridor.\"",
"In 2011 Metro began studying the needs of the system through 2040. WMATA subsequently published a study on the alternatives, none of which were funded for planning or construction. New Metro rail lines and extensions under consideration as part of this long-term plan included:",
"a new Loop line which parallels the Capital Beltway, known as the \"Beltway Line\"\n a new \"Brown Line\" from the station to White Oak, Maryland, which would pass through the District and , running parallel to the Red Line.\n rerouting the Yellow Line to either a new alignment, or a new tunnel parallel to the Green Line, in the District north of the Potomac River\n a 5-station spur of the Green Line to National Harbor in Maryland",
"a 5-station spur of the Green Line to National Harbor in Maryland\n re-routing the Blue or Silver Lines in the District and/or building a separate express route for the Silver Line in Virginia\n extensions to existing lines, including:\n Red Line northwest to Metropolitan Grove (2 stations)\n Orange Line east to Bowie (3 stations) or west to Centreville or Gainesville (3 or 5 stations, respectively)\n Yellow Line south to Lorton (8 stations)",
"Yellow Line south to Lorton (8 stations)\n Green Line northeast to BWI Airport (6 stations) or southeast to White Plains (6 stations)\n Blue Line east to Bowie (5 stations) or southwest to Potomac Mills (4 stations)\n Silver Line northwest to Leesburg (3 stations)\n four inter-line connections to allow greater service flexibility\n several infill stations on existing lines",
"In September 2021, a report on the capacity improvements of Blue/Orange/Silver lines proposed four alternatives:",
"Converting the Blue Line into a circle line, extending it to National Harbor and Alexandria. The proposed extension starts from a new station at , continues to Georgetown through a new tunnel under the Potomac River, then runs under M Street NE, just north of the existing Blue/Orange/Silver central segment, and connects to the Red Line at . It then turns south towards Buzzard Point, Joint Base Anacostia–Bolling, and National Harbor and crosses the Woodrow Wilson Bridge to Alexandria",
". The loop rejoins the current system at on the current Yellow Line, which is re-routed to .",
"A Blue Line extension to , \n A Silver Line Express service from to with an extension to , and \n A Silver Line extension to .",
"All four alternatives use the same central segment layout from Rosslyn to Union Station through Georgetown. NBC4 Washington further reported on the proposed loop in December 2022. At the time, there was a crowding problem at the Rosslyn station, and the proposed Blue Line loop could be the solution to solve this crowding problem. A final design was published in July 2023.",
"Individual and infill stations",
"Before construction on Metro began, a proposed station was put forward for the Kennedy Center. Congress had already approved the construction of a station on the Orange/Blue/Silver Lines at 23rd and H Streets, near George Washington University, at the site of what is now Foggy Bottom station. According to a Washington Post article from February 1966, rerouting the line to accommodate a station under the center would cost an estimated $12.3 million",
".3 million. The National Capital Transportation Agency's administrator at the time, Walter J. McCarter, suggested that the Center \"may wish to enhance the relationship to the station by constructing a pleasant, above-ground walkway from the station to the Center,\" referring to the then soon-to-be-built Foggy Bottom station. Rep. William B. Widnall, Republican of New Jersey, used it as an opportunity to push for moving the center to a central, downtown location.",
"The 2011 Metro transit-needs study identified five additional sites where infill stations could be built. These included Kansas Avenue and Montgomery College on the Red Line, respectively in Northwest D.C. and Rockville, Maryland; Oklahoma Avenue on the Blue, Orange, and Silver Lines near the D.C. Armory in Northeast D.C.; Eisenhower Valley on the Blue Line in Alexandria, Virginia; and the St. Elizabeths Hospital campus on the Green Line in Southeast D.C.\n\nRelated non-WMATA projects",
"A number of light rail and urban streetcar projects are under construction or have been proposed to extend or supplement service provided by Metro. The Purple Line, a light rail system, is under construction as of 2023 and is scheduled to open in 2026. The project was originally envisioned as a circular heavy rail line connecting the outer stations on each branch of the Metrorail system, in a pattern roughly mirroring the Capital Beltway",
". The current project will run between the and stations by way of and College Park. The Purple Line will connect both branches of the Red Line to the Green/Yellow and Orange Lines, and would decrease the travel time between suburban Metro stations.",
"The Corridor Cities Transitway (CCT) is a proposed bus rapid transit line that would link Clarksburg, Maryland, in northern Montgomery County with the station on the Red Line. Assuming that the anticipated federal, state, and local government funds are provided, construction of the first of the system would begin in 2018.",
"In 2005, a Maryland lawmaker proposed a light rail system to connect areas of Southern Maryland, especially the rapidly growing area around the town of Waldorf, to the station on the Green Line.",
"The District of Columbia Department of Transportation is building the new DC Streetcar system to improve transit connectivity within the District. A tram line to connect Bolling Air Force Base to the station and was originally expected to open in 2010. Streetcar routes have been proposed in the Atlas District, Capitol Hill, and the K Street corridor. After seven years of construction, the Atlas District route, known as the H/Benning Street route, opened on February 27, 2016.",
"In 2013, the Georgetown Business Improvement District proposed a gondola lift between Georgetown and Rosslyn as an alternative to placing a Metro stop at Georgetown in its 2013–2028 economic plans. Washington, D.C., and Arlington County have been conducting feasibility studies for it since 2016.\n\nIn media",
"In media\n\nThe Washington Metro has often appeared in movies and television shows set in Washington. However, due to fees and expenses required to film in the Metro, scenes of the Metro in film are often not of the Metro itself, but of other stand-in subway stations that are made to represent the Metro.\n\nThe vaulted ceilings of the Metro have become a cultural signifier of Washington, D.C., and are often seen in photographs and other art depicting the city.",
"See also \n List of metro systems\n Transportation in Washington, D.C.\n United States Capitol Subway System\n Architecture of Washington, D.C.\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links \n\nWashington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority official site\nMetro Transit Police official site\nVintage Washington Metro Construction Photos – Ghosts of DC blog\nWashington Metro Map - DC Metro Map 2023",
"1976 establishments in Washington, D.C.\n \nPassenger rail transportation in Maryland\nPassenger rail transportation in Virginia\nPassenger rail transportation in Washington, D.C.\nRapid transit in Maryland\nRapid transit in Virginia\nRapid transit in Washington, D.C.\nTrain-related introductions in 1976\nUnderground rapid transit in the United States\nNorthern Virginia\nHarry Weese buildings\n750 V DC railway electrification"
] |
The Love for Three Oranges (fairy tale)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Love%20for%20Three%20Oranges%20%28fairy%20tale%29
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[
"\"The Love for the Three Oranges\" or \"The Three Citrons\" (Neapolitan: Le Tre Cetre) is an Italian literary fairy tale written by Giambattista Basile in the Pentamerone. It is the concluding tale, and the one the heroine of the frame story uses to reveal that an imposter has taken her place.",
"The literary tale by Basile is considered to be the oldest attestation of tale type ATU 408, \"The Three Oranges\", of the international Aarne-Thompson-Uther Index. However, variants are recorded from oral tradition among European Mediterranean countries, in the Middle East and Turkey, as well as across Iran and India.",
"Summary\nA king, who only had one son, anxiously waited for him to marry. One day, the prince cut his finger; his blood fell on white cheese. The prince declared that he would only marry a woman as white as the cheese and as red as the blood, so he set out to find her.",
"The prince wandered the lands until he came to the Island of Ogresses, where two little old women each told him that he could find what he sought here, if he went on, and the third gave him three citrons, with a warning not to cut them until he came to a fountain. A fairy would fly out of each, and he had to give her water at once.",
"He returned home, and by the fountain, he was not quick enough for the first two, but was for the third. The woman was red and white, and the prince wanted to fetch her home properly, with suitable clothing and servants. He had her hide in a tree. A black slave, coming to fetch water, saw her reflection in the water, and thought it was her own and that she was too pretty to fetch water. She refused, and her mistress beat her until she fled",
". She refused, and her mistress beat her until she fled. The fairy laughed at her in the garden, and the slave noticed her. She asked her story and on hearing it, offered to arrange her hair for the prince. When the fairy agreed, she stuck a pin into her head, and the fairy only escaped by turning into a bird. When the prince returned, the slave claimed that wicked magic had transformed her.",
"The prince and his parents prepared for the wedding. The bird flew to the kitchen and asked after the cooking. The lady ordered it be cooked, and it was caught and cooked, but the cook threw the water it had been scalded in, into the garden, where a citron tree grew in three days. The prince saw the citrons, took them to his room, and dealt with them as the last three, getting back his bride. She told him what had happened",
". She told him what had happened. He brought her to a feast and demanded of everyone what should be done to anyone who would harm her. Various people said various things; the slave said she should be burned, and so the prince had the slave burned.",
"Analysis\n\nTale type\nThe tale is classified in the international Aarne-Thompson-Uther Index as tale type ATU 408, \"The Three Oranges\", and is the oldest known variant of this tale. Scholarship point that the Italian version is the original appearance of the tale, with later variants appearing in French, such as the one by Le Chevalier de Mailly (Incarnat, blanc et noir (fr)).",
"In an article in Enzyklopädie des Märchens, scholar Christine Shojaei Kawan separated the tale type into six sections, and stated that parts 3 to 5 represented the \"core\" of the story:",
"(1) A prince is cursed by an old woman to seek the fruit princess;\n(2) The prince finds helpers that guide him to the princess's location;\n(3) The prince finds the fruits (usually three), releases the maidens inside, but only the third survives;\n(4) The prince leaves the princess up a tree near a spring or stream, and a slave or servant sees the princess's reflection in the water;\n(5) The slave or servant replaces the princess (transformation sequence);",
"(5) The slave or servant replaces the princess (transformation sequence);\n(6) The fruit princess and the prince reunite, and the false bride is punished.",
"Motifs\n\nThe maiden's appearance \nAccording to the tale description in the international index, the maiden may appear out of the titular citrus fruits, like oranges and lemons. However, she may also come out of pomegranates or other species of fruits, and even eggs.\n\nIn de Mailly's version, the fruits the girls are trapped in are apples.",
"In de Mailly's version, the fruits the girls are trapped in are apples.\n\nWhile analysing the imagery of the golden apples in Balkanic fairy tales, researcher Milena Benovska-Sabkova took notice that the fairy maiden springs out of golden apples in these variants, fruits that are interpreted as having generative properties.\n\nAccording to Walter Anderson's unpublished manuscript, variants with eggs instead of fruits appear in Southeastern Europe.",
"The water motif",
"In an article discussing the Maltese variants of the tale type, Maltese linguist George Mifsud Chircop drew attention to the water motif and its symbolism: the parents of the prince build a fountain for the people; when the maiden is released from the fruit she asks for food and water; the false bride mistakes the fruit maiden's visage for her own reflection in the water; the maiden is thrown in the water (well) and becomes a fish",
". Folklorist Christine Goldberg also noted that water motif present in the tale type: the fountain built at the beginning of the story; the release of the fruit maiden near a body of water, and the prince leaving the maiden on a tree near a water source (well or stream). She also remarked that the fountain motif is \"echoed\" by the well.",
"The transformations and the false bride \nThe tale type is characterized by the substitution of the fairy wife for a false bride. The usual occurrence is when the false bride (a witch or a slave) sticks a magical pin into the maiden's head or hair and she becomes a dove. In some tales, the fruit maiden regains her human form and must bribe the false bride for three nights with her beloved.",
"In other variants, the maiden goes through a series of transformations after her liberation from the fruit and regains a physical body. In that regard, according to Christine Shojaei-Kawan's article, Christine Goldberg divided the tale type into two forms. In the first subtype, indexed as AaTh 408A, the fruit maiden suffers the cycle of metamorphosis (fish-tree-human) - a motif Goldberg locates \"from the Middle East to Italy and France\"",
". In the second subtype, AaTh 408B, the girl is transformed into a dove by the needle.",
"Separated from her husband, she goes to the palace (alone or with other maidens) to tell tales to the king. She shares her story with the audience and is recognized by him.\n\nParallels \nThe series of transformations attested in these variants (from animal to tree to tree splinter or back into the fruit whence she came originally) has been compared to a similar motif in the Ancient Egyptian story of The Tale of Two Brothers.",
"This cycle of transformations also appears in Iranian tales, specially \"The Girl of Naranj and Toranj\". Based on the Iranian tales, Iranian scholarship suggests that these traits seem to recall an Iranian deity of vegetation.\n\nVariants",
"Variants\n\nOrigins\nScholar Linda Dégh suggested a common origin for tale types ATU 403 (\"The Black and the White Bride\"), ATU 408 (\"The Three Oranges\"), ATU 425 (\"The Search for the Lost Husband\"), ATU 706 (\"The Maiden Without Hands\") and ATU 707 (\"The Three Golden Sons\"), since \"their variants cross each other constantly and because their blendings are more common than their keeping to their separate type outlines\" and even influence each other.",
"European origin \nAccording to Christina Mazzoni, the geographic distribution of the citrus fruit (or citron) in warm weather, its association with the tale type, and the popularity of the story across the European Mediterranean and the Middle East \"led to the assumption\" of its possible origin in Southern Europe.",
"Scholar Jack Zipes suggests that the story \"may have originated\" in Italy, with later diffusion to the rest of Southern Europe and into the Orient. Similarly, Stith Thompson tentatively concluded on an Italian origin, based on the distribution of the variants - a position also favoured by Italo Calvino.",
"Eastern origin \nRichard McGillivray Dawkins, on the notes on his book on Modern Greek Folktales in Asia Minor, suggested a Levantine origin for the tale, since even Portuguese variants retain an Eastern flavor.\n\nAccording to his unpublished manuscript on the tale type, Walter Anderson concluded that the tale originated in Persia. The tale type then migrated through two different routes: one to the East, to India, and another to the West, to the Middle East and to the Mediterranean.",
"Scholar Christine Goldberg, in her monograph, concluded that the tale type emerged as an amalgamation of motifs from other types, integrated into a cohesive whole. In another article, she suggested an East to West direction for the diffusion of the tale.\n\nDistribution\n19th century Portuguese folklorist Consiglieri Pedroso stated that the tale was \"familiar to the South of Europe\". In the same vein, German philologist Bernhard Schmidt located variants in Wallachia, Hungary, Italy and Sicily.",
"In the 20th century, folklorist Stith Thompson suggested the tale had a regular occurrence in the Mediterranean Area, distributed along Italy, Greece, Spain and Portugal. French folklorist Paul Delarue, in turn, asserted that the highest number of variants are to be found in Turkey, Greece, Italy and Spain.",
"Italian scholars complement their analyses: philologist noted its \"large diffusion\" in Italy, as well as across the Mediterranean Basin. Other scholars recognize that it is a \"very popular tale\", but it appears \"almost exclusively\" in Southern and Southeastern Europe. In addition, Milena Benovska-Sabkova and Walter Puchner state its wide diffusion in the Balkans.",
"Further scholarly research points that variants exist in Austrian, Ukrainian and Japanese traditions. In fact, according to Spanish scholar Carme Oriol, the tale type is \"well known\" in Asia, even in China and Korea.\n\nThe tale type is also found in Africa and in America.\n\nEurope",
"Europe\n\nItaly\nThe \"Istituto centrale per i beni sonori ed audiovisivi\" (\"Central Institute of Sound and Audiovisual Heritage\") promoted research and registration throughout the Italian territory between the years 1968–1969 and 1972. In 1975 the Institute published a catalog edited by and Liliana Serafini reported 58 variants of type 408 across Italian sources, under the name Le Tre Melarance. In fact, this country holds the highest number of variants, according to scholarship.",
"Italo Calvino included a variant The Love of the Three Pomegranates, an Abruzzese version known too as As White as Milk, As Red as Blood but noted that he could have selected from forty different Italian versions, with a wide array of fruit. For instance, the version The Three Lemons, published in The Golden Rod Fairy Book and Vom reichen Grafensohne (\"The Rich Count's Son\"), where the fruits are Pomeranzen (bitter oranges).",
"In a Sicilian variant, collected by Laura Gonzenbach, Die Schöne mit den sieben Schleiern (\"The Beauty with Seven Veils\"), a prince is cursed by an ogress to search high and low for \"the beauty with seven veils\", and not rest until he finds her. The prince meets three hermits, who point him to a garden protected by lions and a giant, In this garden, there lies three coffers, each one holding a veiled maiden inside. The prince releases the maiden, but leaves her by a tree and returns to his castle",
". The prince releases the maiden, but leaves her by a tree and returns to his castle. He kisses his mother and forgets his bride. One year later, he remembers the veiled maiden and goes back to her. When he sights her, he finds \"an ugly woman\". The maiden was transformed into a dove. Laura Gonzenbach also commented that the tale differs from the usual variants, wherein the maiden appears out of a fruit, like an orange, a citron or an apple.",
"Spain\nNorth American folklorist Ralph Steele Boggs (de) stated that the tale type was very popular in Spain, being found in Andalusia, Asturias, Extremadura, New and Old Castile.\n\nAccording to Spanish folklorist Julio Camarena (es), the tale type, also known as La negra y la paloma (\"The Black Woman and the Dove\"), was one of the \"more common\" (más usuales) types found in the Province of Ciudad Real.",
"Portugal \nAccording to the Portuguese Folktale Catalogue by scholars Isabel Cárdigos and Paulo Jorge Correia, tale type 408 is reported in Portugal with the title As Três Cidras do Amor (\"The Three Citrons of Love\"), wherein the maidens appear out of citrons and, alternatively, from oranges, lemons, eggs and nuts.",
"Northern Europe",
"Author Klara Stroebe published a Northern European variant, from Norway. According to Reidar Thoralf Christiansen, the tale was an \"importation\", whose source was a hawkerwoman from Kristiania. The tale is listed as the single attestation of tale type 408, Tre sitroner (\"The Three Oranges\"), according to 's The Types of the Norwegian Folktale",
". In the singular tale, the heroine is a naked princess transformed into a lemon, and when the false bride replaces her, she undergoes a transformation into a silver fish and a linden tree.",
"According to the Latvian Folktale Catalogue, the tale type is also registered in Latvia, with the title Trīs apelsīni (\"Three Oranges\"): the hero gains three oranges and releases the fruit maiden from the third one; another woman replaces her and turns her into a fish or dove.",
"Slovakia \nVariants also exist in Slovakian compilations, with the fruits being changed for reeds, apples or eggs. Scholarship points that the versions where the maidens come out of eggs are due to Ukrainian influence, and these tales have been collected around the border. The country is also considered by scholarship to be the \"northern extension\" of the tale type in Europe.",
"A Slovak variant was collected from Jano Urda Králik, a 78-year-old man from Málinca (Novohrad) and published by linguist Samuel Czambel (sk). In this tale, titled Zlatá dievka z vajca (\"The Golden Woman from the Egg\"), in \"Britain\", a prince named Senpeter wants to marry a woman so exceptional she cannot be found \"in the sun, in the moon, in the wind or under the sky\". He meets an old woman who directs him to her sister",
". He meets an old woman who directs him to her sister. The old woman's sister points him to a willow tree, under which a hen with three eggs that must be caught at 12 o'clock if one wants to find a wife. After, they must go to an inn and order a hearty meal for the egg maiden, otherwise she will die. The prince opens the first two eggs in front of the banquet, but the maiden notices some dishes missing and perishes. With the third egg maiden, she survives",
". With the third egg maiden, she survives. After the meal, the prince rests under a tree while the golden maiden from the egg walks about. She asks the innkeeper's old maid about a well, where the old maid shoves her into and she becomes a goldfish. The prince wakes up and thinks the old maid as his bride. However, the prince's companion notices it is not her, but refrains from telling the truth. They marry and a son is born to the couple",
". They marry and a son is born to the couple. Some time later, the old king wishes for a drink of that well, and sends the prince's companion to fetch it. The companion grabs a bucket of water with the goldfish inside. He brings the goldfish to the palace, but the old maid throws the fish into the fire. A fish scale survives and lodges between the boards of the companion's hut. He cleans up the hut and throws the trash in a pile of manure",
". He cleans up the hut and throws the trash in a pile of manure. A golden pear tree sprouts, which the false princess recognizes as the true egg princess. She orders the tree to be burnt down, but a shard remains and a cross is made out of it. An old lady who was praying in church finds the cross and takes it home. The cross begins to talk and the old lady gives it some food, and the golden maiden from the egg regains human form. They begin to live together and the golden maiden finds work at a factory",
". They begin to live together and the golden maiden finds work at a factory. The prince visits the factory and asks her story, which she does not divulge. He returns the next day to talk to her and, through her tale, pieces the truth together. At last, he executes the false bride and marries the golden maiden from the egg.",
"Slovenia",
"In a Slovenian variant named The Three Citrons, first collected by author Karel Jaromír Erben, the prince is helped by a character named Jezibaba (an alternative spelling of Baba Yaga). At the end of the tale, the prince restores his fairy bride and orders the execution of both the false bride and the old grandmother who told the king about the three citrons. Walter William Strickland interpreted the tale under a mythological lens and suggested it as part of a larger solar myth",
". Parker Fillmore published a very similar version and sourced his as \"Czechoslovak\".",
"Croatia \nIn a Croatian variant from Varaždin, Devojka postala iz pomaranče (\"The Maiden out of the Pomerances\"), the prince already knows of the magical fruits that open and release a princess.\n\nA Croatian storyteller from near Daruvar provided a variant of the tale type, collected in the 1970s.",
"Ukraine \nProfessor Nikolai P. Andrejev noted that the tale type 408, \"Любовь к трем апельсинам\" or \"The Love for Three Oranges\", showed 7 variants in Ukraine. The tale type is also thought by scholarship to not exist either in the Russian or Belarusian tale corpus, since the East Slavic Folktale Catalogue, last updated in 1979 by , only registers Ukrainian variants.",
"In a Ukrainian Carpathian variant titled A gazdag földesúr fia, the son of a rich nobleman wants to discover the world and leaves home. He finds work with an old woman and is paid with three eggs after three years' time. The youth opens each egg, each containing a maiden inside, the last of which he gives water to",
". The youth opens each egg, each containing a maiden inside, the last of which he gives water to. The silver-haired egg maiden is replaced by a gypsy woman and goes through a cycle of transformations: goldfish, tree (sprouted from the fish scales), bedposts and a dove (when the bedposts are burnt). She regains her human form, is adopted by an old woman at the edge of the village. One day, she conceals her silver hair and goes to the castle with other women to work and sing, and reveals her tale.",
"Poland",
"In a Polish variant from Dobrzyń Land, Królówna z jajka (\"The Princess [born] out of an egg\"), a king sends his son on a quest to marry a princess born out of an egg. He finds a witch who sells him a pack of 15 eggs and tells him that if any egg cries out for a drink, the prince should give them immediately. He returns home. On the way, every egg screams for water, but he fails to fulfill their request. Near his castle, he drops the last egg on water and a maiden comes out of it",
". Near his castle, he drops the last egg on water and a maiden comes out of it. He goes back to the castle to find some clothes for her. Meanwhile, the witch appears and transforms the maiden into a wild duck. The prince returns and notices the \"maiden\"'s appearance. They soon marry. Some time later, the gardener sees a golden-feathered duck in the lake, which the prince wants for himself",
". While the prince is away, the false queen orders the cook to roast the duck and to get rid of its blood somewhere in the garden. An apple tree with seven blood red apples sprouts on its place. The prince returns and asks for the duck, but is informed of its fate. When strolling in the garden, he notices a sweet smell coming from the apple tree. He orders a fence to be built around the tree",
". He orders a fence to be built around the tree. After he goes on a trip again, the false queen orders the apples to be eaten and the tree to be felled down and burned. A few wood chips remain in the yard. An old woman grabs hold of them to make a fire, but one of the woodchips keeps jumping out of the fire. She decides to bring it home with her",
". She decides to bring it home with her. When the old lady goes out to buy bread, the egg princess comes out of the woodchip to clean the house and returns to that form before the old lady comes home at night. This happens for two days. On the third day, the old lady discovers the egg maiden and thanks her. They live together, the egg maiden now permanently in human form, and the prince, feeling sad, decides to invite the old ladies do regale him with tales",
". The egg maiden asks for the old lady for some clothes so she can take part in the gathering. Once there, she begins to tell her tale, which the false queen listens to. Frightened, she orders the egg maiden to be seized, but the prince recognizes her as his true bride and executes the false queen.",
"Polish ethnographer Stanisław Ciszewski (pl) collected another Polish variant, from Smardzowice, with the name O pannie, wylęgniętej z jajka (\"About the girl hatched from an egg\"). In this story, a king wants his son to marry a woman who is hatched from an egg. Seeking such a lady, the prince meets an old man who gives him an egg and tells him to drop it in a pool in the forest and wait for a maiden to come out of it. He does as he is told, but becomes impatient and breaks open the egg still in the water",
". He does as he is told, but becomes impatient and breaks open the egg still in the water. The maiden inside dies. He goes back to the old man, who gives him another egg and tells him to wait patiently. This time a maiden is born out of the egg. The prince covers her with his cloak takes her on his horse back to his kingdom. He leaves the egg girl near a plantation and goes back to the palace to get her some clothes. A nearby reaper maid sees the egg girl and drowns her, replacing her as the prince's bride",
". A nearby reaper maid sees the egg girl and drowns her, replacing her as the prince's bride. The egg maiden becomes a goldfish which the false queen recognizes and orders to be caught to make a meal out of it. The scales are thrown out and an apple tree sprouts on the spot. The false bride orders the tree to be cut down. Before the woodcutter fulfills the order, the apple tree agrees to be cut down, but requests that someone take her woodchips home. They are taken by the bailiff",
". They are taken by the bailiff. Whenever she goes out and returns home, the entire house is spotless, like magic. The mystery of the situation draws the attention of the people and the prince, who visits the old lady's house. He sees a woman going to fetch water and stops her. She becomes a snake to slither away, but the man still holds on to her. She becomes human again and the man recognizes her as the egg maiden. He takes her home and the false bride drops dead when she sees her.",
"Germany \nAccording to German scholar Kurt Ranke, the tale type registers seven German variants.",
"Ranke also published a tale collected from a German source in Slovakia. In this tale, titled The Girl Out of the Egg, an unmarried lad dislikes the girls at his village and goes to look for one elsewhere. One time, when he is feeling hungry, he fetches three eggs from a nest and plans to eat them. When the breaks open the first one, a girl appears asking for water, but since he has none with him, she vanishes. The same thing happens to the second egg",
". The same thing happens to the second egg. When he cracks open the third one, he gives her water and leaves her to sit by a well, while he goes home to bring a carriage for her. When the departs, a witch and her gypsy daughter appear and steal the egg maiden's clothes, and she jumps in the well, changing herself into a fish. The gypsy girl passes herself off as the egg maiden, despite her ugliness, and lies that, if she eats the fish in the well, it will restore her beauty",
". The fish is killed and its bones are thrown away in the next farm, where a duck eats them and golden feathers grow on it. A woman in the farm plucks the duck and places the feathers in a pot. Soon, she discovers the egg maiden comes out of the feathers to eat a meal in her house, and delivers her from this from. Some time later, the egg maiden decides to go to the lad's house, where women and girls are stripping quills every day, in a shabby disguise",
". At the lad's house, the youth bids them tell stories, and the egg maiden, in disguise, tells hers. The lad recognizes her as his true bride, and tricks the gypsy girl's mother into pronouncing her own death sentence and her daughter's.",
"Greece \nScholars Anna Angelopoulou and Aigle Broskou, editors of the Greek Folktale Catalogue, stated that tale type 408 is \"common\" in Greece, with 85 variants recorded. According to Walter Puchner, Greek variants of the tale type amount to 99 tales, some with contamination with type 403A.",
"Austrian consul Johann Georg von Hahn collected a variant from Asia Minor titled Die Zederzitrone. The usual story happens, but, when the false bride pushed the fruit maiden into the water, she turned into a fish. The false bride then insisted she must eat the fish; when the fish was gutted, three drops of blood fell to the floor and from them sprouted a cypress",
". The false bride then realized the cypress was the true bride and asked the prince to chop down the tree and burn it, making some tea with its ashes. When the pyre was burning, a splinter of the cypress got lodged in an old lady's apron. When the old lady left home for a few hours, the maiden appeared from the splinter and swept the house during the old woman's absence. Von Hahn remarked that this transformation sequence was very similar to one in a Wallachian variant of The Boys with the Golden Stars.",
"Romania \nWriter and folklorist Cristea Sandu Timoc noted that Romanian variants of the tale type were found in Southern Romania, where the type was also known as Fata din Dafin (\"The Bay-Tree Maiden\").",
"In a Romanian variant collected by Arthur and Albert Schott from the Banat region, Die Ungeborene, Niegesehene (\"The Not-Born, Never Seen [Woman]\"), a farmer couple prays to God for a son. He is born. Whenever he cries, his mother rocks his sleep by saying he will marry \"a woman that was not born nor any man has ever seen\". When he comes of age, he decides to seek her. He meets Mother Midweek (Wednesday), Mother Friday and Mother Sunday",
". He meets Mother Midweek (Wednesday), Mother Friday and Mother Sunday. They each give him a golden apple and tell him to go near a water source and wait until a maiden appears; she will ask for a drink of water and after he must give her the apple. He fails the first two times, but meets a third maiden; he asks her to wait on top of a tree until he returns with some clothes. Some time later, a \"gypsy girl\" comes and sees the girl. She puts a magic pin on her hair and turns her into a dove.",
"In another Romanian variant, Cele trei rodii aurite (\"The Three Golden Pomegranates\"), the prince is cursed by a witch to never marry until he finds the three golden pomegranates.\n\nBulgaria \nThe tale type is also present in Bulgaria, with the name \"Неродената мома\" or \"Неродена мома\" or Das ungeborene Mädchen (\"The Maiden That Was Never Born\"), with 21 variants registered. A later study gives a higher number of 39 variants in archival version.",
"According to the Bulgarian Folktale Catalogue by Liliana Daskalova-Perkovska, the girls may appear out of apples, watermelons or cucumbers, and become either a fish or a bird.\n\nCyprus \nAt least one variant from Cyprus, from the \"Folklore Archive of the Cyprus Research Centre\", shows a merger between tale type ATU 408 with ATU 310, \"The Maiden in the Tower\" (Rapunzel).\n\nMalta \nMaltese linguist George Mifsud Chircop stated that the story ‘is-seba’ trongiet mewwija’ is popular in Malta and Gozo.",
"In a variant from Malta, Die sieben krummen Zitronen (\"The Seven Crooked Lemons\"), a prince is cursed by a witch to find the \"seven crooked lemons\". On an old man's advice, he grooms an old hermit, who directs him to another witch's garden. There, he finds the seven lemons, who each release a princess. Every princess asks for food, drink and garments before they disappear, but the prince helps only the last one. He asks her to wait atop a tree, but a Turkish woman comes and turns her into a dove.",
"In a Maltese variant collected by researcher with the title Die sieben verdrehten Sachen (\"The Seven Crooked Things\"), a king promises to build a fountain of some liquid for the poor if he is blessed with a son. His prayers are answered. The prince grows up and scares an old woman who has come to the fountain. The old woman curses him to burn with love and never rest until he finds \"The Seven Crooked Things\"",
". The prince travels high and low until he meets a Turkish bakerwoman who gives the prince seven fruits that look like dry nuts.",
"Yiddish",
"In a Yiddish folktale from Russia, The Princess of the Third Pumpkin, an old woman tells the royal couple and the prince to seek a garden with three pumpkins. The prince goes to this garden, gets the gourds and opens each one; a maiden coming out of each one. Only the third is given water. The prince makes her wait while he goes back to the castle. A \"gypsy woman\" appears, shoves the pumpkin girl into a well and replaces her as the prince's beloved",
". Meanwhile, the girl becomes a fish in the well, is killed, and its scales are used into a pair of shoes. The old woman sees that the girl comes out of the fish scales to clean her house.",
"Caucasus Region",
"Azerbaijan",
"In an Azeri tale, \"Девушка из граната\" (\"The Girl from the Pomegranate\"), a prince dreams of a maiden in a pomegranate. He decides to seek her out. He visits three dev mothers, who indicate the way to the garden. He takes the three pomegranates and leaves the garden. The first two fruits yield nothing, but the third releases the maiden. He asks the girl to wait nearby a tree, while he goes back to the kingdom. A slave girl sees the maiden, shoves her down the well and replaces her",
". A slave girl sees the maiden, shoves her down the well and replaces her. The girl becomes a rosebush, a platane tree and a tree splinter. The splinter is found by a man and brought to his home. The fruit maiden comes out of the splinter to do household chores and is discovered by the man. One day, the prince summons all women to his yard for them to tell him stories, and the fruit maiden sings about her story while weaving and counting pearls",
". The compiler sourced the tale from an informant in Nakhkray (Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic).",
"In another Azeri tale collected from Nakhkray with the title \"Женщина, вышедшая из камыша\" (\"The Wife from the Reeds\"), a king has a son. One day, the prince tells his father he had a dream he would marry a woman from the djinns, and decides to look for her",
". He consults with an old woman in the city, and the old woman advises him to take provisions for a seven-month journey, ride all the way to the west, where he will meet a div with a blister on his leg; the prince is to pierce the blister, hide and wait for the div to swear on his own mother's blood not harm his helper. The prince heeds her words and jorneys west to meet the div; he pierces the leg blister, and the div wakes up in pain",
". The div swears on his mother's name not to harm the person, and the prince presents himself and explains the reason for his journey. The div then directs him to a river with three reeds, where he is to cut one and only open it at home, not on the way. The prince follows the div's advice, but, nearing his home, he cuts open the reed: a beautiful girl comes out of it, but admonishes him for disobeying the div's orders",
". Still, the prince is enchanted with the girl and helps her climb a plane tree, while he goes back home and bring a retinue to properly welcome her. As he leaves, and time passes, the girl becomes thirsty and sees a black girl coming with some dishes to wash. The girl asks for some water, but the black girl shoves her into the sea and takes her place up the plane tree. The prince comes back and takes the black girl into the palace, thinking her to be the reed girl",
". The prince comes back and takes the black girl into the palace, thinking her to be the reed girl. As for the reed girl, she becomes a fish that is captured and brought to the prince, and begins to sing to him. The false bride orders the fish to be cooked and that no drop of its blood is to fall on the ground. The cook follows the orders, but the fish's blood drops on the ground and a plane tree sprouts",
". The cook follows the orders, but the fish's blood drops on the ground and a plane tree sprouts. The tree uses its leaves to caress the prince when he passes by, and the false bride also wants it chopped down. A splinter of the plane tree survives and is taken by an old woman to her house. The reed girl comes out of the splinter to do chores at the old woman's house, but is discovered and adopted by the old woman",
". Time passes, the reed girl dies, and the old woman, fulfilling her last request, places her body in a tomb. One day, the prince passes by the tomb and hears someone calling for him from within. He returns to the tomb some days later and finds the reed girl, alive. The reed girl tells him her adventures, and says the black girl has a key around her neck, which is to be returned to the reed girl. The prince returns the key to the reed girl, punishes the false bride and marries her.",
"Georgia",
"In a Georgian variant translated into Hungarian with the title Az uborkalány (\"The Cucumber Girl\"), an old woman curses a prince to not rest until he finds the cucumber girl. He travels to another kingdom and steals a cucumber from a royal garden. When he cuts open the vegetable, a girl appears. He takes her to the border of his kingdom and goes to the castle, but the girl from the cucumber warns him against it. An Arab girl appears, trades clothes with her and throws the maiden in the well",
". An Arab girl appears, trades clothes with her and throws the maiden in the well. The cucumber girl goes through a cycle of transformations (goldfish, then a silver tree, then tree splinter, and human again). She appears out of the tree splinter to clean an old woman's house, and goes to the castle with other woman to tell stories to the prince. The cucumber girl tells her tale and the prince notices the deception.",
"In another Georgian tale, The Reed Lady, the king's son goes after a bride for himself and finds three reeds in the sea. He takes them back to his kingdom, releases a \"reed lady\". Eventually, an Arab woman throws her in the water and replaces her as the king's son's bride",
". Eventually, an Arab woman throws her in the water and replaces her as the king's son's bride. The reed lady goes through a cycle of reincarnations (fish to tree to human), and the Arab woman orders her rival's form to be destroyed in order to hide her crime, but the reed lady survives in the shape of a tree chip brought home by an old lady. The reed lady comes out of the chip and performs chores for the old lady, who discovers her and adopts her",
". The reed lady eventually goes to a gathering to tell her story, through which the king's son recognizes her and punishes the Arab woman.",
"Armenia",
"In an Armenian tale titled \"Сказка о небывалом огурце\" (\"The Tale of the Fantastic Cucumber\"), translated as The Extraordinary Cucumber, a large cucumber appears in a man's garden, who sells it to the prince, with a piece of advice: take the vegetable and keep walking until he reaches a sycamore, but do not look back. The prince heeds the man's words and hears voices telling him to look behind him, but he presses on until he reaches a plane tree",
". He then takes a knife to cut open the cucumber, and out comes a beautiful golden-haired maiden. He falls in love with her on the spot and guides her up the plane tree, where she is to wait until he returns for her. He goes back to the palace, leaving the maiden unprotected: an old woman sees the girl's shadow in a spring behind the tree and tries to convince the girl to come down, but she refuses. The old woman then transforms the girl into a bird, changes her shape into the girl and tricks the prince",
". Later, the girl, as bird, flies over the prince and his friends, but the prince snaps its neck and throws it in a garden. On its place, a mulberry tree sprouts, which the garden's owner chops down, but a large splinter the size of a spoon flies over to a poor woman's yard. The poor woman finds the spoon and brings it home; when she leaves, the cucumber maiden comes out of the spoon, cleans the house and prepares the food, then turns back into the spoon",
". The poor woman discovers her presence and adopts her as her daughter. Later, the king orders that every house is care for and feed one of the king's horses. In the poor woman's house, the cucumber maiden feeds and grooms the horse; the prince comes to fetch the horse and sees the poor woman's daughter, which he notices is a lookalike of the cucumber girl. The next day, the prince orders that one person from every household shall come to the palace to comb wool",
". The cucumber maiden goes with the others and they finish the task. The prince then offers a reward, and the maiden asks for a ripe pomegranate, a little doll and a sharp razor. Despite the strangeness of the request, the prince produces the objects, which the maiden takes with her to a deserted road",
". The cucumber maiden then begins to tell her sorrows to the objects: the pomegranate bursts in response to her story, the doll dances and the razor greatly sharpens, but before she does anything, the prince finds her and takes her to the palace. He punishes the sorceress and marries the true cucumber maiden.",
"Author A. G. Seklemian published an Armenian tale titled Reed-Maid. In this tale, a king insists his unmarried son finds a wife, and the prince retorts that he will only marry a maiden \"not begotten of father and mother\". Pondering on the words, the king travels far and wide, asking people if they know of such a maiden. A hermit tells the king about a river in a forest where reeds grow near the shore. The king is to choose the best looking one and cut it off with a golden pocket-knife",
". The king is to choose the best looking one and cut it off with a golden pocket-knife. The king follows the hermit's instructions, finds a reed and releases a beautiful maiden for his son. He leaves the girl, named Reed-maid, atop a tree, while he goes to fetch maidservants and clothes for her. As the king departs, a gypsy girl from a nearby gypsy camp sees the Reed-maid and wants to take her place: she shoves the reed maiden inside the river and waits for the king's arrival",
". When the monarch arrives, he finds that his prospective daughter-in-law has changed appearance, but falls for the false reed-girl's excuses. The false bride claims to the prince she is the reed maiden his father procured, but he does not believe her",
". As for the true maiden, she goes through a cycle of reincarnations: on the spot she was drowned, a silver fish with gold fins appears, which the gypsy woman orders to be cooked; one of the fish bones remains and is discarded in the garden, where a beautiful tree sprouts; the gypsy orders the tree to be felled and burnt, but a chip survives and is flung off to the cabin of a poor old woman, which she takes as a pot lid",
". The next days, when the old woman leaves, the reed maiden gets out of the chip to do chores and returns to that form after. The old woman finds out who is doing chores at her house and adopts the reed-maid as her daughter, who says she cannot reveal her origins yet. Later, the old woman sells embroideries sewn by the reed-maid, which the prince notices to be very beautiful and demands to know its maker. The old woman consults with the reed-maid, who tells her to invite them to the cabin for a meal",
". The old woman consults with the reed-maid, who tells her to invite them to the cabin for a meal. It is done as the reed-maid requests, and the prince, his father and the false bride attend the occasion. After the meal, the king suggests the maiden regales them with a story, which she agrees to do: she places a dry grapevine and a dove prepared to be cooked on the table, then claims that, if her story is true, the vine will yield fresh grapes and the dove will be cooked without fire",
". The reed-maiden then narrates the tale of the king who searched for a wife for his son, and, when she finishes, the vine yields fresh fruits and the dove is cooked, confirming her identity as the true reed-maid. The gypsy is then executed.",
"Ossetia",
"In an Ossetian tale titled \"Сказка о нерождённой\" (\"Tale of the Unborn One\"), a malik and his wife have a son, and die some time later. One day, a kulbadagus's daughter brings ten pots in her hands to fetch some water from a fountain in the malik's property, and the malik's son, who is practicing his archery skills, shoots arrows and breaks the pots",
". The kulbadagus's daughter returns to her mother and complains about it, and she says the next time the malik's son shoots his arrows at her, curse him to seek for his wife a girl no mother has given birth to. It happens thus, and the malik's son becomes obsessed with finding this mysterious girl. He journeys far and wide, and meets with other kulbagadus in his quest, until he gets the first clue about such a girl: such girls live in the bottom of the sea, where there are three trees",
". The malik's son, joined by a hound, dives to the bottom of the sea, cuts down the middle tree and brings it with him. He journeys back to a female kulbadagus who wishes to have him for son-in-law, and her daughter keeps pestering the youth with questions about the tree trunk he brought with him. Annoyed at her growing insistence, the malik's son chops down the trunk and a golden-haired maiden steps out of it",
". The female kulbadagus's daughter marvels at the tree maiden's beauty and convinces the youth to go back home and bring musicians and a retinue for his soon-to-be bride. As he departs, the female kulbadagus's daughter strips the tree maiden, cuts her hair and shoves her in the water, then takes her place by putting on the clothes and the hair. As for the tree maiden, she becomes a goldfish when she falls into the water, and is later killed to be prepared for a meal for the false bride",
". With the help of a poor old woman in the village, the tree maiden, as the fish, asks her to fetch a few drops of her blood in an apron and bury it near the malik's son's house. The old woman follows her instructions and, out of the drops of blood, spring two apple trees bearing golden fruits. The false wife orders the trees to be made into firewood, and they are promptly chopped down. However, a splinter remains and falls into the poor woman's house",
". However, a splinter remains and falls into the poor woman's house. The tree maiden comes out of the splinter to sweep the house and prepare the food and is discovered by the old woman, who adopts her. Later, the tree maiden uses her magic powers to create a large house for the poor woman, and bids her invites the malik's son and his wife there. After three times, the malik's son goes to the poor woman's house for a meal, and the tree maiden tells her life story",
". The malik's son recognizes her and punishes the false wife.",
"Asia \nThe tale is said to be \"very popular in the Orient\". Scholar Ulrich Marzolph remarked that the tale type AT 408 was one of \"the most frequently encountered tales in Arab oral tradition\", albeit missing from The Arabian Nights compilation.",
"Middle East\nScholar Hasan El-Shamy lists 21 variants of the tale type across Middle Eastern and North African sources, grouped under the banner The Three Oranges (or Sweet-Lemons). Variants have been collected from Palestine (jrefiyye, or 'magic tale' titled Las muchachas de las toronjas, or \"The Girls from the Toranjs\"), and Lebanon (with the title Die drei Orangen, or \"The Three Oranges\").",
"Syria",
"In a Syrian tale collected by Uwe Kuhr with the title Drei Zitronen (\"Three Lemons\"), a prince has a dream about a maiden, and desires to marry her. He rides to the beach and embarks on a ship to another country. In this land, he meets a woman tearing leaves from a tree, and she explains every leaf is the life of one that dies. The woman directs him to her sister. The prince meets a second old woman who is sewing clothes and whenever she finishes a person is born",
". The second old woman gives the prince three lemons and tells him to open each one. The prince makes the journey back and cuts open the first two: a maiden springs out of each one, but disappears soon after. Finally, the prince comes near his father's palace and cuts open the last lemon: a maiden comes out to whom the prince gives water. The prince asks her to climb a tree and wait for him",
". The prince asks her to climb a tree and wait for him. As he leaves, an ugly servant comes out of the palace to wash the king's clothes, sees the lemon girl's reflection in the water, and turns her into a brown-feathered bird, taking her place on the tree. The servant passes herself as the lemon girl, and marries the prince. The brown-feathered bird flies to the prince's window, and the false bride wrings its neck. The bird's blood drops to the ground and three lemon trees sprout",
". The bird's blood drops to the ground and three lemon trees sprout. The prince orders the trees to be fenced in until their lemons are ripe. At the end of the tale, the prince takes the lemons to his chambers, cuts open the third one and the lemon girl appears to him. He notices the deception and kills the false bride.",
"Iran",
"According to a study by Russian scholar Vladimir Minorsky, the tale type appears in Iran as Nâranj o Toronj, wherein the prince searches for the \"Orange (Pomegranate) Princess\". Later, German scholar , in his catalogue of Persian folktales (published in 1984), located 23 variants of the tale type in Iran, which is listed as Die Orangenprinzessin (\"The Orange Princess\")",
". In these tales, the fruit maidens appear out of apples, pomegranates, bitter oranges, or some other type of fruit from a tree guarded by evil creatures (in some tales, the divs). The fruit maidens also go through a death and rebirth cycle.",
"Author Katherine Pyle published the tale The Three Silver Citrons and sourced it as a Persian tale. In this story, a dying king begs his three sons to look for wives. The two elders ride on a road and see a passing beggar. The man begs for food other than black bread, but the two princes refuse to give him. They find normal wives for themselves. The third prince meets the same beggar man and gives him some food. In return, he is gifted with a magical pipe that summon little black \"trolls\" as helpers",
". In return, he is gifted with a magical pipe that summon little black \"trolls\" as helpers. The prince asks the trolls where he can find the loveliest princess in the world, and the small creatures take him there. They reach a castle the prince enters alone; in a chamber, he meets three maidens that, frightened by his presence, become three silver citrons. The prince takes all three fruits and leaves the castle.",
"Another Persian variant, The Orange and Citron Princess, was collected by Emily Lorimer and David Lockhart Robertson Lorimer, from Kermani. In this tale, the hero receives the blessing of a mullah, who mentions the titular princess as \"The Daughter of the Orange and the Golden Citron\". The hero's mother advises against her son's quest for the maiden, because it would lead to his death. The tale is different in that there is only one princess, instead of the usual three.",
"In an Iranian tale collected by orientalist Arthur Christensen with the title Goldapfelsins Tochter (\"The Golden Orange Daughter\"), a king promises to build a fountain of honey and butter that the poor can collect if his son's health improves. It so happens. One day, a poor old woman comes to the fountain to get some butter and honey, but the prince frightens the woman by playing a prank on her: he shoots an arrow at an egg she is carrying",
". The old woman curses the prince to fall in love and to seek the Golden Orange Daughter. The prince's curiosity is piqued and he asks the old woman where he can find her. The old woman answers that in the country of peris and devs, an orange tree holds fruits with a young woman inside. The prince takes seven oranges from a garden guarded by Divs. he cuts open the first six fruits; a maiden appears out of it, asking for bread and water, but, since the prince is on the road and far from any city, she dies",
". The seventh maiden is given bread and water, but appears in black garments - she explains to the prince she is mourning for the other maidens, her sisters. A black maidservant kills the orange maiden and takes her place, while she becomes a lovely little bush, from which she exits to act as the mysterious housekeeper for an old washerwoman. Later, the orange maiden, named Nänä Gâzor, and other women are invited to the castle to tell stories and work.",
"Another \"very famous\" Iranian tale is Dokhtar-e Naranj va Toranj (\"The Daughter of the Orange and the Bergamot\"), which largely follows the tale sequence, as described in the international index: a childless king promises to build a fountain for the poor. The prince is born and humiliates an old woman, who curses him to burn with love for a fruit maiden. This fabled girl can only be found in a garden in a distant land. The prince gets the fruits, opens it near the water and a beautiful girl comes out of it",
". The prince gets the fruits, opens it near the water and a beautiful girl comes out of it. He leaves the girl near a tree, until an ugly slave comes, kills the fruit maiden and replaces her. The ugly slaves passes herself off as the fruit maiden and marries the prince. However, her rival is still alive: she becomes an orange tree, which the slave wants chopped down and made into furniture.",
"Professor Mahomed-Nuri Osmanovich Osmanov (ru) published an Iranian tale with the title \"Померанцевая Дева\" (\"The Pomerance Girl\"). In this tale, the childless padishah promises to build a fountain of honey and butter for the poor. God hears his prayers and a son is born. Twenty years later, when an old woman goes to the fountain to fetch some butter and honey, the prince says it is empty. Disappointed, the old woman tells the prince to look for the titular Pomerance Girl",
". Disappointed, the old woman tells the prince to look for the titular Pomerance Girl. The girl is the daughter of the Padishah of the Peris, and lives as a fruit in a distant garden, guarded by divs. The prince takes three pomerances and opens each one; out comes a maiden asking for water and bread. Only the third survives because he gives her food and drink.",
"Russian Iranist Alexander Romaskevich (ru) collected another Iranian tale in the Jewish-Iranian dialect of Shiraz with the title \"Жена-померанец и злая негритянка\" (\"The Orange-Wife and the Evil Black Woman\").",
"Iraq",
"Author Inea Bushnaq published an Iraqi variant titled The Maiden of the Tree of Raranj and Taranj. In this tale, a childless king prays to Allah to have a son. The queen does the same: if her prayers are answered, she shall have fat and honey flow through the kingdom. Their prayers are answered, but the queen forgets to fulfill her promise, until the young prince has a dream in which a person tells the boy to remind his mother of her promise. The fountains are built",
". The fountains are built. One day, an old woman fetches some fat and honey in her bowl. From his window, the prince shoots an arrow at the woman's bowl, which breaks apart. The old woman curses the prince to search for the \"Maiden of the Tree of Raranj and Taranj\", who, the prince learns, is hidden in a tree in a garden watched over by djinns.",
"In an Iraqi tale published by professor B. A. Yaremenko with the title \"Раранджа и Транджа\" (\"Raranja and Tranja\"), a childless woman makes a vow to Allah to dig two ditches and fill them with honey and butter for the people. As time passes, her prayers are answered, and she and her husband have a golden-haired son. One day, a very old woman approaches him while he is playing with friends and tells the boy to remind his mother of her promise. The boy returns home and tells his mother about the incident",
". The boy returns home and tells his mother about the incident. Afraid something might happen to her son, she hires builders to excavate two ditches and fill it with honey and butter, then invites the people to partake of her offerings. The same old woman takes her jug and goes to fetch some for her, but can only find some remains which she places in her jug. As she walks home, the boy tumbles into her and she drops her jug",
". As she walks home, the boy tumbles into her and she drops her jug. In anger, she curses the boy to burn with love for the \"raranja and tranja\" ('sour lemon and bitter oranges'). The boy then becomes fascinated with such a thing and, years later, decides to look for her. He rides his horse to a crossroads and finds an old man who points him to the right direction",
". He rides his horse to a crossroads and finds an old man who points him to the right direction. Then, he meets a giant woman working at a mill and making flour; he takes some of the flour and suckles on the giantess's breasts in order to gain her trust. After he explains the reason for his journey, the giantess tries to dissuade him, for the path ahead if full of monsters that guard the \"raranja and tranja\". Despite her warning, he soldiers on, plucks three fruits and begins hid ride home",
". Despite her warning, he soldiers on, plucks three fruits and begins hid ride home. Homewards, he hears a voice saying it wants water; the first fruit falls down from his bag into the ground in a rotten state, and so does the second one. When he hears a third time a voice, he rushes to a stream and drops the fruit there, and out comes a golden-haired maiden. He takes her with him next to his home village and leaves her up a tree near a stream, while he looks for some food for her",
". As he goes away, an old witch appears with some dirty dishes, sees the maiden's reflection in the water, mistakes it for her own reflection, and goes to complain to her mistress. She returns to the maiden on the tree, sticks a needle on her, turning her into a little bird, and takes her place. After the youth returns, the witch passes herself off as the fruit maiden. As for the real one, she flies into her beloved as a bird, but the false bride kills it",
". As for the real one, she flies into her beloved as a bird, but the false bride kills it. In the place where the bird's blood landed, springs a lotus tree (which Yaremenko explains is a wild jujube) of green and gold colour and studded with pearls. The false wife demands the tree be made into a cradle for her unborn child, and it happens so. After the witch places the baby on the cradle, the child cries in pain, and the witch gets rid of the cradle by selling it to a poor woman",
". At the poor woman's house, the fruit maiden comes out of the cradle to do the dishes and clean the house, and is eventually found out by the poor old woman. The old woman promises to keep her secret. Later, the witch realizes the cradle she sold had pearls in it, buys it back and orders the maidens in the village to come and sew a pearl-studded dress for her. The fruit maiden joins with the other girls in the activity and tells her story while stringing pearls together",
". The youth realizes she is the true fruit maiden, and takes her with him to his home village.",
"Kurdish people",
"In a Kurdish tale titled The Eggs of the Ancient Tree, a padishah's son goes to a secret garden protected by creatures in order to fetch three eggs from a tree. After he takes three eggs, the tree they were on begins to ring out loud, and he escapes on a horse from the garden. He stops by a tree near a river and breaks each of the eggs: the first two cry out for \"bread and water\", then disappear. He then breaks the third egg and fulfills its request",
". He then breaks the third egg and fulfills its request. A beautiful peri maiden comes out of the egg, who the prince places up a nearby tree while he goes back to the palace to bring the bridal party (berbûk) to welcome her as his bride, and leaves her there. Meanwhile, two old traveling women see the perî's reflection in the water and fight against each other, wanting the beautiful visage for themselves",
". The perî maiden, watching the scene and pitying the rowing women, says from her location that the reflection is hers, to quell their fighting. The vagabond women sight the perî and one of them climbs up the tree, then tricks the fairy into giving her clothes. After the perî naïvely does so, the vagabond women take the fairy down the tree so they could see their visages in the water, and shove her into the river, and \"nature blossomed\", with trees and flowers everywhere",
". One of the women leave, while the other, wearing the perî's clothes, remains. The prince's berbûk arrives, and everyone marvels at the flowers instead of the false bride, who is rude to them. Despite some reservation, the bridal party brings back the false bride and she marries the prince",
". Despite some reservation, the bridal party brings back the false bride and she marries the prince. Soon after, the peri maiden goes through a cycle of reincarnations: the flower the bridal party brought with them falls to the ground and becomes a poplar tree that the false bride wants to be made into a cradle for her baby; later, the false bride orders the cradle to be burnt down. Her orders are carried out",
". Her orders are carried out. One day, an old woman comes to the palace to borrow some coals, and finds an egg amid the ashes, which she brings home and places in a wooden basket. In her house, after the old woman leaves, the perî comes out of the egg, does the chores, then returns to her previous form. The old woman discovers her and adopts her. Later, the padishah's son gives donkeys to every house to be taken care of, and the woman takes an ugly-looking one per the perî's request",
". The perî feeds the donkey until it becomes healthy, and the padishah's son orders his soldiers to collect the animals back to the royal stables. To the soldiers' surprise, the lame-looking donkey is indeed healthy, but, at the palace, it sits down and does not move (which it was instructed to do by the perî). The padishah's son wants some explanation, and the old woman says her daughter was the one that cared for the animal, but she will only come if the prince fills the path with featherbeds",
". After the maiden's request is carried out, the perî comes to the palace in fine clothes and the prince recognizes her.",
"Turkey\nIn the Typen türkischer Volksmärchen (\"Turkish Folktale Catalogue\"), by Wolfram Eberhard and Pertev Naili Boratav, tale type ATU 408 corresponds to Turkish type TTV 89, \"Der drei Zitronen-Mädchen\" (\"The Three Citron Maidens\"). Alternatively, it may also be known as Üç Turunçlar (\"Three Citruses\" or \"Three Sour Oranges\"). The Turkish Catalogue registered 40 variants, being the third \"most frequent folktale\" after types AT 707 and AT 883A.",
"In Turkish variants, the fairy maiden is equated to the peri and, in several variants, manages to escape from the false bride in another form, such as a rose or a cypress. In most of the recorded variants, the fruits are oranges, followed by pomegranates, citrons, and cucumbers in a few of them; then apples, eggs or pumpkins (respectively in one variant each).",
"Hungarian folklorist Ignác Kúnos published a Turkish variant with the title A három narancs-peri, translated into English as The Three Orange-Peris. The tale was also translated as The Orange Fairy in The Fir-Tree Fairy Book.",
"In a Turkish tale collected in the Ankara province with the title The Young Lord and the Cucumber Girl, a young lord takes his horse to drink water from a fountain and the animal accidentally steps on the foot of a witch. For this, she curses the young lord to burn with love for a cucumber girl. He tells his father, the bey, of his longing, and decides to ride away to find this girl. He takes shelter with a man with a long beard and his daughter",
". He takes shelter with a man with a long beard and his daughter. Both give instructions to the lord how he can reach the orchard with the cucumbers. He warns them to open the cucumbers near a body of water, lest the girls that come out of will die of thirst. The young lord follows the instructions and gets the cucumbers. On his way back, he opens the first two vegetables in desert places, and the girls die. He reaches a fountain next to the city and cracks open the last cucumber, giving water to the girl",
". He reaches a fountain next to the city and cracks open the last cucumber, giving water to the girl. The cucumber girl asks the young lord to hold a 40-day wedding celebration, then return to fetch her, since she will be waiting on top of a poplar tree. After the lord leaves, an ugly woman appears with pitchers and mistakes the image of the cucumber girl for her own reflection, and stops working, breaking the pitchers",
". Her family chastises her and she goes to the fountain, where she notices the girl on the tree. She convinces the girl to climb down so she would delouse the girl's hair, but she plucks a strand of white hair (the girl's vital spot) and she dies. When she dies, a sesame plant sprouts. The young lord returns and is tricked by the ugly woman, who passes herself off as the cucumber girl",
". As for the girl, she passes by a cycle of reincarnations: first, into a sesame plant, which is tossed in the fire; then to two pigeons, who are captured and killed; third, to a poplar tree where the birds are buried, which is cut down to make a crib for the woman's child; then to a single chip that is taken by an old woman. The cucumber girl comes out of the wooden chip to clean the woman's house, and is discovered, being adopted by her",
". Later, during a famine, the lord sends his horses to each house, even to the old woman's, to be taken care and fed. The cucumber girl feeds and grooms the lord's horse for a while, and, when the lord goes to get it back, he finds out the truth from the reborn cucumber girl.",
"Afghanistan",
"In an Afghan tale from Herat, The Fairy Virgin in a Pumpkin, a prince goes to a garden to pick up exquisite pumpkins and brings them home. He cuts open one of them and out comes a fairy maiden, who complains to him. He walks a bit more and rests by a canal. He decides to cut open the second pumpkin and out comes a second fairy maiden. She says she is naked and asks him to bring her some clothes. Since she is naked and anyone might see her, she climbs up a tree",
". Since she is naked and anyone might see her, she climbs up a tree. While the prince is away, the fairy maiden protects the Simurgh's nest from a snake attack. Soon after, an ugly maidservant appears and sees a beautiful face reflected in the water - the fairy's. Thinking it is her own, she goes back to her master and says she will not work for him anymore. Her master beats and expels her. The maidservant sees the fairy maiden on the tree",
". Her master beats and expels her. The maidservant sees the fairy maiden on the tree. Suddenly, the tree splits open, the fairy maiden enters it, and it closes again. The maidservant replaces her and marries the prince. One day, she asks for the tree to be used to make a cradle for her daughter. Sensing it is the fairy maiden, somehow still alive, she orders the cradle to be burnt to cinders. An old woman gathers some leftover wood and cotton and takes them home",
". An old woman gathers some leftover wood and cotton and takes them home. The fairy maiden comes out of the wood and the cotton to help the old woman spin and do the chores. One day, the prince summons all maidens to his yard to string a pearl necklace for his daughter. The fairy maiden is invited and the prince recognizes her.",
"Central Asia",
"Researcher Aziza Shanazarova summarized a narrative from the Central Asian work Maẓhar al-ʿajāʾib by a Sufi scholar, dated to 16th century. In this tale, titled The Story of the Patience Stone, a prince of Qanshīrīn wants a beautiful wife, and journeys to a \"hidden realm\" where he is given three loaves of bread, for him to open near water. On his journey back, the prince breaks open the first bread, a beautiful woman appears out of it, asks for water, but dies of thirst soon after",
". After a while, he opens the second loaf, another woman appears and dies due to lack of water. Finally, the prince opens the last loaf near a water source, a third woman appears and drinks some water. The prince takes her to Chahār Bāgh ('Four Gardens') and leaves her up a tree, while he goes to the city. Meanwhile, an enchantress kanīzak ('servant') from Kashmīr goes to fetch water and sees the bread woman reflection in a magical pool, thinking it is her own",
". The bread lady laughs at the servant and is thrown in the magical pool, while the servant takes her place and marries the prince. As for the bread lady, she survives being in the pool by the ghawth-i aʿẓam ('the greatest sustenance'), who gives her a key that allows her to leave the pool, and she makes her way to the city to find a pīr ('master') and a sang-i ṣabr ('stone of patience') to which she is to tell her secrets. The bread lady meets the pir, who adopts her",
". The bread lady meets the pir, who adopts her. Later, the prince, increasingly suspicious of his false bride, becomes ill and asks his subjects to bring him food. One day, he gets a dish with a peeled mung bean (mash-i muqashshar), prepared by the pir's daughter. The prince eats the dish and goes to meet the pir, who is wearing a veil to conceal her identity. The veiled lady asks the prince to bring her the patience stone",
". The veiled lady asks the prince to bring her the patience stone. The prince does as asked and people gather to see the event: the veiled lady places the patience stone on a bowl of milk and asks it to retell her story. The stone narrates the veiled lady's story until the milk becomes blood and the stone bursts open, revealing a white stone inside that hits the servant's head, killing her. The lady removes the veil and reveals herself to the prince as the woman from the bread and they marry",
". According to Shanazarova, the tale is contained in a copy of Maẓhar al-ʿajāʾib, catalogued as MS 8716 and dated to the year 1766.",
"India\nStith Thompson's second revision of the international type index listed 17 variants of the tale type in India.\n\nIn a variant from Simla, in India, The Anar Pari, or Pomegranate Fairy, the princess released from the fruit suffers successive deaths ordered by the false bride, yet goes through a resurrective metamorphosis and regains her original body.",
"Richard McGillivray Dawkins remarked that the Indian tales The Bél-Princess, collected by Maive Stokes, and The Belbati Princess, by Cecil Henry Bompas, are \"near relatives\" of The Three Citrons, since the two Indian tales are about a beautiful princess hidden in a fruit and replaced by a false bride. In The Bél-Princess, the youngest son of a king looks for the titular princess",
". In The Bél-Princess, the youngest son of a king looks for the titular princess. While working for a fakir, he is told of her location: the Bél-Princess is inside a bel-fruit in a tree in garden guarded by demons. In The Belbati Princess, the youngest of seven brothers, named Lita, seeing his siblings already married, wishes to have for wife no one but the Belbati Princess",
". Lita meets three holy muni on his journey, who direct him to a garden with rakshasas that guard the bel tree with the fruit that holds the princess.",
"In a variant from Mirzapur, collected from teller Karam-ud-din Ahmad with the title Princess Pomegranate (Anar Shahzadi), a king has four sons, three already married and the youngest still single. His sisters-in-law mock him by saying he intends to marry Anar Shahzadi (Princess Pomegranate). Piqued by curiosity, he learns this princess lives in a pomegranate in a garden guarded by lakhs of deos (demons). He rescues the fruit and brings it to his kingdom",
". He rescues the fruit and brings it to his kingdom. A lovely princess comes out of the pomegranate, until a mehtaráni (sweeper) tricks her and throws her in the water. The Pomegranate Princess becomes a lotus flower then a pomegranate tree with blooms.",
"Charles Augustus Kincaid published a tale from Gujarat with the name Rupsinh and the Queen of the Anardes. In this tale, prince Rupsinh loses his parents and his elder brother when he is only a child. His widowed sister-in-law mentions the Queen of the Anardes, which sparks an idea in the young prince: he will journey far and wide to find this Queen. After a long journey, including a stop at the kingdom of Princess Phulpancha, he reaches the kingdom of the Anardes",
". He learns the Queen and her handmaidens come out of the pomegranates in a garden, dance and return to the fruits. He takes the pomegranate with the queen and brings it to his kingdom. They marry, but a sweeper named Rukhi, \"skilled in black magic\", disposes of her and takes her place. The Queen of the Anardes becomes a lotus flower, then a mango tree, and reincarnates as the daughter of a banai couple.",
"At least one variant of the tale type has been collected in Kashmir.\n\nJapan\nJapanese scholarship argues for some relationship between tale type ATU 408 and Japanese folktale Urikohime (\"The Melon Princess\"), since both tales involve a maiden born of a fruit and her replacement for a false bride (in the tale type) and for evil creature Amanojaku (in Japanese versions). In fact, professor Hiroko Ikeda classified the story of Urikohime as type 408B in his Japanese catalogue.",
"Tibet",
"In a Tibetan tale, Drolmakyid the Fairy, after an old woman curses him to search for the titular Fairy Drolmakyid, the prince finds an orange and brings it with him. He peels the orange and a beautiful maiden appears. They hire a servant girl (a witch in disguise), who shoves Drolmakyid down in a lake and replaces her as the prince's wife",
". The fairy goes through a cycle of transformations: golden lotus flower, then to walnut tree, then human again by leaving a single walnut and working as a mysterious housekeeper for a poor family.",
"Shan people",
"In a tale collected by anthropologist Mrs. Leslie Milne from the Shan people with the title The Story of a Fairy and a Prince, a king has seven sons, the six eldest already married and the seventh and youngest still single. The youngest prince tells his father he will only marry a fairy, and the king sets a deadline for him: he must find a wife in seven days, on penalty of death. The prince journeys and meets three hermits, who direct him to garden guarded by an ogre where a bale-fruit tree is located",
". The prince releases the fairy from the fruit and places her on top of a tree, while he returns with a retinue. While he is away, a servant woman named Mai-pom-san-ta sees the fairy's reflection on the water and mistakes it for her own, then finds the girl atop the tree. The servant tries to talk to the fairy, but, as the prince instructed her, she remains silent. Thus, the servant kills the fairy by beating her, takes her clothes and passes herself off as the prince's true bride",
". The fairy then becomes a lotus flower in a pool of water that is taken by an old woman to her house.",
"Americas\n\nUnited States \nAccording to William Bernard McCarthy, the tale type appears in French-American and Iberian-American tradition.",
"Brazil",
"In a Brazilian variant collected by lawyer and literary critic Silvio Romero, A moura torta, a father gives each of his three sons a watermelon and warns them to crack open the fruits near a body of water. The elder sons open their watermelons, a maiden appears out of each and asks for water or milk, then, unable to sate her thirst, dies. The third brother opens his near a spring and gives water to the maiden. Seeing that she is naked, he directs her to climb a tree while he returns with some clothes",
". Seeing that she is naked, he directs her to climb a tree while he returns with some clothes. A nearby moura (Moorish woman) sees the maiden's reflection in the water, notices the maiden on the tree and turns her into a dove by sticking a pin on her head.",
"Popular culture\n\nTheatre and opera\nThe tale was the basis for Carlo Gozzi's commedia dell'arte L'amore delle tre melarance, and for Sergei Prokofiev's opera, The Love for Three Oranges.\n\nHillary DePiano's play The Love of the Three Oranges is based on Gozzi's scenario and offers a more accurate translation of the original Italian title, L'amore delle tre melarance, than the English version which incorrectly uses for Three Oranges in the title.",
"Literature\nA literary treatment of the story, titled The Three Lemons and with an Eastern flair, was written by Lillian M. Gask and published in 1912, in a folktale compilation.\n\nThe tale was also adapted into the story Las tres naranjitas de oro (\"The Three Little Golden Oranges\"), by Spanish writer Romualdo Nogués.\n\nBulgarian author Ran Bosilek adapted a variant of the tale type as his book \"Неродена мома\" (1926).",
"Television\nA Hungarian variant of the tale was adapted into an episode of the Hungarian television series Magyar népmesék (\"Hungarian Folk Tales\") (hu), with the title A háromágú tölgyfa tündére (\"The Fairy from the Oak Tree\"). This version also shows the fairy's transformation into a goldfish and later into a magical apple tree.\n\nSee also\n\nLovely Ilonka\nNix Nought Nothing\nThe Bee and the Orange Tree\nThe Enchanted Canary\nThe Lassie and Her Godmother\nThe Myrtle\nThe King of the Snakes\nSandrembi and Chaisra",
"Footnotes\n\nReferences",
"Bibliography\n Bolte, Johannes; Polívka, Jiri. Anmerkungen zu den Kinder- u. hausmärchen der brüder Grimm. Zweiter Band (NR. 61-120). Germany, Leipzig: Dieterich'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung. 1913. p. 125 (footnote nr. 2).\n Oriol, Carme (2015). \"Walter Anderson’s Letters to Joan Amades: A Study of the Collaboration between Two Contemporary Folklorists\". Folklore: Electronic Journal of Folklore 62 (2015): 139–174. 10.7592/FEJF2015.62.oriol.",
"Shojaei-Kawan, Christine (2004). \"Reflections on International Narrative Research on the Example of the Tale of the Three Oranges (AT 408)\". In: Folklore (Electronic Journal of Folklore), XXVII, pp. 29–48.",
"Further reading\n Cardigos, Isabel. \"Review [Reviewed Work: The Tale of the Three Oranges by Christine Goldberg]\" Marvels & Tales 13, no. 1 (1999): 108–11. Accessed June 20, 2020. www.jstor.org/stable/41388536.\n Da Silva, Francisco Vaz. \"Red as Blood, White as Snow, Black as Crow: Chromatic Symbolism of Womanhood in Fairy Tales.\" Marvels & Tales 21, no. 2 (2007): 240–52. Accessed June 20, 2020. www.jstor.org/stable/41388837.",
"Gobrecht, Barbara. \"Auf den Spuren der Zitronenfee: eine Märchenreise. Der Erzähltyp 'Die drei Orangen’ (ATU 408)“. In: Märchenspiegel. 17. Jahrgang. November 2006. pp. 14-30.\n Hemming, Jessica. \"Red, White, and Black in Symbolic Thought: The Tricolour Folk Motif, Colour Naming, and Trichromatic Vision.\" Folklore 123, no. 3 (2012): 310–29. Accessed June 20, 2020. www.jstor.org/stable/41721562.",
"剣持 弘子 [Kendo, Hiroko].「瓜子姫」 —話型分析及び「三つのオレンジ」との関係— (\"Urikohime\": Analysis and Relation with \"Three Oranges\"). In: 『口承文芸研究』nr. 11 (March, 1988). pp. 45-57.\n Mazzoni, Cristina. \"The Fruit of Love in Giambattista Basile's “The Three Citrons”.\" Marvels & Tales 29, no. 2 (2015): 228-44. Accessed June 20, 2020. doi:10.13110/marvelstales.29.2.0228.",
"Prince, Martha. \"The love for three oranges (Aarne-Thompson Tale Type 408): A study in traditional variation and literary adaptation.\" Electronic Thesis or Dissertation. Ohio State University, 1962. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=osu1407503467",
"External links\n The Three Citrons, on Laboulaye's Fairy Book\n\nItalian fairy tales\nFiction about shapeshifting\nStories within Italian Folktales\nRecurrent elements in fairy tales\n\nATU 400-459\nATU 700-749\nFalse hero\nWitchcraft in fairy tales\n\nde:Die drei Zitronen\nfr:Les Trois Cédrats"
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List of Rise of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles characters
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Rise%20of%20the%20Teenage%20Mutant%20Ninja%20Turtles%20characters
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[
"This is a list of characters from Rise of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles. It is an American animated series based on the eponymous characters. It premiered on Nickelodeon in the United States on July 20, 2018 and concluded on August 7, 2020.",
"Ninja Turtles",
"Leonardo (voiced by Ben Schwartz) – A 14-15-year-old (16-17 in the movie) red-eared slider, and the team's current leader as of the Season 2 finale. He is known as the trickster of the group and thinks that his one-liners will \"fire up the team\", but is shown to have actual encouraging charisma. Leo wields an ōdachi sword in a battle that can open portals, but he had been given new katanas in the season two finale that allows him to teleport himself or others",
". Despite coming off as arrogant, Leo has an insecure side and feels a need to always be right. By the end of the four-part \"Finale\" episodes, Splinter makes Leo the new leader of the group.",
"Raphael (voiced by Omar Benson Miller) – A 15-16-year-old (17-18 in the movie) alligator snapping turtle and the oldest brother of the group; before the second-season finale, he was the team's leader, and he informally named themselves the \"Mad Dogs\". Raph formerly wields two tonfa in a battle that can amplify his own physical strength with red mystical energy constructs and he had been given new sais in the season two four-part finale with the ability to make clones of himself made from the same energy",
". He has a habit of speaking in the third person in battle. Raph has numerous catchphrases: \"Jumpin' Jackflash\" when surprised, \"Hot Soup\" as a battle cry and \"Power Punch-Jitsu\" when using his tonfas.",
"Donatello (voiced by Josh Brener) – A 14-15-year-old (16-17 in the movie) spiny softshell turtle, is the \"genius of the team\" and relishes praise from others. He has a sidekick drone named S.H.E.L.L.D.O.N. along with many battle shells that he makes to help him in battle because of his species",
".L.L.D.O.N. along with many battle shells that he makes to help him in battle because of his species. He rejects claiming a magical weapon like his brothers and instead wields a high-tech version of his traditional bō staff in a battle that can transform into a multitude of weapons like drills or a rocket-powered hammer. This was destroyed near the end of season two and was replaced with a mystic bō staff with magic energy versions of his gadgets",
". The new mystic staff could also link up with his technological attachments.",
"Michelangelo (voiced by Brandon Mychal Smith) – A 13-14-year-old (15-16 in the movie) ornate box turtle who is the youngest jokester, prankster brother. He is an affectionate and sensitive artist, and is also called the wild card of the group. Mikey wields a kusarigama in a battle that can become a fire spirit, but he had been given a new set of nunchaku in the season two finale with the ability to extend to great length and control will.",
"Allies",
"April O'Neil (voiced by Kat Graham) – An African-American human friend of the Ninja Turtles, she has already known them for 5 years before the beginning of the show and the turtles look to her as an older sister figure. April is a fun-loving virtuous, if tomboyish, girl with glasses who is constantly looking for a job to support herself which constantly goes wrong. \"Hypno: Part Deux!\" shows that despite her bravado, she has a hard time making friends at school and is nervous about high school gatherings",
". When fighting, she also wields any blunt weaponry she can find, mostly a baseball bat. In \"Warren & Hypno, Sitting in a Tree\", it is revealed that April knows who Warren Stone is as she was part of a fan club dedicated to him called the Stoneheads, and she is 16 years old (later 18 years old in the film). In \"Donnie vs. Witch Town\", April's bat gets enchanted during her visit to the Hidden City's Witch Town district.",
"Mayhem / Agent 64 – An unspecified cat/dog-like creature with short-range teleportation abilities that becomes April's pet. It is an agent that worked for the Council of Heads against Baron Draxum and was sent to monitor him.",
"Hamato Yoshi / Splinter (voiced by Eric Bauza) – Splinter is a mutant gray rat who is the Ninja Turtles' sensei and father. He is fond of watching the projects of Lou Jitsu, milk, and cake. His training of the Turtles manifests in copying and watching Lou Jitsu tapes, which is revealed to be more effective than the brothers expected",
". In \"The Evil League of Mutants\" and \"Shadow of Evil\", Splinter is revealed to be Hamato Yoshi as he neglected to carry out the Hamato Clan's mission in preventing Shredder's return by working in Hollywood under the stage name of \"Lou Jitsu\", and in the four-part \"Finale\" revealed he resented his family's mission to it forcing his mother to leave him while he was young",
". He acquired a large fanbase during his career including Baron Draxum, who used his genetic sample to create the Turtles, and some members of the Foot Clan. The flashback sequences of \"Many Unhappy Returns\" and \"Goyles, Goyles, Goyles\" reveal how Yoshi was abducted by Big Mama to fight in the Battle Nexus and his later mutation, from being constantly bitten by a rat, while Draxum used his DNA to create the Turtles.",
"Baron Draxum (voiced by John Cena in season one, Roger Craig Smith in season two) – A maroon-skinned Yōkai warrior and alchemist from the Hidden City with maroon hair and faun-like legs, who has the power to augment his own body by crushing purple pods in his hands, and can manipulate giant purple tentacle-like vines to grab objects, enemies, or as a means of transportation",
". As the self-proclaimed protector of all Yōkai, Baron Draxum seeks to mutate humanity to avert a prophecy predicting the destruction of the Yōkai. An incident amidst an earlier attempt to turn humanity into Yōkai led to the creation of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles while causing Hamato Yoshi's transition into Splinter, attempting to win the former to his side before joining forces with the Foot Clan to reassemble the Kuroi Yōroi and revive Shredder",
". In \"How to Make Enemies and Bend People to Your Will\", Draxum exploits a loophole in the Foot's rules to becomes its leader through tactics that enable him to gain a shard of the Kuroi Yōroi that the Foot Lieutenant and Foot Brute failed to acquire. In the episode \"End Game\", Draxum equips the restored Kuroi Yōroi armor intending to destroy humanity once and for all. The Foot Lieutenant and Foot Brute address him as Shredder, but he rejects the title, confused with the name \"Shredder\"",
". Due to a Jupiter Jim action figure being wedged in a hole in the back of the helmet, the Turtles managed to attack that part and cause the armor to fall off of Draxum, though the armor is revived after siphoning some of Draxum's life force, degrading his body to nearly a corpse and weakening his powers considerably. After the Foot Recruit emerged from the portal she opened to assist her senseis, Draxum used his weakened abilities to escape through it",
". In \"Repairin' the Baron\", Mikey takes in a weakened Draxum and teaches him to tolerate humans with Raph's help. After saving a mother and daughter from the Ferris wheel during Garm and Freki's attempt to capture him at Albeartoland while losing his mask in the process, and slowly starting to regain his lost power, he starts to tolerate humans, after which Raph and Mikey get him a job working at the cafeteria at April's school",
". In the four-part \"Finale\" episodes, Draxum realized that Shredder was the threat to the Yōkai mentioned in the prophecy, not humanity.",
"Todd Capybara (voiced by Thurop Van Orman) – A friendly mutant capybara and selfless charitable proprietor of Cuddles Cakes Puppy Rescue on Long Island. In exchange for Todd giving up his RV, Michelangelo and Donatello build a new type of residence for Todd and his rescue puppies. In \"Portal Jacked\", Todd has a picture in Run of the Mill Pizza that lists him as a \"best customer\".",
"Señor Hueso (voiced by Eric Bauza impersonating Antonio Banderas) - A skeleton who uses his own left arm for a cane. He is the doorman and manager of the pizza parlor called Run of the Mill Pizza in New York's mystical Undercity. In \"Portal Jacked\", Senor Hueso has the brother named Capitán Piel. Señor Hueso's name is Spanish for \"Mr. Bone\".",
"Stanley / Bullhop (voiced by Dave Foley) - A Canadian immigrant and bellhop who worked at The Grand Nexus Hotel that was actually a front for Big Mama's Battle Nexus. When the Oozesquitos swarmed in the hotel, the Turtles tried to keep Stanley from getting stung only to fail. As a result of his consumption of beef jerky as noted by Big Mama, Stanley is turned into a mutant bull and flees the hotel",
". After the Turtles try to make up for their mistake, he becomes their friend and develops advanced dancing skills. This character is a homage to Jerry Lewis' role in the film The Bellboy.",
"DIGG - A trio of girl rock musicians longing for their breakthrough. Turned into a mutant burrowing animal by the Oozesquitos during one of their gigs, they attempt a misguided scheme to win themselves an attentive debut audience by targeting the different pizzerias. With the Turtles' aid, they finally become an attraction as pizzeria musicians while also reuniting a family of pizza makers.\n Prairie Dog (voiced by E. G. Daily) - A mutant prairie dog who is the group's lead singer and guitarist.",
"Ground Hog (voiced by Betsy Sodaro) - A mutant groundhog who is the group's dig-obsessed drummer. She tends to say \"dig\" when she is burrowing.\n Honey Badger (voiced by E. G. Daily) - A mutant honey badger who is the group's secondary guitarist. She is the strongest of the group.",
"Sunita (voiced by Kody Kavitha) - A slime Yōkai that can explode and reassemble at will. She can assume a human form thanks to a special amulet. At the time of meeting April and the Turtles, Sunita was wearing metal boots that turned out to be a part of the Kuroi Yoroi leading her to be targeted by the Foot.",
"Frankenfoot (voiced by Rob Paulsen) - A patchwork Origami Ninja put together by Raph as a sparring partner. He becomes a permanent member of the team, even earning a Mad Dog insignia courtesy of Mikey.\n\n S.H.E.L.L.D.O.N. (voiced by Greg Cipes) - An A.I. invention that is devoted to its creator Donnie causing a disgruntled Raph, Leo, and Mikey to reprogram and thus inadvertently turning it against their brother. Donnie was able to fix it and it occasionally fights alongside them in the form of a drone.",
"Piebald (voiced by Chelsea Peretti) - A goldfish that is owned by Splinter and was accidentally flushed down the toilet by Leo months ago. After traversing through the sewers and nearly being eaten by Trash Wizard, Piebald swallowed an Oozesquito and mutated into her current form with camouflage abilities. She secretly returned to the lair and masterminds a scheme with Splinter to teach the Turtles a lesson about the dangers of lying through picking them, Splinter, and Frankenfoot off one by one.",
"Gentry (voiced by Evanna Lynch) - A young Yōkai witch from the Hidden City's Witch Town district who befriends April and (though much less) Donatello.",
"Hamato Karai (voiced by Gwendoline Yeo) - The founder of the Hamato Clan and the biological daughter of Oroku Saki. After her father became the Shredder, she created the new Hamato Clan and ultimately defeated Shredder at the cost of her being imprisoned in the Twilight Realm with him, since then her clan has been preventing the foot from reviving their master",
". She ultimately was freed by the Turtles, who call her \"Gram-Gram,\" and managed to channel her essence into April's body to give the Turtles the rightful ninja skills their required through April.",
"Cassandra \"Casey\" Jones (voiced by Zelda Williams) - First appearing under the alias of the \"Foot Recruit\", Cassandra Jones is a female member of the Foot Clan with a hyper-aggressive personality who is a gender-bent version of Casey Jones, and debuted in \"Hot Soup: The Game\". In \"How to Make Enemies and Bend People to Your Will\", Cassandra assists Baron Draxum in getting a Kuroi Yōroi fragment from a statue in the botanical gardens so that she can be able to move up",
". In \"Battle Nexus: New York\", Cassandra was placed on a cruise by Shredder so that Big Mama can make New York into the Battle Nexus. She was the one who found that Big Mama was controlling the Shredder using a control device on him and its associated magic ring. When she claims the magic ring, Cassandra controls the Shredder into destroying the Grand Nexus Hotel as she shouts the Foot Clan's name",
". When the Shredder regained his power of speech, he promoted Cassandra to the rank of Foot General and had her perform the ritual to drain Splinter's essence. After witnessing Shredder's uncaring for his followers, Cassandra defected to the Turtles' side and helped to defeat the Shredder while revealing her true name to them. The film Rise of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: The Movie revealed that she is the mother of Casey Jones in the future.",
"Hamato Atsuko (voiced by Keiko Agena) - Hamato Yoshi's late mother who died in her duty to her family's destiny to contain the Shredder while Yoshi was still a child. She was Karai's descendant.",
"Casey Jones (voiced by Haley Joel Osment) - Cassandra Jones' son from the future who appears in Rise of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: The Movie and adheres more to the character's traditional design. He was trained by Leonardo, who sends him back in time to stop the invasion of the Krang. In battle, he wields a hockey stick with a chainsaw attached to one end.",
"Villains",
"Foot Clan – A ninja clan seeking to resurrect the Shredder and take over New York City. They can make origami ninjas out of paper and have the power of teleportation through hidden gateways. In \"Shadow of Evil\", it is revealed that the Foot uses a shoe store called the Foot Shack as a front for their activities. Most of its members have been fans of the Lou Jitsu films",
". Most of its members have been fans of the Lou Jitsu films. In \"How to Make Enemies and Bend People to Your Will\", Baron Draxum took command over the Foot after exploiting a loophole in the clan's rulings of leadership. However, in \"End Game\" and \"Many Unhappy Returns\", it is revealed that the Foot were just manipulating Draxum into donning the Kuroi Yōroi so it could drain his life force to reassemble and resurrect the Shredder.",
"Oroku Saki / Shredder (voiced by Hoon Lee) - The original leader of the Foot Clan. 500 years ago, Oroku Saki was possessed by the demonic Kuroi Yōroi armor that swallowed his soul after having to make a deal with a powerful Oni (Krang), to forge this nigh-unstoppable armor. Shredder terrorized Japan until he was defeated by the Hamato Clan with his armor being broken into pieces and scattered across the world to prevent his return",
". The Foot and Baron Draxum began seeking out the fragments of the Kuroi Yōroi to reassemble it and resurrect the Shredder, the latter being tricked into wearing the armor so his life force can be siphoned. Shredder reconstitutes himself after the Turtles broke the armor off of Draxum, though only as a feral beast due to something that went wrong with his resurrection",
". Big Mama provides a mystic collar for the Turtles and Splinter to trap Shredder in another dimension, though she makes a secret last-minute alteration to this plan. This was revealed to have involved placing a control device on the Shredder and using the associated magic ring to control Shredder into being \"Shadow Fiend\" and abducting Meat Sweats, the Foot Recruit, Hypno-Potamus, Ghostbear, and Carl Sando for her Battle Nexus tournament in New York",
". When the Foot Recruit claims the magic ring, she controls the Shredder into destroying the Grand Nexus Hotel as she shouts the Foot Clan's name. When the Turtles, April, and Splinter went into the Twilight Realm to get the weapon needed to defeat Shredder, the side effect caused Shredder to regain his intelligence. After he captured Splinter and Baron Draxum, Shredder made the Foot Recruit his general perform a ritual to drain Splinter's essence",
". With help from the Hamato Clan, the Turtles defeated Shredder by vanquishing the Kuroi Yōroi for good and brought back Oroku Saki to the Hamato Clan.",
"Foot Lieutenant (voiced by Rob Paulsen) – A leading officer of the Foot Clan.\n Foot Brute (voiced by Maurice LaMarche) – A buff member of the Foot Clan who works alongside Foot Lieutenant.\n Jocelyn (voiced by Cree Summer) - A Foot Initiate who gains the mark of the Foot in \"How to Make Enemies and Bend People to Your Will\". Foot Recruit claimed to Baron Draxum that she got the mark because her parents are \"big donors\".",
"Foot Soldiers (Various Voices) - An army of ninjas that are associated with the Foot Clan.\n Origami Ninjas – Ninjas made out of paper that is created by Foot Lieutenant and Foot Brute.",
"Huginn and Muninn (voiced by Timothy Simons and Sam Richardson) – Two small gargoyles with retractable wings that were often seen sitting on Baron Draxum's shoulders. Huginn has a frog-like body and a cat-like head and tail while Muninn has a frog-like body and a tapir-like head. Their names and presence as Draxum's constant companions are a play on Odin's ravens Huginn and Muninn",
". In the episode \"Goyles, Goyles, Goyles\", Huginn and Muninn are shown to be looking for new employment after Draxum went into hiding due to his life force being drained by the Kuroi Yōroi. It is then shown in a flashback that Huginn and Muninn were constantly mistreated by their fellow gargoyles before being hired by Draxum. It is also revealed that it was actually their fault Hamato Yoshi escaped and destroyed Draxum's laboratory, killing all of Draxum's other test subjects",
". The duo is not seen again for the rest of the series.",
"Garm and Freki (voiced by Fred Tatasciore) – Two guardsman warriors that worked for Baron Draxum who are experts at armed combat. They can also ride giant demon-like dogs. In \"Repairin' the Baron\", Garm and Freki are offered forgiveness from the Council of Heads if they bring Draxum to the Hidden City to stand trial for his crimes. They are later mentioned by Draxum to Raph and Mikey to be bounty hunters that work for whoever has the most money",
". Their names are a play on the wolf monster Garmr and Odin's wolf Freki.",
"Oozesquitos – A swarm of mutant mosquitoes that are often used by Baron Draxum. They store mutagen in their abdomens to inject anyone they bite which turn them into mutants. The Oozesquitos are first seen when Draxum tests the mutagen on a delivery guy named Stewart. In the Turtles' first encounter with Draxum, they accidentally unleash the Oozesquitos into New York City",
". The episode \"Bug Buster\" reveals that Big Mama uses the Oozesquitos so that they can fight for her entertainment in the Battle Nexus much to the annoyance of Draxum. He also had a hand in the Ninja Turtles' origins. As Draxum called them his \"bugs\", Huginn and Muninn stated that the Turtles called them Oozesquitos, which is catchy to them.",
"Mutant Silverfish – A bunch of mutant silverfish. If they are attacked, the Mutant Silverfish will split into smaller silverfish that would later aggregate back to their original state.",
"Rupert Swaggart / Meat Sweats (voiced by Johnny Rotten) – Rupert Swaggart former celebrity chef who was turned into a mutant domestic pig upon being stung by an Oozesquito while hitting a failing contestant with a slab of pig meat during his TV show \"Kondescending Kitchen\". He wears gray gloves to conceal his tendril arms, which he uses to temporarily absorb the abilities of any other mutants and wields a meat tenderizer in battle",
". Meat Sweats habitually makes any mutant he catches into his \"meals\" to strengthen the \"flavor\".",
"Albearto (voiced by Tom Kenny impersonating Ed Wynn) – An animatronic brown bear used at children's birthday parties in Albearto's Pizzeria. After a small child short-circuited him, April had Donatello upgrade him where a stage mishap caused Albearto to get electrocuted and come to life. In \"Al Be Back\", Albearto returns where his head was salvaged by Baxter Stockboy in exchange for the cheat codes for the dance game",
". While on a car, he places his head on a new Albearto body in front of the birthday kids, gets the manager's handprint for the security scanner, and animates his bear \"brothers\" from failed franchises to attack Albearto Land where Albearto also animated the Albearto animatronics there. The Ninja Turtles put on a concert that Albearto and his animatronic \"brothers\" attend which causes most of them to destroy themselves after the Ninja Turtles' singing drives them mad",
". Albearto is the only one to escape, but his final fate is left unclear.",
"Al-Beardo the Pirate (voiced by Tom Kenny) - An animatronic bear pirate with a hook for a right hand, an eyepatch over his right eye, and a left peg leg who is the mascot of a failed Albearto's British- and pirate-themed franchise called \"Al-Beardo's Squid and Chips\".\n Bayou 'Bearto (voiced by Tom Kenny) - An animatronic bear hillbilly who is the mascot of a failed unnamed, Southern state-themed Albearto franchise.",
"Chef Albéar (voiced by Tom Kenny) - An animatronic bear who is the mascot of a failed Albearto's Pizzeria franchise called \"La Petite Albear\".\n Otto von Bearto (voiced by Tom Kenny) - An animatronic bear who is the mascot of a failed Albearto's Pizzeria franchise called \"Otto von Bearto's Best Wurst House\".",
"Warren Stone (voiced by John Michael Higgins) – A semi-successful and narcissistic news anchor who mutated into a small mutant earthworm with an earthworm tail instead of legs after being stung by an Oozesquito. If cut in half, Warren can regenerate. Since his mutation, he self-declared himself the greatest foe of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles always ignore him. Warren Stone later gains a gauntlet that can shoot beams which he named Charlotte",
". Warren Stone later gains a gauntlet that can shoot beams which he named Charlotte. This was later found to be one piece of the Kuroi Yoroi that was needed to revive Shredder. In \"Warren & Hypno, Sitting in a Tree\", Warren has become a roommate of Hypno-Potamus and also loses the gauntlet to Baron Draxum so that the Foot Clan can use it in their plot to revive Shredder, though April does remember who Warren is since she was part of the Stoneheads",
". While heavily implied in the show but not outright confirmed, social media posts from writer Russ Carney and executive producer Andy Suriano have confirmed that he and Hypno-Potamus are a couple.",
"Mezmer-Ron / Hypno-Potamus (voiced by Rhys Darby) – Mezmer-Ron successful stage magician and hypnotist who mutated into a hippopotamus after he was stung by an Oozesquito that merged him with his pet hippopotamus Doug. Driven by envy, Hypno-Potamus strives to outachieve any magician with an even greater \"trick\" than they can produce, and find a way to bring Doug back to life, leading to his clashes with the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles",
". In \"Warren & Hypno, Sitting in a Tree\", Hypno-Potatmus has become a roommate of Warren Stone, later being captured by Baron Draxum in an attempt to lure Warren and the turtles to him so Draxum could capture them and take Warren's gauntlet - a plan that Hypno took part in in order to secure Warren's safety. However, once it was revealed that Draxum had no real intent to keep Warren safe, Hypno temporarily sided with the turtles - resulting him saving Warren's life and the two leaving peacefully",
". While heavily implied in the show but not outright confirmed, social media posts from writer Russ Carney and executive producer Andy Suriano have confirmed that he and Warren Stone are a couple.",
"Repo Mantis (voiced by Fred Tatasciore) – The vicious, treacherous, and greedy owner of a salvage yard called Repo Mantis Salvage who was mutated into a purple mutant mantis after being stung by an Oozesquito. His mutation has not affected his salvaging business.",
"Mrs. Nubbins - Repo Mantis' pet cat who was stung by an Oozesquito and mutated into a cat/mantis hybrid due to having been in contact with her owner. Due to the mantis' nature, Mrs. Nubbins would try to eat Repo Mantis causing him to keep her locked up.",
"Ghostbear (voiced by Jorge Gutierrez) – A human masked wrestling champion in a white bear cape who cheats. Raphael was a fan of him until he learned the truth about his fighting techniques. In \"Snow Day\" while trying to get revenge on the Turtles for ruining his pro wrestling career, Ghostbear is stung by a defrosted Oozesquito and mutated into a mutant polar bear. This new form gives him the ability to become intangible.",
"Mutant Cockroach Gang - An unnamed group of mutant cockroaches that posed as mascots.\n Atomic Lass (voiced by Grey Griffin) - An unnamed mutant cockroach dressed as Atomic Lass.\n Joey the Junkyard Dog (voiced by John DiMaggio) - An unnamed mutant cockroach dressed as Joey the Junkyard Dog.\n Robot Vampire (voiced by Grey Griffin) - An unnamed mutant cockroach dressed as Robot Vampire.\n Sergeant Woodpecker (voiced by Eric Bauza) - An unnamed mutant cockroach dressed as Sergeant Woodpecker.",
"Baxter Stockboy (voiced by Ramone Hamilton) - An unpaid stockboy and self-proclaimed \"internet celebrity\". Both vengeful and avaricious, he strives to either profit from his live-streamed schemes or take revenge on anyone (particularly the Turtles) who hinders him in doing so.",
"Mrs. Cuddles (voiced by Eliza Schneider) - A plush rabbit character from the TV series of the same name who comes to life to feeds on the fear of her to become bigger and stronger. If someone laughs at her, Mrs. Cuddles loses her size and strength.",
"Big Mama (voiced by Lena Headey) – A cunning Jorōgumo who can change between her purple-skinned human form and her humanoid spider form and has a habit of using improper upper-class words when she speaks. She is the owner of an extradimensional gladiator arena called the Battle Nexus which is hidden in the secret sub-level of The Grand Nexus Hotel that is owned by her human form",
". Big Mama uses the Oozesquitos in her possession to mutate anyone into mutants so that they can fight for her entertainment in the Battle Nexus. Her plot has brought her into conflict with Baron Draxum who felt that Big Mama was misusing the Oozesquitos. Hinted in \"The Ancient Art of Ninja Hide and Seek\", the episode \"Many Unhappy Returns\" reveals that Big Mama was the ex-girlfriend of Hamato Yoshi and the indirect cause of his mutation when she abducted him to fight in the Battle Nexus",
". In \"Battle Nexus: New York\", Big Mama transported the population of New York to a cruise inside a mystical sphere so that she can have the Turtles and their mutant enemies fight her Battle Nexus Champions. Once the Battle Nexus Champions are defeated, the Turtles go to the Grand Nexus Hotel to confront Big Mama and her latest champion Shadow Fiend",
". The Foot Recruit found that Shadow Fiend is actually Shredder who is being controlled by a control device on him by Big Mama using the device's associated magic ring. Once the Foot Recruit claimed the magic ring and gains control of the Shredder, she tells a cowering Big Mama that she is about to lose everything as she advises her to start running. The Grand Nexus Hotel is then destroyed by the Shredder",
". The Grand Nexus Hotel is then destroyed by the Shredder. The Turtles later found Big Mama in a cave recuperating from her injuries as she directs them to the Crying Titan where the Empyrean that Shredder needs is located.",
"Gus (voiced by Fred Tatasciore) - A mutant bulldog that is loyal to Big Mama who can grow spikes on his body. Gus is prone to partaking in a game of fetch.\n Fox Bellhop (voiced by Eric Bauza) - An unnamed mutant red fox that works as a bellhop at Big Mama's Battle Nexus.",
"Octopus Elevator Operator (voiced by Nolan North) - An unnamed mutant octopus that works as an elevator operator at the Grand Nexus Hotel. In \"Turtle-dega Nights: The Ballad of Rat Man\", the Octopus Elevator Operator served as the announcer of the mutant demolition derby and was miscredited as the \"Penguin Bellhop.\"\n Otter Bellhop (voiced by Nolan North) - An unnamed mutant North American river otter that works as a bellhop at Big Mama's Battle Nexus.",
"Owl Bellhop (voiced by Fred Tatasciore) - An unnamed mutant barn owl that works as a bellhop at Big Mama's Battle Nexus.\n Battle Nexus Champions - A group of powerful fighters from the Battle Nexus.\n Troll - A troll with a lion-like head who wields a club. He fights Raph and Ghostbear on a bridge where the two of them do the Hibernator move to fool it and Big Mama.",
"Sprite (voiced by Zelda Williams) - A sprite who never laughs. She fights Leo and Carl Sando while possessing the Statue of Liberty. Leo and Carl were able to defeat it by doing comical moves that she found funny.\n Amphisbaena - A two-headed serpent with an insatiable appetite. It fights Mikey and Meat Sweats where the two of them had to satisfy their appetites. Both of them worked together to do that job.",
"Cortex (voiced by Eugene Byrd) - A Cthulhu-like creature with extremely high intelligence. He fights Donnie and Hypno-Potamus in a chess match. Both of them managed to come up with a strategy to defeat Cortex.",
"Purple Dragons - A trio of snobby, criminal tech club students at April's high school. They are skilled at computer hacking, high-tech theft, and other technology-based abilities.\n Kendra (voiced by Tania Gunadi) - The leader of the Purple Dragons. She has known April since kindergarten. In \"Breaking Purple\", it is revealed that Kendra's dad married Jase's mom, making them step-siblings.",
"Jase (voiced by Eugene Byrd) - Member of the Purple Dragons. He has a fear of cats and dogs and, despite clearly being smarter and more sensible than Jeremy, is often regarded with disdain by Kendra. In \"Breaking Purple\", it is revealed that Jase's mom is married to Kendra's dad making them step-siblings.\n Jeremy (voiced by Kyle Massey) - An African-American member of the Purple Dragons. He refers to Kendra as \"chief\".",
"Sando Brothers - Two acrobat brothers in a circus who were turned into mutant crabs by Oozesquitos. They can attack by launching their left claws at their opponents.\n Ben Sando (voiced by Paul Scheer) - The first half of the Sando Brothers who has no hair.\n Carl Sando (voiced by Jason Mantzoukas) - The second half of the Sando Brothers who has hair.",
"Capitán Piel (voiced by Christian Lanz) - A living skin who is the brother of Señor Hueso and the pirate captain of the S.S. Alexis. His name is Spanish for \"Captain Skin\".\n Kraken Pirate (voiced by Eric Bauza) - A humanoid kraken who is a member of Capitán Piel's pirate crew.\n Mermaid Pirate (voiced by Rob Paulsen) - A mermaid who is a member of Capitán Piel's pirate crew.\n Sea Serpent Pirate (voiced by Maurice LaMarche) - A humanoid sea serpent who is a member of Capitán Piel's pirate crew.",
"Makers of Brutality - The Makers of Brutality are a gang of ogres.\n Boss Beverly (voiced by Gillian Vigman) - A one-eyed ogre who is the leader of the Makers of Brutality.\n Ogre Henchmen (voiced by Gillian Vigman) - The unnamed henchmen of Boss Beverly.",
"Masters of Barbarianism - The Masters of Barbarianism is a gang of reptilian creatures.\n Boss Bruce (voiced by Vic Chao) - A humanoid Japanese dragon with an eyepatch over his left eye who is the leader of the Masters of Barbarianism.\n Snake Henchmen (voiced by Eric Bauza and Vic Chao) - The unnamed humanoid snake henchmen of Boss Bruce who can attack like snakes.",
"Dr. Alex Noe (voiced by Tony Hale) - A dentist obsessed with collecting teeth from extremely rare or unusual creatures, including Raph's snaggleteeth.",
"Sloppy Joseph - When an Oozesquito in Baron Draxum's possession gets loose in the kitchen, he and April trap it in a pot. This causes the Oozesquito to mutate the mystery meat concoction that Draxum made inside the pot to create a mutant that is named Sloppy Joseph (a pun on the term \"sloppy joe\"). Sloppy Joseph can get bigger from every food that it consumes.",
"Scor-Pion (voiced by John Kassir) - A zookeeper who was stung by an Oozesquito and mutated into a mutant scorpion after he was pushed into the scorpion habitat by his co-workers. Marcus Moncrief once mistook him for an alien.",
"Mud Dogs - A group of criminals operating in the Hidden City who mistook Raph as Heinous Green.\n Dastardly Danny (voiced by Rob Paulsen) - The rat-like leader of the Mud Dogs.\n Loathsome Leonard (voiced by Seth Green) - The ogre-like member of the Mud Dogs.\n Malicious Mickey (voiced by Greg Cipes) - The electric eel-like member of the Mud Dogs.\n\n Heinous Green - A size-shifting green Yōkai who is one of the most wanted criminals in Hidden City. The Hidden City Police mistook Raph for this villain.",
"Kristoff van Bradford (voiced by Peter Stormare) - A martial arts action star and Lou Jitsu's rival who took over most of Lou Jitsu's dojos and teaches his students to do dishonest martial arts moves. He is loosely based on the character Chris Bradford from the 2012 series and John Kreese from The Karate Kid.\n Komodo Dojo Students (four of them voiced by Jill Talley) - Five students at the Komodo Dojo who are loyal to Kristoff.\n Frank (voiced by Eric Bauza) - One of Kristoff Van Bradford's students.",
"Frank (voiced by Eric Bauza) - One of Kristoff Van Bradford's students.\n Komodo Dragon Yōkai - An unnamed Komodo dragon Yōkai which can infuse anyone it bites with mutagen, endowing them with superhuman strength. It is used by Kristoff van Bradford in his attempts to take over the Lou Jitsu dojos. Loosely based on the character King Komodo from the Image Comic series.",
"Krang - parasitic aliens who invaded the earth a long time ago but were defeated and banished to another realm, they have also brought Empyrean to the earth, which is the source of Yōkai power, and when the Foot Clan came under attack, they gave Oroku Saki the Dark Armor which eventually consumed his soul and turned him to the Shredder, and Foot clan became their worshipper",
". Only three of theme managed to survive by the time they were freed, one was their leader who was banished again by Leo, the other was a female warrior with a temper who was captured by humans and the third one who's mute was in charge of bringing the Technodrome and controlling it who was apparently destroyed with it.",
"Krang One (voiced by Jim Pirri) - The leader of the Krang.\n Krang Two (voiced by Toks Olagundoye) - The temperamental member of the Krang.\n Krang Three - The silent member of the Krang.",
"Other characters",
"Stewart (voiced by Fred Tatasciore) - A food delivery man who accidentally fell into the Hidden City after mistaking a portal opened by Garm and Freki for a shortcut. He was then captured by Baron Draxum, who then used an Oozesquito to turn him into a mutant whitefish after which he runs off in a panic; his mutation refers to the fact his employers were committing food fraud, specifically, the use of imitation crab in their crab cakes, which he claimed was a real crab",
". In \"Bug Buster\", Stewart was seen fighting in the Battle Nexus where he engaged an octopus elevator operator in a slap fight.",
"Clem (voiced by Eric Bauza) - The owner of a candy shop who can shift between a pink-skinned human form and a magenta mutant goat form. His shop is a front where he sells magical items. To access the magical items, the password one has to say is \"wink\", although it is easy to get the password as Clem often accidentally tells it to the customers.",
"Trash Wizard (voiced by Eric Bauza) - A man who dresses like a wizard and likes to dramatically place himself in the Turtles' path (especially during high-speed pursuits) as he yells \"You shall not pass!\"\n\n Hidden City Police Officers (voiced by Eric Edelstein and Audrey Wasilewski) - The unnamed members of the Hidden City Police Department. The male one resembles a humanoid winged lion and the female one is an unspecified creature.",
"Exploding Frankie (voiced by Eric Bauza) - A slime Yōkai that can explode and reassemble at will. He is the father of Sunita and works as a birthday entertainer at Run of the Mill Pizza.",
"Harold / Stinkbomb (voiced by James Adomian) - The leader of the property caretakers of a botanical garden who led his fellow caretakers in fighting the Foot Clan when they trespassed. After he saw that the corpse flower named Jewell was sliced, he rushed in and got it out to save it. To further his plans to take over the Foot and gain the Kuroi Yōroi, Baron Draxum deployed his Oozesquitos who mutated Harold into a mutant corpse flower that started attacking both sides to get them off the grass.",
"Bat Librarian (voiced by Gillian Vigman) - A four-armed bat-like creature who works at the Undercity's library.\n Hush-Bats - A swarm of bats who work for the Bat Librarians. They will carry off anyone who makes a sound and place them in the kiddie room.",
"Marcus Moncrief (voiced by Phil LaMarr) - An actor who portrays Jupiter Jim, the titular character of a long-running fictional science fiction adventure franchise. Secretly insane, he believes himself to be Jupiter Jim to the point of building fully functional versions of his Jupiter Jim movie weapons, paralyzing his own fans, and dressing them up like trophies for his private Jupiter Jim museum.",
"Red Fox (voiced by Lauren Lapkus) - A red panda-type Yōkai with a prehensile tail who was Marcus Moncrief's co-star in the Jupiter Jim movies. She left after not being respected by Marcus. Leo, Mikey, and Donnie once encountered her at the theater that was doing a Jupiter Jim musical where she worked to deny any knowledge that she is a Yōkai. Red Fox later saved Marcus and Raph from Scor-Pion's trap. Afterward, Marcus thanked Red Fox for saving him which Red Fox finally got from him.",
"Council of Heads (voiced by Susan Blu, Peter Cullen, and Frank Welker) - A trio of large stone heads that run the Yōkai community. They are against Baron Draxum's plot to mutate humanity, citing his experiments as an offense against their very nature. The Council of Heads sent Agent 64/Mayhem to spy on him. In the episode \"Reparin' the Baron\", the Council of Heads are furious at Draxum for his crimes against both humanity and the Yōkai",
". However, they offer to forgive Garm and Freki for their assistance in his crimes in exchange for bringing Draxum to the Hidden City to stand trial.",
"Loose Lips Malinowski (voiced by Russ Carney) - A fence constantly on the lookout for easy money. As his nickname signifies, he is prone to unconsciously spilling his beans to anyone asking him a direct question about his dealings.\n\n Mayor Mira (voiced by Kathy Najimy) - A witch who is the mayor of the Hidden City's Witch Town district.",
"Hamato Sho (voice by Matthew Yang King) - Hamato Yoshi's maternal grandfather against whom Yoshi became embittered for trying to push onto him the tradition of the Hamato Clan to prevent the Shredder's return, a duty which took his mother away from him during his childhood.\n\nReferences\n\n-\nCharacters, Rise of the\nLists of characters in American television animation"
] |
Chief risk officer
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief%20risk%20officer
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[
"The chief risk officer (CRO) or chief risk management officer (CRMO) or chief risk and compliance officer (CRCO) of a firm or corporation is the executive accountable for enabling the efficient and effective governance of significant risks, and related opportunities, to a business and its various segments. Risks are commonly categorized as strategic, reputational, operational, financial, or compliance-related",
". CROs are accountable to the Executive Committee and The Board for enabling the business to balance risk and reward. In more complex organizations, they are generally responsible for coordinating the organization's Enterprise Risk Management (ERM) approach. The CRO is responsible for assessing and mitigating significant competitive, regulatory, and technological threats to a firm's capital and earnings. The CRO roles and responsibilities vary depending on the size of the organization and industry",
". The CRO roles and responsibilities vary depending on the size of the organization and industry. The CRO works to ensure that the firm is compliant with government regulations, such as Sarbanes–Oxley, and reviews factors that could negatively affect investments",
". Typically, the CRO is responsible for the firm's risk management operations, including managing, identifying, evaluating, reporting and overseeing the firm's risks externally and internally to the organization and works diligently with senior management such as chief executive officer and chief financial officer.",
"The role of the chief risk officer (CRO) is becoming increasingly important in financial, investment, and insurance sectors. According to Watson, the majority of CROs agreed that having only exceptional analytical skills is not sufficient. The most successful CROs are able to combine these skills with highly developed commercial, strategic, leadership and communication skill to be able to drive change and make a difference in an organization",
". CROs typically have post-graduate education with over 20 years of experience in accounting, economics, legal or actuarial backgrounds.",
"A business may find a risk acceptable; however, the company as a whole may not. CROs need to balance risks with financial, investment, insurance, personnel and inventory decisions to obtain an optimum level for stakeholders. According to a study by Morgan McKinley, a successful CRO must be able to deal with complexity and ambiguity, and understand the bigger picture.",
"James Lam, a noted risk professional, is credited as the first person to coin the term. Lam is the first person to hold that position at GE Capital in 1993. The position became more common after the Basel Accord, the Sarbanes–Oxley Act, and the Turnbull Report.",
"A main priority for the CRO is to ensure that the organization is in full compliance with applicable regulations and to analyze all risk related issues. They may also be required to work alongside other senior executives such as with a chief compliance officer. They may deal with topics regarding insurance, internal auditing, corporate investigations, fraud, and information security",
". The responsibilities and requirements to become a chief risk officer vary depending on the size of the organization and the industry, however, most CROs typically have a masters-degree level of education and 10 to 20 years of business-related experience, with actuarial, accounting, economics, and legal backgrounds common. There are many different pathways to becoming a CRO but most organizations prefer to promote their own employees to the position internally.",
"Roles of a CRO",
"A chief risk officer (CRO) is relatively considered a newer position in the board of directors. When comparing the function of a CRO to the rest of the officers, we find that there is a relationship with every other role. In other words, for a process in any department in a firm to be completed it has to be discussed with a CRO to clear it of potential risks. In general, the CRO has many crucial tasks to look for in any organization to better serve its needs and mitigate its risk",
". According to the Enterprise Risk Management Initiative, CROs need to find a way to balance risks and inventory decisions to obtain an optimum level for stakeholders and maintain a positive reputation regarding the firm. However, the job description of CRO there is more in depth, there are some general tasks which every CRO has to be familiar with, such as, understanding the concept of Enterprise Risk Management (ERM).",
"A chief risk officer must identify, assess, measure, manage, monitor and report every aspect of the risk function of new implementations of the firm. This task is important when translating the business requirements of the firm into business/reporting and system specifications. Also, the CRO's assistance is necessary when it comes to new developments. Risk Chiefs must be leaders in developing and improving management reporting as well as providing user training for in-house developed systems",
". In addition to developing policies and frameworks, the CRO is responsible for the training and supervision of employees. Another important task is managing the development of new risk policies and procedures and participating in local and global discussions to enhance security processes and standards.",
"The role of the CRO is still evolving as the scope of task is constantly changing. The increasing regulatory and legislative requirements of organizational compliance make the CRO one of the most important members of the management team. To be able to view risk in the context of the whole company and to organize different risk functions and tasks through the different entities of the organization is inevitable to the success of any structural planning.",
"Related positions of a CRO",
"The title of CRO is a fairly new position in a company that is continually evolving. The responsibility of a CRO can be supported by the CEO or CFO. However, having an independent position to mitigate risks close to the executive board is a real asset for the company. Although the title of CRO is fairly new, job titles such as CFOs and CEOs also have functions of a CRO. Related positions of a CRO include CEO, CFO, chief risk management officer, Risk Manager and Capital Manager",
". Although these related positions don't necessarily replace a CRO, they do hold job functions that are similar to those of a CRO.",
"Some names can be cited as examples of chief risk officer. This new position is found in many different industries. The major one is in the financial sector. For instance, Craig Broderick is the CRO of Goldman Sachs in the United States with nine years of experience, Joachim Oechslin works for Credit Suisse in Switzerland as CRO and Thomas Wilson ensures to mitigate risk at Allianz in Germany. Companies in other industries have hired CROs in order to become more competitive",
". Companies in other industries have hired CROs in order to become more competitive. For example, Stefano Rettore is the CRO of Archer Daniels Midland while being a member of the executive board. Vijay Patil has more than ten years of experience in this function and is the CRO of Yamaha.",
"Industry backgrounds",
"On August 1993, James Lam became the first worldwide CRO at GE Capital. He is called the inventor of the ERM model. As a CRO, Lam's responsibilities were to mitigate the risks of the company. He managed the credit risks, market risk, risk transfer and hedge risk. In 1995, a few company executives started to hire CROs in their organizations. But the demand was still low in the CRO position. In 2002, the US government released a new law which influenced the CRO industry significantly",
". In 2002, the US government released a new law which influenced the CRO industry significantly. The Sarbanes–Oxley Act which gets popular in 2004 says that directors or executives are more severe to counterfeiting financial corporate information. By hiring CROs, companies have started to protect the executives more. Ten years later, 2005, almost all big companies that were making sales over a billion dollars hired a CRO in their enterprise",
". These companies were almost in a difficult environment and that's why they began to recognize the importance of a CRO. Another boost for the CRO role was the financial crisis in 2008. Many companies became bankruptcy and many jobs were destroyed. After these events, more and more CROs were hired. With the increase in regulation in the economy, the position of the CRO is gaining more importance. Worldwide globalization is also increasing the importance of CROs",
". Worldwide globalization is also increasing the importance of CROs. As of 2017, there are more than 1000 CROs worldwide. Most of them come from the financial service, energy, or commodity industry. In the future, the importance of the CRO will be measured by the complexity of the compliance risk.",
"Characteristics and qualifications \nThe characteristics and qualifications of a chief risk officer are dependent on the industry and the type of the business they are working in. For example, if the CRO were involved in the finance industry, a postgraduate education along with at least ten years of experience in accounting, economics, internal audit, risk management, strategic planning, or actuarial backgrounds would typically be a common characteristic along with many years in the banking sector.",
"Along with their extensive knowledge of the rules and regulations in finance, they usually would have held a position in the first/mid-level management up to senior executive for their past qualification in the industry. Having to understand the compliance with government regulations such as Sarbanes–Oxley of 2002, it is common for CRO's to have also held a chief financial officer position prior to becoming a chief risk officer",
". With their quantitative background in math, finance, and accounting - making the change to risk management would be a familiar experience. Whether in the technology, retail, healthcare, or finance industry - the qualities of a typical chief risk officer are very similar throughout the industries. Their financial expertise will aid in creating reporting procedures that will monitor any critical risks an organization may encounter.",
"Salary \nChief risk officer salaries vary widely and depend on the company and status the specific CRO achieved.\n\nThe average pay for a chief risk officer (CRO) with regulatory compliance skills in the US is about $162,274 per year. Risk Officers who work for banks earn slightly more at $180,970. Those managing risks for private corporations are paid a higher average salary of $216,000 annually.",
"Chief risk officers are in the bottom tenth percentile, with a salary of $72,750. However, CROs with years of effectiveness and successful developments often pass the quarter million mark annually, so there is no earnings limit.\n\nIn the following some examples are given:\n\nERM Process And The CRO",
"Enterprise risk management",
"Enterprise Risk Management, ERM, is a fairly new process of managing risk within a company. Although ERM has yet to be widely accepted as an industry standard since there are various definitions as to what ERM exactly is, more recognition and acceptance of ERM has been shown. There are seminars dedicated to ERM explaining the process and providing examples of applications while also discussing advances in the field",
". Papers on ERM are also beginning to appear in journals and books which are starting to be published. Some universities are even starting to offer courses regarding ERM and the process.",
"Definitions of ERM \nA definition provided by the committee of Sponsoring Organization of the Treadway Commission (COSO) in 2004 defines ERM as a process, effected by an entity's board of directors, management, and other personnel, applied in strategy setting and across the enterprise, designed to identify potential events that may affect the entity, and manage risk to be with its appetite, to provide reasonable assurance regarding the achievement of entity objectives.",
"Another definition provided by the International Organization of Standardization (ISO 3100) defines ERM as coordinated activities to direct and control an organization with regard to risk.",
"According to James Lam, the definition of ERM is a value added function can be described as the inclusive and cohesive framework for managing key risks in order to achieve business goals, mitigate unexpected earnings unpredictability, and increase firm value to reduce risk which is a variable that can cause deviation from an expected outcome.",
"The benefits of ERM \nAccording to James Lam, author of the book “Enterprise Risk Management,” there are several primary benefits of using ERM: 1) enhanced organizational effectiveness, 2) increased efficiency in terms of risk reporting, 3) improved business performance.",
"Organizational effectiveness helps address special and specific risks by creating the top-down coordination needed to form an integrated team suited to handle both independent risks and interdependencies between risks. Moreover, ERM has been said to increased risk management awareness allowing for more efficient operational and strategic decision making. This is done through the appointment of a chief risk officer and the establishment of an enterprise risk function.",
"Risk reporting assists both the chief risk officer of an organization and the board of governors in identifying key risk factors that may prove detrimental to the company in both the present and the future. Thus, ERM enables senior management to identify, measure, and limit to acceptable levels the net exposures faced by the firm. Being able to create risk transparency allows a firm to better hedge against those particular risks or avoid them all together.",
"Better business performance is yet another benefit of using ERM. Companies that adopt an ERM approach have seen improvements in areas requiring key management decisions from capitol allocations to product development and pricing to mergers and acquisitions. As a result, this leads to the benefits and improvements gained from utilizing an ERM approach can be seen in the form of loss reduction, improved shareholder value, decreased earning volatility, and an increase in the firms’ earnings.",
"The chief risk officer",
"The ERM model implies the leadership by an individual who is responsible for the development and implication of an ERM strategy and assists the senior management in terms of risk management. In order to do this a CRO sets up a risk management framework and policies based on the ERM strategy. Furthermore, the CRO implements reports and risk indicators to communicate the risk culture throughout the firm. These reports assist the CRO in creating a risk profile",
". These reports assist the CRO in creating a risk profile. The CRO communicates the firm's risk profile to the key stakeholders such as the CEO, the board of directors, and business partners. Optimizing the risk portfolio is another assigned task by the ERM. The CRO advises firm projects from a risk management point of view and uses regulations and risk transfer strategies in order to mitigate the risk.",
"The importance of the CRO",
"ERM vs Silo",
"ERM: An ERM requires an integrated risk organization, which normally means that a centralized risk management unit has to report to the CEO and the board of directors. The chief risk officer in an ERM is responsible for knowing and gathering information over all the different aspects within an organization. He takes a portfolio view of all types of risks within the company",
". He takes a portfolio view of all types of risks within the company. In an ERM approach, the use of insurance and alternative risk transfer products is only considered if the risk seemed undesirable or unwanted to the management. Integration of risk management in the whole company's business process becomes necessary. The ERM optimizes business performance by influencing different aspects like pricing and resource allocation.",
"There are three major benefits connected to the use of the ERM approach and the CRO as liaison: Due to the fact that a CRO and an integrated team can better manage individual risks and interdependencies between these risks, the use of an ERM leads to increased organizational effectiveness. Apart from this fact, better risk reporting can be reached by prioritizing the content of risk reporting that should go to the different instances like the senior management or the board of directors",
". A side effect of this information prioritizing is much better transparency throughout the whole organization. Last but not least you can also reach a better overall business performance in the company. This is only possible if the risk management team uses an ERM approach and supports key management decisions like pricing, product development or Mergers and acquisitions. Given the support, there will be several benefits like increased earnings and improved shareholder value",
". An ERM can combine and integrate several risk silos into a firm-wide risk portfolio and can consider aspects such as volatility and correlation of all risk exposures. This can lead to a maximization of the diversification's benefits.",
"SILO: Under a Silo approach, risk transfer strategies are executed under a transactional or individual risk level. As an example insurance can be mentioned, which transfers out operational risk. Risk assessment and quantification processes are not integrated. Value-at-risk models are used to quantify the market risk and credit default models are used to estimate credit risk. Both specific models could be used independently, but still: that is not the case in the Silo approach",
". There are different effects that can be caused by this less integrative model: Over-hedging and far too much insurance coverage can be a result of not incorporating all the different kinds of risk and their wide diversification.",
"Another characteristic of the Silo approach is the continuous fighting of one crisis after another without having an integrative concept or a specific individual that can be held responsible. No one specifically takes responsibility for aspects like the overall risk reporting or other risk-related unit supplies",
". Further more there is another aspect that shows a weakness of this model: Having different organizational units to address every specific risk that the first has to be segmented in the company definitely speaks for a less effective technique. In the Silo approach, the different business units use various methodologies to track counterparty risks. This can become a problem, if you look at the total counterparty exposure: it can get too great to be managed by all the different business units.",
"Risk Champion",
"After a near miss or an actual crisis managers are often alarmed and focus more on all aspects of risk during the ongoing inspection. They are looking at aspects like the compliance risk and they are reinforcing important roles for the board. All these actions often lead to the naming of a risk champion who is then responsible for developing and establishing an ERM approach. In many companies, the risk champion is becoming more and more a formal senior management position: the CRO",
". One of the important function of a risk champion that should be mentioned is his/her support to legitimize the implementation of risk management itself. Apart from this fact he also helps the institution follow its objectives and better site it for the future. Further more he is also responsible for communicating its benefits.",
"Normally a risk champion should have the different characteristics like skills, knowledge, and leadership qualities, necessary to handle all the different specific aspects that can occur in the process of risk management. Other aspects that should be mentioned considering the responsibilities of a risk champion is his duty to intervene in instances where risk management efforts are actually disabled. This can be caused by the management itself or a lack of institutional skills",
". This can be caused by the management itself or a lack of institutional skills. Additionally he also provides support to the whole risk management process if a problematic, complicated risk occurs. In this case, he can use the multiple-participant approach. Assisting the risk owner, but not assuming his or her role to help find a solution for his/her problem is also one of the many duties a risk champion has to face",
". In some studies the risk champion is described as some kind of troubleshooter who alleviates risk-related problems. After all you can summarize that the risk champion has to be integrated into the company's ERM approach and by this contribute to the institution's goals and objectives.",
"The Sarbanes–Oxley Act\n\nThe Sarbanes–Oxley Act is a US act of 2002. In response to various financial scandals, the U.S. Congress passed the Sarbanes–Oxley Act. This act also can be called Sarbox or Sox. First of all, Sarbanes–Oxley sought to enhance the integrity of corporate financial reporting and better regulate the accounting profession. The Sarbanes–Oxley Act applies for every company which is registered by SEC; therefore, international companies are included as well.",
"Furthermore, it regulates and set standards for companies to protect shareholders and the public from accounting errors as well as generates more transparency between reporting and the markets.",
"Thus, the Sarbanes–Oxley Act enhanced corporate financial reports and made several reforms in the accounting profession. Enhancements occurred in the financial statements; therefore, the Sarbanes–Oxley Act requires a company's executive chief officer and chief financial officer to clarify the precision of its financial reports. Moreover, to ensure the mentioned accuracy of financial reports, internal controls are required",
". Moreover, to ensure the mentioned accuracy of financial reports, internal controls are required. Accordingly, each financial report required an internal control report to prevent fraud. Furthermore, the CRO has to be aware of everything occurring in his company on a daily basis, but he must also be current on all of the requirements from the SEC. In addition, the CRO restrains corporate risk by managing compliance.",
"In financial institutions\n \nIntegrating risk and finance can lead to more successful financial results, and more generally, to better achieving strategic goals. Here the skill sets of the CRO and CFO are brought together, allowing the CFO to focus on finding new growth opportunities. Here, 93% of all financial institutions that have more complex operations report having a CRO; several institutions have also established a chief compliance officer position.",
"The CEO of Zions Bancorporation, Harris Simmons once wrote that there would be an \"uncontested need for independent risk management in large banking organizations\". But in his opinion “covered companies should be allowed a measure of flexibility in determining how such an organization should be structured”",
". According to Thomas Stanton, author of \"Why Some Firms Thrive and Others Fail\", one of the differences between a company that was successful and another one that was not successful during the financial crisis, was their \"application of constructive dialogue“. On the one hand, there were the employees who were responsible for making money by selling products and financial services and on the other hand, there were the ones responsible for limiting risks.",
"Due to the fact that bank regulators have actually encouraged banks now for a longer time to adopt an enterprise risk management approach, the need of a CRO to manage risk across the whole organization has increased. One can see close coordination between Finance and Risk Management when observing how a risk model is developed. Data of the risk model are often “created by finance” and their outcomes exert influence on the financial reporting, with the interdependencies then clear",
". It is thus no longer the case that risk and finance can be seen as independent (see Three lines of defence). The integration between finance and risk platforms may also seem \"relaxed\" re other elements, such as calculation or data-integration.",
"Components of ERM \nCOSO, a Committee of Sponsoring Organizations of the Treadway Commission, uses the concept of Enterprise Risk Management for the first time. In this context, they published in 2004 the Enterprise Risk Management—Integrated Framework. In the past years the complexity of risk has changed, and new risks have emerged why COSO published in 2017 the updated framework of ERM. This framework includes five interrelated components which are found in the most ERM frameworks.",
"Governance and Culture establishes organizational processes and defines desired cultures to measure and manage risk across the company. The result is top-down risk management.\n\nStrategy and Objective-Setting formulates business objectives that put strategy into practice. The business objectives are a basis for identifying, assessing, and responding to risk. Also, Strategy and Objective-Setting analyze the business context, defines risk appetite, and evaluate alternative strategies.",
"Performance identifies, assesses severity, and prioritizes risks that may impact the achievement of strategy and business objectives. Later, the company selects risk responses and develops a portfolio view. In the last step, the results are reported to key risk stakeholders.\n\nReview and Revision consider how well the enterprise risk management components are functioning over time. Also, it reviews risk and performance, and, if necessary, improves the company and their risk management.",
"Information, Communication, and Reporting. To communicate risk information and create reports on risk, culture, and performance to the company's key stakeholders.\n\nImplementation of the ERM Model \nCorporate governance",
"The Sarbanes–Oxley Act, which was created in 2002 to prevent corporate fraud, was the reason for the rise of the importance of corporate governance. Hence the ERM requires that the following management responsibilities be assigned: to define a firm's “risk profile”; this means it is required to evaluate the firm's willingness to take risks and threats and the possible outcomes. This is important to determine proper investment asset allocation. Also, to ensure firm has necessary risk management skills",
". Also, to ensure firm has necessary risk management skills. Risk management skills involves the risk management process which consists of 5 steps: risk assessment, risk analysis, risk treatment, risk acceptance, and risk communication. Thirdly, to establish the organization's structure with all roles and responsibilities. This involves assigning different enterprise risk management roles throughout the organization, and establishing a clear hierarchy structure.",
"Risk management integration also plays an important role in corporate governance. This means identifying the degree of harm derived from a certain threat or risk and balancing the costs and benefits of the possible methods to eliminate or reduce the risk. It is crucial to establish risk assessment and audit processes to avoid corruption within a corporation's risk management process. There must be auditor's who authorize the decisions of the risk managers before they are implemented.",
"Setting the risk culture of the firm starting at the top: The CEO is an important step in corporate governance. Establishing a hierarchy chart for the company's risk management roles is a critical step to ensure clear communication of the tasks and duties in the ERM process",
". It is also important to create an ongoing employee training program; a strong employee training program means there is less employee mistakes therefore less money wasted within the corporation, and this could also avoid big issues such as bankruptcy or bad company reputation.",
"Management",
"Using the concept of Line vs Staff Positions in the Firm ERM means that in certain situations the line managers should seek advice from the staff beneath them. Using the Line Vs Staff concept does the following: aligns the production process with the corporate risk policy, incorporates expected losses and cost of risk capital into production pricing and the hurdle rate, and creates an efficient and transparent risk review process to give production managers better understanding of acceptable risks.",
"This should help reduce the volatility of the company's earnings, thus enhancing shareholder value. With an organized approach to risk, a firm can better manage its risks and returns to make more informed decisions about capital and investments.\n\nPortfolio management",
"Portfolio management\n\nERM requires that management act as a portfolio fund manager who identifies the firm's risk profile which is essentially a representation at a given point of time of an organization's overall exposure to risks. ERM also requires that management set risk limits within a range of risks. When risk taking is authorized, risk limits are bounds placed on that risk-taking decision.",
"ERM produces diversification benefits for the company. Diversification benefit arises when two processes are not completely dependent on each other, and a bad (good) outcome for one process does not necessarily mean a bad (good) outcome for the other. Dependency and diversification are opposite sides of the same coin; when the strength of a dependency is increased, the level of diversification benefit is reduced.",
"Risk transfer \nOne part of the ERM Model is risk transfer. Per the terms and conditions the CRO must decide to spread the risk to an external party or to retain the risks. If he spreads the risk then it moves to an external party, but it can also go to a subsidiary. In general, the companies transfer risk by purchasing different kinds of insurance. The three favorite types of insurance are workers' compensation, general liability, and property / casualty insurance.",
"Stakeholder management",
"Stakeholders are all individuals or groups of people who are in contact with the company. As the need for information grows in importance, management must respond to better risk visibility for the stakeholder groups. These include employees, customers, supporters, offerers, business partners, creditors and other stakeholders. Stakeholder managers provide useful information about the risk situation and financial position to stakeholders so that they can make the right investment decisions.",
"Limitations \nThe chief risk officer (CRO) is a senior executive officer that reports to the CEO and/or the board of directors. The CRO manages the risk management department and provides information to help mitigate internal and external risk factors of the company and ensures that the company is in compliance with government regulations.",
"Even though the CRO is a senior executive officer in the company, there are several limitation in what the CRO is able to control. While heading the risk management department the CRO is allowed freedom to control and mitigate risk when it does not require a large demand. When the potential for risk is large, the CRO must report to the CEO and/or the board of directors for future action",
". Although the CRO's job is to minimize the potential risk in the company, risk as a factor cannot not be eliminated fully from a company.",
"The introduction of the Sarbanes–Oxley act (SOX) has promoted the need and adaptation of the CRO role. A main priority of the CRO is to ensure that the company complies with SOX to ensure they are following government regulations. SOX introduced new legal regulations that becomes legal and compliance risk(s) for companies. With the introduction of SOX, the corporate officers could be held liable for failure to produce accurate financial reports and standings in the company",
". The CRO's job is to help the company become compliant with government regulations, transparent, and help mitigate risk for the company.",
"References",
"The Rise of the CRO in Executive Middle East Magazine\n edition\n Department national treasury: Republic of South Africa: „Guidelines for the Risk Champions“, (online) (11-30-2017)\n Deloitte: „CROs in Financial Services Sector Rise in Numbers and Stature“ (online) (11-30-2017)\n Per Adura Associates LTD: „Rethinking Risk in Financial Institutions – Making the CFO-CRO Partnership Work“ (11-30-2017)\n Clifford Rossi(2015): “The Next Big Challenge for Bank Chief Risk Officers“ (online) (11-30-2017)",
"Clifford Rossi(2015): “The Next Big Challenge for Bank Chief Risk Officers“ (online) (11-30-2017)\n John Bugalla and Kristina Narvaez (2013): „The Importance of the CFO-CRO Partnership (online) (11-30-2017)",
"External links \n\n \n Skills: Chief Risk Officer (John S. Webster, Computerworld, April 17, 2006)\n The Chief Risk Officer: What Does It look Like and How Do You Get There? (article by C.R. Lee and P. Shimpi,Risk Management Magazine)\n \n\nManagement occupations\n\nRisk management in business\nFinance occupations"
] |
Cole Porter
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cole%20Porter
|
[
"Cole Albert Porter (June 9, 1891 – October 15, 1964) was an American composer and songwriter. Many of his songs became standards noted for their witty, urbane lyrics, and many of his scores found success on Broadway and in film.",
"Born to a wealthy family in Indiana, Porter defied his grandfather's wishes for him to practice law and took up music as a profession. Classically trained, he was drawn to musical theatre. After a slow start, he began to achieve success in the 1920s, and by the 1930s he was one of the major songwriters for the Broadway musical stage. Unlike many successful Broadway composers, Porter wrote the lyrics as well as the music for his songs.",
"After a serious horseback riding accident in 1937, Porter was left disabled and in constant pain, but he continued to work. His shows of the early 1940s did not contain the lasting hits of his best work of the 1920s and 1930s, but in 1948 he made a triumphant comeback with his most successful musical, Kiss Me, Kate. It won the first Tony Award for Best Musical.",
"Porter's other musicals include Fifty Million Frenchmen, DuBarry Was a Lady, Anything Goes, Can-Can and Silk Stockings. His numerous hit songs include \"Night and Day\", \"Begin the Beguine\", \"I Get a Kick Out of You\", \"Well, Did You Evah!\", \"I've Got You Under My Skin\", \"My Heart Belongs to Daddy\" and \"You're the Top\"",
". He also composed scores for films from the 1930s to the 1950s, including Born to Dance (1936), which featured the song \"You'd Be So Easy to Love\"; Rosalie (1937), which featured \"In the Still of the Night\"; High Society (1956), which included \"True Love\"; and Les Girls (1957).",
"Life and career\n\nEarly years\n\nPorter was born in Peru, Indiana, the only surviving child of a wealthy family. His father, Samuel Fenwick Porter, was a druggist by trade. His mother, Kate, was the indulged daughter of James Omar \"J. O.\" Cole, \"the richest man in Indiana\", a coal and timber speculator who dominated the family. J. O. Cole built the couple a house on his Peru-area property, known as Westleigh Farms. After high school, Porter returned to his childhood home only for occasional visits.",
"Porter's strong-willed mother doted on him and began his musical training at an early age. He learned the violin at age six, the piano at eight, and wrote his first operetta (with help from his mother) at ten. She falsified his recorded birth year, changing it from 1891 to 1893 to make him appear more precocious. His father, a shy and unassertive man, played a lesser role in Porter's upbringing, although as an amateur poet, he may have influenced his son's gifts for rhyme and meter",
". Porter's father was also a talented singer and pianist, but the father-son relationship was not close.",
"J. O. Cole wanted his grandson to become a lawyer, and with that in mind, sent him to Worcester Academy in Massachusetts in 1905. Porter brought an upright piano with him to school and found that music, and his ability to entertain, made it easy for him to make friends. Porter did well in school and rarely came home to visit. He became class valedictorian and was rewarded by his grandfather with a tour of France, Switzerland and Germany",
". Entering Yale College in 1909, Porter majored in English, minored in music, and also studied French. He was a member of Scroll and Key and Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity, and contributed to campus humor magazine The Yale Record. He was an early member of the Whiffenpoofs a cappella singing group and participated in several other music clubs; in his senior year, he was elected president of the Yale Glee Club and was its principal soloist.",
"Porter wrote 300 songs while at Yale, including student songs such as the football fight songs \"Bulldog\" and \"Bingo Eli Yale\" (aka \"Bingo, That's The Lingo!\") that are still played at Yale. During college, Porter became acquainted with New York City's vibrant nightlife, taking the train there for dinner, theater, and nights on the town with his classmates, before returning to New Haven, Connecticut, early in the morning",
". He also wrote musical comedy scores for his fraternity, the Yale Dramatic Association, and as a student at Harvard – Cora (1911), And the Villain Still Pursued Her (1912), The Pot of Gold (1912), The Kaleidoscope (1913) and Paranoia (1914) – which helped prepare him for a career as a Broadway and Hollywood composer and lyricist. After graduating from Yale, Porter enrolled in Harvard Law School in 1913, where he roomed with future Secretary of State Dean Acheson",
". He soon felt that he was not destined to be a lawyer, and, at the suggestion of the dean of the law school, switched to Harvard's music department, where he studied harmony and counterpoint with Pietro Yon. His mother did not object to this move, but it was kept secret from J. O. Cole.",
"In 1915, Porter's first song on Broadway, \"Esmeralda\", appeared in the revue Hands Up. The quick success was immediately followed by failure: his first Broadway production, in 1916, See America First, a \"patriotic comic opera\" modeled on Gilbert and Sullivan, with a book by T. Lawrason Riggs, was a flop, closing after two weeks. Porter spent the next year in New York City before going overseas during World War I.\n\nWWI, Paris and marriage",
"In 1917, when the United States entered World War I, Porter moved to Paris to work with the Duryea Relief organization. Some writers have been skeptical about Porter's claim to have served in the French Foreign Legion, but the Legion lists Porter as one of its soldiers and displays his portrait at its museum in Aubagne. By some accounts, he served in North Africa and was transferred to the French Officers School at Fontainebleau, teaching gunnery to American soldiers",
". An obituary notice in The New York Times stated that, while in the Legion, \"he had a specially constructed portable piano made for him so that he could carry it on his back and entertain the troops in their bivouacs.\" Another account, given by Porter, is that he joined the recruiting department of the American Aviation Headquarters, but, according to his biographer Stephen Citron, there is no record of his joining this or any other branch of the forces.",
"Porter maintained a luxury apartment in Paris, where he entertained lavishly. His parties were extravagant and scandalous, with \"much gay and bisexual activity, Italian nobility, cross-dressing, international musicians and a large surplus of recreational drugs\". In 1918, he met Linda Lee Thomas, a rich, Louisville, Kentucky-born divorcée eight years his senior",
". She was beautiful and well-connected socially; the couple shared mutual interests, including a love of travel, and she became Porter's confidante and companion. The couple married the following year. She was in no doubt about Porter's homosexuality, but it was mutually advantageous for them to marry. For Linda, it offered continued social status and a partner who was the antithesis of her abusive first husband",
". For Porter, it brought a respectable heterosexual front in an era when homosexuality was not publicly acknowledged. They were, moreover, genuinely devoted to each other and remained married from December 19, 1919, until her death in 1954. Linda remained protective of her social position and, believing that classical music might be a more prestigious outlet than Broadway for her husband's talents, tried to use her connections to find him suitable teachers, including Igor Stravinsky, but was unsuccessful",
". Finally, Porter enrolled at the Schola Cantorum in Paris, where he studied orchestration and counterpoint with Vincent d'Indy. Meanwhile, Porter's first big hit was the song \"Old-Fashioned Garden\" from the revue Hitchy-Koo of 1919. In 1920, he contributed the music of several songs to the musical A Night Out.",
"Marriage did not diminish Porter's taste for extravagant luxury. The Porter home on the rue Monsieur near Les Invalides was a palatial house with platinum wallpaper and chairs upholstered in zebra skin. In 1923, Porter came into an inheritance from his grandfather, and the Porters began living in rented palaces in Venice",
". He once hired the entire Ballets Russes to entertain his guests, and for a party at Ca' Rezzonico, which he rented for $4,000 a month ($ in current value), he hired 50 gondoliers to act as footmen and had a troupe of tightrope walkers perform in a blaze of lights. In the midst of this extravagant lifestyle, Porter continued to write songs with his wife's encouragement.",
"Porter received few commissions for songs in the years immediately after his marriage. He had the occasional number interpolated into other writers' revues in Britain and the U.S. For a C. B. Cochran show in 1921, he had two successes with the comedy numbers \"The Blue Boy Blues\" and \"Olga, Come Back to the Volga\"",
". In 1923, in collaboration with Gerald Murphy, he composed a short ballet, originally titled Landed and then Within the Quota, satirically depicting the adventures of an immigrant to America who becomes a film star. The work, written for the Ballets suédois, lasts about 16 minutes. It was orchestrated by Charles Koechlin and shared the same opening night as Milhaud's La création du monde",
". Porter's work was one of the earliest symphonic jazz-based compositions, predating George Gershwin's Rhapsody in Blue by four months, and was well received by both French and American reviewers after its premiere at the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées in October 1923.",
"After a successful New York performance the following month, the Ballets suédois toured the work in the U.S., performing it 69 times. A year later the company disbanded, and the score was lost until it was reconstructed from Porter's and Koechlin's manuscripts between 1966 and 1990, with help from Milhaud and others. Porter had less success with his work on The Greenwich Village Follies (1924)",
". Porter had less success with his work on The Greenwich Village Follies (1924). He wrote most of the original score, but his songs were gradually dropped during the Broadway run, and by the time of the post-Broadway tour in 1925, all his numbers had been deleted. Frustrated by the public response to most of his work, Porter nearly gave up songwriting as a career, although he continued to compose songs for friends and perform at private parties.",
"Broadway and West End success",
"At the age of 36, Porter reintroduced himself to Broadway in 1928 with the musical Paris, his first hit. It was commissioned by E. Ray Goetz at the instigation of Goetz's wife and the show's star, Irène Bordoni. She had wanted Rodgers and Hart to write the songs, but they were unavailable, and Porter's agent persuaded Goetz to hire Porter instead. In August 1928, Porter's work on the show was interrupted by the death of his father. He hurried back to Indiana to comfort his mother before returning to work",
". He hurried back to Indiana to comfort his mother before returning to work. The songs for the show included \"Let's Misbehave\" and one of his best-known list songs, \"Let's Do It, Let's Fall in Love\", which was introduced by Bordoni and Arthur Margetson. The show opened on Broadway on October 8, 1928. The Porters did not attend the first night because Porter was in Paris supervising another show for which he had been commissioned, La Revue, at a nightclub",
". This was also a success, and, in Citron's phrase, Porter was finally \"accepted into the upper echelon of Broadway songwriters\". Cochran now wanted more from Porter than isolated extra songs; he planned a West End extravaganza similar to Ziegfeld's shows, with a Porter score and a large international cast led by Jessie Matthews, Sonnie Hale and Tilly Losch. The revue, Wake Up and Dream, ran for 263 performances in London, after which Cochran transferred it to New York in 1929",
". On Broadway, business was badly affected by the 1929 Wall Street crash, and the production ran for only 136 performances. From Porter's point of view, it was nonetheless a success, as his song \"What Is This Thing Called Love?\" became immensely popular. Porter's new fame brought him offers from Hollywood, but because his score for Paramount's The Battle of Paris was undistinguished, and its star, Gertrude Lawrence, was miscast, the film was not a success",
". Citron expresses the view that Porter was not interested in cinema and \"noticeably wrote down for the movies.\"",
"Still on a Gallic theme, Porter's last Broadway show of the 1920s was Fifty Million Frenchmen (1929), for which he wrote 28 numbers, including \"You Do Something to Me\", \"You've Got That Thing\" and \"The Tale of the Oyster\". The show received mixed notices. One critic wrote, \"the lyrics alone are enough to drive anyone but P. G. Wodehouse into retirement\", but others dismissed the songs as \"pleasant\" and \"not an outstanding hit song in the show\"",
". As it was a lavish and expensive production, nothing less than full houses would suffice, and after only three weeks, the producers announced that they would close it. Irving Berlin, who admired and championed Porter, took out a paid press advertisement calling the show \"The best musical comedy I've heard in years. ... One of the best collections of song numbers I have ever listened to\". This saved the show, which ran for 254 performances, considered a successful run at the time.",
"1930s",
"Ray Goetz, producer of Paris and Fifty Million Frenchmen, the success of which had kept him solvent when other producers were bankrupted by the post-crash slump in Broadway business, invited Porter to write a musical show about the other city that he knew and loved: New York. Goetz offered the team with whom Porter had last worked: Herbert Fields writing the book and Porter's old friend Monty Woolley directing",
". The New Yorkers (1930) acquired instant notoriety for including a song about a streetwalker, \"Love for Sale\". Originally performed by Kathryn Crawford in a street setting, critical disapproval led Goetz to reassign the number to Elisabeth Welch in a nightclub scene. The lyric was considered too explicit for radio at the time, though it was recorded and aired as an instrumental and rapidly became a standard. Porter often referred to it as his favorite of his songs",
". Porter often referred to it as his favorite of his songs. The New Yorkers also included the hit \"I Happen to Like New York\".",
"Next came Fred Astaire's last stage show, Gay Divorce (1932). It featured a hit that became Porter's best-known song, \"Night and Day\". Despite mixed press (some critics were reluctant to accept Astaire without his previous partner, his sister Adele), the show ran for a profitable 248 performances, and the rights to the film, retitled The Gay Divorcee, were sold to RKO Pictures",
". Porter followed this with a West End show for Gertrude Lawrence, Nymph Errant (1933), presented by Cochran at the Adelphi Theatre, where it ran for 154 performances. Among the hit songs Porter composed for the show were \"Experiment\" and \"The Physician\" for Lawrence, and \"Solomon\" for Elisabeth Welch.",
"In 1934, producer Vinton Freedley came up with a new approach to producing musicals. Instead of commissioning book, music and lyrics and then casting the show, Freedley sought to create an ideal musical with stars and writers all engaged from the outset. The stars he wanted were Ethel Merman, William Gaxton and comedian Victor Moore. He planned a story about a shipwreck and a desert island, and for the book he turned to P. G. Wodehouse and Guy Bolton. For the songs, he decided on Porter",
". G. Wodehouse and Guy Bolton. For the songs, he decided on Porter. By telling each of these that he had already signed the others, Freedley gathered his ideal team together. A drastic last-minute rewrite was necessitated by a major shipping accident that dominated the news and made Bolton and Wodehouse's book seem tasteless. Nevertheless, the show, Anything Goes, was an immediate hit. Porter wrote what many consider his greatest score of this period. The New Yorker magazine's review said, \"Mr",
". The New Yorker magazine's review said, \"Mr. Porter is in a class by himself\", and Porter subsequently called it one of his two perfect shows, along with the later Kiss Me, Kate. Its songs include \"I Get a Kick Out of You\", \"All Through the Night\", \"You're the Top\" (one of his best-known list songs), and \"Blow, Gabriel, Blow\", as well as the title number. The show ran for 420 performances in New York (a particularly long run in the 1930s) and 261 in London",
". Porter, despite his lessons in orchestration from d'Indy, did not orchestrate his musicals. Anything Goes was orchestrated by Robert Russell Bennett and Hans Spialek. Now at the height of his success, Porter was able to enjoy the opening night of his musicals; he made grand entrances and sat in front, apparently relishing the show as much as any audience member. Russel Crouse commented \"Cole's opening-night behaviour is as indecent as that of a bridegroom who has a good time at his own wedding.\"",
"Anything Goes was the first of five Porter shows featuring Merman. He loved her loud, brassy voice and wrote many numbers that displayed her strengths. Jubilee (1935), written with Moss Hart while on a cruise around the world, was not a major hit, running for only 169 performances, but it featured two songs that have since become standards, \"Begin the Beguine\" and \"Just One of Those Things\"",
". Red, Hot and Blue (1936), featuring Merman, Jimmy Durante and Bob Hope, ran for 183 performances and introduced \"It's De-Lovely\", \"Down in the Depths (on the Ninetieth Floor)\", and \"Ridin' High\". The relative failure of these shows convinced Porter that his songs did not appeal to a broad enough audience. In an interview, he said \"Sophisticated allusions are good for about six weeks ... more fun, but only for myself and about eighteen other people, all of whom are first-nighters anyway",
". Polished, urbane and adult playwriting in the musical field is strictly a creative luxury.\"",
"Porter also wrote for Hollywood in the mid-1930s. His scores include those for the Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer films Born to Dance (1936), with James Stewart, featuring \"You'd Be So Easy to Love\" and \"I've Got You Under My Skin\", and Rosalie (1937), featuring \"In the Still of the Night\". He wrote the score of the short film Paree, Paree, in 1935, using some of the songs from Fifty Million Frenchmen",
". Porter also composed the cowboy song \"Don't Fence Me In\" for Adios, Argentina, an unproduced movie, in 1934, but it did not become a hit until Roy Rogers sang it in the 1944 film Hollywood Canteen. Bing Crosby, The Andrews Sisters, and other artists also popularized it in the 1940s. The Porters moved to Hollywood in December 1935, but Porter's wife did not like the movie environment, and Porter's closeted homosexual acts, formerly very discreet, became less so; she retreated to their Paris house",
". When his film assignment on Rosalie was finished in 1937, Porter hastened to Paris to make peace with Linda, but she remained cool. After a walking tour of Europe with his friends, Porter returned to New York in October 1937 without her. They were soon reunited by an accident Porter suffered.",
"On October 24, 1937, Porter was riding with Countess Edith di Zoppola and Duke Fulco di Verdura at Piping Rock Club in Locust Valley, New York, when his horse rolled on him and crushed his legs, leaving him substantially crippled and in constant pain for the rest of his life. Though doctors told Porter's wife and mother that his right leg would have to be amputated, and possibly the left one as well, he refused to have the procedure",
". Linda rushed from Paris to be with him, and supported him in his refusal of amputation. He remained in the hospital for seven months before being allowed to go home to his apartment at the Waldorf Towers. He resumed work as soon as he could, finding it took his mind off his perpetual pain.",
"Porter's first show after his accident was not a success. You Never Know (1938), starring Clifton Webb, Lupe Vélez and Libby Holman, ran for only 78 performances. The score included the songs \"From Alpha to Omega\" and \"At Long Last Love\". He returned to success with Leave It to Me! (1938); the show introduced Mary Martin, singing \"My Heart Belongs to Daddy\", and other numbers included \"Most Gentlemen Don't Like Love\" and \"From Now On\"",
". Porter's last show of the 1930s was DuBarry Was a Lady (1939), a particularly risqué show starring Merman and Bert Lahr. After a pre-Broadway tour, during which it ran into trouble with Boston censors, it achieved 408 performances, beginning at the 46th Street Theatre. The score included \"But in the Morning, No\" (which was banned from the airwaves), \"Do I Love You?\", \"Well, Did You Evah!\", \"Katie Went to Haiti\" and another of Porter's up-tempo list songs, \"Friendship\"",
". At the end of 1939, Porter contributed six songs to the film Broadway Melody of 1940 for Fred Astaire, George Murphy and Eleanor Powell.",
"Meanwhile, as political unrest increased in Europe, Porter's wife closed their Paris house in 1939, and the next year bought a country home in the Berkshire mountains, near Williamstown, Massachusetts, which she decorated with elegant furnishings from their Paris home. Porter spent time in Hollywood, New York and Williamstown.\n\n1940s and postwar",
"Panama Hattie (1940) was Porter's longest-running hit so far, running in New York for 501 performances despite the absence of any enduring Porter songs. It starred Merman, Arthur Treacher and Betty Hutton. Let's Face It! (1941), starring Danny Kaye, had an even better run, with 547 performances in New York. This, too, lacked any numbers that became standards, and Porter always counted it among his lesser efforts",
". Something for the Boys (1943), starring Merman, ran for 422 performances, and Mexican Hayride (1944), starring Bobby Clark, with June Havoc, ran for 481 performances. These shows, too, are short of Porter standards. The critics did not pull their punches, complaining about the lack of hit tunes and the generally low standard of the scores",
". After two flops, Seven Lively Arts (1944) (which featured the standard \"Ev'ry Time We Say Goodbye\") and Around the World (1946), many thought that Porter's best period was over.",
"Between Broadway musicals, Porter continued to write for Hollywood. His film scores of this period were You'll Never Get Rich (1941) with Astaire and Rita Hayworth, Something to Shout About (1943) with Don Ameche, Janet Blair and William Gaxton, and Mississippi Belle (1943–44), which was abandoned before filming began. He also cooperated in the making of the film Night and Day (1946), a largely fictional biography of Porter, with Cary Grant implausibly cast in the lead",
". The critics scoffed, but the film was a huge success, chiefly because of the wealth of vintage Porter numbers in it. The biopic's success contrasted starkly with the failure of Vincente Minnelli's film The Pirate (1948), with Judy Garland and Gene Kelly, in which five new Porter songs received little attention.",
"From this low spot, Porter made a conspicuous comeback in 1948 with Kiss Me, Kate. It was by far his most successful show, running for 1,077 performances in New York and 400 in London. The production won the Tony Award for Best Musical (the first Tony awarded in that category), and Porter won for best composer and lyricist",
". The score includes \"Another Op'nin', Another Show\", \"Wunderbar\", \"So In Love\", \"We Open in Venice\", \"Tom, Dick or Harry\", \"I've Come to Wive It Wealthily in Padua\", \"Too Darn Hot\", \"Always True to You (in My Fashion)\", and \"Brush Up Your Shakespeare\".",
"Porter began the 1950s with Out of This World (1950), which had some good numbers but too much camp and vulgarity, and was not greatly successful. His next show, Can-Can (1952), featuring \"C'est Magnifique\" and \"It's All Right with Me\", was another hit, running for 892 performances. Porter's last original Broadway production, Silk Stockings (1955), featuring \"All of You\", was also successful, with a run of 477 performances",
". Porter wrote two more film scores and music for a television special before ending his Hollywood career. The film High Society (1956), starring Bing Crosby, Frank Sinatra and Grace Kelly, included Porter's last major hit song \"True Love\". It was adapted as a stage musical of the same name. Porter also wrote numbers for the film Les Girls (1957), which starred Gene Kelly. His final score was for the CBS television special Aladdin (1958).",
"Last years",
"Porter's mother died in 1952, and his wife died of emphysema in 1954. By 1958, Porter's injuries caused a series of ulcers on his right leg. After 34 operations, it had to be amputated and replaced with an artificial limb. His friend Noël Coward visited him in the hospital and wrote in his diary, \"The lines of ceaseless pain have been wiped from his face...I am convinced that his whole life will cheer up and that his work will profit accordingly",
"...I am convinced that his whole life will cheer up and that his work will profit accordingly.\" In fact, Porter never wrote another song after the amputation and spent the remaining six years of his life in relative seclusion, seeing only intimate friends. He continued to live in the Waldorf Towers in New York in his memorabilia-filled apartment. On weekends, he often visited an estate in the Berkshires, and he stayed in California during the summers.",
"Porter died of kidney failure at age 73 on October 15, 1964, in Santa Monica, California. He is interred in Mount Hope Cemetery in his native Peru, Indiana, between his wife and father.\n\nTributes and legacy",
"Many artists have recorded Porter songs, and dozens have released entire albums of his songs. In 1956, jazz singer Ella Fitzgerald released Ella Fitzgerald Sings the Cole Porter Songbook. In 1972, she released another collection, Ella Loves Cole",
". In 1972, she released another collection, Ella Loves Cole. Among the many album collections of Porter songs are the following: Oscar Peterson Plays the Cole Porter Songbook (1959); Anita O'Day Swings Cole Porter with Billy May (1959); All Through the Night: Julie London Sings the Choicest of Cole Porter (1965); Rosemary Clooney Sings the Music of Cole Porter (1982); Anything Goes: Stephane Grappelli & Yo-Yo Ma Play (Mostly) Cole Porter (1989) and Love for Sale (Tony Bennett and Lady Gaga, 2021)",
". In 1990 Dionne Warwick released Dionne Sings Cole Porter. In that same year, Red Hot + Blue was released as a benefit CD for AIDS research and featured 20 Cole Porter songs recorded by artists such as U2 and Annie Lennox.",
"Additional recording collections include Frank Sinatra Sings the Select Cole Porter (1996) and John Barrowman Swings Cole Porter (2004); Barrowman played \"Jack\" in the 2004 film De-Lovely. Other singers who have paid tribute to Porter include the Swedish pop music group Gyllene Tider, which recorded a song called \"Flickan i en Cole Porter-sång\" (\"That Girl from the Cole Porter Song\") in 1982. He is referenced in the merengue song \"The Call of the Wild\" by David Byrne on his 1989 album Rei Momo",
". He also is mentioned in the song \"Tonite It Shows\" by Mercury Rev on their 1998 album Deserter's Songs. After Can-Can was adapted as a film, the soundtrack won the 1960 Grammy Award for Best Sound Track Album.",
"In 1965, Judy Garland performed a medley of Porter's songs at the 37th Academy Awards shortly after Porter's death. In 1980, Porter's music was used for the score of Happy New Year, based on the Philip Barry play Holiday. The cast of The Carol Burnett Show paid a tribute to Porter in a humorous sketch in their CBS television series",
". You're the Top: The Cole Porter Story, a video of archival material and interviews, and Red, Hot and Blue, a video of artists performing Porter's music, were released in 1990 to celebrate the one hundredth anniversary of Porter's birth.<ref name=Reich>Howard Reich, \"Porter Tributes: A Few Highlights\", Chicago Tribune\", May 5, 1991, accessed September 20, 2012",
".</ref> In contrast to the highly embellished 1946 screen biography Night and Day, Porter's life was chronicled more realistically in De-Lovely, a 2004 Irwin Winkler film starring Kevin Kline as Porter and Ashley Judd as Linda. The soundtrack to De-Lovely includes Porter songs sung by Alanis Morissette, Sheryl Crow, Elvis Costello, Diana Krall and Natalie Cole, among others. Porter also appears as a character in Woody Allen's 2011 film Midnight in Paris.",
"Many events commemorated the centenary of Porter's birth, including the halftime show of the 1991 Orange Bowl.Holland, Bernard. \"A Hoosier Hurrah on Cole Porter's Centennial\", The New York Times, June 9, 1991, accessed May 17, 2012 Joel Grey and a large cast of singers, dancers and marching bands, performed a tribute to Porter in Miami, Florida during the 57th King Orange Jamboree parade, whose theme was \"Anything Goes\"",
".Luisa Yanez, \"500,000 At Parade Ooh, Aah King Orange Reigns Under Miami Moon\" , Sun-Sentinel, January 1, 1991, retrieved September 20, 2012. The Indianapolis Symphony Orchestra performed a program of Cole Porter music at the Circle Theatre in Indianapolis, which also featured clips of Porter's Hollywood films. \"A Gala Birthday Concert\" was held at New York City's Carnegie Hall, with more than 40 entertainers and friends paying tribute to Porter's long career in theater and film. In addition, the U.S",
". In addition, the U.S. Postal Service issued a commemorative postage stamp honoring Porter's birth. The Indiana University Opera performed Porter's musical, Jubilee, in Bloomington, Indiana.",
"In May 2007, a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame was dedicated to Porter. In December 2010, his portrait was added to the Hoosier Heritage Gallery in the office of the Governor of Indiana. Numerous symphony orchestras have paid tribute to Porter in the years since his death\"Faith Middleton Show: A Tribute to Cole Porter and Glen Miller\" , \"The Faith Middleton Show\", Connecticut Public Broadcasting, November 22, 2010, accessed September 20, 2012",
". including Seattle Symphony Orchestra, with Marvin Hamlisch as conductor and the Boston Pops, both in 2011. In 2012, Marvin Hamlisch, Michael Feinstein, and the Dallas Symphony Orchestra honored Porter with a concert that included his familiar classics. The Cole Porter Festival is held every year in June in his hometown of Peru, Indiana, to foster music and art appreciation",
". Costumed singers in the cabaret-style Cole Porter Room at the Indiana Historical Society's Eugene and Marilyn Glick Indiana History Center in Indianapolis take requests from visitors and perform Porter's hit songs. Since Porter's death, except for a brief time at the New York Historical Society, his 1908 Steinway grand piano, which he had used when composing since the mid-1930s, has been displayed and often played in the lobby of the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel",
". Porter is a member of the American Theater Hall of Fame and Great American Songbook Hall of Fame, which recognized his \"musically complex [songs] with witty, urbane lyrics\". In 2014, Porter was honored with a plaque on the Legacy Walk in Chicago, which celebrates LGBT achievers.Reynolds, Daniel. \"7 LGBT Heroes Honored With Plaques in Chicago's Legacy Walk\", Advocate.com, October 11, 2014",
"Notable songs\n\nShows listed are stage musicals unless otherwise noted. Where the show was later made into a film, the year refers to the stage version. A complete list of Porter's works is in the Library of Congress (see also the Cole Porter Collection).",
"(1916) See America First (1919) Hitchy-Koo of 1919 – \"Old-Fashioned Garden\"\n (1928) Paris – \"Let's Do It, Let's Fall in Love\"\n (1929) Wake Up and Dream – \"What Is This Thing Called Love?\"\n (1929) Fifty Million Frenchmen – \"You Do Something to Me\"\n (1930) The New Yorkers – \"Love for Sale\", \"I Happen to Like New York\", \"Where Have You Been?\"\n (1932) Gay Divorce – \"After You, Who?\", \"Night and Day\" (adapted as The Gay Divorcee, 1934)\n (1933) Nymph Errant – \"Experiment\", \"The Physician\", \"It's Bad for Me\"",
"(1933) Nymph Errant – \"Experiment\", \"The Physician\", \"It's Bad for Me\"\n (1934) Hi Diddle Diddle (revue) — \"Miss Otis Regrets\"\n (1934) Anything Goes – \"All Through the Night\", \"Anything Goes\", \"I Get a Kick Out of You\", \"You're the Top\"\n (1934) Adios Argentina (un-produced film) – \"Don't Fence Me In\"\n (1935) Jubilee – \"Begin the Beguine\", \"Just One of Those Things\"\n (1936) Red, Hot and Blue – \"Down in the Depths (on the Ninetieth Floor)\", \"Ridin' High\", \"It's De-Lovely\"",
"(1936) Born to Dance (film) – \"You'd Be So Easy to Love\", \"I've Got You Under My Skin\"\n (1937) Rosalie (film) – \"In the Still of the Night\"\n (1937) You Never Know – \"At Long Last Love\", \"From Alpha to Omega\", \"Let's Misbehave\"\n (1938) Leave It to Me! – \"From Now On\", \"Get Out of Town\", \"My Heart Belongs to Daddy\"\n (1939) Broadway Melody of 1940 (film) – \"Between You and Me\", \"I Concentrate on You\", \"I've Got My Eyes on You\", \"I Happen to Be in Love\", \"Begin the Beguine\"",
"(1939) DuBarry Was a Lady – \"But in the Morning No\", \"Do I Love You?\", \"Well, Did You Evah!\", \"Friendship\"",
"(1940) Panama Hattie – \"I've Still Got My Health\", \"Let's Be Buddies\"\n(1941) You'll Never Get Rich (film) – \"Dream Dancing\", \"So Near and Yet So Far\"\n (1941) Let's Face It! – \"I Hate You, Darling\", \"Ace in the Hole\"\n (1942) Something for the Boys – \"Could It Be You\"\n (1942) Something to Shout About – \"You'd Be So Nice to Come Home To\"\n (1943) Mexican Hayride – \"I Love You\"\n (1944) Seven Lively Arts – \"Ev'ry Time We Say Goodbye\"\n (1946) Around the World – \"Look What I Found\"",
"(1946) Around the World – \"Look What I Found\"\n (1947) The Pirate (film) – \"Be a Clown\", \"Mack the Black\", \"You Can Do No Wrong\"\n (1948) Kiss Me, Kate – \"Always True to You in My Fashion\", \"Another Op'nin', Another Show\", \"Brush Up Your Shakespeare\", \"I Hate Men\", \"Why Can't You Behave?\", \"So in Love\", \"Tom, Dick or Harry\", \"Too Darn Hot\", \"Wunderbar\"\n (1950) Out of This World – \"From This Moment On\", \"I Am Loved\"\n (1950) Stage Fright (film) – \"The Laziest Gal in Town\"",
"(1950) Stage Fright (film) – \"The Laziest Gal in Town\"\n (1953) Can-Can – \"I Am in Love\", \"I Love Paris\", \"C'est Magnifique\", \"It's All Right With Me\"\n (1954) Silk Stockings – \"All of You\", \"Paris Loves Lovers\"\n (1955) High Society (film) – \"Mind if I Make Love to You?\", \"True Love\", \"Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?\", \"You're Sensational\"\n (1956) Les Girls (film) – \"Ça, C'est L'amour\", \"You're Just Too, Too\"\n (1958) Aladdin (television) – \"Come to the Supermarket (In Old Peking)\"",
"Notes, references, sources and further reading \n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nSources",
"Further reading\n Greher, Gena R. \"Night & Day: Cole Porter, hip hop, their shared sensibilities and their teachable moments.\" College Music Symposium. Vol. 49. 2009. online\n Hill, Edwin. \"Making claims on echoes: Dranem, Cole Porter and the biguine between the Antilles, France and the US.\" Popular Music 33.3 (2014): 492–508.\n McAuliffe, Mary. When Paris Sizzled: The 1920s Paris of Hemingway, Chanel, Cocteau, Cole Porter, Josephine Baker, and Their Friends (Rowman & Littlefield, 2016).",
"Porter, Cole. The Letters of Cole Porter (Yale University Press, 2019). \n Randel, Don M., Matthew Shaftel, and Susan Forscher Weiss, eds. A Cole Porter Companion; (U of Illinois Press, 2016). \n Savran, David. \"'You've got that thing': Cole Porter, Stephen Sondheim, and the Erotics of the List Song.\" Theatre Journal (2012): 533–548. online\n Spirou, Penny. \"From Night and Day to De-Lovely: cinematic representations of Cole Porter.\" Refractory: a journal of entertainment media 18 (2011): 1–13.",
"Wells, Ira. \"Swinging Modernism: Porter and Sinatra beneath the Skin.\" University of Toronto Quarterly'' 79.3 (2010): 975–990.",
"External links\n\n \n\n Cole Porter discography at Discogs\n\n \n Cole Porter Birthplace & Museum\n Cole Porter Festival\nCole Porter Collection at the Library of Congress\n Cole Porter recordings at the Discography of American Historical Recordings.",
"1891 births\n1964 deaths\n20th-century American composers\n20th-century American LGBT people\nAmerican amputees\nAmerican film score composers\nAmerican gay musicians\nAmerican LGBT songwriters\nAmerican LGBT composers\nAmerican LGBT military personnel\nAmerican male film score composers\nAmerican musical theatre composers\nAmerican musical theatre lyricists\nBroadway composers and lyricists\nDeaths from kidney failure\nFrench military personnel of World War I\nGrammy Award winners\nHarvard University alumni",
"French military personnel of World War I\nGrammy Award winners\nHarvard University alumni\nLGBT film score composers\nLGBT people from Indiana\nGay songwriters\nGay composers\nMale musical theatre composers\nMusicians from Indiana\nPeople from Peru, Indiana\nPupils of Vincent d'Indy\nSchola Cantorum de Paris alumni\nSoldiers of the French Foreign Legion\nSongwriters from Indiana\nThe Yale Record alumni\nTony Award winners\nWorcester Academy alumni\nYale University alumni\nLGBT people with disabilities"
] |
Bates College
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bates%20College
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[
"Bates College () is a private liberal arts college in Lewiston, Maine. Anchored by the Historic Quad, the campus of Bates totals . It maintains of nature preserve known as the \"Bates-Morse Mountain\" near Campbell Island and a coastal center on Atkins Bay.",
"Bates provides undergraduate instruction in the humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, and engineering and offers joint undergraduate programs. A baccalaureate college, the undergraduate program requires all students to complete a thesis before graduation, and has a privately funded research enterprise. In addition to being a part of the \"Maine Big Three\", Bates competes in the New England Small College Athletic Conference (NESCAC) with 31 varsity teams, and 13 club teams.",
"Bates alumni, faculty, and affiliates include 86 Fulbright Scholars; 22 Watson Fellows; 5 Rhodes Scholars; as well as 12 members of the U.S. Congress; 7 Emmy Award winners; 5 Pulitzer Prize winners; and CEOs of Fortune 500 companies. The Bates athletic program has graduated 12 Olympians and 209 All-Americans and maintains 32 varsity sports, which compete in NCAA Division III and two in Division I.\n\nHistory\n\nOrigins",
"While attending (and later leading) the Freewill Baptist Parsonsfield Seminary, Bates founder, Oren Burbank Cheney worked for racial and gender equality, religious freedom, and temperance. In 1836, Cheney enrolled in Dartmouth College (after briefly attending Brown), due to Dartmouth's significant support of the abolitionist cause against slavery. After graduating, Cheney was ordained a Baptist minister and began to establish himself as an educational and religious scholar",
". Parsonsfield mysteriously burned down in 1854, allegedly due to arson by opponents of abolition. The event caused Cheney to advocate for the building of a new seminary in a more central part of Maine. With Cheney's influence in the state legislature, the Maine State Seminary was chartered in 1855 and implemented a liberal arts and theological curriculum, making the first coeducational college in New England",
". Soon after establishment several donors stepped forward to finance portions of the school, such as Seth Hathorn, who donated the first library and academic building, which was renamed Hathorn Hall. The Cobb Divinity School became affiliated with the college in 1866. Four years later in 1870, Bates sponsored a college preparatory school, called the Nichols Latin School. The college was affected by the financial panic of the later 1850s and required additional funding to remain operational",
". Cheney's impact in Maine was noted by Boston business magnate Benjamin Bates who developed an interest in the college. Bates gave $100,000 in personal donations and overall contributions valued at $250,000 to the college. The school was renamed Bates College in his honor in 1863 and was chartered to offer a liberal arts curriculum beyond its original theological focus. Two years later the college would graduate the first woman to receive a college degree in New England, Mary Mitchel",
". The college began instruction with a six-person faculty tasked with the teaching of moral philosophy and the classics. From its inception, Bates College served as an alternative to a more traditional and historically conservative Bowdoin College. There is a complex relationship between the two colleges, revolving around socioeconomic class, academic quality, and collegiate athletics.",
"The college, under the direction of Cheney, rejected fraternities and sororities on grounds of unwarranted exclusivity. He asked his close friend and U.S. Senator Charles Sumner to create a collegiate motto for Bates and he suggested the Latin phrase amore ac studio which he translated as \"with love for learning\" which has been taken as \"with ardor and devotion,\" or \"through zeal and study",
".\" Prior to the start of the American Civil War, Bates graduated Brevet Major Holman Melcher, who served in the Union Army in the 20th Maine Volunteer Infantry Regiment. He was the first person to charge down Little Round Top at the Battle of Gettysburg. The college graduated the last surviving Union general of the American Civil War, Aaron Daggett. The college's first African American student, Henry Chandler, graduated in 1874",
". The college's first African American student, Henry Chandler, graduated in 1874. James Porter, one of General Custer's eleven officers killed at the Battle of Little Bighorn in 1876 was also a Bates graduate. In 1884, the college graduated the first woman to argue in front of the U.S. Supreme Court, Ella Haskell.",
"20th century",
"In 1894, George Colby Chase led Bates to increased national recognition, and the college graduated one of the founding members of the Boston Red Sox, Harry Lord. In 1920, the Bates Outing Club was founded and is one of the oldest collegiate outing clubs in the country, the first at a private college to include both men and women from inception, and one of the few outing clubs that remain entirely student run",
". The debate society of Bates College, the Brooks Quimby Debate Council, became the first college debate team in the United States to compete internationally, and is the oldest collegiate coeducational debate team in the United States. In February 1920, the debate team defeated Harvard College during the national debate tournament held at Lewiston City Hall",
". In 1921, the college's debate team participated in the first intercontinental collegiate debate in history against the Oxford Union's debate team at the University of Oxford. Oxford's first debate in the United States was against Bates in Lewiston, in September 1923. In addition during this time, numerous academic buildings were constructed throughout the 1920s. In 1943, the V-12 Navy College Training Program was introduced at Bates",
". In 1943, the V-12 Navy College Training Program was introduced at Bates. Bates maintained a considerable female student body and \"did not suffer [lack in student enrollment due to military service involvement] as much as male-only institutions such as Bowdoin and Dartmouth.\" During the war, a Victory Ship was named the S.S. Bates Victory, after the college. It was during this time future U.S. Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy enrolled along with hundreds of other sailor-students",
".S. Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy enrolled along with hundreds of other sailor-students. The rise of social inequality and elitism at Bates is most associated with the 1940s, with an increase in racial and socioeconomic homogeneity. The college began to garner a reputation for predominately educating white students who come from upper-middle-class to affluent backgrounds",
". The New York Times detailed the atmosphere of the college in the 1960s with the following: \"the prestigious Bates College — named for Benjamin E. Bates, whose riverfront mill on Canal Street in Lewiston was once Maine's largest employer — provided an antithesis: a leafy oasis of privilege. In the 1960s, it was really difficult for most Bates students to integrate in the community because most of the people spoke French and lived a hard life",
".\"During this time the college began to compete athletically with Colby College, and in 1964, with Bowdoin created the Colby-Bates-Bowdoin Consortium. In 1967, President Thomas Hedley Reynolds promoted the idea of teacher-scholars at Bates and secured the construction of numerous academic and recreational buildings. In 1984, Bates became one of the first liberal arts colleges to make the SAT and ACT optional in the admission process",
". Reynolds began the Chase Regatta in 1988, which features the President's Cup that is contested by Bates, Colby, and Bowdoin annually. In 1989, Donald West Harward became president of Bates and greatly expanded the college's overall infrastructure by building 22 new academic, residential and athletic facilities, including Pettengill Hall, the Residential Village, and the Coastal Center at Shortridge",
". During the 1990s (and mid-2000s), Bates consolidated its reputation of being a \"playground for the elite\", by educating upper-middle-class to affluent Americans, which led to student protests and reforms to make the college more diverse both racially, and socioeconomically.",
"21st century",
"Elaine Tuttle Hansen was elected as the first female president of Bates College and managed the second largest capital campaign ever undertaken by Bates, totaling $120 million and lead the endowment through the 2007–08 financial crisis. The college announced her retirement in 2011, appointing Nancy Cable as interim president, to serve through June 30, 2012, while the college conducted a national search for its eighth president",
". In 2011, Bates made national headlines for being named the most expensive college in the U.S., which caused backlash from American academia and students as it indirectly highlighted substantial socioeconomic inequality among students.",
"After a year-long search for the next president, Harvard University dean, Clayton Spencer, was appointed as Hansen's successor. Spencer assumed the presidency in 2012, and created diversity mandates, expanded student and faculty recruitment, and financial aid allocation",
". While some reforms were successful, minorities at the college, typically classified as non-white and low-income students, still reported a lack of safe spaces, insensitive professors, financial insecurity, indirect racism and social elitism",
". According to a 2017 article on income inequality by The New York Times, 18% of Bates students came from the 1% of the American upper class (families who made about $525,000 or more per year), with more than half coming from the top 5% (families who made about $110,000 or more per year). According to the Portland Press Herald, Michael Bonney '80 and his wife donated $50 million to the college in support of the $300 million \"Bates+You\" fundraising campaign launched in May 2017",
". The campaign is the largest ever undertaken by the college totaling $300 million, with $168 million already raised . In the aftermath of the 2019 college admissions bribery scandal, Ron Lieber of The New York Times noted that need-aware colleges like Bates and others prioritized students who could pay full tuition in the admission process, writing that, \"you can get help if you're admitted, but you might not be admitted if you need help",
".\" Though it has a large endowment, Bates has continued to struggle to set a fee schedule that students can afford. Garry Jenkins succeeded Spencer in 2023, becoming the first black president of the college.",
"Academics",
"Bates is a private baccalaureate liberal arts college that offers 36 departmental and interdisciplinary program majors and 25 secondary concentrations, and confers Bachelor of Arts (B.A.) and Bachelor of Science (B.S.) degrees. The college enrolls 1,792 students, 200 of whom study abroad each semester. The academic year is broken up into three terms, primary, secondary, and short term, also known as the 4–4–1 academic calendar",
". This includes two semesters, plus a Short Term consisting of five weeks in the Spring, in which only one class is taken and in-depth coursework is commonplace. Two Short Terms are required for graduation, with a maximum of three.",
"The largest natural science academic department at Bates College is the biology department, followed by mathematics, physics, and geology. The social science academic department with the highest number of majors is its economics department, followed by psychology, politics, and history. The largest humanities academic department is the English department, followed by French and francophone studies, art and visual culture, and rhetoric",
". The interdisciplinary academic program at Bates with the highest number of majors is environmental studies, followed by biochemistry, neuroscience, and classical and medieval studies.",
"Bates also offers a Liberal Arts-Engineering Dual Degree Program with Dartmouth College's Thayer School of Engineering, Columbia University's School of Engineering and Applied Science, and Washington University's School of Engineering and Applied Science. The program consists of three years at Bates and a followed two years at the school of engineering resulting in a degree from Bates and the school of engineering. Bates is accredited by the New England Commission of Higher Education.",
"The U.S. Department of Education noted the most popular majors of the 2021 graduates as:\nResearch and Experimental Psychology (60)\nPolitical Science and Government (58)\nEconometrics and Quantitative Economics (48)\nBiology/Biological Sciences (30)\nHistory (30)\nBiochemistry (26)\nEnvironmental Studies (25)\n\nTeaching and learning",
"Students at Bates take a first-year seminar, which provides a template for the rest of the four years at Bates. The student selects a specific topic offered by the college, and works together in a small class with a scholar-in-field professor of that topic, to study and critically analyze the subject. All first-year seminars place importance on writing ability, and composition in order to facilitate the process of complex and fluid ideas being put down on paper",
". Seminars range from constitutional analysis to mathematical theorizing to disturbance ecology. After three complete years at Bates, each student participates in a senior thesis or capstone that demonstrates expertise and overall knowledge of the Major, Minor or General Education Concentrations (GECs). The Senior Thesis is an intensive program that begins with the skills taught in the first-year program and concludes with a compiled thesis that stresses research and innovation",
". A feature of a Bates education is the Honors Program which includes a tutorial-based thesis modeled after the universities of Oxford and Cambridge.",
"Research and faculty",
"According to the U.S. National Science Foundation, the college received $1.15 million in grants, fellowships, and R&D stipends for research. The college spent $1,584,000 in 2014 on research and development. The Bates Student Research Fund was established for students completing independent research or capstones. STEM grants are offered to students in the science, engineering, technology and mathematics fields who wish to showcase their research at professional conferences or national laboratories",
". Independent research grants from the college can range from $300 to over $200,000 for a three-year research program depending on donor or agency. The college's Harward Center is its main research entity for community-based research and offers fellowships to students. According to a 2001 study, Bates College's economics department was the most cited liberal arts department in the United States.",
"Bates College has been the site of landmark experiments and academic movements. In chemistry, the college has played an important role in shaping ideas about inorganic chemistry and is considered the birthplace of inorganic photochemistry as its early manifestations were started at the college by 1943 alumnus George Hammond who was later dubbed \"the father of the movement\". Hammond would go on to invent Hammond's postulate, revolutionizing activation levels in chemical compounds",
". In physics, 1974 alumnus Steven Girvin credited his time at the college as pivotal in his development of the fractional quantum Hall effect, now a pillar in Hall conductance. During the development and production of the first nuclear weapons during World War II, two students researching nuclear chemistry at the college were hired by the United States Army Corps of Engineers as part of the first Manhattan project scientific team.",
"Atop the Carnegie Science Hall sits Stephens Observatory which houses the college's high-powered 12-inch Newtonian reflecting telescope. The telescope is used for research by the college, local government agencies, and other educational institutions. The Observatory is also home to an eight-inch Celestron, a six-inch Meade starfinder, and the only Coronado Solarmax II 60 in the state.",
", Bates has a faculty of 190 and a student body of 1,780 creating a 10:1 student-faculty ratio and the average class size is about fifteen students. All tenured faculty possess the highest degree in their field. Full-time professors at the college received an average total compensation of $123,066, with salaries and benefits varying from field to field and position to position, putting faculty pay in the top 17% of all public and private universities.",
"Mount David Summit",
"The college holds the annual Mount David Summit which serves as a platform for students of all years to present undergraduate research, creative art, performance, and various other academic projects and is named after the campus' Mount David. Presentations at the summit include various discipline-centered projects, themed panel discussions, films Q & A's, as well as other activities in the Lewiston area. Started in 2002, the summit is held in Pettengill Hall, and on April 1, 2016, held its 15th summit.",
"Admissions\n\nStandards and selectivity",
"For the class of 2023, Bates admitted 12.1% of all applicants, the lowest-ever for the college. During the 2018–19 admission rounds, Bates accepted seven transfer students from 205 applicants, yielding a 3.4% transfer acceptance rate. The college has had years where no transfer applicants were accepted, such as in 2016–17, where all 170 applicants failed to gain admission. In 2015, the college had a 1.6% acceptance rate for wait-listed students. U.S",
". In 2015, the college had a 1.6% acceptance rate for wait-listed students. U.S. News & World Report classifies Bates as \"most selective\", with The Princeton Review designated it with a \"selectivity rating\" of 96 out of 99. The college had its highest admit rate after the 2008 financial crisis, during the 2008–09 year, accepting 30.4% of applicants.",
"The average high school GPA for the class of 2019 was an unweighted 3.71. The average SAT Score was 2135 (715 Critical Reasoning, 711 Mathematics and 709 Writing), and the average ACT score range was 28 to 32. Bates has a Test Optional Policy, which gives the applicant the choice to not send in their standardized test scores. Bates' non-submitting students averaged only 0.05 points lower on their collegiate grade point average",
".05 points lower on their collegiate grade point average. The Wall Street Journal found that Bates had some of the \"toughest rejection letters\" in the U.S. during the late-2000s. The college later apologized and issued a statement assuring that it makes an effort to \"[deny] the student's application… not [reject] the student\".",
"Cost of attendance and financial aid",
"For the 2016–17 academic year, Bates charged a comprehensive price (tuition, room and board, and associated fees) of $66,550. The college's tuition is the same for in-state and out-of-state students. Bates practices need-blind admission for students who are U.S. citizens, permanent residents, DACA status students, undocumented students, or who graduate from a high school within the United States, and meets all of the demonstrated need for all admitted students, including admitted international students",
". During the 2016–17 academic year the college dispensed $37.9 million in financial aid with $4.3 million to undocumented students.",
"Bates does not offer merit or athletic scholarships. Although Bates is often the most expensive school to attend in its athletic conference, the college covers 100% of financial need for students, and has an average financial package of $42,217. , 44% of students utilize financial aid. Bates offers the Direct \"+\" Loan, Direct Student Loans, Pell Grants, Perkins Loan, Supplementary Educational Opportunity Grants (SEOG), and Work-Study Program.",
"Bates has the second lowest percentage of Pell Grant recipients in the United States, below only Fairfield University.",
"Demographics",
"For the class of 2019, the gender demographic of the college breaks down to 49% male and 51% female. 27% of U.S. students are students of color (domestic and international) and 13% of admitted students are first generation to college. The educational background for admitted students is mixed: 49% of students attended public schools and 51% attended private schools. About 90% of this incoming class (of those from schools that officially rank students) graduated in the top decile of their high school classes",
". Bates has a 95% freshman retention rate. A significant portion of 45% of all applicants, transfer and non-transfer, are from New England. About 89% of students are out-of-state, (all 50 states are represented), and the college has students from 73 countries.",
"Rankings and reputation",
"Bates is noted as one of the Little Ivies, along with universities such as Tufts, Bowdoin, Colby, Amherst, Middlebury, Connecticut College, Hamilton, Trinity, Wesleyan, and Williams. The college is also known as one of the Hidden Ivies, which includes much larger research universities such as Johns Hopkins and Stanford University. The 2020 annual ranking by U.S. News & World Report ranked Bates tied for 21st overall best liberal arts college in the nation",
".S. News & World Report ranked Bates tied for 21st overall best liberal arts college in the nation. Forbes ranked Bates 39th in its 2019 national rankings of 650 U.S. colleges, universities and service academies, and 11th among liberal arts colleges. The college's highest ranking on the Forbes tables was 8th in the U.S. during its 2018 listing. Washington Monthly ranked Bates 17th in 2019 among 214 liberal arts colleges in the U.S",
". Washington Monthly ranked Bates 17th in 2019 among 214 liberal arts colleges in the U.S. based on its contribution to the public good, as measured by social mobility, research, and promoting public service.",
"For the 2017–18 academic year, Niche, formerly College Prowler, graded Bates with an overall grade of an 'A+' noting an 'A+' for academics, 'A+' for campus food, 'A+' for technology, 'A' for administration, 'A−' for diversity, and an 'A' for campus quality. During the 2019 Niche rankings, Bates was designated the 14th best liberal arts college in the country. , Alumni Factor, which measures alumni success, ranks Bates first in Maine and among the top schools nationally",
". In 2018, Bates produced 23 Bates students who received Fulbright fellowships, attaining the distinction of \"Fulbright Top Producer\", and subsequently breaking the college's previous record, and ranking Bates first in the United States. The Peace Corps placed Bates 22nd, out of all liberal arts colleges, for international charity involvement.",
"In 2017, according to The Washington Post–a paper that aggregates university rankings from six different publications–the undergraduate program is the 17th best in the United States. On September 20, 2016, PayScale released a report of 1,000 universities and their average graduate earning potential for the 2016–17 year. A Bates degree was worth approximately $120,000 in average salary making it the 13th highest among universities, and the third highest among liberal arts in the U.S.\n\nCampus",
"Bates is in a former mill town, Lewiston, which has a large French Canadian ethnic presence due to migration from Quebec in the 19th century. The college is known for cultural strains with the town, with townspeople describing Bates as a \"leafy oasis of privilege.\" The overall architectural design of the college can be traced through the Colonial Revival architecture movement, and has distinctive Neoclassical, Georgian, Colonial, and Gothic features",
". The earliest buildings of the college were directly designed by Boston architect Gridley J.F. Bryant, and subsequent buildings follow his overall architectural template. Colonial restoration influence can be seen in the architecture of certain buildings, however many of the off campus houses' architecture was heavily influenced by the Victorian era. Many buildings on campus share design parallels with Dartmouth College, University of Cambridge, Yale University, and Harvard University.",
"Bates has a 133-acre main campus and maintains the 600-acre Bates-Morse Mountain Conservation Area, as well as an 80-acre Coastal Center fresh water habitat at Shortridge. The eastern campus is situated around Lake Andrews, where many residential halls are located. The quad of the campus connects academic buildings, athletics arenas, and residential halls",
". The quad of the campus connects academic buildings, athletics arenas, and residential halls. Bates College houses over 1 million volumes of articles, papers, subscriptions, audio/video items and government articles among all three libraries and all academic buildings. The George and Helen Ladd Library houses 620,000 cataloged volumes, 2,500 serial subscriptions and 27,000 audio/video items. Coram Library houses almost 200,000 volumes of articles, subscriptions and audio/video items.",
"The most notable items in the library's collection include copies of the original Constitution of Maine, personal correspondence of James K. Polk and Hannibal Hamlin, original academic papers of Henry Clay, personal documents of Edmund Muskie, original printings of newspaper articles written by James G. Blaine, and selected collections of other prominent religious, political and economic figures, both in Maine, and the United States.",
"The campus provides 33 Victorian Houses, 9 residential halls, and one residential village. The college maintains 12 academic buildings with Lane Hall serving as the administration building on campus. Lane Hall houses the offices of the president, dean of the faculty, registrar, and provost, among others.",
"Olin Arts Center",
"The Olin Arts Center maintains three teaching sound proof studios, five class rooms, five seminar rooms, ten practice rooms with pianos, and a 300-seat grand recital hall. It holds the college's Steinway concert grand piano, Disklavier, William Dowd harpsichord, and their 18th-century replica forte piano. The studios are modernized with computers, synthesizers, and various recording equipment. The center houses the departments of Art and Music, and was given to Bates by the F. W. Olin Foundation in 1986",
". W. Olin Foundation in 1986. The center has had numerous Artists in Residence, such as Frank Glazer, and Leyla McCalla. The Olin Arts Center has joined with the Maine Music Society to produce musical performances throughout Maine.",
"Museum of Art",
"Founded in 1955, the Bates College Museum of Art holds contemporary and historic pieces. In the 1930s, the college secured a private holding from the Museum of Modern Art of Vincent van Gogh's Starry Night, for students participating in the 'Bates Plan'. It holds 5,000 pieces and objects of contemporary domestic and international art. The museum holds over 100 original artworks, photographs and sketches from Marsden Hartley. The MoA offers numerous lectures, artist symposiums, and workshops",
". The MoA offers numerous lectures, artist symposiums, and workshops. The entire space is split into three components, the larger Upper Gallery, smaller Lower Gallery, and the Synergy Gallery which is primarily used for student exhibits and research. Almost 20,000 visitors are attracted to the MoA annually.",
"Bates-Morse Mountain Area \nThis conservation area of 600 acres is available to Bates students for academic, extracurricular, and research purposes. This area is mainly salt marshes and coastal uplands. The college participates in preserving the plants, animals and natural ecosystems within this area as a part of their Community-Engaged Learning Program. Due to its overall size, the site is frequently used by other Maine schools such as Bowdoin College for their Nordic Skiing practices.",
"Student life",
"In 2015, the college's dining program was ranked 6th by The Princeton Review, and 8th by Niche in the United States. The college's dining services received the grade of 'A+' by Niche in 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, and 2017. The college holds one main dining area and offers two floors of seating",
". The college holds one main dining area and offers two floors of seating. All meals and catered events on campus are served by Bates Dining Services, which makes a concentrated effort to purchase foods from suppliers and producers within the state of Maine, like Oakhurst Dairy and others. The Den serves as an on-campus restaurant. While on campus, enrolled students and faculty have access to round-the-clock emergency medical services and security protection.",
"The college also holds an annual \"Harvest Dinner\" during Thanksgiving that features a school-wide dining experience including a New England buffet and live musical performances. Martin Luther King Day at Bates is celebrated annually with classes being canceled, and performances, events, keynote talks are held in observance. It is a day marked by keynotes from well known scholars who speak on the subjects of race, justice, and equality in America",
". In 2016, the college invited Jelani Cobb to speak at the college on MLK Day. The college offers students 110 clubs and organizations on campus. Among those is the competitive eating club, the Fat Cats, Ultimate Frisbee, and the student government. The largest club is the Outing Club, which leads canoeing, kayaking, rafting, camping and backpacking trips throughout Maine. Although Bates has since conception, rejected fraternities and sororities, various social groups exist.",
"Student media\n\nThe Bates Student",
"Bates College's oldest operating newspaper is The Bates Student, created in 1873. It is one of the oldest continuously published college weeklies in the United States, and the oldest co-ed college weekly in the country. Alumni of the student media programs at Bates have won the Pulitzer Prize, and have their later work featured on major news sources. It circulates approximately 1,900 copies around the campus and Lewiston area. Since 1990, there has been an electronic version of the newspaper online",
". Since 1990, there has been an electronic version of the newspaper online. The newspaper provides access free of charge to a searchable database of articles stretching back to its inception on its website. In 2021, the college administration requested the student newspaper to retract an article that focused on the ongoing unionization among faculty staff members and replace it with an article that also included anti-union arguments. Some students accused the administration of censorship over this issue.",
"WRBC \nWRBC is the college radio station of Bates College and was first aired in 1958. Originally started as an AM station at Bates, it began with the efforts of rhetoric professor and debate coach Brooks Quimby. It is ranked by the 2015 Princeton Review as the 12th best college radio station in the United States and Canada, making it the top college radio in the New England Small College Athletic Conference.",
"A cappella \nThere are five auditioned a cappella groups on campus. The Deansmen and the Manic Optimists are all-male, the Merminaders are all-female, and the co-ed groups are known as TakeNote and the Crosstones.\n\nBrooks Quimby Debate Council",
"The formation of the team predates the establishment of the college itself as the debate society was founded within the Maine State Seminary making it the oldest coeducational college debate society in the United States. It was headed by Bates alumnus and teacher Brooks Quimby and became the first intercollegiate international debate team in the United States. The Quimby Debate Society has been noted as \"America's most prestigious debating society,\" and the \"playground of the powerful",
".\" During the 1930s, the debate society was subject to 'The Quimby Institute' which pitted every debate student against Brooks Quimby himself. This is where he began to engage in heated debate with them that stressed \"flawless assertions\" and resulted in every error made by the student to be carefully scrutinized and teased. Bates has an annual and traditional debate with Oxford, Cambridge and Dartmouth College",
". Bates has an annual and traditional debate with Oxford, Cambridge and Dartmouth College. It competes in the American Parliamentary Debate Association domestically, and competes in the World Universities Debating Championships, internationally. The debate council was ranked 5th nationally in 2013, the year prior year ranking 9th in the world.",
"Traditions",
"Ivy Day",
"The class graduates participate in an Ivy Day which installs a granite placard onto one of the academic or residential buildings on campus. They serve as a symbol of the class and their respective history both academically and socially. Some classes donate to the college, in the form of gates, facades, and door outlines, by inscribing or creating their own version of symbolic icons of the college's seal or other prominent insignia",
". This usually occurs on graduation day, but may occur on later dates with alumni returning to the campus. This tradition is shared with the University of Pennsylvania and Princeton University. On Ivy Day, members of Phi Beta Kappa are announced.",
"Winter Carnival",
"This tradition is nearly a century old. The college has held, on odd to even years, a Winter Carnival which comprises a themed four-day event that includes performances, dances, and games. Past Winter Carnivals have included \"a Swiss Olympic skier swooshing down Mount David\", faculty and student football games, faculty and administration skits, oversized snow sculptures, \"serenading of the dormitories\", and expeditions to Camden",
". When alumnus Edmund Muskie was governor, he participated in a torch relay from Augusta to Lewiston in celebration of the 1960 Winter Olympics.",
"Robert F. Kennedy, with his naval classmates, built a replica of their boat back in Massachusetts out of snow in front of Smith Hall, during their carnival. This tradition is second only to Dartmouth College as the oldest of its kind in the United States. Students are known to participate in what has been colloquially termed as the 'Dartmouth Challenge', which consists of alcohol related activities, closely related to the parent ritual Newman Day, a tradition the college started in the 1970s",
". The carnival has been hosted by the Bates Outing Club since its conception.",
"Puddle Jump \nOn the Friday of Winter Carnival, the Bates College Outing Club initiates the annual Puddle Jump. A hole is cut by a chainsaw or by the original axe used in the inaugural Puddle Jump of 1975, in Lake Andrews. Students from all class years jump into the hole, sometimes in costumes, to celebrate, \"exuberance at the end of a hard winter.\" By mid-evening, they celebrate with donuts, cider and a cappella performances.\n\nAthletics",
"The college's official mascot is the bobcat, and official color is garnet. The college athletically competes in the NCAA Division III New England Small College Athletic Conference (NESCAC), which also includes Amherst, Connecticut, Hamilton, Middlebury, Trinity, Tufts, Wesleyan, Williams, and \"Maine Big Three\" rivals Bowdoin and Colby in the Colby-Bates-Bowdoin Consortium. This is one of the oldest football rivalries in the United States",
". This is one of the oldest football rivalries in the United States. This consortium is a series of historically highly competitive football games ending in the championship game between the three schools. Bates is the holder of the winning streak, but also has the record for the biggest loss in the athletic conference.",
"Overall the college leads the Colby-Bates-Bowdoin Consortium in wins. Bates has won this championship a total of eleven times including 2014, 2015, and in 2016 won it again with a 24–7 win over Bowdoin, after their 21–19 home victory over Colby.",
"According to U.S. Rowing, the Women's Rowing Team is ranked 1st in the New England Small College Athletic Conference, and 1st overall in NCAA Division III Rowing, . In the 2015 season, the women's rowing team was the most decorated rowing team in collegiate racing while also being the first to sweep every major rowing competition in its athletic conference in the history of NCAA Division III athletics",
". In 2015, the men's rowing team had the fastest ascension in rankings of any sport in its athletic conference and is the NESCAC Rowing Champion. Bates has the 4th highest NESCAC title hold, is ranked 5th in its athletic conference and 15th in Division III athletics. , the college has graduated a total of 12 Olympians, one of whom won the Olympic Gold Medal rowing for Canada at the 2008 Beijing Olympics",
". The all-time leader of the Chase Regatta is Bates with a total of 14 composite wins, followed by Colby's 5 wins, concluding with Bowdoin's 2 wins.",
"The ice hockey team is the first team to win the NESCAC Club Ice Hockey Championships four times in a row. , the men's club ice hockey team is ranked 5th in the Northeast, and 25th overall in the NESCHA rankings. In the winter of 2008, the college's Nordic Skiing team sent students who were the highest-ranked skiers in the Eastern Intercollegiate Ski Association and placed 4th in the 2008 NCAA Division I Championship",
". In April 2005, the college's athletic program was ranked top 5% of national athletics programs. The Men's Squash Team won the national championships in 2015, and 2016, with the winning student being the first in the history of the athletic conference, to be named the All American all four years he played for the college. The men's track field is the first team in the history of Maine to have seven consecutive wins of the state championship, a feat completed in 2016.",
"Bates maintains 31 varsity teams, and 9 club teams, including sailing, cycling, ice hockey, rugby, and water polo.",
"Sustainability",
"In 2005, President Elaine Tuttle Hansen stated, \"Bates will purchase its entire electricity supply from renewable energy sources in Maine\" and secured a new contract, adding a premium of $76,000 to their energy supply. Bates College signed onto the American College and University President's Climate Commitment in 2007. In April 2008, the college completed its dining complex named \"The Commons\" at a cost of approximately $24 million",
". The complex is 60,000 square feet, certified LEED Silver, and features occupancy sensors, anti-HCFC refrigerants, natural ventilation, heat islands, and five separate dining areas with almost 70% of the walls being glass paneling.",
"In 2009, the college was given its third $5,000 grant allocation by the Hobart Center for Foodservice Sustainability which cited Bates as \"having the best sustainability program among numerous entrants nationwide\". In 2010, the college was named one of 15 colleges in the United States to the \"Green Honor Roll\", by Princeton Review. Bates mitigates 99% of emissions via electrical consumption and purchases all of its energy from Maine Renewable Resources. The college expended $1",
". The college expended $1.1 million of its endowment to install lighting retrofits, occupancy sensors, motor system replacements and energy-generating mechanisms. Select buildings at the college are open 24/7, thus requiring extra energy, due to this the college has implemented technology that places buildings on \"stand-by\" mode while minimum occupancy is attained to preserve energy. The practice is set to reduce the college's overall emissions levels by 5 to 10 percent",
". The practice is set to reduce the college's overall emissions levels by 5 to 10 percent. Overall, the academic buildings and residential halls are equipped with day-lighting techniques, motion sensors, and efficient heating systems. Bates expended $1.5 million to implement a central plant that provides steam for heating for up to 80% of all on-campus establishments",
". The central plant is equipped with a modernized biomass system and a miniature back-pressure steam turbine which reduces campus electricity consumption by 5%. The college also installed a $2.7 million 900kW hyper-roterized turbine that accounts for nearly one-tenth of the campus' entire energy consumption. Bates was the first food-service operation in higher education to join the Green Restaurant Association",
". In 2013, the environmental practices of the college's dining services were placed along with Harvard University, and Northeastern University, as the best in the United States by the Green Restaurant Association; it earned three out of three stars, the only educational institution in Maine to do so.",
"Bates maintains numerous environmental clubs and initiatives such as Green Certification, which recognizes students who commit to sustainable policies and practices, Green Bike, which offers students access to bicycles for use on and off campus for free, and the Bates Action Energy Movement in which students participate in \"both on-campus and nationwide environmental events and engage students with discussions on climate change and other pressing ecological crises",
".\" The Bates College Museum of Art offers programs such as the Green Horizons Program that showcase environmentalism in art, society, and culture.",
"The United States Environmental Protection Agency honored Bates as a member of the Green Power Leadership Club due to the fact that 96% of energy used on campus is from renewable resources. All newly developed buildings and facilities are built to LEED Silver and Gold standards. The college achieved complete carbon neutrality in 2019, as a result of campus-wide conservation efforts and specific initiatives in its implementation plan.\n\nAdministration\n\nLeadership",
"Leadership \n\nBates College is governed by its central administration, headquartered in and metonymically known as \"Lane Hall\". The first president of the college was its founder, Oren Burbank Cheney and its president is Clayton Spencer, who took office October 26, 2012. There have been eight presidents of Bates College, and one interim president. The president is ex officio a member and president of the board of trustees, chief executive officer of the corporation, and principal academic of the college.",
"There are 37 members on the Bates College board of trustees. The chairman of the board is 1980 alumnus and founder of Prospector Partners, John Gillespie.",
"Endowment and fundraising",
"As a tax-exempt nonprofit organization, Bates is classified under section 501(c) of the U.S. Internal Revenue Code. The endowment surpasses the national average, yet has been seen as a laggard compared to its direct peers. During the first half-century of the college, the endowment grew at an exponentially high rate, topping off at $1 million in 1910, as Yale University, then 207 years old, stood at $12 million",
". \"Lackluster fundraising, poor governance, and divestments\" from the 1960s to 1980s, \"cost Bates hundreds of millions\" according to a 2019-20 The Student/BCIC academic study. During the 2007–08 financial crisis and subsequent recession, the college's endowment lost 31% of market value. The Bates endowment consistently outperformed peers in market returns, particularly against fellow NESCAC colleges and the Ivy League from 2010 to 2018",
". Its low endowment-to-student ratio increases the college's fee dependency and therefore overall sticker price, frequently making Bates one of the most expensive colleges to attend in the United States.",
"As of the 2016 fiscal year, the college received $28.2 million in overall donations demonstrating a 134% increase in giving since 2013, and breaking the previous 2006 record of $24.8 million. In May 2017 president Clayton Spencer announced the \"Bates+You\" fundraising campaign, the largest ever undertaken by the college, due to close out on $300 million.",
"In 2014, members of the student advocacy group, Bates Energy Action Movement (BEAM), requested the college divest from 200 companies that held the largest fossil fuel reserves. In response the college asserted the board of trustees had a fiduciary responsibility to the growth of the endowment and declined to specifically divest from the companies",
". However, in accordance with the student's request the college did disclose its full investment strategy, and commented on the long term implications of divestment by saying:",
"Notable alumni",
"Bates alumni have included leaders in science, religion, politics, the Peace Corps, medicine, law, education, communications, and business; and acclaimed actors, architects, artists, astronauts, engineers, human rights activists, inventors, musicians, philanthropists, and writers. , there are 24,000 Bates College alumni",
". The college is associated, through alumni and academic staff, with the following intellectual, scientific, and social contributions to human advancement, including laying the foundations of braille typography (Frank Haven Hall), \"The Kingdom\" (Frank Sandford), the American civil rights movement (Benjamin Mays), basketball's fast break (Frank Keaney), the Boston Red Sox (Harry Lord, Charles Small), the fractional quantum Hall effect (Steven Girvin), and organic photochemistry (George Hammond).",
"In national and international government, alumni of the college include the 58th U.S. Secretary of State, Edmund Muskie (1936), U.S. Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy (1944), and Clerk of the Supreme Court of the United States John F. Davis (1928)",
". Kennedy (1944), and Clerk of the Supreme Court of the United States John F. Davis (1928). As of November 2018, the college has had 12 United States Congress members among its alumni: John Swasey (1859), Daniel McGillicuddy (1881), Carroll Beedy (1903), Charles Clason (1911), Donald Partridge (1914), Edmund Muskie (1936), Frank Coffin (1940), Robert F. Kennedy (1944), Leo Ryan (1944), Bob Goodlatte (1974), Ben Cline (1994), and Jared Golden (2011)",
". Kennedy (1944), Leo Ryan (1944), Bob Goodlatte (1974), Ben Cline (1994), and Jared Golden (2011). In state government, Bates alumni have led all three political branches in Maine, graduating two Chief Justices of the Maine Supreme Court, two Maine Governors, and multiple leaders of both state houses. Notable military people include Brevet Major Holman Melcher (1862), as well as Medal of Honor recipients Frederick Hayes (1861), Josiah Chase (1861), Joseph F",
". Warren (1862), Lewis Millet (1943), Aaron Daggett (1860), and James Porter (1863).",
"Bates alumni in business, finance, and economics include General Mills CEO Robert Kinney (1939), Fidelity Fund managing director Barry Greenfield (1956), Analysis Group founder Bruce Stangle (1970), Merrill Lynch CFO Joseph Willit (1973), Japonica Partners CEO Paul Kazarian (1978), L Catterton CEO Michael Chu (1980), Cubist Pharmaceuticals CEO Michael Bonney (1980), National Bank of Canada CEO Louis Vachon (1983), and Affiliated Managers Group CFO Darrell Crate (1989)",
". In literature, music, journalism, television, and film, the following attended Bates: actors Jeffery Lynn (1930), John Shea (1970), Maria Bamford (1990–92), Bryant Gumbel (1970), writers Jeffrey K. Tulis (1972), Elizabeth Strout (1977), Lisa Genova (1992), and Brian McGrory (1984) and musician Corey Harris (1991)",
". Bates counts 12 Olympian alumni: Vaughn Blanchard (1912), Harlan Holden (1913), Ray Buker (1922), Art Sager (1926), Arnold Adams (1933), Nancy Fiddler (1978), Mike Ferry (1997), Justin Freeman (1998), Andrew Byrnes (2005), Hayley Johnson (2006), Emily Bamford (2015), and Dinos Lefkaritis (2019).",
"See also \n\n New England Small College Athletic Conference\n List of colleges and universities in Maine\n Hidden Ivies: Thirty Colleges of Excellence\n Liberal arts colleges in the United States\n List of colleges and universities in Maine\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading",
"Alfred, Williams Anthony. Bates College and Its Background. (1936) Online Deposit.\n Stuan, Thomas. The Architecture of Bates College. (2006)\n Chase, Harry. Bates College was named after Mansfield Man. (1878)\n Woz, Markus. Bates College – Traditionally Unconventional. (2002)\n Bates College Archives. Bates College Catalog. (1956–2017). 2017 Catalog.\n Bates College Archives. Maine State Seminary Records. Online Deposit.\n Bates College Archives. Bates College Oral History Project. Online Deposit.",
"Bates College Archives. Bates College Oral History Project. Online Deposit.\n Clark, Charles E. Bates Through the Years: an Illustrated History. (2005)\n Smith, Dana. Bates College – U. S. Navy V-12 Program Collection. (1943) Online Deposit.\n Eaton, Mabel. General Catalogue of Bates College and Cobb Divinity School. (1930)\n Larson, Timothy. Faith by Their Works: The Progressive Tradition at Bates College. (2005)\n Calhoun, Charles C. A Small College in Maine. p. 163. (1993)",
"Calhoun, Charles C. A Small College in Maine. p. 163. (1993)\n Johnnett, R. F. Bates Student: A Monthly Magazine. (1878)\n Phillips, F. Charles Bates College in Maine: Enduring Strength and Scholarship. Issue 245. (1952)\n Dormin J. Ettrude, Edith M. Phelps, Julia Emily Johnsen. French Occupation of the Ruhr: Bates College Versus Oxford Union Society of Oxford College. (1923)\n The Bates Student. The Voice of Bates College. (1873–2017)",
"The Bates Student. The Voice of Bates College. (1873–2017)\n Emeline Cheney; Burlingame, Aldrich. The story of the life and work of Oren Burbank Cheney, founder and first president of Bates College. (1907) Online Version.",
"External links \n\n \n Bates Athletics Website\n\n \nLiberal arts colleges in Maine\nEducation in Lewiston, Maine\nUniversities and colleges in Androscoggin County, Maine\nEducational buildings in Lewiston, Maine\n1855 establishments in Maine\nPrivate universities and colleges in Maine\nFree Will Baptist schools\nUniversities and colleges established in 1855"
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Barclay–Vesey Building
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barclay%E2%80%93Vesey%20Building
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[
"The Barclay–Vesey Building (also known as 100 Barclay, the Verizon Building, and formerly the New York Telephone Company Building) is an office and residential building at 140 West Street in Lower Manhattan, New York City. The 32-story building was designed in the Art Deco style by Ralph Walker of Voorhees, Gmelin and Walker, and was Walker's first major commission as well as one of the first Art Deco skyscrapers",
". It occupies the entire block bounded by West Street to the west, Barclay Street to the north, Vesey Street to the south, and Washington Street to the east, abutting the World Trade Center.",
"The Barclay–Vesey Building was constructed from 1923 to 1927 and was the longtime corporate headquarters of New York Telephone and its successor Verizon Communications. The building, being adjacent to the original World Trade Center to the south and 7 World Trade Center to the east, experienced major damage in the September 11 attacks following the collapse of the World Trade Center. Restoration of the building and damaged communications infrastructure after the attacks took three years and cost $1",
".4 billion. In 2016, part of the building was converted into 100 Barclay, a residential condominium development.",
"The Barclay–Vesey Building's architects intended for the structure to have an imposing form, with vertical piers designed as buttresses; setbacks at upper floors; and a program of elaborate ornamentation on the exterior and interior. The Barclay–Vesey Building's design has been widely praised by architectural critics, both for its design scheme and for its symbolism",
". The building was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2009, and its exterior and first-floor interior were declared city landmarks by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission in 1991.",
"Site",
"The Barclay–Vesey Building is on the border of Lower Manhattan's Financial District and Tribeca neighborhoods. It occupies an entire city block bounded by West Street to the west, Vesey Street and the World Trade Center to the south, Washington Street to the east, and Barclay Street to the north. Adjacent buildings include 7 World Trade Center to the east and One World Trade Center to the south",
". The block is parallelogram-shaped, measuring about along West and Washington Streets and along Vesey and Barclay Streets. The total area of the block is .",
"Prior to the 19th century, the Barclay–Vesey Building's site was located off the shore of the North River (now Hudson River). The shore from Vesey Street north to King Street was infilled during the mid-19th century, and docks were constructed west of West Street. A wholesale market called the Washington Market was established on the future Barclay–Vesey Building block in 1812 or 1813",
". To support the market and the nearby food businesses, about 35 three- to five-story brick structures were erected on the block. In addition, there was a lighthouse on the site. When the Barclay–Vesey Building was erected, the site was still on the shoreline of the Hudson River. In the 1970s, Battery Park City was built on filled land along the shore, severing the Barclay–Vesey Building from the waterfront.",
"Architecture",
"The Barclay–Vesey Building, later known as the Verizon Building, was designed by Ralph Thomas Walker in the Art Deco style. It measures tall and contains 32 stories, with mezzanines above the ground, 17th, and 31st stories. The Art Deco style was not yet established when the building was erected, and contemporary publications described the building as being \"Modernistic\" or \"Modern Perpendicular\"",
". Consequently, some architectural critics describe the Barclay–Vesey Building as being the first Art Deco skyscraper. It was also the first major structure that Walker designed for McKenzie, Voorhees & Gmelin, and, as such, was aesthetically distinguished from the firm's previous commissions. The building was constructed by general contractor Marc Eidlitz & Son, with several consulting engineers assisting in the project.",
"Walker intended the Barclay–Vesey Building to be \"as modern as the telephone activity it houses\". His design took several elements from Eliel Saarinen's proposal for Chicago's Tribune Tower, as well as from Walker's own entry in the design competition for the Tribune Tower. Such elements included the Barclay–Vesey Building's setbacks; its vertical piers; and its pyramidal roof, which had been a defining feature of Walker's Tribune Tower proposal",
". The Barclay–Vesey Building's architecture has been compared to San Antonio's Milam Building, the largest pre-stressed concrete and brick office building and the first to have an integrated designed-in air conditioning system",
". Walker subsequently designed other Art Deco buildings in the New York City area, such as the New Jersey Bell Headquarters Building (1929), 60 Hudson Street (1930), 101 Willoughby Street and 1 Wall Street (1931), and 32 Avenue of the Americas (1932), as well as telephone buildings in Upstate New York.",
"Form",
"The massing of the Barclay–Vesey Building includes numerous setbacks. Though setbacks in New York City skyscrapers were mandated by the 1916 Zoning Resolution to allow light and air to reach the streets below, they later became a defining feature of the Art Deco style. The lowest ten floors of the Barclay–Vesey Building occupy the entire area of the city block. Above the 10th floor, there are setbacks on the north and south elevations of the facade",
". Above the 10th floor, there are setbacks on the north and south elevations of the facade. Narrow and deep light courts, to the west and east, create an \"H\"-shaped floor plan from the 11th to the 17th floors. There are smaller setbacks at each corner on the 13th floor. The building rises as a tower above the 17th floor, though smaller wings flank the northern and southern elevations on the 18th and 19th floors",
". The rectangular tower is aligned with buildings on Broadway to the east, so it is parallel to Barclay and Vesey Streets.",
"During the design process, Walker had considered plans for \"a series of stacked blocks connected by blunt transitions\", though this proposal lacked a unified sense of character. The appearance of unity was ultimately attained through the inclusion of piers on the facade. These piers divide the facade into bays. The western and eastern elevations of the Barclay–Vesey Building's facade are 19 bays wide, while the northern and southern elevations contain 23 bays each.",
"The Barclay–Vesey Building's form was also influenced by its interior use. There were numerous functions that did not necessitate sunlight and could operate using artificial light, such as the central operating system and the mechanical space, which was placed inside the building's core. The mechanical core was an important consideration since, at the time, office buildings largely relied on natural ventilation through means such as light courts",
". Because the office space was placed on the exterior walls, the lowest ten stories did not need light courts. As a result, the base could also occupy the entire lot area, with higher setbacks than in other office buildings.",
"Facade",
"The facade was inspired by Maya architecture. Above the granite base, the exterior is clad with brick in hues of green, gold, and buff, a material that Walker preferred for its texture and color. There is cast-stone ornamentation on the building's upper floors, as well as patterned motifs and limestone decoration on the lower floors. The builders used machines to create as many of the decorative features as possible",
". The builders used machines to create as many of the decorative features as possible. The Barclay–Vesey Building also contains serrated stone-and-light-brick parapets, which, when combined with the building's vertical piers, give a naturalistic \"alpine\" look to the setbacks. When taken as a whole, the materials of the facade were intended to give an impression of stability and mass.",
"The facade also serves a protective purpose: the steel frame is enclosed within , heavy masonry in the exterior infill walls. This was composed of of face brick and of terracotta, laid in Portland cement mortar with a waterproofing compound. Face brick on terracotta was used because it was cheaper than solid brick. The windows had wire-glass panes and hollow steel frames for fireproofing",
". The windows had wire-glass panes and hollow steel frames for fireproofing. The modern-day facade contains some Indiana limestone slabs measuring thick; these were installed after the building was damaged during the September 11 attacks in 2001. Thicker limestone panels, measuring thick, were installed around the main entrance.The ornamentation on the facade was carried out by Ulysses Ricci and John De Cesare. Walker wanted the ornamentation to attract passersby and to temper the building's large mass",
". Walker wanted the ornamentation to attract passersby and to temper the building's large mass. For the Barclay–Vesey Building, Walker eschewed traditional motifs, such as egg-and-dart patterns, which he saw as cliched. He wrote that the decorative elements should be \"so complicated in its structure as not to be readily comprehended; its framework should be as hidden as the steel structure itself",
".\" It includes complex foliage; babies and animal heads; and a bell above the door, symbolizing the telephone company. The bell was the only decoration on the facade that indicated the building's original use as a telecommunications center. Though Walker characterized the ornamental program as \"free and flowing\", it was actually rigid and complex. Architectural critic Lewis Mumford stated that the ornamental program at ground level was an extensive \"rock garden\".",
"Ground story",
"The main facades are on West and Washington Streets to the west and east, respectively. At the center of each side, there are large entrance portals that are three bays wide and two stories tall. These portals contain bronze-framed doorways with decorative motifs. Above the doors are bronze screens with vine-and-grape ornamentation; these formerly also contained motifs of bells to represent the New York Telephone Company",
". The main entrance portals are framed with a decorative limestone lintel depicting a bird and human figures. The limestone friezes above each set of doors depict a bell flanked by a Mongolian and a Native American, which respectively symbolize the Eastern world and the Western world. On the West Street facade, the main entrance portal is flanked on either side by two single-width double-height bays, a triple-width double-height bay, and another single-width double-height bay",
". These double-height bays contain storefronts. From top to bottom, the storefronts at the base are generally composed of a solid panel, glazed glass, and a decorative transom.",
"There is an enclosed, arched arcade above the Vesey Street sidewalk on the southern facade, measuring approximately wide and long. There are 12 arches in total; each corresponds to two window bays above, except the westernmost arch, which corresponds to one window bay. The arches are supported by brick piers while the ceilings are composed of Guastavino tiles",
". The arches are supported by brick piers while the ceilings are composed of Guastavino tiles. The arcade was a compromise design because the city wanted to expand the street during the building's construction, while Walker wanted a larger base. The arcade was called \"one of the most comfortable shopping fronts in New York City\" when the Barclay–Vesey Building was completed, but because it was so dark, the arcade did not receive too much pedestrian traffic",
". Nevertheless, numerous enterprises were located in the arcade, including a circulating library. The Vesey Street storefronts were converted to office space by the 2000s.",
"The north facade also contains storefronts set within double-width, double-height arches. Two of the central arches were converted into rectangular garage openings.",
"Upper stories",
"On the second through 32nd stories, the window design is mostly consistent. Most window openings contain three-over-three sash windows, though some openings have been covered with louvered grates, especially in places where there are mechanical or communications equipment",
". The second-story windows are generally topped by elaborate triangular limestone surrounds that contain carvings of birds, grapes, and vines, except at the corners of the building, where the second-story windows contain lintels and sills with carvings of grapes and vines. The third-story windows also contain sills with grape and vine carvings. The fourth- through 32nd-story windows have plain, undecorated sills and windows. Each window bay is separated by vertical limestone piers.",
"Cast stone decorative elements are concentrated above the 20th story. For example, at the 29th story, the corner piers contain elephant heads with geometrically shaped ears and trunks. The 30th floor, 31st floor, and 31st-floor mezzanine contains five triple-height arched windows on each facade. Stone piers protrude above the rooftop level, which contains some mechanical equipment.\n\nFeatures",
"Structural features",
"The building's basements extend deep and are surrounded by a concrete cofferdam measuring thick. The cofferdam encloses steel braces that descend to below the curb. Above ground, there is masonry encasing the steel superstructure. Brick, cinder, concrete, and other masonry materials are used throughout the interior. The floors are made of reinforced concrete, and wood was avoided in the building where possible, with steel doors used for fireproofing",
". The stairs and corridors were also designed to be fire- and smoke-proof, with partitions throughout the building. Some of steel was used in the substructure, while of steel was used in the superstructure.",
"Mechanical features",
"The building was split mechanically into two sections: one serving the basements and lowest 16 floors, and another serving the 18th through 32nd floors. The 17th floor housed the mechanical equipment. This was in contrast to other buildings, where mechanical equipment were usually contained on their roofs or in their basements. The floors could handle live structural loads of up to , depending on the intended uses of each floor section",
". The Barclay–Vesey Building was equipped with electric ducts on every floor, so a wire could be brought to within of any point in the building. Two 110-to-220-volt direct current power lines provided power for the building's normal operation, though either line could provide all of the building's power if the other line failed. In addition, there were two 13,400-volt, three-phase alternating current lines for the telephone exchanges. There were also 35 motor generators with a total capacity of .",
"Heating and ventilation systems in the Barclay–Vesey Building were also divided into three sections: the basements to the 10th story, the 11th to 17th stories, and the 18th to 32nd stories. Air distribution to each section was controlled by a panel in the fourth basement, which operated pneumatic valves in the 10th story and 17th mezzanine. The heat was provided by four boilers, which were powered by coal bunkers with a capacity of",
". The heat was provided by four boilers, which were powered by coal bunkers with a capacity of . The heat was then distributed to the upper stories through 3,000 radiators. Within the lobby, two recirculating systems were installed, taking hot air from the ceiling and discharging it into the floor. The restrooms had their own ventilation shaft, discharging air at the roof. There was also an ice-making plant in the basement, which could create of ice every 24 hours.",
"The building's water-supply system is divided into three sections. The basements and ground story were served directly by the New York City water supply system. The second through 16th stories were supplied by a tank on the 17th-story mezzanine. The 18th through 32nd stories were supplied by a tank on the 32nd story. The tanks on the 17th mezzanine and 32nd story were each served exclusively by two pumps, and a fifth pump could serve either tank",
". Hot water was provided by heaters on the first basement, the fourth story, and the 17th mezzanine. The original fire-protection system had tanks with a total capacity of , with a large tank on the roof and smaller reserve tanks on the eighth, 17th mezzanine, and 25th floors. The fourth basement had two motor-driven pumps, which could provide of water per minute.",
"The building's drainage system was divided into several sections. In the basements and the first story, the sanitary system discharged into ejectors in the fifth basement. On and above the second story, there were two main sanitary stacks serving alternate floors. The roof had a separate drainage system that connected directly to the city's sewer system. Subsoil water and floor drains emptied into a sump in the fifth basement. From there, two sump pumps drained the water out of the building.",
"Interior",
"In his design for the Barclay–Vesey Building, Walker believed that the structure should serve \"as a machine which had definite functions to perform for the benefit of its occupants.\" The design scheme for the interior is a continuation of that on the facade, which was a relatively rare stylistic choice of the time, since many contemporary buildings were being designed with modern-styled exteriors and historically styled interiors. Walker created the interior elements by machine when it was possible",
". Walker created the interior elements by machine when it was possible. Mumford likened this continuity in interior and exterior design to the works of Frank Lloyd Wright, Henry Hobson Richardson, and Louis Sullivan, which also exhibited such consistency. The interior space covers . When used as a telephone facility, the Barclay–Vesey Building could accommodate 6,000 workers in of usable space.",
"There are 26 elevators to transport tenants to upper floors. The second through 16th floors are served by two elevator lobbies, while the 18th through 32nd floors are served by a single elevator lobby. When the building opened, there were four banks of passenger elevators with 24 cabs between them. Elevator banks A and B each had four cabs and served the lowest ten floors. They were manually operated, running at",
". They were manually operated, running at . Elevator bank C had eight cabs: two of these served all stories from the deepest basement to the 30th floor, while the others skipped all stories between the lobby and the 10th floor. Elevator bank D also had eight cabs, which skipped all stories between the lobby and the 16th floor. The two larger banks of elevators were fully automatic and could travel at up to",
". The two larger banks of elevators were fully automatic and could travel at up to . In addition, there was a service elevator, a \"low-speed\" freight elevator, and an observation cab running from the 30th floor to the roof. During the morning peak, the elevator system was designed to receive 180 persons per minute, with cabs departing the lobby every five seconds.",
"Lobby",
"The lobby runs between the West and Washington Street entrances to the west and east, with a vaulted ceiling. The interior of the lobby includes buff-colored veined marble walls and floors. Travertine was used on the walls while Levanto marble was used for baseboards and trim. Toward the center of the lobby, there are two alcoves each on the north and south walls, which lead to the elevator banks. The northern alcoves both contain eight elevators while the southern alcoves both contain four elevators",
". All of the elevator alcoves contain painted ceilings and ornate bronze fixtures for ventilation and lights. The elevator doors were originally made of hammered iron, and the interiors of the elevator cabs had walnut panels. A telephone alcove is also placed off the lobby. Since the upper floors' residential overhaul in the 2010s, the western half of the lobby is still used by Verizon, but the eastern half is used as a residents' lounge.",
"The lobby has an Art Deco decorative scheme. These works were designed by Ricci and De Cesare, and executed by Edgar Williams and Mack, Jenney & Tyler. The elevator doors are framed by bronze surrounds, while the elevator lobbies feature Levanto marble walls. Other doorways leading from the lobby, as well as the fluted pilasters along the lobby's length, are also made of Levanto marble",
". The doors from the lobby are made of bronze, as are the capitals of the pilasters, which incorporate grape-and-vine motifs.",
"The lobby features inlaid bronze medallions in the floor, which depict the construction of the telephone system. The medallion on the eastern side depicts a female telephone operator, and that on the western side depicts a lineworker. There are twelve ceiling murals that depict how human communication has progressed, from Aztec runners to the telephone. Nine murals (five at the western entrance and four at the eastern entrance) demonstrate the ancient methods of communication",
". The three center murals depict modern communication. Two bronze chandeliers with complex ornamentation hang from the ceiling. The chandeliers are suspended from motifs of \"angelic figures\".",
"Other floors",
"The Barclay–Vesey Building has five sub-basement levels, which house communications equipment. Originally, four of the sub-basements had lead-covered cables and storage batteries with a capacity. At the time of the September 11 attacks, Verizon was using the building as a main telecommunications switching center in Lower Manhattan, handling approximately 200,000 phone lines and 3.6 million data circuits. These circuits traveled as far north as 42nd Street",
".6 million data circuits. These circuits traveled as far north as 42nd Street. In emergencies, the 17th floor could provide services to the building's base. As built, the Barclay–Vesey Building contained a cafeteria and recreation rooms within one of its basements. These spaces contained trees and paintings. A mural, depicting a panoramic view of the Mediterranean from Spain, decorated one wall.",
"When the Barclay–Vesey Building opened, it contained an auditorium at ground level and a gymnasium at the ground-floor mezzanine. The lowest ten floors above ground were intended for use as office space serving the central telephone offices. Each of these stories covered approximately . The upper stories' corridors generally had terrazzo floors, as well as Botticino marble wainscoting beneath buff-colored plaster walls",
". The elevator lobbies on each floor were equipped with illuminated signs, indicating which sets of elevators served that floor. The 29th floor included New York Telephone's offices. The 29th-story corridors and anteroom had travertine stone floors, Levanto marble baseboards, Kato stone wainscoting, and plaster friezes and ceilings. White oak floors and curly maple paneling were used in the suite itself. The 31st floor contained an assembly room that could hold 6,500 workers",
". The 31st floor contained an assembly room that could hold 6,500 workers. There was also a training school for workers.",
"The stories above the 10th floor have been converted into 157 luxury condominium units. There is a separate lobby for residents on the Barclay Street side, which connects to the original lobby. The penthouse apartment, a duplex unit on the 31st and 32nd floors, covers with a living room, advertised as the largest in the city. The building also contains an wading pool and an lap pool",
". The building also contains an wading pool and an lap pool. Other features of the residential portion of the Barclay–Vesey Building include rooms for wine-tasting and billiards; music practice; a fitness center; a children's playroom; and a residents' lounge. There are also four residential terraces.",
"History",
"Development",
"The New York Telephone Company began to grow rapidly after World War I. An internal review of the organizational structure found that its New York City operations were housed in multiple buildings across the city and were thus inefficient. The company's main office was at 15 Dey Street, which had not been enlarged since 1904 and could not house the company's 33,000 employees",
". The company's president from 1919 to 1924, Howard Ford Thurber, sought to centralize the company's operations into a single large headquarters to \"satisfy the present demands and to reasonably anticipate future requirements\". In the early 1920s, the New York Telephone Company started acquiring the entire block between West, Barclay, Washington, and Vesey Streets",
". The site was chosen \"because real estate values in that vicinity were much lower\" compared to the area around Broadway, being relatively isolated from the rest of the neighborhood. The company owned the entire block by 1923, by which it had spent $1.5 million on acquisitions.",
"Planning",
"In April 1923, the company announced that it intended to build a new headquarters at a projected cost of $11.5 million. The structure was to house 6,000 employees from the company's six central offices, who would work with 120,000 telephones, as well as mechanical equipment to support the company's equipment. The initial design called for a height of , with of office space, and of commercial ground-floor storefronts",
". In addition, the building would be erected with a steel-and-concrete frame, as well as facade trim made of limestone and buff-colored brick. The building was to be designed by Ralph Walker of Kenzie, Voorhees & Gmelin, who was then thirty-four years old and relatively inexperienced. At the time, construction was expected to be completed in July 1925.",
"Walker may have started planning the Barclay–Vesey Building in 1921. He wished to create a \"strong corporate image\" for the structure, and he sought to ensure that the proposed headquarters would comply with the 1916 Zoning Resolution while also being spacious and relatively inexpensive. According to S. F. Voorhees, an efficiently designed building on the site could not be taller than 43 stories. Consequently, Walker created designs for a structure containing 10, 16, 26, 29, 32, 36, and 42 floors",
". Voorhees's studies found that a 16-story building was most efficient in terms of \"quantities of space\", while a 29-story building would have the lowest construction costs per square foot. The latter calculation also allowed the architects to determine how many basement stories were required. The height of the tower was in part influenced by how many elevators were required, since elevators took up a significant part of the rentable area on upper stories.",
"Walker tested out different architectural styles, such as the Gothic and Italian Renaissance styles, before settling on a \"modernistic\" Art Deco style. The 32-story proposal was ultimately deemed the most efficient. The blueprints for the 32-story proposal, with setbacks at the 10th, 13th, 17th, and 19th floors, were submitted to the New York City Department of Buildings in June 1923",
". That December, New York Telephone Company officials sought permission from the New York City Board of Appeals to construct part of the building above the surrounding sidewalks.",
"Construction",
"Demolition of existing buildings on the site commenced in May 1923, but high material costs at the time prompted officials to delay construction of the building's foundation. Work on the foundation began on June 20, 1923. Because the site was mostly artificial fill with riprap buttressing, water from the Hudson River sometimes leaked through to the foundation. The building's foundation needed to descend to the level of the bedrock, and the earth was described as having a slimy consistency below water level",
". Since the bedrock was deeper than originally anticipated, this allowed the builders to include five basement levels rather than four. To keep out the water and slime-like earth, the builders erected a cofferdam with 22 caissons. Each caisson measured thick by long and was sunk to a depth of . The builders then laid down permanent steel struts to hold back the cofferdam",
". The builders then laid down permanent steel struts to hold back the cofferdam. Not only was this likely the first such use of steel bracing, it saved $30,000 compared to the temporary wood bracing that had been used in previous projects.",
"During construction, almost 700 workers were employed for the project at any given time; tradesmen, such as plumbers and electricians, worked with concrete and steel contractors in overlapping shifts, in order to reduce delays. The superstructure incorporated of steel across its above-ground and below-ground sections, and the builders used six derricks to lift the girders from the street. Four temporary stairways, each containing 351 steps, were built to facilitate the construction of the upper floors",
". The floor arches were built starting in October 1924; on average, one floor was completed per week. The last rivet in the building was installed in May 1925, and the last brick was laid that September. The New York Building Congress gave craftsmanship awards to several workers to celebrate the building's completion. New York Telephone's vice president James S. McCulloh placed both the first and the last rivets.",
"The first employees moved to the Barclay–Vesey Building on February 19, 1926. All construction on the Barclay–Vesey Building was completed by June 1926. However, the New York City Department of Buildings did not declare the building to be completed until April 1927.\n\n20th-century use",
"20th-century use\n\nNew York Telephone originally had four dial telephone exchanges at the Barclay–Vesey Building. Two additional exchanges were activated in 1928, which would be able to serve 125,000 additional subscribers; at the time, Lower Manhattan was one of the busiest telephone districts in the world. During the mid-20th century, office space was gradually removed to make room for additional equipment.",
"In 1970, the company signed an agreement to move its executive offices to 1095 Avenue of the Americas, a proposed 53-story speculative development near Bryant Park in Midtown Manhattan, which would be larger than the existing West Street offices. Two years later, the New York Telephone offices had moved out of the Barclay–Vesey Building, though the switching offices remained. When NYNEX was formed as a result of the breakup of the original AT&T in 1984, the building became NYNEX's headquarters",
". Improvements in technology resulted in the invention of smaller telephone equipment, leading to an increase in available office space at the Barclay–Vesey Building. By the 1990s, some office workers were moving back into the Barclay–Vesey Building.",
"The exteriors and ground-floor lobbies of the Barclay–Vesey Building and two other telecommunications buildings were designated city landmarks by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission in 1991. New York Telephone supported the designation, and the company's own media had previously described the building as a \"landmark\". The Barclay–Vesey Building became the headquarters of Bell Atlantic following Bell Atlantic's 1997 merger with NYNEX",
". Subsequently, in 2000, the building became Verizon Communications' headquarters after Verizon was formed from the merger of Bell Atlantic and GTE.",
"21st-century use",
"Damage and restoration",
"At the time of the September 11, 2001 attacks, the Barclay–Vesey Building was being renovated. The Barclay–Vesey Building had been adjacent to 7 World Trade Center to the east and the World Trade Center's Twin Towers to the south, and when the three buildings collapsed during the attacks, the south and east facades were severely damaged by falling steel beams",
". The collapse of the World Trade Center caused the partial collapses of some floor slabs near the windows, though the building as a whole was not in immediate danger of collapse. Debris also sliced water mains, flooding the basements. As a result, underground cable vaults belonging to Verizon, along with other underground utility infrastructure, were heavily damaged from water and debris",
". The Barclay–Vesey Building received only moderate damage because its thick-masonry design gave the building added strength, but two of the facades were damaged. The masonry allowed the structure to absorb much of the energy from debris hitting the building, and damage was restricted mostly to impact points. Although no fires were observed in the Barclay–Vesey Building, the ground-floor murals were damaged by smoke.",
"Tishman Realty & Construction, which had been planning work on the building prior to the attacks, did a quick assessment of the building in the days after the attack. illiam F. Collins AIA Architects was the lead architectural firm working on the restoration, while Tishman Interiors managed the project. The Excalibur Bronze Foundry and Petrillo Stone were hired as specialists to restore the intricate ornamental detail in the facade and in the lobby",
". The facade restoration involved carving motif designs in the ornamental limestone, as well as installing of Indiana limestone and of Stony Creek granite. For the murals in the lobby, hypodermic needles were used to inject acrylic resin to restore the paint and plaster. On the executive office floors, workers restored the barrel-vaulted ceilings, plaster friezes, and other elements",
". Restoration of the building also involved replacing a corner column; A+ Construction of Rye, New York was responsible for this work. The building's 23 elevators were also upgraded; new fire alarms, building command systems, and chillers were installed; and restrooms were made accessible to those with disabilities.",
"Restoration of the building took three years, at a cost of $1.4 billion. The New York Times stated that the project would cost \"three-quarters of the Chrysler Building's estimated total value.\" Throughout the restoration, the building continued to serve as a telephone switching center. In 2004, the New York Landmarks Conservancy awarded Tishman Interiors the Lucy G. Moses Preservation Award for its restoration work on the Barclay–Vesey Building. The restoration was complete by late 2005",
". The restoration was complete by late 2005. That December, Verizon announced it would move its offices from 1095 Avenue of the Americas to 140 West Street, where there would be space for 1,500 employees; the operations hub was relocated to Verizon's campus in Basking Ridge, New Jersey. The Barclay–Vesey Building was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2009.",
"Partial sale and residential conversion",
"The building was partially flooded by storm surges from Hurricane Sandy in 2012, which seeped into the basement levels, took all except one of the elevators out of service, and damaged the lobby murals. The next year, Verizon sold off the top floors to developer Ben Shaoul, the head of Magnum Real Estate. Verizon retained the 28th and 29th floors as well as the ground through 10th stories",
". Verizon retained the 28th and 29th floors as well as the ground through 10th stories. In conjunction with this sale, Verizon moved 1,100 employees to Downtown Brooklyn and relocated others to 1095 Avenue of the Americas. To prevent against future flood damage, Verizon installed a storm surge barrier in front of the building.",
"Following Verizon's sale of the top floors, it was announced that Magnum Real Estate would convert the upper floors to a condominium complex known as 100 Barclay. Shaoul and the CIM Group obtained a $390 million loan in February 2015 to help finance the project. The partners added 157 units to the Barclay–Vesey Building and placed the first condos for sale in early 2016",
". However, 100 Barclay's residential units remained largely unoccupied by 2019, leading Magnum Real Estate to reduce the penthouse's asking price from $59 million to $39 million. To fill up the unused units, Magnum Real Estate also started advertising to renters.",
"Critical reception",
"The Barclay–Vesey Building received much positive acclaim when it was completed. New York Telephone dubbed the headquarters \"a symbol of service and progress\", while Mumford said that the design \"expresses the achievements of contemporary American architecture...better than any other skyscraper I have seen.\" Joseph Pennell called the Barclay–Vesey Building \"the most impressive modern building in the world\", and Talbot Hamlin predicted it would be \"a monument of American progress in architecture",
".\" The New York Herald, New York Tribune wrote: \"The architects deserve our thanks for their trust in the fundamental qualities of design.\" The building was on the frontispiece of the English version of Toward an Architecture by Le Corbusier, such was its stature. These favorable reviews have continued through the 21st century: the 2009 Guide to New York City Landmarks described the building as \"one of the most significant structures in skyscraper design\".",
"The design received awards from civic groups as well. In February 1927, the Architectural League of New York awarded Walker a gold medal of honor for the design, lauding its \"quality of excellence\" and saying that \"A result has been achieved expressive of a high degree of skill and good taste in both general mass and in interesting detail.\" That October, the Broadway Association gave the New York Telephone Company an award for the Barclay–Vesey Building, calling it a \"contribution to civic advancement.\"",
"Praise also focused on specific elements of the Barclay–Vesey Building. The architect Harvey Wiley Corbett said that the ornamental program was \"straightforward and appropriate and eminently right\". Mumford wrote that the Barclay–Vesey Building was \"perhaps the first large structure\" besides Chicago's Auditorium Building to \"carry through with a significant scheme of decoration\", in particular praising the lobby as \"a gay efflorescence of remarkably good decoration\"",
". Similarly, Hamlin wrote that the lobby \"proves that as beautiful a richness of color and form can be obtained freely and non-stylistically as in any of the historical styles\". Following the September 11 attacks, Verizon's corporate-real-estate manager praised the Barclay–Vesey Building's resilience, referring to the building as a \"tank\".",
"Some parts of the design were also criticized. In 1991, New York Times architectural writer Phillip Lopate stated that \"the corporate publicity aspects of the Barclay–Vesey lobby seem, by today's standards, overdone and kitschy\" compared to Walker's later 60 Hudson Street commission, which was austere. Mumford, who largely liked the design, found the base–tower transition and the building's general shape to be an \"annoying defect\", believing that Walker could have designed the massing more creatively.",
"See also\n 90 West Street, another nearby building damaged in the 9/11 attacks\n List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan below 14th Street\n National Register of Historic Places listings in Manhattan below 14th Street\n\nReferences\n\nNotes\n\nCitations\n\nSources\n\nExternal links\n\n Condominium website",
"1927 establishments in New York City\nArt Deco architecture in Manhattan\nArt Deco skyscrapers\nCommercial buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Manhattan\nCondominium conversions\nCondominiums and housing cooperatives in Manhattan\nNew York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan\nNew York City interior landmarks\nOffice buildings in Manhattan\nOffice buildings completed in 1927\nResidential buildings completed in 1927\nResidential buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Manhattan",
"Residential buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Manhattan\nResidential skyscrapers in Manhattan\nRestored and conserved buildings\nSkyscraper office buildings in Manhattan\nTelecommunications buildings on the National Register of Historic Places\nTelecommunications company headquarters in the United States\nTelephone exchange buildings\nTribeca\nVerizon Communications\nWest Side Highway\nRalph Thomas Walker buildings"
] |
2013 Serena Williams tennis season
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2013%20Serena%20Williams%20tennis%20season
|
[
"The 2013 Serena Williams tennis season officially began on 30 December 2012 with the start of the 2013 WTA Tour. Williams produced the most consistent season of her career, reaching 13 finals and winning 11 titles, the most since Martina Hingis won 12 titles in 1997. She also won her second French Open, her first since 2002, as well as her fifth US Open. Williams dominated the clay court season, winning five titles and all 28 of her matches on the surface to produce her career-best winning streak at 34",
". She had a winning percentage of 95.1%, the highest since 1990, and became the first women's player to eclipse the US$10 million prize money mark at US$12,385,572. Williams finished the year as the world No. 1 for the third time in her career. For her performance in the 2013 season, she was named ITF World Champion for the fourth time and the second time in a row.",
"Year in detail\n\nEarly hard court season and Australian Open",
"Brisbane International",
"Williams began her 2013 campaign at the Brisbane International. In her first match, she faced compatriot and second-ranked American Varvara Lepchenko and won in straight sets in 59 minutes. In the second round, she faced Frenchwoman Alizé Cornet and took the match, winning both sets at two in exactly an hour with the help of 6 aces. In the quarterfinals, Williams faced another American in Sloane Stephens and defeated her younger foe, breaking Stephens once in each set, while holding her serve at each time",
". In the semifinals Williams was bound to face world no. 1 Victoria Azarenka; however, the Belarusian withdrew before the match with a toe injury, giving Williams a free bye into the final. In the final, Williams faced Russian Anastasia Pavlyuchenkova; the match started with holds in the first four games but Williams then took seven games in a row before Pavlyuchenkova took another game. Williams then closed out the match, losing only three games.",
"Australian Open",
"Williams came into the Australian Open as the heavy favorite to win the title; she was coming in with a 17-match winning streak that stretched from the 2012 US Open and a 21-set winning streak stretching from the third set of the US Open final. In the first round, she faced Edina Gallovits-Hall, where Williams suffered a health scare when she twisted her right ankle in the fifth game of the first set, however it did not hamper her as she won without dropping a game",
". In the next round she faced Garbiñe Muguruza and suffered another incident, when Williams's hit smacked her mouth with her racket following through on a defensive lob. Williams broke in the first game and also in the seventh game to win the first set; she then cruised through the second set with a bagel. In the third round, against Japanese Ayumi Morita, she served her second 207 km/h serve of the tournament",
". Williams roared through the first set losing only one game, Morita then took the first three games, Williams then won the last six games to win the match. Williams then faced 14th seed, Russia's Maria Kirilenko. Williams broke in the fourth and eighth games of the match to take the first set; she served 95% of first serve in the set. Williams stormed past the second set with a bagel to advance to the quarterfinals. Williams at one point won 23 straight service points",
". Williams at one point won 23 straight service points. Williams also made 22 winners with 6 aces to Kirilenko's 7 winners with 1 ace, she also only made 6 unforced errors to Kirilenko's 15 In the quarterfinals she faced compatriot Sloane Stephens; Williams took the first set by breaking in the eighth game. Williams then suffered a back spasm in the middle of the second set, where she led by a break but eventually lost the set 5–7",
". In the third set, Williams led by a break by the seventh game but eventually lost the next 3 games, losing to Stephens. Both women, made 23 winners; however, Williams made more unforced errors with 48 to Stephens 39. She also ended her 20-match winning streak and her 30 sets won in a row.",
"Serena Williams also played doubles with sister Venus. In the first three rounds, they faced Camila Giorgi and Stefanie Vögele, Vera Dushevina and Olga Govortsova, and fifth seeds Nadia Petrova and Katarina Srebotnik winning in straight sets in all three victories. In the quarterfinals, they faced top seeds Roberta Vinci and Sara Errani, they took the first set and served for the match at 6–5, until they eventual lost the seconds set in a tie-break",
". They also had many chances in the third but lost it in the end 5–7.",
"Qatar Total Open",
"Williams then played at the Qatar Total Open in Doha for the first time. Williams, being seeded second, received a bye in the first round. In the second round, she faced a lucky loser in Russian Daria Gavrilova. Williams from the fifth game racked in nine straight games, Williams served out the match, she hit 25 winners to Gavrilova's 9, and both hit 14 unforced errors. In the second round she faced the younger Radwańska Urszula, Williams won the first eight games, before being broken by Radwańska",
". Williams closed it out in the ninth game of the second set. Williams had a 20–15 winner-unforced error to Radwańska's 6–20. In the quarterfinals she faced world no. 8 Petra Kvitová, Kvitová took the first break in the sixth game and took advantage, winning the set, the first set Williams has lost to Kvitová. The second set went Williams' favor as she broke in the eighth game closed it out. In the deciding set Kvitová took a break lead by the fifth game. However Williams came back to win the set 7–5",
". However Williams came back to win the set 7–5. Williams made 14 aces to Kvitová's 9, both served 8 double faults. Williams made 37 winners to Kvitová's 35, but she also made more unforced errors 31 to 28. This win gave Williams the WTA number 1 ranking, becoming the oldest to hold it. In the semifinals, Williams faced world no. 3 Maria Sharapova. Williams took the first set after breaking in the sixth game. Williams then dominated the second set, breaking the Russian twice to win it",
". Williams then dominated the second set, breaking the Russian twice to win it. In the final, Williams faced the top seed Victoria Azarenka, Williams went down by a break, but came back, eventually led to a tie-break. Williams had set point on serve at 6–5, but lost the next three points to lose the breaker. Williams then took control of the second set winning it with two breaks",
". Williams then took control of the second set winning it with two breaks. In the third set, Williams started slowly, losing the first three games, and it was enough for Azarenka as they both held serve until the end of the match. This loss was the first to Azarenka since the 2009 Sony Ericsson Open and ended Williams' 9-match winning streak against Azarenka.",
"Dubai Tennis Championships\nWilliams withdrew 45 minutes before she was due to play Marion Bartoli at the Dubai Tennis Championships with a back injury. This withdrawal will count as a zero-pointer in her allotted year-end rankings.",
"Sony Open Tennis",
"Playing in her first tournament as the world no. 1 at the Sony Open Tennis as the top seed she received a bye into the second round where she faced Italian Flavia Pennetta. Williams took the first set with a loss of one game; she come back from triple break point down twice and she was 2/10 in break point opportunities. The second set was won by Williams by the same score",
". The second set was won by Williams by the same score. Williams then took on Ayumi Morita, Morita took the first 3 games of the match, but Williams pegged back taking the next 7 games, Williams then broke Morita in the sixth game of the second set to take the match. In the fourth round, she faced Slovakian Dominika Cibulková, the match started with 2 breaks, Cibulková then took the next seven games from the fourth game, to take a set and break lead",
". Williams then took the next six games from, in the process winning the second set. Williams then completed her comeback, winning the third by 2. Williams ended with 40–41 winners-unforced errors to her opponents 12–19 ratio. In the quarterfinals, Williams faced Li Na. Williams took the first set breaking Li in the sixth game of the match",
". Williams took the first set breaking Li in the sixth game of the match. In the second set Williams took a break lead but Li took the next five games and had a set point on the Williams serve, Williams saved the set point and took the next four games to force a tie-break, that went to Williams. In the semifinals, she faced fourth seed and defending champion Agnieszka Radwańska. Williams took the first set without dropping a game",
". Williams took the first set without dropping a game. In the second set Williams broke Radwańska in the third game to finally take the set and the match. She hit 40 winners and 21 unforced errors to Radwańska's 6 winners and 12 unforced errors. Williams made 12 aces including 5 in the third game of the second set. In the final Williams faced Maria Sharapova. Sharapova got the decisive break in the ninth game and serve the set out",
". Sharapova got the decisive break in the ninth game and serve the set out. This ended the 13 straight sets Williams had won over Sharapova and the first she had lost in 5 years. In the second set, Williams won the first two games before Sharapova reeled off three straight games herself. Being a break down Williams reeled off 10 straight games to win the match. Williams had a 34–29 winners-to-unforced errors ratio to Sharapova's 14–25",
". Williams had a 34–29 winners-to-unforced errors ratio to Sharapova's 14–25. This win gave Williams the most titles at the tournament at six and most wins at the event at 61 and is tied with Agassi in both accolades. This win also meant that Williams has beaten Sharapova 11 straight times.",
"Clay court season and French Open",
"Family Circle Cup",
"Williams then played her first clay court tournament at the Family Circle Cup. She entered the event as the defending champion and as the first seed. Williams received a bye to go through the second round, where she faced Camila Giorgi. Williams won the first set with Giorgi breaking and winning serve only once. In the second set, Williams broke in the fifth game and ninth game of the match to advance",
". In the second set, Williams broke in the fifth game and ninth game of the match to advance. Williams made nine aces and no double faults, whereas her opponent made five aces to a dozen double faults. On the following day, she faced compatriot Mallory Burdette, the first set went on serve until Williams broke in the tenth game to take the set. Williams then got broken in the first game, but came back winning six of the last seven games to win",
". Later in the day Williams played her quarterfinal match, playing two singles match in the same for the first time in her career. Williams took on Lucie Šafářová in a rematch of last year's final. The match began with two breaks, Šafářová then broke in the fifth game and then consolidated the break. However, Williams came back winning 10 of the last 11 games to go through",
". However, Williams came back winning 10 of the last 11 games to go through. In the semifinals Williams faced big sister Venus Williams in their 24 meeting and their first in more than three years, with their last match coming in the 2009 WTA Tour Championships Final. The first set went to Serena, with Serena breaking Venus thrice in the set, with she her herself getting broken once. In the second set, Serena broke Venus' serve in the first and seventh game to advance to the final",
". In the second set, Serena broke Venus' serve in the first and seventh game to advance to the final. The match was the fewest games won by the losing foe with three in all of the 24 meeting between the sisters. In the final, Williams faced Jelena Janković, whom she had led 5–4 in head-to-head. The first set, four games stayed on serve with Williams not dropping a point and Janković being pushed to deuce. However, things turned around as Janković broke Williams in the fifth and ninth game to take the set",
". The second set saw Williams rallied to take all of the six games to win it with a bagel. The third set went to Williams breaking Janković in the third and seventh game and served out the match in her third match point. Williams was 39–25 winners to unforced errors to Janković 21–23. This is Williams third Family Circle Cup and extends her 15-match winning streak at the event.",
"Mutua Madrid Open",
"Williams came into the Mutua Madrid Open as the defending champion. Williams began her defense against Yulia Putintseva. Putintseva broke Williams in the opening game; Williams then broke back in the sixth game. The opening set then went to a tie-break, with Williams winning it. In the second set, Williams broke serve four times, while getting broken once herself to win the second set with a breadstick to win the match. In the following round, Williams went against local Lourdes Domínguez Lino",
". In the following round, Williams went against local Lourdes Domínguez Lino. Williams took an early lead in the first set and served for it in the seventh game just to be broken, but broke back to take the set. In the second set, they went toe-to-toe, where Williams sneaked ahead, breaking in the twelfth game to win the match. In the round of 16, Williams faced 13th seed Maria Kirilenko. Both held serves in the first six games, until Williams raced through, winning nine of the last ten games",
". Williams made 22 winners and 10 unforced errors to Kirilenko's 9 and 25. Williams lost 2 points on serve, both on the second serve, and made no unforced errors in the second set. In the last 8, Williams took on wild card Anabel Medina Garrigues; the first set went on serve until Williams broke in the eighth game and then served it out. In the second set, Medina Garrigues took advantage of an erratic Williams taking the second set in a bagel",
". Williams took the first two games of the final set just to see Medina Garrigues take the next four; however, Williams came back and won the set in the twelfth game. Williams made 39 winners to 48 unforced errors to Medina Garrigues' 19 and 18. In the semifinals, Williams faced Sara Errani. Errani broke twice in the third and seventh game just to see Williams break back right after. Williams then broke in a hard-fought game in the twelfth game to take the set",
". Williams then broke in a hard-fought game in the twelfth game to take the set. Williams then broke Errani in the fourth game and then in the eighth game to advance to the final. Williams made 47 winners to Errani's 8 and 39 unforced errors to Errani's 13. This marks Williams first red clay final since her triumph in the 2002 French Open. Williams faced 2nd-seed Maria Sharapova in the final, where the winner could take the number 1 ranking",
". Williams dominated the first set, winning the first four games and eventually closing it out in the seventh game. Sharapova then broke Williams in the opening game but Williams broke back in sixth game and then again in the tenth game to take the match. Williams made 18 winners and unforced errors, while Sharapova made 14 winners to 21 unforced errors. This is Williams' 50th career title and her first on the red clay since the 2002 French Open.",
"Internazionali BNL d'Italia",
"Williams came into the Internazionali BNL d'Italia with a 19-match winning streak and the top seed. She received a bye into the round of 16 and played British number 1 Laura Robson. The match began with Robson breaking Williams; however Williams won 6 of the next 7 games to take the set. Williams then broke serve twice to take a similar scoreline and advance. Williams was 13–11 winners-unforced errors to Robson 16–35",
". Williams was 13–11 winners-unforced errors to Robson 16–35. In the next round she took on Dominika Cibulková and dropped only a game in the match and made 40 winners to 16 unforced errors. In the final 8, Williams faced Carla Suárez Navarro. Williams took control of the match losing only two games both in the first set. Williams made 26 winners to 14 unforced errors to the Spaniards 9 winners and 16 unforced errors. In the semifinals, Williams went against surprise semifinalist in qualifier Simona Halep",
". In the semifinals, Williams went against surprise semifinalist in qualifier Simona Halep. Halep took an early break in the third game, however Williams came back winning 11 of the last 12 games, including a bagel in the second set to win the match. Williams made 24 winners and 20 unforced errors to Halep's 3 and 17. In the final she faced Victoria Azarenka in a rematch of the Doha final",
". In the final she faced Victoria Azarenka in a rematch of the Doha final. Williams took the first three games before Azarenka could take a game breaking Williams' serve in the fourth game, Williams then took the next three to win the set. The pair then traded three breaks of serve from the sixth game, before Williams could serve it out in the ninth game and revenge her loss. Williams hit 41 winners and 19 unforced errors in the match along with 8 aces",
". Williams hit 41 winners and 19 unforced errors in the match along with 8 aces. The win extends Williams longest winning streak in her career to 24.",
"French Open",
"Williams came into the French Open as the favorite, having not lost a match on clay and riding on a 24 match winning streak. Williams also was the top seed and world no. 1 and will come out of the event as the world no. 1 whatever the result of the tournament is. In her opening match, she went up against Anna Tatishvili, where Williams rallied through to win the first nine games dropping only a point on serve before Tatishvili could get a game. Williams then won the remaining three games to advance",
". Williams then won the remaining three games to advance. In the next round, Williams faced wildcard Caroline Garcia. Williams won the first five games and finished it off the set in the seventh game and then broke twice in the second to take the match. Williams made 27 winners and 9 unforced errors to her opponents 14 a piece. In the third round, Williams took on Sorana Cîrstea. Williams took the first set in a bagel, the second set went on serve until the fifth game, where Williams won the last four games",
". Williams was 13–16 on winners and unforced errors. In the round of 16, Williams went against the no. 1 doubles player Roberta Vinci, Williams took the first set, dropping only a game. The second set went on serve until Williams broke in the eighth game and closed it out in the next game to win in straight sets. In the quarterfinals, Williams faced former French Open champion Svetlana Kuznetsova. In the first set, Williams cruised through the set dropping only a game with the aid of 15 winners",
". In the first set, Williams cruised through the set dropping only a game with the aid of 15 winners. However, in the second set, Kuznetsova won the first four games. Kuznetsova then served for the set in the ninth game and was up 40–0, however Williams squandered four break points in the game to bring it to a deciding set. Kuznetsova hit 11 winners to Williams' 8, while hitting the same number of unforced errors",
". Kuznetsova hit 11 winners to Williams' 8, while hitting the same number of unforced errors. Kuznetsova then broke early and had a chance to take a second break in the 3rd game, however Williams saved three break points to hold. Williams then won 5 of the last 6 game to advance to her first French Open semifinal since 2003. In the semifinals, Williams faced last years runner-up Sara Errani. Williams stormed through the first 9 games before Errani could get her only game of the match",
". Williams stormed through the first 9 games before Errani could get her only game of the match. Williams then served it out in the seventh game in a 46-minute white wash, dropping only 5 points on serve. Williams hit 40 winners to her opponents 2 and 15 unforced errors to Errani's 3. Chris Evert described this as the finest female performance on clay she had ever seen. Williams faced defending champion and number 2 seed Maria Sharapova in the final",
". Williams faced defending champion and number 2 seed Maria Sharapova in the final. Williams was broken in the second game, but won four of the next five games to gain the lead. Sharapova then broke back in the eight game before Williams went on to break again to take the set in the tenth game. Williams proceeded to play well breaking Sharapova's serve in the second set before serving for the championship in the tenth game",
". In this service game, Williams fired 3 aces to win her second French Open title 11 years after her first. Williams hit 29 winners-21 unforced errors-10 aces-0 double faults to Sharapova's 10-17-2-4 in comparison. The win improved Williams' win-streak to a career-longest 31 matches. She became the fourth woman in the Open era after Martina Navratilova, Chris Evert and Steffi Graf to win each Grand Slam title twice or more.",
"Wimbledon",
"Williams came into Wimbledon as the heavy favorite to win her sixth Wimbledon title, being on a 31-match winning streak, number 1 seed, and defending champion. Williams opened her campaign for her 17th slam against Mandy Minella. Williams stormed through the first set dropping only a game and not dropping a point on serve. Minella then came back, winning the first two games of the second set, just to see Williams reel off six of the last seven games to win",
". In the next round, she took on youngster Caroline Garcia, Williams took the first set by breaking Garcia in the ninth game, then took the second set taking the last four games from 2-all. In the round of 32, Williams faced Japanese veteran Kimiko Date-Krumm. Williams served for the first set in the seventh game, just to get broken. But Williams came back to take the next seven games to win in two sets. In the last 16, Williams had German Sabine Lisicki in her path",
". In the last 16, Williams had German Sabine Lisicki in her path. Lisicki took the first set at ease dropping only two games as Williams fired back in the second set dropping only a game. Williams then took a 3–0 lead then a 4–2 lead, however Williams got passive, wasting four break points in the 8th game as Lisicki took initiative and took four games in a row to win 6–4 in the third, ending Williams's 34-match winning streak, the longest in her career.",
"Collector Swedish Open",
"After her Wimbledon Loss, Williams came back to clay and played the Collector Swedish Open. Williams played her opening match against Sesil Karatantcheva. Williams won the match with ease dropping only three games in just 64 minutes. In her second round match, Williams took on Anna Tatishvili, Williams cruised to victory in straight sets with help from her seven aces. Williams then faced Spaniard Lourdes Domínguez Lino, demolishing her opponent, Williams won in a double breadstick scoreline",
". In the final four, Williams had Klára Zakopalová on the other side of the net. Williams dominated the opening, proceeding to take the first 8 games of the match. Zakopalová came back and broke Williams to get on serve up to the 8th game; however, Williams took the last 2 games to reach the final. In the final, Williams took on local Johanna Larsson. Larsson took an early break lead, breaking Williams in the 4th game, just to see Williams reel in 11 of the next 13 games to win the title",
". This is Williams' first title that is below a premier level. This also marks Williams being undefeated on clay in 2013 having a 28–0 record.",
"US Open Series",
"Rogers Cup",
"Williams' began her US Open campaign at the 2013 Rogers Cup in Toronto. Williams received a bye in the first round and faced Francesca Schiavone. Schiavone broke in the fifth game; however, Williams came back and won seven games in a row to take a set and double break lead. Schiavone then took two games just to see Williams take the next two and win the match. In the third round, Williams faced Venus' conqueror Kirsten Flipkens. Williams dominated the first set with a bagel",
". Williams dominated the first set with a bagel. In the second set, Williams broke in the fourth game and it was enough to take the set and advance. In the quarterfinals, Williams defeated Slovakian Magdaléna Rybáriková, dropping only a game on each set, which was a hold and a break respectively. In the final 4, Williams took on Agnieszka Radwańska. In the first set, the pair traded breaks twice to push it to a tiebreak, which Williams won",
". In the first set, the pair traded breaks twice to push it to a tiebreak, which Williams won. In the second set, Radwańska took an early break lead, however Williams then broke Radwańska twice to win the match. Williams then took on surprise finalist Sorana Cîrstea; Williams took the first three games, just to see Cîrstea take the next two, however Williams raced through winning the last nine games to win the title. This is Williams' eight title of the year matching her most titles in a year.",
"Western & Southern Open",
"After a successful campaign at the Roger's Cup in Toronto, Williams played in the 2013 Western & Southern Open in Cincinnati. Although she came in as the clear favorite, Williams had never won the tournament before. Along with the other top 8 seeds, she received a first round bye and went on to face Eugenie Bouchard of Canada in the second round. Bouchard broke in the first game, they then traded breaks in the fourth and fifth game. Bouchard then held with a break lead in the tenth game to take the set",
". Bouchard then held with a break lead in the tenth game to take the set. Williams then broke in the fourth and eight game to push it to a decider. In the third set, Williams took the first four games, before Bouchard could take two straight games to see Williams win the next two to advance. Williams then took on German Mona Barthel. Williams broke in the second game, just to be broken serving for the set in the ninth game, however Williams broke to take the set",
". Williams then won the first five games before Barthel could win a game; Williams then closed it out to win. In the quarterfinals, Williams faced Simona Halep and took the first set with a bagel. The second set was closer; the pair traded breaks in the fourth and fifth game before Williams could break in the tenth game to win the match. Williams then went against China's Li Na and won in straight sets",
". Williams then went against China's Li Na and won in straight sets. The two sets had similar situations as Williams took a 4–2 lead in both; Li served for both in the tenth game just to get broken by Williams and then again in the twelfth game of each set to reach her first Cincinnati final. The final saw the top two seeds, Williams and Azarenka, take to the court for the title. After a dominant display by Williams and an error plagued game from Azarenka, Williams took the first set with a two break lead",
". A revitalised Azarenka began to take charge and the errors started creeping into Williams game, Azarenka then took the second set with a similar scoreline. Azarenka led by an early break in the final set, just to see Williams come back and serve for it in the tenth game only to get broken and lead to a tie-break, which Azarenka took 8 points to 6. This broke Williams' 14 match winning streak.",
"US Open",
"After her disappointing loss to Azarenka in Cincinnati, Serena entered the 2013 US Open as the top seed, the defending champion, and bidding to become the oldest woman to win the U.S. Open since tennis turned professional in 1968. She beat former French Open champion Francesca Schiavone in the opening round, dropping only a game and hitting 13 winners to 8 unforced errors. In the second and third rounds, Williams easily dispatched Kazakhstan opponents, Galina Voskoboeva and Yaroslava Shvedova",
". In the Round of 16, Williams had a rematch of the Australian Open against Sloane Stephens, who surprisingly beat Williams in that event. In the first set, Williams broke first only to get broken back by Stephens in the 7th game. Williams then broke in the tenth game to take the set and cruised through the second set in a breadstick to avenge her loss at the Australian Open. Williams put up a ratio of 22 winners to 13 unforced errors. She then faced Carla Suárez Navarro, in the latter's birthday",
". She then faced Carla Suárez Navarro, in the latter's birthday. Williams didn't drop a game, handing the Spaniard a double bagel loss; the first in a US Open since 1989, when 18-time major title winner Martina Navratilova did it to Manuela Maleeva. She again had a good ratio, with 20 winners to 9 unforced errors. In the final 4, Williams faced 5th seeded Li Na of China. Williams cruised past the Chinese with a bagel in the first round",
". Williams cruised past the Chinese with a bagel in the first round. Li then took an early break in the second, but Williams won four straight games. Li then served to stay in the match in the 7th game and saved 6 match points to make Williams serve it out, which Williams did in her 7th match point. For the first time in the event, Williams made more unforced errors of 20 to winners of 19. In the final, Williams took on second seed Victoria Azarenka in a rematch of last year's final",
". In the final, Williams took on second seed Victoria Azarenka in a rematch of last year's final. The pair exchanged breaks in the first two games. Williams then survived a long tenth game and broke the Belarusian the following game, then served out the set. In the second set, Williams served for the match twice in the tenth and twelfth game, but got broken by Azarenka to push it to a tie-break, which Azarenka outlasted Williams 8–6",
". Williams then cruised through the final set dropping only a game, winning the match on her 2nd championship point. Williams made 36 winners and 9 aces to 35 unforced errors and 5 double faults. This was Williams' 5th US Open and 17th Slam title. It was the first time Serena was able to defend a US Open title while also becoming the oldest women's US Open champion in the Open Era, surpassing the previous record set by Australia's Margaret Court. For winning the US Open Series, Williams received $2",
". For winning the US Open Series, Williams received $2.6m and an additional million in prize money, the highest single paycheck in tennis.",
"In the doubles competition, Serena paired with sister Venus for the second time in the year. They opened their US Open against the Spanish pairing of Silvia Soler Espinosa and Carla Suárez Navarro. They lost the first set in a tie-break but they dominated the next two sets, dropping just three games, with a bagel in the second. They then competed against compatriots, Raquel Kops-Jones and Abigail Spears, and won both sets",
". They then competed against compatriots, Raquel Kops-Jones and Abigail Spears, and won both sets. Next, they played Anastasia Pavlyuchenkova and Lucie Šafářová, and quickly dominated the first set with a breadstick. In the second set, they served for the match in the tenth game but got broken and were pushed to a tie-break, which they won. In the quarterfinals, they took on world no. 1's Sara Errani and Roberta Vinci, and dominated them in straight sets",
". 1's Sara Errani and Roberta Vinci, and dominated them in straight sets. In the semifinals, the sisters faced the Czech pairing of Andrea Hlaváčková and Lucie Hradecká, and were surprisingly beaten in straight sets.",
"Asian Swing and Year-End Championships",
"China Open",
"Williams came into the China Open as the top seed and was assured to end the year at number 1. Williams began her quest for her 10th title against Elena Vesnina in the first round. The first set saw Vesnina breaking Williams twice; However, Williams broke the Russian three times to take the set. Williams then won the last five games to advance. In the second round, Williams took on Francesca Schiavone, in a rematch of the US Open first round where Williams only dropped a game",
". In the first set, it remained on serve until the tenth game when Williams broke Schiavone to take the set. In the second set, Schiavone served for it in the ninth game and had 2 set points but Williams broke and took the next three games to win the set and match. Williams then faced Maria Kirilenko in the round of 16 and defeated her Russian opponent in two very tight sets, with Williams winning both sets by breaking Kirilenko in the twelfth game",
". In the quarterfinals, Williams went against Caroline Wozniacki. Williams won 10 of the first 11 games in the process, taking the first set. However, Wozniacki came back winning three games in a row to keep it just a break down. Williams kept the break lead and won the second set. In the semifinals, she took on 3rd seed Agnieszka Radwańska and won in straight sets; breaking Radwańska twice on each set and facing only 1 break point in the last game and saving it",
". Williams then faced Jelena Janković in the final. In the first set, Williams broke Janković twice to take the set. In the second set, Janković broke in the third game, but took a medical timeout right after and lost the last five games to give Williams the title. This was Williams' 10th title of the year and her first China Open title since winning the first edition of the event in 2004.",
"WTA Championships",
"Williams came into the Year-End Championships being assured to end the year at no. 1 and in a 10 match winning streak having won it in 2012 and 2009, while missing the 2010 and 2011 editions. She was grouped alongside Agnieszka Radwańska, Petra Kvitová, and Angelique Kerber in the red group. Her first match was against German Kerber. Williams broke at the 3rd game of the first set and held serve in the entire set to take the first. Williams then won the second set with a breadstick",
". Williams then won the second set with a breadstick. Williams made 31 winners and 11 unforced errors in the match. In her second match in her group, Williams faced Pole Radwańska. Williams broke Radwańska to wrap up both sets in the eight and tenth game respectively to go 2–0 in her group. In her final round robin match, she took on Czech Kvitová",
". In her final round robin match, she took on Czech Kvitová. Williams fend off break points in the opening game and then broke Kvitová in the second and eight game to take a set lead and assured her a spot in the semifinals. The second set was tighter, Williams broke Kvitová in the fourth game and that was enough to win the set. Williams hit 11 aces in the match. After finishing first in her group, Williams took on Jelena Janković in the semifinals",
". After finishing first in her group, Williams took on Jelena Janković in the semifinals. Janković took the initial lead breaking Williams in the fourth game, but Williams came back breaking the Serbian in the fifth and seventh game, and held in the tenth game to take the first set. In the second set, Janković broke the American three times, whilst getting broken once to take the set breaking Williams in the eight game, this is the first set Williams lost in 11 consecutive straight set wins at the event",
". In the deciding set, the first 3 games were breaks of serve, Williams then broke against in the fifth game. Williams served for it for the first time at the eight game but was broken, however, she closed it out serving it out in the tenth game in her 4th match point and saving a break point. Williams hit an even 40 winners and 40 unforced errors. In the final, Williams took on first time finalist and fourth seed Li Na. Li dominated the first set breaking Williams twice to take the set",
". Li dominated the first set breaking Williams twice to take the set. Williams took a quick lead in the second set taking the first three games, however Li came back winning the next three. However Williams dominated winning the final nine games, to take the sets at three and love to claim her fourth Year End Championships title and 11th title in the year. She also extends her winning streak at 15 at the event.",
"Fed Cup",
"While she didn't play in the United States' first round match against Italy, Williams represented United States in the Fed Cup against Sweden for a spot in the 2014 World Group. In her opening rubber, she faced Johanna Larsson and dominated her opponent winning both set with a loss of only two games in each in just 66 minutes",
". In her second rubber, Williams took on Sofia Arvidsson and just needed 56 minutes to a straight set victory to give United States a 2–1 advantage, which her sister Venus closed out when she beat Larsson to help US advance to the World Group.",
"All matches\n\nSingles matches\n\nDoubles matches\n\nTournament schedule\n\nSingles schedule\nWilliams' 2013 singles tournament schedule is as follows:\n\nDoubles schedule\n\nWilliams' 2013 doubles tournament schedule is as follows:\n\nYearly records\n\nHead-to-head matchups\nOrdered by percentage of wins, as of WTA Tour Championships",
"Li Na 4–0\n Agnieszka Radwańska 4–0\n Maria Sharapova 4–0\n Jelena Janković 3–0\n Maria Kirilenko 3–0\n Francesca Schiavone 3–0\n Dominika Cibulková 2–0\n Sorana Cîrstea 2–0\n Lourdes Domínguez Lino 2–0\n Sara Errani 2–0\n Caroline Garcia 2–0\n Simona Halep 2–0\n Petra Kvitová 2–0\n Johanna Larsson 2–0\n Ayumi Morita 2–0\n Carla Suárez Navarro 2–0\n Anna Tatishvili 2–0\n Sofia Arvidsson 1–0\n Mona Barthel 1–0\n Eugenie Bouchard 1–0\n Mallory Burdette 1–0\n Alizé Cornet 1–0\n Kimiko Date-Krumm 1–0\n Kirsten Flipkens 1–0",
"Mallory Burdette 1–0\n Alizé Cornet 1–0\n Kimiko Date-Krumm 1–0\n Kirsten Flipkens 1–0\n Edina Gallovits-Hall 1–0\n Daria Gavrilova 1–0\n Camila Giorgi 1–0\n Sesil Karatantcheva 1–0\n Angelique Kerber 1–0\n Svetlana Kuznetsova 1–0\n Varvara Lepchenko 1–0\n Anabel Medina Garrigues 1–0\n Mandy Minella 1–0\n Garbiñe Muguruza 1–0\n Anastasia Pavlyuchenkova 1–0\n Flavia Pennetta 1–0\n Yulia Putintseva 1–0\n Urszula Radwańska 1–0\n Laura Robson 1–0\n Magdaléna Rybáriková 1–0\n Lucie Šafářová 1–0\n Yaroslava Shvedova 1–0",
"Laura Robson 1–0\n Magdaléna Rybáriková 1–0\n Lucie Šafářová 1–0\n Yaroslava Shvedova 1–0\n Elena Vesnina 1–0\n Roberta Vinci 1–0\n Galina Voskoboeva 1–0\n Venus Williams 1–0\n Caroline Wozniacki 1–0\n Klára Zakopalová 1–0\n Sloane Stephens 2–1\n Victoria Azarenka 2–2\n Sabine Lisicki 0–1",
"Finals\n\nSingles: 13 (11–2)\n\nEarnings\n\n\t\n Figures in United States dollars (USD) unless noted.\n\nSee also\n\n Serena Williams career statistics\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n2\nWilliams tennis season\n2013 in American tennis"
] |
Jim Moran
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim%20Moran
|
[
"James Patrick Moran Jr. (born May 16, 1945) is an American politician who served as the mayor of Alexandria, Virginia, from 1985 to 1990, and as the U.S. representative for (including the cities of Falls Church and Alexandria, all of Arlington County, as well as a portion of Fairfax County) from 1991 to 2015.",
"A member of the Democratic Party, Moran chaired the New Democrat Coalition from 1997 to 2001.\nHe is of Irish descent and is the son of professional football player James Moran Sr. and the brother of former Democratic Party of Virginia Chairman Brian Moran.",
"Early life, education, and business career\nMoran, the eldest of seven children, was born in Buffalo, New York, and grew up in Natick, Massachusetts, a suburb of Boston. His parents were Dorothy (née Dwyer) and James Moran Sr., a professional football player for the Boston Redskins in 1935 and 1936; outside of football he worked as a probation officer. Both his father and mother were Roosevelt Democrats and supporters of the New Deal. Moran attended Marian High School in Framingham, Massachusetts.",
"Moran played college football on an athletic scholarship at the College of the Holy Cross, where his father had been a football star in the early 1930s. Moran received his B.A. in economics in 1967. After attending Baruch College of the City University of New York from 1967 to 1968, he received a Master of Public Administration from the University of Pittsburgh in 1970",
". After college, Moran followed his father's footstep to become an amateur boxer, and during a campaign in 1992, he admitted that he had used marijuana during his early twenties. Following a brief career as a stockbroker, Moran moved to Washington, D.C.",
"Early political career\nHe worked for five years at the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare as a budget officer before serving as a senior specialist for budgetary and fiscal policy at the Library of Congress. From 1976 to 1979, he was on the staff of U.S. Senate Committee on Appropriations.",
"In 1979, Moran was elected to the Alexandria, Virginia, City Council. He was deputy mayor from 1982 until his resignation in 1984 as part of a nolo contendere plea bargain to a misdemeanor conflict of interest charge, which courts later erased. The incident stemmed from charges that Moran had used money from a political action committee to rent a tuxedo and buy Christmas cards; both of which were later judged by the Commonwealth Attorney to \"fit the definition of constituent services\", and were dismissed.",
"In 1985, Moran was elected mayor of Alexandria. He was reelected in 1988 and resigned after he was elected to Congress in November 1990.\n\nU.S. House of Representatives\n\nElections",
"In 1990, Moran first won election to the United States House of Representatives, defeating five-term Republican incumbent Stan Parris. During the campaign, Parris, referring to the issue of the Gulf War, said, \"The only three people I know who support Saddam Hussein's position are Moammar Gadhafi, Yasser Arafat, and Jim Moran.\" Moran angrily responded by saying that Parris was \"a deceitful, fatuous jerk\", and that he wanted \"to break his nose\"",
". Moran's well-financed campaign also focused on Parris' opposition to abortion. Moran upset Parris, winning by 7.1 percent. He was sworn into office in January 1991.",
"In the next two elections, Moran faced Republican lawyer Kyle McSlarrow. During the 1992 campaign, McSlarrow accused Moran of \"lying to the public\". Moran responded by portraying McSlarrow as a drug abuser, referring to the candidate's admitted use of cocaine and marijuana while at the University of Virginia. Moran compared McSlarrow to Parris, saying that Parris had \"[t]en times more integrity than McSlarrow. He didn't create lies.\" Moran defeated McSlarrow with 56 percent of the vote",
". He didn't create lies.\" Moran defeated McSlarrow with 56 percent of the vote. He was helped by the 1990s redistricting, which cut out some of the more Republican-leaning areas of his district.",
"In 1994, Moran's daughter Dorothy was suffering from an inoperable brain tumor. During the campaign, neither Moran nor McSlarrow used the negative tactics of two years earlier. On his campaign strategy that election, McSlarrow said \"It would not be a community service to shut down this campaign, but I probably will not talk much about Moran.\" Moran was reelected with 59 percent of the vote.",
"In 1998 and 2000, Moran faced Republican and flat tax advocate Demaris H. Miller. In the 1998 campaign Miller accused Moran of flip-flopping in his support of President Bill Clinton, after Moran, who had been a vocal supporter of the Clinton White House, voted in favor of opening an impeachment inquiry following the Monica Lewinsky scandal.\n\nIn 2002, Moran defeated Republican S. C. Tate and Independent R. V. Crickenberger.",
"In 2002, Moran defeated Republican S. C. Tate and Independent R. V. Crickenberger.\n\nIn June 2004, Moran, for the first time since his election in 1990, had a Democratic opponent in a primary. Moran defeated Alexandria attorney Andrew M. Rosenberg, 59% to 41%. In November, he defeated Republican Lisa Marie Cheney.\n\nIn 2006, Moran defeated Republican challenger T. M. Odonoghue and Independent J. T. Hurysz.",
"In 2006, Moran defeated Republican challenger T. M. Odonoghue and Independent J. T. Hurysz.\n\nIn 2008, Moran again had a primary challenger; he won with 86% of the vote. In the general election, Moran faced Republican Mark Ellmore and Independent Green Ron Fisher. He won with 68 percent of the vote to Elmore's 30 percent.",
"In November 2009 Ellmore announced he would again challenge Moran, but dropped out of the race four months later. In the June 2010 Republican primary, attorney Matthew Berry narrowly lost to retired U.S. Army Colonel Jay Patrick Murray, after a last-minute mailing attacking Berry's homosexuality. Fisher again was on the ballot",
". Fisher again was on the ballot. During the campaign, Moran was criticized by military advocacy groups and conservatives for saying, at a local Democratic committee meeting, that Murray had not \"served or performed any kind of public service\". Moran responded by commending Murray's military service, while saying that he used the phrase in relation to Murray not having engaged in \"local civic engagement\" and not having served in local office",
". In November 2010, Moran was re-elected to an eleventh term with 61% of the vote.",
"In 2012 Moran faced another primary challenge, from Navy veteran Bruce Shuttleworth. A controversy erupted when the Democratic Party of Virginia disqualified Shuttleworth, saying he had fallen 17 signatures short of the 1,000 threshold required. Shuttleworth cried foul and filed a federal lawsuit; the party then allowed Shuttleworth on the ballot. Moran went on to win by a sizable margin. In November, Moran defeated Republican J. Patrick Murray, Independent Jason J",
". In November, Moran defeated Republican J. Patrick Murray, Independent Jason J. Howell, and Independent Green Janet Murphy, winning 64% of the vote.",
"Tenure",
"Moran represented Virginia's 8th congressional district, an area in Northern Virginia that is just across the Potomac River from Washington, D.C.; the district includes Arlington county, and the cities of Alexandria, Falls Church and parts of Fairfax. The redistricting that followed the 2000 census also gave Moran a portion of Reston, Virginia",
". The redistricting that followed the 2000 census also gave Moran a portion of Reston, Virginia. His district is located in the Dulles Technology Corridor and is the home of many federal defense contractors as well as a significant number of those who work in the information technology industry. Many federal employees also reside within the district, mostly due to its proximity to Washington and because the United States Department of Defense and various other agencies are headquartered there.",
"During the mid 1990s, Moran co-founded and later co-chaired the New Democrat Coalition, a coalition of Democratic lawmakers who consider themselves to be moderates with regard to commerce, budgeting, and economic legislation, but vote as liberals on social issues. Moran was also a member of the Congressional Progressive Caucus (CPC), the largest caucus operating within the Democratic caucus, which works to advance progressive issues and opinions. He joined the caucus prior to the 111th Congress.",
"1990s\nIn 1995, Moran and California Republican Duke Cunningham had to be restrained by the Capitol Police after a shoving match on the house floor over President Bill Clinton's decision to send U.S. troops to Bosnia. \"I thought he had been bullying too many people for too long, and I told him so,\" Moran recalled. \"He said he didn't mean to be so accusatory ... After that, he would bring me candy from California.\" Moran said that after the encounter he found Cunningham crying in the cloakroom.",
"During the final years of the Clinton administration, Moran was critical of the President: In 1998, during the Monica Lewinsky scandal, Moran was one of only 31 House Democrats to support launching a formal impeachment inquiry into President Bill Clinton. He told Time magazine that \"This whole sordid mess is just too tawdry and tedious and embarrassing ... It's like a novel that just became too full of juicy parts and bizarre, sleazy characters",
"... It's like a novel that just became too full of juicy parts and bizarre, sleazy characters.\" Moran is also reported to have told First Lady Hillary Clinton that if she had been his sister, he would have punched her husband in the nose. Moran eventually decided not to vote for impeachment, explaining that Clinton had not compromised the country's security, and that he still respected him for what he had accomplished as President",
". Moran proposed a resolution demanding that Clinton confess to a pattern of \"dishonest and illegal conduct\" surrounding his sexual involvement with Monica Lewinsky.",
"2000s\nMoran was voted High Technology Legislator of the Year by the Information Technology Industry Council and was voted into the American Electronics Association Hall of Fame for his work on avoiding the Year 2000 crisis and his support of the IT Industry and defense contractors in Northern Virginia. He cosponsored failed bills in 2005 to provide the District of Columbia with a House seat and to prohibit slaughter of horses.",
"On April 28, 2006, Moran, along with four other members of Congress (the now-deceased Rep. Tom Lantos of California, Sheila Jackson Lee of Texas, and James McGovern and John Olver of Massachusetts), and six other activists, were arrested for disorderly conduct in front of the Sudanese embassy in Washington, D.C., and spent 45 minutes in a jail cell before being released. They were protesting the alleged role of Sudan's government in ethnic cleansing in Darfur",
". They were protesting the alleged role of Sudan's government in ethnic cleansing in Darfur. According to the San Francisco Chronicle, \"Their protest and civil disobedience was designed to embarrass the military dictatorship's ongoing genocide of its non-Arab citizens.\"",
"The day after the Virginia Tech Massacre in 2007, Moran told a local radio station that the Federal Assault Weapons Ban should be reinstated, blaming the National Rifle Association of America and President George W. Bush for blocking gun control legislation. He further warned that if gun control legislation was not passed, then shootings such as the one at Virginia Tech will happen \"time and time again",
".\" He later dismissed charges that he was politicizing the shooting, telling Politico that \"as a legislator, your immediate reaction is to think something could be done to avoid this. I don't know why the idea of figuring out how to avoid it is a political partisan issue.\"",
"Shortly before the June 2008 Virginia Democratic primary, Moran endorsed Senator Barack Obama of Illinois for the presidency over New York Senator and former First Lady Hillary Clinton. Explaining his endorsement, he told a local newspaper that the long-term goal of closing Alexandria's coal-fired power plant would be more attainable under Obama than under Clinton. Obama won the Virginia primary, and carried the state when he won the general election in November.",
"In May 2009, Moran introduced a bill that would restrict broadcast advertisements for erectile dysfunction or male enhancement medication. He said that such ads were indecent and should be prohibited on radio and television between the hours of 6 am and 10 pm, in accordance with Federal Communications Commission policy",
". Later that year, Moran and former presidential candidate and former Governor of Vermont Howard Dean held a town hall meeting on the issue of health care at South Lakes High School in Reston, Virginia. The meeting was interrupted several times by protesters, most notably anti-abortion activist Randall Terry, who, along with about half a dozen supporters, caused such a commotion that he had to be escorted out by police",
". The incident was replayed several times over the next few weeks on television as an example of the tension at town halls that fall.",
"In February 2010, on the House floor, Moran called for the repeal of Don't Ask, Don't Tell, the military policy of discharging soldiers on active duty who are openly homosexual. He spoke about a letter penned by a gay soldier who was then serving in the Afghanistan War, who had \"learned that a fellow soldier was also gay, only after he was killed by an IED in Iraq",
". The partner of the deceased soldier wrote the unit to say how much the victim had loved the military; how they were the only family he had ever known ... This immutable human trait, sexual orientation, like the color of one's skin, does not affect one's integrity, their honor, our commitment to their country. Soldiers serving their country in combat should not have their sacrifices compounded by having to struggle with an antiquated \"Don't ask, don't tell\" policy",
". Let's do the right and honorable thing and repeal this policy.\"",
"As a member of the House Appropriations Committee, Moran worked to allocate federal funding to projects in Northern Virginia, usually in the technology and defense industries. He also assisted in authorizing the replacement of the Woodrow Wilson Memorial Bridge, a bridge between Alexandria, Virginia, and Prince George's County, Maryland, which had gained a reputation over the years among Northern Virginia residents as the site of numerous rush-hour traffic jams.",
"On March 9, 2010, Moran was named to succeed Norm Dicks of Washington as the chairman of the House Interior and Environment Appropriations Subcommittee. The chairmanship gave Moran authority over appropriations to the Department of the Interior, the Bureau of Indian Affairs, and the National Endowment for the Arts; among other things. Moran said he was excited to be able to play a role in protecting the environment and conserving natural resources.",
"2010s\nMoran became the ranking member of the subcommittee after the Democratic Party lost control of the House of Representatives following the November 2010 elections.",
"After President Obama's 2011 State of the Union Address, Moran was interviewed by Alhurra, an Arab television network. During the interview, he said, \"a lot of people in [the United States of America] ... don't want to be governed by an African-American\" and that the Democrats lost seats in the 2010 election for \"the same reason the Civil War happened in the United States ... the Southern states, particularly the slaveholding states, didn't want to see a president who was opposed to slavery",
".\" The remarks received national media attention. The Washington Posts Jennifer Rubin said the remarks were \"beyond uncivil\" and \"obnoxious\".",
"On March 16, 2012, Moran was arrested outside the Sudanese embassy in Washington, DC, at a protest against human rights abuses perpetrated by the Sudanese government, specifically bombings in the Nuba Mountains and refusal to allow humanitarian aid organizations access to refugees. He was charged with disorderly conduct and released, along with George Clooney and several others.",
"On March 27, 2012, Moran introduced the AUTISM Educators Act that would implement a five-year pilot program allowing public schools to partner with colleges, universities, and non-profit organizations to promote teaching skills for educators working with high functioning students with autism. \"This legislation is the product of a grassroots effort by parents, instructors, school officials and caring communities,\" he said. \"Autism Spectrum Disorders are being diagnosed at an exploding rate",
". \"Autism Spectrum Disorders are being diagnosed at an exploding rate. We have a responsibility to do everything in our power to provide the best education for our children.\"",
"In 2012, the bipartisan grassroots organization No Labels recognized Moran as a \"Problem Solver\" for \"continued willingness to work across the aisle and find common ground with members of the opposite party on important issues. His attitude is what Congress needs more of.\"",
"Moran joined Virginia Reps. Gerry Connolly and Bobby Scott in asking Attorney General Eric Holder for a Department of Justice investigation into allegations of voter fraud in Virginia following charges that a contractor to the Republican Party of Virginia was caught discarding completed voter registration forms in a Harrisonburg, Virginia dumpster",
". Shortly thereafter, conservative activist James O'Keefe released a video alleging involvement by Moran's son in a voting fraud discussion; see #Voter fraud allegations below.",
"Moran occasionally appeared on MSNBC, usually on Hardball with Chris Matthews and The Ed Show.\n\nHe did not seek re-nomination to Congress in 2014, retiring after 24 years. Virginia's former lieutenant governor, Don Beyer, a fellow Democrat, was elected to succeed Moran.\n\nCommittee assignmentsCommittee on AppropriationsSubcommittee on Defense\nSubcommittee on Interior, Environment, and Related Agencies (Ranking Member)",
"Caucus memberships\n LGBT Equality Caucus \n Congressional Progressive Caucus\n New Democrat Coalition (co-founder)\n Animal Protection Caucus (co-Chair)\n Sudan Caucus \n Sportsmen's Caucus\n International Conservation Caucus\n Congressional Arts Caucus\n Congressional Bike Caucus\n Safe Climate Caucus\n Crohn's and Colitis Caucus (co-Chair)\n\nPolitical positions\n\nSocial issues",
"Moran voted against the Defense of Marriage Act, the Federal Marriage Amendment, and was in favor of repealing the military's Don't Ask, Don't Tell policy. He also supported gun control, voting for the Brady Bill and supporting a reinstatement of the Federal Assault Weapons Ban. At different times he voted to ban flag-burning and partial-birth abortions, though he reversed his positions on both issues",
". On education, he expressed support for the public education system, universal pre-kindergarten, and full funding for the No Child Left Behind program. Moran was given a 100% rating by the NARAL and 0% by the National Right to Life Committee, indicating a pro-abortion rights voting record. He also voted to expand research of embryonic stem cells and to allow minors to go across state lines to receive abortions.",
"On immigration, Moran supported a pathway to citizenship for illegal immigrants and did not support decreasing the number of legal immigrants allowed into the country or the enforcement of federal immigration laws by state and local police. He was a cosponsor of the Comprehensive Immigration Reform ASAP Act of 2009 (H.R.4321), which the House did not pass. He was given an overall immigration reduction grade of D by NumbersUSA",
". He was given an overall immigration reduction grade of D by NumbersUSA. The American Immigration Lawyers Association scored him as having voted 31 times for the organization's position and 7 times against the organization's position.",
"In September 2009, Moran was one of 75 members of the House of Representatives to vote no on a bill to eliminate any federal funds going to community organizer ACORN.",
"Federal employees",
"Moran introduced and supported legislation to increase benefits and pay for federal workers, in part due to the Federal Government's large presence within the 8th District – 114,000 federal employees work within its bounds. He introduced a bill signed into law that allows FERS employees to buy back credit from a lapse in federal service toward annuity payments, with the goal of attracting individuals from the private sector back to public service",
". Moran also authored a law that allows a federal worker's unused sick leave to count toward their annuity. In the 112th Congress, he also spoke against attempts by Republicans to cut back the size of the federal workforce.",
"Environment \n\nMoran listed the environment as one of his top issues, citing his high marks from the League of Conservation Voters and the Sierra Club. He used his positions as a member of the Appropriations Committee and as chairman of the Interior Appropriations Subcommittee to allocate federal funding for hiking trails and wildlife reserves in his district.",
"He also voted to ban logging on federal lands. He criticized the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for inaction on climate change, saying that \"EPA had a historic opportunity to tackle head-on one of the greatest threats to our existence—global warming. Instead they balked under pressure from the administration, concluding the problem is so complex and controversial that it cannot be resolved",
".\" He also endorsed and voted for the Clean Air Act and said that global warming is an important issue to him. In 2010, Moran also expressed discontent with President Barack Obama's decision to allow oil drilling off the coast of the United States.",
"Economy, budget, and taxes\nMoran often broke with his party on economic issues. For example, he supported Dominican Republic-Central America Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA) and other free trade agreements, harsher bankruptcy laws, and increased restrictions on the right to bring class action suits.",
"He voted for the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 and the Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP) Reform and Accountability Act. He supported pay-as-you-go budgeting and believed \"that the American government needs to strive to build up a surplus when possible, so that there are funds to support and sustain our country during tough financial times.\" Moran called former President George W. Bush \"Fiscally irresponsible.\"Op Eds & Columns: EPA Decision Sets Back Global Warming Efforts , Moran.House",
".\"Op Eds & Columns: EPA Decision Sets Back Global Warming Efforts , Moran.House.gov. Retrieved February 15, 2010.",
"Moran said he supported the redistribution of wealth, saying in November 2008 that \"We have been guided by a Republican administration who believes in this simplistic notion that people who have wealth are entitled to keep it and they have an antipathy towards the means of redistributing wealth.\" He also said on his website that the recession was largely \"a result of the imbalance in the distribution of wealth over the last eight years and an absence of oversight and accountability.\"",
"Social programs \nMoran called Social Security \"a safe, stable, and dependable source of financial assistance for retirees and their families,\" and strongly opposes privatizing Social Security, saying that it would \"cripple the system\". It was his position that any changes to the current system must \"promote its long-term solvency without disrupting the core principles on which the program was founded.\"",
"Moran expressed support for Universal Healthcare and more specifically the public health insurance option, saying at a town hall meeting in Reston, Virginia, in August 2009 that \"It could do the most to bring down long-term medical costs and to adequately insure every American.\"Healthcare – Congressman Jim Moran . Retrieved February 15, 2010. Moran ultimately voted for the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, which passed and was signed into law in March 2010.",
"Defense \nMoran voted against authorizing the Iraq War in 2002 and did not support the troop increase for the Afghanistan War proposed by President Barack Obama in 2009, saying first that he appreciated Obama's \"careful consideration regarding the U.S.'s engagement in Afghanistan\", but later defining the issues on which he and the President disagreed:",
"Our security concern is Al-Qaeda, not the Taliban. Eight years ago we went into Afghanistan to eliminate al-Qaeda and the \"safe haven\" that Afghanistan's Taliban were providing the terrorist group responsible for the 9/11 attacks. Al-Qaeda has no significant presence today in all of Afghanistan. ... Instead of increasing our troop presence, the U.S. should limit its mission in Afghanistan to securing strategic Afghan population centers with the troops currently on the ground.",
"Comments prior to the invasion of Iraq\nPrior to the 2003 invasion of Iraq, Moran told an anti-war audience in Reston, Virginia, that if\n\nIf it were not for the strong support of the Jewish community for this war with Iraq, we would not be doing this. The leaders of the Jewish community are influential enough that they could change the direction of where this is going, and I think they should.",
"This brought criticism from many of his own party, including, among others, Senate Democratic Leader Tom Daschle and Senator Joe Lieberman. Nancy Pelosi, who was House Minority Leader at the time, remarked that \"Moran's comments have no place in the Democratic Party.\"\n\nMoran apologized for the remarks, saying that",
"Moran apologized for the remarks, saying that\n\nI should not have singled out the Jewish community and regret giving any impression that its members are somehow responsible for the course of action being pursued by the administration, or are somehow behind an impending war ... What I was trying to say is that if more organizations in this country, including religious groups, were more outspoken against war, then I do not think we would be pursuing war as an option.\n\n BRAC",
"BRAC \n\nMoran voted against BRAC 2005 which would move over 20,000 workers to Ft. Belvoir. The Army later decided to relocate approximately 6,400 Department of Defense workers to the Mark Center building in Alexandria. Moran opposed the selection of the Mark Center saying \"I'm very disappointed ... It belonged at the Springfield site.\" Moran blocked federal funding for an HOV ramp directly to the Mark Center citing the impact upon Winkler Preserve.",
"At Moran's request, DoD ultimately delayed moving all workers to the Mark Center by one year. To help prevent gridlock, Moran got $20 million in short- and mid-term road improvements and a parking limit at the Mark Center of approximately 2,000 cars Moran also got $180 million to widen route 1 for the new Ft. Belvoir Hospital, an effort Sen. Webb called \"a tribute to Congressman Moran's persistence.\"",
"Animal rights",
"Moran was in favor of stronger prohibitions against animal fighting. He sponsored legislation to penalize those who \"knowingly attend animal fights and allow minors to attend.\" He sponsored legislation limiting federal funding for horse slaughter inspection plants, effectively preventing the practice. In the past he promoted reinstating a five-year ban on slaughtering horses for food, noting that \"horses hold an important place in our nation's history and culture ..",
"... they deserve to be cared for, not killed for foreign consumption.\" Moran in the past promoted safer keeping and treatment of exotic animals used in circus performances. In October 2014, Moran received the Lord Houghton Award from Cruelty Free International for his service and contribution to animal welfare.",
"Other \nMoran does not support granting statehood to the District of Columbia. However, he voted to allow Washington, D.C., to send a voting representative to the United States Congress.\n\nControversies\n\nMBNA loan",
"MBNA loan\n\nMoran's support for harsher bankruptcy law provisions and sponsorship of stricter bankruptcy legislation brought allegations in 2002 that his support came in return for financial favors by financial institutions which could benefit from such laws. In January 1998, one month before he introduced the legislation, credit card bank MBNA advocated that it would restrict the ability of consumer debtors to declare bankruptcy. Moran received a $447,000 debt consolidation loan at over 10% interest rate.",
"The Lieutenant Governor of Virginia at the time, Tim Kaine, joined Republican lawmakers in calling for a House Ethics Committee investigation into the loan, saying that Moran had made \"an error in judgment\" by accepting it. In his own defense, Moran said that the timing of the legislation's introduction was coincidental and had nothing to do with the loan",
". MBNA spokesman Brian Dalphon said that the bank had offered the mortgage package not knowing that Moran was a member of Congress, and that the loan \"made good business sense\" because with the mortgage loan, \"we improved our position by getting security for an unsecured loan. ... He had credit cards with us, he was having financial difficulties; this put him in a better position to be able to pay us back from a cash-flow standpoint.\"",
"PMA group",
"The House Ethics Committee investigated several members of the House Defense Appropriations Subcommittee, including Moran, Peter J",
". Visclosky, Norm Dicks, Marcy Kaptur and the late John Murtha, who was the chairman at the time, for a conflict of interest in the allocation of the government contracts to clients of the PMA Group, which donated nearly a million dollars to Moran's political action committee, as well as a significant amount of money to the gubernatorial campaign of Moran's younger brother, Brian",
". Moran said that he was unaware of \"who made donations\", and \"how much they gave\", and therefore was not affected by the donations when allocating the funding.",
"In February 2010, the panel cleared Moran and the others, saying that they violated no laws. The panel concluded, as part of its 305-page report, that \"simply because a member sponsors an earmark for an entity that also happens to be a campaign contributor ... does not support a claim that a member's actions are being influenced by campaign contributions\"",
"... does not support a claim that a member's actions are being influenced by campaign contributions\". After PMA's founder, Paul Magliocchetti, pleaded guilty in September 2010 to six years of campaign finance fraud, Moran said that he would not return the $177,700 in PMA Group-related donations that he received from 1990 to 2010.",
"Insider trading\nIn November 2011, author Peter Schweizer published a book, Throw Them All Out, which included an allegation that Moran used information he got from a September 16, 2008 briefing, in which Treasury Secretary Henry Paulson and Federal Reserve Chairman Ben Bernanke warned of what became the financial crisis of 2007–2008, for his stock market activity:",
"Schweizer alleged that Moran made more than 90 trades that day. Moran defended himself by citing that the trades were made in the midst of the Great Recession and that all one had to do was turn on the television to see that stock prices were dropping fast.",
"Voter fraud allegations",
"On October 24, 2012 a video was released showing Patrick B. Moran, the Congressman's son and a field director with his father's campaign, discussing a plan to cast fraudulent ballots. It was proposed to him by someone who posed as a fervent supporter of the campaign",
". It was proposed to him by someone who posed as a fervent supporter of the campaign. In response to the person's suggestion about trying to cast votes using the names of 100 inactive voters, Patrick Moran attempted to discourage the scheme, but also discussed the practical difficulties of forging documentation such as utility bills. The person he was speaking with was actually a conservative activist with James O'Keefe's Project Veritas, and was secretly recording the conversation",
". Patrick Moran resigned from the campaign, saying he didn't want to be a distraction during the election, and stating, \"at no point have I, or will I ever endorse any sort of illegal or unethical behavior. At no point did I take this person seriously. He struck me as being unstable and joking, and for only that reason did I humor him",
". He struck me as being unstable and joking, and for only that reason did I humor him. In hindsight, I should have immediately walked away, making it clear that there is no place in the electoral process for even the suggestion of illegal behavior, joking or not.\"",
"The following day, the Arlington County Police Department opened a criminal probe into the matter. Two days after the video was released, the Virginia State Board of Elections asked Attorney General of Virginia Ken Cuccinelli to investigate Moran's campaign for voter fraud",
". On January 31, 2013, Arlington County announced that the investigation, by its police department in collaboration with the Offices of the Virginia Attorney General and the Arlington County Commonwealth's Attorney, had concluded and that no charges would be brought. The County stated: \"Patrick Moran and the Jim Moran for Congress campaign provided full cooperation throughout the investigation",
". Despite repeated attempts to involve the party responsible for producing the video, they failed to provide any assistance.\"",
"Anti-Semitism and the Iraq War",
"In 2003, Moran drew criticism for telling an audience in Reston, Virginia that “if it were not for the strong support of the Jewish community for this war with Iraq, we would not be doing this.\" The comment was condemned by then House Democratic leader Nancy Pelosi and then Democratic Senate Minority Leader Tom Daschle",
". In 2007, Moran again generated controversy for linking the Jewish community with the war, this time by blaming AIPAC for American involvement in Iraq, telling the progressive Jewish magazine Tikkun that “… AIPAC is the most powerful lobby and has pushed this war from the beginning … because they are so well organized, and their members are extraordinarily powerful – most of them are quite wealthy – they have been able to exert power",
".” The comments were again condemned by Democratic leadership as anti-semitic.",
"Later career\nIn February 2015, Moran joined McDermott Will & Emery as a senior legislative advisor. He later left the firm and became a senior policy advisor in the Washington, D.C. office of Nelson Mullins Riley & Scarborough. In April 2023, he started his own lobbying firm, Moran Global Strategies, representing clients such as Qatar and various defense contractors.\n\nVirginia Tech announced in April 2016 that Moran had joined the School of Public and International Affairs as professor of practice.",
"Electoral history",
"|+ : Results 1990–2012\n! Year\n!\n! Subject\n! Party\n! Votes\n! %\n!\n! Opponent\n! Party\n! Votes\n! %\n!\n! Opponent\n! Party\n! Votes\n! %\n|-\n|1990\n||\n| |James Moran| |Democratic\n| |88,745\n| |51.7\n|\n| |Stanford Parris\n| |Republican\n| |76,367\n| |44.6\n|\n| |Robert T. Murphy\n| |Independent\n| |5,958\n| |3.5\n|-\n|1992\n||\n| |James Moran| |Democratic\n| |138,542\n| |56.1\n|\n| |Kyle E. McSlarrow\n| |Republican\n| |102,717\n| |41.6\n|\n| |Alvin O. West\n| |Independent\n| |5,601\n| |2.3\n|-\n|1994\n||\n| |James Moran| |Democratic\n| |120,281",
"| |Alvin O. West\n| |Independent\n| |5,601\n| |2.3\n|-\n|1994\n||\n| |James Moran| |Democratic\n| |120,281\n| |59.3\n|\n| |Kyle E. McSlarrow\n| |Republican\n| |79,568\n| |39.3\n|\n| |R. Ward Edmonds\n| |Independent\n| |1,858\n| |0.9\n|-\n|1996\n||\n| |James Moran| |Democratic\n| |152,334\n| |66.4\n|\n| |John E. Otey\n| |Republican\n| |64,562\n| |28.1\n|\n| |R. Ward Edmonds\n| |Independent\n| |6,243\n| |2.7\n|-\n|1998\n||\n| |James Moran| |Democratic\n| |97,545\n| |66.6\n|\n| |Demaris H. Miller\n| |Republican\n| |48,352\n| |33.0\n|\n|-\n|2000\n||",
"| |97,545\n| |66.6\n|\n| |Demaris H. Miller\n| |Republican\n| |48,352\n| |33.0\n|\n|-\n|2000\n||\n| |James Moran| |Democratic\n| |164,178\n| |63.3\n|\n| |Demaris H. Miller\n| |Republican\n| |88,262\n| |34.0\n|\n| |Ron Crickenberger\n| |Independent\n| |3,483\n| |1.3\n|-\n|2002\n||\n| |James Moran| |Democratic\n| |102,759\n| |59.8\n|\n| |Scott Tate\n| |Republican\n| |64,121\n| |37.3\n|\n| |Ron Crickenberger\n| |Independent\n| |4,558\n| |2.6\n|-\n|2004\n||\n| |James Moran| |Democratic\n| |171,986\n| |59.7\n|\n| |Lisa Cheney\n| |Republican\n| |106,231",
"|2004\n||\n| |James Moran| |Democratic\n| |171,986\n| |59.7\n|\n| |Lisa Cheney\n| |Republican\n| |106,231\n| |36.9\n|\n| |James Hurysz\n| |Independent\n| |9,004\n| |3.1\n|-\n|2006\n||\n| |James Moran| |Democratic\n| |144,700\n| |66.4\n|\n| |Tom O'Donoghue\n| |Republican\n| |66,639\n| |30.6\n|\n| |James Hurysz\n| |Independent\n| |6,094\n| |2.8\n|-\n|2008\n||\n| |James Moran| |Democratic\n| |222,986\n| |67.9\n|\n| |Mark Ellmore\n| |Republican\n| |97,425\n| |29.7\n|\n| |J. Ron Fisher\n| |Independent Green\n| |6,829\n| |2.1\n|-\n|2010\n||",
"| |Republican\n| |97,425\n| |29.7\n|\n| |J. Ron Fisher\n| |Independent Green\n| |6,829\n| |2.1\n|-\n|2010\n||\n| |James Moran| |Democratic\n| |116,293\n| |61.0\n|\n| |Jay Patrick Murray\n| |Republican\n| |71,108\n| |37.3\n|\n| |J. Ron Fisher\n| |Independent Green\n| |2,704\n| |1.4\n|-\n|2012\n||\n| |James Moran'''\n| |Democratic\n| |226,847\n| |64.6\n|\n| |Jay Patrick Murray\n| |Republican\n| |107,370\n| |30.6\n|\n| |Jason J. Howell\n| |Independent\n| |10,180\n| |2.9",
"Personal life\nMoran has been married and divorced three times. His second wife, Mary Howard Moran, filed for divorce in 1999, one day after an argument at the couple's Alexandria home that resulted in a visit from the police. The Congressman provided his own divorce papers a few months later, and in 2003 the couple officially separated. He remarried in 2004 to real estate developer LuAnn Bennett. In December 2010, Moran and Bennett announced they were separating.",
"Moran is the father of four children. A son, Patrick B. Moran, once worked as a field director for one of Moran's election campaigns but resigned in 2012 when allegations of voter fraud surfaced. Later in 2012, Patrick pleaded guilty to simple assault after being arrested after an incident with his girlfriend in front of a Columbia Heights bar on December 1. He was sentenced to probation.Sommer, Will. Rep",
". He was sentenced to probation.Sommer, Will. Rep. Jim Moran's Son Guilty of Beating Up His Girlfriend in Columbia Heights , Washington City Paper, December 12, 2012.",
"Another one of Moran's children is Dorothy, who was diagnosed with an inoperable brain tumor during her father's campaign for reelection against Kyle McSlarrow in 1994. It was said at the time that she had only a twenty percent chance of living to age five, but after almost two years of chemotherapy and herbal therapies she was declared cancer-free.",
"His brother, Brian Moran, is a former member of the Virginia House of Delegates, and the head of the Virginia Democratic Party between early 2011 and December 2012. He was an unsuccessful primary candidate for Governor of Virginia in the 2009 election.\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n \nJim Moran as featured in the film Finding Our Voices''\nBetter Know a District – Virginia's 8th – Jim Moran, The Colbert Report, December 6, 2005\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-",
"1945 births\n21st-century American politicians\nAmerican stock traders\nCollege of the Holy Cross alumni\nDemocratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Virginia\nEmployees of the United States Senate\nHoly Cross Crusaders football players\nLiving people\nMayors of Alexandria, Virginia\nPoliticians from Arlington County, Virginia\nPoliticians from Buffalo, New York\nPeople from Natick, Massachusetts\nUniversity of Pittsburgh alumni\nVirginia city council members",
"People from Natick, Massachusetts\nUniversity of Pittsburgh alumni\nVirginia city council members\nMembers of Congress who became lobbyists"
] |
2015–16 Phoenix Suns season
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015%E2%80%9316%20Phoenix%20Suns%20season
|
[
"The 2015–16 NBA season was the Phoenix Suns' 48th season in the NBA. It was their first season where the Suns played in the Talking Stick Resort Arena with its new name, having played there since the 1992–93 season, when it used to be called the America West Arena and then later on, the U.S. Airways Center.",
"Key dates\n May 19, 2015: The NBA draft lottery took place.\n May 29, 2015: The Suns reassigned assistant coach Mark West's back into the front office as a director of player relations, promoted Corey Gaines as a full-time assistant coach again, hired Bakersfield Jam coach Nate Bjorkgren as a new assistant coach for player development, fired Kenny Gattison as an assistant coach by not renewing his contract, and fired director of player personnel John Treloar.",
"June 3, 2015: Former NBA player and Austin Spurs assistant coach Earl Watson was announced as one of the newest player development assistant coaches.\n June 10, 2015: President of Basketball Operations Lon Babby announced that after his free agency stint in July, he would step down from his position and take on a new role as a senior adviser.\n June 17, 2015: Danny Granger exercised his player option with the team so he could play out the rest of his contract.",
"June 25, 2015: The 2015 NBA draft took place at the Barclays Center in Brooklyn, New York; Phoenix selects Kentucky University's shooting guard Devin Booker with their 13th pick and trades their 44th pick (Kentucky University's Andrew Harrison) to the Memphis Grizzlies in exchange for back-up power forward Jon Leuer.",
"June 27, 2015: Phoenix announces that former Villanova University player and Austin Spurs assistant coach Jason Fraser accepted the last open player development assistant coach role for the team.\n June 30, 2015: The Morris twins complete their first mandated court appearance after their situation with Eric Hood in January this past season. They were projected to meet again on August 3, 2015 in Arizona.",
"July 1, 2015: The NBA free agency period began; Brandon Knight agreed to a 5-year, $70 million offer that was hinted earlier on in June to stay with the Suns; Dallas Mavericks center Tyson Chandler also agreed to be in Phoenix as well for a 4-year, $52 million offer.\n July 2, 2015: The Suns traded small forwards Marcus Morris, Danny Granger, and Reggie Bullock to the Detroit Pistons in exchange for the Pistons' 2020 second round selection.",
"July 8, 2015: Phoenix acquired CSKA Moscow shooting guard Sonny Weems on a two-year deal (second year being a team option) worth a total of $5.8 million; Phoenix also got point guard Ronnie Price back on a one-year deal worth $1.5 million.",
"July 9, 2015: Teams could sign, trade, extend, and even release players to their own accord, such as signing Tyson Chandler on his contract; Phoenix also agreed to a one-year deal worth $5.5 million with Brooklyn Nets power forward Mirza Teletović after he was released from them.",
"July 17, 2015: The Suns re-signed point guard Brandon Knight and signed power forward Mirza Teletović and guards Sonny Weems and Ronnie Price; Phoenix also waived point guard Jerel McNeal's contract before it became fully guaranteed, even though the Suns' Summer League wasn't over yet.\n July 19, 2015: T. J. Warren earned All-NBA First Team Las Vegas Summer League Honors for his performance during the 2015 NBA Summer League.",
"July 23, 2015: News was leaked that the Suns would reveal a new black alternate jersey for road matches only. Further information also revealed that the Suns would get a flexible, updated silhouette for a different alternative jersey.",
"July 30, 2015: The Suns announced changes to their coaching staff and front office that includes the recent announcement of Bakersfield Jam general manager Bubba Barrage as the team's newest Director of Player Personnel and Antonio Williams as the newest scout, replacing the initial scouting role held by Ronnie Lester.\n August 1, 2015: Lon Babby stepped down from his old president of basketball operations role and took on the team's senior adviser role; Ryan McDonough then took on that role as well.",
"August 3, 2015: Markieff Morris and his traded brother were scheduled to return to Phoenix to complete their second mandated court appearance with the Eric Hood case. However, neither brother showed up and their attorneys asked for their court appearance that day to be waived. As a result, their next pre-trial conference was delayed to September 16, 2015.",
"August 12, 2015: The NBA announced all team schedules for the 2015–16 season, with the Suns opening their season on October 28, 2015 against the Dallas Mavericks, Tyson Chandler's former team.\n August 24, 2015: The Suns announced that they would put their superstar point guard Steve Nash into the Phoenix Suns Ring of Honor on their October 30, 2015 game against the Portland Trail Blazers, which was also rookie Devin Booker's 19th birthday.",
"September 8, 2015: The Phoenix Suns revealed their newest black alternate jerseys, updated their orange alternate jersey, revealed their updated court design (with the main feature showcasing that the team replaced the \"SUNS\" ambigram with their old Sunburst logo similar to what they had during the 1990s), and unveiled their new Civic Pride \"We Are PHX\" movement to the media",
". The event included Kentucky University alumni Eric Bledsoe, rookie Devin Booker, Archie Goodwin, and Brandon Knight, as well as small forward P. J. Tucker, the newly acquired power forward Jon Leuer, coach Jeff Hornacek, Suns president Jason Rowley, and Phoenix mayor Greg Stanton; the league also fines Markieff Morris $10,000 due to his trade demand comments he's made throughout the past month or two.",
"September 16, 2015: The Morris twins requested a new grand jury as a new mandated appearance after missing their August meeting. Both sides had to have written arguments for and against a new grand jury to precise over the twins' case. Their next meeting took place on October 15, 2015, although neither appeared in court due to their respective obligations to the Suns and Pistons",
". If their request was denied, the earliest next court date could be November 5, 2015; otherwise, the case would be held back all the way until May 31, 2016. The Suns' signing of Cory Jefferson (and other training camp invitees) became official that day.",
"September 28, 2015: The deadline for all signed players to report to their teams took effect as training camp commenced in Flagstaff; Markieff Morris was the last player to show up for the team when everyone else had been training with each other for at least two weeks.",
"October 3, 2015: The Suns concluded their training camp practices before the start of the pre-season by having a friendly match between themselves at the Veterans Memorial Coliseum. Team MacLeod barely beat out Team Cotton by the final of 67–66.\n October 26, 2015: The player options of center Alex Len, shooting guard Archie Goodwin, and small forward T. J. Warren get picked up for the 2016–17 NBA season.",
"October 28, 2015: The Suns started the regular season with a home game against Tyson Chandler's former team, the Dallas Mavericks; Devin Booker made his debut as the first player in the NBA at 18 years old who also had at least one year of college experience.\n October 30, 2015: Steve Nash became the 10th player to enter the Phoenix Suns Ring of Honor during the second home game of the season against the Portland Trail Blazers; Devin Booker turns 19 years old during the team's first victory of the season.",
"November 25, 2015: The Suns sign Tucson, Arizona native Bryce Cotton on a one-year deal after injuries to back-up point guard Ronnie Price, as well as to starting point guard Eric Bledsoe occurred earlier in the season.\n December 15, 2015: The starting point for signed free agents to be traded to different teams commences.\n December 26, 2015: Eric Bledsoe tore his left meniscus and is out for the rest of the season.",
"December 26, 2015: Eric Bledsoe tore his left meniscus and is out for the rest of the season.\n December 27, 2015: The Suns fired assistant coaches Jerry Sichting and Mike Longabardi for their poor performances throughout the month of December.\n January 5, 2016: Teams can sign players for 10-day contracts.\n January 6, 2016: After winning their first game of the new year, the Suns decided to waive away the non-guaranteed deals of Cory Jefferson and Bryce Cotton.",
"January 7, 2016: The Suns signed Lorenzo Brown, former college teammate of T. J. Warren's, to a 10-day contract.\n January 15, 2016: Contracts for players signed earlier in free agency for teams over the salary cap are now fully guaranteed for the season.\n January 18, 2016: The Suns re-signed Lorenzo Brown to his second 10-day contract.\n January 21, 2016: Phoenix re-signed former Suns player Cory Jefferson to a 10-day contract after all of the previous power forwards wound up injured.",
"January 23, 2016: In a close 98–95 victory over the Atlanta Hawks, Tyson Chandler became the first Phoenix Suns player to record multiple games of 20+ rebounds with the team, tied Paul Silas' record for rebounds in one game with 27, and set a new offensive rebounding record with 13, beating out both Charles Barkley and Curtis Perry there in the process.",
"January 28, 2016: The Suns decided to not sign Lorenzo Brown for the entire year, instead giving Jordan McRae (who held the highest-scoring effort in D-League history) a 10-day contract.",
"February 1, 2016: Head coach Jeff Hornacek was fired after a generally awful season and replaced by assistant coach Earl Watson for the rest of the season; Bob Hill (a former head coach for the San Antonio Spurs and Seattle SuperSonics) took the vacant assistant coach role left by Watson; rookie Devin Booker was announced as a participant for the three-point shootout.",
"February 2, 2016: Before the beginning of Phoenix's 7-game home stand (9 in 10 games) in February, it was announced that small forward T. J. Warren would be out for the rest of the season due to a broken foot he had sustained during a game against the Cleveland Cavaliers in January.\n February 5, 2016: The Suns signed Orlando Johnson to a 10-day contract days after finding out small forward T. J. Warren would be out for the rest of the season.",
"February 8, 2016: Phoenix re-signed Jordan McRae to his second 10-day contract moving forward.\n February 10, 2016: Devin Booker was announced as a participant for All-Star Friday's NBA Cares Special Olympics Unified Basketball Game.\n February 11, 2016: It was announced, a day before the actual event began, that rookie Devin Booker was a contestant for the Rising Stars Challenge after Philadelphia 76ers sophomore power forward/center Nerlens Noel injured himself before the event took place.",
"February 12, 2016: The NBA All-Star Weekend taking place in Toronto, Ontario, Canada began.\n February 18, 2016: The NBA trade deadline takes full effect; Phoenix traded away Markieff Morris to the Washington Wizards in exchange for DeJuan Blair, Kris Humphries, a top-9-protected first-round draft pick, and a $1.56 million traded player exception; the Suns also waived Orlando Johnson to make room for their newest players.",
"February 20, 2016: The Suns signed former Philadelphia 76ers and Idaho Stampede point guard Phil Pressey to a 10-day contract after deciding not to sign Jordan McRae for the rest of the year.\n February 22, 2016: The Suns waived DeJuan Blair.\n February 24, 2016: The Suns signed former Dallas Mavericks shooting guard John Jenkins to a three-year contract (two years non-guaranteed) two days after deciding to waive DeJuan Blair from the roster.",
"February 28, 2016: After getting their only victory in the month of February, the Suns decided to buy out Kris Humphries' contract (the other player acquired in the Markieff Morris trade) that he first signed with the Washington Wizards in order for it to not affect their salary cap.\n March 1, 2016: The Suns re-signed Phil Pressey to his second 10-day contract.",
"March 1, 2016: The Suns re-signed Phil Pressey to his second 10-day contract.\n March 5, 2016: After winning their first road game of the season since December 7, 2015, against the Chicago Bulls with a blowout win against the Orlando Magic, the Suns waived Sonny Weems due to his poor performances throughout the season.",
"March 6, 2016: The road victories the Suns recorded against the Orlando Magic two nights ago and the Memphis Grizzlies that night were exactly a year since the Suns last won two straight games on the road on March 4 and March 6, 2015.",
"March 8, 2016: After winning their second game in a row by beating the Memphis Grizzlies on the road, the Suns signed former Indiana Pacers and Arizona Wildcats small forward Chase Budinger and former California–Santa Barbara Gauchos and Qingdao DoubleStar Eagles center and Phoenix, Arizona, native Alan Williams to a one-year deal and a 10-day contract respectively.",
"March 11, 2016: The Suns decided not to sign Phil Pressey for the rest of the season after finding out Brandon Knight was healthy enough to return to action for the season.\n March 18, 2016: Phoenix native Alan Williams signed for the rest of the season, with an option to play for the Suns next season and also participate in their Summer League team after this season.",
"April 1, 2016: Brandon Knight was announced out for the rest of the season due to a sports hernia he reaggravated on his debut as a road opponent against his former team, the Milwaukee Bucks, after trying to dunk on Giannis Antetokounmpo. He was fouled on the play in question.",
"April 5, 2016: Forward Mirza Teletović broke the record set by former San Antonio Spurs' Chuck Person at the time during the 1994–95 season to make the most three-pointers as a reserve player with his 165th three-pointer during a loss against the Atlanta Hawks. He finished the season with 179 three-pointers off the bench.\n April 8, 2016: Brandon Knight had surgery on his hernia in Philadelphia.",
"April 8, 2016: Brandon Knight had surgery on his hernia in Philadelphia.\n April 9, 2016: Rookie Devin Booker recorded his 1,000th point with 10:51 left in the first quarter during a 121–100 blowout victory over the New Orleans Pelicans, thus becoming the fourth-youngest player to record 1,000 points in a season, the third-youngest to do it in his rookie season, and the sixth-overall player to record 1,000 points as a teenager.",
"April 11, 2016: It was announced that the Phoenix Suns would take full control over their D-League affiliate team, the Bakersfield Jam, and move them into the Prescott Valley Event Center in Prescott Valley, Arizona as the Northern Arizona Suns, starting after this season ended. The Suns thereby became one of 19 NBA teams (as of this season) to have complete control over a single D-League affiliate team.",
"April 19, 2016: The Suns announced that Earl Watson was no longer the interim head coach, and was the full-time head coach for the next three years, effective this new season.\n May 16, 2016: Devin Booker was voted fourth in the NBA Rookie of the Year Award voting segment, finishing behind Nikola Jokić, Kristaps Porziņģis, and his former college teammate Karl-Anthony Towns.",
"May 19, 2016: Booker was announced as a part of the NBA All-Rookie First Team, joining Towns, Porziņģis, Jokić, and the Philadelphia 76ers' Jahlil Okafor. Booker also became the first Suns rookie to join an All-Rookie team (either first or second) since Amar'e Stoudemire in 2003, when he also won the NBA Rookie of the Year Award.",
"Offseason\n\nDraft picks",
"The Phoenix Suns have only one first round pick and one second round pick this season. Their sole first round pick was their own that was also a part of the NBA draft lottery. The Suns initially had two other draft picks as well (one from the Minnesota Timberwolves and the other from the Los Angeles Lakers, both of which were coincidentally the top picks of this season's draft), but they were both involved with trades the Suns made last season",
". Minnesota's first round pick (which had lottery protections this season) was traded to the Boston Celtics, where Phoenix got center Brandan Wright in exchange",
". However, the Lakers' pick (which was top 5 protected this season) was moved in the trade deadline extravaganza of 2015, with Phoenix gaining guard Brandon Knight from the Milwaukee Bucks (as well as other players and future first round draft picks) in exchange for Milwaukee gaining the Suns' center Miles Plumlee and then-rookie point guard Tyler Ennis, as well as the Philadelphia 76ers' point guard Michael Carter-Williams, and Philadelphia getting the Lakers' protected first round pick out of it",
". The lone second round pick they have is also the pick they had on their own accord in spite of having a declining record when compared to two seasons ago in the process.",
"With the 13th pick, the Suns selected shooting guard Devin Booker from Kentucky University. Booker averaged 10 points off of 47% overall shooting, 2 rebounds, and 1.1 assists during 21.5 minutes of play in Kentucky's near-undefeated season as a bench player. As a result, Booker became the Southeastern Conference's Sixth Man of the Year for, and made it to the All-SEC Second Team and the SEC All-Freshmen Team",
". Despite coming off the bench during his college season, Booker was the most immediately successful rookie the Suns drafted (and was kept by them) in over a decade, not only finishing fourth in the NBA Rookie of the Year Award voting, but also being the first Suns rookie to make it to any All-Rookie team since 2003. With the 44th pick, the Suns selected another player from the University of Kentucky, point guard Andrew Harrison",
". However, the Suns traded Harrison's rights to the Memphis Grizzlies for power forward Jon Leuer. As the starting point guard with the Wildcats for two seasons, Harrison had averaged 10.1 points, 3.8 assists, and 2.7 rebounds, but his output decreased during his second season, and was considered a likely reason for Harrison's drop from being a considered first-round talent to falling around the middle of the second round",
". Another player that the Suns got, who had entered the 2015 NBA draft via graduation, but wasn't drafted, was Phoenix native Alan Williams, an undersized center/power forward from the University of California, Santa Barbara",
". He was well known for his rebounding abilities, to the point where he earned best rebounding numbers in not just college at his junior and senior years (even winning the Big West's Player of the Year as a junior), but also was the leading rebounder in China for the Qingdao DoubleStar Eagles.",
"Free agency",
"Players Brandan Wright, Gerald Green, and Marcus Thornton; as well as the returning Earl Barron all became unrestricted free agents as of the end of the 2014–15 NBA season. In addition, combo guard Brandon Knight ended up being a restricted free agent. Small forward Danny Granger was also considered a candidate for unrestricted free agency, but he ended up exercising his player option to take on his final year of his contract for the rest of this season on June 17, 2015",
". Not only that, but one recent trade the Suns made by trading their most recent second round selection to Memphis for power forward Jon Leuer was fully guaranteed for the rest of the season after having his rights remain with the team after June 29, 2015",
". Point guard Jerel McNeal also had a team option that would make him an unrestricted free agent, but it had to be decided upon and met before July 21, 2015, which was around the time Phoenix's Summer League campaign ended and a good portion of free agency had been completed. However, unlike the other players that had team options with the Suns, McNeal was waived four days before his contract was guaranteed, on July 17, 2015 during the Summer League, due to his less than stellar performance there.",
"To start their free agency push, the Suns decided to lock down their biggest trade deadline piece last season, Brandon Knight, to a 5-year deal worth $70 million (the same deal offered to point guard Eric Bledsoe a year earlier) on July 1, 2015. In addition to keeping Brandon Knight, the Suns also signed up 2011 NBA Finals champion center Tyson Chandler on exactly the same day",
". The signing of Tyson came in conjecture to the Suns' personal meeting with Portland Trail Blazers free agent power forward LaMarcus Aldridge as well for the chance to lure him over to Phoenix. In the meantime, Brandan Wright was lost to the Memphis Grizzlies when he signed a 3-year deal worth $18 million. A day later, the Suns traded small forwards Marcus Morris, Danny Granger, and Reggie Bullock to the Detroit Pistons in exchange for the Pistons' 2020 second round selection",
". This move was considered a way for Phoenix to sign LaMarcus Aldridge without taking any hits on their salary cap; unfortunately for the Suns, on July 4, Aldridge instead decided to go to the rival San Antonio Spurs.",
"After failing to sign Aldridge, the Suns decided to sign CSKA Moscow shooting guard Sonny Weems to a two-year deal worth $5.8 million (with a team option on the second year) and former 2011–12 Phoenix Suns point guard Ronnie Price on a one-year deal worth $1.5 million (the veteran's minimum) on July 8, 2015. A day later, it was announced that the Brooklyn Nets' power forward Mirza Teletović from the nation of Bosnia & Herzegovina would sign a one-year deal worth $5",
".5 million, while Gerald Green would sign a one-year deal worth $3 million with the Miami Heat. Four days after the July moratorium ended, the Suns' Marcus Thornton, who they got after their trade with Isaiah Thomas signed a one-year, veteran's minimum deal with the Houston Rockets. On July 31, it was revealed that Jerel McNeal would sign to play for Aris Thessaloniki in Greece instead",
". After that, on September 25, 2015, center Earl Barron signed a training camp deal to play with the Atlanta Hawks Basketball Club after former Suns player Jason Richardson announced his retirement due to an injury that he feared put his health at risk, although Barron played for the Fubon Braves in Taiwan on November 17, 2015 after failing to make their regular season rotation.",
"On August 20, 2015, the Suns agreed to training camp deals with former Ole Miss and Yenisey Krasnoyarsk shooting guard Terrico White and former Harvard and Helios Suns Domžale small forward Kyle Casey",
". Five days afterwards, the Suns also decided to add former Philadelphia 76ers center Henry Sims and former Brooklyn Nets power forward Cory Jefferson towards their training camp roster as more likely potential additions to the team, as well as former Nevada Wolf Pack and Ratiopharm Ulm point guard Deonte Burton. However, all of those signings were not official until September 16, 2015",
". However, all of those signings were not official until September 16, 2015. Burton did not train with the team at all and instead became the first player to be cut on October 3, 2015, which was before the team's scrimmage at the Veterans Memorial Coliseum. After that, the Suns waived both Terrico White and Kyle Casey from their roster on October 15, 2015, two days after their overtime loss to the Houston Rockets",
". Finally, on October 24, 2015, the Suns decided to waive Henry Sims from the roster and sign last year's Mr. Irrelevant Cory Jefferson to a non-guaranteed deal for the season. All waived players except for Henry Sims later joined the Bakersfield Jam. Sims joined the Grand Rapids Drive on November 12, 2015 instead. However, of all the players there that were training camp invites, only Sims found his way back into the NBA again, signing a deal to play with the Brooklyn Nets on March 17, 2016.",
"On November 25, 2015, the Suns signed Tucson, Arizona native Bryce Cotton to a one-year deal as insurance in the event either Ronnie Price or Eric Bledsoe were out of commission. He made his debut over a month later due to an injury involving Eric Bledsoe. Cotton previously played point guard for the Austin Spurs in the D-League (twice) and the Utah Jazz before signing his deal to play for the Suns",
". On January 6, 2016, after winning at home against the Charlotte Hornets, the Suns decided to waive both Cory Jefferson and Bryce Cotton's non-guaranteed deals. To make up for these moves, they announced that Grand Rapids Drive point guard Lorenzo Brown signed a 10-day contract to determine his future value to the team, especially as a backup point guard since Bledsoe was out for the rest of the season",
". Brown performed well enough to sign a second 10-day contract, especially with Ronnie Price out around that timeline. On January 21, 2016, the Suns decided to have Jefferson return to the roster for a 10-day contract due to the team's power forwards all being out of commission during the January 19 game against the Indiana Pacers",
". However, on January 28, 2016, Phoenix decided to sign former Philadelphia 76ers selection Jordan McRae to a 10-day contract in order to replace Lorenzo Brown after his second 10-day contract expired. In the meantime, the Suns decided to not extend Cory Jefferson's deal (again) after most of the team's power forwards returned healthy on January 31, 2016.",
"During Jordan McRae's first 10-day stint, Phoenix decided to sign another 10-day contract out for former NBA and Austin Spurs player Orlando Johnson on a 10-day contract on February 5, 2016 due to the season-ending injury of T. J. Warren earlier in the month of February",
". J. Warren earlier in the month of February. After trading Markieff Morris away to the Washington Wizards, the Suns decided to both waive Orlando Johnson's 10 day contract and let go of Jordan McRae after his second 10-day contract expired in order to replace them with former Philadelphia 76ers and Idaho Stampede point guard Phil Pressey for 10 days, starting on February 20, 2016",
". Furthermore, after waiving DeJuan Blair from the roster, the Suns decided to sign former Dallas Mavericks shooting guard John Jenkins to a 3-year contract (two years non-guaranteed) on February 24, 2016. In addition, they waived Kris Humphries (from their Markieff Morris trade) and one of their recent free-agent signings in Sonny Weems on February 28 and March 5, 2016 respectively",
". To replace Weems, though, the Suns decided to sign former Indiana Pacers and Arizona Wildcats forward Chase Budinger for the rest of the season on March 8, 2016. Furthermore, on the same day, the Suns signed former Qingdao DoubleStar Eagles and California–Santa Barbara Gauchos center/power forward Alan Williams (a Phoenix, Arizona native) to a 10-day contract to replace Humphries in case either Alex Len or Tyson Chandler got injured again",
". While Phil Pressey did not sign with the team for the rest of the season due to the return of Brandon Knight as the starting point guard on March 11 (even after Knight had his own season-ending injury later on), Alan Williams got to sign for not just the rest of this season, but also the next season on March 18, 2016, thus finally ending the Suns' free agency spree that season.",
"The Morris twins situation",
"For a majority of the past two seasons, many of the problems the team had there as a whole were projected by many fans as problems relating to that of the Morris twins' behaviors (primarily the behavior of Markieff Morris for this season)",
". Before the start of the season, both Markieff and his twin brother Marcus Morris were subject to many problems both on and off the court, from behaving poorly in front of (now former) head coach Jeff Hornacek to getting multiple technical fouls (some of which occurred in costly situations that season) to calling out the team's fanbase for not stepping up properly to even having an upcoming court case involving a former mentor of theirs named Erik Hood",
". In an attempt to help cool down the problem earlier on before this season began, the Suns decided to trade what was considered (at the time) the lesser-talented twin brother (Marcus) alongside their influx of small forwards in Reggie Bullock and Danny Granger to the Detroit Pistons on July 2, 2015, in exchange for a 2020 second round draft pick in what was seen as an effort to open up cap space to lure LaMarcus Aldridge away from both the Portland Trail Blazers and the San Antonio Spurs",
". When that failed, Marcus started lambasting the team's front office and fans for not inquiring with them about the oncoming trade when it happened. Furthermore, it was revealed that on August 3, 2015, both of the Morris twins failed to show up for the pretrial conference that was set for them on that date, which forced the judicial system to delay the case until September 16, 2015",
". The twins' trail continued well beyond this season, and to the next when they requested a new grand jury, and then having the trial be further delayed to gather evidence on the text messages sent between Eric Hood and Thomasine \"Angel\" Morris, the other victim in question",
". The twins' trial continued until October 3, 2017, due to their conflicting schedules as NBA players on different teams by that point in time, where the judge deemed the twins (and former Baltimore Ravens safety Gerald Bowman) not guilty for the attack on Hood due to his story changing from both of the twins being involved in attacking him to just Marcus attacking him, while the other two attackers involved (Julius Kane & Christopher Melendez Jr",
".) admitted their guilt in the attack earlier on back in September 2017. Nevertheless, the trial's results would not change the fates of the twins after the July trade involving Marcus Morris.",
"On August 11, 2015, Markieff Morris revealed to The Philadelphia Inquirer that he wanted to be traded out of Phoenix, mainly due to how he and his twin brother were notified of the news of the Detroit Pistons trade on July 2, 2015, where Markieff's brother was traded alongside Reggie Bullock and Danny Granger for the Pistons' 2020 second round selection. He was fined $10,000 for his comments",
". He was fined $10,000 for his comments. Four days later, he stated his preference to play for either the Houston Rockets (Marcus' original team) or the Toronto Raptors, but he wouldn't mind any other location like the Washington Wizards as well. However, the Suns decided to counter Markieff's demands by saying they would not trade him due to his importance to the team around that time",
". Despite that notion, he remained adamant about his decision by posting out on his Twitter account that his future would not be in Phoenix, just a day after the Suns wished Markieff a happy 26th birthday, and continued with the attitude a week later saying he won't accept any apologies from the team",
". At the end of the offseason, though, Markieff remained on the team throughout most of the season, with Marcus continuing to bash the team and their fanbase along the way as a Detroit Pistons player, even claiming he was never really a Phoenix Suns player",
". It was later revealed that the Suns had tried to work out a trade involving Markieff for eight months before it was finally completed in February, with general manager Ryan McDonough stating that if a better deal for Markieff had come before the start of the season, it would have been done by then",
". The problem was stated that Markieff himself didn't do the team any favors throughout the majority of the season between his court case with his brother and worries that the behavior he had at the start of the season there would continue for other teams afterwards.",
"While Markieff suggested that he had learned from the mistakes he made during the summertime, he continued to have problems with the team and even struggled with his performance after his first ever injury as a player in the middle of November. After his injury, Markieff was relegated to a bench role, with times that he didn't even play at all for various reasons. His performance dropped even further from averaging around 13 points and 5 rebounds in 27 minutes of action in November to 6.4 points and 2",
".4 points and 2.9 rebounds in 17 minutes of action in December, with Jon Leuer replacing Markieff at points. It soon reached a point on December 23, 2015 against the Denver Nuggets (which was also the last full game Eric Bledsoe played before a season-ending knee injury three days later) where Markieff threw a towel (accidentally) at head coach Jeff Hornacek after being frustrated at a play",
". The incident drew parallels to when former Suns player Robert Horry threw a towel at former Suns head coach Danny Ainge back in the 1996–97 Phoenix Suns season. Like Horry, Morris was suspended for two games without pay. However, unlike the Horry situation, Markieff remained with the team for not just the rest of December, but also for the entirety of January and halfway through February",
". Markieff also ended up lasting longer than Hornacek and two of his top assistants, Jerry Sichting and Mike Longabardi (the latter of which won the 2016 NBA Finals championship later on in the season with the Cleveland Cavaliers). It also caused the Suns to stop playing Markieff altogether for a good amount of time, only relenting with all of their power forwards starting to get injuries during the month of January at certain points.",
"When head coach Jeff Hornacek was fired on February 1, 2016, and assistant(/former player development) coach Earl Watson replaced him as interim head coach for the rest of the season, Watson tried to designate Markieff as the team's newest leader after having injuries decimate their entire roster. During the five games Morris held that designation, he recorded his best averages for the Suns with 20.7 points, 7.6 rebounds, and 4",
".7 points, 7.6 rebounds, and 4.6 assists in over 30 minutes of action, even though the team did not win any of those games around that period of time. However, the breaking point for Markieff and the Suns came under Morris' last game on February 9, 2016 against the defending champion Golden State Warriors, where during the first timeout of the game in the first quarter, Markieff went after his teammate Archie Goodwin due to Goodwin not performing well at the time",
". While the Suns lost a relatively close match to the Warriors, they soon realized that enough was enough with Markieff (and later Goodwin), and then asked to have a first round draft pick and a young player in return for Markieff to go far away from their franchise forever",
". At the end of the February 18, 2016 trade deadline, despite him wanting to stay with the team by then, the other Morris brother was traded to the Washington Wizards in exchange for power-forward/center combo players DeJuan Blair and Kris Humphries, as well as a top-9 protected 2016 first round draft pick and a $1.56 million traded player exception. Four days after the trade, though, the Suns waived Blair",
".56 million traded player exception. Four days after the trade, though, the Suns waived Blair. To replace him, the Suns decided to use their traded player exception to sign John Jenkins to a three-year contract (with the second and third years being non-guaranteed) for the league minimum",
". Furthermore, the Suns also decided to buy out Kris Humphries' contract that he had for two more years (including this one) on February 28, 2016 in order to help get him to a playoff team in the Atlanta Hawks, while also replacing Humphries with Phoenix, Arizona native Alan Williams to a 10-day contract on March 8, 2016, and then for the rest of the season on March 18, 2016",
". Both the first round pick from Markieff (which became Georgios Papagiannis) and the 2020 second round pick from Marcus (which eventually became Xavier Tillman) were later traded to the Sacramento Kings as part of a deal in exchange for Marquese Chriss, who was the 8th pick in the 2016 NBA draft.",
"Coaching changes",
"On May 29, 2015, it was announced that assistant coach Kenny Gattison was leaving the team and former Phoenix Mercury coach and Suns player development coach Corey Gaines was to be promoted to full-time assistant coach again. At the same time, it was announced that Bakersfield Jam coach Nate Bjorkgren was Corey's replacement as player development coach (as well as being an assistant head coach in his own accord) and Mark West was relegated back into the front office as a director of player relations",
". Several days later, former NBA player and Austin Spurs assistant coach Earl Watson was announced as assistant coach duties. Joe Smith was also announced as a potential candidate for another player development assistant coach position",
". However, on June 27, 2015 — two days after the 2015 NBA draft — the Suns hired former Villanova University player and director of student-athlete development, Harlem Globetrotter, and Austin Spurs assistant coach Jason Fraser as the last player development assistant coach, being joined by fellow player development coach Irving Roland from the team's 2013–14 season.",
"On December 27, 2015, a day after losing to the Philadelphia 76ers (who before playing Phoenix had only one victory at that time and ended up with only 10 victories all season long), it was announced that both Earl Watson and Nate Bjorkgren were being promoted to full-time assistant coaches, while both long-time assistant coaches Jerry Sichting and Mike Longabardi were fired (although Longabardi was later hired by the Cleveland Cavaliers, eventually winning the 2016 NBA Finals six months later",
", eventually winning the 2016 NBA Finals six months later, while Sichting was reunite with Jeff Hornacek and Corey Gaines on the Knicks the next season)",
". A month later, the Suns' head coach Jeff Hornacek was fired (although he'd find work again as the New York Knicks' head coach on May 18, 2016, while also being reunited with assistant coaches Jerry Sichting and Corey Gaines soon afterwards). Earl Watson became interim coach, replacing Hornacek. Former San Antonio Spurs and Seattle SuperSonics head coach Bob Hill became an assistant coach under Watson as the new head coach",
". After the season, the Suns designated Watson with the full-time head coach tag for the next three seasons.",
"Front office changes",
"On May 29, 2015, it was revealed that former Suns player and assistant coach Mark West was back in the front office role as a director of player relations and John Treloar was fired from his director of player personnel duties, as he decided to take on that same role for the Atlanta Hawks",
". Former president of basketball operations Lon Babby was relegated to be the team's senior adviser on June 10, 2015 after his initial contract as the team's president of basketball operations expired, although he still took part in the team's free agent decisions for the rest of June and July. As of August, however, that role was taken by general manager Ryan McDonough instead. On July 7, 2015, the Suns announced that the Los Angeles Clippers' Courtney Witte was the team's newest director of scouting",
". On July 30, 2015, Phoenix announced that the Bakersfield Jam's general manager Bubba Barrage was the new director of player personnel while keeping his role in Bakersfield, and Antonio Williams was the team's newest scout, replacing Ronnie Lester. Finally, on September 30, 2015, the team's strength and conditioning coach Mike Elliott was promoted to the director of performance.",
"Roster\n\nSalaries",
"For the first time since the 2009–10 season, the Suns don't have to pay Josh Childress as the amnesty clause for the NBA expires. However, they still owe Michael Beasley $777,778 due to the buyout the Suns did on September 3, 2013. Beasley's contract still affects the Suns' salary for both this season and the next",
". Beasley's contract still affects the Suns' salary for both this season and the next. Furthermore, the Suns also bought out Kris Humphries' contract on February 28, 2016, which removed his payments of around $3,440,000 from Phoenix's books in the current season, as well as payout the rest of Sonny Weems' $2,814,000 that he didn't get earlier on (which totals out to $660,000) for the rest of the season on March 5, 2016.",
"Pre-season\nThe six pre-season games the Suns played for this season tied the 1975–76 and 1981–82 seasons as the lowest number of pre-season games the Suns had in a season (excluding the lockout shortened pre-seasons of the 1998–99 and 2011–12 seasons).",
"|- style=\"background:#bfb;\"\n| 1\n| October 7\n| Sacramento\n| \n| T. J. Warren, Jon Leuer (17)\n| Jon Leuer (13)\n| Eric Bledsoe, Ronnie Price (4)\n| Talking Stick Resort Arena12,033\n| 1–0\n|- style=\"background:#bfb;\"\n| 2\n| October 9\n| Utah\n| \n| Alex Len (21)\n| Tyson Chandler, Sonny Weems (7)\n| Brandon Knight (7)\n| Talking Stick Resort Arena10,773\n| 2–0\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 3\n| October 13\n| Houston\n| \n| T. J. Warren (21)\n| Mirza Teletović (12)\n| Markieff Morris, Sonny Weems (4)\n| US Airways Center12,657",
"| Mirza Teletović (12)\n| Markieff Morris, Sonny Weems (4)\n| US Airways Center12,657\n| 2–1\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 4\n| October 16\n| @ Denver\n| \n| Alex Len (14)\n| Alex Len (8)\n| Sonny Weems (8)\n| Pepsi Center8,552\n| 2–2\n|- style=\"background:#bfb;\"\n| 5\n| October 20\n| @ San Antonio\n| \n| Markieff Morris (17)\n| Eric Bledsoe, Jon Leuer (8)\n| Brandon Knight, T. J. Warren (7)\n| AT&T Center15,774\n| 3–2\n|- style=\"background:#bfb;\"\n| 6\n| October 21\n| @ Dallas\n| \n| Markieff Morris (18)\n| T. J. Warren (8)",
"| 6\n| October 21\n| @ Dallas\n| \n| Markieff Morris (18)\n| T. J. Warren (8)\n| Eric Bledsoe (7)\n| American Airlines Center18,247\n| 4–2",
"Regular season\n\nSeason standings\n\nGame log\n\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 1\n| October 28\n| Dallas\n| \n| Brandon Knight (15)\n| Alex Len (8)\n| Eric Bledsoe (4)\n| Talking Stick Resort Arena18,055\n| 0–1\n|- style=\"background:#bfb;\"\n| 2\n| October 30\n| Portland\n| \n| Eric Bledsoe (22)\n| Tyson Chandler (12)\n| Brandon Knight (4)\n| Talking Stick Resort Arena18,055\n| 1–1\n|- style=\"background:#bfb;\"\n| 3\n| October 31\n| @ Portland\n| \n| Eric Bledsoe (33)\n| Tyson Chandler (11)\n| Eric Bledsoe (6)\n| Moda Center17,906\n| 2–1",
"|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 4\n| November 2\n| @ L.A. Clippers\n| \n| Markieff Morris (19)\n| Tyson Chandler (17)\n| Brandon Knight (8)\n| Staples Center19,060\n| 2–2\n|- style=\"background:#bfb;\"\n| 5\n| November 4\n| Sacramento\n| \n| Eric Bledsoe (19)\n| Tyson Chandler (11)\n| Eric Bledsoe (8)\n| Talking Stick Resort Arena16,497\n| 3–2\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 6\n| November 6\n| Detroit\n| \n| Eric Bledsoe, Brandon Knight (22)\n| Tyson Chandler, P. J. Tucker (10)\n| Eric Bledsoe (4)\n| Talking Stick Resort Arena16,676",
"| Tyson Chandler, P. J. Tucker (10)\n| Eric Bledsoe (4)\n| Talking Stick Resort Arena16,676\n| 3–3\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 7\n| November 8\n| @ Oklahoma City\n| \n| Eric Bledsoe (28)\n| Tyson Chandler (8)\n| Eric Bledsoe (11)\n| Chesapeake Energy Arena18,203\n| 3–4\n|- style=\"background:#bfb;\"\n| 8\n| November 12\n| L.A. Clippers\n| \n| Brandon Knight (37)\n| Jon Leuer (11)\n| Eric Bledsoe (9)\n| Talking Stick Resort Arena17,204\n| 4–4\n|- style=\"background:#bfb;\"\n| 9\n| November 14\n| Denver\n| \n| Eric Bledsoe (30)",
"| 4–4\n|- style=\"background:#bfb;\"\n| 9\n| November 14\n| Denver\n| \n| Eric Bledsoe (30)\n| Mirza Teletović (9)\n| Eric Bledsoe, P. J. Tucker (4)\n| Talking Stick Resort Arena16,722\n| 5–4\n|- style=\"background:#bfb;\"\n| 10\n| November 16\n| L.A. Lakers\n| \n| Brandon Knight (30)\n| Brandon Knight (10)\n| Brandon Knight (15)\n| Talking Stick Resort Arena18,055\n| 6–4\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 11\n| November 18\n| Chicago\n| \n| Brandon Knight (23)\n| Tyson Chandler (9)\n| Eric Bledsoe (7)\n| Talking Stick Resort Arena17,377",
"| \n| Brandon Knight (23)\n| Tyson Chandler (9)\n| Eric Bledsoe (7)\n| Talking Stick Resort Arena17,377\n| 6–5\n|- style=\"background:#bfb;\"\n| 12\n| November 20\n| @ Denver\n| \n| Brandon Knight (38)\n| Brandon Knight (11)\n| Brandon Knight (6)\n| Pepsi Center12,264\n| 7–5\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 13\n| November 22\n| @ New Orleans\n| \n| Eric Bledsoe (29)\n| Tyson Chandler (10)\n| Brandon Knight (7)\n| Smoothie King Center16,680\n| 7–6\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 14\n| November 23\n| @ San Antonio\n| \n| Markieff Morris (28)",
"| 7–6\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 14\n| November 23\n| @ San Antonio\n| \n| Markieff Morris (28)\n| Markieff Morris (8)\n| Brandon Knight (8)\n| AT&T Center18,418\n| 7–7\n|- style=\"background:#fbb\"\n| 15\n| November 25\n| New Orleans\n| \n| Brandon Knight (29)\n| Jon Leuer (12)\n| Brandon Knight (10)\n| Talking Stick Resort Arena16,338\n| 7–8\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 16\n| November 27\n| Golden State\n| \n| T. J. Warren (28)\n| T. J. Warren (6)\n| Eric Bledsoe (7)\n| Talking Stick Resort Arena18,055\n| 7–9",
"| T. J. Warren (28)\n| T. J. Warren (6)\n| Eric Bledsoe (7)\n| Talking Stick Resort Arena18,055\n| 7–9\n|- style=\"background:#bfb;\"\n| 17\n| November 29\n| @ Toronto\n| \n| Eric Bledsoe, Mirza Teletović (20)\n| T. J. Warren (11)\n| Eric Bledsoe (11)\n| Air Canada Centre19,800\n| 8–9",
"|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 18\n| December 1\n| @ Brooklyn\n| \n| Brandon Knight (26)\n| Alex Len (14)\n| Eric Bledsoe (7)\n| Barclays Center12,787\n| 8–10\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 19\n| December 2\n| @ Detroit\n| \n| Brandon Knight (22)\n| Alex Len (7)\n| Eric Bledsoe (9)\n| The Palace of Auburn Hills13,985\n| 8–11\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 20\n| December 4\n| @ Washington\n| \n| Eric Bledsoe (22)\n| P. J. Tucker (13)\n| Eric Bledsoe (7)\n| Verizon Center17,255\n| 8–12\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 21\n| December 6",
"| Eric Bledsoe (7)\n| Verizon Center17,255\n| 8–12\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 21\n| December 6\n| @ Memphis\n| \n| Eric Bledsoe (23)\n| Jon Leuer (11)\n| Eric Bledsoe (6)\n| FedExForum16,022\n| 8–13\n|- style=\"background:#bfb;\"\n| 22\n| December 7\n| @ Chicago\n| \n| Brandon Knight (21)\n| Eric Bledsoe (9)\n| Devin Booker (5)\n| United Center21,337\n| 9–13\n|- style=\"background:#bfb;\"\n| 23\n| December 9\n| Orlando\n| \n| Eric Bledsoe, Brandon Knight (21)\n| Alex Len (14)\n| Eric Bledsoe (9)\n| Talking Stick Resort Arena17,637",
"| Alex Len (14)\n| Eric Bledsoe (9)\n| Talking Stick Resort Arena17,637\n| 10–13\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 24\n| December 11\n| Portland\n| \n| Eric Bledsoe (31)\n| Alex Len, Jon Leuer (8)\n| Brandon Knight (10)\n| Talking Stick Resort Arena17,028\n| 10–14\n|- style=\"background:#bfb;\"\n| 25\n| December 13\n| Minnesota\n| \n| Brandon Knight (25)\n| Alex Len, P. J. Tucker (7)\n| Eric Bledsoe (9)\n| Talking Stick Resort Arena16,919\n| 11–14\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 26\n| December 14\n| @ Dallas\n| \n| Eric Bledsoe (23)",
"| 11–14\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 26\n| December 14\n| @ Dallas\n| \n| Eric Bledsoe (23)\n| Jon Leuer (13)\n| Eric Bledsoe (7)\n| American Airlines Center19,822\n| 11–15\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 27\n| December 16\n| @ Golden State\n| \n| Mirza Teletović (24)\n| T. J. Warren (8)\n| Eric Bledsoe (8)\n| Oracle Arena19,596\n| 11–16\n|- style=\"background:#bfb;\"\n| 28\n| December 18\n| New Orleans\n| \n| Eric Bledsoe (29)\n| Alex Len (13)\n| Eric Bledsoe (9)\n| Talking Stick Resort Arena17,227\n| 12–16",
"| Eric Bledsoe (29)\n| Alex Len (13)\n| Eric Bledsoe (9)\n| Talking Stick Resort Arena17,227\n| 12–16\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 29\n| December 20\n| Milwaukee\n| \n| Eric Bledsoe, T. J. Warren (18)\n| Tyson Chandler, Alex Len (7)\n| Brandon Knight, Markieff Morris (4)\n| Talking Stick Resort Arena16,859\n| 12–17\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 30\n| December 21\n| @ Utah\n| \n| Brandon Knight (26)\n| Mirza Teletović (7)\n| Eric Bledsoe (3)\n| Vivint Smart Home Arena19,911\n| 12–18\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 31",
"| Eric Bledsoe (3)\n| Vivint Smart Home Arena19,911\n| 12–18\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 31\n| December 23\n| Denver\n| \n| Brandon Knight (21)\n| P. J. Tucker (13)\n| Brandon Knight (10)\n| Talking Stick Resort Arena17,034\n| 12–19\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 32\n| December 26\n| Philadelphia\n| \n| Brandon Knight (21)\n| Tyson Chandler (10)\n| Brandon Knight (7)\n| Talking Stick Resort Arena17,548\n| 12–20\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 33\n| December 28\n| Cleveland\n| \n| T. J. Warren (23)\n| Tyson Chandler (8)",
"| 33\n| December 28\n| Cleveland\n| \n| T. J. Warren (23)\n| Tyson Chandler (8)\n| Brandon Knight, Jon Leuer (4)\n| Talking Stick Resort Arena18,319\n| 12–21\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 34\n| December 30\n| @ San Antonio\n| \n| Tyson Chandler, Brandon Knight, T. J. Warren (11)\n| Tyson Chandler (10)\n| Markieff Morris (5)\n| AT&T Center18,418\n| 12–22\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 35\n| December 31\n| @ Oklahoma City\n| \n| P. J. Tucker (22)\n| Tyson Chandler (10)\n| Brandon Knight (6)\n| Chesapeake Energy Arena18,203\n| 12–23",
"|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 36\n| January 2\n| @ Sacramento\n| \n| Brandon Knight (23)\n| Brandon Knight, T. J. Warren (5)\n| Brandon Knight, Ronnie Price (5)\n| Sleep Train Arena17,317\n| 12–24\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 37\n| January 3\n| @ L.A. Lakers\n| \n| Brandon Knight (25)\n| Alex Len (9)\n| Brandon Knight (9)\n| Staples Center18,997\n| 12–25\n|- style=\"background:#bfb;\"\n| 38\n| January 6\n| Charlotte\n| \n| Mirza Teletović (19)\n| Devin Booker (10)\n| Brandon Knight (7)\n| Talking Stick Resort Arena16,910\n| 13–25",
"| Devin Booker (10)\n| Brandon Knight (7)\n| Talking Stick Resort Arena16,910\n| 13–25\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 39\n| January 8\n| Miami\n| \n| Brandon Knight (26)\n| P. J. Tucker (11)\n| Brandon Knight, Archie Goodwin (4)\n| Talking Stick Resort Arena16,866\n| 13–26\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 40\n| January 12\n| @ Indiana\n| \n| Devin Booker, Mirza Teletović (19)\n| P. J. Tucker (10)\n| P. J. Tucker, Lorenzo Brown (5)\n| Bankers Life Fieldhouse15,284\n| 13–27\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 41\n| January 15\n| @ Boston",
"| Bankers Life Fieldhouse15,284\n| 13–27\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 41\n| January 15\n| @ Boston\n| \n| Mirza Teletović (22)\n| Tyson Chandler, Markieff Morris (9)\n| Sonny Weems (5)\n| TD Garden18,624\n| 13–28\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 42\n| January 17\n| @ Minnesota\n| \n| Brandon Knight (20)\n| Tyson Chandler (8)\n| P. J. Tucker (5)\n| Target Center14,330\n| 13–29\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 43\n| January 19\n| Indiana\n| \n| Devin Booker (32)\n| Tyson Chandler (14)\n| P. J. Tucker (5)",
"| 43\n| January 19\n| Indiana\n| \n| Devin Booker (32)\n| Tyson Chandler (14)\n| P. J. Tucker (5)\n| Talking Stick Resort Arena16,802\n| 13–30\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 44\n| January 21\n| San Antonio\n| \n| Devin Booker (24)\n| Tyson Chandler (20)\n| Devin Booker (5)\n| Talking Stick Resort Arena16,779\n| 13–31\n|- style=\"background:#bfb;\"\n| 45\n| January 23\n| Atlanta\n| \n| Archie Goodwin (24)\n| Tyson Chandler (27)\n| Tyson Chandler, Alex Len (5)\n| Talking Stick Resort Arena17,034\n| 14–31\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 46",
"| Talking Stick Resort Arena17,034\n| 14–31\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 46\n| January 26\n| @ Philadelphia\n| \n| Archie Goodwin (26)\n| Alex Len (12)\n| Devin Booker (7)\n| Wells Fargo Center10,851\n| 14–32\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 47\n| January 27\n| @ Cleveland\n| \n| Devin Booker (16)\n| Tyson Chandler, P. J. Tucker (7)\n| Devin Booker, Archie Goodwin (5)\n| Quicken Loans Arena20,562\n| 14–33\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 48\n| January 29\n| @ New York\n| \n| Devin Booker (21)\n| Tyson Chandler (12)",
"| 48\n| January 29\n| @ New York\n| \n| Devin Booker (21)\n| Tyson Chandler (12)\n| P. J. Tucker, Jordan McRae (4)\n| Madison Square Garden19,812\n| 14–34\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 49\n| January 31\n| @ Dallas\n| \n| Devin Booker (19)\n| Tyson Chandler (13)\n| Archie Goodwin, Markieff Morris (4)\n| American Airlines Center20,137\n| 14–35",
"|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 50\n| February 2\n| Toronto\n| \n| Markieff Morris (30)\n| Markieff Morris (11)\n| Archie Goodwin (12)\n| Talking Stick Resort Arena15,897\n| 14–36\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 51\n| February 4\n| Houston\n| \n| Archie Goodwin (22)\n| Alex Len (18)\n| Archie Goodwin (7)\n| Talking Stick Resort Arena15,723\n| 14–37\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 52\n| February 6\n| Utah\n| \n| Devin Booker (18)\n| Tyson Chandler (14)\n| Markieff Morris (8)\n| Talking Stick Resort Arena16,180\n| 14–38",
"| Tyson Chandler (14)\n| Markieff Morris (8)\n| Talking Stick Resort Arena16,180\n| 14–38\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 53\n| February 8\n| Oklahoma City\n| \n| Markieff Morris (23)\n| Alex Len (8)\n| Archie Goodwin (8)\n| Talking Stick Resort Arena16,316\n| 14–39\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 54\n| February 10\n| Golden State\n| \n| Archie Goodwin (25)\n| Tyson Chandler (10)\n| Devin Booker (10)\n| Talking Stick Resort Arena18,055\n| 14–40\n|- align=\"center\"\n|colspan=\"9\" bgcolor=\"#bbcaff\"|All-Star Break",
"| 14–40\n|- align=\"center\"\n|colspan=\"9\" bgcolor=\"#bbcaff\"|All-Star Break\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 55\n| February 19\n| Houston\n| \n| Mirza Teletović (25)\n| Kris Humphries (12)\n| Archie Goodwin (4)\n| Talking Stick Resort Arena17,102\n| 14–41\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 56\n| February 21\n| San Antonio\n| \n| Alex Len (23)\n| Alex Len (13)\n| Devin Booker (6)\n| Talking Stick Resort Arena16,224\n| 14–42\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 57\n| February 22\n| @ L.A. Clippers\n| \n| Archie Goodwin (20)\n| Alex Len (8)",
"| 57\n| February 22\n| @ L.A. Clippers\n| \n| Archie Goodwin (20)\n| Alex Len (8)\n| Phil Pressey (10)\n| Staples Center19,060\n| 14–43\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 58\n| February 25\n| Brooklyn\n| \n| Mirza Teletović (30)\n| Tyson Chandler, Mirza Teletović (11)\n| Phil Pressey (4)\n| Talking Stick Resort Arena16,145\n| 14–44\n|- style=\"background:#bfb;\"\n| 59\n| February 27\n| Memphis\n| \n| Alex Len (22)\n| Alex Len (16)\n| P. J. Tucker (7)\n| Talking Stick Resort Arena17,101\n| 15–44",
"|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 60\n| March 1\n| @ Charlotte\n| \n| Alex Len (18)\n| Alex Len (12)\n| Phil Pressey, Ronnie Price (3)\n| Time Warner Cable Arena16,849\n| 15–45\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 61\n| March 3\n| @ Miami\n| \n| Devin Booker (34)\n| Alex Len (13)\n| Devin Booker (4)\n| American Airlines Arena19,600\n| 15–46\n|- style=\"background:#bfb;\"\n| 62\n| March 4\n| @ Orlando\n| \n| Alex Len (31)\n| Alex Len (15)\n| Devin Booker (6)\n| Amway Center17,546\n| 16–46\n|- style=\"background:#bfb;\"\n| 63\n| March 6\n| @ Memphis",
"| Amway Center17,546\n| 16–46\n|- style=\"background:#bfb;\"\n| 63\n| March 6\n| @ Memphis\n| \n| Devin Booker (27)\n| Alex Len (16)\n| Devin Booker (9)\n| FedExForum17,291\n| 17–46\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 64\n| March 9\n| New York\n| \n| Devin Booker (32)\n| Alex Len (10)\n| Ronnie Price (6)\n| Talking Stick Resort Arena17,105\n| 17–47\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 65\n| March 10\n| @ Denver\n| \n| Devin Booker (35)\n| Alex Len (13)\n| Brandon Knight, Devin Booker, Ronnie Price (5)\n| Pepsi Center11,582\n| 17–48",
"| Alex Len (13)\n| Brandon Knight, Devin Booker, Ronnie Price (5)\n| Pepsi Center11,582\n| 17–48\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 66\n| March 12\n| @ Golden State\n| \n| Brandon Knight (30)\n| Alex Len (13)\n| Devin Booker (11)\n| Oracle Arena19,596\n| 17–49\n|- style=\"background:#bfb;\"\n| 67\n| March 14\n| Minnesota\n| \n| P. J. Tucker (23)\n| P. J. Tucker (12)\n| Brandon Knight (7)\n| Talking Stick Resort Arena17,480\n| 18–49\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 68\n| March 17\n| @ Utah\n| \n| Brandon Knight (17)\n| Alex Len (12)",
"|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 68\n| March 17\n| @ Utah\n| \n| Brandon Knight (17)\n| Alex Len (12)\n| Devin Booker (3)\n| Vivint Smart Home Arena18,784\n| 18–50\n|- style=\"background:#bfb;\"\n| 69\n| March 18\n| @ L.A. Lakers\n| \n| Brandon Knight (22)\n| Tyson Chandler (17)\n| Devin Booker (7)\n| Staples Center18,997\n| 19–50\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 70\n| March 21\n| Memphis\n| \n| Devin Booker (18)\n| Jon Leuer (13)\n| Brandon Knight (7)\n| Talking Stick Resort Arena15,868\n| 19–51\n|- style=\"background:#bfb;\"\n| 71\n| March 23",
"| Talking Stick Resort Arena15,868\n| 19–51\n|- style=\"background:#bfb;\"\n| 71\n| March 23\n| L.A. Lakers\n| \n| Devin Booker (28)\n| Jon Leuer (14)\n| Brandon Knight, Devin Booker (7)\n| Talking Stick Resort Arena18,191\n| 20–51\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 72\n| March 25\n| @ Sacramento\n| \n| Devin Booker (26)\n| P. J. Tucker, John Jenkins (8)\n| Ronnie Price (5)\n| Sleep Train Arena17,317\n| 20–52\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 73\n| March 26\n| Boston\n| \n| Devin Booker (21)\n| P. J. Tucker (10)\n| P. J. Tucker (5)",
"| 73\n| March 26\n| Boston\n| \n| Devin Booker (21)\n| P. J. Tucker (10)\n| P. J. Tucker (5)\n| Talking Stick Resort Arena18,055\n| 20–53\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 74\n| March 28\n| @ Minnesota\n| \n| Brandon Knight, Devin Booker (30)\n| Alex Len (13)\n| Brandon Knight, Devin Booker (5)\n| Target Center11,141\n| 20–54\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 75\n| March 30\n| @ Milwaukee\n| \n| P. J. Tucker (20)\n| Alex Len (15)\n| P. J. Tucker (7)\n| BMO Harris Bradley Center15,733\n| 20–55\n|-",
"|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 76\n| April 1\n| Washington\n| \n| Mirza Teletović (24)\n| Tyson Chandler (14)\n| Ronnie Price (8)\n| Talking Stick Resort Arena17,345\n| 20–56\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 77\n| April 3\n| Utah\n| \n| Mirza Teletović (24)\n| Tyson Chandler (18)\n| Devin Booker (7)\n| Talking Stick Resort Arena17,279\n| 20–57\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 78\n| April 5\n| @ Atlanta\n| \n| Devin Booker (34)\n| Tyson Chandler (13)\n| Ronnie Price (4)\n| Philips Arena15,176\n| 20–58\n|- style=\"background:#bfb;\"\n| 79",
"| Ronnie Price (4)\n| Philips Arena15,176\n| 20–58\n|- style=\"background:#bfb;\"\n| 79\n| April 7\n| @ Houston\n| \n| Mirza Teletović (26)\n| P. J. Tucker (12)\n| Alex Len (7)\n| Toyota Center18,227\n| 21–58\n|- style=\"background:#bfb;\"\n| 80\n| April 9\n| @ New Orleans\n| \n| Archie Goodwin (24)\n| Alex Len (11)\n| Devin Booker (5)\n| Smoothie King Center16,932\n| 22–58\n|- style=\"background:#fbb;\"\n| 81\n| April 11\n| Sacramento\n| \n| Mirza Teletović (26)\n| Alex Len (12)\n| Ronnie Price (7)\n| Talking Stick Resort Arena17,288\n| 22–59",
"| Alex Len (12)\n| Ronnie Price (7)\n| Talking Stick Resort Arena17,288\n| 22–59\n|- style=\"background:#bfb;\"\n| 82\n| April 13\n| L.A. Clippers\n| \n| Mirza Teletović (22)\n| Jon Leuer (14)\n| Archie Goodwin (5)\n| Talking Stick Resort Arena18,055\n| 23–59",
"Player statistics",
"|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"\"\n|\n| 31 || 31 || 34.2 || .453 || .372 || .802 || 4.0 || 6.1 || 2.0 || 0.6 || 20.4\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"#f0f0f0\"\n|\n| 76 || 51 || 27.7 || .423 || .343 || .840 || 2.5 || 2.6 || 0.6 || 0.3 || 13.8\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"\"\n|*\n| 8 || 0 || 7.6 || .320 || .125 || .750 || 0.9 || 1.4 || 0.4 || 0.1 || 2.5\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"#f0f0f0\"\n|*\n| 17 || 0 || 11.8 || .511 || .235 || .625 || 1.7 || 0.9 || 0.2 || 0.1 || 3.2\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"\"\n|",
"|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"\"\n|\n| 66 || 60 || 24.5 || .583 || .000 || .620 || 8.7 || 1.0 || 0.5 || 0.7 || 7.2\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"#f0f0f0\"\n|*\n| 3 || 0 || 11.0 || .250 || .000 || .000 || 0.0 || 1.0 || 1.0 || 0.0 || 1.3\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"\"\n|\n| 57 || 13 || 19.5 || .418 || .232 || .674 || 2.5 || 2.1 || 0.5 || 0.2 || 8.9\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"#f0f0f0\"\n|*\n| 4 || 3 || 18.5 || .278 || .300 || .750 || 8.0 || 1.8 || 0.8 || 0.5 || 7.3\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"\"\n|*",
"|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"\"\n|*\n| 8 || 0 || 6.3 || .409 || .000 || .667 || 2.0 || 0.0 || 0.0 || 0.1 || 2.8\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"#f0f0f0\"\n|*\n| 22 || 2 || 13.0 || .467 || .406 || .800 || 1.6 || 1.2 || 0.2 || 0.0 || 5.0\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"\"\n|*\n| 2 || 0 || 23.5 || .278 || .200 || .833 || 4.5 || 0.0 || 1.0 || 1.5 || 8.0\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"#f0f0f0\"\n|\n| 52 || 50 || 36.0 || .415 || .342 || .852 || 3.9 || 5.1 || 1.2 || 0.4 || 19.6\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"\"\n|",
"|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"\"\n|\n| 78 || 46 || 23.3 || .423 || .143 || .728 || 7.6 || 1.2 || 0.5 || 0.8 || 9.0\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"#f0f0f0\"\n|\n| 67 || 27 || 18.7 || .481 || .382 || .762 || 5.6 || 1.1 || 0.6 || 0.4 || 8.5\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"\"\n|*\n| 7 || 0 || 11.7 || .423 || .273 || .533 || 1.1 || 1.4 || 0.4 || 0.0 || 5.3\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"#f0f0f0\"\n|*\n| 37 || 24 || 24.8 || .397 || .289 || .717 || 5.2 || 2.4 || 0.9 || 0.5 || 11.6\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"\"\n|*",
"|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"\"\n|*\n| 9 || 0 || 12.6 || .391 || .000 || .571 || 0.9 || 3.2 || 0.8 || 0.3 || 2.4\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"#f0f0f0\"\n|\n| 62 || 18 || 19.5 || .384 || .347 || .756 || 1.6 || 2.4 || 1.2 || 0.2 || 5.3\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"\"\n|\n| 79 || 1 || 21.3 || .427 || .393 || .774 || 3.8 || 1.1 || 0.4 || 0.3 || 12.2\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"#f0f0f0\"\n|\n| 82 || 80 || 31.0 || .411 || .330 || .746 || 6.2 || 2.2 || 1.3 || 0.2 || 8.0\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"\"\n|",
"|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"\"\n|\n| 47 || 4 || 22.8 || .501 || .400 || .703 || 3.1 || 0.9 || 0.8 || 0.3 || 11.0\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"#f0f0f0\"\n|*\n| 36 || 0 || 11.7 || .393 || .406 || .538 || 1.1 || 1.3 || 0.3 || 0.0 || 2.5\n|- align=\"center\" bgcolor=\"\"\n|\n| 10 || 0 || 6.8 || .417 || .000 || .643 || 3.8 || 0.5 || 0.4 || 0.5 || 2.9\n|-\n|}",
"Stats with the Suns\n\nInjuries/Personal missed games\n\nAwards, records, and milestones",
"Awards\nT. J. Warren earned All-NBA First Team Las Vegas Summer League Honors due to his overall performance throughout the 2015 NBA Summer League.\nTwo-time MVP point guard Steve Nash had his number placed in the Phoenix Suns Ring of Honor on October 30, 2015 against the Portland Trail Blazers. The Suns won that game by the score of 110–92, thus blowing out the Trail Blazers in the process.",
"Former Suns player Shaquille O'Neal was named to the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame on April 4, 2016 around the 2016 NCAA Finals between Villanova and North Carolina.\nDevin Booker earned himself NBA All-Rookie First Team honors as the considered third-best player for that team after also earning fourth place for NBA Rookie of the Year Award honors.",
"Week/Month\nAlex Len was named a Player of The Week candidate for the Western Conference from February 29 – March 6, 2016 for averaging 20 points, 14 rebounds, 1.3 blocks, and 10 free throw attempts per game during that streak.\nDevin Booker was named the runner-up for the Rookie of The Month award in March for his consistent performances throughout that month, which includes him leading all rookies in points and assists made that month.",
"All-Star\nJordan McRae was announced as a competitor in the NBA Development League All-Star Game on the same day he signed a 10-day contract with the team (January 29, 2016).\nLikewise, both former Suns player Lorenzo Brown and future Suns player Orlando Johnson (he signed on February 5, 2016) were also announced as competitors on that same day.",
"Jordan McRae scored 7 points and put up 5 assists as his team (the Eastern Conference) beat the Western Conference 128–124. Neither former player Lorenzo Brown nor Jordan's then-current teammate, Orlando Johnson, played in the event.\nRookie Devin Booker was a competitor for the Three-Point Shootout on February 1, 2016. That made Booker the youngest player to ever participate in the Three-Point Contest, at 19 years old, beating the record set by Bradley Beal at 20 years old in 2014.",
"In Booker's first ever performance in the contest, he scored 20 points in the first round (tying for third-place), beating James Harden and JJ Redick with 12 points in the tiebreaker round before finishing in third place overall with 16 points behind the Splash Brothers (with Klay Thompson winning by 27 points, tying the record set by his teammate Stephen Curry a year earlier).",
"Devin Booker was announced as a participant for the NBA Cares Special Olympics Unified Basketball Game for the 2016 All-Star game alongside former Suns player Steve Nash on February 10, 2016.\nRookie Devin Booker competed in the Rising Stars Challenge on February 11, 2016 (a day before the event began) due to Philadelphia 76ers power forward/center Nerlens Noel injuring his right knee before the event began.",
"During his time there, Booker scored 23 points for Team U.S.A. (with 18 in the first half) as the road Team U.S.A. would be the home World Team 157–154, with the home and road team roles being reversed this time due to the All-Star Game being played in Canada this season.\nJon Leuer was a competitor for the All-Star Game's Talent Competition. He did not win the event.",
"Records",
"Brandon Knight became the youngest player to record a stat line of 30 points, 15 assists, 10 rebounds, and 4 steals in a single NBA game on November 16, 2015 against the Los Angeles Lakers by doing it while he was old",
". Knight also became the second Suns player to record a triple-double of 30 points, 15 assists, and 10 rebounds (the first was former All-Star Charlie Scott), as well as the ninth player to record such statistics and only the fourth player (behind Pete Maravich, Magic Johnson, and Russell Westbrook) to record the same stats with four steals",
". Furthermore, Knight was also the first player since Michael Jordan in 1985 to record a statline similar to the 30 points, 15 assists, and 10 rebounds that Knight had for their first ever triple-double in the league.",
"Devin Booker became the youngest guard in NBA history to record a double-double in points and rebounds instead of through points and assists with the 17 points and 10 rebounds he recorded on January 6, 2016 against the Charlotte Hornets.\nHe also became the youngest player in NBA history to record 10 rebounds as a reserve player off the bench.",
"Rookie Devin Booker also became the youngest guard ever to have four games of at least 27 points and 5 assists, as well as the only guard throughout the entire NBA to record such numbers before turning 20 years old.",
"Mirza Teletović recorded the highest number of three-pointers made by a reserve player on April 5, 2016 against the Atlanta Hawks. Mirza tied the record by the end of the first quarter on that game, and broke the record set by Chuck Person for the San Antonio Spurs during the 1994–95 season in the second quarter with 8:42 left to go.",
"He ended the season with a record-high 179 three-pointers made off the bench, making thirteen more three-pointers in the last four games of April, three of which were victories.\nThe record was later broken next season by Eric Gordon as a member of the Houston Rockets.",
"Team records",
"Devin Booker was the team's youngest ever selection (at the time) in the NBA draft, being old at the time of his selection on June 25, 2015. Booker also ended up being one of the youngest players to ever play in the NBA by remaining 18 years old due to him playing two days before his 19th birthday, in which the earliest time he could play in the regular season (and the only time before his 19th birthday took place) was the October 28, 2015 home game against the Dallas Mavericks",
". He became the second Suns player to play before his 18th birthday while debuting with the team (the Polish/Swedish forward-center Maciej Lampe made his debut with the Suns 13 days before his birthday during the 2003–04 season despite originally being drafted by the New York Knicks in the second round around that time).",
"The 142 points the Sacramento Kings scored on January 2, 2016 was the highest against Phoenix without the help of an overtime since the 1990–91 NBA season.\nThe 22 points scored in the first half of the road game against the Los Angeles Lakers on January 3, 2016 was the franchise's lowest-scoring half ever, beating out the 24 point half set a year earlier at home against the San Antonio Spurs.",
"Devin Booker became the youngest Suns player in history to record his first ever double-double with the team by producing 17 points and 10 rebounds in a 111–102 victory over the Charlotte Hornets on January 6, 2016.\nLorenzo Brown scored 7 points in his debut with the Suns on January 12, 2016 against the Indiana Pacers. It made him the highest scoring player on the team during a first game on a 10-day contract.",
"Jordan McRae broke that record on January 29, 2016 against the New York Knicks by scoring 12 points off the bench.\nDevin Booker became the youngest Suns player to record 30 or more points by scoring 32 points in a close loss to the Indiana Pacers on January 19, 2016, beating out fan favorite Amar'e Stoudemire at 20 years old (albeit with 38 points). Booker also had the highest number of three-pointers made in a single game for the Suns with six.",
"Tyson Chandler tied the team record for most rebounds recorded in a single game (27) that was initially set by Paul Silas on January 18, 1971 against the Cleveland Cavaliers",
", 1971 against the Cleveland Cavaliers, and broke the Suns' record for most offensive rebounds by a single player with 13 (the previous best high was 12 with both Charles Barkley and Curtis Perry) in a close 98–95 victory over the Atlanta Hawks> He also became the first Suns player to record consecutive 20+ rebounding games (he'd also record 20 rebounds in a loss to the San Antonio Spurs on January 21, 2016)",
".",
"Archie Goodwin broke the record set by star point guard Kevin Johnson in the 1987–88 season as the youngest player in Suns history to record a double-double in points and assists by scoring 18 points and putting up 12 assists on February 2, 2016 against the Toronto Raptors.",
"Rookie Devin Booker broke that record over a week later on February 10, 2016, with 15 points and 10 assists (as well as 7 rebounds) in a close loss to the defending champion Golden State Warriors. He also became the youngest Suns player to record multiple double-doubles during the regular season, beating out Amar'e Stoudemire in his rookie season",
". Furthermore, Booker became the second-youngest player behind LeBron James to record a point-assist double-double (beating the Golden State Warriors' Shaun Livingston) and becoming only the third player to record similar statistics at age 19 behind only James and former Suns player Stephon Marbury, as well as the first Suns rookie since Steve Nash in the 1996–97 season to record a point-assist double-double with the team.",
"Phil Pressey became the shortest player in franchise history to record 3 or more blocks in a single game, as well as the most blocks by a point guard in his debut on February 21, 2016, against the San Antonio Spurs.\nAlex Len became the first player at 22 years old to ever record a game of 19 points, 16 rebounds, and 6 assists for the Suns in the 109–100 victory on March 6, 2016 against the Memphis Grizzlies.",
"The 69 points the Suns recorded against the Utah Jazz on St. Patrick's Day of 2016 tied the lowest number of points scored in a single game for the Suns, with them also recording 69 points on April 7, 2015, against the Atlanta Hawks and on February 10, 2013, against the Oklahoma City Thunder.",
"Mirza Teletović becomes the newest team record holder for three-pointers made off the bench for the Suns by him making at least 151 three-pointers (done by making 5 of them in a victory on Kobe Bryant's last game against the Suns on March 23, 2016) over the 150 three-pointers made by Danny Ainge during the 1992–93 season.",
"By extension, he later broke the NBA record set by former San Antonio Spurs player Chuck Person during the 1994–95 season by making at least 165 three-pointers (with three made in a loss to the Atlanta Hawks on April 5, 2016) throughout the season.\nMirza ended the season with a season-high 179 three-pointers made off the bench.\nDevin Booker had the longest streak of making at least one three-pointer in a stretch of 14 games, which was also the longest stretch by a rookie in Suns Franchise history.",
"Milestones\nDevin Booker became the first ever player to make his NBA debut at 18 years old while also previously playing at least one year in college.",
"He also became the seventh-youngest player to score 10 or more points in his rookie season, behind only Amir Johnson, Andrew Bynum, Tracy McGrady, Bill Willoughby, LeBron James, Dwight Howard, and Kobe Bryant by scoring 14 points on his opening night debut against the Dallas Mavericks. Furthermore, he also became the fourth player to score 10 or more points during their professional debuts in the NBA as an 18-year-old, joining the likes of Jonathan Bender, LeBron James, and Dwight Howard in the process.",
"Devin Booker became the sixth-youngest player to record multiple games of 19 or more points scored during their rookie season after first scoring 19 against the Philadelphia 76ers on December 26, 2015 and then scoring 21 points against the Sacramento Kings on January 2, 2016, behind only Kevin Durant, Dwight Howard, LeBron James, Tracy McGrady, and Kobe Bryant.\nJeff Hornacek got his 100th victory as a head coach on January 6, 2016 against the Charlotte Hornets.",
"Ann Meyers Drysdale and Stephanie Ready marked the first time in NBA history that two female announcers from different teams were analysts for their respective teams (Ann for Phoenix, Stephanie for Charlotte) on January 6, 2016.\nIn that same game, Devin Booker became the fifth-youngest player to record a double-double in the NBA, behind only Michael Kidd-Gilchrist, Giannis Antetokounmpo, Andrew Bynum, and LeBron James.",
"On January 19, 2016, Devin Booker became the sixth-youngest player to record multiple games of scoring 20 or more points as a rookie, and became the third-youngest player in league history to score over 30 points in a single game, behind only Kevin Durant and LeBron James.",
"On January 19 & 21, 2016, Devin Booker became the first teenage rookie since Kevin Durant back in the 2007–08 season (back when Kevin was playing for the Seattle SuperSonics instead of the Oklahoma City Thunder) to score 54 or more points in consecutive games with Devin scoring 32 points against the Indiana Pacers and 24 points against the San Antonio Spurs.",
"On February 21, 2016, new Suns point guard Phil Pressey recorded three blocked shots in his first game with Phoenix against the San Antonio Spurs. Pressey was the first player less than 6' tall to record at least three blocks in a single game since Nate Robinson in 2013.",
"Rookie Devin Booker became only the second player this season, after former Kentucky teammate Karl-Anthony Towns to record multiple games of 32+ points in his rookie season, with 32 points at home against the Indiana Pacers in January and 34 points on the road against the Miami Heat in March. He was also the fourth-youngest rookie to record multiple games of 30 or more points in a season, after Kobe Bryant, Kevin Durant, and LeBron James.",
"Tyson Chandler overtook Elton Brand on the List of National Basketball Association career rebounding leaders board with 12 rebounds against the Orlando Magic compared to Brand's four against the Miami Heat on March 4, 2016 to make him the newest 50th best rebounder of all-time with 8,986 rebounds against the 8,981 rebounds for Brand (and he also overtook Larry Bird's spot in the process).",
"Tyson Chandler became the 50th player in league history to record over 9,000 rebounds in a career by recording 9 rebounds on March 9, 2016 against the New York Knicks.\nDevin Booker became the fourth rookie to record at least 3 games of recording 27 points and 5 assists as a teenager, thus joining LeBron James, Carmelo Anthony, and former Suns player Stephon Marbury.",
"He later became only the second player in league history (after LeBron James with 22 games) to record at least four or more games of 27 points and 5 assists as teenagers during their rookie seasons in the NBA.\nHe also became only the second guard behind Stephon Marbury to record multiple games of 30 points and 5 assists during their rookie season before the age of 20, and one of seven guards to record at least one game of 30 points and 5 assists before the age of 21.",
"Rookie Devin Booker became the second rookie ever (after LeBron James) to record two straight 30+ games in a row by recording 32 points against the New York Knicks and a new career-high 35 points against the Denver Nuggets on March 9 & 10, 2016. He's also the second-youngest rookie to have done it for two straight days in a row.",
"Devin Booker became the fifth-youngest player to record around 900 points during a rookie season and the sixth-youngest player to do it before turning 20 years old, and the seventh player overall behind LeBron James, Dwight Howard, Kobe Bryant, Kevin Durant, Carmelo Anthony, and Tracy McGrady to record 900 points in the NBA while still being a teenager.",
"Devin Booker became the second-youngest rookie to ever record 11 assists in at least one game on March 12, 2016 against the defending champion Golden State Warriors, being behind only LeBron James, who did it twice.",
"Devin Booker became the first rookie since Stephen Curry in the 2009–10 season (or Blake Griffin in the 2010–11 season if you exclude the fact that his original rookie season had him out for that entire season due to a knee injury and that his second season is technically his rookie season now) to record 6 different 30+ point games during his rookie season.",
"Center Tyson Chandler overtook power forward/center Johnny Green to become the 49th best rebounder of all-time on April 1, 2016 at home against Markieff Morris and the Washington Wizards. He'd tie Johnny's mark by grabbing his 7th rebound with about 4 minutes left in the second quarter off of a Marcin Gortat miss and then grab his 8th rebound to surpass Johnny Green's mark less than a minute later. He'd end up with a game-high 15 rebounds in a 106–99 loss to the Wizards that night.",
"Devin Booker recorded the fourth-highest 30+ point games during a rookie season (with six games) while still a teenager, behind only LeBron James, Kevin Durant, and Carmelo Anthony.",
"Devin Booker became the fourth-youngest player to record over 1,000 points during a rookie season (behind only LeBron James and Kevin Durant), as well the fourth-youngest player overall (with Kobe Bryant joining the list when including his second season in the NBA). He also became the sixth player to record over 1,000 points in the NBA as a teenager, during the 121–100 blowout victory over the New Orleans Pelicans on April 9, 2016.",
"Team milestones\nThe signing of Tyson Chandler marked the first time (excluding Ben Wallace's temporary move to Phoenix back in June 2009 in order to trade away star center Shaquille O'Neal) that the Suns had gotten a Defensive Player of the Year winner — current or former — to become a part of their roster.\nThe Suns won three straight games by 14 or more points, from November 12–16. It was the first time the Suns won three straight games by such a wide margin of victory since the 2009–10 season.",
"Brandon Knight recorded the most 30+ point games for the Suns in their first twelve games of the regular season since Amar'e Stoudemire back in the 2004–05 Phoenix Suns season.\nTyson Chandler recorded multiple games of at least 20 rebounds on January 21 and 23, 2016 (including a record-high tying 27 rebounds against the Atlanta Hawks), thus making him the first player to ever record such a feat with the Phoenix Suns.",
"Markieff Morris surpassed former Suns shooting guard Joe Johnson to become the Suns' newest 30th best scorer in team history on February 2, 2016 (which was also interim head coach Earl Watson's debut in coaching the Suns). He scored his 3,848th point by successfully completing a three-point dunk (as in making a regular dunk with an extra free-throw to add onto it) with 5:20 left in the first quarter",
". Morris scored 14 points in the first quarter and over 30 points in the game (as well as having 11 rebounds and 6 assists) in a loss to the Raptors.",
"Markieff Morris overtook former forward Cedric Ceballos as the new 29th best scorer in Suns history on February 8, 2016 against the Oklahoma City Thunder. Morris scored a game-high 23 points, including making a turnaround jump shot (with a foul for an extra free-throw) to surpass Cedric in the fourth quarter in a loss to the Thunder.",
"Markieff Morris then surpassed former center James Edwards as the Suns' newest 28th best scorer in team history two days later against the defending champion Golden State Warriors. He scored his 14th point by making a jump shot early in the third quarter and recorded a total of 19 points in a loss against Golden State.",
"Devin Booker became the first Suns rookie to record multiple double-doubles in a season since Amar'e Stoudemire during the 2002–03 season on the same February 10, 2016 game against the Warriors (by recording 15 points, 10 assists, and even 7 rebounds) after he recorded his first double-double a month earlier (with 17 points and 10 rebounds) against the Charlotte Hornets.",
"Mirza Teletović was the first player since Amar'e Stoudemire back in the 2009–10 season to record 30 points and 11 rebounds in a single game on February 25, 2016 against his former team, the Brooklyn Nets.",
"The February 25 and 27 home games against the Brooklyn Nets and Memphis Grizzlies marked the first time the Suns had three players recording double-digit rebounds in multiple games, with Mirza Teletović, Tyson Chandler, and Kris Humphries doing it against Brooklyn and Tyson Chandler, P. J. Tucker. and Alex Len doing it against Memphis, since March 31 and April 1, 2008, both of which were against the Denver Nuggets.",
"Devin Booker became the first rookie since Richard Dumas from the 1992–93 season to record multiple games of 30+ points in his rookie season after recording a new (at the time) career-high 34 points on March 3, 2016 in a loss against the Miami Heat to go with the 32 points he'd score earlier in a close loss to the Indiana Pacers",
". He'd also join former players Cedric Ceballos twice and eventual Phoenix Suns Ring of Honor players Alvan Adams three times and Walter Davis twelve different times as the only other rookies to score 32 or more points for the team in their rookie seasons.",
"Devin Booker had at least five games of 32 or more points (six for 30 or more points) to close out the season, thus making him the second-highest rookie to score 32 or more points during their rookie season.",
"Alex Len became the 100th player in franchise history to score over 1,000 points for the Suns with his 31 points he'd record in a blowout 102–94 victory over the Orlando Magic on March 4, 2016. Furthermore, he became the second-youngest Suns player to ever record a 30+ points and 15+ rebounds (the youngest Suns player to do it was Amar'e Stoudemire four different times), as well as become the first Suns player since Stoudemire in the 2009–10 season to record such numbers for the team.",
"From February 27 to March 6, 2016, Alex Len recorded five straight double-doubles of various performances. This was the longest streak since Shawn Marion with 11 straight double-doubles during the 2000–01 season (with Len being about 70 days younger than Marion at the time)",
". In addition, Len had the longest streak of double-doubles with 12 or more points and rebounds of five games since Shawn Marion in the 2005–06 season, as well as become the first Suns player since Marcin Gortat in the lockout-shortened 2011–12 season to record five straight double-doubles involving points and rebounds.",
"The March 6, 2016 performance where rookie Devin Booker had 27 points and 9 assists in a 109–100 victory over the Memphis Grizzlies made him the first Suns rookie since Michael Finley during his only full season with the Suns in 1996 to record a similar statline in a game, as well as one of six players alongside LeBron James, Kyrie Irving, former Suns player Stephon Marbury, Carmelo Anthony, and Kevin Durant to record such a line while still being a teenager in the NBA.",
"The March 9 and 10, 2016 games against the New York Knicks and the Denver Nuggets, respectively, became the first time a Suns player (rookie Devin Booker) had back-to-back 30+ point games in a season since Amar'e Stoudemire back in 2010.\nFurthermore, the 35-point performance against the Denver Nuggets made Devin Booker the youngest player to ever have a 35-point game against another NBA team, beating out Amar'e Stoudemire during his rookie season back when he was 20 years old.",
"In the February and March games against the defending champion Golden State Warriors, Devin Booker had two different double-doubles with 15 points and 10 assists (with 7 rebounds) on the February 10th game and then put up 18 points and a new season-high 11 assists on the March 12th game. As a result, Devin Booker became the first Suns rookie since Negele Knight in the 1990–91 season to record multiple games involving double-doubles for points and assists.",
"Furthermore, the game on March where he had 11 assists against Golden State was the highest number of assists in Suns history for a rookie, beating out the record that was set by teammate Archie Goodwin during the 2013–14 season.",
"From February 28 to March 17, 2016, Alex Len recorded a career-high (at this time) 10 straight games of 10 or more rebounds. It was the most recorded under a single stretch of time since Marcin Gortat did it under the lockout 2011–12 season, and he was the youngest player to ever record 10 or more games of 10 or more rebounds for the Suns since Shawn Marion during the 2000–01 season.",
"The four games in which rookie Devin Booker recorded 30 or more points for the month of March was the first time since Amar'e Stoudemire in March 2010 that a Suns player had four or more games with 30 or more points against an opponent.\nDevin Booker became only the fifth rookie in Suns history to record at least 900 points in franchise history behind only Amar'e Stoudemire, Michael Finley, Walter Davis, and Alvan Adams, and the youngest player in franchise history to do so.",
"The 22.4 points that Devin Booker recorded was the highest for a Suns rookie in the month of March since Walter Davis averaged 25.1 points per game in March 1978.",
"The March 30 and April 1, 2016 games resulted in the first time three different Suns players got three points/rebounds double-double in multiple games since Tom Chambers, Dan Majerle, and Mark West did it back in 1989. Centers Alex Len and Tyson Chandler, as well as small forward P. J. Tucker recorded their double-doubles on the March 30 game against the Milwaukee Bucks, while center Tyson Chandler, small forward P. J",
". J. Tucker, and power forward Mirza Teletović recorded theirs in Markieff Morris' debut against the Suns as an opponent on April 1 against the Washington Wizards.",
"Devin Booker became the youngest player in franchise history to record over 1,000 points as a rookie, beating out the record set by Amar'e Stoudemire, who had gone straight out of high school to play in the NBA. He recorded his 1,000th point on April 9, 2016 with 10:51 left in the first quarter against the New Orleans Pelicans and finished with 16 points in a blowout 121–100 victory over the New Orleans Pelicans",
". He also became the fifth player in franchise history behind Alvan Adams, Walter Davis, Michael Finley, and Amar'e Stoudemire to record over 1,000 points for the Suns during their rookie seasons.",
"Mirza Teletović tied Eddie Johnson for the most 20+ point games coming off the bench in the month of April with 6 games since the 1983–84 season. He also tied both Isaiah Thomas and Joe Johnson with four straight games of 20+ point outings coming off the bench since the 2000–01 season.",
"Alan Williams became the sixth rookie to record a double-double for the Suns during their first 10 games of their rookie season. He'd join the likes of Markieff Morris, Shawn Marion, Steve Nash, Armen Gilliam, and Georgi Glouchkov since the 1983–84 season by recording a double-double of 14 points and 12 rebounds during the last game of the season with a 114–105 victory over the Los Angeles Clippers on April 13, 2016.",
"Devin Booker recorded the highest scoring averages of any Suns rookie since Michael Finley during the 1995–96 season.\nDevin Booker had the highest number of votes ever for a Suns player in the NBA Rookie of The Year Award voting since Amar'e Stoudemire won the award over #1 draft pick and eventual Hall of Famer Yao Ming in 2003.\nDevin Booker became the first Sun to make it to the NBA All-Rookie First Team since the soon-to-be former NBA player Amar'e Stoudemire last did it in 2003.",
"Transactions\n\nTrades\n\nFree agents\n\nRe-signed\n\nAdditions\n\nSubtractions\n\nSee also\n2015–16 NBA season\n\nReferences\n\nPhoenix Suns seasons\nPhoenix Suns\nPhoenix Suns\nPhoenix Suns"
] |
Niger Delta mangroves
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niger%20Delta%20mangroves
|
[
"Nigeria has extensive mangrove forests in the coastal region of the Niger Delta. Considered one of the most ecologically sensitive regions in the world, the Niger Delta mangrove forest is situated within a deltaic depositional environment. These mangrove forests serve a critical role in regional ecological and landscape composition, and support subsistence gathering practices, and market-based income opportunities. Anthropogenic development threatens the survival of Niger Delta mangrove populations.",
"Overview",
"Mangrove forests are found in 118 countries and territories worldwide, 75% of mangrove vegetation zones are located in intertidal tropic and sub-tropic habitats situated between 25° N and 25° S . Typically surrounding salient river deltas, mangrove regions support a variety of halophytes",
". Typically surrounding salient river deltas, mangrove regions support a variety of halophytes. These robust shrubs and trees, which have adapted to changing coastal conditions (such as inundation, sun exposure, anaerobic soil, and salinity concentration), play a substantive role in cultivating the biodiversity and wellbeing of the surrounding landscape.",
"Introduction",
"Mangroves are coastal wetland forests located in the intertidal zones of tropical and subtropical estuaries, saline backwaters, deltas, creeks, and lagoons. The mangrove ecosystem represents specific areas where mangrove plants flourish. These halophytic plants, including trees, shrubs, palms, and ferns, grow in the intertidal zones of brackish waters or estuarine wetlands in tropical and subtropical regions",
". This unique environment within mangroves influences the morphology, anatomy, and behavior of a community of organisms, showcasing local adaptations. The mangrove forests play a crucial role in coastal stabilization, minimizing the impact of wave action and wind energy on the shoreline, and acting as excellent inland structure defenders. They also act as carbon sinks, sequestering a significant amount of carbon annually",
". They also act as carbon sinks, sequestering a significant amount of carbon annually. Despite covering a small percentage of the Earth's surface, mangroves account for a substantial portion of terrestrial carbon input into the ocean. Additionally, mangroves are highly productive ecosystems, supporting coastal populations' livelihoods directly and indirectly and providing habitats for various wildlife populations, including wading birds and seabirds",
". These forests also serve as essential sources of food, medicine, fuel, and shelter for many people, particularly those in coastal regions.",
"Mangroves have a crucial ecological function in stabilizing coastal areas by mitigating the effects of wave action and wind energy on the shoreline, effectively acting as natural defenses for inland structures. The mangrove plants and the sediments surrounding them serve as carbon sinks, capturing approximately 22.8 million metric tons of carbon each year",
".8 million metric tons of carbon each year. In fact, they are superior in carbon sequestration compared to other blue carbon ecosystems, making them a significant nature-based response to climate change. Despite occupying a small fraction of the Earth's continental surface (approximately 0.1%), mangrove forests contribute 11% of all terrestrial carbon input into the ocean.",
"Mangroves stand out as highly productive ecosystems globally, offering essential support to the livelihoods of coastal communities both directly and indirectly. They provide habitats and sustenance to diverse wildlife populations, such as wading birds and seabirds. Additionally, mangroves play a crucial role as a significant resource for food, medicine, fuel, and housing for numerous individuals in Nigeria, especially those residing in coastal areas.",
"The Niger Delta mangrove is the third largest in the world and the largest in Africa. Since the 1960s oil and gas exploration has become an important economic activity, resulting in significant alteration of the landscape via pollution, urbanization and invasion.",
"African mangroves have faced significant challenges in recent times, experiencing substantial losses. The decline, devastation, and deterioration of mangrove forests can be linked to several factors such as urbanization, quarrying, salt and sand extraction, pollution from industries and agro-industrial chemicals, as well as petroleum and gas exploitation. Additionally, the absence of adequate legislation and deforestation for fish smoking contribute to this issue",
". The mangrove forest zone in Nigeria not only enhances the socio-economic prosperity of rural coastal communities but also holds promise in shielding them from severe weather occurrences intensified by climate change. The anticipated rise in sea levels is expected to heighten flooding in coastal areas at lower altitudes, subsequently amplifying the physical and socio-economic susceptibilities of coastal urban centers",
". Nigeria has been acknowledged as one of the most susceptible African nations to climate change, and its impacts are currently manifesting in various regions of the country.",
"In Nigeria, there are more than 2,000 industrial facilities, with approximately 80% of them concentrated in the coastal areas, particularly in urban hubs like Lagos, Port Harcourt, and nearby regions",
". The industries in Nigeria's coastal zone encompass a range of sectors including oil and gas, petrochemicals, iron and steel, fertilizer plants, aluminum smelting plants, as well as diverse manufacturing industries such as textiles, food processing, plastics, pharmaceuticals, cement production, soap and detergent manufacturing, paint production, brewing, and wood pulp and paper production",
". Considering that a significant portion of Nigeria's industrial facilities are situated in coastal states, and a growing population resides and works in areas vulnerable to climate change, the significance of mangrove deforestation and degradation cannot be overlooked. Hence, this study delved into the origins of mangrove deforestation and degradation within Nigeria's Niger Delta Region, analyzing the repercussions within a swiftly evolving climate context.",
"Biological composition",
"Biologically, six mangrove species make up these forests, including three species in the family Rhizophoraceae (Rhizophora racemosa (red mangrove; tall), Rhizophora harrisonii (red mangrove; dwarf), Rhizophora mangle (red mangrove; dwarf)), and species in the family Avicenniaceae (white mangrove) and Combretaceae. Of these species, Rhizophora racemosa occupies the greatest density of the forest, accounting for approximately 90% of all mangrove biota",
". Despite expansive geographic coverage, the Niger Delta mangrove forest has approximately 80% of its vegetation distributed in three states (Bayelsa, Delta, and River states).",
"Although the forest is composed of six mangrove species, mangrove growth is primarily situated in brackish muddy creek banks. Studies have indicated that Rhizophora racemosa (which is the tallest mangrove species) reaches its optimized growth potential when exposed to brackish water and soft mud, whereas R. racemosa'''s relatives, R. mangle and R. harrisonii,'' favor higher salinity and hard mud",
". racemosa'''s relatives, R. mangle and R. harrisonii,'' favor higher salinity and hard mud. In its natural state, mangrove soil or “chikoko” (a mixture of acid sulphate, silty clay, clay loam and peat), has a pH of 4 and 6 for mangroves inhabiting low-tide and high-tide locations, respectively",
". If salinity levels shift too much from these levels, mudflats become unsuitable for mangrove production, and the process of mangrove reforestation (from infertile mangrove land to productive mangrove mudflat) can take upwards of one century.",
"The need to preserve genetic diversity",
"Three mangrove tree families and a total of six species are found in the Niger Delta region: the red mangrove (Rhizophoraceae) including Rhizophora racemosa, R. harisonii, and R. mangle, the white mangrove (Combretaceae) known as Laguncularia racemosa, and the black mangrove (Avicenniaceae) represented by A. germinas",
". germinas. The global preference for planting red mangroves in human-assisted mangrove rehabilitation is due to the ease of planting red mangrove propagules either directly in the field or by raising seedlings in the nursery. However, it's important to note that each mangrove species has unique ecological significance beyond the general ecosystem goods and services provided by mangroves",
". Therefore, preserving the diverse species and genetic diversity of mangrove ecosystems is essential to conserve their unique ecological roles. For instance, the black mangrove (A. germinas) plays a fundamental role in the reproductive output, net survival, and ecological niche of the mangrove topminnow, Aplocheilichthys spilauchen, as it lays eggs on algal mats that grow on vertically protruding roots of the black mangrove.",
"Planting mangroves is not the sole technique for restoration. Other approaches include assisted natural restoration, such as reestablishing tidal connectivity, and community-based ecological mangrove restoration, involving ecosystem design. Recent literature strongly advocates for ecologically oriented restoration that considers the causes of mangrove loss and emphasizes community-based ecological mangrove restoration (CBMER)",
". This is a vital approach, especially given documented failures in mangrove planting. Moreover, planted mangroves often exhibit restricted species richness, abundance, and biodiversity even after extended periods.",
"The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) categorizes biodiversity into three main types: ecosystem diversity, species diversity, and genetic diversity. However, countries like Nigeria, which are members of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), have often not adequately addressed genetics in their national biodiversity strategies and action plans",
". Genetic composition sets an organism apart from other species and significantly influences its ability to adapt to changing environments and climate change. It can even contribute to the establishment of new species in certain cases. Many conservationists emphasize that conserving genetic diversity forms the foundation of all conservation endeavors because it is essential for evolutionary adaptability, a crucial aspect for a species' long-term survival",
". In genetics, conservation biologists have two main goals to ensure species survival: firstly, to preserve high levels of heritable genetic variation and prevent detrimental alleles from becoming dominant, which can lead to decreased fitness and the accumulation of harmful mutations.",
"The restoration of native mangrove ecosystems in the Niger Delta is crucial for safeguarding the forests' reproductive and productive fitness, evolutionary capacity, and adaptability to environmental changes. The objective of preventing harmful allele fixation is to mitigate reductions in survival and reproductive capability that small populations may experience due to limited genetic diversity",
". Therefore, a sustainable mangrove restoration approach involves incorporating species diversity to achieve broad and enduring results.",
"Distribution of Mangrove Forest in Nigeria \nIn the coastal areas of Nigeria, the mangrove forest is distributed as follows:",
"Lagos, a coastal area in Nigeria, has a total expanse of 42.20 square kilometers. Within this area, specifically 3.13 square kilometers, are designated as forest reserves. This portion within the forest reserves represents 7.42% of the overall area of Lagos. Essentially, this signifies that a small but significant part of Lagos is designated as a forest reserve, contributing to the preservation and conservation of the region's natural habitats and ecosystems.",
"In Ogun, a region in Nigeria, the total area covered by mangroves is 12.18 square kilometers. Interestingly, unlike some other areas, there are no mangrove areas specifically designated within forest reserves in this region. This implies that all the mangroves in Ogun are in non-reserve areas, lacking the protective designation of a forest reserve",
". This situation could have implications for conservation efforts and suggests that mangrove preservation and management in Ogun may need to rely on other forms of protection and sustainability initiatives beyond designated reserves.",
"In the region of Ondo, Nigeria, mangroves cover an area of 40.62 square kilometers. However, unlike some other regions where mangroves may be allocated within forest reserves for protection and management, Ondo does not have any mangrove areas designated within forest reserves. This means that all the mangroves in Ondo are situated outside of the officially designated forest reserve areas",
". This lack of mangroves within forest reserves can influence the conservation and management approach for these important ecosystems in Ondo. Preserving mangroves in this region would likely necessitate alternative strategies and efforts aimed at safeguarding them outside of formal reserve designations. It underscores the importance of comprehensive conservation measures and sustainable practices to ensure the continued health and vitality of the mangroves in Ondo.",
"In the Edo/Delta region of Nigeria, the mangrove forest area covers a substantial 3,470.32 square kilometers. Within this extensive area, 143.75 square kilometers of mangroves are located within designated forest reserves. This signifies that approximately 4.14% of the total mangrove area is officially protected within these forest reserves. Having a portion of the mangrove area within forest reserves is vital for their preservation and sustainable management",
". The forest reserves serve as protected zones where activities detrimental to the mangroves, such as indiscriminate logging or habitat destruction, are regulated or prohibited. This helps maintain the ecological balance and the diverse array of flora and fauna that depend on mangrove ecosystems.",
"In the Rivers/Bayelsa region of Nigeria, the mangrove forest area spans a vast 5,435.96 square kilometers. Within this extensive expanse, 90.62 square kilometers of mangroves are designated within forest reserves. This indicates that approximately 1.67% of the total mangrove area is safeguarded within these specific forest reserves.",
"In the Cross River/Akwa Ibom region, the mangrove forest spans an expansive area of 721.86 square kilometers, and within this expanse, 67.19 square kilometers fall under the protection of forest reserves, accounting for a notable 9.31%. Altogether, considering all regions, the total mangrove forest area amounts to an impressive 9,723.14 square kilometers, with 304.69 square kilometers nestled within designated forest reserves.",
"Socio-ecological vitality",
"The Niger Delta mangrove forests play critical roles for 60% of local peoples who rely on the land and sea for survival. The forests contribute local therapeutic, amenity, heritage, spiritual, and existence values",
". The forests contribute local therapeutic, amenity, heritage, spiritual, and existence values. Responses from a survey conducted in 2007 and 2008 evaluating mangrove social value in three Niger Delta communities indicated approximately 85% of participant households had previously utilized mangrove vegetation as a medicinal remedy and between 65% and 71% of villagers recognized the mangrove forests as a place of repose",
". Further, each study village relied on the local mangrove forest for carrying out cultural traditions (relying on forest as an ancestral burying site or place of festivity such as in Buguma), spiritual significance, and the survival of locally resource-dependent communities.",
"Another study evaluating the socio-economic importance of mangrove forests to 950 households residing in Akassa, Bayelsa revealed a strong connection between mangroves and the primary and secondary occupations of individuals living in proximity to the forests",
". The study noted that while not all residents’ vocations directly relied on mangrove resource extraction, all households depended on the forest for resources to fulfill their basic physiological needs (such as fuelwood, mangrove material for medicine, wood to construct shelter, and forest space for hunting sustenance staples like snails, fish and crab)",
". The Niger Delta mangrove forests directly (through raw materials) and indirectly (through forest-based products) offer economically beneficial resources for Nigerian rural and urban communities alike, with eight out of the ten most lucrative vocations dependent on thriving mangrove populations. These occupations include canoe carving, logging, timber harvesting, building, fishing, sawmilling, traditional medicine, and trading.",
"Ecological Restoration Blueprint for Mangroves in the Niger Delta",
"The Center for Environment and Human Rights Development (CEHRD), a non-governmental organization situated in the Niger Delta region, collaborated with various stakeholders, including local inhabitants, initiating multiple initiatives. These initiatives aimed at educating the local populace in systematic mangrove restoration and conservation practices",
". The projects encompassed practical training and focused group dialogues involving local communities, governmental bodies, coastal restoration specialists, regulatory bodies, non-profit organizations, and the academic sector. These efforts resulted in the formulation of a viable framework for the restoration and conservation of mangroves. In the subsequent sections, we elaborate on the responsibilities of stakeholders in attaining sustainable mangrove restoration and conservation.",
"The Role of Local Communities",
"Mangroves in Nigeria are situated within the domains of local communities. This confers a crucial responsibility regarding the protection, conservation, and restoration of these ecosystems upon the neighboring communities. Successful mangrove restoration heavily relies on the support, approval, and active involvement of the community, constituting a significant prerequisite for success. For instance, community activities like artisanal crude oil refining have been reported to degrade mangrove ecosystems",
". Communities engage in such makeshift livelihoods to supplement subsistence and fulfill social or family obligations. Consequently, the expectations and perspectives of local communities should be incorporated into the project's objectives, planning, and execution. Mangrove restoration advocates, decision-makers, experts, and other stakeholders should mobilize and involve communities in the decision-making process",
". While community members may lack the technical expertise required for restoring degraded mangroves, they can identify potential endemic species that are threatened, endangered, or locally extinct, contributing to remediation and restoration decisions. Integrating this kind of indigenous knowledge can result in invaluable restoration outcomes. Additionally, community members can gather foundational data to support scientific research and reporting",
". Engaging the community in such capacities promotes inclusivity and ensures project ownership by the local communities, thus ensuring the sustainability of mangrove restoration efforts.",
"Transferring skills and knowledge constitutes a vital element of a mangrove restoration framework. Interactions between experts and the local populace create opportunities for mutual development and dissemination of knowledge essential for effective mangrove restoration and conservation",
". Collaboration and involvement of both experts and local communities, facilitated through practical training, public education on the benefits of mangrove restoration and conservation, and active participation in restoration efforts in the field, enhance ownership, support, success, and access to local advantages. Over time, community members gain restoration skills and become proficient in independently rejuvenating degraded mangroves",
". This transformation has been evident in the Oproama community, where CEHRD facilitated a community-driven science initiative to gather foundational data for the Oproama coastal environment.",
"Community engagement fosters unity and cultivates peaceful cohabitation within local communities. This stems from the cultural significance and symbolic meanings that mangroves hold in coastal communities. The involvement of mangroves in performing arts is a notable example. For instance, the wood of the black mangrove (Avicennia germinas) is employed in crafting \"elumene\" masks, and its twigs and leaves adorn the mouth of the hippopotamus masquerade during presentations",
". The process of ecological restoration can thus establish a connection between people and nature, kindling the local population's interest in environmental concerns and nurturing reverence and care for the ecosystems.",
"The Role of Government (Decision making and policy direction)",
"The governmental role in decision-making and policy direction is significant. Policies encompass how governments or private entities define, manage, and address public issues. In Nigeria, a range of policy documents and instruments exist at various governance levels. At the Federal level, provisions in the 1999 Constitution, as amended, specifically Sections 20 and 16(2), highlight the need for environmental protection",
". Additionally, the 1989 National Policy on Environment, the Millennium Development Goals Project, and various international conventions ratified by Nigeria outline actions for environmental protection and restoration. However, some of these instruments may not fully align with the goals and policy recommendations outlined in the Geneva Road Map. Concerns also persist regarding the effectiveness of these regulatory instruments in achieving environmental sustainability.",
"The government bears the responsibility of formulating and enforcing a sustainable legislative framework to enhance mangrove conservation and restoration. A robust regulatory framework is essential to guide, regulate, and influence human behavior towards sustainable coastal practices, ultimately leading to successful mangrove protection and restoration. While ecological conservation policies exist, few specifically delineate requirements for mangrove protection and restoration",
". A thorough review of the regulations, particularly those enacted post-1960s, reveals that many of them primarily established agencies, expecting these agencies to develop environmental regulations. For instance, the Petroleum Act of 1968 mandated the Minister of Petroleum Resources to develop regulations addressing environmental degradation caused by oil spills",
". However, since around 2001, the Nigerian National Wetland Policy, which would have been a direct wetland policy, has remained in draft form without necessary actions to formalize it into a regulation or law.",
"Legislative instruments play a crucial role in promoting sustainable mangrove management, encouraging ecosystem conservation by stakeholders through co-ownership and effective management. Such instruments can provide incentives for investment in mangrove restoration, especially by the private sector. For instance, legislative declarations rewarding mangrove protection through co-management approaches can incentivize community vanguards, ensuring sustainable mangrove harvesting",
". These regulations outline governance structures and define stakeholders' roles, including experts and various professionals, in mangrove protection and restoration processes.",
"Local ecological protection and restoration regulations are vital tools to curb detrimental environmental behavior and attitudes that contribute to ecological degradation. Existing ecological management regulations in Nigeria, however, often lack robust penalties and disincentives, inadvertently encouraging pollution and environmental harm. Addressing issues such as unsustainable mangrove harvesting necessitates contextual mangrove regulations within local communities",
". The government, as a decision-maker, holds the responsibility of establishing a network of mangrove protected areas, covering biodiversity hotspots to enhance conservation efforts. Developing sustainable mangrove policies that facilitate the creation of networks of mangrove conservation areas can act as a buffer zone, encouraging initiatives, research, and creativity towards mangrove conservation",
". Collaboration with research institutions, local communities, and charities is essential for developing localized mangrove restoration and conservation policies that drive investment, research, and mapping of endemic and endangered species for adaptive management. Participatory policies can drive community-led campaigns, fostering behavioral changes and encouraging ecosystem conservation",
". Engaging community volunteers in mangrove restoration is vital, and sustainable mangrove conservation policies promoting co-management frameworks can sustain community involvement in mangrove protection and restoration activities. Overall, effective legislative instruments and localized regulations are indispensable for the successful and sustainable management of mangroves.",
"Non-governmental organizations and charities",
"Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and charitable entities play a vital role in mobilizing various stakeholders, building capacity, and instigating behavioral shifts to achieve conservation and restoration objectives. NGOs focusing on environmental issues, like CEHRD, are pivotal in educating and enhancing the capabilities of local communities, government agencies, and other stakeholders in mangrove restoration processes",
". In 2005, CEHRD pioneered community-driven mangrove restoration in the Niger Delta through practical training, awareness campaigns, skill development, and collaborative mangrove replantation efforts in oil spill-affected mangrove areas in Bodo Creek. CEHRD has also published a user-friendly mangrove restoration manual specific to the Niger Delta",
". CEHRD has also published a user-friendly mangrove restoration manual specific to the Niger Delta. Similarly, the Mangrove Action Project (MAP), a prominent global advocate for mangrove conservation, regularly publishes content related to mangroves in its MAP Bulletin and has produced a guide for ecologically sound mangrove restoration. NGOs possess the ability to secure funding for mangrove restoration, a long-term endeavor requiring persistent education and sensitization efforts.",
"Many supported mangrove restoration projects span 3 to 5 years, allowing for short-term monitoring of initial success indicators. Consequently, NGOs are equipped to continually mobilize funding and engage in sustained monitoring of mangrove restoration initiatives. Their significant role lies in raising public awareness about sustainable mangrove management, fostering an ongoing process of restoration and conservation",
". NGOs mobilize the public to actively participate in environmental monitoring, promote environmental consciousness, encourage citizen science, and advocate for biodiversity conservation.",
"The Role of the Private Sector",
"The private sector holds a crucial position in advancing mangrove preservation and rejuvenation. This involvement from the private sector can manifest as a corporate social responsibility project, a biodiversity offset, or restoration initiative driven by the polluter pays principle, or a deliberate endeavor to improve local livelihoods",
". Biodiversity offsets refer to quantifiable conservation achievements stemming from actions aimed at compensating for notable remaining negative biodiversity effects resulting from project development, even after appropriate efforts to avoid, minimize, and restore have been undertaken. There has been a suggestion for private-sector-led initiatives focused on mangrove rehabilitation and management. These initiatives could stem from donor projects or corporate social responsibility efforts",
". These initiatives could stem from donor projects or corporate social responsibility efforts. There are various private funding sources available for mangrove rehabilitation, either directly or facilitated through regulatory mandates, and tapping into these can significantly accelerate mangrove restoration and collaborative management initiatives.",
"The involvement of the private sector can be encouraged through collaborations between the public and private sectors. This could involve developers allocating funds for ecological restoration as compensation for utilizing land and resources and engaging in activities driven by corporate social responsibility initiatives",
". Private contributions could be generated to support community-driven restoration initiatives or government-led restoration efforts, incentivizing co-management through enhanced utilization of compensation mechanisms and rewards for ecosystem services. In the Niger Delta, a substantial portion of oil exploration and production activities occurs within mangrove areas",
". These activities involve clearing mangroves to create pipeline corridors, establish coastal flow stations, and set up oil fields like the Bodo West oil field located at the core of the mangrove region. The proximity and frequent interaction between oil facilities, daily operations, and mangroves in the delta heighten the susceptibility and adverse effects of oil pollution on mangroves",
". A well-defined contingency response strategy and implementation are essential to prevent or minimize the impact of oil on mangroves in case of accidents or sabotage. This is primarily achieved by efficient booming and skimming to prevent oil from reaching or obstructing mangrove vegetation in creeks. The National Oil Spill Detection and Response Agency (NOSDRA), established by the NOSDRA Act (2006), is responsible for preventing and managing oil spills in Nigeria",
". NOSDRA has formulated a national oil spill contingency plan that oil companies can customize to effectively safeguard mangrove ecosystems during an oil spill. In the event of mangrove oiling, the entity owning the facility should provide adequate funding for the cleanup, remediation, and restoration of the impacted ecosystem, adhering to the polluter pays principle.",
"Important considerations for carrying out mangrove restoration in the Niger Delta",
"Given the potential challenges outlined for establishing and executing a mangrove ecosystem restoration initiative in the Niger Delta region, overcoming these hurdles involves the identification of native ecosystems slated for restoration and the construction of benchmark models. These models are crucial for devising and conveying a shared vision regarding project objectives and aspirations, aiming to prevent ecological shifts or substitutions",
". These benchmark models should mirror actual ecosystems central to conservation and restoration endeavors, preferably depicting mangrove ecosystems with minimal to no degradation. In accordance with, six fundamental ecosystem characteristics can be employed to define the reference environment:",
"Absence of Risks: It is crucial to ensure the ecosystem is not threatened by direct risks such as pollution, invasive species, or deforestation.\n Environmental Health: To sustain the target ecosystem, appropriate environmental conditions encompassing soil, water, and topographical factors are necessary.\n Species Composition: The presence of native species characteristic of the ideal reference habitat is essential, while undesired species should be absent.",
"Diverse Structure: Key structural elements, including demographic phases, trophic levels, vegetation layers, and spatial habitat variety, should exhibit a wide range.\n Ecosystem Performance: Adequate levels of growth, production, nutrient cycling, decomposition, species interactions, and disturbance rates are vital at the reference site.",
"Integration into Larger Environment: The ecosystem should be effectively integrated into its broader landscape or aquatic surroundings through both abiotic and biotic processes and interactions.",
"Factors that affect ecological restoration in the Niger Delta Mangrove",
"Disturbance",
"Disturbance refers to alterations in the environmental conditions that interfere with the normal functioning of an ecosystem. These disturbances can occur at various scales in terms of space and time and are a natural part of many ecological communities. Examples of disturbances include activities like sand mining, oiling, and urban development. It is crucial in the context of restoration and reducing human-induced effects to distinguish between disturbances caused by humans and those that occur naturally.",
"Human-induced Disturbance",
"This type of disturbance is instigated by human activities such as urbanization and industrialization. People construct structures like bridges, shopping centers, roads, educational institutions, medical facilities, and more in cleared mangrove forests. These actions eradicate the natural wetland system and devastate numerous forms of biodiversity that reside in this habitat (e.g., barnacles, mussels, periwinkles, crabs, etc.)",
".g., barnacles, mussels, periwinkles, crabs, etc.). In the course of oil and gas exploration, humans deliberately clear large areas of forest by bulldozing to create space for setting up camps, oil wells, and crude oil pipelines. The pipelines are utilized to convey petroleum products from oil wells to the refinery, and finished products are transported back through pipelines to tankers for product evacuation at the port",
". These pipelines are established by creating a designated right of way passage (ROW) through deforestation. Additionally, crude oil spills occur from these pipelines due to either deliberate tampering or mechanical failure, resulting in extensive destruction of the mangrove forest.",
"Natural Disturbance \nNatural disturbances are events stemming from natural forces and phenomena. Examples of these events include floods, erosion, hurricanes, tsunamis, and earthquakes. These occurrences are guided by prevailing weather conditions and can result in substantial damage to mangrove forests, ultimately causing changes in their arrangement and the types of species present. Natural disturbances are significant factors influencing the ecological dynamics and stability of mangrove ecosystems.",
"Ecological Succession",
"Ecological Succession refers to the gradual changes in a community over time, especially after a disturbance. Typically, an ecosystem evolves from a simple state with a few dominant pioneer species to a more complex community with many interdependent species. During restoration, the goal is to initiate, assist, or speed up these natural successional processes, depending on the severity of the disturbance",
". In instances of mild to moderate natural or human-induced disturbances, restoration efforts aim to quicken the ecosystem's natural progression of succession.",
"Habitat Fragmentation \nHabitat Fragmentation refers to the spatial disruptions in a biological system, where ecosystems are divided into smaller segments due to alterations in land use (e.g., agriculture) and natural disturbances. This process diminishes the size of populations and amplifies their isolation. Consequently, smaller and isolated populations become more susceptible to extinction, while the fragmentation of ecosystems degrades the quality of the habitat.",
"Ecosystem Functions",
"Ecosystem Function refers to the fundamental and vital processes within any natural system, encompassing nutrient cycles and the flow of energy. A comprehensive comprehension of ecosystem functions is essential to address potential degradation of ecological processes. These functions are emergent properties of the entire system, highlighting the significance of monitoring and management for the long-term stability of ecosystems",
". In the context of mangroves, ecosystem functions encompass three main aspects: (1) Provisioning of goods and services such as timber, fuel, food, medicine, and dyes; (2) Environmental and ecological services including regulatory services like coastal protection and climate regulation, and supporting services like acting as nurseries, promoting biodiversity, aiding in nutrient cycling, and facilitating soil formation; (3) Cultural services like spiritual significance, aesthetic value",
", aesthetic value, recreational opportunities, and educational purposes",
".",
"Community Assembly \nCommunity Assembly refers to a comprehensive framework that can encompass almost all aspects of community ecology within a single conceptual structure. The theory of community assembly endeavors to elucidate why sites with comparable environmental conditions harbor distinct species assemblages. The underlying assumption is that species possess analogous niche requirements, implying that the formation of a community is a result of random variations from a shared pool of species.",
"Population Genetics \nRecent evidence emphasizes the significance of genetic diversity alongside species diversity in reinstating ecosystem functions. Consequently, ecological restoration efforts are progressively incorporating genetic processes into their management strategies. These processes can forecast the likelihood of a species effectively establishing itself at a restoration site.",
"Pollution",
"Pollution refers to the introduction of harmful or poisonous substances into the environment, causing adverse effects on its components. In the case of mangroves, a significant pollution source is hydrocarbon pollution. This pollution transpires during crude oil spill incidents, commonly resulting from punctured pipelines both offshore and onshore. When crude oil spills into the water, it coats the roots of mangroves, effectively suffocating them and causing their demise",
". The ramifications of oil pollution in mangrove forests extend to an escalation in heavy metal concentration, inducing toxic conditions that result in the death of immature mangroves.",
"Benefits of mangrove restoration framework in the Niger Delta",
"It will enable a comprehensive approach to mangrove restoration.\n The framework underscores skill enhancement. Involving and training local individuals in mangrove restoration under the guidance of local experts will decrease the overall restoration expenses.\n It will promote progress by augmenting natural assets and instigating policies and laws for sustainable mangrove management.\n It will foster the exchange of information among stakeholders.",
"It will foster the exchange of information among stakeholders.\n Implementing a restoration framework that incorporates thorough awareness-raising and mobilization of stakeholders for collective action is incredibly timely. It will cultivate a sense of urgency for sustainability, igniting a strong commitment to restoration and conservation efforts.\n The framework will elevate environmental consciousness, encourage sustainable practices, and promote knowledge advancement.",
"The framework advocates for specialized training and capacity development in areas like ecosystem engineering and taxonomy.",
"Challenges of Mangrove Restoration Framework in the Niger Delta",
"Coastal communities are becoming increasingly disinterested in supporting restoration efforts due to escalating degradation and lax enforcement of environmental policies.\n The elevated levels of insecurity, such as rampant kidnapping and illegal extortions like \"matching-ground\", create an unsafe environment, hindering smooth operations.",
"Insufficient funding for restoration projects and a deficiency in skills related to science communication and the formulation of data-driven policies pose significant challenges.\n Inadequate internet services and unreliable power supply in coastal communities further exacerbate the challenges faced in the implementation of restoration efforts.",
"Extensive degradation spanning decades, notably from crude oil pollution and uncontrolled mangrove harvesting in the Niger Delta, foster a feeling of hopelessness and disengagement in restoration endeavors.\n Insufficient knowledge and expertise are significant barriers to implementing sustainable mangrove management actions effectively.\n A contextual challenge is the restricted access to state-of-the-art facilities and inadequate research funding.",
"Biodiversity",
"The ecological importance of mangroves expands well beyond the resources of their roots and wood. Playing a key part in many fish, invertebrate, crustacean, and mollusk species’ lifecycles, mangroves offer organisms a breeding ground, shelter, and sustenance (mangroves are capable of producing 3.65 tons of leaf matter per hectare per year, which is a key contribution to the food web that supports juvenile fish)",
". Mangroves offer these services to approximately 75% of the local commercially harvested fish population; in a properly functioning mangrove ecosystem, this means ~1.08 tons of fish can be supported by one hectare of mangroves each year. Mangroves are also used as shelter and breeding grounds by small mammals, shore birds, reptiles, and insects",
". One study analyzing local species dependency on mangrove populations in Pagbilao Bay, Quezon, discovered that nearly 128 fish species, 56 bird species, and 9 species of paneid shrimp relied on mangrove survival for breeding and shelter requirements.",
"Beyond supplying a sundry of basic biological needs to marine and terrestrial organisms, mangrove populations are also essential in preventing erosion and preserving the surrounding coastal landscape. UNEP research has demonstrated that the mangrove's robust build is efficient at reducing the total destructive capability of storms and wind surges by 70 to 90 percent. Mangroves also help protect the health and overall biodiversity of surrounding ecosystems by acting as a water filter",
". Filtration is enabled by the mangrove's capability to absorb and store heavy metals that would otherwise result in the release of metal pollution into nearshore water bodies. Mangroves are also efficient sites of carbon storage. Gail Chmura, scientist at McGill University, revealed a mangrove's carbon storing capability is greater than that of a terrestrial forest; per-year, mangroves are capable of storing 42 million tons of carbon/hectare.",
"Threats to mangrove survival \nThere are many environmental threats to the mangrove forests in the Niger Delta.",
"Oil extraction is the largest threat to Nigeria's mangrove forests. Comprising 97 percent of Nigeria's total exports, the oil-rich Niger Delta produces up to two million barrels of crude oil a day, which has placed Nigeria as the 9th oil producing country in the world. Such extensive oil extraction has come at great environmental and social cost. Since 1958, the Nigerian Federal Ministry of Environment has estimated 13 million barrels of oil have been spilled during extraction processes",
". These spills are the product of many factors, which include: unenforced drilling regulations, refinery leaks, pipeline corrosion, vandalism, and human error. The total number of annual spills has gradually increased since 1958, from approximately 250 spills per year to 500 spills per year",
". The Nigerian Oil Industry, which primarily extracts oil amongst the Niger Delta mangrove forests, has consequently deforested mangrove ecological zones for drilling purposes, and deteriorated the health of the surrounding mangroves. Petroleum has toxicological impacts on mangrove trees, but also causes direct physical damage. The toxic effects of both surface-level and sediment deposit oil exposure on mangrove health has been repeatedly scientifically documented",
". In 1986, scientists analyzing the impact of the Bahía las Minas oil spill on coastal vegetation reported clusters of dying mangroves in proximity to where oil had washed ashore. On average, studies revealed mangrove fatality rates were highest during the first six-months of a spill; thus, fresh crude oil spills had greater toxicity than “weathered” oil",
". Other natural experiments noted that factors such as mangrove exposure to water currents and spill contamination control plays a substantive role in predicting the extent of oil damage on a mangrove population. Oil contact with mangrove seedlings also revealed extensive damage; when placed in the presence of crude, greater than 96 percent of mangrove seedlings died.",
"Petroleum, which comprises hydrocarbon compound contaminants such as PAHs (Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons), has been connected to plant chlorophyll damage. As a result of PAH root absorption, mangrove leaf pigmentation is altered, limiting photosynthesis. Regardless of oil toxicity or soil absorption capacity, mangroves can be fatally damaged from surface-oil spills as oil coats cells that allow oxygen to reach the roots, resulting in oxygen deprivation and incapacity of necessary biological processes.",
"Historically, petroleum's detrimental impact on delta biodiversity (including threatening mangrove existence) has sparked non-violent and violent citizen responses. Communities facing threats to health, livelihoods and prosperity from the economic, environmental, and structural injustice resulting from local oil extraction have reacted together to fight for the indigenous right to existence and Niger Delta resource autonomy",
". While some movements such as the Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People (MOSOP) relayed demands through non-violent protest, other organizations have responded to repeated degradative practices and governmentally unenforced industry regulations through violence. Established in 2006, the Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND) is a rebel militant group challenging wealth polarization, environmental disregard, and economic instability brought about by delta oil production",
". Through monkeywrenching industry equipment, blowing-up pipelines, and kidnapping oil workers, MEND seeks to fracture Nigeria's oil economy. Despite justifying their violent actions by the need to obtain justice, MEND is recognized by various international governing bodies as a terrorist organization.",
"In addition to mangrove degradation from regional oil extraction practices, mass deforestation has threatened Niger Delta mangrove populations. A study published in 2011 by Oluseyi Fabiyi revealed that anthropogenic development was the chief agent driving deforestation in Southwestern Nigeria. These anthropogenic factors included agricultural growth and urban expansion. Fabiyi argued these variables led to greater deforestation rates than forest clearing resulting from oil extraction.",
"In a GIS analysis of deforestation patterns of Niger Delta wetlands conducted by Glory Enaruvbe and Ozien Atafo in 2014, water body area in the target location decreased by 7 percent in 11 years (between 2002 and 2013), and forest area decreased by four percent. Enaruvbe and Atafo noted that locals’ perceptions of economic opportunity and increased demand for ecological services guided increased deforestation patterns.",
"Causes of Mangrove Deforestation in Niger Delta Region \nNumerous elements contribute to the depletion and deterioration of the mangrove forest within the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria. These encompass reclaiming land for constructing settlements, establishing fish farms, building roads and electrical infrastructure, timber logging, gathering fuelwood, engaging in oil exploration/exploitation, along with activities linked to it, improper waste disposal, and the invasion of Nypa fruticans.",
"Infrastructure Development",
"The development of infrastructure stands as a primary factor driving mangrove deforestation in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria. In recent times, particularly with the establishment of the Niger Delta Development Commission (NDDC) after extensive years of advocating against the marginalization of the Niger Delta Region (where Nigeria’s primary crude oil reserves are located), endeavors to enhance infrastructure have been initiated. However, these initiatives occasionally lead to mangrove destruction",
". However, these initiatives occasionally lead to mangrove destruction. Land reclamation for residential and public infrastructure construction represents a significant danger to the mangrove ecosystem in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. In various regions of the area, mangrove forests are being cleared to make way for housing and public amenities, such as schools, especially in mangrove areas adjacent to access roads.",
"Fish Farming",
"Massive fish farming operations constitute a significant factor contributing to the deforestation and degradation of mangroves in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. An illustrative instance is evident in Buguma, Rivers State, where ONIDA, an Israeli company, engages in extensive fish farming. The establishment of this fish farm, boasting over forty ponds, resulted in the devastation and filling of a substantial area of the mangrove forest, crucial for the livelihoods of the local population",
". The primary motivation for situating the farm near the mangrove is to ensure a consistent supply of brackish water necessary for cultivating the targeted fish species, particularly the Barramundi, which is cultivated and imported from Australia. However, the overall contributions of such endeavors to the rural economy, considering the importation of nearly all farm necessities, including fish feed from Israel or Australia, raise significant questions.",
"Timber and Fuel Wood Gathering",
"The mangrove forest serves as a timber source, with its species being extensively utilized as fuel for small-scale industrial boilers due to their high thermal capacity. The red mangrove, specifically Rhizophora racemosa, stands as the most heavily exploited species, employed for various purposes including firewood, poles, and timber",
". The escalating demand for fuelwood prompts the depletion of mangroves in multiple regions of the Niger Delta, driven by the necessity to fulfill household energy requirements and generate income.",
"Oil Exploration/Exploitation and related Activities",
"The oil and gas industry significantly contributes to mangrove fragmentation, deforestation, and degradation in the Niger Delta. Activities such as oil drilling, spillage, dredging of canals, and the construction of housing for oil workers pose substantial threats to the survival and effective functioning of the mangrove ecosystem in this region",
". Oil spills and leakages have inflicted significant damage on Nigeria's mangrove areas, affecting not only the mangroves themselves but also the fishing economy and overall water quality.",
"The Menace of Nipa palm",
"Nypa fruticans (Nipa palm) – an invasive alien species, is another major threat to the mangrove ecosystem in the Niger Delta Region. The species which was introduced in Nigeria for the control of riverbank erosion has become a big menace to the mangrove ecosystem",
". The deforestation and degradation of the mangroves for firewood gathering, the construction of navigational canals, villages, and the activities of oil companies, encourage their replacement by this fast colonizer (Nypa fruticans) which does not provide the enormous ecological services provided by mangroves",
". Tackling the menace of Nipa palm invasion of the mangrove ecosystem requires a holistic approach that will discourage mangrove deforestation and degradation, complete removal of the species in invaded areas, and massive regeneration of degraded mangroves. Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity observed that restoration of degraded habitats in addition to reintroduction of native species can enhance biological diversity and also enhance the resilience of ecosystems against future invasions",
". Efforts should also be made towards discovering other uses of the Nipa palm that will be beneficial to man.",
"Other Factors \nDefecation, improper waste disposal, and the unsustainable use of non-timber resources are additional contributors to mangrove degradation in the Niger Delta region. Instances of constructing public toilets that discharge waste directly into the mangroves and disposing of waste in their vicinity have become prevalent in the area. Equally concerning is the unsustainable utilization of non-timber resources such as fish, periwinkle, crab, and others.",
"A significant factor contributing to the loss and deterioration of mangrove forests in the Niger Delta is the noticeable inadequacy in enforcing the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) regulations. Often, projects are carried out prior to conducting the EIA, and even when the assessment is conducted before project execution, the process is frequently marred by irregularities tolerated by representatives of pertinent agencies responsible for ensuring due process and upholding standards",
". In certain instances, approval is granted for projects with substantial potential negative environmental impacts. In the Niger Delta Region, multinational oil corporations frequently evade accountability for pollution and spills, particularly in marine and coastal ecosystems, unlike the stringent regulations observed in many developed countries. Strict adherence to and rigorous compliance with the stipulations of the EIA regulations are imperative for ensuring sustainable development.",
"Conservation efforts",
"Despite exploitation, fragmentation, and degradation, no policy has been enacted in Nigeria with the sole purpose to conserve endangered mangrove forests. Although neither federal or state institutions have ratified protection efforts, citizens of the Niger Delta states have banded together in attempt to defend the depreciating mangrove populations",
". One coalition, the Mangrove Forest Conservation Society of Nigeria, established in 1995, has spread its vision of establishing peaceful and sustainable coexistence between regional rural development and mangrove ecosystems across numerous Niger Delta cities (such as Asaba, Benin, Calabar, Lagos, Port Harcourt, Uyo, and Yenegoa).",
"Unintentionally affecting mangrove conservation, in 1989, the National Policy on Environment was developed in Nigeria. This policy resulted in 14.2% of Nigeria's land mass qualifying as protected area, securing 988 nationally protected reserves and 12 protected areas under international conventions. According to the Nigerian Department of National Parks, the reserves collectively represent a variety of Nigeria's most essential ecological zones; among these signified zones are tropical and wetland forests",
". Despite federally declaring these 1,000 sites protected, under-regulation and mismanagement has resulted in anthropogenic exploitation of reserve resources. Deforestation has been propelled by demand for bushmeat, timber, and vegetation.",
"Although mangrove conservation policy has yet to be established in Nigeria, published studies have demonstrated the affirmative prospective impact human intervention can have on remediating and protecting mangrove forests. A 2013 GIS study conducted by Oluwagbenga Ol Orimoogunje and Opeyemi Ajibola- James analyzed the recovery capability of oil exposed mangroves in two polluted Niger Delta sites",
". Both sites contained contaminated areas greater than 20 km 2 in size, but one site was remediated whereas the other was not. Mangrove health was monitored for four time periods via RENA and GPS imagery spanning 1986 to 2007. In 1986 (pre-spill), both locations contained a Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) value of .32",
".32. NDVI, which measures the amount of infrared energy produced by a plant, allowed researchers to determine the health of the mangrove study population based on the infrared levels reflected off the canopy surface. This number served as starting point to determine the quantitative impact oil pollution had on mangrove health. In 2000, six years after the spill, NDVI values had changed. The remediated site contained a NDVI of .30 where the non-remediated site was evaluated at .27",
". The remediated site contained a NDVI of .30 where the non-remediated site was evaluated at .27. After 2000, NDVI values began to increase in both fields, but the remediated site's NDVI remained higher than the non-remediated site (2007 remediated site had a NDVI of .36 whereas the non-remediated site's was .34). This study suggested that oil caused a decline in vegetation area and health, but that with remediation, health was mostly recovered, compared to sites that were not remediated.",
"Consequences of Mangrove Deforestation and Degradation in a Shifting Climate \nThe impacts of mangrove deforestation and degradation in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria are significant, particularly given the region's vulnerability to climate change. This paper explores these implications in terms of climate change mitigation and adaptation, as well as the socio-economic effects of extreme weather events caused by climate change.",
"Implications for Climate Change Mitigation",
"The crucial role of mangrove forests in mitigating climate change is widely acknowledged globally. These forests are highly carbon-rich among tropical forests, primarily due to their abundant plant production and sedimentation from rivers and tides. Studies have shown that mangroves exceed the annual mean carbon sequestration rates of various terrestrial forest ecosystems, including tropical rainforests, temperate rainforests, and boreal forests",
". Remarkably, a significant portion of mangroves' carbon, about 50-90%, is stored below ground, providing long-term sequestration. When compared to terrestrial ecosystems, mangroves release more carbon to the atmosphere and oceans when they undergo degradation or conversion to other land uses. For instance, deforestation of mangroves results in substantial carbon emissions, amounting to about 0.02-0.12 Pg carbon per year, approximately 10% of global deforestation emissions, despite mangroves covering only 0",
".7% of tropical forest area. Consequently, the destruction of mangrove forests in the Niger Delta Region not only releases stored carbon but also diminishes their potential to sequester future carbon.",
"Implications for Climate Change Adaptation \nIt has been well-documented that coastal regions are vulnerable to significant impacts from climate change, including issues like beach and dune erosion caused by rising sea levels, extreme weather events, changes in runoff patterns, and increased flooding. Communities along coastlines worldwide are already witnessing the consequences of these impacts, resulting in extensive damages and losses.",
"However, mangrove forests and other marine and coastal ecosystems such as seagrass meadows play a vital role in helping coastal areas adapt to the effects of climate change. These ecosystems offer a range of services that aid in climate change adaptation, including the prevention of shoreline erosion, protection against storms and sea-level rise, maintenance of coastal water quality, and the provision of food security for many coastal communities globally",
". Additionally, they serve to shield adjacent marine ecosystems, including coral reefs, from land-based pollution, while also serving as habitats for various fish and invertebrates, some of which have significant commercial value.",
"Consequently, the ongoing pace of mangrove deforestation and degradation in the Niger Delta Region, with no efforts towards restoration, will undeniably heighten the susceptibility of coastal communities in the area to extreme weather events. There is substantial evidence from various parts of the world that supports this argument. Instances from nations affected by the 2004 Tsunami affirmed the critical roles mangrove forests played in safeguarding lives and property",
". The waves infiltrated significantly inland where mangroves and other coastal ecosystems had been decimated, leading to widespread flooding of farms, destruction of homes, and loss of livelihoods. The four countries most severely impacted by the 2004 Tsunami—Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India, and Thailand—saw a 28% reduction in their mangrove forests between 1980 and 2000",
". It is also widely accepted that the destruction of mangroves and reefs intensified the devastation caused by the 2005 Hurricane Katrina in the coastal states of the United States.",
"Socio-Economic Implications",
"The economic and social impacts of mangrove deforestation and degradation are significant. While specific figures for Nigeria are not available, according to, mangrove forests contribute an estimated US$33–57,000 per hectare per year in goods and services to the economies of developing countries with mangroves. Furthermore, over 100 million people residing within 10 kilometers of large mangrove forests derive benefits from them",
". The emissions resulting from mangrove loss constitute nearly one fifth of global emissions from deforestation, resulting in economic losses ranging from US$6–42 billion annually. Additional socio-economic consequences may encompass effects on public health, employment, income generation, shifts in population and ethnic patterns, and the necessity for relocating families impacted by extreme weather events.",
"Although there have been no specific assessments measuring the monetary contributions of mangroves, in terms of the services and products they provide, to the Nigerian economy, mangroves yield tangible benefits such as fuelwood, crabs, shrimps, honey, medicine, dyes, thatch, salt, and periwinkles. These resources are essential for sustaining rural livelihoods and represent significant sources of income for rural inhabitants, particularly those residing in coastal communities",
". Apart from these evident goods, mangroves offer intangible services by acting as a protective barrier for coastal communities and serving as important breeding grounds for fish.",
"The economic repercussions of mangrove deforestation and degradation in the Niger Delta Region are profoundly significant, especially given that the region houses the oil industry, a major contributor to Nigeria's wealth. Lubeck et al. (2007)A considerable presence of oil infrastructure, including over 600 oil fields, 5,284 on- and off-shore oil wells, 10 export terminals, 275 flow stations, 4 refineries, and an LNG project, all situated in the Niger Delta Region",
". Additionally, there are numerous subsidiary companies, investments, and a substantial human population in the area. Consequently, the current extensive mangrove destruction, coupled with extreme weather events induced by climate change, is poised to result in substantial and profound economic losses.",
"References\n\nMangrove ecoregions\nEcoregions of Nigeria\nDeforestation in Nigeria"
] |
Timeline of the Syrian civil war (September–December 2012)
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline%20of%20the%20Syrian%20civil%20war%20%28September%E2%80%93December%202012%29
|
[
"The following is a timeline of the Syrian Civil War from September to December 2012. Information about aggregated casualty counts is found at Casualties of the Syrian Civil War.\n\nSeptember 2012\n\n3 September\n\n By the end of the day, the LCC reported over 250 people had been killed, over 60 in the Aleppo province and over 60 in the Daraa province due to bombardment by warplanes.\n\n4 September\n\n By the end of the day, the LCC reported 155 people were killed, including 80 in the Damascus suburbs.",
"5 September\n Syrian activists reported heavy fighting between Rebel forces and the Syrian Army in Aleppo multiple suburbs of Damascus. The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights said 6 bodies had been found in Tadamon showing signs of having been tortured.\n The LCC reported that 260 people were killed by the end of the day, including 115 in Aleppo and 67 in the Damascus suburbs.",
"6 September\n 159 people were killed by the end of the day, according to the LCC, including 88 in the Damascus suburbs.\n The Syrian Army recaptured the town of Tell Shihab from rebels.\n\n7 September\n By evening the LCC reported that 140 people were killed, including 44 in the Damascus suburbs and 28 in Aleppo.",
"Iraqi security and medical officials said a 4-year-old girl was killed, and 4 others injured, in the Iraqi town of al-Qaim, by mortar fire from Abu Kamal, just across the Syrian border. The anti-government Syrian Observatory for Human Rights said Albu Kamal had been being shelled that day.\n\n8 September \n The LCC reported 178 people killed across Syria, including 89 in Aleppo.\n On 9 September, The LCC reported 160 killed across Syria, including 40 in the Damascus suburbs.",
"9 September \n A car bomb exploded at the Saad al-Ansari district of Aleppo, targeting al-Hayat hospital near the 7 April Stadium. 32 were killed and at least 64 people were injured as a result of the blast.\n\n11 September\n By the end of the day the LCC reported 130 people killed, including 43 in Aleppo and 34 in the Damascus suburbs.\n\n12 September\n By the end of the day the LCC reported 173 people killed, including 67 in Aleppo.",
"12 September\n By the end of the day the LCC reported 173 people killed, including 67 in Aleppo.\n\n13 September\n At least 11 people were killed in an airstrike in Aleppo. New UN envoy Lakhdar Brahimi arrives in Damascus.\n By the end of the day the LCC reported 165 people were killed, including 57 in the Damascus suburbs. Al Qaeda urged all Islamists to support the rebellion against the Syrian government.",
"14 September \n Eight Syrians were arrested by the Lebanese Army while travelling in a truck containing a large quantity of weapons.\n Yousef Assad, a high ranking Syrian Air Force officer and relative of Syrian President Bashar al-Assad, announced his defection to the opposition with an online video.\n By the end of the day the LCC reported 165 people killed across Syria, including 66 in the Damascus suburbs.",
"15 September\n By the end of the day the LCC reported 164 civilians killed across Syria, including 67 in the Damascus suburbs.\n\n16 September\n A German Der Spiegel reported that Syria has tested ordnance capable of carrying chemical weapons in desert near Aleppo at the end of August.\n Iran's Revolutionary Guards commander Mohammad Ali Jafari admits that Iran's elite forces are operating in Syria.\n The LCC reported 167 civilians killed, including 60 in the Damascus suburbs and 50 in Aleppo.",
"17 September\n By the end of the day the LCC reported 147 civilians killed, including 50 in the Damascus suburbs.\n\n18 September\n By the end of the day the LCC reported 160 civilians killed, including 67 in the Damascus suburbs.\n\n19 September\n Opposition forces seized a border crossing between Syria and Turkey in Tal Abyad District, Raqqa Governorate.\n By the end of the day the LCC reported 150 civilians killed, including 72 in the Damascus suburbs.",
"20 September\n By the end of the day, over 250 civilians were killed, including over 71 in Raqqa when a warplane bombed a petrol station, according to the LCC.\n A Syrian Airbus 320 collides with a Syrian Mil Mi-17 helicopter which results in the helicopter crashes and the tail of the passengerplane being damaged.\n\n21 September",
"21 September \n\n 98 civilians were reported dead; including 34 in the Damascus Countryside. 17 rebels were slain; with 5 dead in Aleppo including a battalion leader. 32 Syrian soldiers were killed; including a colonel; according to SOHR.\n By evening 117 civilians were killed, including 48 in the Damascus suburbs, according to LCC.\n A Syrian Air Force jet was reported shot down over the northern Syrian town of Atarib in the Idlib province.",
"22 September\n Activists reported that over 180 people were killed in Syria, mostly in the Damascus suburbs and Aleppo. Col. Riad al-Asaad announced on video that the FSA had moved its command centre into an undisclosed location inside Syrian territory from Turkey in light of rebel gains. Andrew Simmons, reporting for Al Jazeera in Akcakale, stated that the FSA is still dependent on Turkish supply lines and that rebels have only taken territory 5 km deep into Syria.",
"By the end of the day the LCC reported that 220 civilians were killed, including 66 in the Damascus suburbs.",
"23 September\n\n Nearly 80 percent of towns and villages along the Turkish border are outside the control of Damascus, according to the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights.\n By evening 85 civilians were killed, including 22 in the Damascus suburbs, according to the LCC.\n\n24 September \n By the end of the day the LCC reported that 123 civilians were killed, including 42 in Aleppo and 37 in the Damascus suburbs.",
"25 September \n By evening the end of the day the LCC reported that 148 civilians were killed, including 44 in the Damascus suburbs.\n\n26 September",
"26 September\n\n 26 September was the single bloodiest day since the beginning of the uprising, up to this point. SOHR reported over 300 deaths; similarly LCC reported over 300 civilian deaths, including 162 in the Damascus suburbs, among which were 107 in a massacre in Thiabieh.\n The Press TV correspondent Maya Nasser was killed by sniper fire while covering from the scene of twin bomb blasts in Damascus.",
"27 September\nVirtual warfare took part in Syria when Syria military send text messages to rebels: \"Game over.\"\n\n By the end of the day the LCC reported 133 civilians killed, including 35 in the Damascus suburbs.\n SOHR reported the deaths of 108 civilians (including at least 11 children), 14 rebels & 35 soldiers.\n A Kurdish fighter was killed in clashes between the Kurdish Popular Defence Committees & rebels of the Salah al-Din battalion in Hama.",
"28 September\n The United Nations Human Rights Council condemns Syria and extends war crimes inquiry.\n Russia, China and Cuba vote against Arab resolution.\n According to FSA they launch \"decisive battle\" in Aleppo.\n The LCC reported 167 civilians killed, including 57 in Aleppo.\n\n29 September\n The LCC reported 126 civilians killed by evening, including 64 in the Damascus suburbs.",
"30 September\n An militant group fighting President Bashar al-Assad's forces in Syria said in a video posted online on Sunday it had captured five Yemeni army officers sent by their government to help quell the Syrian uprising.\n By the end of the day 154 civilians were killed, including 76 in the Damascus suburbs.\n\nOctober 2012",
"October 2012\n\n1 October\n At least 164 people were killed by the end of the day, including 12 children, according to the opposition Local Coordination Committees. More than 30 of these deaths occurred due to aerial shelling by government forces. 42 people were killed in Idlib, including 30 who were killed in a reported massacre in the town of Salqin, the LCC said. 51 were also killed in and around the capital city of Damascus.",
"2 October\n The LCC reported that 160 civilians were killed by the end of the day, including 54 in the Damascus suburbs.\n A Hezbollah commander, Ali Hussein Nasif, and several other fighters were killed in Syria when opposition forces ambushed their convoy near al-Qusayr. This was confirmed by the group.",
"3 October\n In Aleppo, three suicide car bombs exploded killing 40 and injuring at least 122 people.\n A Syrian mortar bomb killed 5 Turkish civilians in the Akçakale district; Turkey responded with counter-battery fire.\n The LCC reported over 200 civilians killed by the end of the day, including 67 in the Damascus suburbs.",
"4 October\n By the end of the day the LCC reported 120 civilians killed, including 52 in the Damascus suburbs.\n Turkey's parliament approved further military action against Syria after a second artillery exchange across the border.",
"5 October\n Syrian rebels say they captured an air defense base with a cache of missiles outside Damascus. Included what appeared to be part of a surface-air-missile. It is unlikely that rebels have the ability to fire the missile but they might be able to use the explosives to make improvised bombs.\n Turkey moved tanks and anti-aircraft artillery into Akçakale after a third Syrian mortar attack across the border.",
"The LCC reported 127 civilians killed, including 36 in Aleppo and 28 in the Damascus suburbs.",
"6 October\n Turkey and Syria exchanged artillery fire across the border for the fourth time.\n Syrian rebels captured the village of Khirbet al-Joz, Jisr al-Shughur District, close to the border with Turkey. The government death toll was significantly higher than that of the rebels'. 40 Army soldiers and 9 rebels were killed.\n The LCC reported 95 civilians and 10 FSA soldiers killed, including 31 people in the Damascus suburbs.",
"7 October\n Syria and Turkey exchanged artillery fire for the fifth consecutive day after Syrian mortar bombs hit a grain plant in Akçakale and an uninhabited area of Altınözü.\n A cousin to Bashar al-Assad, Housam al-Assad has reported been taken hostage by FSA.",
"A cousin to Bashar al-Assad, Housam al-Assad has reported been taken hostage by FSA.\n Syrian scholar and political writer Mohammad Nemr al-Madani was killed under torture while in detention at the state security's Branch 215 in Damascus. A former media aide to President Assad said that the president was planning to flee to Russia \"after the regime collapses.\"\n LCC reported 121 civilians killed, including 62 in the Damascus suburbs.",
"LCC reported 121 civilians killed, including 62 in the Damascus suburbs.\n SOHR reported the deaths of over 93 civilians, at least 41 of which were slain in the Damascus Suburbs. 31 rebels were killed, more than 10 in Homs. 39 soldiers were killed.",
"8 October\n Turkey and Syria exchanged artillery fire for the sixth consecutive day after a Syrian shell landed in Altınözü district.\n LCC reported that 170 civilians were killed by the end of the day, including 40 in Aleppo and 37 in a mass execution in Maarat al Numaan, Idlib.\n\n9 October",
"9 October\n\n Rebels seized the strategic town of Maarrat al-Nu'man, situated on a highway linking Aleppo to Damascus.\n LCC reported that 197 civilians were killed by the end of the day, including 65 in the Damascus suburbs and 53 in Aleppo.",
"10 October\n Rebel forces halted a Syrian Army attempt to recapture the strategic town of Maarrat al-Nu'man. At least 30 rebels and scores of Syrian government forces died in the fighting. Rebels advanced in other areas, taking over 10 towns and villages in the North. Rebels claimed to fully control territory from the Turkish border to 10–20 km inside Syria.",
"Turkish Air Force F-16s intercepted a Syrian Air Airbus A320, flight RB442 from Moscow to Damascus, in Turkish airspace and forced it to land at Esenboğa International Airport, suspecting it was carrying Russian-made weapons. Inspectors confiscated military communications equipment and items \"thought to be missile parts\".\n The LCC reported that by the end of the day 197 civilians were killed.",
"11 October\n 260 people were killed throughout Syria.\n The Syrian military suffered the most casualties since the start of the uprising, with a death toll of 92 soldiers.\n Syrian Revolution General Commission claims that they have destroyed 61 government helicopters and aircraft. The heaviest losses were in August and the majority were destroyed while on the ground during rebel raids.\n\n12 October \n By the end of the day over 100 civilians were killed, including 40 in Aleppo.",
"12 October \n By the end of the day over 100 civilians were killed, including 40 in Aleppo.\n\n13 October\n By the end of the day the LCC reported 143 civilians killed, including 48 from the Damascus suburbs.\n\n14 October",
"Government forces have been accused by Human Rights Watch of using Russian-made cluster bombs. They have used such weapons in the past but they are now using them over populated areas and near key battlefields.\n Turkey closes its air space to Syrian civilian flights in response to similar move by Syrian government.\n FSA captured historical town of Azmarin (Coordinates: ) in 3-day battle.",
"FSA captured historical town of Azmarin (Coordinates: ) in 3-day battle.\n By the end of the day the LCC reported 220 civilians killed, of which 140 were in the Damascus suburbs, including over 100 bodies found in the local hospital between Moadimya and Darraya.",
"15 October\n The LCC reported 100 civilians killed, including 34 in the Damascus suburbs.\n\n16 October\n\n By the end of the day the LCC reported 134 civilians killed, including 33 in the Damascus suburbs.\n\n17 October\n By the end of the day the LCC reported 155 civilians killed, including 48 in the Damascus suburbs.",
"18 October\n Syrian Army jets destroyed two residential buildings and a mosque in the rebel-held town of Maarrat al-Nu'man, According to local Rescue workers the airstrikes had killed at least 44 people.\n The LCC reported 230 civilians killed by the end of the day, including over 53 from Idlib when the Syrian army shelled a mosque in Maarat al Numaan, and 69 in the Damascus suburbs.",
"19 October \n The LCC reported 245 civilians killed, including 86 in Deir ez-Zor, where over 75 bodies were found lying in a cemetery.",
"20 October\n The LCC reported 123 civilians killed, including 67 in the Damascus suburbs.",
"The SEO expressed grave concern over the situation in Deiz ez-Zor city, where unrelenting airstrikes and military blockades for 130 days have destroyed 75% of the city and killed over 3,000 people. According to the organization, \" on 20 October it was reported that a gruesome massacre of over 80 civilians in Deir ez-Zor was perpetrated by the Assad government in which men, women, and children were tortured, slaughtered, and burned",
". The massacre took place at the southern edge of the city, where government forces have been staging attacks for months.\"",
"21 October\n A car bomb has exploded in front of a police station in Damascus killing at least 10 people according to State TV. Syrian Observatory for Human Rights has also reported that 140 people were killed across Syria.\n The LCC reported 135 civilians killed by the end of the day, including 70 in the Damascus suburbs.\n\n22 October",
"22 October\n\n The first Jordanian soldier to die in the conflict was killed by gunfire. The Jordanian government has blamed people trying to illegally cross into Syria from Jordan to join the rebels. Large-scale fighting occurred in Aleppo and the Damascus suburbs.\n The LCC reported 204 civilians killed by the end of the day, including 134 in the Damascus suburbs, among which over 60 bodies were found in Moadamiyah.",
"23 October\n A female Alawite general, Zubaida al-Meeki, who defected to the FSA and set up a training centre for rebels south of Damascus, said that sectarianism is used to distract people from the reality of a popular uprising. Her experience while training opposition fighters was documented in Syrian filmmaker Abo Andans upcoming film, \"the southern heartlines\".\n The LCC reported 202 civilians killed, including 100 from the Damascus suburbs, among which 50 of them were from Moadamiya.",
"24 October\n The LCC reported 150 civilians killed, including 84 in the Damascus suburbs, among which 30 were field executed in Douma.\n\n25 October\n The LCC reported 106 civilians killed, including 36 in the Damascus suburbs.\n\n26 October\n\n The LCC reported 103 civilians killed, including 39 in the Damascus suburbs, they also reported that government forces had violated the first day of the ceasefire some 292 times.",
"27 October\n Syrian rebels clashed with Kurdish militia in Aleppo, leaving 30 dead and some 200 captured. SOHR said the Eid ceasefire had collapsed after a government fighter jet killed 8 people in Damascus. Al-Nusra Front are believed to have launched an attack on a military police compound in Deir ez-Zor. A car bomb was detonated followed by gunfire aimed at those rushing to the scene, 8 were killed.",
"The LCC reported 93 civilians killed, including 47 in the Damascus suburbs. Alternatively, the SOHR reported the deaths of over 120 people; 62 civilians (5 children), 25 rebels & at least 36 soldiers.",
"28 October\n\n The LCC reported 128 civilians killed, including 56 in the Damascus suburbs.\n\n29 October\n The LCC reported 115 civilians killed, including 53 in the Damascus suburbs.\n\n30 October\n\n The LCC reported 163 civilians killed, including 72 in the Damascus suburbs. Air strikes leveled areas of Douma, leaving 18 people dead.",
"31 October\n A motorcycle bomb exploded near the Shiite shrine of Sayyida Zeinab, killing 8 and wounding dozens. The site is where the granddaughter of the Prophet Mohammed is buried.\n The LCC reported 121 civilians killed, including 53 in Aleppo and 44 in the Damascus suburbs.\n\nNovember 2012",
"November 2012\n\n1 November\n Syrian rebels killed 28 soldiers in attacks on military checkpoints in northern Idlib province on Thursday, just hours after a wave of bombings hit Damascus and its outskirts, activists said.\n The LCC reported that 149 civilians killed, including 53 in the Damascus suburbs.\n\n2 November",
"On 2 November, Syrian government forces are said to have left the town of Saraqib. This town is south-west of Aleppo and is at the junction of the road from the Mediterranean of Latakia and the M5 highway that runs from Damascus to Aleppo. If confirmed, the Syrian government will be forced to resupply its forces in Aleppo using smaller rural roads or by air since it lost Maarrat al-Nu'man on 10 October.",
"The LCC reported 182 civilians killed, including 51 in Aleppo and 47 in the Damascus suburbs. The LCC also reported that Government air strikes on the town of Harem in the Idlib area killed 70. Alternatively, the SOHR reported the deaths of over 200; 74 civilians (10 children), 55 rebels (including a defected lieutenant) & 61 soldiers. In addition, 2 were killed due to bombardment in Aleppo, 43 unidentified corpses were found, and dozens were slain due to mutual bombardment in Harem.",
"3 November",
"Five rebel units have launched a coordinated attack on the Taftanaz airbase supported by mortars and rocket fire. The attack appears aimed at not raiding the airbase (as they have done previously with others) but to occupy the airbase permanently as to prevent its further use. The base is just from the town of Saraqib, which fell to the rebels less than two days ago.",
"Three Syrian tanks also entered the demilitarised zone on the Golan Heights between Syria and Israel, the Syrian forces were in pursuit of rebels while Israel has lodged a protest with the UN.\n The LCC reported 162 civilians killed, including 52 in the Damascus suburbs.",
"4 November\n\n A car bomb went off underneath the government Labour Union building, wounding 12, two critically. The building is near a major hotel, Dama Rose hotel, and is only from the army chief of staff's building.\n Rebels have assassinated actor Mohammad Rafe they cited his collaboration with the government as justification for the killing.\n The LCC reported 234 civilians killed, including over 100 in the Damascus suburbs.",
"5 November\n The LCC reported 159 civilians killed, including 72 in Idlib.\n According to opposition activists, 50 government soldiers were killed by a suicide bombing in the village of al-Ziyarah in the Hama Governorate while 20 rebel fighters were killed in an airstrike by the air force in Idlib.",
"6 November\n The LCC reported 156 civilians killed, including 60 in the Damascus suburbs. Alternatively, SOHR reported the deaths of around 205, 10 being unidentified. 119 civilians, 28 rebels & 48 rebels were killed.\n Rebels fired mortars at the presidential palace although missing, the brother of the Syrian speaker of parliament has been assassinated and a judge was killed by a car bomb.\n\n7 November\n The LCC reported 168 civilians killed, including 73 in the Damascus suburbs.",
"7 November\n The LCC reported 168 civilians killed, including 73 in the Damascus suburbs.\n\n8 November\n The LCC reported 123 civilians killed, including 47 in the Damascus suburbs.",
"9 November \n The LCC reported 136 civilians killed, including 33 in the Damascus suburbs and 33 in Deir ez-Zor. The FSA captured Ras al-Ain in Hasakah province, with army helicopters and artillery bombarding it afterwards\n President Bashar al-Assad told RT:",
"I think that the cost of foreign invasion of Syria, if it happened, would be greater than one that the whole world can afford. Because if there were problems in Syria, particularly as we are the last bastion of secularism, stability and coexistence in the region, it will have a domino impact that will affect the world from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean. And you know its implications on the rest of the world",
". And you know its implications on the rest of the world. I do not think that the West is moving in this direction, but if they do, no one can predict what will happen after. I'm not a puppet, and I was not made by the West to go to the West or to any other country. I am Syrian, I was made in Syria and to live and die in Syria.\"",
"10 November\n\n On 10 November twin suicide car bomb attacks struck the Syrian Army Officers' Club in Daraa, killing at least 20 soldiers. SANA also reported the attack but did not mention casualties.\n The LCC reported 147 civilians killed, including 47 in the Damascus suburbs.\n\n11 November",
"11 November\n\n Israel has fired warning shots at Syria, after a mortar round hit an Israel Defense Forces outpost, for the first time since the 1973 Yom Kippur War.\n The LCC reported 90 civilians killed, including 35 in the Damascus suburbs.\n\n12 November",
"Stray mortar shells again hit an IDF post on the Golan Heights, in response Israeli tanks returned fire scoring a 'direct hit' on the source of the fire. Israeli minister of strategic affairs, Moshe Yaalon, stated that he did not believe that these incidents were deliberate but an accidental overspill of fighting from the Syrian civil war. Israeli media reported at least two Syrian casualties.",
"The LCC reported 155 people killed, including 50 in the Damascus suburbs. A government helicopter was shot down by rebels at Hamdan Military Airport.",
"13 November\n The LCC reported 172 people killed, including 109 in the Damascus suburbs. The SOHR reported the deaths of around 205 Syrians slain. 99 (including 17 children) civilians were slain, 47 in the Damascus Suburbs. 55 rebels were killed, including a commander in Quneitra & 22 in the Damascus Suburbs. 49 soldiers were killed.\n\n14 November\n The LCC reported 100 people killed, including 37 in the Damascus suburbs.",
"14 November\n The LCC reported 100 people killed, including 37 in the Damascus suburbs.\n\n15 November\n The LCC reported 130 people killed, including 59 in the Damascus suburbs.\n SOHR reported the deaths of around 141 Syrians. 72 civilians (12 children) were killed, including 27 in the Damascus Suburbs. 40 rebels were killed, including a commander in Aleppo. 32 soldiers were also killed.\n\n16 November \n\n The LCC reported 122 people killed, including 35 in the Damascus suburbs.\n\n17 November",
"The LCC reported 136 people killed, including 63 in the Damascus suburbs.\n One General and 12 other officers defected from the Syrian army and crossed the border into Turkey, they were among 53 people who also included defecting soldiers and their families.\n A Turkish journalist held for three months by the Syrian Government was freed and sent back to Turkey, his Jordanian colleague is still missing.",
"Rebels captured a military airport near rebel-held Abu Kamal, meaning that the only air base the Syrian Government holds in the Deiz ez zor region is the main one near Deiz ez zor city.",
"18 November\n The LCC reported 78 people killed, including 26 in the Damascus suburbs.\n\n19 November\n The LCC reported 161 people killed, including 54 in the Damascus suburbs.\n\n20 November\n The LCC reported 122 people killed, including 52 in the Damascus suburbs.\n\n21 November\n The LCC reported 95 people killed, including 35 in Aleppo and 29 in the Damascus suburbs.",
"22 November\n Rebels captured an army base in Mayadin east of Deir ez-Zor. It means that the whole region, from the Iraqi border along the Euphrates to Deir ez-Zor is now under rebel control.\n The LCC reported 151 civilians killed, including 66 in the Damascus suburbs.\n\n23 November\n The LCC reported 76 civilians killed, including 30 in the Damascus suburbs.\n\n24 November\n\n The LCC reported 82 civilians killed, including 35 in the Damascus suburbs.\n\n25 November",
"The LCC reported 82 civilians killed, including 35 in the Damascus suburbs.\n\n25 November\n\n Rebels and protestors launched an attack on an airbase, 15 kilometers outside Damascus, of which they say to control a \"large part\" of. In the attack they also said to have destroyed two helicopters on the ground.\n The LCC reported 117 civilians killed, including 55 in the Damascus suburbs.",
"26 November\n Rebel fighters overran government defenses and captured the Tishrin Dam, near the town of Manbij. The dam supplies several areas of Syria with electricity.\n The LCC reported 168 civilians killed, including 90 in the Damascus suburbs.\n\n27 November\n The LCC reported 131 civilians killed, including 48 in the Damascus suburbs.\n A Syrian Air Force Mi-8 helicopter was downed after being hit by an apparent missile launched by Syrian rebels. According to experts, it appeared to be MANPADS.",
"28 November\n Twin car bombs ripped through Jaramana, a Damascus suburb, killing at least 34 people and leaving dozens critically wounded, according to state media and hospital officials. The area is populated mostly by Christians and Druze.\n The LCC reported 160 civilians killed, including 96 in the Damascus suburbs.\n The Syrian government was the only government to use anti-personal mines in 2012 and the only government to lay any new minefields.",
"29 November",
"There were reports that there was fighting near the airport in Damascus, closing the road to the airport. The Dubai-based Emirates airline suspended flights to the Syrian capital due to the fighting. A plane from Egypt had landed in Damascus as scheduled, and passengers were safe but the pilot was ordered to take off back to Cairo without passengers if he felt the situation was too bad to stay longer",
". The internet was effectively shut down in the entire country for unknown reasons, according to internet monitoring firms.",
"Rebels are said to have obtained up to 40 shoulder-launched surface-to-air missiles MANPADS according to US and Middle Eastern intelligent officials. Some of these missiles were supplied by Qatar. Some other missiles have been looted from the Syrian Army including, possibly, the more advanced SA-16 other than generic SA-7.",
"State media is reporting that the rebels have been pushed back from the road to the Damascus International Airport and that they have started burning nearby orchards in order to drive the rebels out. In relation to the cut off of the internet across Syria, the non-lethal aid supplied by the US to the rebels included 2,000 communication kits",
". These kits are designed to operate outside of Syrian internet infrastructure likewise the Syrian government forces are unlikely to be affected as they have their own radios, meaning that the biggest people affected are civilian users. Those with satellite phones are also unaffected. It is common practice for government forces to cut off communications, such as the internet, prior to an offensive such as occurred in Egypt during 2011.",
"The LCC reported 96 civilians killed, including 51 in Aleppo.",
"30 November",
"At least 12 Lebanese militants were killed in a Syrian army ambush near the town of Talkalakh.\n SOHR said 30 Lebanese militants had gone missing and a security source told Reuters that they were accompanied by nine Syrians as well as Libyans, Egyptians and Yemenis.\n Rebels have claimed to have destroyed three Syrian army tanks in fighting near the Damascus International Airport.",
"Given the ongoing cut to the internet in Syria, Google and Twitter have reactivated their voice to tweet program. This allows a person with a phone connection to send tweets by speaking into their phone. The system was developed for use during protests in Egypt when the Egyptian government cut off the internet for several days last year.",
"The Internet blackout that was blamed on a government effort to restrict the flow of communications, a claim the government vigorously denied. Journalists used improvised systems to broadcast live reports from Aleppo.\n The LCC reported 138 civilians killed, including 70 in the Damascus suburbs.",
"December 2012\n\n1 December",
"Syria was without internet and mobile phone coverage for a third straight day. Rebels without satellite phones had to use landlines, which are monitored by the government forcing them to speak in code. The hardest hit were civilians, in government controlled areas, who were unable to ring emergency services in the case of any casualties caused by fighting. Later that day, internet and telephone service had returned to much of Syria",
". Later that day, internet and telephone service had returned to much of Syria. Rebels are claiming that they have captured a number of SA-16 missiles and a defected soldier, specifically trained to use such weapons, was credited with downing two helicopters over two consecutive days.",
"The LCC reported 165 civilians/rebels killed, including 60 in the Damascus suburbs.",
"2 December\n 15 people died when a car bomb exploded in the central Syrian city of Homs. The Syrian Human Rights Observatory said in a communique that the vehicle blew up in the Al-Malaa al-Baladi neighborhood. Opposition activists with the General Committee of the Syrian Revolution said that among those killed, at least three children and a woman. No one has claimed responsibility.",
"Lebanese troops fought with Syrian rebels on the border between the two countries, in what a security source said was the first such clash between Lebanon's army and the rebels. The clash occurred when a Lebanese border patrol spotted the rebel fighters along the border and the rebels opened fire to prevent the patrol from approaching, a Lebanese military source said. There were no casualties.",
"Meanwhile, Syrian army forces pounded rebel-held suburbs around Damascus with fighter jets and rockets on Sunday, killing and wounding dozens in an offensive to push rebels away from the airport and stop them closing in on the capital.\n Shells fired from Syria hit a Turkish border town of Reyhanlı in the first cross-border shelling incident since Turkey requested that NATO deploy Patriot air defence missiles near its border.",
"Syrian state television broadcast images of more than five dead bodies with Lebanese identification, reporting that the men were among 21 Lebanese Salafist fighters who fell into a Syrian Army ambush Friday. The station said that the men were killed in Tal Kalakh after sneaking into the country from Wadi Khaled, and that others in the group had been wounded.\n Haaretz reports on 2 December that the Syrian government may be preparing to use chemical weapons.",
"Haaretz reports on 2 December that the Syrian government may be preparing to use chemical weapons.\n The LCC reported 202 killed, including 82 in the Damascus suburbs.",
"3–4 December\n On 3 December, U.S. President Barack Obama said that there would be consequences if the Syrian government decides to use chemical weapons. The LCC also reported 239 civilians/rebels killed, including 116 in the Damascus suburbs.\n The next day, NATO agreed to a request from Turkey to deploy Patriot missiles along its southern border with Syria. Several hours after the agreement Russia delivered its first shipment of Iskandar missiles to Syria when naval logistic vessels docked at Tartus.",
"The LCC reported 184 killed, including 110 in the Damascus suburbs.",
"5 December\n U.S. officials claimed to NBC News that the military of Syria has loaded the deadly nerve gas, Sarin into aerial bombs.\n The LCC reported 107 killed, including 45 in the Damascus suburbs.",
"6–10 December\n On 6 December, the LCC reported 89 civilians/rebels killed, including 45 in the Damascus suburbs. On 7 December, the LCC reported 130 civilians/rebels killed, including 51 in a massacre in Deir Ezzor and 45 in the Damascus suburbs.",
"On 8 December, the LCC reported 129 civilians/rebels killed, including 58 in the Damascus suburbs. The same day, Syria wrote to U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon and the chairman of the UN Security Council in saying it would not use chemical weapons during the battles. The Foreign Ministry's letters read:",
"The U.S. administration has consistently worked over the past year to launch a campaign of allegations on the possibility that Syria could use chemical weapons during the current crisis. What raises concerns about this news circulated by the media is our serious fear that some of the countries backing terrorism and terrorists might provide the armed terrorist groups with chemical weapons and claim that it was the Syrian government that used the weapons.\"",
"American officials said on 8 December that American satellites and other tools have detected increased activity at several chemical weapons depots in Syria. They believe that at least one military base has been ordered to begin combining components of Sarin nerve gas to make it ready to use. William Hague, the British Secretary, confirmed their awareness of the evidence.",
"We have seen some evidence of that,\" he said. \"We and the US, as I said in parliament this week, have seen some evidence of that and that is why we have issued strong warnings about it. We have done so directly to the Syrian regime.\"\n\"Very concerned that as the opposition advances, in particular on Damascus, that the regime might very well consider the use of chemical weapons. The intelligence that we have causes serious concerns that this is being considered.",
"On 9 December, the LCC reported 116 killed, including 41 in the Damascus suburbs.\n On 10 December, the LCC reported 142 killed, including 59 in Aleppo and 50 in the Damascus suburbs.\n A video recording is published on YouTube, where unarmed and immobilized prisoner is being beheaded by a child using a machete. The rebels gathered around shout \"Allah akbar\", then they display two bodies with severed heads. The perpetrators are believed to be members of Khalid ibn al-Waleed brigade, a part of FSA.",
"11 December",
"U.S. declare the Al-Nusra Front to be a terrorist organisation. The UNHCR reported: \"According to UNHCR's latest figures for Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq, Turkey and North Africa, 509,559 Syrians are either already registered or in the process of being registered.\" When asked about news on chemical weapons movement, U.S. Defence Secretary Leon Panetta said \"At this point the intelligence has really kind of levelled off. We haven't seen anything new indicating any aggressive steps to move forward in that way.\"",
"Allegedly, 125 were hurt or killed in a series of explosions that destroyed several houses in the Alawite village of Aqrab, Hama. An Alawite resident from a nearby town blamed the attack on rebels from Houla, about 8 km. from Aqrab, which suffered a massacre of more than 100 Sunnis last May, in which more than half of the victims were children. However, Alex Thomson of Channel 4 has given a different account of the events.",
"The LCC reported 165 killed (not including Aqrab). 61 of the deaths were reported in the Damascus suburbs.\n In an interview with ABC News, U.S. President Barack Obama announced that his government will recognize the Syrian rebels as the legitimate government of Syria.",
"12 December\n American officials in the Obama Administration reported that the Assad government has begun using Scud missiles, calling it a \"significant escalation.\" As many as 6 Scuds have been launched from the Damascus area at rebel targets in northern Syria.",
"Three bombs exploded outside the Interior Ministry building in Damascus, killing five and injuring at least 23. Earlier in the day, more than 100 countries recognized a new Syrian opposition coalition formed in November, the National Coalition for Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces.\n The LCC reported 113 killed, including 41 in Aleppo and 31 in the Damascus suburbs.",
"13 December",
"Mikhail Bogdanov, the deputy foreign minister of Russia – admitted for the first time that Bashar Al-Assad is losing the Syrian Civil War.",
"Six members of an NBC News team in Syria, including chief foreign correspondent Richard Engel, were abducted in Syria after the rebel group escorting them was ambushed. The news of their disappearance was largely withheld until they became free due to a media blackout",
". Engel had initially blamed pro-regime Shabiha for the abduction, but in 2015 had to correct his account of the event, acknowledging that the NBC team \"was almost certainly taken by a Sunni criminal element affiliated with the Free Syrian Army,\" as New York Times investigations found out.",
"The LCC reported 138 killed, including 69 in the Damascus suburbs.",
"14 December \n The LCC reported 106 killed, including 49 in the Damascus suburbs.",
"15 December\n The LCC reported 131 people killed, including 36 in the Damascus suburbs.",
"It was reported that 60 members of the PFLP-GC defected to the rebels and anti-Assad Palestinian brigades in Yarmouk camp, Damascus. The PFLP-GC leader, Ahmed Jibril fled to Tartous after rebels gained ground in the district. The PFLP-GC denied reports that the storm brigade had taken the entire Yarmouk district, although Government jets later bombed the southern district, killing 8 civilians/rebels. This air attack was condemned by Ban Ki-moon, who called it a matter of \"grave concern\".",
"16 December\n The LCC reported 183 people killed, including 60 in the Damascus suburbs. Rebels assaulted Syrian Army checkpoints in the vicinity of Halfaya, and were shelled by government forces. The fighting and shelling resulted in the deaths of 23 civilians in the town according to the pro-opposition SOHR, and a later report by New Lines Institute.\n\n17 December\n The LCC reported 158 people killed, including 50 in the Damascus suburbs.",
"18 December\n The LCC reported 128 people killed, including 42 in the Damascus suburbs.",
"On the road between Tartus and Homs two Russians and an Italian were kidnapped, with the kidnappers demanding an unspecified ransom. The Russian navy is also deploying five ships, a destroyer, tugboat, tanker and two large amphibious landing vessels to the port of Tartus. The port at Tartus is the only Russian naval base outside of the former Soviet Union",
". The port at Tartus is the only Russian naval base outside of the former Soviet Union. The deployment of the two amphibious landing vessels is a possible indication that the Russian government is considering a large scale evacuation of Russian citizens in Syria.",
"American journalist Richard Engel, who was ambushed along with the rest of his team was freed. They later went on The Today Show to discuss their ordeal. They were captured by pro-Assad militia, who executed one of the journalists rebel escorts. The Shabiha group loyal to al-Assad wanted to exchange Engel and his crew for four Iranian soldiers and two Lebanese militants captured by the rebels. The news crew were moved to various locations throughout the time they were missing",
". The news crew were moved to various locations throughout the time they were missing. The Shabibha group drove into a checkpoint manned by rebels belonging to Ahrar ash-Sham, who freed the hostages five days later. At least two of Engel's captors were killed in the shootout to free the journalist. NBC News had requested a news blackout out of concern for Engel and his crew's safety, and on 18 December it was reported by the US media that they had been kidnapped but were released unharmed.",
"Rebels reportedly overran army positions around Halfaya and gained control over the town. Rebels had advanced south from Maarrat al-Nu'man and Jisr ash-Shugour, encountering little resistance.",
"19 December\n The LCC reported 161 people killed, including 67 in the Damascus suburbs.\n After rebels took control of Yarmouk in Damascus and thousands of Palestinian refugees left the area due to heavy fighting the FSA declared the district a \"liberated area\" and handed it over to Palestinian control.",
"20 December\n The LCC reported 117 people killed, including 42 in the Damascus suburbs.\n Syrian plane released cluster bombs onto neighborhoods and homes, over the town of Marea in Syria. In what was described by the victims of the attacks as collective punishment. Local Freedom Hospital counted 4 dead and 23 wounded.",
"21 December \n The LCC reported 169 people killed, including 58 in the Damascus suburbs.\n The Syrian government has fired at least 6 Scud-B at rebel targets in Syria according to NATO. One missile landed 20 miles from the Turkish border with at least 4 landing near Aleppo. NATO would not comment on what targets were hit or the damage done. The use of Scud missiles may be due to rebel efforts to limit the Syrian Air Force's capacities.",
"22 December\n The LCC reported 143 people killed, including 75 in the Damascus suburbs.\n Russian military advisors have told the Syrian government to move its stockpile of chemical weapons from \"many locations\" into \"one or two\" so as to safeguard them.",
"23 December\n Up to 200 people were killed in Halfaya when the Syrian Air Force bombed a bakery killing those who were standing in line for bread.\n The LCC reported 208 people killed, including those from the Helfaya massacre and 51 in the Damascus suburbs.",
"Seven people died and dozens were injured in a rebel held area of Homs with rebels blaming the use of a chemical gas by government forces. Doctors have reported that the symptoms of the gas are similar to those of sarin gas. However, it has also been reported that U.S. officials feel skeptical about the claim because sarin is odorless and deadly in small amounts, while the reports speak of a foul stench and significant inhalation",
". Other suggested causes are the chemicals chlorine, phosgene, cyanogen chloride, or even a severe asthma attack. Israeli officials also expressed doubts that chemical weapons were used.",
"24 December\n The LCC reported 156 people killed, including 60 in the Damascus suburbs.\n\n25 December",
"25 December\n\n Syria's military police chief Major General Abdulaziz al-Sallal defected, becoming the highest-ranking military defector to defect since the Chemical Weapons department's head, Major General Adnan Sillue, defected. However a government source, while confirming the defection, claims that he was near retirement and had announced his defection only as to play hero.\n The LCC reported 171 people killed, including 61 in the Damascus suburbs.",
"26 December\n The LCC reported 164 people killed, including 32 in the Damascus suburbs.\n The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights reported 45,048 people have been killed in the fighting in Syria since March 2011. The Observatory however believes that this is not the true figure as both sides hide their total casualties. The Attorney-General for Aleppo province also announced his defection to the rebels and protestors.",
"27 December\n The LCC reported 197 people killed, including 103 in the Damascus suburbs, among which 50 were found field executed in a town alongside the Damascus-Daraa highway.",
"28 December \n A Turkish official said that 2 airforce generals and 3 state TV journalists defected to Turkey on 28 December. The government forced the rebels out of the Deir Baalbah neighborhood leaving the rebels in control of the Khalidiyah district and parts of the old city. Dozens of civilians have been reported as being killed in the fighting in Homs.\n The LCC reported 137 people killed, including 138 in the Damascus suburbs.\n\n29 December",
"Opposition groups reported that as many as 400 people were killed in Syria, about half of them were civilians slain in a mass killing carried out by government troops in the Deir Baalba, a suburb of the central city of Homs. The massacre followed government troops retaking control of the rebel-held town, after surrounded it about a month ago.",
"An unknown source says 201 people by a captured Syrian army soldier said had been executed in the Deir Baalba neighborhood of Homs. Another anonymous source says: At least 392 people were killed on 29 December, the LCC said. The death toll includes 201 people who a captured Syrian army soldier said had been executed in the Deir Baalba neighborhood of Homs.",
"30 December\n The LCC reported 130 civilians killed, including 82 in the Damascus suburbs.\n Syrian Observatory for Human Rights however, estimated Sunday's death toll at over 150, most of them in Aleppo province.",
"31 December \n Thirty to fifty bodies were found in the Barzeh district, Damascus. They showed signs of torture. Republican Guard forces started the biggest attack on Daraya, Damascus in two months.\n Turkey denied any infiltration attempt. Demonstrators blew up a natural gas pipeline near Deir ez-Zor in the oil-rich east, disrupting distribution.\n The LCC reported 119 civilians killed, including 49 in the Damascus suburbs.\n\nSee also\n Syrian–Turkish border clashes during the Syrian Civil War\n\nReferences",
"See also\n Syrian–Turkish border clashes during the Syrian Civil War\n\nReferences\n\nTimelines of the Syrian civil war\n2012 in Syria"
] |
Paul O'Grady
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul%20O%27Grady
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[
"Paul James O'Grady (14 June 1955 – 28 March 2023) was an English comedian, broadcaster, drag queen, actor, and writer. He achieved notability in the London gay scene during the 1980s with his drag persona Lily Savage, through which he gained wider popularity in the 1990s. O'Grady subsequently dropped the character and in the 2000s became the presenter of various television and radio shows, including The Paul O'Grady Show.",
"Born to a working-class Irish migrant family in Tranmere, Cheshire, O'Grady moved to London in the late 1970s, initially working as a peripatetic care officer for Camden Council. He developed his drag act in 1978, basing the character of Lily Savage upon traits found amongst female relatives. Touring England as part of drag mime duo the Playgirls, O'Grady then went solo as a stand-up comedian in the early 1980s",
". Performing as Savage for eight years at a South London gay pub, the Royal Vauxhall Tavern (RVT), he gained a popular following among London's gay community and used his character to speak out for gay rights. After being nominated for a 1992 Perrier Award, O'Grady attracted mainstream attention and made various television, radio, and theatrical appearances",
". As Savage, he presented the television shows The Big Breakfast (1995–1996), Blankety Blank (1997–2002), and Lily Live! (2000–2001), earning various awards and becoming a well known public figure.",
"Wishing to diversify from Savage, O'Grady starred in the BBC One sitcom Eyes Down (2003–2004) and presented two travel documentaries for ITV. In 2004, he began presenting ITV's daytime chat show The Paul O'Grady Show. After the network refused to transfer creative control of the series to O'Grady's production company Olga TV, he moved to Channel 4 in 2006, where the show was rebranded as The New Paul O'Grady Show, airing until 2009",
". O'Grady presented the late night ITV show Paul O'Grady Live (2010–2011) and BBC Radio 2's Paul O'Grady on the Wireless (2009–2022). Additional television shows included Paul O'Grady: For the Love of Dogs (2012–2023), Paul O'Grady's Animal Orphans (2014–2016), Blind Date (2017–2019), and Paul O'Grady's Great British Escape (2020). He also published several books, including a four-volume memoir.",
"O'Grady was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) in the 2008 Birthday Honours for services to entertainment. In 2020 he became president of the British Music Hall Society, taking over the role from Roy Hudd. On 31 October 2022 He was appointed as a Deputy Lieutenant for the County of Kent, where he lived for many years.\n\nEarly life",
"1955–1971: Childhood",
"O'Grady was born on 14 June 1955 at St. Catherine's Hospital in the Tranmere area of Birkenhead, Cheshire (now Merseyside). His father, Patrick \"Paddy\" Grady (1912–1973), was Irish and had grown up in Ballincurry, County Roscommon, before moving to England in 1936 and settling in the working-class area of Birkenhead. His name was changed from \"Grady\" to \"O'Grady\" in a paperwork mistake when he joined the Royal Air Force, and he kept the new name",
". Patrick married Mary \"Molly\" Savage (1916–1988), who was born in England to Irish immigrants from County Louth. Paul was their third child; his birth came over a decade after those of brother Brendan (born 1941) and sister Sheila (born 1944).",
"O'Grady spent his early life at the family's rented home at 23 Holly Grove in Higher Tranmere. He later said, \"When I look back on my childhood I have no bad memories. Our family was loving and full of affection. I never knew what divorce was until I moved to London. I was an indulged child and completely protected from anything bad.\" Attending St. Joseph's Catholic Primary School, O'Grady excelled in all subjects except mathematics",
". Joseph's Catholic Primary School, O'Grady excelled in all subjects except mathematics. Hoping that he had a good future ahead of him, his parents budgeted to send him to a private school, the Catholic-run Redcourt, but his grades dropped. Failing the eleven plus exam, he was unable to enter a grammar school so attended the Blessed Edmund Campion R.C. Secondary Modern and the Corpus Christi High School",
".C. Secondary Modern and the Corpus Christi High School. It was at the school that O'Grady experienced his first homosexual encounter, enjoying a brief romance with another boy, although he still assumed he was heterosexual.",
"A fan of the popular television series The Avengers and Batman, O'Grady was enrolled in the Cub Scouts by his mother, but he hated it, leaving after a month. An altar boy at a local Catholic church, he was dismissed after laughing during a funeral service. He then joined the Marine Cadet Section of the Sea Cadet Corps, later commenting that he was following in the footsteps of his childhood hero, the cartoon character Popeye",
". He enjoyed the cadets, and at the advice of his captain joined the Boys' Amateur Boxing Club, developing a lifelong love of the sport. Playing truant from school, he got into trouble with his parents, and subsequently with the police after burgling a house with three friends. O'Grady's first job was a paper round that he kept for a week, and through this and other jobs, he saved up to afford Mod clothes, for a time becoming a suedehead.",
"1972–1977: Early adulthood",
"Leaving school aged 16, O'Grady obtained a job in the civil service, working as a clerical assistant for the DHSS at their Liverpool office; he commuted in from his parents' Tranmere home. Supplementing this income, he worked part-time at the bar of the Royal Air Forces Association (RAFA) club in Oxton. Called for a disciplinary hearing at the DHSS and accused of incompetent behaviour and tardiness, he resigned",
". Obtaining a job at the Wheatsheaf Hotel in Virginia Water, Surrey, aged 17, O'Grady moved there; the management accused him of stealing, which he denied.",
"Promptly returning to Birkenhead, he increasingly socialised within the Liverpudlian gay scene, attending meetings of the Campaign for Homosexual Equality and working at a gay bar called the Bear's Paw; this was kept a secret from his parents, to whom he was not \"out of the closet\". He also had casual sex with a female friend, Diane Jansen, who became pregnant, news which O'Grady discovered in the same week that both his parents suffered heart attacks; his mother made a recovery, but his father died",
". Following the birth of his daughter, Sharon Lee Jansen, in May 1974, O'Grady agreed to pay towards her upkeep, but refused to marry Jansen, recognising his homosexuality.",
"Briefly working as an assistant clerk at Liverpool Magistrates' Court, O'Grady subsequently worked as a barman at Yates's Wine Lodge, supplementing the income with the occasional night at the Bear's Paw. Realising this wage was insufficient to support both himself and his daughter, he travelled to London, lodging in Westbourne Green, but found only poorly paid work as a barman. In London, he began associating with drag queens, particularly a couple who used the stage name of the Harlequeens",
". Although making friends in the city, O'Grady was homesick and returned to Birkenhead. Employed as an accountant in a FMC Meats Merseyside abattoir, he then worked for three years at the Children's Convalescent Home and School in West Kirby, a home for disabled and abused children.",
"Returning to London, he rented a flat in Crouch End and began busking with a friend in Camden Town before obtaining a job as a physiotherapist's assistant at the Royal Northern Hospital. Made redundant by public sector cuts, O'Grady took up a job at a gay club called the Showplace, befriending a Portuguese lesbian named Teresa Fernandes. In May 1977, they married to prevent her deportation; they lost contact and only legally divorced in 2005",
". Taking up jobs as a cleaner and a waiter at private functions, he began working for Camden Council as a peripatetic care officer. Living in with elderly people and dysfunctional families would have a lasting effect on him.",
"Career in drag\n\n1978–1984: Lily Savage and the drag circuit",
"While working for Camden Social Services, O'Grady made his first attempt at putting together a drag act, creating the character of Lily Savage; he later said, \"I wanted to get up there but be larger than life, a creature that was more cartoon than human.\" His debut was on the afternoon of 7 October 1978 at The Black Cap gay pub in Camden, where his act involved miming the words to Barbra Streisand's \"Nobody Makes a Pass at Me\" from the show Pins and Needles",
". Following a holiday to Poland, he visited an ex-boyfriend in Manila in the Philippines, there working briefly as a barman and waiter at a brothel.",
"Returning to London, O'Grady moved to Purley and then Streatham with a drag act, the Glamazons. With one of them, nicknamed \"Hush\", he founded a two-man drag mime act, the Playgirls, although found little work in London. Agreeing to a tour of northern England, they moved to Slaithwaite, Yorkshire, also accepting a month's work at a club in Copenhagen, Denmark. Diversifying their act, O'Grady learned fire eating and developed a striptease while wearing a fat suit he named \"Biddy\"",
". After Hush returned to London, O'Grady continued his drag performance as a solo act under the name of \"Paul Monroe\", a reference to Marilyn Monroe. Under financial strain, O'Grady moved back in with his mother in Birkenhead. Amid mass unemployment, O'Grady briefly lived off the dole before resurrecting the Playgirls with his friend Vera; initially performing in Liverpool, where they were caught up in the 1981 Toxteth riots, they began touring other parts of northern England until returning to London.",
"Again working as a support worker for Camden Council Social Services, O'Grady lived in Vauxhall and then Brixton before reviving the Playgirls with Hush, devising an act based upon the film What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? At the end of the year, he appeared as an Ugly Sister in a drag pantomime of Cinderella. In March 1983 he joined the Equity union, allowing him to take a role in the theatrical adaptation of If They'd Asked for a Lion Tamer at the Donmar Warehouse",
". The Playgirls gained bookings to appear across London, and also in Amsterdam and Copenhagen; O'Grady and Hush joined with drag artist David Dale to form an act known as \"LSD\", which stood for \"Lily, Sandra, and Doris\". Devising an act that parodied children's television show Andy Pandy, they gained bookings across London and in Edinburgh.",
"1984–1992: Residency in Vauxhall",
"In 1984, O'Grady began work as a barman at a Vauxhall gay pub, the Elephant and Castle. As Lily, he compered \"Ladies Night\" each Tuesday, where amateur drag acts would perform. As compere, he tried out comedy routines, becoming known for insulting both the acts and the audience; he attracted growing crowds and he was interviewed by artist Patrick Procktor",
". After six months, he transferred his act to the nearby Royal Vauxhall Tavern (RVT) gay pub, re-opening his show on Thursday nights as \"Stars of the Future\". In 1985 he obtained his own council flat in Vauxhall's Victoria Mansions. During the mid-1980s, he entered a relationship with Brendan \"Murph\" Murphy, the manager of a gay sauna near the Oval, Kennington. Murphy subsequently became O'Grady's manager.",
"Eventually appearing at the RVT three times a week, on Sundays O'Grady began performing at the Union Tavern in Camberwell and the Goldsmith's Tavern in New Cross, where he often preceded Vic Reeves' three-hour show Vic Reeves Big Night Out. Quitting his council work, he focused full-time on his career as Lily, taking his act across the country and abroad. Other venues he performed at included the Madame JoJo's club in Soho, the Bloomsbury Theatre, and the Heaven nightclub",
". Befriending American drag queen Divine and his manager Bernard Jay, Jay booked O'Grady to appear in Fort Lauderdale, Florida. As Divine had done, O'Grady also recorded his own Hi-NRG song, \"Tough at the Top\", which was produced by DJ Ian Levine. In 1988, he performed as Madame in The Scythe of Reason, and appeared at the Glasgow Mayfest, where he developed a lifelong friendship with actor Ian McKellen.",
"O'Grady used his act to speak out on issues affecting the gay community, especially during the HIV/AIDS crisis. In April 1988 he took part in a march against Section 28, a policy introduced by Margaret Thatcher's Conservative government that many denounced as homophobic. Regularly doing charity fundraisers for HIV/AIDS research, many of his friends died from AIDS-related complications; he later related that \"People my age will never get over the horrors",
".\" He performed in a play about the disease at the King's Head Theatre in Islington, befriending co-star Amanda Mealing.",
"From 1989 to 1992 O'Grady performed annually as Lily at the Edinburgh Fringe, gaining increasing recognition. He was nominated for the 1991 Perrier Award alongside Jack Dee, Eddie Izzard, and (the ultimate winner) Frank Skinner. He later related that \"The Edinburgh Festival changed my life. The experience opened doors for me that would otherwise have been firmly closed, exposing me to a much wider audience than I'd previously been used to",
".\" O'Grady followed this with a show titled Lily Savage Live from the Hackney Empire; a sell-out, it was the first time that his performance was recorded. In 1992 he embarked on an Australian tour, performing alongside the Australian comedian Mark Trevorrow, and proceeded to Los Angeles, where he was present for the 1992 riots in that city.",
"O'Grady obtained his breakthrough into television when he played the character of a",
"transvestite prostitute informant, Roxanne, in three episodes of ITV's police drama The Bill between 1988 and 1990. Just before filming on the first episode, O'Grady's mother died. In 1990 he appeared in the ITV miniseries Chimera as a social worker; during filming he befriended co-star Liza Tarbuck. He followed this with a performance as a Marlene Dietrich-style cabaret singer in an episode of Rik Mayall's ITV comedy The New Statesman",
". He had continued to perform regularly at the RVT, and after the proprietors Pat and Breda McConnor decided to move on, he and Murphy unsuccessfully sought to replace them. O'Grady never compered at the RVT again after the McConnors left.",
"1992–1998: Mainstream success",
"After leaving the RVT, O'Grady continued to tour as Lily and released VHS videos of his performances. Gaining further public exposure through an appearance on the late-night Channel 4 comedy show Viva Cabaret!, he appeared on an episode of BBC quiz show That's Showbusiness. Moving into radio, he began making regular appearances as Lily on Woman's Hour and Loose Ends",
". Moving into radio, he began making regular appearances as Lily on Woman's Hour and Loose Ends. Also moving into film, he travelled to Dublin, Ireland to play an inmate in the 1993 film In the Name of the Father; although not in the Lily character, he was credited as \"Paul Savage\". In character as Lily, he appeared on an October 1994 episode of BBC series The Steve Wright People Show, had a cameo in the soap Brookside the following month, and presented an episode of BBC music show Top of the Pops",
". He also appeared as a female pirate in an episode of BBC children's show Pirates.",
"Employed to narrate the BBC 2 series Life Swaps, he was also given his own late-night Channel 4 series, Live from the Lilydrome, which was filmed in a working men's club in Blackpool. Given top billing at the gay rights charity Stonewall's 1994 Equality Show in Albert Hall, he also played the role of Nancy in the London Palladium's performance of the musical Oliver!",
". Reflecting his increasing success in mainstream British comedy, in 1994 he was nominated for both Top Live Stand-Up Comedian and Top Television Comedy Newcomer at the British Comedy Awards. Some in the South London gay scene were critical of O'Grady, accusing him of being a sell out; he fiercely denied these accusations, stating that \"I've done nearly ten years on the factory floor and now I feel I deserve a shot in the office.\"",
"After Paula Yates resigned as presenter of the Channel 4 morning television program The Big Breakfast, its production company Planet 24 employed O'Grady to replace her. A four-week Lie-in with Lily was commissioned as a trial run. As Lily, O'Grady ignored the suggested questions of PR agents and instead asked personal questions of his guests; having attracted 2 million viewers, Planet 24 renewed his contract to keep him on as presenter",
". Through contacts made in showbusiness, he befriended many A-list celebrities, among them Elton John and Cher. O'Grady found the early morning starts difficult, particularly as he was also appearing as Lily in a musical version of Prisoner Cell Block H at the Queen's Theatre in London's West End. When the musical then toured the UK, O'Grady took a break from The Big Breakfast to accompany it.",
"He took his new dog, a shih tzu-bichon frisé cross named Buster, with him on tour; O'Grady later commented that \"He was never happier than in a TV studio or theatre... Buster knew all the theatre doormen and loved being fussed over. He was a smashing dog.\" At the time, O'Grady had been making greater attempts to get to know his teenage daughter; the Daily Mirror tabloid treated her existence as a headline scandal in autumn 1994",
". Critical of the media, O'Grady condemned them for solely referring to him as a drag queen; he commented that Barry Humphries, who played the character of Dame Edna Everage, was \"never called a drag act because he's a heterosexual male. But I'm called one because I'm a gay man. It's homophobic and it's wrong as there is nothing remotely sexual about what I do. I dress up as a woman for financial purposes, nothing else.\"",
"In April 1996, O'Grady filmed a performance at the LWT Tower as An Evening with Lily Savage, broadcast on ITV in November. A hit, it was awarded Best Entertainment Program at the 1997 National Television Awards. He turned down ITV's subsequent offer of a weekly show because it would air before the watershed and thus force him to drastically alter his act into a form of light entertainment. With Murphy he then established a production company, Wildflower",
". With Murphy he then established a production company, Wildflower. Returning to theatre, he performed The Lily Savage Show for a 16-week sell-out run at Blackpool's North Pier Theatre and then Lily's Christmas Cracker at the Blackpool Opera House, the latter filmed for broadcast by the BBC. At this juncture, he agreed to appear as Lily in adverts for the Ford Escort, subsequently appearing in ad campaigns for Pretty Polly tights, the soft drink Oasis, and a bingo company",
". Earnings from these performances allowed him to move out of his Vauxhall council flat and into a house near Tower Bridge in South London. He also purchased a flat in Saltaire.",
"Television\n\n1998–2003: Blankety Blank, travel shows, and Eyes Down",
"In 1998, the BBC produced a six-week Sunday series titled The Lily Savage Show, during which he interviewed guests like Elton John, Alan Yentob, and Anthea Turner. O'Grady found the scripted, non-spontaneous nature of the series difficult, and it was not well received. As Lily, O'Grady was invited on to other television chat shows, such as Richard and Judy; he appeared in a Christmas special of cookery show Ready, Steady, Cook",
". He went on an eight-week tour as Lily, before starring as Miss Hannigan in a West End revival of the musical Annie. He subsequently accompanied the show's tour of the UK, before appearing in pantomime in Birmingham.",
"The BBC decided to revive the quiz show Blankety Blank, previously hosted by Terry Wogan and Les Dawson. They selected O'Grady to present the show as Lily, allowing him to ad lib rather than follow a script. Screened on primetime Saturday night, Blankety Blank proved a ratings winner, attracting an audience of 9 million. ITV then purchased it, offering O'Grady a two-year deal for £1 million",
". ITV then purchased it, offering O'Grady a two-year deal for £1 million. ITV let him be more risque in his use of humour on Blankety Blank, and also commissioned a new comedy series, Lily Live!. This show also proved a success, earning O'Grady nominations for both the Best Comedy Entertainment Personality and Programme at the 2000 British Comedy Awards",
". With increased earnings—his assets were estimated to total £4 million—in 1999 O'Grady purchased a house in Aldington, Kent from comedian Vic Reeves, decorating it in an art nouveau style and establishing a smallholding.",
"Tired of appearing as Lily, O'Grady decided to try to make a career for himself outside of drag. He appeared as himself in an advert campaign for Double Two shirt-makers, before pitching a six-part travelogue series to ITV, who agreed to part-fund it. The project resulted in Paul O'Grady's Orient, for which he travelled throughout East and Southeast Asia",
". Although poorly received by the tabloid press, it achieved good ratings, and ITV commissioned a second series, Paul O'Grady's America, in which he visited various U.S. cities. Again it received poor tabloid reviews. O'Grady suffered a bout of clinical depression, but recovered in time to perform alongside Cilla Black and Barbara Windsor in a burlesque rendition of \"You Gotta Get a Gimmick\" at the 2001 Royal Variety Performance; the televised event attracted 11.5 million viewers.",
"In April 2002, O'Grady had a heart attack, which doctors attributed to a combination of a congenital family heart problems with stress, heavy smoking, and caffeine. His recovery meant missing the Heritage Foundation Awards ceremony, where he was awarded television personality of the year award. Returning to work, he appeared as the Child Catcher in a twelve-week run of the musical Chitty Chitty Bang Bang at the London Palladium, receiving good reviews",
". He followed this with a Christmas season as the Wicked Queen in the pantomime Snow White at Manchester Opera House.",
"In 2003, O'Grady appeared in Celebrity Driving School, a BBC Comic Relief show in which he learned to drive, alongside Nadia Sawalha and Jade Goody. One of his tantrums on the shows was nominated for a Best Television Moment of the Year Award. Although turning down most offers to appear in a sitcom, he agreed to play the manager of a Merseyside bingo hall in the BBC series Eyes Down, commenting: \"He's an evil, twisted man who hates everything that moves. Not exactly a challenge for me\"",
". Not exactly a challenge for me\". Screened in the prime Friday night slot, the show was popular with viewers, if not reviewers, and was renewed for a second series in 2004. The BBC were also planning on reviving The Generation Game; O'Grady presented two pilot episodes in late 2003 but left the project, unhappy with the result. O'Grady ended 2003 in pantomime at the Bristol Hippodrome.",
"2004–2011: The Paul O'Grady Show and Paul O'Grady Live",
"O'Grady temporarily stood in for Des O'Connor on ITV's lunchtime chat show Today with Des and Mel, enjoying the feeling of presenting live. ITV executives then offered him his own daytime chat show: The Paul O'Grady Show. There was initial press concern that O'Grady's style of adult humour would not be appropriate for a daytime slot, but ITV's controller of entertainment, Mark Wells, declared that \"Paul is one of the funniest people on television – he deserves to be on it far more than he is.\"",
"The show first aired in October 2004 from 5 pm to 6 pm and saw O'Grady interviewing celebrity guests; it represented \"a glorious mix of seemingly unscripted banter, chat and slapstick humour\". In producing the show, O'Grady worked with many old friends, including warm-up man Andy Collins. The series was a hit, attaining between 2.5 and 2.7 million viewers daily",
". The series was a hit, attaining between 2.5 and 2.7 million viewers daily. According to O'Grady biographer Neil Simpson, the series was \"a riotous, endearingly kitsch romp with no pretensions to be anything other than pure entertainment. In some ways it was pure vaudeville[...] There were novelty acts, talking dogs, whistling goldfish, extraordinary stories. His audience laughed like drains at his anecdotes and were brought right into the heart of the show",
".\" The inclusion of his dog, Buster, on the show proved particularly popular with audiences. The show gained a devoted following, with many fans attending the screenings; often, as many as a hundred had to be turned away",
". Describing those attending the screenings, Simpson noted that \"Groups of middle aged women dominate—but they are joined by beautiful twenty-something women with flawless make-up, flash City boys with Louis Vuitton briefcases, hip-looking students out for a good time and pensioners just wanting a laugh in the afternoon.\"",
"The show's viewing figures exceeded those of Channel 4's daytime chat show, Richard & Judy. Tabloids stoked the rivalry between the shows, calling it the \"Chat Wars\". O'Grady claimed that tabloids had been publishing false quotations attributed to him, describing Richard and Judy as \"a lovely couple and we certainly haven't fallen out.\" At Christmas 2004, O'Grady starred in a pantomime, Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, at the Victoria Palace Theatre in London's West End",
". After the second series of The Paul O'Grady Show was commissioned, in March 2005 it was awarded Best Daytime Programme by the Royal Television Society, and O'Grady was subsequently awarded Best Entertainment Performance at the BAFTAs. In August controversy arose after it was revealed that the staff member responsible for interviewing the show's prospective child reporters had written derogatory notes about them; O'Grady dismissed the staff member responsible and issued a public apology.",
"In June 2005, Murphy died of brain cancer. Prior to Murphy's death, O'Grady had promised him that his production company—now named Olga TV after one of O'Grady's dogs—would take creative control over The Paul O'Grady Show. ITV refused to allow this, and so O'Grady moved the show to Channel 4, where it was renamed The New Paul O'Grady Show",
". Press accused O'Grady of moving in pursuit of a higher salary; Channel 4 offered him a contract for £2 million a year, making him one of Britain's highest-paid television stars.",
"In June 2006, O'Grady suffered a second massive heart attack, undergoing an angioplasty; he received around 7000 get-well-soon cards and letters from fans. He returned to work for the second series of The New Paul O'Grady Show in September, during which the show's viewing figures hit a new peak. To deal with his health issues, he began taking a week off mid-series, where he was replaced by guest presenters. O'Grady subsequently won the Ten Years at the Top award at the TV Quick and TV Choice awards.",
"The tabloids tried to re-ignite the \"chat wars\" by claiming a rivalry between O'Grady and other daytime television shows such as The Sharon Osbourne Show and The Brian Conley Show. Amid the later News International phone hacking scandal, police from Operation Weeting informed him that News of the World reporter Glenn Mulcaire had hacked his mobile phone. He decided not to sue. 2006 also saw the start of his relationship with future-husband André Portasio, a ballet dancer.",
"In 2008, O'Grady had a cameo as himself in the Doctor Who episode \"The Stolen Earth\", and appeared in Ghosthunting with Paul O'Grady and Friends, filmed in Palermo, Sicily. 2008 also saw publication of the first volume of O'Grady's memoirs, At My Mother's Knee ... And Other Low Joints, published by Bantam. The second volume, The Devil Rides Out: The Second Coming, followed in 2010.",
"After budget talks broke down with Channel 4, O'Grady ended The New Paul O'Grady Show. In October 2009, O'Grady agreed to an £8 million deal with ITV to host a Friday prime-time chat-show, Paul O'Grady Live. The first series aired from September to November 2010. In October, O'Grady attracted media attention after calling the Conservative–Liberal Democrat coalition government \"bastards\" on his show for mass cuts to social services",
". He also voiced his support for student protesters who had occupied and vandalised the Conservative Party headquarters. Ofcom received several complaints over the incident. Paul O'Grady Live was picked up for a second series from April to July 2011, and included a special devoted to American pop star Lady Gaga. In October, ITV axed Paul O'Grady Live",
". In October, ITV axed Paul O'Grady Live. O'Grady stated that ITV had asked him to return for a third series, but that he had refused, claiming that he had had enough of the chat show format, and that he was fed up with the \"interference\" from the show's producers.",
"That month, he also performed in Drama at Inish at the Finborough Theatre in Earl's Court.",
"2012–2023: Animal shows, Blind Date, and final works",
"2012 saw the launch of ITV documentary series Paul O'Grady: For the Love of Dogs, covering life at Battersea Dogs and Cats Home in south London. O'Grady commented that he had wanted to do such a show for years and that he took to it with an \"enthusiasm that surprised everyone except me\". Although scheduled to initially film at the centre for six days, he stayed as a volunteer for six months",
". At the end of the first series, O'Grady was invited to become an ambassador for the centre, and a bronze statue of his late dog, Buster, was erected on a plinth at the centre. He also adopted a dog from the home; a Jack Russell–Chihuahua cross named Eddy. Through the series he developed a friendship with actor Tom Hardy, who appeared in one episode.",
"In April 2012, O'Grady appeared on The One and Only Des O'Connor, a one-off special for ITV which looked back on the life of Des O'Connor. In October 2012, the third volume of his memoirs, Still Standing: The Savage Years, was released.",
"In 2012, O'Grady also revived his Lily Savage character for a cameo in Paul O'Grady's Little Cracker, a Christmas short story. He later expressed criticism of the show RuPaul's Drag Race and the contemporary drag performers on it, stating: \"It's all about shading and contouring your face now and being like supermodels [...] This new brigade who just parade around going, sashay, shantay—that's not drag to me\", lacking the comedic element common to drag queens of his generation.",
"In July 2013, O'Grady narrated the ITV documentary Me and My Guide Dog following the work of Guide Dogs. In April 2013, O'Grady presented a documentary about burlesque performer Gypsy Rose Lee as part of ITV's Perspectives series. That month, he also presented ITV's British Animal Honours award ceremony.\n\nIn 2013, ITV revived The Paul O'Grady Show. In November, O'Grady suffered an angina attack and underwent further heart surgery.",
"In 2013, O'Grady guest starred as cancer patient Tim Connor in three episodes of the BBC medical drama Holby City. On 31 October 2013, O'Grady recorded a non-broadcast pilot for a BBC One sitcom called Led Astray, starring alongside Cilla Black. The show was not commissioned for a full series due to the pair's busy schedules. In 2013, O'Grady presented two-part BBC documentary series Paul O'Grady's Working Britain, which was nominated for a National Television Award in January 2014",
". On 16 October 2013, O'Grady presented The One and Only Cilla Black, a 90-minute ITV special celebrating Cilla Black's 50 years in show business. The show was later repeated shortly after Cilla Black's death in August 2015, with O'Grady presenting a short tribute to her to introduce the show.",
"The first series of Paul O'Grady's Animal Orphans screened in 2014, with O'Grady travelling to see wildlife in Africa; a second series followed in 2015 and a third in 2016. The first series averaged 3.29 million viewers whilst the second averaged 2.75 million. In 2014, he appeared in a Gogglebox special for Stand Up to Cancer. In December 2014, O'Grady appeared in ITV's documentary Rita & Me celebrating Barbara Knox's fifty years as the character Rita Tanner in Coronation Street.",
"In September 2015, O'Grady's fourth book Open the Cage, Murphy!: Further Savage Adventures was released. In 2015, O'Grady presented Bob Monkhouse: The Million Joke Man, a three-part factual series for Gold, exploring the life of comedian and presenter Bob Monkhouse. In December 2015, O'Grady appeared in Our Cilla, a one-off programme about the life of Cilla Black. 2016 saw O'Grady present Paul O'Grady: The Sally Army & Me, a documentary series on The Salvation Army for BBC One",
". That year, he also presented a Channel 4 documentary, Paul O'Grady's 100 Years of Movie Musicals, and another for ITV, Paul O'Grady's Favourite Fairy Tales. That same evening he appeared on ITV in Hilda Ogden's Last Ta-ra, which was a tribute to the late Coronation Street actress Jean Alexander.",
"In August 2017, O'Grady married Portasio in a ceremony at London's Goring Hotel, although the pair continued to live separately. That year also saw the screening of two-part ITV series Paul O'Grady: For the Love of Animals – India, and the three-part Channel 4 series Paul O'Grady's Hollywood, as well as a Channel 5 documentary about his life, The Paul O'Grady Story. It also saw the publication of O'Grady's fifth book, Paul O'Grady's Country Life",
". It also saw the publication of O'Grady's fifth book, Paul O'Grady's Country Life. In 2017, Channel 5 revived the game show Blind Date with O'Grady as its presenter. The first series was watched by an average of 1.5 million viewers. A Christmas episode aired on 23 December 2017, before the second series aired from 30 December 2017. A third series was filmed in February 2018.",
"In 2020, O'Grady presented the six-part ITV series Paul O'Grady's Great British Escape, in which he visited sites across Kent. In September 2021, he began hosting Paul O'Grady's Saturday Night Line-Up.",
"In May 2023, O'Grady appeared alongside Paul Hollywood, King Charles and Queen Camilla, Sister Sister and Ricky Tomlinson in a pre-recorded segment for the opening of the first semi-final of the Eurovision Song Contest 2023, which was hosted in Liverpool. This was O'Grady's final television work before his death.\n\nRadio",
"Radio\n\nIn 2008 and 2009, O'Grady occasionally sat in for Elaine Paige on her BBC Radio 2 show Elaine Paige on Sunday. From April 2009, O'Grady presented his own two-hour long programme on BBC Radio 2 called Paul O'Grady on the Wireless which was broadcast on Sundays from 5 pm to 7 pm.",
"O'Grady was a guest on Kate Thornton's Paper Cuts in 2015. In September 2017, O'Grady presented a two-part documentary for BBC Radio 2 called The Story of the Light. The show saw O'Grady celebrate the 50th anniversary of Radio 2 by looking back at the BBC Light Programme that the channel replaced.",
"In August 2022, it was announced that O'Grady was resigning from BBC Radio 2 due to his unhappiness with having to share his slot with Rob Beckett. His final show aired that same month. On 21 November 2022, it was announced that O'Grady would join Boom Radio to present a show on Christmas Day, similar to the festive show he presented for Radio 2. Prior to his death, O'Grady had been due to present another special show on Easter Sunday before joining the station permanently in May 2023.",
"Charity work \nO'Grady supported philanthropic causes for carers. From 2008 onwards, O'Grady was an ambassador for Save the Children.\n\nIn 2012, O'Grady became an ambassador for Battersea Dogs and Cats Home following his series For the Love of Dogs, which was filmed in the home. In 2013, he took part in the Pedigree Feeding Brighter Futures campaign with Amanda Holden, which aimed to give a million meals to rescue dogs nationwide.",
"In 2014, O'Grady co-starred in a Dementia Friends TV advertisement campaign to raise awareness about the disease.\n\nIn October 2015, following his work on Animal Orphans, O'Grady became a patron of Orangutan Appeal UK.",
"In September 2016, O'Grady was recognised for his work with animals when he won the award for Outstanding Contribution to Animal Welfare at the RSPCA's Animal Hero Awards. \nAs an unofficial ambassador for the county of Kent (where he lived for 20 years) and which he readily promoted (including an ITV series) he accepted the unpaid position of Deputy Lieutenant of Kent in 2022.",
"Personal life \nIn 1974, with his friend Diane Jansen, O'Grady had a daughter, Sharon. O'Grady's grandson, Abel, was born in December 2006, followed by a granddaughter in December 2009. From 1977 to 2005, he was in a marriage of convenience with a Portuguese woman, Teresa Fernandes, although he was not in an active relationship with her.",
"His long-term lover and business partner was Brendan Frank Murphy (4 March 1956 – 9 June 2005). In the fourth volume of his biography, he noted that he has \"always had a penchant for the bad boys\". In 2017 he married André Portasio.\n\nKnown to many friends as \"Lily\" or \"Lil\", O'Grady was known for having had many high-profile and celebrity friends, including politician Mo Mowlam, actresses Amanda Mealing and Barbara Windsor, comedian Brenda Gilhooly and singer Cilla Black.",
"O'Grady divided his time between his Central London flat and his rural Kentish farmhouse, where he grew organic fruit and vegetables and a variety of herbs, having a keen interest in herbalism. A lifelong animal lover, as a child O'Grady kept rabbits, hamsters, guinea pigs, mice, a ferret and a rat as pets; he commented that his mother thought him \"a bit weird\" as a result. At his farm, he owned sheep, pigs, goats, donkeys, ducks, chickens, geese, ferrets, bats, mice and dogs.",
"Two of O'Grady's pet dogs became well known to the British public through appearances on The Paul O'Grady Show. The first was a rescue dog, Buster Elvis Savage, a Shih Tzu/Bichon Frise cross. Buster was euthanised in November 2009 as a result of his cancer. O'Grady dedicated the second volume of his autobiography to Buster, describing him as \"The greatest canine star since Lassie\". A second dog, the Cairn Terrier Olga, also attracted attention",
". A second dog, the Cairn Terrier Olga, also attracted attention. In 2013, it was revealed that she was undergoing chemotherapy due to cancer. Olga was euthanised in April 2018 after suffering from kidney failure.",
"In an interview with the Daily Mirror in 2006, O'Grady admitted that smoking forty cigarettes a day for several decades had contributed to his two heart attacks.",
"In 2013, O'Grady expressed his support for the Labour Party, championing Labour leader Ed Miliband as a better candidate for UK Prime Minister than Conservative incumbent David Cameron. He lambasted the Conservative–Liberal Democrat coalition government then in power, describing them as \"absolutely disgusting. They have no idea what the common working man and woman are doing. They are not in touch with the working-classes",
". They are not in touch with the working-classes. They have led privileged lives– they've had public schools and have never been on the shop floor.\" He also praised Miliband's successor, Jeremy Corbyn.",
"In 2015, he told a reporter that despite his wealth, he still felt \"very much\" working-class; \"I know that probably sounds strange. Mentally, I still am. I'm still thinking, have I got the rent for Friday?\" Raised as a Roman Catholic, in his autobiography he related having \"grown out of Catholicism\" after his mother's death, but had \"always been interested in alternative religions\", citing a particular interest in Wicca",
". He also reported seeing unexplained lights over his Kent home, considering the possibility that he was being observed by extraterrestrials.",
"Death",
"O'Grady died \"unexpectedly but peacefully\" at his home in Kent on 28 March 2023, at age 67, from sudden cardiac arrhythmia. His death was announced by his husband, André Portasio, and tributes poured in from global figures and celebrities, including from Queen Camilla, television presenter Lorraine Kelly and LGBT rights campaigner Peter Tatchell. O'Grady has been hailed by many as a national treasure",
". O'Grady has been hailed by many as a national treasure. O'Grady's final performance was as Miss Hannigan in Annie at the Edinburgh Playhouse just days before his death. His funeral was held at the Church of St Rumwold, Bonnington, Kent, on 20 April 2023.",
"Filmography\n\nRecognitions\n\nAwards and nominations\n\nHonorary Doctorates \nIn 2005, Liverpool John Moores University awarded O'Grady an honorary fellowship for services to entertainment, and in 2010, he received an honorary Doctor of Arts from De Montfort University in Leicester in recognition of his outstanding contribution to television, radio and the stage.",
"Other \nIn September 2016, O'Grady was recognised for his work with animals when he won the award for Outstanding Contribution to Animal Welfare at the RSPCA's Animal Hero Awards.\n \nIn October 2023, Battersea Dogs & Cats Home announced that they would be naming a new veterinary hospital after O'Grady, and a “tribute fund” set up in his honour would go towards “life-saving and transformative medical procedures” for dogs and cats which need specialist care and treatment.\n\nReferences\n\nFootnotes\n\nSources",
"References\n\nFootnotes\n\nSources\n\nExternal links",
"1955 births\n2023 deaths\n20th-century English male actors\n21st-century English male actors\n21st-century English male writers\nBBC Radio 2 presenters\nBest Entertainment Performance BAFTA Award (television) winners\nEnglish autobiographers\nEnglish businesspeople\nEnglish drag queens\nEnglish game show hosts\nEnglish male non-fiction writers\nEnglish male television actors\nEnglish people of Irish descent\nEnglish radio DJs\nEnglish socialists\nEnglish television personalities\nEnglish television presenters",
"English radio DJs\nEnglish socialists\nEnglish television personalities\nEnglish television presenters\nEnglish television producers\nEnglish television talk show hosts\nEnglish gay actors\nEnglish gay writers\nLabour Party (UK) people\nEnglish LGBT comedians\nEnglish LGBT broadcasters\nEnglish LGBT businesspeople\nGay comedians\nGay businessmen\nLGBT DJs\nMale actors from Merseyside\nMembers of the Order of the British Empire\nPantomime dames\nPeople from Birkenhead\n20th-century English LGBT people",
"Pantomime dames\nPeople from Birkenhead\n20th-century English LGBT people\n21st-century English LGBT people\nEnglish male comedians\nDeputy Lieutenants of Kent\nPlace of death missing\nTelevision personalities from Kent"
] |
Troy H. Middleton
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troy%20H.%20Middleton
|
[
"Lieutenant General Troy Houston Middleton (12 October 1889 – 9 October 1976) was a distinguished educator and senior officer of the United States Army who served as a corps commander in the European Theatre during World War II and later as president of Louisiana State University (LSU).",
"Enlisting in the U.S. Army in 1910, Middleton was first assigned to the 29th Infantry Regiment, where he worked as a clerk. Here he did not become an infantryman as he had hoped, but he was pressed into service playing football, a sport strongly endorsed by the army. Following two years of enlisted service, Middleton was transferred to Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, where he was given the opportunity to compete for an officer's commission",
". Of the 300 individuals who were vying for a commission, 56 were selected, and four of them, including Middleton, would become general officers. As a new second lieutenant, Middleton was assigned to the 7th Infantry Regiment in Galveston, Texas, which was soon pressed into service, responding to events created by the Mexican Revolution",
". Middleton spent seven months doing occupation duty in the Mexican port city of Veracruz, and later was assigned to Douglas, Arizona, where his unit skirmished with some of Pancho Villa's fighters.",
"Upon the entry of the United States into World War I, in April 1917, Middleton was assigned to the 4th Infantry Division, and soon saw action as a battalion commander during the Second Battle of the Marne. Three months later, following some minor support roles, his unit led the attack during the Meuse-Argonne Offensive, and Middleton became a regimental commander",
". Because of his exceptional battlefield performance, on 14 October 1918 he was promoted to the rank of colonel, becoming, at the age of 29, the youngest officer of that rank in the American Expeditionary Force (AEF). He also received the Army Distinguished Service Medal for his exemplary service. Following World War I, Middleton served at the U.S. Army School of Infantry, the U.S. Army Command and General Staff School, the U.S. Army War College, and as commandant of cadets at LSU",
".S. Army War College, and as commandant of cadets at LSU. He retired from the army in 1937 to become dean of administration and later comptroller and acting vice president at LSU. His tenure at LSU was fraught with difficulty, as Middleton became one of the key players in helping the university recover from a major scandal where nearly a million dollars had been embezzled.",
"Recalled to service in early 1942, upon American entry into World War II, Middleton became CG of the 45th Infantry Division during the Sicily and Salerno battles in Italy, and then in March 1944 moved up to command the VIII Corps. His leadership in Operation Cobra during the Battle of Normandy led to the capture of the important port city of Brest, France, and for his success he was awarded a second Distinguished Service Medal by General George Patton",
". His greatest World War II achievement, however, was in his decision to hold the important city of Bastogne, Belgium, during the Battle of the Bulge. Following this battle, and his corps' relentless push across Germany until reaching Czechoslovakia, he was recognized by both General Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Supreme Allied Commander, and Patton as being a corps commander of extraordinary abilities. Middleton logged 480 days in combat during World War II, more than any other American general officer",
". Retiring from the army again in 1945, Middleton returned to LSU and in 1951 was appointed to the university presidency, a position he held for 11 years, while continuing to serve the army in numerous consultative capacities. He resided in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, until his death in 1976 and was buried in Baton Rouge National Cemetery",
". The library at Louisiana State University had been named for him, but in 2020, the LSU Board of Supervisors unanimously voted to remove his name due to his segregationist policies.",
"Family and early life",
"Ancestry",
"Troy H. Middleton was born near Georgetown, Mississippi, on 12 October 1889, the son of John Houston Middleton and Laura Catherine \"Kate\" Thompson. His paternal grandfather, Benjamin Parks Middleton, served as a private in the Mississippi Infantry for the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War, and his maternal grandfather, Riden M. Thompson, was also a Confederate soldier. His great-great-grandfather, Captain Holland Middleton, served from Georgia in the American Revolutionary War",
". Holland Middleton was the son of William Middleton and grandson of Robert Middleton, who had extensive land interests in Charles County and Prince George's County in Maryland. In 1678 Robert Middleton was paid for expenses incurred in fighting the Nanticoke Indians and in 1681 he was commissioned as cornet (second lieutenant) in a troop of cavalry.",
"Early life",
"Troy Middleton was the fifth of nine children and grew up on a 400-acre plantation in southeastern Copiah County. The plantation was virtually a self-contained community, and he had a variety of chores to do depending on the season, with sausage-stuffing being one of his favorites. The local Lick Creek and Strong River had plentiful fish that he would catch, and he loved to hunt, particularly with his 12-gauge shotgun",
". While his family was Episcopal by heritage, they worshiped at the Bethel Baptist Church, a few miles west of Georgetown, the only church reachable on a Sunday morning. His education was conducted at the small Bethel schoolhouse, but in the summertime he was tutored by his oldest sister Emily, who came home from Blue Mountain College to share her knowledge with her family",
". Having exhausted all the educational opportunities available at home, Middleton's father asked him if he was interested in a college education. Finding this an attractive proposition, in the summer of 1904, at the age of fourteen, Middleton made the 172-mile train trip to Starkville, where he would begin his studies at Mississippi Agricultural and Mechanical College (Mississippi A&M, later Mississippi State University).",
"College at Mississippi A&M",
"At his young age, Middleton was required to complete a year of preparatory school before being enrolled in the four-year program at Mississippi A&M. In essence he did a final year of high school while living in the dormitory and following the regimen of the students at the college. The students were treated like cadets at a military academy, marching to and from all meals, and beginning their day with the first bugle call at 5:30 a.m",
".m. While Middleton did not particularly savor the military atmosphere, he settled into the routine, and the year passed quickly. The highlight of his preparatory year came on 10 February 1905 when John Philip Sousa brought his band to A&M, attracting people from around the state, and packing the 2000-seat mess hall. The train that would take the band to its next stop was held up for over an hour as the concert was extended by repeated calls for encores.",
"The student corps at A&M was organized into a battalion, with a size of about 350 cadets during Middleton's first year. He began as a cadet corporal, and by his junior year was appointed as the cadet sergeant major. As a senior he had the cadet rank of lieutenant colonel and was the student commander of more than 700 cadets, in two battalions. Working with the military officer in charge of the cadets, Middleton took on additional responsibilities for which he was paid $25 per month.",
"Middleton was involved in numerous activities during his college days, and took leadership roles in most of them. He was the vice president of A&M's Collegian Club, and president of the school's Gun Club, being photographed on one occasion with his beloved shotgun, which he was allowed to keep in his dormitory room and use for hunting on weekends",
". He was the president of his junior class and during his senior year was the commandant of the select Mississippi Sabre Company, which was restricted to seniors of good social, academic and military standing. Among his favorite activities were baseball and football, and he played both sports throughout college, although he had to give up a season of baseball when he failed a chemistry course",
". Whether playing or spectating, the baseball and football games gave the students a chance to leave campus, and they took the train to play teams around the state.",
"Middleton graduated with a bachelor's degree in the spring of 1909, and was hoping to get an appointment to the United States Military Academy at West Point. No such opportunity presented itself, however, and at the age of 19 he was too young to take the examination for an army commission. Taking the advice of an army officer at A&M, he decided to enlist in the United States Army.\n\nEarly service in the U.S. Army",
"Enlisted service",
"On 3 March 1910 Troy Middleton enlisted into the 29th Infantry Regiment at Fort Porter in Buffalo, New York. He was put to work as a company clerk, and as a private earned $15 a month, which was paid in gold until it became scarce, and was then paid in silver. Middleton tired of this desk work quickly and asked to become a soldier",
". Middleton tired of this desk work quickly and asked to become a soldier. While this did not happen at Fort Porter, his talents as a football player became known, and he was pressed into duty as the quarterback of the local team, which played civilian teams in the Buffalo area as well as other army teams. For the next several years Middleton would play a lot of football, a sport that was strongly endorsed by the army",
". After getting a commission, an officer is never returned to the same unit from which he served as an enlisted member, but Middleton became the exception because of his talents as a quarterback. Middleton felt that football provided him with the finest training he received while in the army, and he said he never met a good football player who was not also a good soldier.",
"Officer's commission",
"After 27 months of service, Middleton got his first promotion, to corporal. Promotions came very slowly, and occurred only when a position was vacated by someone else getting promoted or retiring. Shortly after his promotion on 10 June 1912, Corporal Middleton was transferred to Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, where he would have a chance to compete for an army commission. Here Middleton attended an intensive training course to prepare for the written examination required for a second lieutenant's commission",
". Of the 300 civilians and enlisted men who took the exam, 56 of them passed and were commissioned. Middleton's score was just about in the middle of the passing scores. Almost all of those passing were college graduates, coming from schools such as Harvard, Yale, Virginia Military Institute, and Stanford. Four of the 56, including Middleton, would go on to become general officers.",
"In addition to taking the written exam, all of the applicants had to take a horse-riding test as well. Having grown up riding horses on his family's plantation, Middleton scored very well on this exam, and the officer in charge thought that he would want to go into the cavalry. Middleton, however, wanted to go into the infantry, leaving the officer stunned that anyone with such horsemanship skills would even consider spending his time walking.",
"Having passed his exam, Middleton was recommended for a commission by President Howard Taft in November 1912, but it was not until after the new president, Woodrow Wilson, was sworn in the following March, and the new congress convened, that the 56 successful candidates were confirmed by the Senate. Their appointment was back-dated to 30 November 1912. During this interim period, Middleton was transferred to Fort Crockett in Galveston, Texas, where he arrived early in 1913.",
"Fort Crockett and deployment to Mexico",
"In February 1913 Troy Middleton reported to Fort Crockett as a second lieutenant without a commission, being assigned to Company K of the 7th Infantry Regiment. A large part of the United States Army was rotating here in response to trouble in Mexico. In 1910 Mexico's President Porfirio Diaz was overthrown by a reform leader, Francisco Madero, beginning the Mexican Revolution which would last for nearly a decade",
". Madero was supported by General Victoriano Huerta in putting down a series of revolts in 1912, but the following year was assassinated by the General, who then seized power. Though many countries recognized the Huerta government, President Woodrow Wilson would not, and he hoped to return Mexico to a constitutional government by backing Venustiano Carranza. The troops at Fort Crockett went into a waiting mode, preparing for the call from the President to take action in support of American interests.",
"In April 1914 the waiting for the military units ended, and American troops under the command of Brigadier General Frederick Funston were sent into Mexico. The Navy had taken the port city of Veracruz and the 7th Regiment was ordered to take part in the occupation of the city. Middleton's landing party went in unopposed and settled into occupation duty without a shot being fired. Middleton spent a total of seven months in Mexico and returned home to Galveston in November 1914.",
"Marriage",
"After arriving at Fort Crockett, Middleton adapted to garrison life and attended Saturday night dances in town. At one such dance he had a navy lieutenant introduce him to Jerusha Collins, who would later become his wife. She had attended Southwestern University in Georgetown, Texas, and had made her debut in Galveston society in 1911. Following the death of her father, Sidney G. Collins, Jerusha had come to live with her aunt and uncle, Mr. and Mrs. John Hagemann, in Galveston",
". and Mrs. John Hagemann, in Galveston. As a merchant, Hagemann was well to do. Middleton met the Hagemanns, soon becoming a regular visitor at their house while calling on Jerusha.",
"Following seven months in Mexico, Middleton's return to Galveston brought a special anticipation. He had proposed to Jerusha Collins at an earlier time, and renewed the proposal upon his return. The couple was married on 6 January 1915, and this allowed them to be in New Orleans two days later with other members of Middleton's unit for the one hundredth anniversary of the Battle of New Orleans in which the 7th Regiment had served",
". After a week in New Orleans, the couple returned to Galveston, and were invited to move into the Hagemann's house, where they were given a large upstairs room.",
"Fort Bliss",
"When Galveston's second major hurricane hit the Texas coastline in mid-August 1915, most of the Army units had scattered to safe locations away from the storm's path, with a few units remaining in the secure buildings of Fort Crockett or in downtown Galveston. The Middletons chose to ride out the storm at the Hagemann house. Following the storm cleanup, in October 1915, the 7th Regiment was ordered to Fort Bliss in El Paso, Texas as events in Mexico flared up again",
". Here they were put under the command of Brigadier General John Pershing, a highly capable officer who had skipped three ranks by being promoted from captain to brigadier general for his exceptional service during the Philippine–American War.",
"The Mexican Revolutionary General Pancho Villa, who had at one time been supported by the United States, felt betrayed when the Americans backed Carranza. In January 1916, Villa's followers, known as Villistas, attacked a train and killed 16 American businessmen. Two months later Villa's men crossed the border into the United States and attacked the town of Columbus, New Mexico, killing an additional 19 Americans. Following these attacks, General Pershing took his forces into Mexico to pursue Pancho Villa.",
"Preceding these events, Middleton's 7th Regiment was sent to Camp Harry J. Jones near Douglas, Arizona to perform border security. While there, Middleton and a squad of his men were fired upon by the Villistas who unsuccessfully attacked the Mexican village of Agua Prieta, across the border from Douglas. While several of Middleton's men were hit, no one was killed, and they all returned with the 7th Regiment back to Fort Bliss in late December 1915.",
"Preparation for war",
"The hunt for Pancho Villa ended unsuccessfully for the Americans. War was raging in Europe, and following several months in Mexico, Pershing was called back to Fort Bliss to begin preparing his troops for this much larger conflict. In April 1917, President Wilson requested that Congress declare war, which they did. The same month Middleton was assigned to Gettysburg National Park where the 7th Regiment would continue its training",
". Here, he was promoted to first lieutenant on 1 July 1916, after a little more than three and a half years as a second lieutenant. With the pending war, his promotions would become much more frequent, and in less than a year he was promoted to captain, on 15 May 1917, over a month after the American entry into World War I.",
"World War I",
"In preparation for its buildup in strength, the army had to train a large cadre of officers. On 10 June 1917 Middleton was assigned to Fort Myer, Virginia, as the adjutant of a reserve officer training camp. These camps were organized to take civilians and turn them into officers in ninety days, and as adjutant Middleton was responsible for directing the flow of paperwork for 2,700 officer candidates",
". By November 1917, his camp graduated its last class of officers, and Middleton requested to join a combat division. His request was granted and on 21 December 1917 he reported to the 4th Division at Camp Greene near Charlotte, North Carolina. Two days later, however, he received new orders to become the commander of a reserve officer training camp in Leon Springs, Texas. Here, he reported as ordered, and stayed until the mission was complete in April 1918",
". Here, he reported as ordered, and stayed until the mission was complete in April 1918. As he was technically on loan from the 4th Division, his request to rejoin that unit was granted, and Middleton was soon on his way to France.",
"Believing that the 4th Division was still at Camp Greene, Middleton wired there to find out that the unit was already on its way overseas. He caught a train for New York, and when he arrived on 28 April 1918, he found his division at Camp Mills on Long Island, living in tents and awaiting transport. Middleton was given command of the First Battalion, 47th Infantry Regiment, and departed New York with his regiment aboard the Princess Matokia on 11 May in a convoy of fourteen ships",
". Three days out of France, a fleet of destroyers met the convoy and escorted it to the port city of Brest where they arrived on 23 May. There the division unloaded and organized for several days, subsequently loading onto a troop train to arrive at Calais on 30 May.",
"Calais, Chateau Thierry and Saint-Mihiel",
"The first assignment of the 4th Division was to become a reserve unit for the British, just south of Calais. The Americans gave up their Springfield Rifles for some British Enfields for which there was available ammunition. When the Germans began an offensive north of Paris, the 4th was put onto trains and sent to the Marne River, about twenty-five miles west of Chateau Thierry. Here the 4th became a reserve unit for the badly battered 42nd Division",
". Here the 4th became a reserve unit for the badly battered 42nd Division. In late July 1918, Middleton, promoted to major on 7 June, moved his First Battalion in to support the 167th Regiment of the 42nd Division. In the ensuing operation, called the Second Battle of the Marne, four days of heavy fighting took place against the Prussian Fourth Guard Division fresh from a month's rest",
". While the veteran Germans fought with determination, the Americans were able to push them back about twelve miles, though at a considerable cost—more than one in four of the Americans became casualties.",
"When the 4th Division was relieved, they were sent to the Saint-Mihiel area, where they would undertake a small support role. Major Middleton was given the task of directing the unit's transport, complicated by the requirement to move at night with equipment and personnel to be drawn by horse and mule. After Saint-Mihiel, the unit was moved to Verdun where hundreds of thousands of French and Germans had become casualties earlier in the war",
". This would become the last major engagement of the First World War for Middleton, who was promoted to lieutenant colonel on 17 September, shortly before the commencement of the operation, called the Meuse-Argonne Offensive.",
"Meuse-Argonne Offensive",
"The 4th Division, on its own for the first time in the war, was assigned a front that was one to two miles wide, sandwiched between two seasoned French divisions, about eight miles from Verdun. Lieutenant Colonel Middleton's battalion led the attack for the Americans on 26 September 1918. That day, they covered five miles, breaking through German defenses, after which it was up to the entire 47th Infantry Regiment to hold onto the gains",
". Middleton then put his second-in-command in charge of the battalion when he was assigned as the executive officer of the regiment. He was in this staff position for two weeks when, on 11 October, he was given command of the 39th Infantry Regiment after commander James K. Parsons and most of his regimental staff became casualties following a gas attack. At about one o'clock in the morning, Middleton had to find his way to the 39th headquarters and prepare for battle at daybreak. Shortly before 7:30 a.m",
". Shortly before 7:30 a.m., Middleton led his new regiment into enemy-held territory using a tactic called \"marching fire,\" where all of the troops constantly fired their weapons while moving a mile through heavy woods. This compelled most of the dug-in and concealed Germans to surrender, and allowed the 4th Division to move to the edge of the Meuse River",
". Three days after taking command of the 39th, and two days after his twenty-ninth birthday, Middleton was promoted to colonel, becoming the youngest officer in the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) to attain that rank. He also received the Army Distinguished Service Medal for his exceptional battlefield performance. The citation for the medal reads:",
"On 19 October, the 4th Division was withdrawn from the battle line after 24 days of continuous contact with the enemy, the longest unbroken period of combat for any American division during the war. Middleton was now given command of his former regiment, the 47th. In early November the 4th Division relieved an African American regiment near Metz, and was preparing to chase German defenders down the Moselle River, with Middleton to lead the attack",
". The attack did not materialize, however, because, on 10 November, Middleton received confidential news that an armistice was imminent. The following morning a messenger brought word that there would be no more firing after 11 a.m. There was celebration throughout the ranks, but there was still much work to be done; the 4th Division would soon be assigned to Germany as an occupying force.",
"Occupation of Germany",
"In late November 1918 the 4th Division began a road march of more than 125 miles from the French city of Metz toward the German city of Koblenz, on the Rhine River. The final destination of Middleton's 47th Regiment would be the town of Adenau, 35 miles due west of Koblenz. The road trip took fifteen days of moving through almost incessant rain and ended in a driving snowstorm on 15 December. Middleton rode a horse during most of each day, surveying his troops and occasionally dismounting to talk with them",
". The formation marched for fifty minutes of each hour, and rested for ten, with a full hour for lunch.",
"Once in Adenau, the regiment dispersed to many villages in the area, while Colonel Middleton stayed in a large home in Adenau where the owners continued to live as well. During the stay in Adenau, the 47th continued with its training, building a rifle range, running combat problems, and practicing lessons learned from its recent combat operations. In early March 1919, after nearly four months in Adenau, the 47th was ordered to the area of Remagen on the Rhine",
". On the morning of the move, Middleton had breakfast with Colonel George C. Marshall, who had come to Adenau the day before to inform Middleton of his regiment's new orders. Marshall was the aide of General John Pershing, who by now was the Commander-in-Chief (C-in-C) of the AEF.",
"At Remagen the 47th Regiment was given the mission of guarding the Ludendorff Bridge over the Rhine River. Twenty five years later the 47th would once again guard this bridge during World War II. The regiment remained here until given orders to return home in mid-summer 1919. Before his departure from Europe, Middleton was summoned to report to the Third Army Chief of Staff in Koblenz",
". Here he was informed that he and other senior officers were being assigned to Camp Benning, Georgia, to form the first faculty of the Infantry School that was being established there. Middleton sailed out of Brest in mid-July, met his wife in New York, and together they traveled to Columbus, Georgia, by way of Washington, D.C., and Atlanta.",
"Military schools",
"For the ten years following World War I, Troy Middleton would be either an instructor or a student in the succession of military schools that Army officers attend during their careers. Middleton arrived in Columbus, Georgia with strong praise from his superiors, and would soon get his efficiency report, in which Brigadier General Benjamin Poore of the 4th Division wrote of him, The best all-around officer I have yet seen",
". Unspoiled by his rapid promotion from captain in July to colonel in October; and made good in every grade. He gets better results in a quiet unobtrusive way than any officer I have ever met. Has a wonderful grasp of situations and a fine sense of proportion.",
"Infantry School",
"Up until the World War, other branches of the Army had their own specialty schools, but the infantry did not. This situation was being amended, and Middleton would be part of that change as a new faculty member of the Infantry School at Camp Benning, about nine miles from Columbus",
". Middleton, whose rank had reverted to his permanent rank of captain following the war, was an instructor in the new school for his first two years at Benning, and also a member of the Infantry Board, set up for research on weapons and tactics. One of his jobs on the board was to evaluate new weapons and equipment, and at one point he tested a new semiautomatic rifle which would eventually become the M-1 rifle, the standard weapon of the infantry in World War II.",
"The first nine-month class of the new infantry school began in September 1919, and students were taken through a curriculum of weapons and tactics. Captain Middleton, the youngest faculty member on the school staff, was an ideal instructor, fresh with experiences from the recent war. After two years as an instructor, and a promotion to major on 1 July 1920, Middleton prevailed upon his commanders to be allowed to enroll in the advanced infantry course as a student",
". This ten-month course included instruction on combined arms, tactical principles and decisions, military history and economics, then ended with a written thesis. Middleton, who was one of the most junior members of his class, finished at the top of the class.",
"Following the advanced course, Middleton spent the summer as the senior instructor at a Reserve Officer Training Camp at Fort Logan, Colorado, then returned to Camp Benning for one more year as a member of the Infantry Board. Four years at Benning had been enough for him and he was ready to move on. After expressing his wishes to a senior officer, he was assigned to Fort Leavenworth in the summer of 1923.\n\nCommand and General Staff School",
"As one of the youngest majors in the army, Middleton found himself among officers who were ten to fifteen years his senior at the Army's Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. Students attended this ten-month school to qualify for higher commands. Here Middleton met a classmate, George Patton, who would become one of his friends. Patton had confided to Middleton that he predicted completing the course as an Honor Graduate, one who finishes in the top 25% of the nearly 200 students",
". His prediction came true, and he finished 14th in the class. Middleton finished 8th. With his exceptional class performance, Middleton, along with half a dozen other graduates, was invited to stay on for the next four years as an instructor at the school.",
"During his second year of teaching at Command and General Staff School, one of his students, Dwight D. Eisenhower, would come to his office and pump him for information, knowing that Middleton had commanded a regiment in combat in France. Eisenhower asked practical questions, and was unquestionably motivated—he finished first in his class",
". Nearly every officer who commanded a division in Europe during World War II attended the Command and General Staff School during Middleton's tenure there from 1924 to 1928. There was also a point in time during World War II when every corps commander in Europe had been a student of Middleton's.",
"War College",
"In 1928, his final year at Leavenworth, Middleton received orders to attend the Army War College in Washington, D.C. His year at this highest level of professional military education was very fulfilling. He spent time in the school library and the Library of Congress. He wrote his staff memorandum (equivalent to a thesis) on the subject of Army transportation",
". He wrote his staff memorandum (equivalent to a thesis) on the subject of Army transportation. Recalling his personal experience with horses and mules in France, he recommended that motorized transport significantly replace the Army's use of livestock. The commandant of the school commended Middleton for work of exceptional merit, and sent his ideas to the highest levels in the War Department.",
"Late career",
"Having spent the previous ten years in the various Army schools, Major Middleton requested a return to Camp Benning, where he and his wife still had friends. The request was approved and he was assigned as a battalion commander in the 29th Infantry Regiment there, the same unit in which he had enlisted nineteen years earlier at Fort Porter. He was at Benning for only a year when he was told he would be assigned to the General Staff at the War Department in Washington D.C",
".C., but this changed when a new requirement for career officers was brought to his attention. Officers were now expected to have an assignment with a civilian component of the Army such as the National Guard, the Reserves, or the Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC). The last option appealed to Middleton the most, and he wanted to work at a school in the south. There was an opening at Louisiana State University (LSU), and this is where Middleton soon headed.",
"ROTC duty at Louisiana State University\n\nIn July 1930 Troy Middleton stopped at his new headquarters at Fort McPherson in Atlanta, then drove west with his family to Baton Rouge, Louisiana, which would become the family home for many years. Major Middleton became the Commandant of cadets at LSU, along with being the professor of military science.",
"While at headquarters, Middleton had learned that his predecessor did not get along with Louisiana's governor, Huey P. Long. Middleton was told a few stories about the governor that made him curious enough to call on him the day after arriving in town. While the meeting turned out to be somewhat awkward for Major Middleton, it began a friendship between the two men. Governor Long loved LSU and the cadet corps there",
". Governor Long loved LSU and the cadet corps there. When Middleton mentioned to him that the cadet band had just a few dozen members, the governor saw to it that the band would grow to 250 members. Governor Long was a showman, and enjoyed parades and fanfare, and would negotiate special fares to get the cadets and band transported to athletic events across the region. Because of the governor's dealings, LSU transformed from a third rate school in 1930 to the largest university in the south by 1936.",
"During Middleton's tenure at LSU the presidency of the university changed hands from President Atkinson to President James Monroe Smith, the latter an appointee of Governor Long. Towards the end of Middleton's fourth year on campus President Smith asked him if he would stay on for an additional year and also become Dean of Men. Middleton responded that he would accept, but it had to be cleared through the War Department",
". Middleton responded that he would accept, but it had to be cleared through the War Department. Smith's request to the War Department for both the extension and the deanship for Middleton were approved. Toward the end of the fifth year Smith went a step further, suggesting that Middleton retire from the army and become a permanent member of the LSU staff. Middleton would not even consider retirement, but accepted a sixth year with the ROTC program",
". Middleton would not even consider retirement, but accepted a sixth year with the ROTC program. As he began his sixth year on campus, on 1 Aug 1935, he was promoted to lieutenant colonel.",
"Early in his final year on campus, Middleton was once again pressed by the university president to retire from the army and go to work for the college. Again, Middleton could not do that, and began looking for a suitable follow-on assignment. Not having been overseas in over sixteen years, he put in a request for duty in the Philippines. He finished his tenure at LSU in the summer of 1936, having overseen the increase in students completing the ROTC program from about 500 to over 1700 cadets.",
"Philippines and retirement\n\nIn August 1936 the Middletons made a leisurely drive to New York City where they boarded a ship for the Philippines. The trip took them 42 days and included passage through the Panama Canal with stops in Panama, San Francisco, Hawaii, and Guam. When they arrived in Hawaii, they were greeted by George Patton and his wife Bea. Patton was on duty in Honolulu and had sailed his own boat from San Diego to Hawaii, and later sailed it back to the states at the end of his tour.",
"Middleton was assigned as an assistant inspector general in the army headquarters in Manila. Here he listened to complaints as he travelled to various Army installations including Fort William McKinley and Corregidor. Less than six months into his Philippine tour he received a telegram from President Smith renewing his offer of a job at LSU as the dean of administration with a salary of $5,400 per year",
". Middleton was in the hospital undergoing testing for some heart irregularity when the telegram arrived, and he showed it to two other lieutenant colonels who were visiting him. One of them said he should take the offer, the salary being excellent. The other lieutenant colonel, Dwight Eisenhower, said he should stay in the army",
". The other lieutenant colonel, Dwight Eisenhower, said he should stay in the army. Eisenhower had spent three years in Panama as an aide to General Fox Conner, who knew that the terms of the Treaty of Versailles were being ignored by Adolf Hitler and the Nazis, and who was certain another war was coming soon. Eisenhower reasoned that this was no time for an officer with Middleton's combat experience to be getting out of the Army.",
"To Middleton, as a very junior lieutenant colonel, the prospect of becoming a general officer seemed very remote, and upon giving the matter more thought he ultimately decided to retire from the army. Once his decision was made, he wired President Smith at LSU advising him that he was ready to become a civilian and accept the university post. The Middletons left the Philippines in May 1937, stopping in Hong Kong, Japan, and China en route to San Francisco",
". Lieutenant Colonel Middleton officially retired from the army on 31 October 1937.",
"Tenure at Louisiana State University",
"The first year in his new job as administrative dean at Louisiana State University (LSU) went smoothly. The Middletons had a new house built on Highland Road near the campus, and an oil field was discovered under their property, bringing them royalties that would pay for their property many times over. University enrollment began to climb in 1938 and the LSU football team had just finished three outstanding seasons under coach Bernie Moore, winning 27 of their 30 regular season games",
". Middleton was photographed breaking ground for a new faculty club that year, as the campus grew in many areas. All seemed to be running well when in June 1939 the campus was given a shock from which it would take many years to recover. A New Orleans newspaper ran a photo on the front page showing an LSU truck unloading building materials in suburban New Orleans, revealing an illegal operation",
". The ensuing investigation led to the discovery that LSU's President Smith had embezzled nearly a million dollars from the university, using the money to cover his losses while speculating in the Chicago wheat futures market. Smith stood trial, and was sent to first Federal prison and later the Louisiana State Penitentiary in Angola. The LSU superintendent of grounds and buildings, George Caldwell, was also involved in the scandal and served time in Atlanta for tax evasion",
". Meanwhile, the state's governor, Richard Leche, resigned, but was soon found guilty of several federal charges and sent to Atlanta to serve time.",
"The Board of Supervisors met in a special session at the end of June 1939 and Middleton was directed to take over the business management of the university. The school's finances were in a state of chaos, and it would take effort and time to dig out of the mess. The dean of the Law School, Paul M. Hebert, became the acting president, and Middleton became acting vice president and comptroller. Middleton chose two accounting professors, Dr. Daniel Borth and Dr",
". Middleton chose two accounting professors, Dr. Daniel Borth and Dr. Mack Hornbeak, to work with him, and a New York firm was hired to come in and establish sound business procedures.",
"Before the revelation of the illegal activities, expenditures had been routinely made on a cash basis, all of the university funding and program money was thrown into a single account, and university bond indentures had been violated. The new leadership had to advertise in Louisiana newspapers to find out to whom they owed money. The first year of dealing with the situation required 16- to 18-hour days, six days a week, and after that the process still required overtime through the year 1941",
". Faculty and staff members, accustomed to making purchases without bids, purchase orders or knowledge of the budget, had to be educated on the accepted business procedures on which the rest of the world operated.",
"While Middleton was helping LSU recover from this ordeal, he was also keeping an eye on events in Europe. In July 1940 he wrote a letter to General George Marshall asking if his services were needed by the Army as the United States was making preparations for war. Marshall replied that as much as the Army would like to have Middleton back in uniform, all the Army could do would be to place him in some training role, which would not effectively use his battle experience.",
"Middleton stayed at LSU until 1942, describing his days as the comptroller of LSU as long days that he would not want to relive, but after the first year he found both the work and his association with Hebert, Borth and Hornbeak to be satisfying and rewarding. He felt that during this period of time he was able to make his greatest contribution to an institution that had been very good to him in the past.",
"World War II",
"Troy Middleton was out dove hunting with his son, Troy Jr., and a friend on Sunday morning, 7 December 1941. Having had a successful morning, the trio decided to take a break for lunch, then come back out and get their bag limits in the afternoon. When they arrived at home for the mid-day meal, Mrs. Middleton greeted them with the news of the attack on Pearl Harbor. This put an end to the dove hunting, and Troy Middleton began to make plans",
". This put an end to the dove hunting, and Troy Middleton began to make plans. The next day he reported to the LSU president announcing his intention to offer his services to the U.S. Army, and he sent a telegram to the War Department announcing his availability for service. Within a day or so he received a reply: he would report to active duty as a lieutenant colonel on 20 January 1942.",
"Middleton was assigned to a training regiment at Camp Wheeler, Georgia, where he was quickly promoted to colonel on 1 February, and oversaw the combat training of thousands of recruits. After less than two months, he was given a rapid succession of assignments, including to Camp Gordon, Georgia and Camp Blanding, Florida",
". While at Blanding he was called to the War Department in Washington, where he was given an assignment to be a staff officer in London, but this rapidly changed when he was called to the War College, and met a classmate from Command and General Staff School, Brigadier General Mark Clark, who told him that he was being assigned to the Forty-fifth Infantry Division at Fort Devens, Massachusetts.",
"45th Infantry Division",
"Upon returning to Florida in early June 1942 to pick up his personal effects, Middleton received his orders for Fort Devens, and also word that he had been promoted to brigadier general. In mid-June he reported to the 45th, known as the \"Thunderbirds,\" an Army National Guard division consisting mostly of troops from Oklahoma, but also including some from Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico. The commanding general of the 45th, Major General William S",
". The commanding general of the 45th, Major General William S. Key, anticipated being replaced with an active duty officer. Though Middleton was not informed of this, in late summer 1942 Key was replaced, and Middleton was given the command of the division, along with a promotion to major general.",
"In the summer, the 45th did its training at Cape Cod, Massachusetts, after which Middleton was in command for winter training at Pine Camp, New York. Here the temperature dipped to −36°F and snow drifted head-high. A soldier in the division by the name of Bill Mauldin did a cartoon showing slop from the kitchen frozen in a column as it descended into the garbage can outside. Mauldin later became famous for his cartoons during World War II, and won two Pulitzer Prizes for his work",
". In February 1943 the training moved from Pine Camp to Camp Pickett, Virginia, for mountain training, and then to the Atlantic Coast for ship-to-shore training between Norfolk, Virginia and Solomons, Maryland. In early April, while the division was at Camp Pickett, Middleton was sent to North Africa with some of his staff to begin planning the ensuing military operation. Here he went to the headquarters of the Seventh Army commander, Lieutenant General George S. Patton, in Morocco and stayed nearly a month",
". Patton, in Morocco and stayed nearly a month. Patton would command the Seventh Army in the Sicily landings during the summer, and the 45th would be the only combat-loaded division coming from the United States. With the division scheduled to sail from Norfolk on 5 June, Middleton left beforehand to complete the planning for the landing on a hostile shore, this time reporting to the II Corps headquarters of Lieutenant General Omar Bradley in Algiers, Algeria",
". For this operation, Bradley was subordinate to Patton, under British overall direction. By the time the division arrived in Oran, Algeria, the planning was complete, and the unit was able to run one rehearsal in western Algeria before embarking for Sicily.",
"Sicily",
"The 45th Division was under Omar Bradley's II Corps, which in turn was subordinate to Patton's Seventh Army. Overall command of the Sicilian invasion, called Operation Husky, was with British General Sir Harold Alexander, and the British forces were organized under the British Eighth Army commanded by General Bernard Montgomery. The 45th Division consisted of three infantry regiments, the 157th, 179th and 180th, and numerous other elements",
". Fighting alongside the 45th Division were the First Infantry Division, Third Infantry Division, and the 505th Parachute Infantry Regiment (PIR) (with the 3rd Battalion of the 504th PIR and numerous other support units attached), part of the 82nd Airborne Division.",
"The 45th departed Oran on 4 July 1943, with little attention paid to the fact that it was Independence Day. The six-day trip to Sicily was smooth at first, then turned fairly rough, with seasickness prevalent among the troops. The weather calmed as several troop ships rendezvoused near the town of Scoglitti, on the western side of Sicily's south coast. At 2 a.m",
". At 2 a.m. on 10 July the landing craft were filled with infantrymen, and as the craft approached the shoreline, the Navy opened up with a volley of preparatory fire. The primary mission of the 45th was to capture two airfields needed for Allied aircraft. Comiso Airfield, about eleven miles from the shore, was captured in a day and was being used by American planes the next day. It took four days for the division to capture Biscari Airfield, about twelve miles inland.",
"The next objective of the 45th was to fight German and Italian forces en route to the north coast of Sicily. The plan was to use Highway 124, one of Sicily's four major highways. This highway, originally in the American sector, had been usurped by Montgomery, with no word of the change of boundaries given to Middleton. Word eventually came down from Alexander that the boundaries had been changed, which meant that when the 45th reached the highway, they became frozen in place with no opportunity to advance",
". Middleton moved his division from the right of II Corps to the left, traveling ninety miles out of the way through back areas of the other American divisions, to get in position for the march north. On 23 July the first elements of the 45th reached the north coast of the island at Station Cerda, five miles east of Termini Imerese, taking thirteen days to move from south coast to north coast. The division then moved east along the coast, reaching its objective of Santo Stefano on 30 July",
". The division then moved east along the coast, reaching its objective of Santo Stefano on 30 July. Here they were stormed by the Germans, but fought back, forcing the German rear guard out of the area by the following morning. This was the end of active fighting for the 45th in Sicily, where the division endured 1,156 casualties while taking nearly 11,000 prisoners.",
"The Third Infantry Division was moved in to replace the 45th, which was now ticketed for the upcoming invasion of the Italian mainland. In recalling events on Sicily in his biography, Middleton noted a strain in his relationship with General Patton. Patton felt that the Mauldin cartoons published in the division newspaper were irreverent and unsoldierly. Middleton consistently defended Mauldin, but was verbally ordered by Patton to get rid of him",
". Middleton consistently defended Mauldin, but was verbally ordered by Patton to get rid of him. When Middleton told Patton to put the order in writing, the issue was dropped. Soon thereafter, Patton slapped two soldiers who he suspected of malingering in hospitals, which brought public condemnation and loss of his command.",
"Italian mainland",
"The month of August 1943 was used by the 45th Division for some rest and planning. Seven plans for the invasion of Italy were put on the table, and three of them were adopted, of which the British had two (Operation Baytown and Operation Slapstick) and the Americans had one, called Operation Avalanche. The 45th Division would be under Major General Ernest J. Dawley's U.S. VI Corps, within the U.S. Fifth Army commanded by Lieutenant General Mark W. Clark",
". Dawley's U.S. VI Corps, within the U.S. Fifth Army commanded by Lieutenant General Mark W. Clark. The plan called for the landing of the Allied forces in the vicinity of Salerno, Italy, about 200 miles north of Sicily.",
"The first Allied landings on the beach occurred on 9 September, with two regiments of Middleton's 45th Infantry Division, the 157th and 179th Infantry, landing the following day. The other regiment of the division, the 180th, would land at a different point and be held in reserve by Clark. Middleton was responsible for ten miles of beachhead between the British X Corps and the U.S. 36th Infantry Division",
".S. 36th Infantry Division. The German defensive positions pounded the Allies, who gained little ground in the first few days of the operation. Lieutenant General Clark, the Fifth Army commander, faltered and sent around a confidential memo indicating that he was contemplating taking the troops back off the beaches. Middleton, telling his staff that they were not leaving, spread around the word to his troops that it was a good time to do some hard fighting",
". On the morning of 14 September units of the 45th did some particularly hard fighting at a large tobacco factory, consisting of five imposing stone buildings in a somewhat circular pattern. The Germans were dug in here, and repulsed the Americans initially, but with the aid of some naval gun fire, the Germans were eventually pushed back. Clark visited the front later that day, and was convinced that his army was going to stay.",
"General Dwight D. Eisenhower, now the Supreme Allied Commander in the Mediterranean, visited the beachhead on 17 September, observing that the battle had been won. The following day the Germans had pulled out of the area, and the 45th was able to advance to Venafro before meeting any resistance. The division was at the far right of the Fifth Army, working up the center of the Italian boot, adjacent to Montgomery's British Eighth Army which was responsible for the eastern half of the boot",
". By 24 September the division had taken Oliveto and Quaglietta after some heavy fighting, and by 3 October they had taken Benevento. On 21 October the division was put into corps reserve, following almost six weeks of uninterrupted action. There was still some German resistance around Venafro, and elements of the 179th Infantry Regiment secured the town on 2 November. With this the fighting came to a large pause as Allied planners studied further action.",
"With the lull in the fighting, and the onset of autumn rains, coupled with endless hills and deepening mud, Middleton's left knee, which had been uncomfortable for more than a year, was now becoming agonizing. He had hurt his right knee many years earlier playing football, but there was no immediate explanation for the pain in his left leg. Medics studied his leg, but had no answers. In late November Middleton went to the hospital in Naples, staying well into December, still without adequate diagnosis",
". He was able to hobble around, and did some staff work, then flew to General Eisenhower's headquarters in North Africa. He stayed there until mid-January, when he was sent to Walter Reed Hospital back in the United States. While Middleton was at Walter Reed, General Eisenhower communicated to General George Marshall, the U.S. Army Chief of Staff, that he needed Middleton back overseas",
".S. Army Chief of Staff, that he needed Middleton back overseas. Acknowledging Middleton's difficulty with his knees, Eisenhower said, \"I don't give a damn about his knees; I want his head and his heart. And I'll take him into battle on a litter if we have to.\" Command of the 45th Division went to Major General William W. Eagles.",
"The two generals came up with a plan, and Middleton was sent to six Army installations in Tennessee, Colorado, and Washington, D.C., with a brief stopover to visit his family in Baton Rouge. Middleton would be taking command of VIII Corps in England, and was sent to the various locations to confuse the enemy about the personnel change. Accompanying him was a sergeant who had been a physical therapist in civilian life, and who would massage Middleton's knees twice a day for the next year",
". When asked what staff he needed to take with him, Middleton replied that he would keep the staff that was already in place, except that for an aide he would like his old LSU friend, Mack Hornbeak, who had served with him through Sicily and Italy.",
"VIII Corps",
"The U.S. VIII Corps had arrived in the United Kingdom in December 1943, and was commanded by Major General Emil F. Reinhardt, who Middleton had known for many years. While he was an able commander, his lack of combat experience resulted in his being replaced by Middleton (though Reinhardt would later command a division in the European fighting). Middleton's first stop in Europe before assuming command of VIII Corps was to confer with his friend and commander, Dwight Eisenhower",
". Eisenhower had asked Middleton about his views on making Patton the commander of an army. Middleton thought it was a good idea since Patton was such an able fighter. Eisenhower agreed, but was concerned about Patton's propensity to embarrass the Army by things he said to the press. Following this Patton was given command of the Third Army, which was headquartered north of London during the preparation for the invasion of Normandy.",
"Middleton's VIII Corps headquarters was in the town of Kidderminster about fifteen miles from Birmingham, and about 110 miles northwest of London. In order to deceive the Germans, Middleton moved his headquarters another 75 miles to the north, near Liverpool. This made it appear that the corps would move east to the English Channel for a landing near Calais, France",
". The ruse was effective, keeping the Germans guessing, and compelling them to split their forces among multiple locations along the French coast, instead of concentrating their forces at one probable landing point.",
"The VIII Corps fell under Patton's Third Army, and trained in England from March to late May 1944. Two weeks before the invasion, the corps was pulled out of the Third Army and placed in Omar Bradley's First Army. First Army was responsible for the D-Day landings in Normandy, and once the Allies were established on shore, Middleton was to bring his VIII Corps across. Shortly before the invasion, Middleton took his corps to Southampton where they awaited their channel crossing time.",
"Cotentin Peninsula and Operation Cobra",
"The VIII Corps sat in Southampton from D-Day, 6 June, until 11 June 1944 when it began crossing the English Channel. The corps lost only one of its Landing Ship Tanks (LSTs) to a mine during the crossing, but on it was about half of Middleton's headquarters complement. Other than the members of the sunken LST, who would rejoin the corps ten days later, the entire corps was ashore on 12 June near Carentan, where Joe Collins' VII Corps had cleared the beach on D-Day",
". At this point the divisions of VIII Corps included the 82nd Airborne, 101st Airborne, 79th Infantry and 90th Infantry. The 82nd, under Major General Matthew Bunker Ridgway, performed admirably, but soon left the corps, and once in Brittany the corps would have an entirely different complement of divisions.",
"After VII Corps took the port city of Cherbourg, VIII Corps began moving south against German forces in the middle of the Cotentin Peninsula. The Germans had the high ground, and the fighting was further complicated by the bocage countryside—a series of farmers fields and pastures forming a latticework, with each unit separated by walls of earth up to six feet high supporting dense shrubbery and trees",
". The German defenders had every advantage over the Americans, whose tanks would tip up and expose their thin bottom armor as they attempted to cross the barriers. By mid July, field expedient devices were developed to equip tanks to penetrate the hedgerows and restore battlefield mobility. Such specially equipped tanks were referred to as Rhino Tank.",
"After breaking out of the bocage, VIII Corps was able to roll fifty miles in seven days, but it, and the remainder of Bradley's First Army, remained bottled up on the Cotentin Peninsula. The next phase of the fight, codenamed Operation Cobra was to break out of the peninsula, and once this occurred, Patton's Third Army would join the fight. The operation began on 24 July 1944 when American air commanders were asked to lay a carpet of bombs on the Germans to soften them up for the advancing ground forces",
". Poor weather curtailed the operation on the first day, but more than a thousand bombing missions were carried out the following day. Lieutenant General Lesley McNair, chief of the Army Ground Forces, came to Middleton's headquarters to witness the bombing. Middleton warned him to stay at corps headquarters, but McNair strayed away far enough that he and other members of his party were killed when they got caught by Allied bombs. More than 600 U.S",
". More than 600 U.S. troops were killed or wounded in this friendly fire incident when the bombs fell short of their intended target.",
"Despite the mishap, the bombing was effective in reducing the German resistance, and over the next few days the VIII Corps was able to move south along the coast. On 30 July they seized the town of Avranches, the gateway to Brittany and southern Normandy. Once in command of Avranches, VIII Corps then secured the bridges at Pontaubault, and in doing so, broke out of the Cotentin Peninsula and into Brittany",
". This brought about the planned command change, and at noon on 1 Aug 1944 Omar Bradley moved up to command the 12th Army Group, Courtney Hodges took over the First Army, and Patton's Third Army was activated into the group along with First Army, with Middleton's VIII Corps now falling under General Patton.",
"Following the breakout, Middleton found himself in a doctrinally uncomfortable situation, as the allies were now in a position to pursue the Germans. The cautious and methodical Middleton was in command of two infantry divisions and two armored divisions within his corps, and the impatient Patton could not understand why Middleton was not pursuing. In early August Patton wrote in his diary, \"I cannot make out why Middleton was so apathetic or dumb. I don't know what was the matter with him",
". I don't know what was the matter with him.\" Despite his wealth of battlefield experience and years of military schooling, Middleton had only limited experience in conducting pursuit operations, and was a bit overwhelmed by them. Ultimately he allowed his armored divisions some autonomy in their operations, while using his infantry to clean up pockets of resistance en route to Brest",
". His estimates of enemy strength turned out to be much more accurate than those provided to him by Patton, and Patton ultimately acknowledged Middleton's value as a corps commander by presenting him with a Distinguished Service Medal within seven weeks of calling him \"dumb\" in his diary.",
"Battle for Brest",
"After the breakout from the Cotentin Peninsula, VIII Corps followed the Brittany coast westward en route to Brest, the port of Middleton's arrival and departure from Europe during World War I. As the corps passed St. Malo, Middleton turned his 83rd Division on the town, resulting in the capture of 14,000 Germans following a lengthy battle. Patton had already directed the corps' 6th Armored Division under Major General Bob Grow to move on to Brest while Middleton was still cleaning up in St",
". Malo, which fell on 17 August. Grow had arrived outside of Brest on 7 August, and met stiff resistance once there. The city, housing important German submarine pens and extensive machine facilities, was defended by three elite German divisions and several powerful 90-millimeter guns which were capable of destroying most of the armor in the 6th Armored Division. The siege of Brest required infantry, and once the 2nd Infantry Division under Major General Walter M",
". Robertson arrived, the armored division was released back to Patton for other operations. Also joining VIII Corps for the siege was the 8th Division commanded by Major General Donald A. Stroh and the 29th Division, a National Guard unit from Virginia, commanded by Major General Charles H. Gerhardt. Middleton also had a cavalry group and two ranger battalions commanded by Colonel Earl Rudder who later became president of Texas A&M University.",
"The city was well organized for defense, and in the Battle for Brest Middleton's units went about capturing it methodically. The defense of the city was under German Generalleutnant Hermann Ramcke with whom Middleton carried on a dialog during the siege. Ramcke sent Middleton a map showing where several hundred American prisoners were being held in the city, but also placed on the map a number of red crosses where the Allies knew some good bombing targets were located, such as ammunition depots",
". Middleton wrote back to Ramcke telling him to remove some of the bogus red crosses, or some terms of the Geneva Convention might have to be ignored. Middleton also reminded Ramcke of the Allies' superior artillery and air power.",
"The battle for Brest was intense and very destructive. After two weeks of constant day and night attacks, Middleton's units forced the Germans into ever tighter positions. On 12 September, Middleton sent a letter to Ramcke offering him an opportunity to stop the bloodshed, and to surrender the city in a humane and reasonable way, with terms of surrender spelled out in the letter. Ramcke's terse reply was simply, \"I must decline your proposal",
". Ramcke's terse reply was simply, \"I must decline your proposal.\" Unhappy with the response, Middleton directed his soldiers to \"enter the fray with renewed vigor...take them apart—and get the job finished.\" One week later, on 19 September, the Germans surrendered to Middleton, who, with much of his staff, had 99 unbroken days of combat",
". In a formal ceremony, Middleton gave the city back to its mayor, and General Patton arrived to pin a Distinguished Service Medal oak leaf cluster on Middleton for outstanding conduct during the campaign in Brittany, resulting in the capture of Brest.",
"The Americans captured more than 36,000 Germans, and evacuated 2,000 wounded, far exceeding the estimate of 10,000 Germans given to Middleton by Patton before the operation. Ramcke was captured by troops of the 8th Division, and asked the deputy division commander for his credentials. The American general pointed to the M-1 rifles being carried by his soldiers and told Ramcke that those were his credentials. Ramcke appeared at his formal surrender clean shaven and with a well-groomed Irish setter",
". Ramcke appeared at his formal surrender clean shaven and with a well-groomed Irish setter. With plenty of reporters and photographers documenting the occasion, Ramcke commented in English that he felt like a film star. He was soon sent to a prisoner of war camp in Clinton, Mississippi. After the war he spent time in a prison camp in England, and then was sent to France where he was tried and found guilty of war crimes against French civilians during the fighting at Brest",
". Ramcke continued a correspondence with Middleton for 15 years following the war.",
"Move to the Ardennes \n\nWith western France in the hands of the Allies, in late September Middleton made a leisurely trip east across France to the Ardennes Mountains, stopping en route to visit battlefields where he had served with distinction in 1918 during the Great War. The Germans were now behind a line from west of Metz, France, through Luxembourg, and east of the Belgian cities of Bastogne, Liege and Antwerp. The Allies had outrun their supply lines and had to slow their advance to resupply.",
"Middleton's VIII Corps was assigned a 50-mile front, half of which belonged to the 2nd Division and the other half to the 8th Division. The front extended from Losheim, on the German-Belgian border, to central Luxembourg. On 11 October, the 83rd Division was brought back under VIII Corps control, and another 38 miles of front in Luxembourg was added to the responsibility of the corps. The new 9th Armored Division was added to the lineup on 20 October, but put into corps reserve by Middleton",
". During October and into November these divisions ran deception maneuvers to confuse the Germans, and also became thoroughly familiar with the terrain so as to be able to absorb a heavy thrust from the enemy should they be attacked. However, from mid-November to early December the three well-prepared infantry divisions were all replaced by two battle-weary divisions and one green division",
". Both the 28th Infantry Division and the 4th Infantry Division, Middleton's old division from World War I, had taken heavy losses in the Huertgen Forest, and were at less than 75% normal strength. The 106th Infantry Division was just entering the lineup with no combat experience. Middleton now had about 68,000 officers and men in his corps, many weary and many uninitiated, along an 88-mile front facing about 200,000 veteran German troops who were deftly moving into position under the cover of darkness.",
"Battle of the Bulge",
"Striking at 5:30 a.m. on Saturday, 16 December, the Germans achieved almost total surprise in breaking through the allied lines, beginning what is commonly called the Battle of the Bulge. The Germans launched their great attack of 1940 through the same region, with Generalfeldmarschall Gerd von Rundstedt in command then as he was once again in this campaign. His goal was to separate the American forces from the British and Canadian forces, and take the important port city of Antwerp",
". By late afternoon the Germans had 14 divisions operating in the Ardennes, but this number would swell to an estimated 25 divisions, with 600 tanks and 1,000 aircraft. The 106th Division, located in the most exposed positions along the corps line, and the 28th Division took the brunt of the attack. Middleton, headquartered in Bastogne, was awakened by a guard and could hear the guns from there",
". Middleton, headquartered in Bastogne, was awakened by a guard and could hear the guns from there. Throughout the day, the 106th was able to hold its position, but additional German units poured in during the night. Much of the 106th was on the German side of the Our River in an area known as the Schnee Eifel. The division's commander, Major General Alan Jones, called Middleton, concerned about his two regiments east of the river. The conversation was interrupted by another call, and then resumed",
". The conversation was interrupted by another call, and then resumed. At the end of the conversation Middleton told an aide that he had given his approval to have the two regiments pull back to the west side of the river. Jones, on the other hand was convinced that Middleton had directed these units to stay, and was further convinced of this based on a written order from earlier in the day, but just received",
". As a result of the miscommunication, the pullback did not occur, and the two regiments were ultimately surrounded with most of the men captured on 17 December. While two of the 28th Division's regiments survived the German onslaught intact, the 110th Infantry Regiment, commanded by Colonel Hurley Fuller, was directly in the path of the advance",
". On 17 December Fuller counterattacked, but his lone regiment was up against three German divisions, and when Fuller's command post was attacked he was taken prisoner. Middleton next heard from him in April when he was released. Though the 110th Regiment was shattered, the resistance given by them and other VIII Corps units greatly slowed down the German timetable.",
"The city of Bastogne, Belgium was a hub of several major roads and became a prime target for the Germans, seeing its capture as necessary to their advance. Middleton was in continuous communication with Bradley at 12th Army Group headquarters in Luxembourg, and maintained that though Bastogne could soon be surrounded, it should be held. As the Germans advanced on Bastogne, both Bradley and First Army commander Hodges recognized the threat to Middleton and had him move his headquarters",
". He was supposed to leave Bastogne on 18 December, but spent another night there so that he could brief his relief force, the 101st Airborne Division. Not only did that division's acting commander, Brigadier General Anthony McAuliffe, show up ahead of schedule, but so did Colonel William Roberts from the 10th Armored Division Combat Command R (CCR), sent by Patton",
". Another welcome guest arriving later that evening was Major General Matthew Ridgway, commander of XVIII Airborne Corps, en route to his headquarters, but advised by Middleton to stay in Bastogne for the night to avoid capture by the Germans. While Middleton and his guests slept, elements of the 101st Airborne poured into Bastogne all during the night and into the following day.",
"Having conferred with McAuliffe at length the previous evening, Middleton left Bastogne after full daylight on 19 December, and set up headquarters in a school building in Neufchâteau, 17 miles to the southwest. For the next several days, Bastogne was defended by the 101st, along with elements of CCR and some corps artillery assets that Middleton was able to supply",
". McAuliffe had units scattered in towns surrounding Bastogne, which bore the brunt of attacks by the Panzer Lehr Division and Second Panzer Division. At one point on 19 December, some of McAuliffe's units wanted to fall back, and McAuliffe concurred, calling Middleton for his approval. Middleton's response was, \"we can't hold Bastogne if we keep falling back\" and the units were ordered to stay.",
"On 20 December, VIII Corps was moved from Hodges' First Army back to Patton's Third Army. Bastogne was being surrounded by the Germans and without adequate weather for airdrops, supplies were running low. By 22 December the Germans felt that their position around Bastogne was strong enough to send in an emissary with a note advising the Americans to surrender the city, or they would be attacked in the afternoon. McAuliffe's famous reply, \"Nuts!\" was sent back to the German commander",
". McAuliffe's famous reply, \"Nuts!\" was sent back to the German commander. The Germans did renew their attack that afternoon, but it was muted by freshly falling snow, and a stiff American response. The next morning, 23 December, was the eighth day of fighting and the first day that the sun had emerged from behind the thick fog and clouds since the beginning of the battle",
". The Ninth Air Force was able to send 240 aircraft over Bastogne that day, each dropping about 1200 pounds of critically needed supplies, including artillery rounds that were delivered in the morning and used against the Germans the same afternoon. Over the next three days, offensives made by the Germans were countered with responses from the Americans. In the late afternoon on 26 December the first elements of the long-awaited 4th Armored Division arrived in Bastogne, breaking the siege of the city",
". Hitler demanded that Bastogne be taken, but even with nine divisions in the fight, the Germans were not able to break in. With the siege broken and additional elements of the 4th Armored Division coming in, Middleton stipulated that the top priority was to get the 964 wounded troops out of Bastogne and into area hospitals. Despite the small opening to the city, it was clear by 27 December that the Germans were throwing their principal effort against Bastogne.",
"In response to this renewed German thrust against Bastogne, Eisenhower released two new divisions on 28 December, the 87th Infantry and the 11th Armored. These units joined the 101st Airborne Division in the corps lineup just in time for a new offensive on 30 December to shrink the bulge created in the allied line",
". The Americans began their attack at 7:30 that morning, which, coincidentally, was the exact time that the Germans, under General der Panzertruppen (Lieutenant General equivalent) Hasso von Manteuffel scheduled an attack of their own. The 11th Armored Division had difficulty meeting its objectives (for reasons not related to the strength of the Germans), but the 87th Division fought well in the snow, sleet and deepening cold",
". On 3 January the new 17th Airborne Division relieved the 11th Armored Division, and the corps stretched along a crude 15-mile line due west of Bastogne, with the 101st continuing to hold the city. For the next two weeks the corps moved steadily north in heavy, sometimes even desperate, fighting, and on 16 January they met units from First Army pushing south at Houffalize",
". Over the following twelve days the combined force pushed the Germans back eastward across the Our River, returning the Allied line to its original position before 16 December battle began, eliminating the bulge created in the Allied line on 16 December.",
"Push across Germany and victory",
"With the front restored to its previous boundary, Bradley summoned his Army and Corps commanders to his headquarters. He wanted Hodges' First Army to advance to the Rhine, while Patton's Third Army would stay put until First Army reached the river. Patton was very reluctant to hold in place, and questioned the advisability to do so. Bradley explained that all available ammunition and reinforcements would go to First Army, since two armies could not be simultaneously supplied",
". Patton reluctantly accepted Bradley's explanation, but after that meeting he called together his three corps commanders, Manton Eddy of XII Corps, Walton H. Walker of XX Corps, and Middleton. He asked Eddy if he could ease forward and capture Trier, Walker if he could do the same with Bitburg and Middleton if he could take Gerolstein. All three commanders agreed to this, and within a few days all three had reached their objectives",
". All three commanders agreed to this, and within a few days all three had reached their objectives. Middleton was then asked by Patton to take his corps all the way to Koblenz on the Rhine River, which he did, and VIII Corps reached the river before any units of First Army arrived.",
"Once the VIII Corps was at Koblenz, Patton took most of its divisions away for an operation with XII Corps further up the river at Mainz, leaving Middleton with some corps units (mostly artillery) and a single division, the 87th Infantry. Middleton asked Patton if he could take Koblenz with the 87th, eliciting a laugh from the army commander. Middleton pressed him to let him try, and with the commander's approval he was able to take the city, which only had about 500 defenders",
". Most of the other German troops were on the other side of the Rhine not wanting to get trapped between the Rhine and the Moselle Rivers.",
"Once Koblenz was captured in mid-March 1945, VIII Corps was assigned a 25-mile front from Koblenz upstream (southeast) to beyond Boppard and the famous landmark, the Lorelei. Patton then gave Middleton the 89th Division and 76th Division for the river crossing. Middleton chose to cross the river near the Lorelei where the river was narrow, swift, and flanked by steep terrain, eliciting another laugh from Patton",
". Middleton knew there would be little German resistance there, and he was able to get the entire 89th across in one night using inflatable rafts, and then put a pontoon bridge in place by early morning. The 87th initially attempted to cross at Koblenz but met too much resistance there, compelling them to move further upstream closer to Boppard, where their crossing went smoothly. Within two days Middleton had all three of his divisions across the Rhine.",
"In late March, VIII Corps advanced eastward through Eisenach and then across the Fulda River. Here some of Middleton's infantrymen came across the concentration camp at Ohrdruf, discovering the sickening evidence of what had transpired there. Middleton called Patton to come take a look, and Patton was joined by Bradley and Eisenhower. In his diary, Patton described the place as \"one of the most appalling sights that I have ever seen",
".\" This was the first Nazi concentration camp to be discovered by the United States Army, and Eisenhower cabled Marshall to get a delegation from Congress over to witness and communicate what took place there. Middleton later had officials from the town come in. While every one of them denied knowing what was happening, the mayor and his wife both committed suicide that night.",
"The VIII Corps continued its eastward advance well into the month of April, and was ordered to stop between Chemnitz and the Czechoslovakian border, where the corps would make contact with the Russians. The immediate problem was dealing with the prisoners of war",
". The immediate problem was dealing with the prisoners of war. The Americans were almost overwhelmed by the number of Germans wanting to surrender to them, and despite orders to take no more prisoners, thousands of Germans filtered through VIII Corps lines at night, desperately trying to avoid capture by the Russians. During the last week of April, a Russian cavalry unit made contact with Middleton",
". During the last week of April, a Russian cavalry unit made contact with Middleton. While the leaders of both the Americans and the Russians exchanged luncheon invitations, the Russians were extremely reluctant to allow any Americans across the Russian line, and their American lunch guests were taken by a very circuitous route into Russian-held territory.",
"On 25 April 1945 Patton wrote a recommendation, citing Middleton's \"outstanding tactical skill and determination,\" his \"magnificent resistance against...Von Rundstadt's attack,\" and his \"tireless energy and unfaltering aggressiveness.\" With the war in Europe almost over, the disposition of the various units was being decided by higher command. Some would remain as occupation forces in Europe, some would return to the United States, and some would be sent to the Pacific theater to fight against the Japanese",
". The Germans formally surrendered in the American sector on 7 May 1945, and two days later Patton issued his General Order Number 98 thanking the soldiers of the Third Army, past and present, for their accomplishments. On 13 May, Middleton wrote a letter to Bradley requesting to be released from active duty, once his combat services were no longer needed",
". He asked to return to LSU by 1 August 1945, but also paid compliments to Bradley and others by writing, \"That men such as you, Ike, Joe Collins, Courtney Hodges and others have accomplished so much in this war, are available to guide the future of our Army, we cannot but feel the future is in safe hands.\"",
"Middleton was the only commander that VIII Corps had ever had in combat. He had been away from home for over 1,200 days since departing in January 1942, and had logged 480 days in combat, more time than any other American general officer during World War II. Near the end of May 1945 groups of general officers, other officers and enlisted men were sent to several major cities across the United States to appear in parades",
". Middleton was part of a group headed by Courtney Hodges that went to Atlanta, where he and his son reunited with his wife and daughter (his son, Lieutenant Troy Middleton Jr. had been with him in Europe) and where they were treated to a reception held by the mayor. From Atlanta the family flew to Baton Rouge where Middleton took 15 days of leave, after which he went to Washington, D.C., to meet with General Marshall",
".C., to meet with General Marshall. Marshall told Middleton that he could either return to Germany to be with his corps, or he could wait at home until the unit returned to the states, Middleton opting for the latter. Marshall also told Middleton that VIII Corps was being ticketed for Japan. When the atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima, Middleton went back to Washington, and this time Marshall told him he doubted any more units would be sent to the Pacific",
". Asked if he wanted to stay in the army, Middleton's reply was that he had retired in 1937, and he intended to be returned to retired status once he was no longer needed as a combat commander.",
"Return to Louisiana State University",
"In late August 1945 Middleton returned to Louisiana State University (LSU) and reported to President Hatcher, requesting his old job as comptroller. He focused on getting things ready for thousands of soldiers who would be going back to school. Enrollments had swollen in 1945, but increased exponentially in 1946. One of Middleton's priorities was to get housing for all of these new students, many of whom were married",
". With keen insights into military procurement, he was able to find a variety of types of excess housing units that the military no longer needed, providing both students and faculty with adequate housing at very low cost. He did not believe that blacks and whites should play on the same athletic teams, and wrote a letter dated 27 October 1961 to this effect to the Chancellor at The University of Texas.",
"Military advisory roles",
"Though retired from the military, Middleton was soon called to serve in a variety of advisory capacities. In April 1946 he was appointed to the Doolittle Board, set up to investigate officer-enlisted men relationships, and headed by former Air Corps General James H. Doolittle. The board made a number of recommendations, one of the more significant ones being to allow the non-commissioned officers to establish their own clubs, a recommendation supported by Bill Mauldin",
". Three years later Middleton was asked to serve on the Military Education Panel of the Service Academy Board to look at the curricula of the Military and Naval Academies, and the proposed Air Force Academy as well. Working for nine months on recommendations, Middleton stressed a more liberal education for the academies, and much of what he recommended was accepted.",
"Middleton was also asked to speak to military groups on occasion, such as for commissioning exercises at Fort Benning in 1951. As late as 1958 he was called on by the United States Military Academy to come and review the curriculum offered to the cadets, and then was called again in 1959 to do related work.",
"In the spring of 1951, Middleton got a call from General J. Lawton Collins, who was now the Army Chief of Staff, asking for Middleton to take an assignment on behalf of the Army. Middleton was compelled to say yes. There were allegations of wholesale honor code violations at the U. S. Military Academy in West Point, and Middleton was to serve on a committee to oversee the proceedings and make recommendations",
". Though personally painful to Middleton, the committee's recommendation was to dismiss 82 cadets for cheating, including most of the members of the football team. A headline in a New Orleans newspaper wryly summarized the event as \"Army Football Team Severely Penalized for Illegal Passing.\" While this was a drastic undertaking, the committee also recommended that the same tests not be given to different groups on different days, which practice offered the cadets a big temptation to cheat",
". Though this was not a pleasant assignment for Middleton, he had been selected for the task because of his reputation for fairness. Though he had never attended West Point, in 1952 he was asked to serve the academy on its Board of Visitors, a position which he held for one three-year term.",
"University presidency",
"Dr. Hatcher, the President of LSU, resigned his position in February 1947 because of ill health. The search went out for a new president, and when Middleton was asked to be considered for the job, he declined, being very content with his job as comptroller. Following the search, Harold W. Stoke was brought in from the University of New Hampshire. Middleton thought Stoke had many good qualities, but he could not work well with the Board of Supervisors",
". Stoke was sometimes doctrinaire, and his formality when working with the board members was found to be annoying by some. While he was respected by most of the faculty, Stoke continued to have run-ins with the board members, and in December 1950 his differences with the board resulted in his tendering his resignation.",
"Stoke asked the board to hold a special meeting on 28 December to act on his resignation. Following the meeting, three members of the board came to Middleton's office, and told him, \"The board has elected you president of the university and we are here to notify you. It is the board's desire that you accept.\" Middleton was pressed to make a quick decision, and feeling confident that he could fulfill the job with no misgivings, he accepted the position",
". There was some backlash from the resignation of Stoke, as students and members of the community criticized the board. Nevertheless, the resignation became effective on 1 February 1951, on which day Middleton began his role as university president.",
"The years that Middleton was president of LSU were marked by tremendous growth, resulting in many battles over funding priorities. The four major projects being considered were a new library, enclosure of the football stadium, a new auditorium and an addition to the medical school in New Orleans. Middleton's priorities put the library at the head of the list, and the stadium last",
". Middleton's priorities put the library at the head of the list, and the stadium last. The Board of Supervisors, on the other hand, gave priority to the stadium, and in February 1953 voted to accept a bid for the project. After the stadium expansion had been approved, the Board of Supervisors agreed to give priority to a new library in September 1953",
". Within a year, the state legislature had given LSU all of the funds it asked for, about 20% more than the previous request, to be used mostly for higher staff salaries, but also including 3.6 million dollars for the new library to be built across from the Hill Memorial Library in the central part of the campus. In 1954 projections indicated that student enrollment would nearly double in the next 15 years, and in response the university entered into its most ambitious building program to date.",
"As the university president, Middleton was constantly involved in personnel decisions, some of them making national news. One such ordeal occurred in February 1955 when the Board of Supervisors decided that it was time for the head football coach, Gaynell Tinsley, to be relieved following a break-even record in seven years. His successor, Paul Dietzel, had a rough beginning at LSU with three losing seasons, and calls for his removal grew",
". Middleton supported Dietzel, however, and in his fourth season as coach the LSU Tigers not only had an undefeated season, but also won the Sugar Bowl and were declared the national champions.",
"A serious issue facing most southern schools in 1956 was that of desegregation. While Middleton, like most white Louisianans, was in favor of segregation, as the university president his responsibility was to uphold the laws of the state and nation. In a letter to University of Texas Chancellor Harry Ransom, Middleton detailed his efforts to keep black and white students separate and to prevent black students from participating in athletics, in spite of accepting black students into the university",
". He wrote, \"Our Negro students have made no attempt to attend social functions, participate in athletic contests, go in the swimming pool, etc. If they did, we would, for example, discontinue the operation of the swimming pool.\"",
"In April he wrote a report to the Board of Supervisors entitled \"LSU and Segregation.\" Here he outlined the history of the enrollment of blacks at LSU, which showed how resistant the university had been to such an undertaking. While there were avid segregationists who declared the federal desegregation laws would not be fulfilled, more practical minds could see the futility and extreme expense of having to create duplicate facilities, and the process of integration accelerated.",
"When Middleton reached the university's mandatory retirement age of 70 in 1959, the Alumni Council adopted a resolution to have the Board of Supervisors waive the age requirement, and allow Middleton to stay on as president. This was done, and again at the end of the 1959–1960 school year he was once again declared to be essential to the university, and once again reluctantly agreed to stay for one additional year",
". Though it became a long year, on 1 February 1962 Middleton officially retired, and three weeks earlier 11 January was declared as \"Troy H. Middleton Day in Louisiana\" by Governor Jimmie H. Davis. LSU classes were suspended, an honor guard from the Cadet Corps was formed, and Secretary of the Army Elvis Stahr came to address the convocation, at which Middleton was given the honorary degree of Doctor of Laws.",
"Retirement and death \nMiddleton was a little more than 72 years old when he retired from LSU in 1962. He was now President Emeritus, and maintained an office on campus in the David F. Boyd building. He went to this office every Wednesday morning where a staff secretary handled the typing of a large number of letters in response to his mail.",
"Two years after his retirement, in May 1964, Governor John J. McKeithen came to his office hoping that Middleton would accept a job on a commission that he was forming. The governor was wanting to ease the state's growing racial tensions by creating a biracial commission composed of 21 blacks and 21 whites. The governor needed a chairman who would command respect",
". The governor needed a chairman who would command respect. Middleton said he would do it for a year, beginning in 1965, but as had often happened in the past, the year stretched into five, and it was not until 1970 when the commission had reached its goals and was disbanded that Middleton was freed from this duty. Middleton's black counterpart on the commission was Dr",
". Middleton's black counterpart on the commission was Dr. Albert Dent, president of Dillard University in New Orleans, and the directors chosen to head the staff of this Commission on Human Relations, Rights, and Responsibilities were white attorney John Martzell and black attorney Jesse N. Stone",
". Stone. Some of the potential trouble spots where the commission was able to have a positive effect included the towns of Ferriday and Opelousas, and the commission helped to open the ranks of the Louisiana State Police to qualified blacks. The commission was disbanded in May 1970, after having effectively served its purpose, and the members each received a letter of thanks from the governor.",
"In January 1969 the Coordinating Council for Higher Education was authorized, and Middleton agreed to serve once again, but this time refused pressure from the governor to become the chairman. After two years, Middleton felt that the council had more than justified itself by merging redundant facilities, and disapproving projects that were wasteful of taxpayer's money",
". Middleton served in this role until 1973, when he was 83 years old, and also served in a number of other capacities, but continued to hunt and fish when he could, while also enjoying his growing family.",
"Middleton died in Baton Rouge on 9 October 1976, three days before his 87th birthday.\n\nLegacy",
"In 1962, the year of Middleton's retirement from LSU, Mississippi State University declared him the \"alumnus of the year\". On 10 September 1966, the Louisiana Association of Broadcasters awarded Middleton a bronze plaque, honoring him as the Louisianan of the Year for his accomplishments in racial peace-keeping while chairing the Commission on Human Relations, Rights, and Responsibilities. On 24 March 1973, the Middleton Collection of Memorabilia was dedicated at LSU",
". On 24 March 1973, the Middleton Collection of Memorabilia was dedicated at LSU. Housed in the university's library, the collection included pictures, letters, citations, awards, plaques, a uniform, riding boots, a saber and numerous other artifacts and documents. The room was maintained until 1999, when the items were cataloged and moved to the university archives in the old Hill Memorial Library.",
"On 3 November 1978 the LSU Board of Supervisors officially named the LSU library the \"Troy H. Middleton Library,\" 20 years after the building was first dedicated. However, in June 2020, the LSU Board of Supervisors voted to strip Middleton's name from the library, due to his past pro-segregationist stances. A plaque and bust honoring him were also removed and placed in storage.",
"In Baton Rouge, a street is named Middleton Place in honor of the General; and in 1986 at Mississippi State University the Army and Air Force ROTC building was named in honor of Middleton.\n\nWhen interviewed by Middleton's biographer in 1965, former President Dwight D. Eisenhower, who had once been a student of Middleton's, said:\n\nDates of rank\n\nAncestry\n\nSee also",
"Dates of rank\n\nAncestry\n\nSee also \n\nAllied Invasion of Italy Order of Battle\nInvasion of Normandy\nOperation Overlord\nOperation Cobra order of battle\nList of lieutenant generals in the United States Army before 1960 (item #86)\n\nReferences\n\nNotes \nA. While some references call her \"Katherine Louise,\" the 1870 and 1900 federal censuses for Copiah County, Mississippi and her tombstone in the Bethel Church Cemetery all give her name as \"Laura Catherine,\" the latter spelled with a C.\n\nCitations\n\nBibliography",
"Citations\n\nBibliography\n\nExternal links\n45th Division: Troy H. Middleton\n\nThe general that history forgot; and one that popular lore created\" by Mitchell Kaidy\n\"Who really liberated Bastogne?\" by Mitchell Kaidy\n\"Did Patton himself write noble letter to Middleton?\" by Mitchell Kaidy\nThe Battle of the Bulge – Fortunes of War\n\nGenerals of World War II\nUnited States Army Officers 1939–1945\n\n|-\n\n|-",
"1889 births\n1976 deaths\nUnited States Army Infantry Branch personnel\nUnited States Army personnel of World War I\nLeaders of Louisiana State University\nMississippi State University alumni\nMilitary personnel from Baton Rouge, Louisiana\nPeople from Copiah County, Mississippi\nRecipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (US Army)\nRecipients of the Legion of Merit\nRecipients of the Silver Star\nUnited States Army generals\nUnited States Army Command and General Staff College alumni",
"United States Army generals\nUnited States Army Command and General Staff College alumni\nUnited States Army War College alumni\nUnited States Army generals of World War II\nUnited States Army Command and General Staff College faculty\nMilitary personnel from Mississippi\nLouisiana State University faculty\n20th-century American academics"
] |
Names of the Greeks
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Names%20of%20the%20Greeks
|
[
"The Greeks () have been identified by many ethnonyms. The most common native ethnonym is Hellen (), pl. Hellenes (); the name Greeks () was used by the ancient Romans and gradually entered the European languages through its use in Latin. The mythological patriarch Hellen is the named progenitor of the Greek peoples; his descendants the Aeolians, Dorians, Achaeans and Ionians correspond to the main Greek tribes and to the main dialects spoken in Greece and Asia Minor (Anatolia).",
"The first Greek-speaking people, called Myceneans or Mycenean-Achaeans by historians, entered present-day Greece sometime in the Neolithic era or the Bronze Age. Homer refers to \"Achaeans\" as the dominant tribe during the Trojan War period usually dated to the 12th–11th centuries BC, using Hellenes to describe a relatively small tribe in Thessaly. The Dorians, an important Greek-speaking group, appeared roughly at that time",
". The Dorians, an important Greek-speaking group, appeared roughly at that time. According to the Greek tradition, the Graeci (Latin; , Graikoi, \"Greeks\") were renamed Hellenes probably with the establishment of the Great Amphictyonic League after the Trojan War.",
"When the Romans first encountered Greek colonists in Southern Italy, they used the name Graeci for the colonists and then for all Greeks; this became the root of all relevant terms in European languages. The Persians used the name Yaunas (Yunans) after the Ionians, a Greek tribe who colonized part of the coasts of western Asia Minor. The term was used later in Hebrew (Yevanim, ), Arabic, and also by the Turks. The word entered the languages of the Indian subcontinent as the Yona",
". The word entered the languages of the Indian subcontinent as the Yona. A unique form is used in Georgian, where the Greeks are called Berdzeni (ბერძენი).",
"By Late Antiquity (c. 3rd–7th centuries), the Greeks referred to themselves as Graikoi (, \"Greeks\") and Rhomaioi/Romioi (//, \"Romans\") the latter of which was used since virtually all Greeks were Roman citizens after 212 AD. The term Hellene started to be applied to the followers of the polytheistic (\"pagan\") religion after the establishment of Christianity by Theodosius I.\n\nGeneral names of Greece",
"General names of Greece\n\nMost European languages, as well as other languages that have borrowed the name from one of them, use names for Greece that come from the Latin Graecia and Graecus, the name the Romans used for the Greeks, itself from the Greek :\n\n \n\n (Hrecyja)\n (Gǎrcija); the alternative historical name Елада (Elada) for ancient Greece is also used sometimes.\n\n (Gretsi)\n (Goihi)\n\n (rare or obsolete use)\n\n (Girisha)\n (Krech)\n (Geuriseu)\n\n (Grcija)\n\n (Grecija)\n\n (Grisiya)\n\n (Krīt)\n (Hrecija)",
"(Girisha)\n (Krech)\n (Geuriseu)\n\n (Grcija)\n\n (Grecija)\n\n (Grisiya)\n\n (Krīt)\n (Hrecija)\n\nIn languages of Middle East and South and Central Asia, the common root is \"yun\" or \"ywn\". It is borrowed from the Greek name Ionia, a once Greek region of Asia Minor, and the Ionians:\n\n (Yūnān)\n or (Yawān, Yawon)\n (Hunastan)\n (Yunastan)\n\n (Yūnān)\n (Yāwān)\n (Yavan)\n\n (Yūnān)\n (Yūnān)\n (Yūnān)\n (Yauna)\n (Yavana)\n (Yunon)\n\nThe third form is \"Hellas\", used by a few languages around the world, including Greek:",
"The third form is \"Hellas\", used by a few languages around the world, including Greek:\n\nGreek: or \nPolytonic: or \nMonotonic: or \n\n (rare usage)\n (used for Ancient Greece)\n\n (Hanyu Pinyin: Xīlà; Jyutping: hei1 laap6)\n (rare usage)\n\nOther forms:\n (Hrōmāyīg)\nLaz: Xorumona (ხორუმონა)\n (Saberdzneti)",
"Brief history",
"The first people speaking an ancient Proto-Greek language entered mainland Greece during the Neolithic period or the Bronze Age. From the Ancient Greek dialects as they presented themselves centuries later, it seems that at least two migrations of Greeks occurred overall, the first of the Ionians and the Aeolians probably in the 19th century BC and the second of the Dorians probably in the 13th century BC",
". The first migration resulted in Mycenean Greek, an archaic Greek language which appears in Linear B syllabic inscriptions and the second resulted in the Dorian dialect which displaced the Arcadocypriot dialect that seems to be closest to the Mycenean Greek.",
"The tribes later called Aeolians and Ionians established several feudal kingdoms around Greece, and the historians called them Myceneans after their most powerful kingdom Mycenea in Peloponnese, or Myceneans-Achaeans because in Homer the Achaeans were the dominating tribe in Greece and the name Achiyawa that appears in Hittite texts seems to correspond to a thalassocratic country which might be Mycenea.",
"Although Homer referred to a union of the Greek kingdoms under the leadership of the king of Mycenae during the Trojan War, there is no evidence that these kingdoms were dominated by a central power. Most of the Mycenaean palaces were destroyed at the end of the 13th century BC",
". Most of the Mycenaean palaces were destroyed at the end of the 13th century BC. The Greek tradition relates this destruction to the Dorians, but it is suggested that the Dorian invasion was only one of the causes of the Bronze Age collapse in the Eastern Mediterranean, as there is no evidence that the newcomers established a different civilization",
". The destruction was followed by the Greek Dark Ages with very poor archaeological findings, when most occupied areas were deserted, but some areas like Attica occupied by the Ionians remained untouched by the invaders. Several Greek tribes moved to regions of Greece where they acquired different names, and population groups moved through the islands to the western coasts of Asia Minor where they kept their native names Aeolians, Ionians and Dorians.",
"It seems that the myth of Hellen, the progenitor of the Hellenes, was invented when the Greek tribes started to separate from each other, and stressed their common origin. The name \"Hellenes\" was probably used by the Greeks with the establishment of the Great Amphictyonic League, an ancient association of Greek tribes. According to legend it was founded after the Trojan War, by the eponymous Amphictyon, brother of Hellen",
". It had twelve founders and was organized to protect the great temples of Apollo in Delphi (Phocis) and of Demeter near Thermopylae (Locris)",
". The twelve founders enumerated by Aeschines were the Aenianes or Oetaeans (Αἰνιᾶνες, Οἰταῖοι), the Boeotians (Βοιωτοί) of Thebes, the Dolopes (Δόλοπες), the Dorians (Δωριείς) of Sparta, the Ionians (Ἴωνες) of Athens, the Phthian Achaeans (Ἀχαιοί), the Locrians (Λοκροί) (Opuntians, Ὀπούντιοι and Ozolians, Ὀζολαί), the Magnesians (Μάγνητες), the Malians (Μαλιεῖς), the Perrhaebians (Περραιβοί), the Phocians (Φωκεῖς), the Pythians (Πύθιοι) of Delphi, and the Thessalians (Θεσσαλοί)",
". Among the descendants of Hellen are mentioned Aeolus, Ion, Achaeus, Dorus, Graecos and Makedon. It seems that the Macedonians were a Dorian tribe that stayed behind in Macedonia when the main Dorian tribes moved to the south.",
"Achaeans (Ἀχαιοί)\n\nLate Bronze Age Hittite texts mention a nation called Ahhiya and subsequently Ahhiyawa which have been identified in scholarship as part of the Mycenaean world. Egyptian records mention peoples known as Ekwesh, Denyen and Tanaju that have been also linked to the Mycenaean world.",
"In Homer's Iliad, the Greek allied forces are described under three different names; Achaeans (Ἀχαιοί, Akhaioí, used 598 times), Danaans (Δαναοί, Danaoí, used 138 times) and Argives (Ἀργεῖοι, Argeîoi, used 29 times). All of the aforementioned terms were used synonymously to denote a common Greek identity.",
"A fourth term – \"Panhellenes\" – ( \"All of the Greeks\") and \"Hellenes'\" (; ) – both appear only once; implying it was not a central concept in Homer's work. In some English translations of the Iliad, the Achaeans are simply called \"the Greeks\" throughout.\n\nHellenes (Ἕλληνες)",
"There is currently no satisfactory etymology for the name Hellenes. Some scholars assert that the name of the priests of Zeus in Dodona, Selloi (Σελλοί; also Ἑλλοί Helloi), changed to Sellanes (by analogy with Akarnanes) and then to Hellanes and Hellenes. This theory is based on Aristotle's comments in Meteorologica where he places archaic Hellas in Epirus between Dodona and the Achelous river, where in his opinion the great deluge of Deucalion must have occurred",
". The land was inhabited by Selloi and Graeci, who later came to be known as Hellenes. Homer mentions that the Selloi were the prophets of Zeus at Dodona, but he is referring to Zeus of Dodona as god of the Pelasgians who belonged to a Pre-Dorian population. It is possible that the extension of a particular cult of Zeus in Dodona (a tendency among the Greeks to form ever-larger cultic communities or amphictionies) caused the name to further extend to the rest of the peninsula.",
"This theory connects the name Hellenes with the Dorians (and the substrate of Pelasgians) who occupied Epirus in the extreme north of Greece, rendering uncertain the relation with the name Graeci used by the Romans. Some toponyms, especially an ancient city Hellas in southern Thessaly, and the Greek tradition seem to indicate that the name Hellenes was Pre-Dorian itself and that the homeland of the Graikoi, who were later called Hellenes, was in central Greece",
". A Greek myth mentions an earlier deluge of Ogyges in the region of Boeotia which was occupied by the Minyans a group of autochthonous or Proto-Greek speaking people. The region (situated next to Attica) was called Graïke in ancient times probably after the old city of Graea (Γραῖα Graîa, from Proto-Greek grau-j-, \"old lady\") on the coast. The name Ogyges (or Ogenos) is related with Okeanos (Ὠκεανός), the great river-ocean that Greeks believed to surround the Earth",
". The adjective derived from the name, Ogygios (Ὠγύγιος \"Ogygian\") came to mean \"primeval, primal,\" or \"from earliest days\" and also \"gigantic\".",
"Homer refers to Hellenes as an originally relatively small tribe settled in Thessalic Phthia. During the era of the Trojan War they were centered along the settlements of Alos, Alope, Trachis, and the Pelasgian Argos. This Homeric Hellas is described as \"καλλιγύναικος\", kalligýnaikos, \"of beautiful women\", and its warriors, the Hellenes, along with the feared Myrmidons, were under the command of Achilles",
". The Parian Chronicle mentions that Phthia was the homeland of the Hellenes and that this name was given to those previously called Greeks (). Alcman (7th century BC) also refers that the mothers of Hellenes were Graikoi. In Greek mythology, Hellen, the patriarch of Hellenes, was son of Deucalion, who ruled around Phthia with Pyrrha, the only survivors after the great deluge",
". It seems that the myth was invented when the Greek tribes started to separate from each other in certain areas of Greece and it indicates their common origin. The name Hellenes was probably used by the Greeks with the establishment of the Great Amphictyonic League. This was an ancient association of Greek tribes with twelve founders which was organized to protect the great temples of Apollo in Delphi (Phocis) and of Demeter near Thermopylae (Locris)",
". According to legend it was founded after the Trojan War, by the eponymous Amphictyon, brother of Hellen.",
"Greeks (Γραικοί)",
"The modern English noun Greek (Old English Grecas or Crecas) is derived from the Latin Graeci, which in turn originates from Ancient Greek (Graikós). It seems that the word is related to the Greek word geron \"old man\" (from the PIE base *ǵerh2- \"to grow old\") via Proto-Greek *gera- \"old age\", also related to Mycenean Greek kera /geras/, \"gift of honour\". The Germanic languages borrowed the name with an initial k sound, which was probably their initial sound closest to the Latin g (Gothic Kreks).",
"The first use of Graikos as equivalent to Hellenes is found in Aristotle for the Dorians in Epirus from Graii, a native name of the people of Epirus. He places the seat of these most ancient \"Greeks\" in the region of the Achelous river around Dodona, where in his opinion the great deluge of Deucalion must have occurred. The priests of Zeus in Dodona were called Selloi, which could lead to Sellanes (like Akarnanes), and then to Hellanes and Hellenes.",
"Homer is referring to Hellenes as a relatively small tribe in Phthia in central Greece (Achaea Pthiotis). In the Parian Chronicle it is mentioned that Phthia was the homeland of Hellenes and that this name was given to those previously called Graikoi (). In Greek mythology, Hellen, the patriarch of Hellenes, was son of Deucalion (who ruled around Phthia) and Pyrrha, the only survivors after the great deluge. Hesiod is referring to Graecus, son of Pandora, who was sister of Hellen",
". Hesiod is referring to Graecus, son of Pandora, who was sister of Hellen. Alcman mentions that the mothers of Hellenes were Graikoi.",
"The German classical historian Georg Busolt (1850–1920) derives the name from Graikos, \"inhabitant of Graea, a town on the coast of Boeotia. The name Graea (γραῖα) is derived from Proto-Greek grau-j-, \"old lady\"",
". The name Graea (γραῖα) is derived from Proto-Greek grau-j-, \"old lady\". Homer, while reciting the Boeotian forces in the Iliad Catalogue of Ships, provides the first known reference to a region named Graea, and Pausanias mentions that the ancient city of Tanagra was for a time called Graea, adding that \"no one knows where this Graia really was; Aristotle thought it was near Oropus, further east on the same coast as Delion",
".\" Busolt claimed that the name was given by the Romans originally to the Greek colonists from Graea who helped to found Cumae the important city in southern Italy where the Italic peoples first encountered the Greeks and then to all Greeks.",
"According to Irad Malkin, Graikoi could have also been an exonym for the Greeks, used by neighboring Illyrians and Messapians. It has been suggested that the name Graeci was possibly an Illyrian name for a Greek tribe with whom they were in contact in north Epirus. N. G. L. Hammond has pointed out that the names Graeci and Hellenes spread from contact with small tribes or with Graia, a defunct Greek polis in the Gulf of Euboea.",
"According to Rene Olivier, in the French language the word grec (\"Greek\") is sometimes also used as an ethnic slur meaning \"fraudster\" (in contrast with hellénique which has no negative connotations).",
"Spread of the use of the term \"Hellenes\"\nHellenes in the wider meaning of the word appears in writing for the first time in an inscription by Echembrotus, dedicated to Heracles for his victory in the Amphictyonic Games, and refers to the 48th Olympiad (584 BC). Simonides of Ceos in his epigram on the tomb of the Athenians who were killed in the Battle of Marathon (490 BC) wrote \"Ἑλλήνων προμαχοῦντες Ἀθηναῖοι Μαραθῶνι […]\" \"Fighting at the forefront of the Hellenes, the Athenians at Marathon […]\"",
"and after the Greco-Persian Wars, an inscription was written in Delphi celebrating victory over the Persians and calling Pausanias the leading general of the Hellenes",
". Awareness of a Pan-Hellenic unity was promoted by religious festivals, most significantly in the Eleusinian Mysteries, in which prospective initiates had to speak Greek, and almost as importantly through participation in the four Panhellenic Games, including the Olympic Games, in which participants were exclusively Greek and recognized by tribal affiliation.",
"The tribal societies of the north",
"The development of mythological genealogies of descent from eponymous founder-figures, long after the actual southward migration of the four tribal groups recognized by the Greeks, affected how the identity of northern tribes was perceived. According to the most prevailing legend, Hellen, son of Deucalion and Pyrrha, received from the nymph Orseis three sons, Aeolus, Dorus, and Xuthus, each of whom founded a primary tribe of Hellas–the Aeolians, Dorians, Achaeans and Ionians.",
"At the time of the Trojan War, the Epirotes (Molossians, Thesprotians and Chaonians) were not considered Hellenes, for the people so named were then limited to a small tribe in Thessaly of which Achilles was a member. After the name was extended to all peoples south of Mount Olympus, however, it still left out those of common origin living in the north",
". One factor contributing to this was their non-participation in the Persian Wars, which were considered a vital affair for all Hellenes; subsequent to the Persian Wars, representatives of these tribes were accepted in the Olympic Games and competed alongside other Hellenes",
". The fact that each of these northern peoples at this time continued to live as an ethnos, or collection of tribes, under an archaic monarchial political system – as opposed to the democratic or oligarchic polis (city state) of the south–also contributed to this view of them as \"barbaric\".",
"Thucydides calls the Acarnanians, Aetolians, Epirotes and Upper Macedonians barbarians, but does so in a strictly linguistic sense – these peoples were considered barbarophone to the extent that their dialects of Greek were sufficiently different and archaic so as to sound crude and barely understandable to a southern Attic speaker such as Thucydides",
". Similarly, when the Athenian orator Demosthenes called Philip II of Macedon worse than a barbarian in his Third Philippic, he did so with respect to the culture they demonstrated as foreigners not adhering to proper Hellenic standards, and did not raise the issue of their origin: \"not only no Greek, nor related to the Greeks, but not even a barbarian from any place that can be named with honors, but a pestilent knave from Macedonia, whence it was never yet possible to buy a decent slave",
".\" Herodotus, Polybius, Strabo and a large number of other Greek and Roman writers regard the tribes of western Hellas, Epirus, and Macedonia as Hellenic in every respect. Both Thucydides and Demosthenes were themselves of partial non-Attic origins and for Demosthenes it seems of non-Greek origins altogether while notably both of them held strong opposing political positions against Macedonians.",
"Hellenes and barbarians\nIn the following centuries, Hellene typically contrasted with barbarian, representing the uncivilized.",
"The Greek tribes quickly noticed that they did not speak the same tongue as their neighbors, and used the term \"βάρβαρος\" (\"barbarian\") for them, with the meanings \"uncultured\", \"uncivilized\" or \"speaker of a foreign language\". The term βάρβαρος is thought to be onomatopoeic in origin: \"bar-bar\"—i.e. stammering—may have been how the speech of foreign peoples sounded to Greek-speakers",
".e. stammering—may have been how the speech of foreign peoples sounded to Greek-speakers. This was also the case for the Egyptians, who, according to Herodotus, \"named barbarians all those who spoke a different tongue\", and in later years for the Slavs, who gave the Germans the name němec, which means \"mute\", while calling themselves slověnski or \"people of the word\". In his play The Birds, Aristophanes calls the illiterate supervisor a \"barbarian\" who nevertheless taught the birds how to talk",
". The term eventually picked up a derogatory use and was extended to indicate the entire lifestyle of foreigners, and finally coming to mean \"illiterate\" or \"uncivilized\" in general. Thus \"an illiterate man is also a barbarian\". According to Dionysius of Halicarnassus, a Hellene differed from a barbarian in four ways: refined language, education, religion, and the rule of law. Greek education became identified with noble upbringing",
". Greek education became identified with noble upbringing. Paul of Tarsus considered it his obligation to preach the Gospel to all men, \"Hellenes and barbarians, both wise and foolish\".",
"Discrimination between Hellenes and barbarians lasted until the 4th century BC. Euripides thought it plausible that Hellenes should rule over barbarians, because the first were destined for freedom and the other for slavery. Aristotle came to the conclusion that \"the nature of a barbarian and a slave is one and the same\".",
"Alexander the Great's conquests consolidated Greek influence in the East by exporting Greek culture into Asia and permanently transformed education and society in the region",
". Isocrates declared in his speech Panegyricus, speaking about Athens and Greece: \"And so far has our city distanced the rest of mankind in thought and in speech that her pupils have become the teachers of the rest of the world; and she has brought it about that the name Hellenes suggests no longer a race but an intelligence, and that the title Hellenes is applied rather to those who share our culture than to those who share a common blood\"",
". With a small reformation, the Hellenistic civilization is the evolution of classical Greek civilization into a civilization with global proportions, this time open to everybody. Similarly, Hellene evolved from a national name signifying an ethnic Greek to a cultural term signifying anybody who conducted his life according to Greek mores.",
"Ionians (Ἴωνες), Yunani, and Yavan (יָוָן)",
"A wholly different term came to establish itself in the East. The ancient people of the Middle East referred to the Hellenes as Yunan, deriving from Persian Yauna, itself a loan of Greek Ιωνία (Ionia), the western coast of Asia Minor. It is by affiliation with the Ionian tribe the Persians conquered in the late 6th century BC that their name extended to all Hellenes",
". All peoples under Persian influence adopted the term, and it is from this root that Sanskrit Yavana derives, which one encounters in ancient Sanskrit sources, first attested in Pāṇini's grammar, and later referring, together with Pali Yona, Yonaka to the Indo-Greeks. The term Yunan is used in current Persian, Arabic (), Azeri, Turkish, Hindi (यूनान), Indonesian and Malay.",
"The related Hebrew name, Yavan or Javan (), was used to refer to the Greek nation in the Eastern Mediterranean in early Biblical times. There was an eponymous character Javan mentioned in Genesis 10:2. In later times it was used for all Hellenistic kingdoms (for example, the Maccabeans applied it to their Seleucid foes). \"Yavan\" is still the name used for modern Greece in contemporary Israel.",
"Although the contemporary Chinese term for Greece (希臘 Xīlà) is based on Hellas, Chinese previously used what was likely a version of the Yunan or Yona root when referring to the Dàyuān (大宛). The Dàyuān were probably the descendants of the Greek colonies that were established by Alexander the Great and prospered within the Hellenistic realm of the Seleucids and Greco-Bactrians, until they were isolated by the migrations of the Yueh-Chih around 160 BC",
". It has been suggested that the name Yuan was simply a transliteration of the words Yunan, Yona, or Ionians, so that Dàyuān (literally \"Great Yuan\") would mean \"Great Yunans\" or \"Great Ionians.\"",
"Hellene comes to mean \"pagan\"\n\nThe name Hellene was given the meaning \"pagan\" by the early Christian church, and retained that meaning until the end of the millennium. It is believed that contact with Christian Jews led some Christians to use Hellene as a means of religious differentiation. Jews, like Greeks, distinguished themselves from foreigners, but unlike Greeks, did so according to religious rather than cultural standards.",
"Roman domination of the Greek world enhanced the prestige of the religious institutions that remained intact. Early Christians differentiated people according to religion, so the sense of the word Hellene as a cultural attribute became marginalized and then supplanted by its religious element. Eventually, Christians came to refer to all pagans as Hellenes.",
"St. Paul in his Epistles uses Hellene almost always juxtaposed to Hebrew, and in disregard of all other ethnicities (Romans, Syrians, Egyptians, etc.) living in the area at the time. A possible exception to this being Colossians 3:11 (\"Where there is neither Greek nor Jew, circumcision nor uncircumcision, Barbarian, Scythian, bond nor free: but Christ is all, and in all.\" King James Version)",
".\" King James Version). The aim was probably to represent the aggregate of the polytheistic and the monotheistic religious communities, who respectively believed in many gods or one god. Hellene is used in a religious sense for the first time in the New Testament. In Mark 7:26, a woman arrives before Jesus, and kneeling before him: \"The woman was a Hellene, a Syrophœnician by nation; and she besought him that he would cast forth the devil out of her daughter",
".\" Since the nationality or ethnicity of the woman is stated to be Syrophœnician, \"Greek\" (translated as such into the English of the King James Version, but as haiþno \"\" in Ulfilas's Gothic; Wycliffe and Coverdale likewise have heathen) must therefore signify her polytheistic religion",
". Nevertheless, it is important to mention that phrases in koine Greek similar to the one in Mark 7:26 (\"ἡ δὲ γυνὴ ἦν Ἑλληνίς, Συροφοινίκισσα τῷ γένει·\") can be found in the new testament being applied to Jewish people (Acts 18:2 \"καὶ εὑρών τινα Ἰουδαῖον ὀνόματι Ἀκύλαν, Ποντικὸν τῷ γένει,\")(Acts 18:24 \"Ἰουδαῖος δέ τις Ἀπολλὼς ὀνόματι, Ἀλεξανδρεὺς τῷ γένει,\") and the Levite Barnabas (Acts 4:36, \"Λευΐτης, Κύπριος τῷ γένει\")",
". In all those cases the terms Hellene/Jew/Levite are mentioned, eventually followed by a comma, a designation such as Syrophoenician/Pontic/Alexandrian/Cypriot and after that the words \"τῷ γένει\", with the last words tending to have differing translations. A broadly similar terminology is found in John 12]]:20–23: \"And there were certain Hellenes among them that came up to worship at the feast ... Jesus answered them, saying, The hour is come, that the Son of man should be glorified\"",
"... Jesus answered them, saying, The hour is come, that the Son of man should be glorified\". This could have one of two interpretations: either that Jesus meant that the time had come for his religion to spread to the pagans (in which case the term \"Hellenes\" is religious), or that it would spread by using the Greek language (in which case the term \"Hellenes\" is meant to be linguistic)",
". The development towards a purely religious meaning was slow, and complete by approximately the 2nd or 3rd century AD: Athenian statesman Aristeides, in his written Apology to the Emperor Hadrian, picked out the Hellenes as one of the representative pagan peoples of the world along with the Egyptians and the Chaldæans. Later, Clement of Alexandria reports an unknown Christian writer who named all of the above Hellenes and spoke of two old nations and one new: the Christian nation.",
"Several books written at this time demonstrate clearly the semantic shift. For example, Athanasius' Against Hellenes was originally titled Against the Gentiles (Greek: ethnikoi) according to older manuscripts. From then on, Hellene no longer meant an ethnic Greek or an adherent to Greek culture, but pagans in general, regardless of race",
". Emperor Julian's attempt to restore paganism failed, and according to Pope Gregory I, \"matters moved in favor of Christianity and the position of the Hellenes was severely aggravated\". Half a century later Christians protested against the Eparch of Alexandria, whom they accused of being a Hellene. Theodosius I initiated the first legal steps against paganism, but it was Justinian's legal reforms that triggered pagan persecutions on a massive scale",
". The Corpus Juris Civilis contained two statutes which decreed the total destruction of Hellenism, even in civic life, and were zealously enforced even against men in high position. The official suppression of paganism made non-Christians a public threat, which further derogated the meaning of Hellene. Paradoxically, Tribonian, Justinian's own legal commissioner, according to the Suda dictionary, was a Hellene (pagan).",
"The usage of Hellene as a religious term was initially part of an exclusively Christian nomenclature, but some Pagans began to defiantly call themselves Hellenes. Other pagans even preferred the narrow meaning of the word from a broad cultural sphere to a more specific religious grouping. However, there were many Christians and pagans alike who strongly objected to the evolution of the terminology",
". The influential Archbishop of Constantinople Gregory of Nazianzus, for example, took offence at imperial efforts to suppress Hellenic culture (especially concerning spoken and written Greek) and he openly criticized the emperor.",
"The name Hellene meaning \"pagan\" has persisted into modern times. Many groups advocating a revival or reconstruction of the worship of the Olympian Gods call themselves Hellenic Polytheists and the religion Hellenic Polytheistic Reconstructionism or Hellenismos. Such groups outside of Greece are careful not to imply that, by calling themselves Hellenes, they consider themselves Greek nationals.",
"Macedonians (Μακεδόνες)",
"The name \"Macedonians\", in order to colloquially mean the Greek soldiers (etc) that Alexander the Great was first the hegemon of, is being used by – at least – contemporary sources when referring to the Hellenistic period, as the ancient Macedonian army, including the famous somatophylakes (e. g. Lysimachus) and, later, the diadochi of Alexander, consisted of warriors from numerous and diverse Greek tribes",
". Thus, as the Spartans (Lacedaemonians) did not take part in Alexander's campaign, Alexander once ordered for an inscription to be sent, along with some war spoils, to Athens saying \"Alexander, son of Philip, and all the Greeks except the Lacedaemonians [...]\"",
"...]\". Likewise, the term \"Macedonian\", while referring here to Greek dialects, also ended up meaning the Koine Greek in classical sources, whereas diverse major Ancient Greek dialects were natively spoken in the later/expanded Macedonian Kingdom, and even though the Koine dialect was mostly based on Attic Greek that was natively spoken around Athens",
". Notably, during the reign of Constantine the Great, who is regarded as the first Byzantine Emperor, the Diocese of Macedonia was established, comprising principally the area that is modern Greece, with Thessalonica as its capital.",
"Romans (Ῥωμαῖοι)",
"Romans or Rhomaioi (Ῥωμαῖοι; sg. Ῥωμαῖος Rhomaios) and Romioi (Ρωμιοί; sg. Ρωμιός Romios), is the name by which the Greeks were known in the Middle Ages and during Ottoman rule. The name in antiquity originally signified the inhabitants of the city of Rome in Italy, but with the increasing grants of Roman citizenship to the Greeks and other nations of the Roman Empire, it soon lost its connection with the Latins",
". This process culminated in 212 AD, when Emperor Caracalla's Constitutio Antoniniana granted the citizenship to all free-born men of the Empire",
". Later Byzantine authors such as Nikephoros Basilakes, Michael Attaleiates, Theodore Prodromos, Patriarch Germanus II, Niketas Choniates and Nicaean Emperor Theodore II Laskaris also used the classicizing term Ausones to refer to the people of the Eastern Roman Empire, although, as John Tzetzes points out (in his Scholia to Lycophron's \"Alexandra\", attributed to himself and his brother Isaac), that should be understood in its proper context as a literary device",
". Overall, the word Rhomaios came to represent the Hellenized inhabitants of the East Roman Empire.",
"Overall, the foreign borrowed name (Romans) initially had a more political than national meaning, which went hand in hand with the universalizing ideology of Rome that aspired to encompass all nations of the world under one true God. Up until the early 7th century, when the Empire still extended over large areas and many peoples, the use of the name \"Roman\" always indicated citizenship and never descent",
". Various ethnicities could apply their own ethnonyms or toponyms to disambiguate citizenship from genealogy, which is why the historian Procopius prefers to call the Byzantines as Hellenized Romans, while other authors use Romhellenes and Graecoromans, aiming to indicate descent and citizenship simultaneously. The Lombard and Arab invasions in the same century resulted in the loss of most of the provinces including Italy and all of the Middle East, save for Anatolia",
". The areas that did remain were mostly Greek-speaking, thereby turning the empire into a much more cohesive unit that eventually developed a fairly self-conscious Greek identity.",
"The Byzantines' failure to protect the Pope from the Lombards forced the Pope to search for help elsewhere. The man who answered his call was Pepin II of Aquitaine, whom he had named \"Patrician\", a title that caused a serious conflict. In 772, Rome ceased commemorating the emperor that first ruled from Constantinople, and in 800 Charlemagne was crowned Roman Emperor by the Pope himself, officially rejecting the Eastern Roman Empire as true Romans",
". According to the Frankish interpretation of events, the papacy appropriately \"transferred Roman imperial authority from the Greeks to the Germans, in the name of His Greatness, Charles\". From then on, a war of names about the New Rome revolved around Roman imperial rights. Unable to deny that an emperor did exist in Constantinople, they sufficed in renouncing him as a successor of Roman heritage on the grounds that Greeks have nothing to do with the Roman legacy",
". In 865, Pope Nicholas I wrote to the Emperor Michael III: \"You ceased to be called 'Emperor of the Romans' since the Romans, of whom you claim to be Emperor, are in fact according to you barbarians.\"",
"Henceforth, the emperor in the East was known and referred to in the West as Emperor of the Greeks and their land as Greek Empire, reserving both \"Roman\" titles for the Frankish king. The interests of both sides were nominal rather than actual. No land areas were ever claimed, but the insult the Byzantines took on the accusation demonstrates how close at heart the Roman name (Ῥωμαῖος) had become to them",
". In fact, Bishop Liutprand of Cremona, a delegate of the Frankish court, was briefly imprisoned in Constantinople for not referring to the Roman emperor, Nikephoros II Phokas, by his appropriate title, and in reprisal for his king, Otto I, claiming the \"Roman\" title by styling himself as Holy Roman Emperor.",
"Revival in the meaning of \"Hellene\"",
"The secular use of Hellene revived in the 9th century, after paganism had been eclipsed and was no longer a threat to Christianity's dominance. The revival followed the same track as its disappearance. The name had originally declined from a national term in antiquity, to a cultural term in the Hellenistic years, to a religious term in the early Christian years",
". With the demise of paganism and the revival of learning in the Byzantine Empire it had regained its cultural meaning, and finally, by the 11th century it had returned to its ancient national form of an \"ethnic Greek\", synonymous at the time to \"Roman\".",
"Accounts from the 11th century onward (from Anna Komnene, Michael Psellos, John III Vatatzes, George Gemistos Plethon and several others) prove that the revival of the term Hellene (as a potential replacement for ethnic terms like Graikos and Romaios) did occur. For example, Anna Komnene writes of her contemporaries as Hellenes, but does not use the word as a synonym for a pagan worshiper",
". Moreover, Anna boasts about her Hellenic classical education, and she speaks as a native Greek and not as an outsider/foreigner who learned Greek.",
"The refounding of the University of Constantinople in the palaces of Magnaura promoted an interest in learning, particularly in Greek studies. Patriarch Photius was irritated because \"Hellenic studies are preferred over spiritual works\"",
". Patriarch Photius was irritated because \"Hellenic studies are preferred over spiritual works\". Michael Psellos thought it a compliment when Emperor Romanos III praised him for being raised \"in the Hellenic way\" and a weakness for Emperor Michael IV for being completely devoid of a Hellenic education, while Anna Komnene claimed that she had \"carried the study of Hellenic to the highest pitch\"",
". Also, commenting on the orphanage her father founded, she stated that \"there could be seen a Latin being trained, and a Scythian studying Hellenic, and a Roman handling Hellenic texts and an illiterate Hellene speaking Hellenic correctly\". In this case we reach a point where the Byzantines are Romans on the political level but Hellenic by descent",
". Eustathius of Thessalonica disambiguates the distinction in his account of the sack of Thessaloniki in 1185 by referring to the invaders with the generic term \"Latins\", encompassing all adherents to the Roman Catholic Church, and the \"Hellenes\" as the dominant population of the empire.",
"After the fall of Constantinople to the Crusaders, Greek nationalism accentuated. Niketas Choniates insisted on using the name \"Hellenes\", stressing the outrages of the \"Latins\" against the \"Hellenes\" in the Peloponnese and how the Alfeios River might carry the news to the barbarians in Sicily, the Normans",
". Nikephoros Blemmydes referred to the Byzantine emperors as Hellenes, and Theodore Alanias wrote in a letter to his brother that \"the homeland may have been captured, but Hellas still exists within every wise man\". The second Emperor of Nicaea, John III Doukas Vatatzes, wrote in a letter to Pope Gregory IX about the wisdom that \"rains upon the Hellenic nation\"",
". He maintained that the transfer of the imperial authority from Rome to Constantinople was national and not geographic, and therefore did not belong to the Latins occupying Constantinople: Constantine's heritage was passed on to the Hellenes, so he argued, and they alone were its inheritors and successors. His son, Theodore II Laskaris, was eager to project the name of the Greeks with true nationalistic zeal",
". He made it a point that \"the Hellenic race looms over all other languages\" and that \"every kind of philosophy and form of knowledge is a discovery of Hellenes […]. What do you, O Italian, have to display?\"",
"The evolution of the name was slow and did not replace the \"Roman\" name completely. Nikephoros Gregoras named his historical work Roman History. Emperor John VI Kantakouzenos, a great supporter of Greek education, in his own memoirs always refers to the Byzantines as \"Romans\", yet, in a letter sent by the Mamluk sultan, An-Nasir Hasan, referred to him as \"Emperor of the Hellenes, Bulgars, Sassanians, Vlachs, Russians, Alanians\" but not of the \"Romans\"",
". Over the next century, George Gemistos Plethon pointed out to Constantine XI Palaiologos that the people he leads are \"Hellenes, as their race and language and education testifies\", while Laonicus Chalcondyles was a proponent of completely substituting \"Roman\" terminology for \"Greek\" terminology. Constantine Palaiologos himself in the end proclaimed Constantinople the \"refuge for Christians, hope and delight of all Hellenes\"",
". On the other hand, the same Emperor in his final speech before the Empire's demise called upon his audience to rally to the defenses by characteristically referring to them as \"descendants of Hellenes and Romans\", most possibly as an attempt to combine Greek national sentiment with the Roman tradition of the Byzantine crown and Empire, both highly respected elements in his subjects' psyche at that moment.",
"Byzantines (Βυζαντινοί)",
"By the time of the fall of the Western Roman Empire most easterners had come to think of themselves as Christians and, more than ever before, as Romans. Although they may not have liked their government any more than they had previously, the Greeks among them could no longer consider it foreign, run by Latins from Italy. The word Hellene itself had already begun to mean a pagan rather than a person of Greek race or culture",
". Instead eastern Greeks overwhelmingly used the self-identifying term Rhomaios, \"Roman\".",
"The term \"Byzantine Empire\" is commonly understood to have been introduced in 1557, about a century after the Fall of Constantinople, by German historian Hieronymus Wolf, who introduced a system of Byzantine historiography in his work Corpus Historiae Byzantinae in order to distinguish ancient Roman from medieval Greek history without drawing attention to their ancient predecessors",
". According to Anthony Kaldellis, an Athenian Laonikos Chalkokondyles in the mid 15th century who advocated a neo-Hellenic identity of the Romans, was the first to use the term in this way. Several authors adopted his terminology, but it remained relatively unknown. English historians preferred to use Roman terminology (Edward Gibbon used it in a particularly belittling manner), while French historians preferred to call it Greek",
". The term reappeared in the mid-19th century and has since dominated completely in historiography, even in Greece, despite objections from Constantine Paparregopoulos, Gibbon's influential Greek counterpart, that the empire should be called Greek. Few Greek scholars adopted the terminology at that time, but it became popular in the second half of the 20th century.",
"Hellenic continuity and Byzantine consciousness",
"The \"Byzantines\" referred to themselves as Rhomaioi to retain both their Roman citizenship and their ancient Hellenic heritage. In fact, the overwhelming majority of the \"Byzantines\" themselves were also very conscious of their uninterrupted continuity with the ancient Greeks. Even though the ancient Greeks were not Christians, the \"Byzantines\" still regarded them as their ancestors",
". A common substitute for the term Hellene, other than Rhomaios, was the term Graikos (Γραικός), a term that was used often by the \"Byzantines\" (along with Rhomaios) for ethnic self-identification. Evidence of the use of the term Graikos can be found in the works of Priscus, a historian of the 5th century AD. He stated in one of his accounts that on an unofficial embassy to Attila the Hun, he had met at Attila's court someone who dressed like a Scythian but spoke Greek",
". When Priskos asked the person where he had learned the language, the man smiled and said that he was a Graekos by birth. Many other \"Byzantine\" authors speak of the Empire's natives as Greeks [Graikoi] or Hellenes such as Constantine Porphyrogennitos of the 10th century. His accounts discuss about the revolt of a Slavic tribe in the district of Patras in the Peloponnese",
". Constantine states that the Slavs who revolted first proceeded to sack the dwellings of their neighbors, the Greeks (ton Graikon) and then moved against the inhabitants of the city of Patras. Overall, ancient Hellenic continuity was evident throughout the history of the Eastern Roman Empire. The \"Byzantines\" were not merely a general Orthodox Christian populace that referred to themselves as merely \"Romans\"",
". They used the term for legal and administrative purposes, but other terms were used to distinguish themselves ethnically. In short, the Greek inhabitants of the Eastern Roman Empire were very conscious of their ancient Hellenic heritage and could preserve their identity while they adapted to the changes that the world was undergoing.",
"Contest between the names Hellene, Roman, and Greek\nFollowing the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople and during Ottoman Greece a fierce ideological battle ensued regarding the three rival national names of the Greeks. This struggle may have settled down after the Greek War of Independence but was permanently resolved only recently in the 20th century after the loss of Asia Minor to the Turks.",
"The struggle reflected the diverging view of history between classicists and medievalists (katharevousa and demotic) in their attempt to define Greek nationality at a time without a Byzantine state to foster the movement. The concept of Hellene for a person of Greek origin was already well established from the late Middle Ages. However, for the majority of the population, especially those in rural areas away from urban centers, the dominant self-perception was still that of Romaioi and Graikoi",
". Scholar Rigas Feraios called \"Bulgars and Arvanites, Armenians and Romans\" to rise in arms against the Ottomans. General Makrygiannis recalled a friend asking him: \"What say you, is the Roman State far away from coming? Are we to sleep with the Turks and awaken with the Romans?\"",
"Preference for the term Greek (Γραικός) was exhibited by scholars such as Adamantios Korais, a renowned Greek classicist, who justified his selection in A Dialogue between Two Greeks: \"Our ancestors used to call themselves Greeks but adopted afterwards the name Hellenes by a Greek who called himself Hellen. One of the above two, therefore, is our true name. I approved 'Greece' because that is what all the enlightened nations of Europe call us",
". I approved 'Greece' because that is what all the enlightened nations of Europe call us.\" Hellenes for Korais are the pre-Christian inhabitants of Greece.",
"The absence of a Byzantine state gradually led to the marginalization of the Roman name and allowed Hellene (Ἕλλην) to resurface as the primary national name. requests the exclusive use of Hellene in his Cheiragogy: \"Never desire to call yourselves Romans, but Hellenes, for the Romans from ancient Rome enslaved and destroyed Hellas\". The anonymous author of The Hellenic Realm of Law, published in 1806 in Pavia, Italy, speaks of Hellenes: \"The time has come, O Hellenes, to liberate our home\"",
". The leader of the Greek War of Independence began his Declaration with a phrase similar to the above: \"The time has come, O men, Hellenes\". After the name was accepted by the spiritual and political leadership of the land, it rapidly spread to the population, especially with the onset of the Greek War of Independence where many naïve leaders and war figures distinguished between idle Romans and rebellious Hellenes",
". General Theodoros Kolokotronis in particular made a point of always addressing his revolutionary troops as Hellenes and invariably wore a helmet of ancient Greek style.",
"General Makrygiannis tells of a priest who performed his duty in front of the \"Romans\" (civilians) but secretly spied on the \"Hellenes\" (fighters). \"Roman\" almost came to be associated with passiveness and enslavement, and \"Hellene\" brought back the memory of ancient glories and the fight for freedom",
". Eyewitness historian writes that while the Turkish authorities and colonists in Niokastro had surrendered to the advancing Greek army, reportedly, shouts of defiance were made that led to their massacre by the mob: \"They spoke to the petty and small Hellenes as 'Romans'. It was as if they called them 'slaves'! The Hellenes not bearing to hear the word, for it reminded of their situation and the outcome of tyranny […]\"",
"The citizens of the newly independent state were called \"Hellenes\" making the connection with ancient Greece all the more clear. That in turn also fostered a fixation on antiquity and negligence for the other periods of history, especially the Byzantine Empire, for an age that bore different names and was a devisor to different and in many ways more important legacies",
". The classicist trend was soon balanced by the Greek Great Idea that sought to recover Constantinople and reestablish the Byzantine Empire for all Greeks. As the Prime Minister, Ioannis Kolettis, proclaimed in front of Parliament in 1844, \"The Kingdom of Greece is not Greece; it is only part of it, a small and poor part of Greece […]. There are two great centers of Hellenism. Athens is the capital of the Kingdom. Constantinople is the great capital, the City, dream and hope of all Greeks.\"",
"See also\n Greeks\n Gringo, a Spanish derivation of griego that came to mean \"Anglophone North American\" and related concepts\n Hellen\n Adjectival and demonymic forms of place names in Greco-Roman antiquity\n\nReferences\n\nSources\n\nBibliography\n\nIn English\nJohn Romanides, \"Romanity, Romania, Rum\", Thessalonike, 1974\nSteven Runciman, \"Byzantine and Hellene in the 14th century\"",
"In other languages\nPanagiotis Christou, \"The Adventures of the National Names of the Greeks\", Thessalonike, 1964\nAntonios Hatzis, \"Elle, Hellas, Hellene\", Athens, 1935–1936\nJ. Juthner, \"Hellenen und Barbaren\", Leipzig, 1923\nBasso Mustakidou, \"The words Hellene, Greek, Roman, Byzantine, Ottoman, Turk\", Tybigge, 1920\nIoannis Kakrides, \"Ancient Greeks and Greeks of 1821\", Athens, 1956\nA. Rambeau, \"L'empire Grecque au X' siecle\"\n\nExternal links",
"External links\n\nClifton R. Fox, \"What, if anything, is a Byzantine?\"\nJohn S. Romanides, \"Example of the science of the ethnic cleaning of Roman history.\"\nJohn S. Romanides, \"Introduction to Romanity, Romania, Roumeli.\"\nJohn S. Romanides, \"Kostis Palamas and Romiosini\" \n\nHistory of Greece\nCulture of Greece\nGreeks"
] |
Andre Agassi
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andre%20Agassi
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[
"Andre Kirk Agassi ( ; born April 29, 1970) is an American former world No. 1 tennis player. He is an eight-time major champion and an Olympic gold medalist, as well as a runner-up in seven other majors. Agassi is widely considered one of the greatest tennis players of all time.",
"Agassi is the second of five men to achieve the career Grand Slam in the Open Era and the fifth of eight overall to make the achievement. He is also the first of two men to achieve the career Golden Slam (career Grand Slam and Olympic gold medal), as well as the only man to win a career Super Slam (career Grand Slam, plus the Olympic gold medal and the year-end championships).",
"Agassi was the first man to win all four singles majors on three different surfaces (hard, clay and grass), and remains the most recent American man to win the French Open (in 1999) and the Australian Open (in 2003). He also won 17 Masters titles and was part of the winning Davis Cup teams in 1990, 1992 and 1995. Agassi reached the world No. 1 ranking for the first time in 1995, but was troubled by personal issues during the mid-to-late 1990s and sank to No",
". 141 in 1997, prompting many to believe that his career was over. Agassi returned to No. 1 in 1999 and enjoyed the most successful run of his career over the next four years. During his 20-plus year tour career, Agassi was known by the nickname \"The Punisher\".",
"After suffering from sciatica caused by two bulging discs in his back, a spondylolisthesis (vertebral displacement) and a bone spur that interfered with the nerve, Agassi retired from professional tennis on September 3, 2006, after losing in the third round of the US Open. He is the founder of the Andre Agassi Charitable Foundation, which has raised over $60 million for at-risk children in Southern Nevada",
". In 2001, the Foundation opened the Andre Agassi College Preparatory Academy in Las Vegas, a K–12 public charter school for at-risk children. He has been married to fellow tennis player Steffi Graf since 2001.",
"Early life",
"Andre Agassi was born in Las Vegas, Nevada, to Emmanuel \"Mike\" Agassi (Aghassian), a former Olympic boxer from Iran, and American Elizabeth \"Betty\" Agassi (née Dudley). His father is of Armenian and Assyrian heritage. Andre Agassi's mother, Betty, is a breast cancer survivor. He has three older siblings – Rita (last wife of former number one Pancho Gonzales), Philip and Tami. Andre was given the middle name Kirk after Kirk Kerkorian, an Armenian American billionaire",
". Andre was given the middle name Kirk after Kirk Kerkorian, an Armenian American billionaire. Emmanuel Agassi, then a waiter at Tropicana Las Vegas, had met Kerkorian in 1963.",
"At the age of 12, Agassi and his good friend and doubles partner, Roddy Parks, won the 1982 National Indoor Boys 14s Doubles Championship in Chicago. Agassi describes memorable experiences and juvenile pranks with Roddy in his book Open.",
"When he was 13, Agassi was sent to Nick Bollettieri's Tennis Academy in Florida. He was meant to stay for only three months, because that was all his father could afford. After thirty minutes of watching Agassi play, Bollettieri, deeply impressed by his talent, called Mike and said: \"Take your check back. He's here for free.\" Agassi then dropped out of school in the ninth grade to pursue a full-time tennis career.\n\nProfessional career\n\n1986–1993: Breakthrough and the first major title",
"Agassi turned professional at the age of 16 and competed in his first tournament at La Quinta, California. He won his first match against John Austin, but then lost his second match to Mats Wilander. By the end of 1986, Agassi was ranked No. 91. He won his first top-level singles title in 1987 at the Sul American Open in Itaparica and ended the year ranked No. 25. He won six additional tournaments in 1988 (Memphis, U.S",
". 25. He won six additional tournaments in 1988 (Memphis, U.S. Men's Clay Court Championships, Forest Hills WCT, Stuttgart Outdoor, Volvo International and Livingston Open), and, by December of that year, he had surpassed US$1 million in career prize money after playing in just 43 tournaments—the fastest anyone in history had reached that level",
". During 1988, he also set the open-era record for most consecutive victories by a male teenager (a record that stood for 17 years until Rafael Nadal broke it in 2005). His year-end ranking was No. 3, behind second-ranked Ivan Lendl and top-ranked Mats Wilander. Both the Association of Tennis Professionals and Tennis magazine named Agassi the Most Improved Player of the Year for 1988.",
"In addition to not playing the Australian Open (which later became his best Grand Slam event) for the first eight years of his career, Agassi chose not to play at Wimbledon from 1988 through 1990 (although he first played there in 1987, only to lose in the first round to Henri Leconte) and publicly stated that he did not wish to play there because of the event's traditionalism, particularly its \"predominantly white\" dress code to which players at the event are required to conform.",
"Strong performances on the tour meant that Agassi was quickly tipped as a future Grand Slam champion. While still a teenager, he reached the semi-finals of both the French Open and the US Open in 1988 and made the US Open semi-finals in 1989. He began the 1990s with a series of near-misses",
". He began the 1990s with a series of near-misses. He reached his first Grand Slam final in 1990 at the French Open, where he was favored before losing in four sets to Andrés Gómez, which he later attributed in his book to worrying about his wig falling off during the match. He reached his second Grand Slam final of the year at the US Open, defeating defending champion Boris Becker in the semi-finals",
". His opponent in the final was Pete Sampras; a year earlier, Agassi had crushed Sampras, after which time he told his coach that he felt bad for Sampras because he was never going to make it as a pro. Agassi lost the US Open final to Sampras in three sets. The Agassi-Sampras rivalry became the biggest one in tennis over the rest of the decade",
". The Agassi-Sampras rivalry became the biggest one in tennis over the rest of the decade. Agassi ended 1990 on a high note as he helped the United States win its first Davis Cup in 8 years on home soil against Australia (3-2) and won his only Tennis Masters Cup, beating reigning Wimbledon champion Stefan Edberg in the final.",
"In 1991, Agassi reached his second consecutive French Open final, where he faced fellow Bollettieri Academy alumnus Jim Courier. Courier emerged the victor in a five-set final. The Las Vegan was a set and 3-1 up when came the rain. The rain delay proved to be a confidence builder for Courier. Agassi decided to play at Wimbledon in 1991, leading to weeks of speculation in the media about the clothes he would wear. He eventually emerged for the first round in a completely white outfit",
". He eventually emerged for the first round in a completely white outfit. He reached the quarterfinals on that occasion, losing in five sets to David Wheaton.",
"Agassi's Grand Slam tournament breakthrough came at Wimbledon, not at the French Open or the US Open, where he had previously enjoyed success. In 1992, he defeated Goran Ivanišević in a five-set final. Along the way, Agassi overcame two former Wimbledon champions: Boris Becker and John McEnroe. No other baseliner would triumph at Wimbledon until Lleyton Hewitt ten years later. Agassi was named the BBC Overseas Sports Personality of the Year in 1992",
". Agassi was named the BBC Overseas Sports Personality of the Year in 1992. Agassi once again played on the United States' Davis Cup winning team in 1992. It was their second Davis cup title in three years. Agassi famously played the game wearing Oakley brand sunglasses, and a photo of him from the day appeared on the cover of Tennis magazine",
". In his memoir, he wrote that he was covering up bloodshot eyes from a hangover and claimed that the founder of Oakley, Jim Jannard, had sent him a Dodge Viper to thank him for the inadvertent publicity.",
"In 1993, Agassi won the only doubles title of his career, at the Cincinnati Masters, partnered with Petr Korda. He missed much of the early part of that year due to injuries. Although he made the quarterfinals in his Wimbledon title defense, he lost to eventual champion and No. 1 Pete Sampras in five sets. Agassi lost in the first round at the US Open to Thomas Enqvist and required wrist surgery late in the year.",
"1994–1997: Rise to the top, Olympic Gold and the fall",
"With new coach Brad Gilbert on board, Agassi began to employ more of a tactical, consistent approach, which fueled his resurgence. He started slowly in 1994, losing in the first week at the French Open and Wimbledon. Nevertheless, he emerged during the hard-court season, winning the Canadian Open. His comeback culminated at the 1994 US Open with a five-set fourth-round victory against Michael Chang",
". He then became the first man to capture the US Open as an unseeded player, beating Michael Stich in the final. Along the way, he beat 5 seeded players.",
"In 1995, Agassi shaved his balding head, breaking with his old \"image is everything\" style. He competed in the 1995 Australian Open (his first appearance at the event) and won, beating defending champion Sampras in a four-set final. Agassi and Sampras met in five tournament finals in 1995, all on hardcourt, with Agassi winning three. Agassi won three Masters Series events in 1995 (Cincinnati, Key Biscayne, and the Canadian Open) and seven titles total",
". He compiled a career-best 26-match winning streak during the summer hard-court circuit, with the last victory being in an intense late-night four-set semi-final of the US Open against Boris Becker. The streak ended the next day when Agassi lost the final to Sampras. Agassi admitted this loss, which gave Sampras a 9–8 lead in their head-to-head meetings, took two years for him to get over mentally.",
"Agassi reached the world No. 1 ranking for the first time in April 1995. He held that ranking until November, for a total of 30 weeks. Agassi skipped most of the fall indoor season which allowed Sampras to surpass him and finish ranked No. 1 at the year-end ranking. In terms of win–loss record, 1995 was Agassi's best year. He won 73 and lost 9 matches, and was also once again a key player on the United States' Davis Cup winning team—the third and final Davis Cup title of his career.",
"1996 was a less successful year for Agassi, as he failed to reach any Grand Slam final. He suffered two early-round losses to Chris Woodruff and Doug Flach at the French Open and Wimbledon, respectively, and lost to Chang in straight sets in the Australian and US Open semi-finals. At the time, Agassi blamed the Australian Open loss on the windy conditions, but later said in his biography that he had lost the match on purpose, as he did not want to play Boris Becker, whom he would have faced in that final",
". The high point for Agassi was winning the men's singles gold medal at the Olympic Games in Atlanta, beating Sergi Bruguera of Spain in the final. Agassi also successfully defended his singles titles in Cincinnati and Key Biscayne.",
"1997 was the low point of Agassi's career. His wrist injury resurfaced, and he played only 24 matches during the year. He later confessed that he started using crystal methamphetamine at that time, allegedly on the urging of a friend. He failed an ATP drug test, but wrote a letter claiming the same friend had spiked a drink. The ATP dropped the failed drug test as a warning. In his autobiography, Agassi admitted that the letter was a lie. He quit the drug soon after",
". In his autobiography, Agassi admitted that the letter was a lie. He quit the drug soon after. At this time Agassi was also in a failing marriage with actress, model, and socialite Brooke Shields and had lost interest in the game. He won no top-level titles, and his ranking sank to No. 141 on November 10, 1997, prompting many to believe that his run as one of the sport's premier competitors was over and he would never again win any significant tournaments.",
"1998–2003: Return to glory and Career Super Slam\n\nIn 1998, Agassi began a rigorous conditioning program and worked his way back up the rankings by playing in Challenger Series tournaments, a circuit for pro players ranked outside the world's top 50. After returning to top physical and mental shape, Agassi recorded the most successful period of his tennis career and also played classic matches in that period against Pete Sampras and Patrick Rafter.",
"In 1998, Agassi won five titles and leapt from No. 110 to No. 6, the highest jump into the top 10 made by any player during a calendar year. At Wimbledon, he had an early loss in the second round to Tommy Haas. He won five titles in ten finals and was runner-up at the Masters Series tournament in Key Biscayne, losing to Marcelo Ríos, who became No. 1 as a result",
". 1 as a result. At the year end he was awarded the ATP Most Improved Player of the Year for the second time in his career (the first being 10 years earlier in 1988).",
"Agassi entered the history books in 1999 when he came back from two sets to love down to beat Andrei Medvedev in a five-set French Open final, becoming, at the time, only the fifth male player (joining Rod Laver, Fred Perry, Roy Emerson and Don Budge—these have since been joined by Roger Federer, Rafael Nadal, and Novak Djokovic) to win all four Grand Slam singles titles during his career. Only Laver, Agassi, Federer, Nadal and Djokovic have achieved this feat during the Open Era",
". Only Laver, Agassi, Federer, Nadal and Djokovic have achieved this feat during the Open Era. This win also made him the first (of only four, the next being Federer, Nadal and Djokovic respectively) male player in history to have won all four Grand Slam titles on three different surfaces (clay, grass and hard courts). Agassi also became the only male player to win the Career Super Slam, consisting of all four Grand Slam tournaments plus an Olympic gold medal in singles and a Year-end championship.",
"Agassi followed his 1999 French Open victory by reaching the Wimbledon final, where he lost to Sampras in straight sets. He rebounded from his Wimbledon defeat by winning the US Open, beating Todd Martin in five sets (rallying from a two sets to one deficit) in the final. Overall during the year Agassi won 5 titles including two majors and the ATP Masters Series in Paris, where he beat Marat Safin. Agassi ended 1999 as the No. 1, ending Sampras's record of six consecutive year-ending top rankings (1993–98)",
". 1, ending Sampras's record of six consecutive year-ending top rankings (1993–98). This was the only time Agassi ended the year at No. 1. Agassi was runner-up to Sampras at the year-end Tennis Masters Cup losing 1–6, 5–7, 4–6 despite beating Sampras in the round-robin 6–2, 6–2.",
"He began the next year 2000 by capturing his second Australian Open title, beating Sampras in a five-set semi-final and Yevgeny Kafelnikov in a four-set final. He was the first male player to have reached four consecutive Grand Slam finals since Rod Laver achieved the Grand Slam in 1969. At the time, Agassi was also only the fourth player since Laver to be the reigning champion of three of four Grand Slam events, missing only the Wimbledon title.",
".. 2000 also saw Agassi reach the semi-finals at Wimbledon, where he lost in five sets to Rafter in a match considered by many to be one of the best ever at Wimbledon. At the inaugural Tennis Masters Cup in Lisbon, Agassi reached the final after defeating Marat Safin in the semi-finals to end the Russian's hopes to become the youngest No. 1 in the history of tennis. Agassi then lost to Gustavo Kuerten in the final, allowing Kuerten to be crowned year-end No. 1.",
"Agassi opened 2001 by successfully defending his Australian Open title with a straight-sets final win over Arnaud Clément. En route, he beat a cramping Rafter in five sets in front of a sell-out crowd in what turned out to be the Aussie's last Australian Open. At Wimbledon, they met again in the semi-finals, where Agassi lost another close match to Rafter, 8–6 in the fifth set",
". In the quarterfinals at the US Open, Agassi lost a 3-hour, 33 minute epic match with Sampras, 7–6, 6–7, 6–7, 6–7, with no breaks of serve during the 52-game match. Despite the setback, Agassi finished 2001 ranked No. 3, becoming the only male tennis player to finish a year ranked in the top 3 in three different decades.",
"2002 opened with disappointment for Agassi, as injury forced him to skip the Australian Open, where he was a two-time defending champion. Agassi recovered from the injury and later that year defended his Key Biscayne title beating then rising Roger Federer in a four-set final. At the US Open, Agassi overcame No.1 ranked and defending champion Lleyton Hewitt in the semi-finals",
".1 ranked and defending champion Lleyton Hewitt in the semi-finals. This led to what turned out to be the last duel between Agassi and Sampras in final of the US Open, which Sampras won in four sets and left Sampras with a 20–14 edge in their 34 career meetings. The match was the last of Sampras's career. Agassi's US Open finish, along with his Masters Series victories in Key Biscayne, Rome and Madrid, helped him finish 2002 as the oldest year-end No. 2 at 32 years and 8 months.",
"In 2003, Agassi won the eighth (and final) Grand Slam title of his career at the Australian Open, where he beat Rainer Schüttler in straight sets in the final.",
"On April 28, 2003, he recaptured the No. 1 ranking to become the oldest top-ranked male player since the ATP rankings began at 33 years and 13 days. The record was later surpassed by Roger Federer in 2018. He had held the No. 1 ranking for two weeks, when Lleyton Hewitt took it back on May 12, 2003. Agassi then recaptured the No. 1 ranking once again on June 16, 2003, which he held for 12 weeks until September 7, 2003",
". 1 ranking once again on June 16, 2003, which he held for 12 weeks until September 7, 2003. There he managed to reach the US Open semi-finals, where he lost to Juan Carlos Ferrero, surrendering his No. 1 ranking to him. During his career, Agassi held the ranking for a total of 101 weeks. Agassi's ranking slipped when injuries forced him to withdraw from a number of events",
". Agassi's ranking slipped when injuries forced him to withdraw from a number of events. At the year-end Tennis Masters Cup, Agassi lost in the final to Federer, his third time to finish as runner-up in the event after losses in 1999 and 2000, and finished the year ranked No. 4. At age 33, he had been one of the oldest players to rank in the top 5 since Connors, at age 35, was No. 4 in 1987.",
"2004–2006: Final years",
"In 2004, Agassi began the year with a five-set loss in the semi-finals of the Australian Open to Marat Safin; the loss ended Agassi's 26-match winning streak at the event. He won the Masters series event in Cincinnati to bring his career total to 59 top-level singles titles and a record 17 ATP Masters Series titles, having already won seven of the nine ATP Masters tournament—all except the tournaments in Monte Carlo and Hamburg",
". At 34, he became the second-oldest singles champion in Cincinnati tournament history (the tournament began in 1899), tied with Roger Federer and surpassed only by Ken Rosewall, who won the title in 1970 at age 35. He finished the year ranked No. 8, one of the oldest players to finish in the top 10 since the 36-year-old Connors was No. 7 in 1988",
". 7 in 1988. At the time, Agassi also became the sixth male player during the open era to reach 800 career wins with his first-round victory over Alex Bogomolov in Countrywide Classic in Los Angeles.",
"Agassi's 2005 began with a quarterfinal loss to Federer at the Australian Open. Agassi had several other deep runs at tournaments, but had to withdraw from several events due to injury. He lost to Jarkko Nieminen in the first round of the French Open. He won his fourth title in Los Angeles and reached the final of the Rogers Cup, before falling to No. 2 Rafael Nadal.",
"Agassi's 2005 was defined by an improbable run to the US Open final. After beating Răzvan Sabău and Ivo Karlović in straight sets and Tomáš Berdych in four sets, Agassi won three consecutive five-set matches to advance to the final. The most notable of these matches was his quarterfinal victory over James Blake, where he rallied from two sets down to win in the fifth set tie-breaker. His other five-set victories were over Xavier Malisse in the fourth round and Robby Ginepri in the semi-finals",
". In the final, Agassi faced Federer, who was seeking his second consecutive US Open title and his sixth Grand Slam title in two years. Federer defeated Agassi in four sets. Agassi finished 2005 ranked No. 7, his 16th time in the year-end top-10 rankings, which tied Connors for the most times ranked in the top 10 at year's end.",
"Agassi had a poor start to 2006, as he was still recovering from an ankle injury and also suffering from back and leg pain and lack of match play. Agassi withdrew from the Australian Open because of the ankle injury, and his back injury and other pains forced him to withdraw from several other events, eventually skipping the entire clay-court season including the French Open. This caused his ranking to drop out of the top 10 for the last time",
". This caused his ranking to drop out of the top 10 for the last time. Agassi returned for the grass-court season, playing a tune-up, and then Wimbledon. He was defeated in the third round by world No. 2 (and eventual runner-up) Rafael Nadal. Against conventions, Agassi, the losing player, was interviewed on court after the match. At Wimbledon, Agassi announced his plans to retire following the US Open",
". At Wimbledon, Agassi announced his plans to retire following the US Open. Agassi played only two events during the summer hard-court season with his best result being a quarterfinal loss at the Countrywide Classic in Los Angeles to Fernando González of Chile, which resulted in him being unseeded at the US Open.",
"Agassi had a short, but dramatic, run in his final US Open. Because of extreme back pain, Agassi was forced to receive anti-inflammatory injections after every match. After a four-set win against Andrei Pavel, Agassi faced eighth-seeded Marcos Baghdatis in the second round who had earlier advanced to the 2006 Australian Open final and Wimbledon semi-finals. Agassi won in five sets as the younger Baghdatis succumbed to muscle cramping in the final set",
". Agassi won in five sets as the younger Baghdatis succumbed to muscle cramping in the final set. In his last match, Agassi fell to 112th-ranked big-serving Benjamin Becker of Germany in four sets. Agassi received a four-minute standing ovation from the crowd after the match and delivered a retirement speech.",
"Rivalries\n\nAgassi vs. Sampras\n\nThe rivalry has been called the greatest of the generation of players competing in the 1990s, as Sampras and Agassi were the most successful players of that decade. They also had very contrasting playing styles, with Sampras being considered the greatest server and Agassi the greatest serve returner at the time. Agassi and Sampras met 34 times on the tour level with Agassi trailing 14–20.",
"The 1990 US Open was their first meeting in a Grand Slam tournament final. Agassi was favored as he was ranked No. 4 at the time, compared to the No. 12 ranking of Sampras and because Agassi had defeated Sampras in their only previously completed match. Agassi, however, lost the final to Sampras in straight sets. Their next meeting in a Grand Slam was at the 1992 French Open, where they met in the quarterfinals. Although Sampras was ranked higher, Agassi came out winning in straight sets",
". Although Sampras was ranked higher, Agassi came out winning in straight sets. They met again on a Grand Slam level at the quarterfinals of Wimbledon in 1993, where Agassi was the defending champion and Sampras was the newly minted world No. 1. Agassi dug himself out from a two-sets-to-love hole, levelling the match at two sets apiece; however, Sampras prevailed in five sets, and went on to win his first Wimbledon championship.",
"With both Sampras and Agassi participating, the US won the Davis Cup in 1995. The year should be considered the peak of the rivalry as together they won three out of four major titles, meeting each other twice in the finals, and were occupying the top two spots in the rankings for the whole year",
". They met five times during the year, all in the title matches, including the Australian Open, the Newsweek Champions Cup (now Indian Wells), the Lipton International Players Championships (now Miami Open), the Canadian Open, and the US Open. Agassi won three of the finals, including the Australian Open; however, Sampras took the US Open title, ending Agassi's 26-match winning streak. After Agassi had taken most of the fall season off, Sampras took over the No. 1 ranking for the end of the season",
". 1 ranking for the end of the season. Agassi admitted this loss, which gave Sampras a 9–8 lead in their head-to-head meetings, took two years for him to get over it mentally.",
"In the following three years, while Sampras continued winning Grand Slam titles every season, Agassi slumped in the rankings and struggled in major competitions. The next time Sampras and Agassi met in a Grand Slam final was at Wimbledon in 1999, where Sampras won in straight sets. For both, it was considered a career rejuvenation, as Sampras had suffered a string of disappointments in the previous year while Agassi was regaining his status as a top-ranked player after winning the French Open",
". Sampras forfeited the No. 1 ranking to Agassi when injury forced him to withdraw from that year's US Open, which Agassi went on to win. They faced each other twice in the season-ending ATP Tour World Championships, with Sampras losing the round-robin match, but winning the final.",
"In the 2000s, they met three more times on the Grand Slam level offering three memorable contests. In 2000, the top-ranked Agassi defeated No. 3 Sampras in the semi-finals of the Australian Open in five sets, which was an important win for Agassi who had lost 4 of the previous five matches against Sampras. In arguably their most memorable match ever, Sampras defeated Agassi in the 2001 US Open quarterfinals in four sets. There were no breaks of serve during the entire match",
". There were no breaks of serve during the entire match. Reruns of the match are frequently featured on television, especially during US Open rain delays, and the match is considered one of the best in history because of the level of play presented by both players.",
"Their last meeting was the final of the 2002 US Open, which was their third meeting in a US Open final, but the first since 1995. The match was also notable because they had defeated several up-and-coming players en route to the final. Sampras had defeated No. 3 Tommy Haas in the fourth round and future No. 1 Andy Roddick in the quarterfinals, while Agassi had defeated No. 1 and defending champion Lleyton Hewitt in the semi-finals. Sampras defeated Agassi in four sets",
". 1 and defending champion Lleyton Hewitt in the semi-finals. Sampras defeated Agassi in four sets. This was the final ATP tour singles match of Sampras's career.",
"Agassi vs. Chang",
"Michael Chang was the opponent Agassi faced most frequently from all the players other than Sampras. They met 22 times on the tour level with Agassi leading 15–7. Chang, unlike most of Agassi's big rivals, had a playing style similar to his. Both players preferred to stay at the baseline with Chang being more defensive-minded. The outcome was that most of their meetings were built on long and entertaining rallies",
". The outcome was that most of their meetings were built on long and entertaining rallies. The rivalry began late in the 1980s with both players being considered the prodigies of the next great generation of American tennis players and both being of foreign descent.",
"Agassi won the first four matches including a straight-set victory in round 16 of the 1988 US Open and defeating Chang, the defending champion, in the 1990 French Open in a four-set quarterfinal. Arguably their best match took place in the round of 16 of the 1994 US Open. While both players presented high-quality shot-making, the momentum changed from set to set with Agassi eventually prevailing in a five-set victory. It turned out to be the toughest contest on his way to his first US Open title",
". It turned out to be the toughest contest on his way to his first US Open title. Their next two Grand Slam meetings came in 1996, with Chang recording easy straight-set victories in the semi-finals of both the Australian Open and the US Open. Years after, Agassi shockingly admitted in his book that he had lost the first of the matches on purpose as he did not want to face Boris Becker, who was awaiting the winner in the final",
". Agassi won the last four of their matches, with the last being in 2003 at the Miami Open with Chang being clearly past his prime.",
"Agassi vs. Becker",
"Boris Becker and Agassi played 14 times with Agassi leading 10–4. Becker won their first three matches in 1988 and 1989 before Agassi reversed the rivalry in 1990, and won 10 of their last 11 matches. One contributing factor is that after their third match, Agassi picked up a tell regarding Becker's serve and knew where his serves would be directed. They first played at Indian Wells in 1988, with Becker prevailing",
". They first played at Indian Wells in 1988, with Becker prevailing. Their most notable match was the 1989 Davis Cup semi-final match, which Becker won in five sets after losing the first two in tiebreaks. Agassi, considered a baseliner with a playing style not suiting grass, shocked Becker, a three-time champion, in a five-set quarterfinal at Wimbledon in 1992 on his way to his first Grand Slam title. The intensity of the rivalry peaked in 1995",
". The intensity of the rivalry peaked in 1995. Becker won that year's Wimbledon semi-final after being down a set and two breaks, to eventually win in four sets. In a highly anticipated rematch in the US Open semi-final, this time it was Agassi who came out victorious in four tight sets. Their final match was played at Hong Kong in 1999, which Agassi won in three sets.",
"Agassi vs. Rafter",
"Agassi and Pat Rafter played fifteen times with Agassi leading 10–5. The rivalry has been considered special and delivered memorable encounters, because of the players' contrasting styles of play, with Rafter using traditional serve-&-volley methods against Agassi's variety of return of serves and passing shots as his main weapons. Agassi led 8–2 on hard courts, but Rafter surprisingly won their sole match on clay at the 1999 Rome Masters",
". They played four matches at Wimbledon with both winning two matches each. Agassi won the first two in 1993 and 1999, while Rafter took their 2000 and 2001 encounters, the latter two matches being gruelling 5-setters often being presented on the lists of best matches ever played. Agassi also won both their meetings at the Australian Open, in 1995 and 2001, on his way to the title on both occasions. Rafter, however, took their only US Open encounter in 1997 and went on to win the title.",
"Agassi vs. Federer",
"Agassi and Roger Federer played 11 times, and Federer led their head-to-head series 8–3. With the retirement of Sampras, the rivalry against the 11-years-younger Federer, who was another great server like Sampras, became Agassi's main rivalry for the final years of his career. Agassi won their first three matches, but then went on to lose eight consecutive ones",
". Agassi won their first three matches, but then went on to lose eight consecutive ones. They first met in just the third tournament of Federer's career at the 1998 Swiss Indoors in Federer's hometown, with Agassi prevailing over the 17-year-old. Agassi also defeated Federer at the 2001 US Open and the finals of the Miami Open in 2002. Federer began to turn the tide at the Masters Cup in 2003, when he defeated Agassi in both the round-robin and the final",
". They played a quarterfinal match at the 2004 US Open that spanned over two windy days, with Federer eventually prevailing in five sets. At the 2005 Dubai Championships, Federer and Agassi attracted worldwide headlines with a publicity stunt that saw the two tennis legends play on a helipad almost 220 meters above sea level at the hotel Burj al-Arab. Their final duel took place in the final of the 2005 US Open. Federer was victorious in four sets in front of a pro-Agassi crowd",
". Federer was victorious in four sets in front of a pro-Agassi crowd. The match was the last appearance by Agassi in any tournament final.",
"Agassi vs. Lendl\nAgassi and Ivan Lendl played eight times, and Lendl led their head-to-head series 6–2.\n\nAgassi vs. Edberg\nAgassi and Stefan Edberg played nine times, and Agassi led their head-to-head series 6–3.\n\nEarnings\nAgassi earned more than $30 million in prize-money during his career, sixth only to Djokovic, Federer, Nadal, Sampras and Murray to date (May 2018). He also earned more than $25 million a year through endorsements during his career, which was ranked fourth in all sports at the time.",
"Post-retirement",
"Since retiring after the 2006 US Open, Agassi has participated in a series of charity tournaments and continues his work with his own charity. On September 5, 2007, he was a surprise guest commentator for the Andy Roddick/Roger Federer US Open quarterfinal. He played an exhibition match at Wimbledon, teaming with his wife, Steffi Graf, to play with Tim Henman and Kim Clijsters. He played World Team Tennis for the Philadelphia Freedoms in the summer of 2009",
". He played World Team Tennis for the Philadelphia Freedoms in the summer of 2009. At the 2009 French Open, Agassi was on hand to present Roger Federer, who completed his Career Grand Slam by winning the tournament and joined Agassi as one of six men to complete the Career Grand Slam, with the trophy.",
"Also in 2009, Agassi played at the Outback Champions Series event for the first time. He played the Cancer Treatment Centers of America Tennis Championships at Surprise, Arizona, where he reached the final before bowing to eventual champion Todd Martin. Agassi returned to the tour renamed for the PowerShares Series in 2011 and participated in a total of seven events while winning two",
". Agassi beat Courier in the final of the Staples Champions Cup in Boston and later defeated Sampras at the CTCA Championships at his hometown Las Vegas.",
"In 2012, Agassi took part in five tournaments, winning three of those. In November, at first he won BILT Champions Showdown in San Jose, beating John McEnroe in the final. The following day, he defended his title of the CTCA Championships, while defeating Courier in the decisive match. In the series season finale, he beat Michael Chang for the Acura Champions Cup. The series and Agassi came back to action in 2014. Agassi won both tournaments he participated in",
". The series and Agassi came back to action in 2014. Agassi won both tournaments he participated in. At the Camden Wealth Advisors Cup's final in Houston, Agassi beat James Blake for a rematch of their 2005 US Open quarterfinal. He defeated Blake again in Portland to win the title of the Cancer Treatment Centers of America Championships. In 2015, Agassi took part in just one event of the PowerShares Series, losing to Mark Philippoussis in the final of the Champions Shootout",
". The following year he took part in two events, at first losing to Blake in Chicago, and the next day defeating Mardy Fish, but losing to Roddick in Charleston.",
"In 2009, in Macau Agassi and Sampras met for the first time on court since the 2002 US Open final. Sampras won the exhibition in three sets. The rivalry between the former champions headlined sports media again in March 2010 after the two participated in the \"Hit for Haiti\" charity event organized to raise money for the victims of the earthquake",
". Partnered with Roger Federer and Rafael Nadal, the old rivals began making jokes at each other's expense, which ended up with Sampras intentionally striking a serve at Agassi's body. After the event, Agassi admitted that he had crossed the line with his jokes and publicly apologized to Sampras. Agassi and Sampras met again one year later for an exhibition match at Madison Square Garden in New York in front of 19 000 spectators as Sampras defeated Agassi in two sets",
". On March 3, 2014, Agassi and Sampras squared off for an exhibition in London for the annual World Tennis Day. This time, it was Agassi who came out on top in two straight sets.",
"He returned to the tour in May 2017 in the position of coach to Novak Djokovic for the French Open. Agassi announced the end of the partnership on March 31, 2018, stating that there were too many disagreements in the relationship.",
"Playing style",
"Early in his career, Agassi would look to end points quickly by playing first-strike tennis, typically by inducing a weak return with a deep, hard shot, and then playing a winner at an extreme angle. On the rare occasion that he charged the net, Agassi liked to take the ball in the air and hit a swinging volley for a winner. His favored groundstroke was his flat, accurate two-handed backhand, hit well cross-court but especially down the line",
". His forehand was nearly as strong, especially his inside-out to the ad court.",
"Agassi's strength was in dictating play from the baseline, and he was able to consistently take the ball on the rise. While he was growing up, his father and Nick Bollettieri trained him in this way. When in control of a point, Agassi would often pass up an opportunity to attempt a winner and hit a conservative shot to minimize his errors, and to make his opponent run more",
". This change to more methodical, less aggressive baseline play was largely initiated by his longtime coach, Brad Gilbert, in their first year together in 1994. Gilbert encouraged Agassi to wear out opponents with his deep, flat groundstrokes and to use his fitness to win attrition wars, and noted Agassi's two-handed backhand down the line as his very best shot. A signature play later in his career was a change-up drop shot to the deuce court after deep penetrating groundstrokes",
". This would often be followed by a passing shot or lob if the opponent was fast enough to retrieve it.",
"Agassi was raised on hardcourts, but found much of his early major-tournament success on the red clay of Roland Garros, reaching two consecutive finals there early in his career. Despite grass being his worst surface, his first major win was at the slick grass of Wimbledon in 1992, a tournament that he professed to hating at the time. His strongest surface over the course of his career, was indeed hardcourt, where he won six of his eight majors.",
"Business ventures\nAgassi established a limited liability company named Andre Agassi Ventures (formerly named Agassi Enterprises). Agassi, along with five athlete partners (including Wayne Gretzky, Joe Montana, Shaquille O'Neal, Ken Griffey Jr., and Monica Seles) opened a chain of sports-themed restaurant named Official All Star Café in April 1996. The restaurant closed down in 2001.",
"In 1999, he paid $1 million for a 10 percent stake in Nevada First Bank and made a $10 million profit when it was sold to Western Alliance Bancorp in 2006.",
"In 2002, he joined the Tennis Channel to promote the channel to consumers and cable and satellite industry, and made an equity investment in the network. After meeting chef Michael Mina at one of his restaurants in San Francisco, Agassi partnered with him in 2002 to start Mina Group Inc. and opened 18 concept restaurants in San Francisco, San Jose, Dana Point, Atlantic City and Las Vegas",
". Agassi was an equity investor of a group that acquired Golden Nugget Las Vegas and Golden Nugget Laughlin from MGM Mirage for $215 million in 2004. One year later, the group sold the hotel-casino to Landry's, Inc. for $163 million in cash and $182 million in assumed debt. In 2007, he sat on the board of Meadows Bank, an independent bank in Nevada. He has invested in start-up companies backed by Allen & Company.",
"Agassi and Graf formed a company called Agassi Graf Holdings. They invested in PURE, a nightclub at Caesars Palace, which opened in 2004, and sold it to Angel Management Group in 2010. In August 2006, Agassi and Graf developed a joint venture with high-end furniture maker Kreiss Enterprises. They launched a furniture line called Agassi Graf Collection",
". They launched a furniture line called Agassi Graf Collection. In September, Agassi and Graf, through their company Agassi Graf Development LLC, along with Bayview Financial LP, finalized an agreement to develop a condominium hotel, Fairmont Tamarack, at Tamarack Resort in Donnelly, Idaho. Owing to difficult market conditions and delays, they withdrew from the project in 2009. The group still owns three small chunks of land",
". The group still owns three small chunks of land. In September, they collaborated with Steve Case's Exclusive Resorts to co-develop luxury resorts and design Agassi-Graf Tennis and Fitness Centers.",
"They also invested in online ticket reseller viagogo in 2009 and both serve as board members and advisors of the company.\n\nIn October 2012, Village Roadshow and investors including Agassi and Graf announced plans to build a new water park called Wet'n'Wild Las Vegas in Las Vegas. Village Roadshow has a 51% stake in the park while Agassi, Graf, and other private investors hold the remaining 49%. The park opened in May 2013.",
"IMG managed Agassi from the time he turned pro in 1986 through January 2000 before switching to SFX Sports Group. His business manager, lawyer and agent was childhood friend Perry Rogers, but they have been estranged since 2008. In 2009, he and Graf signed with CAA.",
"Equipment and endorsements",
"Agassi used Prince Graphite rackets early in his career. He signed a $7 million endorsement contract with Belgian tennis racquet makers Donnay. He later switched to Head Ti Radical racket and Head's LiquidMetal Radical racket, having signed a multimillion-dollar endorsement deal with Head in 1993. He renewed his contract in 1999, and in November 2003 he signed a lifetime agreement with Head. He also endorses Penn tennis balls",
". He also endorses Penn tennis balls. On July 25, 2005, Agassi left Nike after 17 years and signed an endorsement deal with Adidas. A major reason for Agassi leaving Nike was because Nike refused to donate to Agassi's charities, and Adidas did. On May 13, 2013, Agassi rejoined Nike.",
"Agassi was sponsored by DuPont, Ebel, Mountain Dew in 1993, Mazda in 1997, Kia Motors in 2002, American Express and Deutsche Bank in 2003. In 1990, he appeared in a television commercial for Canon Inc., promoting the Canon EOS Rebel camera. Between 1999 and 2000, he signed a multimillion-dollar, multiyear endorsement deal with Schick and became the worldwide spokesman for the company. Agassi signed a multiyear contract with Twinlab and promoted the company's nutritional supplements",
". Agassi signed a multiyear contract with Twinlab and promoted the company's nutritional supplements. In mid-2003, he was named the spokesman of Aramis Life, a fragrance by Aramis, and signed a five-year deal with the company. In March 2004, he signed a ten-year agreement worth $1.5 million a year with 24 Hour Fitness, which will open five Andre Agassi fitness centers by year-end",
". Prior to the 2012 Australian Open, Agassi and Australian winemaker Jacobs Creek announced a three-year partnership and created the Open Film Series to \"[share] personal stories about the life defining moments that shaped his character on and off the court.\" In 2007, watchmaker Longines named Agassi as their brand ambassador.",
"Agassi and his mother appeared in a Got Milk? advertisement in 2002.\n\nAgassi has appeared in many advertisements and television commercials with Graf. They both endorsed Deutsche Telekom in 2002, Genworth Financial and Canon Inc. in 2004, LVMH in 2007, and Nintendo Wii and Wii Fit U and Longines in 2013.\n\nPersonal life",
"Personal life\n\nRelationships and family\nIn the early 1990s, after dating Wendi Stewart, Agassi dated American singer and entertainer Barbra Streisand. He wrote about the relationship in his 2009 autobiography, \"We agree that we're good for each other, and so what if she's twenty-eight years older? We're sympatico, and the public outcry only adds spice to our connection. It makes our friendship feel forbidden, taboo – another piece of my overall rebellion. Dating Barbra Streisand is like wearing Hot Lava.\"",
"He was married to Brooke Shields from 1997 to 1999.\n\nHe married Steffi Graf on October 22, 2001, at their Las Vegas home; the only witnesses were their mothers. They have two children: son Jaden Gil (born 2001) and daughter Jaz Elle (born 2003). Agassi has said that he and Graf are not pushing their children toward becoming tennis players. The Graf-Agassi family resides in Summerlin, a community in the Las Vegas Valley. Graf's mother and brother, Michael, with his four children, also live there.",
"Long-time trainer Gil Reyes has been called one of Agassi's closest friends; some have described him as being a \"father figure\" to Agassi. In 2012, Agassi and Reyes introduced their own line of fitness equipment, BILT By Agassi and Reyes. In December 2008, Agassi's childhood friend and former business manager, Perry Rogers, sued Graf for $50,000 in management fees he claimed that she owed him.\n\nAutobiography",
"Agassi's autobiography, Open: An Autobiography, (written with assistance from J. R. Moehringer), was published in November 2009. In it, Agassi talks about his childhood and his unconventional Armenian father, who came to the United States from Iran, where he was a professional boxer",
". Overly demanding and emotionally abusive to the whole family, his father groomed young Agassi for tennis greatness by building a tennis court in their backyard and sending Agassi to tennis boarding school under the supervision of Nick Bollettieri, who later coached and managed part of Agassi's professional career.",
"There is also mention in the book of using and testing positive for methamphetamine in 1997. In response to this revelation, Roger Federer declared himself shocked and disappointed, while Marat Safin argued that Agassi should return his prize money and be stripped of his titles. In an interview with CBS, Agassi justified himself and asked for understanding, saying that \"It was a period in my life where I needed help.\"",
"Agassi said that he had always hated tennis during his career because of the constant pressure it exerted on him. He also said he wore a hairpiece earlier in his career and thought Pete Sampras was \"robotic\".",
"The book reached No. 1 on the New York Times Best Seller list and received favorable reviews. It won the Autobiography category of the 2010 British Sports Book Awards. In 2018, the book was listed on Esquire as one of \"The 30 Best Sports Books Ever Written\", and was also recommended by self-help author Tim Ferriss who described it as \"very candid, very amusing, and very instructional\".",
"In media\nIn 2017, Agassi appeared in the documentary film Love Means Zero, which highlighted the troubled relationship between his coach Nick Bollettieri and him.\n\nPolitics\nAgassi has donated more than $100,000 to Democratic candidates, and $2,000 to Republicans. On September 1, 2010, when he appeared on daily WNYC public radio program The Brian Lehrer Show, he stated that he is registered as Independent.",
"Philanthropy\nAgassi founded the Andre Agassi Charitable Association in 1994, which assists Las Vegas' young people. He was awarded the ATP Arthur Ashe Humanitarian award in 1995 for his efforts to help disadvantaged youth. He has been cited as the most charitable and socially involved player in professional tennis. It has also been claimed that he may be the most charitable athlete of his generation.",
"Agassi's charities help in assisting children reach their athletic potential. His Boys & Girls Club sees 2,000 children throughout the year and boasts a world-class junior tennis team. It also has a basketball program (the Agassi Stars) and a rigorous system that encourages a mix of academics and athletics.",
"In 2001, Agassi opened the Andre Agassi College Preparatory Academy in Las Vegas, a tuition-free charter school for at-risk children in the area. He personally donated $35 million to the school. In 2009, the graduating class had a 100 percent graduation rate and expected a 100 percent college acceptance rate. Among other child-related programs that Agassi supports through his Andre Agassi Charitable Foundation is Clark County's only residential facility for abused and neglected children, Child Haven",
". In 1997, Agassi donated funding to Child Haven for a six-room classroom building now named the Agassi Center for Education. His foundation also provided $720,000 to assist in the building of the Andre Agassi Cottage for Medically Fragile Children. This 20-bed facility opened in December 2001, and accommodates developmentally delayed or handicapped children and children quarantined for infectious diseases.",
"In 2007, along with several other athletes, Agassi founded the charity Athletes for Hope, which helps professional athletes get involved in charitable causes and aims to inspire all people to volunteer and support their communities. He created the Canyon-Agassi Charter School Facilities Fund, now known as the Turner-Agassi Charter School Facilities Fund. The Fund is an investment initiative for social change, focusing on the \"nationwide effort to move charters from stopgap buildings into permanent campuses",
".\"",
"In September 2013, the Andre Agassi Foundation for Education formed a partnership with V20 Foods to launch Box Budd!es, a line of kids' healthy snacks. All proceeds go to the Foundation.",
"In February 2014, Agassi remodeled the vacant University of Phoenix building in Las Vegas as a new school, called the Doral Academy West through the Canyon-Agassi Charter School Facilities Fund. Doral Academy opened in August 2014. The Fund purchased a 4.6-acre plot in Henderson, Nevada, to house the Somerset Academy of Las Vegas, which will relocate from its campus inside a church.",
"On April 2, 2023, Agassi participated with Michael Chang, Andy Roddick and John McEnroe in the first live airing of Pickleball on ESPN in the Million dollar Pickleball Slam at the Hard Rock Casino in Hollywood, Fla.\n\nCareer statistics\n\nSingles performance timeline",
"Career statistics\n\nSingles performance timeline\n\nGrand Slam finals (8 titles, 7 runners-up)\nBy winning the 1999 French Open, Agassi completed a men's singles Career Grand Slam. He is the 5th of 8 male players in history (after Budge, Perry, Laver and Emerson, and before Federer, Nadal and Djokovic) to achieve this.\n\nOpen Era records \n These records were attained in the Open Era of tennis and in ATP World Tour Masters 1000 series since 1990.\n Records in bold indicate peer-less achievements.",
"Legacy\nConsidered by numerous sources to be one of the greatest tennis players of all time, Agassi has also been called one of the greatest service returners ever to play the game, and was described by the BBC upon his retirement as \"perhaps the biggest worldwide star in the sport's history\". As a result, he is credited for helping to revive the popularity of tennis during the 1990s.\n\nProfessional awards\n ITF World Champion: 1999.\n ATP Player of the Year: 1999.\n ATP Most Improved Player: 1988, 1998",
"Recognition\n In 1992, Agassi was named the BBC Overseas Sports Personality of the Year.\n In 2010, Sports Illustrated named Agassi the 7th greatest male player of all time.\n On July 9, 2011, Agassi was inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame at a ceremony in Newport, Rhode Island.",
"Video\n Wimbledon 2000 Semi-final – Agassi vs. Rafter (2003) Starring: Andre Agassi, Patrick Rafter; Standing Room Only, DVD Release Date: August 16, 2005, Run Time: 213 minutes, .\n Charlie Rose with Andre Agassi (May 7, 2001) Charlie Rose, Inc., DVD Release Date: August 15, 2006, Run Time: 57 minutes.\n Wimbledon: The Record Breakers (2005) Starring: Andre Agassi, Boris Becker; Standing Room Only, DVD Release Date: August 16, 2005, Run Time: 52 minutes, .",
"Video games\n Andre Agassi Tennis for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System, Genesis, Game Gear, Master System]. and mobile phones\n Agassi Tennis Generation for PlayStation 2 and Game Boy Advance\n Agassi Tennis Generation 2002 for Windows\n Smash Court Pro Tournament for PlayStation 2\n Top Spin 4 for Xbox 360, PlayStation 3, and Wii\n\nSee also\n\n All-time tennis records – men's singles\n List of Grand Slam men's singles champions\n Tennis male players statistics\n Tennis records of the Open Era – men's singles",
"Notes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n\nExternal links\n\n \n \n \n \n Andre Agassi Ventures\n Farewell to Tennis Speech at the U.S. Open\n Agassi's Tennis Hall of Fame Induction for Steffi Graf",
"1970 births\nLiving people\nAmerican male tennis players\nAmerican autobiographers\nAmerican investors\nAmerican real estate businesspeople\nAmerican sportspeople in doping cases\nDoping cases in tennis\nATP number 1 ranked singles tennis players\nGrand Slam (tennis) champions in men's singles\nAustralian Open (tennis) champions\nFrench Open champions\nUS Open (tennis) champions\nWimbledon champions\nMedalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics\nOlympic gold medalists for the United States in tennis",
"Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics\nOlympic gold medalists for the United States in tennis\nTennis players at the 1996 Summer Olympics\nITF World Champions\nInternational Tennis Hall of Fame inductees\nNovak Djokovic coaches\nSteffi Graf\nNevada Democrats\nPhilanthropists from Nevada\nTennis people from Nevada\nWriters from Las Vegas\n20th-century American businesspeople\n20th-century American sportsmen\n21st-century American businesspeople\n21st-century American sportsmen\nAmerican people of Iranian-Assyrian descent",
"21st-century American sportsmen\nAmerican people of Iranian-Assyrian descent\nAmerican people of Armenian descent\nArmenian-American tennis players\nAssyrian sportspeople"
] |
Orlando nightclub shooting
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orlando%20nightclub%20shooting
|
[
"On , 2016, 29-year-old Omar Mateen shot and killed 49 people and wounded 53 more in a mass shooting at Pulse, a gay nightclub in Orlando, Florida, United States before Orlando Police officers fatally shot him after a three-hour standoff.",
"In a 9-1-1 call made shortly after the shooting began, Mateen swore allegiance to the leader of the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria, Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, and said the U.S. killing of Abu Waheeb in Iraq the previous month \"triggered\" the shooting. He later told a negotiator he was \"out here right now\" because of the American-led interventions in Iraq and in Syria and that the negotiator should tell the United States to stop the bombing. The incident was deemed a terrorist attack by FBI investigators.",
"Pulse was hosting a \"Latin Night\", and most of the victims were Latino. The shooting was the deadliest terrorist attack in the United States since the September 11 attacks and is second only to the 2017 Las Vegas shooting as the deadliest mass shooting in modern American history. It is also the deadliest incident of violence against LGBT people in the United States, surpassing the UpStairs Lounge arson attack in 1973.\n\nShooting",
"First shots and hostage situation",
"On , 2016, Pulse, a gay nightclub in Orlando, Florida, was hosting \"Latin Night\", a weekly Saturday night event drawing a primarily Latino crowd. RuPaul’s Drag Race contestant and drag queen Kenya Michaels is recorded to have been performing right as the shooting began (Michaels survived the shooting). About 320 people were still inside the club, which was serving last call drinks at around on",
". About 320 people were still inside the club, which was serving last call drinks at around on . At around the same time, Omar Mateen arrived at the club via rental van, parking it in the parking lot of a neighboring car shop. He got out and walked toward the building armed with a SIG Sauer MCX semi-automatic rifle and a 9mm Glock 17 semi-automatic pistol. He was wearing a green, blue, and white plaid dress shirt, a white T-shirt underneath, and tan cargo pants",
". At , Mateen bypassed Officer Adam Gruler, a uniformed off-duty Orlando Police Department (OPD) officer working extra duty as a security guard, entered the building through its southern entrance, and began shooting patrons. Dozens were killed or severely injured inside the crowded nightclub, either directly or by ricochets.",
"Gruler took cover and called in a signal for assistance. He told a post-incident Police Foundation assessment team that he had immediately recognized that his handgun would be severely disadvantaged against the rifle Mateen was using. When he witnessed Mateen shooting two patrons attempting to escape through an emergency exit, Gruler fired shots at him",
". In response, Mateen withdrew back into the nightclub and continued shooting victims as he traversed through the building, sometimes firing into bodies without checking whether they were already dead. When additional officers arrived at the nightclub beginning at 2:04 a.m., Gruler shouted \"[The gunman]'s in the patio!\" and resumed firing at Mateen a minute later",
".m., Gruler shouted \"[The gunman]'s in the patio!\" and resumed firing at Mateen a minute later. Two officers joined Gruler in engaging Mateen, who then retreated farther into the nightclub and \"began a 'hostage situation'\" in one of the bathrooms. In less than five minutes, Mateen had fired approximately 200 rounds, pausing only to reload.",
"During the shooting, some of the people trapped inside the club sought help by calling or sending text messages to friends and relatives. Initially, some of them thought the gunshots were firecrackers or part of the music",
". Initially, some of them thought the gunshots were firecrackers or part of the music. Imran Yousuf, a recently discharged Marine Corps veteran working as a nightclub bouncer immediately recognized the sounds as gunfire, which he described as \"high caliber\", and jumped over a locked door behind which dozens of people were hidden and paralyzed by fear, then opened a latched door behind them, allowing approximately 70 people to escape",
". Many described a scene of panic and confusion caused by the loud music and darkness. One person shielded herself by hiding inside a bathroom and covering herself with bodies. A bartender said she took cover beneath the glass bar. At least one patron tried to help those who were hit. According to a man trapped inside a bathroom with fifteen other patrons, Mateen fired sixteen times into the bathroom, through the closed door, killing at least two and wounding several others.",
"According to one of the hostages, Mateen entered a bathroom in the nightclub's northwest side and opened fire on the people hiding there, wounding several. The hostage, who had taken cover inside a stall with others, was injured by two bullets and struck with flying pieces of a wall hit by stray bullets. Shortly after entering the women's restroom, Mateen's rifle jammed. He then discarded the rifle and switched to his Glock 17 pistol",
". He then discarded the rifle and switched to his Glock 17 pistol. Two survivors quoted Mateen as saying, \"I don't have a problem with black people\", and that he \"wouldn't stop his assault until America stopped bombing his country\". Other survivors heard Mateen claim he had explosives as well as snipers stationed around the club.",
"Patrons trapped inside called or texted 9-1-1 to warn of the possible presence of explosives.\n\nEmergency response\nIn the next 45 minutes, about 100 officers from the OPD and the Orange County Sheriff's Office were dispatched to the scene. Among the earliest first responders to arrive were a firefighter crew from and two supporting firefighter paramedics from . Eighty fire and emergency medical services personnel from the Orlando Fire Department were deployed during the entire incident.",
"At , several minutes after the gunfire began, the club posted on its Facebook page, \"Everyone get out of pulse and keep running.\" At , Mateen placed a 9-1-1 call, during which he mentioned the Boston Marathon bombers—Tamerlan and Dzhokhar Tsarnaev—as his \"homeboys\" and made a reference to Moner Mohammad Abu Salha, an American citizen who died in a suicide bombing in Syria in 2014",
". Mateen said he was inspired by Abu Salha's death for the Al-Nusra Front targeting Syrian government troops (a mutual enemy of the two Salafist groups, despite their history of violence with each other), and swore allegiance to ISIS leader al-Baghdadi. The FBI said that Mateen and Abu Salha had attended the same mosque and knew each other \"casually\". Mateen made two other 9-1-1 calls during the shooting. Numerous 9-1-1 calls were made by the patrons inside the nightclub around this time.",
"After the initial rounds of gunfire between Mateen and Gruler, six officers shot out a large glass window and followed the sound of shooting to the bathroom area. When Mateen stuck his head out from one of the bathrooms, at least two officers shot at him. After the gunfire stopped, they were ordered to hold position instead of storming the bathroom, according to one of the officers. After about 15 to 20 minutes, SWAT arrived and had the officers withdraw as the officers were \"not really in tactical gear\"",
". SWAT then took over the operation. When asked why the officers didn't proceed to the bathroom and engage Mateen, Orlando Police Chief John Mina said it was because Mateen \"went from an active shooter to a barricaded gunman\" and had hostages. He also noted, \"If he had continued shooting, our officers would have went in there.\" At that time, the last shot by Mateen was fired between and",
"Rescues of people trapped inside the nightclub commenced and continued throughout the night. Because so many people were lying on the dance floor, one rescuing officer demanded, \"If you're alive, raise your hand.\" By , police had managed to extract nearly all of the injured from the nightclub. Those who remained included the hostages held by Mateen in the bathroom, as well as a dozen people who were hiding inside dressing rooms.",
"Phone calls and negotiations\nAt , Mateen called News 13 of Orlando and said, \"I'm the shooter. It's me. I am the shooter.\" He then said he was carrying out the shooting on the behalf of ISIS and began speaking rapidly in Arabic. Mateen also said the shooting was \"triggered\" by a U.S.-led bombing strike in Iraq that killed Abu Wahib, an ISIS military commander, on .",
"A crisis negotiator was present as Mateen was held up inside and holding hostages. Officers initially believed he was armed with a \"suspicious device\" that posed a threat, but it was later revealed to be a battery that fell out of an exit sign or smoke detector.",
"Police hostage negotiators spoke with Mateen by telephone three times between and He claimed during one of the calls that he had bombs strapped to his body. He also claimed that he \"had a vehicle in the parking lot with enough explosives to take out city blocks.\" At , the OPD publicly announced the shooting and confirmed multiple injuries. At , eight of the hostages escaped after police had removed an air conditioning unit from an exterior wall",
". At approximately , Mateen told negotiators that he planned to strap explosive vests, similar to those used in the November 2015 Paris attacks, to four hostages, strategically place them in different corners of the building, and detonate them in 15 minutes. OPD officers then decided to end negotiations and prepared to blow their way in.",
"At around , Mateen's wife—after receiving a call from her mother at approximately asking where her husband was—sent a text message to Mateen asking where he was. Mateen texted back asking her if she had seen the news. After she replied, \"No?\", Mateen responded, \"I love you, babe.\" According to one source, she texted him back at one point saying that she loved him. She also called him several times during the standoff, but he did not answer",
". She also called him several times during the standoff, but he did not answer. She found out about what was happening at after the police told her to come out of her house with her hands up.",
"A survivor of the shooting recalled Mateen saying he wanted the United States to \"stop bombing his country\". The FBI said Mateen \"told a negotiator to tell America to stop bombing Syria and Iraq and that was why he was 'out here right now'\". During the siege, Mateen made Internet searches on the shooting, while police dispatched a tactical robot to discreetly enter the restroom and allow them to communicate with hostages via two-way audio.\n\nRescue and resolution",
"Rescue and resolution\n\nThe FBI reported that no shots were heard between the time Mateen stopped exchanging gunfire with the first responders and , when Orlando police began breaching the building's wall. Just before the breach, Mateen entered a women's bathroom where the hostages were hiding and opened fire, killing a man who sacrificed his life to save the woman behind him and at least one other, according to witnesses.",
"At , fourteen SWAT officers—after failing to blow open a big enough hole in the bathroom's exterior wall using a bomb due to the wall's structure—successfully breached the building when a policeman drove a BearCat armored vehicle through a wall in the northern bathroom. They then used two flashbangs to distract Mateen, and shot at him. The breach drew Mateen out into the hallway, and at , he engaged the officers",
". The breach drew Mateen out into the hallway, and at , he engaged the officers. He was shot eight times and killed in the resulting shootout, which involved at least eleven officers who fired about 150 bullets. He was reported \"down\" at",
"At , the police said a bomb squad had set off a controlled explosion. At , the Orlando police posted on Twitter, \"Pulse Shooting: The shooter inside the club is dead.\" Thirty hostages were freed during the police operation. The survivors were searched by police for guns and explosives.\n\nCasualties\nForty nine people died in the incident, plus Mateen, and another 58 were injured, 53 by gunfire and five by other causes. Some survivors were critically injured.",
"Fatalities\nThirty-nine, including Mateen, were pronounced dead at the scene, and eleven at local hospitals. Of the thirty-eight victims to die at the scene, twenty died on the stage area and dance floor, nine in the nightclub's northern bathroom, four in the southern bathroom, three on the stage, one at the front lobby, and one out on a patio. At least five of the dead were not killed during the initial volley of gunfire by Mateen, but during the hostage situation in the bathroom.",
"Pulse was hosting Latin Night; over 90% of the victims were of Hispanic background, and half of those were of Puerto Rican descent. Four Dominicans and three Mexican citizens were also among the dead. An off-duty United States Army Reserve captain at the club who was not in uniform was also killed.",
"The attack is the second-deadliest mass shooting by a single shooter in United States history, behind the 2017 Las Vegas shooting; prior to the Las Vegas shooting, the Pulse shooting had been the deadliest mass shooting in U.S. history",
".S. history. It is also the deadliest incident of violence against lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people in the history of the United States—surpassing the 1973 UpStairs Lounge arson attack—and the deadliest terrorist attack in the United States since the September 11 attacks in 2001.",
"The names and ages of the victims killed were confirmed by the City of Orlando after their next of kin had been notified:",
"Stanley Almodovar III, 23\n Amanda Alvear, 25\n Oscar A. Aracena-Montero, 26\n Rodolfo Ayala-Ayala, 33\n Alejandro Barrios Martinez, 21\n Martin Benitez Torres, 33\n Antonio D. Brown, 30\n Darryl R. Burt II, 29\n Jonathan A. Camuy Vega, 24\n Angel L. Candelario-Padro, 28\n Simon A. Carrillo Fernandez, 31\n Juan Chavez-Martinez, 25\n Luis D. Conde, 39\n Cory J. Connell, 21\n Tevin E. Crosby, 25\n Franky J. Dejesus Velazquez, 50\n Deonka D. Drayton, 32\n Mercedez M. Flores, 26\n Peter O. Gonzalez-Cruz, 22",
"Deonka D. Drayton, 32\n Mercedez M. Flores, 26\n Peter O. Gonzalez-Cruz, 22\n Juan R. Guerrero, 22\n Paul T. Henry, 41\n Frank Hernandez, 27\n Miguel A. Honorato, 30\n Javier Jorge-Reyes, 40\n Jason B. Josaphat, 19\n Eddie J. Justice, 30\n Anthony L. Laureano Disla, 25\n Christopher A. Leinonen, 32\n Brenda L. Marquez McCool, 49\n Jean C. Mendez Perez, 35\n Akyra Monet Murray, 18\n Kimberly Morris, 37\n Jean C. Nieves Rodriguez, 27\n Luis O. Ocasio-Capo, 20\n Geraldo A. Ortiz-Jimenez, 25\n Eric Ivan Ortiz-Rivera, 36",
"Luis O. Ocasio-Capo, 20\n Geraldo A. Ortiz-Jimenez, 25\n Eric Ivan Ortiz-Rivera, 36\n Joel Rayon Paniagua, 32\n Enrique L. Rios Jr., 25\n Juan P. Rivera Velazquez, 37\n Yilmary Rodriguez Solivan, 24\n Christopher J. Sanfeliz, 24\n Xavier Emmanuel Serrano Rosado, 35\n Gilberto Ramon Silva Menendez, 25\n Edward Sotomayor Jr., 34\n Shane E. Tomlinson, 33\n Leroy Valentin Fernandez, 25\n Luis S. Vielma, 22\n Luis Daniel Wilson-Leon, 37\n Jerald A. Wright, 31",
"Autopsies of the 49 dead were completed by the Orange County Medical Examiner's Office by , and their results were released in early August. According to the autopsy reports, many of the victims were shot multiple times in the front or side, and from a short distance. More than a third were shot in the head, and most had multiple bullet wounds and were likely shot more than away. In total, there were over 200 gunshot wounds.",
"Injuries\nMany of the injured underwent surgery. Most of them—44 people—were taken to the Orlando Regional Medical Center (ORMC), the primary regional trauma center three blocks away; twelve others went to Florida Hospital Orlando. Nine of ORMC's patients died there, and by , 27 remained hospitalized, with six in critical condition. ORMC performed surgeries on 76 patients. The last of the injured was discharged from ORMC on , nearly three months after the shooting.",
"Three Colombians and two Canadians were among the injured. Additionally, a responding SWAT officer received a minor head injury when a bullet hit his Kevlar helmet.\n\nPerpetrator\n\nThe gunman was identified as 29-year-old Omar Mateen, an American born in New Hyde Park, New York. His parents were Afghans, and he was raised Muslim. At the time of the shooting, he lived in an apartment complex in Fort Pierce, Florida, from the Pulse nightclub in Orlando.",
"Mateen's body was buried in the Muslim Cemetery of South Florida, near Hialeah Gardens.",
"Personal life",
"From October 2006 until April 2007, Mateen trained to be a prison guard for the Florida Department of Corrections. As a probationary employee, he received an \"administrative termination (not involving misconduct)\" upon a warden's recommendation after Mateen joked about bringing a gun to school. Mateen unsuccessfully pursued a career in law enforcement, failing to become a Florida state trooper in 2011 and to gain admission to a police academy in 2015",
". According to a police academy classmate, Mateen threatened to shoot his classmates at a cookout in 2007 \"after his hamburger touched pork\" in violation of Islamic dietary laws. Other witnesses said that they saw Mateen drink alcohol and even \"get drunk\".",
"Since 2007, he had been a security guard for G4S Secure Solutions. The company said two screenings—one conducted upon hiring and the other in 2013—had raised no red flags. Mateen held an active statewide firearms license and an active security officer license, had passed a psychological test, and had no criminal record.",
"After the shooting, the psychologist who reportedly evaluated and cleared Mateen for his firearms license in 2007 by G4S records denied ever meeting him or having lived in Florida at the time, and said she had stopped her practice in Florida since January 2006. G4S admitted Mateen's form had a \"clerical error\" and clarified that he had instead been cleared by another psychologist from the same firm that bought the wrongly named doctor's practice",
". This doctor had not interviewed Mateen, but evaluated the results of a standard test used in the screening he undertook before being hired. G4S was subsequently fined for lapses in its psychological testing program (see below).",
"In 2009, Mateen married his first wife, who left him after a few months; the couple's divorce became final in 2011. Following the nightclub attack, she said Mateen was \"mentally unstable and mentally ill\" and \"obviously disturbed, deeply, and traumatized\", was often physically abusive, and had a history of using steroids. His autopsy revealed signs of long-term and habitual steroid use, so more toxicology tests were ordered for confirmation",
". As of , 2016, federal investigators were uncertain whether Mateen's steroid use was a factor in the attack.",
"At the time of the shooting, Mateen was married to his second wife and had a young son.\n\nMotive\nIn the hours before the shooting, Mateen used several Facebook accounts to write posts vowing vengeance for American airstrikes in Iraq and Syria and to search for content related to terrorism. These posts, since deleted, were recovered and included in an open letter by Senate Homeland Security Chairman Ron Johnson to Facebook CEO Mark Zuckerberg seeking further information about Mateen's use of the site.",
"During the shooting, Mateen made a 9-1-1 call claiming it was an act of retaliation for the airstrike killing of, among others, ISIS militant Abu Waheeb in the previous month. He told the negotiator to tell America to stop the bombing.",
"Despite numerous anonymous and named reports of LGBTQ connections, the FBI was unable to verify any claims that Mateen was homosexual or frequented gay bars or even knew the Pulse nightclub was a gay bar. The FBI investigation found the witnesses claiming Mateen's homosexuality were mistaken or refused to go on the record, and doubts that Mateen was gay",
". Law enforcement sources said the FBI found no photographs, text messages, smartphone apps, pornography, or cell tower location data to suggest Mateen lived a gay life, closeted or otherwise.",
"On the day of the shooting, Mateen's father, Mir Seddique Mateen, said that he had seen his son get angry after seeing a gay couple kiss in front of his family at the Bayside Marketplace in Miami months prior to the shooting, which he suggested might have been a motivating factor. Two days later, after his son's sexual orientation became a subject of speculation, Mateen's father said he did not believe his son was homosexual",
". Mateen's ex-wife, however, claimed that his father called him gay while in her presence. Speaking on her behalf, her current fiancé said that she, his family, and others believed he was gay, and that \"the FBI asked her not to tell this to the American media\".",
"During his wife's trial in March 2018, her defense revealed in a motion that Mateen had Googled \"downtown Orlando nightclubs\" and, after passing Disney Springs, traveled between Pulse and the Eve Orlando Nightclub before choosing to target Pulse. Cell phone records indicate that the final selection of the Pulse appears to have been made based on the lack of security – not because it was a gay club",
". Trial witnesses said the decision to target Pulse was made at the last minute, and the defense's motion argued that this \"strongly suggests that the attack on Pulse was not a result of a prior plan to attack a gay nightclub.\"",
"Aftermath\n\nSecurity-camera video footage was recovered from the nightclub as part of the investigation, with a censored version later publicly released during the trial of Mateen's wife. Facebook activated its \"Safety Check\" feature in the Orlando area following the shooting, allowing users to mark themselves as \"safe\" to notify family and friends—the first use of the feature in the United States.",
"Following the shooting, many business venues in the United States, such as shopping malls, movie theaters, bars, and concert halls, reexamined their security procedures. Also, police forces across the country announced plans to increase security at LGBT landmarks such as the Stonewall Inn and at Pride Month events including pride parades.",
"Two former SWAT members, one an active-shooter tactics expert and trainer, expressed misgivings about the three-hour delay in breaching the nightclub, citing the lesson learned from other mass shootings that officers can minimize casualties only by entering a shooting location expeditiously, even if it means putting themselves at great risk.\n\nSeddique Mateen released a Dari language video statement via Facebook on to speak about his son's actions.",
"A broadcast from the Iraqi ISIS radio station al-Bayan said Mateen was \"one of the soldiers of the caliphate in America\", without indicating any foreknowledge of the shooting.\n\nOn , the Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services fined G4S Secure Solutions $151,400 for providing inaccurate psychological testing information on more than 1,500 forms over a ten-year period, which allowed employees to carry firearms. Mateen's form was among those investigated.",
"On , it was reported that the Orlando Police Department was upgrading its equipment for officers following the shooting, since officers at the nightclub were not well-equipped for the event and therefore endangered. The upgraded equipment included ballistic helmets and heavier ballistic vests.",
"Following the shooting and a vehicle-ramming attack and mass stabbing at Ohio State University in Columbus, Ohio, a new federal initiative was launched, partially in response to at least one victim bleeding to death inside Pulse during the shooting. The initiative was designed to train people working at schools and other public places on how to treat injuries before paramedics arrive at the scene",
". Doctors have emphasized the importance for school faculty members to stay calm and assess injuries, but also discouraged the use of more invasive emergency procedures such as removing a bullet.",
"Victim assistance efforts\nThe FBI's Office of Victim Assistance (OVA) provided \"information, assistance services, and resources\" to the victims and witnesses of the shooting that, depending on their case-by-case eligibility, may have consisted of \"special funding to provide emergency assistance, crime victim compensation, and counseling\". The OVA, through its Victim Assistance Rapid Deployment Team and Crisis Response Canines, also provided help to responders of the shooting in the days following .",
"Immediately after the shooting, many people lined up to donate blood at local blood donation centers and bloodmobile locations when OneBlood, a regional blood donation agency, urged people to donate. The surge in blood donations and the fact that the shooting targeted a gay nightclub spotlighted the Food and Drug Administration's controversial federal policy that forbids men who had sex with men in the past year from donating blood",
". Despite expressions of frustration and disapproval by a number of gay and bisexual men, and LGBT activists across the country and a group of Democratic lawmakers urging the ban to be lifted, the FDA stated on that it had no plans to change the regulation and will reevaluate its policies \"as new scientific information becomes available\".",
"A victims' assistance center, Orlando Family Assistance Center, was opened on inside Camping World Stadium by the City of Orlando. During the eight days it was open, it provided help to 956 people from 298 families. Those remaining were then directed to the newly opened Orlando United Assistance Center jointly set up by the City and Orange County, which, according to the mayor of Orlando, \"will stay open as long as there is a need\".",
"The two hospitals that treated Pulse victims, Orlando Regional Medical Center and Florida Hospital, announced in late August that they will not be billing the survivors or pursuing reimbursement.\n\nThe City of Orlando offered free plots and funeral services at the city-owned Greenwood Cemetery for those killed in the shooting.",
"Fundraising campaigns\nEquality Florida, the state's largest LGBT rights group, started a fundraising page to aid the victims and their families, raising $767,000 in the first nine hours. As of , 2016, they have raised over $7.85 million online, a record for GoFundMe, with over 119,400 donors and an average of about $66 per donation.",
"Another fundraising campaign, OneOrlando, was established by Mayor Buddy Dyer. The Walt Disney Company and NBCUniversal, which operate the nearby Walt Disney World Resort and Universal Orlando Resort, respectively, each donated $1 million to the fund",
". As of , OneOrlando has raised $23 million, with a draft proposal to start payouts starting on a rolling basis in which the highest compensations will go to the families of the 49 people killed, followed by the 50 victims who were physically injured and hospitalized for one night or more. OneOrlando's fund administrator said that the draft has not decided whether to pay people who were held hostage but were not injured, and will take public feedback in two 90-minute hearings to be held on",
". A timeline of the draft proposal was released. On , its board of directors decided that the funds will only be dispersed to \"the families of the dead, survivors who were hospitalized, survivors who sought outpatient medical treatment, and those who were present in the club when the shootings began but not physically injured\", and that family members and survivors can start filing claims until the deadline. As of , OneOrlando paid out over $27",
". As of , OneOrlando paid out over $27.4 million to 299 recipients, according to officials, with six more claims worth an additional $2.1 million still being contested among family members of the slain victims.",
"IDW Publishing and DC Entertainment created Love Is Love, a graphic novel sold to raise money for the victims. The novel became a New York Times best seller and more than $165,000 was raised. Through Equality Florida, the proceeds were donated to the OneOrlando Fund.",
"Release of transcripts and videos",
"A total of 603 calls to 9-1-1 were made by victims, family members and friends of victims, bystanders, and rescue workers during the entire shooting. On , two dozen news agencies sent a four-page letter to Orlando's city attorney jointly demanding the release of recordings that 9-1-1 callers made on the night of the shooting. The letter also contained a request for scanner and dispatch recordings. The Orlando police refused to release the recordings, citing an \"ongoing investigation\"",
". The Orlando police refused to release the recordings, citing an \"ongoing investigation\". , the FBI released a transcript of the first call by the shooter and a summary of three calls with police negotiators. On , the University of Central Florida Police Department released nine body camera videos of UCFPD officers who rushed to Pulse to help Orlando police officers during the incident.",
"On , the City of Orlando released a detailed 71-page document of OPD officers' accounts and responses to the shooting. Requests to release recordings of 9-1-1 calls, police radio transmissions, and the exchanges between law enforcement and Mateen were denied, citing disagreements over whether they fall under local or federal jurisdiction. The status on the authority over the recordings is pending a court ruling",
". The status on the authority over the recordings is pending a court ruling. On , the Orange County Sheriff's Office (OCSO) released video footage from a body camera worn by one of its deputies during the incident. On , the Orange County Fire Rescue released a recording of a 9-1-1 call made during the shooting. On , the OCSO released dozens of pages of documents detailing the deputies' individual accounts of their involvement in the shooting",
". On , the OCSO released the 9-1-1 calls it received during the shooting. Two days later, OPD and the city of Orlando released nine of their hundreds of 9-1-1 calls, which were all made by friends and relatives outside of Pulse during the incident; the rest are locked in a legal dispute between 24 media groups, OPD, and the city of Orlando.",
"On , the city of Orlando released 23 additional 9-1-1 calls made during the shooting. These included calls made from rescue workers advising preparedness for dozens of victims, a patron who escaped from Pulse with a friend who was shot, and the brother of a woman who was shot several times and trapped inside a bathroom in the nightclub",
". On , the City of Orlando released nearly 30 minutes of recordings of police negotiators talking with Mateen during the course of the shooting, after a judge with the Ninth Judicial Circuit Court of Florida ruled that these calls should be made public. A total of 232 other calls are still being withheld by the city.",
"On , the Orange County Sheriff's office released about two dozen videos of body camera footage of officers at the perimeter of the nightclub during the shooting. The footage, which was heavily censored, depicted officers conducting searches of bathrooms in the nightclub and tending to survivors",
". On , the City of Orlando released 36 police audio recordings made during the shooting, which record officers' attempts to contact Mateen, their remarks on his \"serious, unruffled attitude\", and their conversations about how to respond to the hostage situation. Also released that day was an additional 9-1-1 call made by a woman who made it out of the nightclub with her sister, who was shot. The next day, on , 21 additional 9-1-1 calls were released",
". The next day, on , 21 additional 9-1-1 calls were released. This was followed by three additional hours of 9-1-1 calls released on . In many of these calls, people trapped inside bathrooms, kitchens, and an upstairs office were questioning why police had yet to enter the nightclub. Two days later, on , 107 pages of transcripts of more than 30 9-1-1 calls were released",
". Two days later, on , 107 pages of transcripts of more than 30 9-1-1 calls were released. These calls were made during the first ten minutes of the shooting, and had to be released in the form of transcripts after a judge deemed them too graphic to be released as audio recordings. According to a city spokesman, all 9-1-1 calls made during the shooting have now been released to the public.",
"Future of Pulse\n\nOn , 2016, the City of Orlando announced it would pay $4,518 to erect a new fence around the Pulse nightclub on . The fence will feature a commemorative screen-wrap with local artwork that would serve as a memorial to the victims and survivors of the shooting. It will also be smaller than the nightclub's previous fence, in order to allow for more efficient navigation by passers-by.",
"On the City of Orlando announced its plans to purchase the Pulse nightclub later that month for $2.25 million and turn the site into a memorial for the victims and survivors of the shooting. The announcement was met with praise from Orlando's LGBT community. However, the vote was postponed on , with the city explaining that \"more time was needed to plan a future memorial\", and that there was some discomfort from city officials over having to pay such an amount of money",
". The vote was expected to be held on or before . In December 2016, the owner declined to sell the nightclub to the city due to emotional attachment. The owner then created the onePULSE Foundation, and in May 2017, announced plans for a memorial site and museum originally slated to open in 2022.",
"Investigations\n\nClassification",
"Officials have characterized the shooting as an act of terrorism. FBI Assistant Special Agent in Charge Ron Hopper called the shooting a hate crime and an act of terrorism; and Jerry Demings, a sheriff from the Orange County Sheriff's Office, classified it as domestic terrorism. City of Orlando Chief of Police John W. Mina said Mateen seemed organized and well-prepared",
". City of Orlando Chief of Police John W. Mina said Mateen seemed organized and well-prepared. On March 13, 2018, the time of Mateen's wife's trial for aiding the attack, the FBI had still declined to classify it as a hate crime, and the prosecution said it had never contemplated arguing Mateen had targeted homosexuals. They instead only (unsuccessfully) argued she provided material support to a foreign terrorist organization.",
"On , FBI Director James Comey told reporters, \"So far, we see no indication that this was a plot directed from outside the United States and we see no indication that he was part of any kind of network\". He said the United States Intelligence Community was \"highly confident that this killer was radicalized at least in part through the Internet\", and that the investigation had found \"strong indications of radicalization by this killer and of potential inspiration by foreign terrorist organizations\"",
". Several days after the shooting, the FBI announced on its website that it has become \"the lead law enforcement agency responsible for investigating the shooting at Pulse nightclub in Orlando, Florida, on , 2016\". The agency took the lead after the shooting was classified as a terrorist attack due to Mateen's pledge of allegiance to ISIS during the event.",
"According to Senator Ron Johnson, Mateen searched online for references to the shooting during the attack, and made posts on Facebook expressing his support for Islamic State, saying \"You kill innocent women and children by doing us [sic] airstrikes. Now taste the Islamic state vengeance.\"",
"Weapons",
"Federal officials said a SIG Sauer MCX semi-automatic rifle and a 9mm Glock 17 semi-automatic pistol were recovered from Mateen's body, along with additional rounds. Mateen had legally purchased the two guns used in the shooting from a shop in Port St. Lucie: the SIG Sauer MCX rifle on and the Glock 17 pistol on . He and law enforcement were reported to have fired over 200 rounds. From his car, \"hundreds of rounds\" were found along with a",
". From his car, \"hundreds of rounds\" were found along with a .38-caliber Smith & Wesson revolver; this gun was not used in the shooting.",
"Previous FBI investigation of Mateen and cooperation with Seddique",
"Mateen became a person of interest to the FBI in May 2013 and July 2014. The 2013 investigation was opened after he made comments to coworkers about being a member of Hezbollah and having family connections in al-Qaeda, and that he had ties to Nidal Hasan—perpetrator of the 2009 Fort Hood shooting—and Dzhokhar and Tamerlan Tsarnaev—perpetrators of the Boston Marathon bombing",
". According to new documents released on , Mateen said that he made these comments in response to \"a lot of harassment\" and frequent derogatory epithets made by St. Lucie County Sheriff's deputies and his G4S coworkers, who taunted and made jokes about him being a possible Muslim extremist. The comments resulted in his employer G4S removing Mateen from his post and the county sheriff reporting him to the FBI",
". The documents also show him saying that he was \"1000% American\" and writing that he was against any \"anti-American\" and \"anti-humanity\" terrorist organizations.",
"The 2014 investigation was opened after he was linked to Moner Mohammad Abu Salha, an American radical who committed a suicide bombing in Syria. Mateen was interviewed three times in connection with the two investigations. Both cases were closed after finding nothing that warranted further investigation. After the shooting, Director Comey said the FBI will review its work and methods used in the two investigations",
". When asked if anything could have or should have been done differently in regard to Mateen, or the FBI's intelligence and actions in relation to him, Comey replied, \"So far, the honest answer is, 'I don't think so'\".",
"A little over a month after the shooting, the FBI provided more details about its May 2013 to March 2014 investigation into Mateen, which was closed after a veteran FBI agent assigned to the case and his supervisor concluded that \"there was just nothing there\" and removed his name from the Terrorist Watchlist. Mateen was interviewed twice during the investigation, and had provided a written statement in which he confessed that he had previously lied to FBI investigators",
". During the investigation, the FBI had tracked his daily routine using unmarked vehicles, closely examined his phone records, and used two informants to secretly record his face-to-face conversations. The FBI Director said that they could have taken more initiative in gaining access to his social media accounts in 2013, but noted that back then such checks were not yet \"part of [their] investigative DNA\"",
". However, it would not have mattered, as the analysis of Mateen's computer after the shooting showed that his social media accounts, including Facebook, had no ties to any terrorist groups, and that he did not post any \"radical statements\" until the early morning of the shooting. The FBI in 2013 also did not have the probable cause needed to obtain a search warrant in order to secretly listen to his phone calls or probe into Mateen's computer.",
"On , a Senate homeland security committee chairman sent a four-page letter to the inspector general of the U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ) requesting an independent review of the FBI's 2013 and 2014 investigations. He wrote that if Mateen had stayed on the FBI watch-list, the federal agency would have been notified if he tried to purchase firearms, in which case \"law enforcement potentially could have uncovered information on social media or elsewhere of Mateen's radicalization\".",
"On March 24, 2018, Sara Sweeney, the assistant attorney prosecuting Mateen's wife, Noor Salman, disclosed to her defense after the discovery period that her father-in-law, Seddique Mateen, was an FBI informant at various points between January 2005 and June 2016. Agent Juvenal Martin, who handled the elder Mateen since 2006, said he considered making Omar an informant as well, after investigating and clearing him in 2013.",
"Searches and possible accomplices",
"U.S. officials said Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) may have inspired Mateen without training, instructing, or having a direct connection with him. Investigators have said no evidence linking Mateen to the group has emerged, and have cautioned that the shooting may have been ISIS-inspired without being ISIS-directed, as was the case in the , 2015, attack in San Bernardino, California",
". Yoram Schweitzer of the Israeli Institute for National Security Studies suggested that Mateen associated the attack with ISIS to add to the notoriety of the incident, and said it was very unlikely that ISIS had known of him before the shooting.",
"On , Director of the Central Intelligence Agency John Brennan told the Senate Intelligence Committee that his agency was \"unable to uncover any link\" between Mateen and ISIS.",
"Following the shooting, officers from multiple federal, state, and local law-enforcement agencies (including the FBI, Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives, Florida Department of Law Enforcement (FDLE), St. Lucie County Sheriff's Office, and Fort Pierce Police Department) converged on Mateen's home in Fort Pierce and another home in Port St. Lucie. A bomb squad checked Mateen's Fort Pierce home for explosives",
". Lucie. A bomb squad checked Mateen's Fort Pierce home for explosives. In June 2016, the House Intelligence Committee said that United States investigators \"are searching for details about the Saudi Arabia trips Mateen made in 2011 and 2012.\"",
"Senate Intelligence Committee member Angus King said that Mateen's second wife appears to have had \"some knowledge of what was going on\". Media reports, citing anonymous law enforcement officials, said she was with Mateen as he scouted possible Orlando-area targets (including the Walt Disney World Resort's Disney Springs and the Pulse nightclub) and that she was also with him when he purchased ammunition and a holster in the months leading up to the attack.",
"Trial and acquittal of shooter's wife\nMateen's second wife, Noor Salman, was arrested in January 2017, at her home in Rodeo, California. She was charged in federal court in Orlando with aiding and abetting as well as obstruction of justice. Federal prosecutors accused her of knowing that Mateen was planning an attack. Salman pleaded not guilty to the charges. Salman moved to dismiss the obstruction charge; this motion was denied by U.S. District Judge Paul G. Byron.",
"Salman's trial took place in March 2018. During the trial, the prosecution revealed it withheld information during discovery that Salman's confession of helping scout potential attack locations was not true based on cell phone evidence, and that the FBI knew this even though it had been used to deny her bail",
". The defense also sought to dismiss the charges or declare a mistrial on Brady disclosure grounds after this disclosure, and after the prosecution disclosed during the trial that Seddique Mateen had been a confidential FBI informant \"at various points in time between January 2005 through June 2016.\" The court denied Salman's motion to dismiss the charges or declare a mistrial",
".\" The court denied Salman's motion to dismiss the charges or declare a mistrial. On March 30 the jury acquitted Salman of both charges, although the jury foreman said \"we were convinced she did know\" about Mateen's plans for an attack of some sort in advance.",
"Progress",
"In July 2016, law enforcement officials reported that the FBI—after conducting \"interviews and an examination of his computer and other electronic media\"—had not found any evidence that Mateen targeted Pulse because the nightclub was a venue for gays or whether the attack was motivated by homophobia. According to witnesses, he did not make any homophobic comments during the shooting",
". According to witnesses, he did not make any homophobic comments during the shooting. Furthermore, nothing has been found confirming the speculation that he was gay and used gay dating apps; however, the FBI \"has found evidence that Mateen was cheating on his wife with other women\". Officials noted that \"there is nothing to suggest that he attempted to cover up his tracks by deleting files\"",
". Generally, \"a complete picture of what motivated Mateen remains murky and may never be known since he was killed in a shootout with police and did not leave a manifesto\". The FBI has yet to conclude its investigation.",
"In September 2016, an imam for a mosque in Kissimmee released video footage showing what appeared to be Mateen on , four days before the shooting, praying for about ten minutes. The imam said Mateen was praying there with his wife and child, and had no verbal exchanges with any of the other attendants",
". Though the FBI was already in possession of the mosque's security recordings, the video footage was released to the public only after a series of bombings or bombing attempts in New York and New Jersey, and a mass stabbing at a Minnesota shopping mall in September 2016.",
"Evaluations of performance of law enforcement",
"At the request of John Mina, the Orlando chief of police, the U.S. Department of Justice's Office of Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS) conducted a third-party \"after-action assessment\" of the Orlando Police Department's response to the shooting and its overall preparedness. COPS commissioned the Police Foundation to prepare the report, which was released in December 2017",
". COPS commissioned the Police Foundation to prepare the report, which was released in December 2017. The report concluded that the Orlando Police Department response \"was appropriate and consistent with national guidelines and best practices\" and saved lives. The report stated: \"The initial tactical response was consistent with the OPD's active shooter training and recognized promising practices",
". However, as the incident became more complex and prolonged, transitioning from a barricaded suspect with hostages to an act of terrorism, the OPD's operational tactics and strategies were challenged by the increasing threat posed by the suspect's claim of improvised explosive devices inside the club and in vehicles surrounding the club",
".\" The report authors noted that they lacked access to FBI reports and other data about the crime scene and shooter, and did not have information about \"potential law enforcement friendly fire.\"",
"In April 2017, the Orlando Sentinel obtained a copy of a 78-page presentation given by Mina to some ten police groups located around the world, which discussed the OPD's response to the attack and what it has learned. The presentation offered a comprehensive timeline of the attack and included diagrams and still photos from body camera footage showing officers in their initial confrontation with Mateen",
". According to the presentation, 500 interviews were conducted, 1,600 leads were followed up on, more than 950 pieces of evidence were collected, and more than 300 people were subpoenaed.",
"In December 2016, the Florida Department of Law Enforcement completed a 35-page \"after-action report\" about its response to the nightclub during the shooting. The report was publicly released in August 2017 after a public records request made by the Orlando Sentinel",
". The report generally praised the FDLE's handling of the nightclub shootings, but detailed the agency's difficulties in notifying families and complications arising from its inter-agency policies, which led to them not immediately sharing information about the shooting with federal investigators.",
"Reactions\n\nGovernor Rick Scott expressed support for all affected and said the state emergency operations center was monitoring the incident. Scott declared a state of emergency for Orange County, Florida, and Orlando mayor Buddy Dyer declared a state of emergency for the city. On , Scott directed that 49 state flags be flown for 49 days in front of the Florida Historic Capitol in Tallahassee, with the name, age, and photo of every victim displayed beneath each flag.",
"The Obama administration expressed its condolences to the victims. President Barack Obama ordered that \"the federal government provide any assistance necessary to pursue the investigation and support the community.\" In a speech, he described the shooting as an \"act of hate\" and an \"act of terror\". He also issued a proclamation on ordering United States flags upon non-private grounds and buildings around the country and abroad to be lowered to half-staff until sundown,",
". He and Vice President Joe Biden traveled to Orlando on to lay flowers at a memorial and visit the victims' families.",
"Many American Muslims, including community leaders, swiftly condemned the shooting. Prayer vigils for the victims were held at mosques across the country. The Florida mosque where Mateen sometimes prayed issued a statement condemning the attack and offering condolences to the victims. The Council on American–Islamic Relations called the attack \"monstrous\" and offered its condolences to the victims",
". CAIR Florida urged Muslims to donate blood even while observing the month of Ramadan—which requires Muslims to fast from dawn to dusk—and contribute funds in support of the victims' families. Some Muslim groups called on members to break their Ramadan fast to be able to donate blood.",
"The United Nations Security Council issued a statement condemning the shooting for \"targeting persons as a result of their sexual orientation\". It was supported by some countries that suppress homosexual behavior and discussion, such as Egypt and Russia. Samantha Power, United States Ambassador to the UN, led a group of 17 UN ambassadors on a visit to the historic LGBT landmark Stonewall Inn to express their support for LGBT rights in response to the shooting",
". Countries that released their own statements condemning the shooting include Afghanistan, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Iran, the United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, and Turkey.",
"Many people on social media and elsewhere, including 2016 United States presidential election candidates, members of Congress, other political figures, foreign leaders, and various celebrities, expressed their shock at the event and extended their condolences to those affected. Vigils were held around the world to mourn those who were killed in the shooting, including one held at the banks of Lake Eola Park on that attracted 50,000 people.",
"OnePulse Foundation, a charity organization created by a Pulse owner on , filed documents with a plan to fund and build a memorial at the nightclub. The foundation is collaborating with the city of Orlando to determine the location of the memorial. The non-profit organization also plans to start a fundraising campaign to provide financial help to the surviving victims who were injured and the families of the 49 who were killed.",
"The LGBTQ gun rights organization Pink Pistols, with 36 chapters around the country, tripled both its membership (from 1,500 to 4,500), and its Facebook followers (to 7,000), in the week or so following the shooting. As of June 24, 2016, it counted over 7,000 members.",
"In the aftermath of the 2018 trial, some media outlets re-assessed the reactions, possible motives, and media narrative of the shooting. They said that there was not evidence to say the shooting was motivated by anti-LGBT hate, though a Huffington Post piece acknowledged that Mateen very well may have been homophobic.\n\nSee also\n\n Gun violence in the United States\n Gun law in the United States\n Gun politics in the United States\n 2016 United States House of Representatives sit-in",
"Chris Murphy gun control filibuster\n Colorado Springs nightclub shooting (2022), a similar attack which targeted an LGBTQ nightclub\n LGBT in Islam\n List of Islamist terrorist attacks\n List of rampage killers (religious, political, or ethnic crimes)\n List of terrorist incidents in June 2016\n Terrorism in the United States\n Domestic terrorism in the United States\n Violence against LGBT people\n Our Happy Hours: LGBT Voices from the Gay Bars\n Mass shootings in the United States\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links",
"Frank Straub, Jack Cambria, Jane Castor, Ben Gorban, Brett Meade, David Waltemeyer, and Jennifer Zeunik, Rescue, Response, and Resilience: A Critical Incident Review of the Orlando Public Safety Response to the Attack on the Pulse Nightclub, Police Foundation/U.S. Department of Justice Office of Community Oriented Policing Services (2017)\n Orange County Sheriff's Office – Incident report (Archive)\n Orlando Police Department In Progress Incident Report",
"Orlando Police Department In Progress Incident Report\n Orlando Police Department officers' accounts from the Pulse attack\n Pulse website\n \"'They Were So Beautiful': Remembering Those Murdered In Orlando\"\n \"Singer Ricky Martin to be a spokesperson to build pulse memorial\"",
"2016 in Florida\n2016 in LGBT history\n2016 mass shootings in the United States\n2016 murders in the United States\n2010s crimes in Florida\n2010s in Orlando, Florida\n21st-century mass murder in the United States\nArticles containing video clips\nAttacks in the United States in 2016\nAttacks on buildings and structures in Florida\nAttacks on nightclubs\nDeaths by firearm in Florida\nHispanic and Latino American history\nHostage taking in the United States\nIslamic terrorism in Florida\nLGBT and Islam",
"Hostage taking in the United States\nIslamic terrorism in Florida\nLGBT and Islam\nJune 2016 crimes in the United States\nLGBT history in Florida\nLGBT-related controversies in the United States\nMass murder in 2016\nMass murder in Florida\nMass murder in the United States\nMass shootings in Florida\nMass shootings in the United States\nMass shootings involving AR-15–style rifles\nMass shootings involving Glock pistols\nMassacres in 2016\nMassacres in the United States\nTerrorist incidents in the United States in 2016",
"Massacres in 2016\nMassacres in the United States\nTerrorist incidents in the United States in 2016\nViolence against LGBT people in the United States"
] |
Ramcharitmanas
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramcharitmanas
|
[
"Ramcharitmanas (), is an epic poem in the Awadhi language, based on the Ramayana, and composed by the 16th-century Indian bhakti poet Tulsidas (c. 1532–1623). This work is also called, in popular parlance, Tulsi Ramayana, Tulsikrit Ramayana, Tulsidas Ramayana or simply Manas. The word Ramcharitmanas literally means \"Lake of the deeds of Rama\". It is considered one of the greatest works of Hindu literature",
". It is considered one of the greatest works of Hindu literature. The work has variously been acclaimed as \"the living sum of Indian culture\", \"the tallest tree in the magic garden of medieval Indian poetry\", \"the greatest book of all devotional literature\" and \"the best and most trustworthy guide to the popular living faith of the Indian people\".",
"Tulsidas was a great scholar of Sanskrit. However, he wanted the story of Rama to be accessible to the general public, as many Apabhramsa languages had evolved from Sanskrit and at that time few people could understand Sanskrit. In order to make the story of Rama as accessible to the layman as to the scholar, Tulsidas chose to write in Awadhi. Tradition has it that Tulsidas had to face much criticism from the Sanskrit scholars of Varanasi for being a bhasha (vernacular) poet",
". However, Tulsidas remained steadfast in his resolve to simplify the knowledge contained in the Vedas, the Upanishads and the Puranas to the common people. Subsequently, his work was widely accepted.",
"Ramcharitmanas made available the story of Rama to the common man to sing, meditate and perform on. The writing of Ramcharitmanas also heralded many a cultural tradition, most significantly that of the tradition of Ramlila, the dramatic enactment of the text. Ramcharitmanas is considered by many as a work belonging to the Saguna school of the Bhakti movement in Hindi literature.\n\nBackground",
"Background\n\nTulsidas began writing the Ramcharitmanas in Ayodhya in Vikram Samvat 1631 (1574 CE). The exact date is stated within the poem as being the ninth day of the month of Chaitra, which is the birthday of Rama, Rama Navami. Ramcharitmanas was composed at Ayodhya, Varanasi and Chitrakoot. Akbar (1556-1605 CE) was the Emperor of India during this period. This also makes Tulsidas a contemporary of William Shakespeare.",
"The Ramcharitmanas is written in vernacular Awadhi language. The core of the work is considered by some to be a poetic retelling of the events of the Sanskrit epic Ramayana[1] by Valmiki. The Valmiki Ramayana is centered on the narrative of Rama, the scion of the family tree of king Raghu of the Sun Dynasty. Rama was the crown prince of Ayodhya and is considered in Hindu tradition as the seventh Avatar of Vishnu",
". However, the Ramacharitmanas is by no means a word-to-word copy of the Valmiki Ramayana nor an abridged re-telling of the latter. Ramcaritmanas has elements from many other Ramayanas written earlier in Sanskrit, and other Indian dialects as well as stories from Puranas. Tulsidas is said to have some spiritual powers to see the events occurred till Tretayuga that he used to narrate Ramcharitmanas. Tulsidas himself never writes Ramcharitmanas as being a retelling of Valmiki Ramayana",
". Tulsidas himself never writes Ramcharitmanas as being a retelling of Valmiki Ramayana. He calls the epic Ramcharitmanas as the story of Rama, that was stored in the mind (Mānasa) of Shiva before he narrated the same to his wife Parvati. Tulsidas claims to have received the story through his guru, Narharidas.Tulsidas was a naive (Acheta) child and the story was stored in his mind (Mānasa) for long before he wrote it down as Ramcharitmanas",
". Some understand this passage of the Ramcharitmanas to mean that Tulsidas at first could not grasp the story fully as he was a naïve young boy. His guru graciously repeated it again and again so that he could understand and remember it. Then he narrated the story and named it Ramcharitmanas as Shiva himself called it. The epic poem is, therefore, also referred to as Tulsikrit Ramayana (literally, The Ramayana composed by Tulsidas).",
"Manuscripts\nA manuscript of the Ramcharita Manas dated to 1648 CE is kept at a Hanuman temple in Tulsi Ghat, Varanasi.\n\nThe Ramcharitmanas is a masterpiece of vernacular literature. Some believe it to represent a challenge to the dominance of high-class Brahmanical Sanskrit, But according to many scholars he wrote in awadhi because he wanted that every single person should learn the values of Rama \n echoing the revolt of Buddha against Brahmanical elitism.\n\nStructure",
"Structure\n\nRamcharitmanas consists of seven Kānds (literally \"books\" or \"episodes\", cognate with cantos). Tulsidas compared the seven Kāndas of the epic to seven steps leading into the holy waters of Lake Manasarovar \"which purifies the body and the soul at once\".",
"The first two parts, Bāl Kāṇḍ (Childhood Episode) and Ayodhyā Kāṇḍ (Ayodhya Episode), make up more than half of the work. The other parts are Araṇya Kāṇḍ (Forest Episode), Kiśkindhā Kāṇḍ (Kishkindha Episode), Sundar Kāṇḍ (Pleasant Episode), Laṅkā Kāṇḍ (Lanka Episode), and Uttar Kāṇḍ (Later Episode). The work is primarily composed in the Chaupai metre (four-line quatrains), separated by the Doha metre (two-line couplets), with occasional Soratha and various Chhand metres.\n\nInvocations",
"Invocations \n\nEvery chapter of the Ramcharitmanas begins with an invocation or Mangalācharaņ. It is customary of the Indian tradition of writing that the author begins a new book with invocation to the gods to ensure that the sankalpa is finished unhindered. The first three or four verses of each Kānd are typically in the form of invocations.",
"Bāl Kāṇḍ begins with a hymn honouring the goddess Saraswati and the god Ganesha, the deities related to knowledge, wisdom, speech and auspiciousness. The deities Lord Shiva, Lord Rama, and Goddess Sita are also honoured in succeeding verses.",
"Ayodhyā Kāṇḍ begins with the famous verse dedicated to the god Shiva: May He in whose lap shines forth Parvati, the daughter of the mountain-king, who carries the celestial stream Ganga on His head, on whose brow rests the crescent moon, whose throat holds deadly poison & whose breast is graced by serpent-king, & who is adorned by the ashes on His body, may that chief of gods, the Lord of all, the Destroyer of the universe, the omnipresent Shiva, the moon-like Shankar, ever protect me.",
"Araṇya Kāṇḍ first verse again extols Shiva: I reverence Bhagavan Śańkara, the progeny of Brahmā, the very root of the tree of piety, the beloved, devotee of King Śri Rama, the full moon that brings joy to the ocean of wisdom, the sun that opens the lotus of dispassion, the wind that disperses the clouds of ignorance, who dispels the thick darkness of sin & eradicates the threefold agony & who wipes off all calumny and obloquy.",
"Kiśkindhā Kāṇḍ commences with the following verse: Lovely as a jasmine & a blue lotus, of surpassing strength, repositories of wisdom, endowed with natural grace, excellent bowmen, hymned by the Vedas, & lovers of the cow & the host of Brāhmaņas, who appeared in the form of mortal men through their own Māyā (deluding potency) as the two noble scions of Raghu's lineage, the armours of true dharma, friendly to all & journeying in quest for Sita, may they Sri Rama & Laksmana both grant us Devotion.",
"Sundar Kāṇḍ begins with a hymn in the praise of Rama: I adore the Lord of the universe bearing the name of Rama, the chief of the Raghu's line & the crest-jewel of kings, the mine of compassion, the dispeller of all sins, appearing in human form through His Māyā (deluding potency), the greatest of all gods, knowable through Vedānta (the Upanishads), constantly worshiped by Brahmā (the Creator), Śhambhu (Śivā), & Śeşa (the serpent-god), the bestower of supreme peace in the form of final beatitude, placid",
", & Śeşa (the serpent-god), the bestower of supreme peace in the form of final beatitude, placid, eternal, beyond the ordinary means of cognition, sinless & all-pervading",
".",
"Laṅkā Kāṇḍ begins with this hymn: I adore Śri Rama, the supreme Deity, the object of worship even of Śivā (the destroyer of Cupid), the Dispeller of the fear of rebirth, the lion to quell the mad elephant in the form of Death, the Master of Yogīs, attainable through knowledge, the repository of good qualities, unconquerable, attributeless, immutable, beyond the realm of Māyā, the Lord of celestials, intent on killing the evil-doers, the only protector of the Brāhmaņas",
", the Lord of celestials, intent on killing the evil-doers, the only protector of the Brāhmaņas, beautiful & dark complexioned as a cloud laden with moisture, who has lotus-like eyes & Supreme Brahma, who appeared in the form of an earthly king",
".",
"Uttar Kāṇḍ begins with the following hymn: I unceasingly adore Śri Ramā, the praiseworthy lord of Jānakī, the chief of Raghu's lineage, possessed of a form greenish blue as the neck of a peacock & adorned with a print of Brahmāna's lotus-foot, which testifies to His being the greatest of all gods, rich in splendour, clad in yellow robes, lotus-eyed, ever-propitious, holding a bow & arrow in His hands, mounted on the aerial car named Puşpakā",
", ever-propitious, holding a bow & arrow in His hands, mounted on the aerial car named Puşpakā, accompanied by a host of monkeys & waited upon by His own brother Lakşmaņa",
".",
"Kānd endings\n\nTulsidas ends every chapter in a similar manner describing the ending in the Sanskrit language.\n\nEvery Kānd is formally concluded by Goswami Tulsidas. The following is an example of the ending of Kiśkindhā Kāṇḍ:\n\nTranslation: \"Thus ends the fourth descent into the Mānasa lake of Sri Rama's exploits, that eradicates all the impurities of the kali age.\" All the other Kāndas are concluded in the same way where the word caturthah is substituted, according to the Kānd being concluded.\n\nNarrative",
"Narrative\n\nRamcharitmanas is structured around three separate conversations. The conversations happen between Shiva and Parvati, Sages Bharadwaj and Yajnavalkya and finally Kakbhushundi and the king of birds, Garuda. Some scholars are of the opinion that there is also an underlying personal conversation between Tulsidas and Lord Rama all through the text of Ramcharitmanas.\n\nBāl Kāṇḍ\n\nThe Child Episode",
"Tulsidas begins the story with an invocation to various deities, his guru and saints who have preceded him and those who will succeed him in the future. Homage is paid to Valmiki for bringing the Ramayana to the devotees of Rama. Next are introduced and praised the various characters of the epic beginning with the birthplace of Rama, the holy city of Ayodhya. Praises are bestowed on Dasharatha, the king of Ayodhya and Rama's father and his queens Kausalya, Kaikeyi and Sumitra",
". Tulsidas then praises King Janaka (the father-in-law of Rama), and his family. He goes on to praise the brothers of Rama - Bharata, Lakshman and Shatrughna and sings the glories of Hanuman, the constant companion to Rama, Sugriva, the monkey king and Jambavan, the leader of bears. Next, the characters of Sita and Rama are introduced.",
"The story of Ramcharitmanas is then underway. It begins with the meeting of two sages - Bharadwaj and Yajnavalkya. Bharadwaj asks Yajnavalkya to narrate in detail the story of Rama. Yajnavalkya begins with how Shiva came about retelling the story of Rama to his wife Parvati. (The story of Sati's self-immolation, the destruction of her father Daksha's sacrifice, the rebirth of Sati as Parvati and her marriage to Shiva)",
". Shiva explains five different reasons as to why Rama incarnated on earth in different ages Kalpa (aeon). Each of these stories is discussed in detail, with the primary message being that Rama incarnated on earth to protect the righteous who follow the path of Dharma. The story then moves to the birth of Ravana and his brothers. Post this point, the narration is done at different times by Shiva, Yajnavalkya, Kakbhushundi and Tulsidas.",
"The story now moves to the abode of Brahma where Brahma and the other Hindu Devas are found mulling on the ways to rid the earth of Ravana and his excesses. Unable to find a solution, they pray to Shiva and ask him for his guidance on where to find the supreme God who will come to their rescue. Shiva tells them that they don't need to go anywhere to find the Supreme God for he resides in the hearts of his devotees",
". All the Devas then pray to the supreme Brahman/Vishnu to rid the earth of the demons wreaking havoc on men as well as Devas. Brahman shows compassion to all and announces in an Akashvani that he will be born in the Sun Dynasty to save the Devas and his devotees from the demons.",
"The story then moves to Ayodhya. One fine day, Dasharatha, the king of Ayodhya, realizes that he has become old and still issueless. He conveys his distress to sage Vasistha, the family guru, and seeks the way forward. Vasistha comforts Dasharatha and tells him that he will have four sons. Vasistha requests Rishyasringa to perform the Putrakām yajna (vedic yajna for the birth of sons). Tulsidas states that the birth of Rama and his brothers took place on the ninth day of the Chaitra month",
". It was the fortnight of the moon, known as the shukla period.",
"The story then moves on and Rama and his brothers are now grown-up boys. The sage Vishvamitra arrives at Dasharatha's royal court where the King receives his eminent guest with great honour. Vishvamitra lived in the forest and was performing great sacrifices. However, the demons Maricha and Subahu would always desecrate the ceremonial offerings. He knew that Rama had taken birth on earth to protect his devotees and so he decided to visit Dasharatha to ask him a favor",
". The sage asks the king to let his sons accompany him to the forest. Reluctantly the king agrees. Rama knew beforehand the intention of Vishvamitra in asking him to come along with him. He assures the sage that he would obey his commands. Lakshman kills Subahu and Rama kills Tataka and defeats Maricha, the dreaded demons.",
"The story then moves to the deliverance of Ahalya. Rama, Lakshman and Vishvamitra venture on a journey and reach the beautiful kingdom of the Videhas, Mithila. The king of Mithila, Janaka, welcomes the great sage and asks him who are the two boys accompanying him. Janaka is overcome by great emotion as he is able to sense the true nature of their mission. The brothers then set out to discover the beautiful city and visit Janaka's garden",
". The brothers then set out to discover the beautiful city and visit Janaka's garden. This is an important section of the manās as it portrays the first meeting of Rama and Sita.",
"In the meanwhile, King Janaka arranges a swayamvara ceremony for his daughter Sita. A swayamvara ceremony is a Vedic ritual in which a prospective bride selects her groom from among a group of suitors who attend the ceremony. Sita falls in love with Rama at first sight in Janaka's garden and prays to Parvati that she may get Rama as her husband. King Janaka sends a messenger to invite Rama, Laksman and Sage Vishvamitra to attend the swayamvara. Janaka puts a condition to identify the right groom for Sita",
". Janaka puts a condition to identify the right groom for Sita. The great bow of Shiva by the name of Pinaka was kept in the arena. Any suitor who would be able to string Pinaka would be married to Sita. Many princes try but fail to even nudge the mammoth bow. This causes great distress to Janaka who wonders aloud if the earth has become devoid of brave men",
". This causes great distress to Janaka who wonders aloud if the earth has become devoid of brave men. This statement of Janaka angers Lakshman who retorts that no one talks in this vein, when a gathering like this, has the presence of scions of the Sun Dynasty. Rama gently nudges him to keep calm as Vishwamitra asks him to break the bow and make Janaka happy once again. Rama steps in and effortlessly lifts and strings the divine bow. In a swift move, he breaks the bow",
". In a swift move, he breaks the bow. The breaking of Pinaka causes a great noise that disturbs the great sage Parashurama in his meditation and he storms into the swayamvara arena in great anger vowing to kill whoever had dared to break the bow of lord Shiva. Lakshman enters into an argument with Parashurama, paying scant respect to the sage who was known for his bursts of anger and was known to slay whoever dared to oppose him. Ultimately, Rama brings him around",
". Ultimately, Rama brings him around. Parashurama discovers the real nature of Lord Rama as the ultimate Brahman, pays his respects and leaves for the forests for meditation. Sita places the wreath of victory around the neck of Rama in accordance with the rules of the swayamvara and is thus wedded to him.",
"However, Sita being his beloved daughter, Janaka desires to conduct a grand marriage of Sita and Rama in accordance with both Vedic and laukik (traditional) customs. Janaka dispatches messengers to Ayodhya to inform Dasharatha and his family about the marriage of Rama and Sita and invites them for the formal consummation of marriage ceremony",
". Dasharatha starts with a great marriage procession, consisting of Rama's family, friends and well wishers in addition to Shiva, Brahma and all Devas who take up human form and depart for Mithila. Along with Rama-Sita, Bharat-Mandavi, Lakshman-Urmila and Shatrughna-Shrutakirti's marriages are also arranged.",
"After a grand wedding, the kind of which had never been witnessed in the universe, Rama and Sita return to Ayodhya where there was a great celebration and much rejoicing.\n\nAyodha Kāṇḍ\n\nThe Ayodhya Episode",
"Ayodhya was described as being like a heaven on earth ever since Rama and Sita came back from Mithila. As King Dasharatha was getting old, he wanted to install his son Rama as Prince Regent. He decided to start the ceremonies for his coronation the very next day. The Devas however became very concerned at the prospect of Rama remaining in Ayodhya and not pursuing the wicked Ravana, and vanquishing him. Something had to happen if Rama was to embark on his mission to rid the world of Ravana",
". Something had to happen if Rama was to embark on his mission to rid the world of Ravana. They approached Goddess Saraswati for help.",
"King Dasharatha has three wives. Queen Kaushalya is the principal queen and the mother of Rama. Queen Kaikeyi is the mother of Bharata and Queen Sumitra is the mother of Lakshman and Shatrughna. Saraswati decides to influence the mind of one of Queen Kaikeyi's maid servants named Manthara. Manthara's mind harbors evil intentions and she begins to talk to Queen Kaikeyi in harsh and conceited tones",
". She finds fault with Kaikeyi for being supportive of the king's plan of installing Rama, as Prince Regent when her own mind tells her that Bharata would clearly be a greater king. At that time Bharata is in Kaikeya country visiting his uncle and so he is unaware of what is happening in Ayodhya. Slowly Queen Kaikeyi's mind is poisoned. Manthara reminds Queen Kaikeyi of the two boons that the King had promised her",
". Manthara reminds Queen Kaikeyi of the two boons that the King had promised her. Kaikeyi enters the private room in the royal palace, where the King gives audience to his queens and awaits Dasharatha. Dasharatha is greatly alarmed and concerned that Kaikeyi is sitting in the sulking chamber, while the entire population of Ayodhya is greatly happy and eagerly anticipating the coronation of Rama. Queen Kaikeyi speaks harshly to Dasharatha, which surprises the king",
". Queen Kaikeyi speaks harshly to Dasharatha, which surprises the king. She reminds him of the two boons he promised her and to his bewilderment, asks him to install her son Bharata as Prince Regent and send Rama into the forest for fourteen years. Queen Kaikeyi is unmoved by Dasharatha's lamentations and finally the king emotionally breaks down. The king's assistant Sumantra sends for Rama with a request to meet his father.",
"Queen Kaikeyi speaks to Rama and explains to him the boons that she had asked of his father. Rama is actually the Supreme Personality of Godhead incarnated on earth, yet he accepts his stepmother's request and decides to leave the kingdom as it serves his purpose as well. The people of Ayodhya remonstrate against Queen Kaikeyi who firmly believes that she is doing the right thing. Rama attempts to dissuade Lakshman and Sita from joining him but is unable to do so",
". Rama attempts to dissuade Lakshman and Sita from joining him but is unable to do so. The scene becomes very emotional as Rama, Sita and Lakshman greet their mothers before finally going to Dashratha to take leave of him. Dasharatha attempts, in vain, to try to talk Sita out of joining Rama in the forest.",
"The residents of Ayodhya can't spare the thought of being away from Rama and decide to join him in the forest. Rama, Sita, Lakshman and Sumantra go incognito and in the dead of the night leave the city and move into the forest . They leave for a place called Sringaverapur after which they meet Guha, the Nishad king. They arrive at Prayag, the holy city where the Rivers Ganges, Yamuna and Saraswati meet. Rama meets with the Sage Bharadwaj at his ashram",
". Rama meets with the Sage Bharadwaj at his ashram. Rama is overwhelmed with the reception and love shown by the people inhabiting the banks of the Yamuna. Rama then meets Sage Valmiki, the author of the Ramayan at Chitrakoot dham. Valmiki recognises the true opulence of Rama and sings his praises. At this point Tulsidas takes great care to describe the beauty of the land of Chitrakoot with some inspiring poetry.",
"Rama asks Sumantra to return to Ayodhya which saddens Sumantra. He not only wants to stay with Rama, he is also afraid of going back only to face the anger and wrath of the citizens of Ayodhya. Rama persuades him to go back. On returning to Ayodhya, Sumantra meets Dasharatha, who asks him the whereabouts of Rama. The pain of separation from Rama is too much for Dasharatha who passes away crying Rama's name.",
"Sage Vashishtha knows that Rama will not return to the kingdom and so immediately sends an envoy to call Bharata and Shatrughna back to Ayodhya. Bharata learns of all that has happened and chastises his mother, Queen Kaikeyi. He is greatly pained and blames himself for Rama leaving Ayodhya. He accuses her of bringing ruin to the family. Shatrughna comes across Manthara and beats her in rage. They approach Queen Kaushalya and see her in a sorry state",
". They approach Queen Kaushalya and see her in a sorry state. Bharata begs for her forgiveness and loudly laments while the Queen attempts to pacify him. She asks him to carry out his duty and rule Ayodhya, but Bharata cannot bear the thought of sitting on the throne with his father dead and his brothers in exile in the forest. The cremation of King Dasharatha takes place. Bharata and Shatrughna decide to go into the forest and ask Rama to return to Ayodhya and take the throne",
". Many citizens as well as the royal family, who have been grieving ever since Rama had left them, decide to join the brothers.",
"The Nishads see the approaching royal party and become suspicious. Guha approaches Bharata to understand his motive for bringing such a large party to the forest. He assumes that Bharata has some sinister motive. Bharata shows his love for Rama and Guha is moved to tears by his love for his brother. The royal procession then moves forward to Chitrakoot. Lakshman sees the huge army of people with Bharata and immediately begins to chastise Bharata",
". Lakshman sees the huge army of people with Bharata and immediately begins to chastise Bharata. Rama counters this by praising the greatness of Bharata, leaving Lakshman feeling sorry for his harsh words. Bharata finally arrives at Chitrakoot where the brothers are all reunited once again. They collectively mourn the passing of their father and perform his Shraddha (obsequies) along with Sage Vashistha leading the ceremony.",
"Despite all of Bharata's convincing, Rama is true to the word given to his father and step mother Kaikeyi, and vows that he will fulfill her wish. Bharata says that he simply cannot sit on the throne while Rama wanders in the forest. He asks Rama for his sandals, which he would place at the throne and would only act as Rama's representative and not as a full-fledged king.",
"With much sorrow and hurt, Bharata leaves Rama and returns to Ayodhya. He decides that he would not live in the kingdom while Rama is in exile and so lives like a hermit in a nearby town called Nandigram.\n\nAraṇya Kāṇḍ\n\nThe Forest Episode\n\nRama, Sita and Lakshman wander in the forest and come across the hermitage of a sage called Atri. Atri sees them approaching and is overcome with great joy. Sita is embraced by Atri's wife, Anasuya. Anusuya talks to Sita at length about the duties of a devoted wife.",
"Rama, Sita and Lakshman venture further into the forest and encounter Viradha. Viradha attempts to capture Sita. Rama kills him by burying him in a ditch. They then visit the ashram of Sage Sarabhanga. Rama asks him of where he should go for shelter in the forest. He is advised to visit the sage Sutiksna. As Rama approaches Sutiksna, the latter comes out of his meditation. He tells Rama that he had been awaiting his arrival and had even turned down the offer of entering the heavenly planets.",
"Thirteen years pass. Continuing on their journey through the forest, they meet with Sage Agastya where Rama pays his respect to the sage. Agastya gifts divine weapons to Rama and advises him to venture further into the forest and into the region of Dandaka. Rama meets with the eagle, Jatayu. Rama, Sita and Lakshman take up abode at Panchavati and build a beautiful ashram, as per the advice of Agastya. Lakshman becomes nostalgic of the past and begins to talk harshly about Kaikeyi",
". Lakshman becomes nostalgic of the past and begins to talk harshly about Kaikeyi. Rama pacifies him and explains that it is sinful to speak of his mother in such a way.",
"The story takes a new turn, as Rama, Sita and Lakshman are approached by the sister of the demon-king Ravana, called Surpanakha. She immediately takes a liking to Rama and falls in love with him. She disguises herself and talks to Rama in sweet tones. Rama rejects her advances explaining that he is already married and advises her to approach Laksman as he is unmarried. However, Laksman also rejects her advances. Surpanakha takes it as a great insult to be spurned like this, and attempts to hurt Sita",
". Surpanakha takes it as a great insult to be spurned like this, and attempts to hurt Sita. Laksman takes hold of his sword and lops off Surpanakha's ear lobes and nose. Feeling humiliated, Surpanakha leaves the forest and goes to the abode of her brothers Khara and Dusana. They are angry at the treatment meted out to their sister and leave with the intention of killing Rama. Both the brothers are vanquished by Rama.",
"Surpanakha is greatly upset and visits Ravana at his residence in Lanka. She explains all that has happened, after which Ravana calls for his old friend Maricha. Ravana hatches a plot and asks Maricha to disguise himself as a golden deer, so that Ravana may then kidnap Sita. Maricha has already felt the power of Rama (as mentioned in Bālakāṇḍa) and is apprehensive, however, he thinks that he is going to die either way since Ravana will kill him in rage for refusing him",
". Ravana and Marich immediately leave for Rama's forest abode.",
"Maricha takes his position and instantly Sita is attracted by his deer form. Rama knows that Ravana's intentions and orders Sita to place her shadow (Maya Sita) in her place, while she would hide in the fire. She asks Rama time and time again to hunt for the deer and bring it to her. Rama runs after the deer and is soon quite a far distance away from the ashram. Rama releases an arrow and hits the deer. Impersonating Rama's voice, Marich shouts out to Lakshman to help him",
". Impersonating Rama's voice, Marich shouts out to Lakshman to help him. Maya Sita (hereafter called simply Sita) hears the cry and orders Laksman to go help his brother. Ravana, while posing as a begging minstrel, uses this opportunity to forcibly kidnap Sita from the ashram.",
"Jatayu, the eagle, sees Ravana's sinful act and attempts to fight with him, but Ravana has too much power and cuts off Jatayu's wings and leaves him for dead. Rama and Lakshman return to find the ashram empty. They anxiously set out to find Sita and find the severely wounded eagle. Jatayu dies in Rama's lap and receives liberation.",
"As they continue to look for Sita they come across the hermitage of Shabari. Tulsidas says that Shabari washes the feet of Ram with tears from her eyes and feeds him half eaten wild berries to ensure he gets only sweet ones. She is given liberation by Rama. The brothers then head towards the Pampasarovar lake.\n\nKiśkindhā Kāṇḍ\n\nThe Kiśkindhā Region Episode",
"High up in the Rishyamukha mountains, Sugriva sees Rama and Laksman at the foothills. He consults Hanuman as to whether he thinks they have been sent by his brother Bali. Hanuman disguises himself as a Brahmin and approaches the brothers. Hanuman recognises the true nature of Rama as God-incarnation and surrenders himself to his Holy feet. He tells the brothers that his king, Sugriva, wishes to extend his friendship to them and will help them to find Sita",
". Rama asks Sugriva why he resides in the mountains instead of Kishkindha, where Sugriva tells of his feud with his brother Bali. Rama sympathises with Sugriva and decides to help Sugriva in return for the latter's help in finding Sita. Rama kills Bali and installs Sugriva as king of Kishkindha and Angada, Bali's son, as prince regent.",
"Sugriva becomes too attached to his new regal lifestyle and forgets about his agreement with Rama, which fills Rama with great anger. Rama asks Lakshman to bring Sugriva to him. Lakshman enters the royal court and threatens to burn the entire city to ashes. Sugriva is gravely worried and asks Hanuman to pacify him. Lakshman escorts Sugriva to Rama and upon seeing Him, Sugriva falls as his feet and begs forgiveness.",
"Sugriva immediately orders the gathering of the region's bear and monkey community. Armies of bears and monkeys are dispatched north, south east and west to search for Sita. Rama knew that only Hanuman was really capable of finding Sita. He asks Hanuman to narrate the agony of separation from her and then hands over his ring. Hanuman is joined by Angad, Nala, Nila, Kesari and Jambavan as well as many others as they head to the south",
". As the army approach the coast, Jambavan and Angad see a cave by the shore of the ocean. The cave is occupied by Sampati (who is actually Jatayu's older brother). There is a conversation during which Angad explains that Jatayu died serving Rama and thereafter Sampati narrates his biography. He tells the monkeys that he is sure that Sita is captive in Ashok Vatika in Lanka. The island is 400 miles away and requires someone who is able to jump the distance",
". The island is 400 miles away and requires someone who is able to jump the distance. Jambavan deduces that Hanuman is the only one capable of the task.",
"Sundar Kāṇḍ\n\nThe Pleasant Episode",
"Hanuman takes Jambavan's suggestion and immediately takes off for Lanka. He climbs onto the mountain and using it as a pivot, launches himself into the air. He meets Surasa, the mother of serpents and passes her test. The ocean demoness tries to capture Hanuman, thinking of him as a bird. He quickly kills her and then lands on the shore of the ocean in Lanka. He sees beautiful lush gardens, groves, lakes and reservoirs. Hanuman takes a minute form and remembering Rama, enters Lanka",
". Hanuman takes a minute form and remembering Rama, enters Lanka. He is accosted by the demon Lankini whom he hits with his fist and causes her to fall to the ground. She recites that curse given to her would cure only when a huge monkey hits her and on the same day the starting of the end of Lankesh Ravan would be marked.",
"Hanuman flies through the various palaces and gardens for his search of Sita and amongst all the demonic activities going on in Lanka, Hanuman sees a palace where Shri Hari's name is being chanted. He is drawn towards the palace and decides to visit the inhabitant. The palace belongs to Ravana's brother, Vibhishan. Hanuman narrates Rama katha (story) and then introduces himself. Hanuman proceeds to Ashok Vatika where he finally sees Sita",
". Hanuman proceeds to Ashok Vatika where he finally sees Sita. He positions himself on a branch of a tree, under which Sita was sitting and contemplates his next move. He sees Ravana walk towards Sita and beg her to glance at least once toward him. She simply looks at a blade of grass to insult him. Ravana threatens to behead Sita but is calmed down by his wife, Mandodari. Hanuman has to use all his powers of calm not to react to Ravana's threats",
". Hanuman has to use all his powers of calm not to react to Ravana's threats. When all is quiet again, Hanuman begins to sing the glory of Rama in sweet tones. He then approaches Sita and explains who he is. He presents the ring lord Rama had given him and Sita is overjoyed. She blesses Hanuman with many kind words and boons.",
"Hanuman tells Sita that he is hungry and asks for her permission to eat fruits from the grove. He not only eats but manages to destroy large parts of it. He easily kills one of Ravana's sons, prince Akshaya. Indrajit arrives in the grove and Hanuman allows himself to be captured. He is brought in front of the king of Lanka, Ravana. Ravana orders his death, however, Vibhishan reminds him that Hanuman is an envoy and cannot be killed according to religious principle",
". Ravana decides to humiliate Hanuman by setting his tail on fire. Large amounts of clothes are tied to his tail and soaked in oil. Hanuman chants the name of Rama and his tail begins to get longer and more cloth and oil is used. He changes from his small form into a gigantic form and decides to torch alight the whole of Lanka.",
"He returns to the ocean to extinguish his tail and then goes to Sita to reassure her that the next time she sees him, it will be with Rama. He bids farewell to Sita and leaps back towards Angad and Jambavan. The monkey army then ventures back to where Sugriva, Rama and Lakshman are waiting. On arrival, Hanuman explains all that happened and immediately an army is prepared to go south towards Lanka.",
"Meanwhile, in Lanka, both Mandodari and Vibhishan ask Ravana to hand Sita back to Rama. Ravana takes great exception to this suggestion and begins to insult Vibhishan particularly. He tells him he has no need for a weakling like him and that he is no longer needed. Vibhishan decides to join Rama at Kishkindha. Vibhishan falls at Ram's feet and asks him for protection.",
"The army deliberate over how to cross the ocean to Lanka. The deity of the seas tells Rama of the boon obtained by the monkey brothers Nila and Nala and that they have the power to build a bridge to link the seashore to Lanka.\n\nLanka Kāṇḍ\n\nThe War Episode",
"Jambavan asks the monkeys Nala and Nila to begin work on building the bridge across the sea. The Mānas states that entire mountain ranges were used by Nala and Nila to complete their objective. Rama remembers Lord Shiva and decides to install a shrine for Rameswaram. Upon completion, the army of Rama begins to cross the bridge and arrives at Lanka, taking camp on Mount Suvela. Ravana hears of the advances of Rama's army and feels greatly agitated",
". Ravana hears of the advances of Rama's army and feels greatly agitated. Mandodari asks Ravana to return Sita to Rama as she fears for her husband's life. Ravana is dismissive of Rama's power and pacifies his wife. Next, Ravana's son Prahasta attempts to reinforce his mother's sentiments, but all to no avail.",
"Rama fires a warning shot from his retreat in Suvela. The arrow strikes Ravana's crown and royal umbrella. Mandodari once again attempts to convince Ravana of handing Sita back to Rama. Meanwhile, Rama asks Jambavan what should be done. Jambavan suggests that they send Angada, as messenger, to give Ravana a chance to return Sita. On reaching Ravana's court, Angada explains he is the ambassador of Rama and tells Ravana that he still has time to save himself from destruction",
". Ravana insults Angada and his refusal to comply makes war inevitable.",
"The war begins with great ferocity as Ravana loses half of his army on the first day. Indrajit, Ravan's son, is required to enter the battle far earlier than he expected. He severely wounds Lakshman with his special weapon, the Saang. Hanuman is ordered to fetch the doctor of Lanka called Sushena. Sushena tells Rama that there exists a herb called Sanjivani which can only be found in the Himalayan mountains. It is the only hope to save Lakshman",
". It is the only hope to save Lakshman. Hanuman immediately reassures Rama that he shall find this herb. As Hanuman is about to leave, Ravana orders the demon Kalanemi to impede him. However, Hanuman kills Kalanemi with ease. Hanuman reaches the mountain and can't find the herb. In his frustration he decides to take the entire mountain to Lanka.",
"Hanuman makes good speed towards Lanka when suddenly he is shot by an arrow as he approaches Nandigram. Hanuman is mistaken to be a demon by Bharat. Hanuman falls to the ground together with the great hill. Hanuman regains consciousness and recognises that Bharata is Rama's brother. He continues on to Lanka where he delivers the Sanjivani herb and Sushena treats Lakshman. Rama embraces Hanuman with great pride and affection",
". Rama embraces Hanuman with great pride and affection. Ravan takes the news of Lakshman's recovery very badly and decides to awaken his brother Kumbhakarna.",
"Kumbhakarna kills indiscriminately and wreaks much havoc. Rama releases an arrow which kills him instantly. The death of his brother scares Ravan greatly. Indrajit hastily tries to arrange a ceremony to receive great boons and powers but is interrupted by Hanuman and Angada. Lakshman takes up arms against Indrajit and kills him. Rama throws numerous arrows at Ravana but is unable to kill him. He asks Vibhishan on how to kill his brother after which Rama finally kills Ravana. The war is over.",
"Ravana's funeral takes place and Vibhishan is crowned the king of Lanka. Hanuman carries the happy news to Sita in Ashok Vatika. Finally Rama and Sita are reunited. Rama and the army prepare to depart Lanka and return towards Ayodhya. Rama, Sita, Lakshman and the senior monkeys travel back in Ravana's flying vehicle, Pushpak Vimaan.\n\nUttar Kānd\n\nThe epilogue",
"It is now the day before Rama is to return to Ayodhya after serving his exile. Bharata is anxious that his brother still hasn't arrived. The Mānas mentions that Bharata had passed his days shedding tears for fourteen years in Nandigram. Hanuman meets Bharata telling him of the arrival of Rama, Sita and Laksman. Bharata rushes to Ayodhya to tell the citizens of the great news. As the Pushpak Vimaan landed in Ayodhya the citizens shouted chants of 'Glory be to Ramchandra'",
". As the Pushpak Vimaan landed in Ayodhya the citizens shouted chants of 'Glory be to Ramchandra'. Rama, Sita and Laksman collectively touch the feet of the sage Vashishta on arriving in Ayodhya and thereafter greet all that have gathered in the assembly. Lastly Rama meets Bharata with great affection and love. Rama's coronation takes place and he is finally crowned king of Ayodhya",
". Rama's coronation takes place and he is finally crowned king of Ayodhya. Shiva arrives to glorify the festivities further and asks Rama of the boon that he may have firm and undeviating devotion of Rama's feet.",
"In conclusion to the tale, Rama has twin sons named Lava and Kusha. The other brothers each have two sons as well. It is mentioned that great sages like Nārad and Sanaka visit Ayodhya to meet with Rama and to see his great city.",
"In the subsequent passages of Uttar Kānd the biography of Saint Kakbhushundi is given, followed by a description of what is to be expected in the current age of Kali Yuga. Shiva ends his narration of the Rama Katha to Parvati as does Kakbhushundi to Garuda. It is not mentioned whether Yajnavalkya finishes his recitation to Bharadwaj. Finally, Goswami Tulsidas concludes his retelling of the Shri Ramcharitmanas. The Rudrastakam in Sanskrit is a part of this Kanda.",
"Stories behind the incarnation of Rama\nDuring the Bālakāṇḍa, it is mentioned that Shiva is retelling the story of Rama (Rama Katha) to his spouse Parvati. During this retelling, Shiva explains as many as five reasons why Rama incarnated on earth.\n\nJay and Vijay",
"The brothers Jay and Vijay are the two favoured gate keepers of Hari. Due to a curse, by the Brahmin Sanaka and his three brothers, Jay and Vijay were born in the species of the demons. One took the birth of Hiranyakashipu and the other was born as Hiranyaksha. The Supreme incarnated Himself as Varaha in order to kill Hiranyaksha, while incarnating as Narasimha to kill Hiranyakashipu",
". Even though these brothers are killed by Hari Himself, they do not attain liberation as the Brahman's had cursed them to three births and so were reborn as the powerful demons Ravana and Kumbhakarna. Hari took a human incarnation, as Rama, to kill Ravana and Kumbhakarna.",
"The Curse of Nārad Muni",
"Nārad Muni was wandering in Himalayan mountains and begins to think about Vishnu. He instantly falls into a deep meditative trance. Seeing the sage's state, Indra becomes apprehensive as he sees Nārad's trance as a threat to his own position as the chief of demigods in heaven. Indra asks Kamadeva to disturb Nārad's trance. He creates an illusion of fragrant flowers, delightful breezes and such. Heavenly damsels are called but all this has no effect on the sage",
". Heavenly damsels are called but all this has no effect on the sage. Kamadeva accepts defeat and falls at Nārad's feet, addressing him with deep humility. He recalls all that happened to Shiva and becomes puffed up with pride of his defeating of Kamadeva. Shiva admonishes him not to repeat the story to Hari.",
"Nārad visits Vishnu at his abode and unable to control his pride, re-tells his episode with Kamadeva, ignoring all that Shiva had advised. Vishnu further fans Nārad's pride by telling him that his steadfast vow of celibacy is so strong that he can never be smitten. Nārad then departs Vishnu's abode. Hari tells Laksmi that he has a plan and sets his illusory powers (maya) into operation. As Nārad departs Vaikuntha, Vishnu creates a beautiful illusory city with illusionary inhabitants",
". As Nārad departs Vaikuntha, Vishnu creates a beautiful illusory city with illusionary inhabitants. The city is ruled by King Sheelanidhi, who has a beautiful daughter called Vishvamohini. Nārad is intrigued with the city and decides to visit the king. Nārad sees the king's daughter and falls in love with her. The king explains that he wishes to marry his daughter to a suitable man. Nārad devises a plot to get the princess to choose him.",
"Nārad approaches Hari and asks him for the gift of great beauty. Vishnu says that he will do only that which is beneficial to Nārad. The sage is glad at heart and thinks that with Vishnu's favor, the princess will surely choose him. Narad desired the appearance of Lord Vishnu. He asked Lord to give him \"Hari mukh\", which translates into \"Face of Hari \". Hari word has many meanings, Lord Vishnu, monkey, frog, snake etc. Lord granted his wish by giving him Face of a monkey",
". Lord granted his wish by giving him Face of a monkey. The entire royal court is aware of Nārad's appearance, but says nothing. The princess filled with rage as soon as she sees Nārad's ugly form and completely ignores him. He sees a reflection of his face in water and is consumed with rage. He instantly goes back to Vaikuntha and begins to speak to Hari in ugly tones. He curses Hari, \"You made me look like a monkey; therefore You shall have monkeys for Your mates",
". He curses Hari, \"You made me look like a monkey; therefore You shall have monkeys for Your mates. And as You have grievously wronged me, so shall You suffer the pangs of separation from Your wife\". Hari accepts Nārad's curse and instantly withdraws his illusionary spell.",
"Nārad realises that there is no city and there is no Visvamohini, and is dismayed at what he has done. He begs Vishnu to invalidate his curse. Hari explains that it was His will and advises Nārad to chant his name to absolve himself of any sin. Nārad returns to his abode chanting the praises of Ram.\n\nSvayambhuva Manu and Shatarupa",
"Svayambhuva Manu had Shatarupa as his wife. Manu ruled the earth for many years and carried out the Lord's commandments. He longed to devotion to Hari and decides to give up ruler ship to his son so that he can retire to the forest with Satarupa and meditate upon the Lord. Manu and Satarupa settle at the banks of the Sarayu river and devoutly repeat the twelve-syllable Mantra, calling out to who is the source of many Brahmas, Vishnus and Shivas emanate",
". Some commentators indicate that the twelve-syllable mantra is the Vishnu mantra (Oṃ Namo Bhagavate Vāsudevāya). Rambhadracharya comments that the twelve-letter mantra is the coupled mantra for Sita and Rama.",
"Manu and Shatarupa first sacrifice food and then water and are finally willing to sacrifice air. Brahma, Hari and Shiva call on Manu but Manu and Satarupa are resolute and do not swerve on their sacrifices. A great voice from the heavens tells Manu, in sweet tones, to ask for a boon. Rama and Sita approach Manu in a beautiful form, which leaves Manu overcome with emotion. Manu explains now that he and Satarupa have seen the Lord's lotus feet, all their desires have been met",
". Manu has one longing but doesn't know how to ask the Lord. Finally he asks, \"O gracious Lord, I tell You my sincere wish: I would have a son like You. I have nothing to conceal from You.\"",
"The Lord announces that it shall be, however, where would he find a son like Himself? The Lord tells Manu that He Himself would be a son to him. The Lord then asks Satarupa of her wish. She says that she greatly likes the boon received by her husband and wants the same. Bowing at the Lord's feet, Manu then asks one more favour. He asks that he be dependent on which is granted. The Lord then commands the couple to dwell in Indra's capital in heaven.",
"The Lord explains that after some time Manu would be born as the king of Ayodhya, Dasharatha and Satarupa as Kausalya. He would then manifest Himself in the royal household as their son. He reassured the couple that their desire would be accomplished.\n\nTale of King Pratapbhanu",
"Tale of King Pratapbhanu\n\nPrior to the birth of Rama, Muni Bharadwaja is told the story of King Pratapbhanu by Yajnavalkya. There is a kingdom called Kaikay where Satyaketu is king. He has two sons, Pratapbhanu and Arimardana and rules his kingdom with his prime minister Dharamaruchi. Satyaketu abdicates and hands the reign to Pratapbhanu, who becomes conqueror of the world.",
"Once Pratapbhanu goes into the forest to hunt and sees a wild boar. The boar is actually the demon Kalaketu in disguise who runs away from the king. Pratapbhanu gives chase deeper into the forest. Pratapbhanu chases for many miles and becomes thirsty. He approaches a fake saint's ashram, where the resident fake saint wants to hurt and insult Pratapbhanu due to a previous incident",
". Pratapbhanu doesn't recognize the saint, who begins to sweet talk the king and says that by pure love, he wishes to impart boons onto the king. The king asks to be invincible and never ageing, which the fake saint grants, but with the condition that he needs to win favor of all Brahmans. The fake saint advises that the king arrange the cooking of holy food (prasadam) to feed the bramanas, who would surely be in his favor for such an act of kindness",
". The fake saint's real intention is to trap the king and repay him for his old grievances.",
"The fake saint asks the king to go rest, and that he would arrange the feast for the bramanas using his mystic powers. Pratapbhanu waits for three days for the fake saint. Kalaketu, now disguised as a priest, approaches the King in his court and says that he has been sent to cook the holy food. The entire brahmana community is invited. A heavenly voice from above warns the brahmanas that the food is impure and they should run away immediately",
". They curse the king that he, his kingdom and entire family are wiped from the face of earth. They also curse that he be born a demon in his next life. The heavenly voice says that the brahmana's curse is ill thought, as Pratapbhanu is not to blame. Since their curse cannot be taken back, the voice says that it is the Brahmana community that will bare the brunt of the evil of his next life.",
"Pratapbhanu is distraught and quickly goes to his kitchen to find Kalaketu. The king is pained and cries as he realizes Kalaketu has vanished. The brahmanas feel sorry for Pratapbhanu and tell him that his evil next life will be ended by Supreme Vishnu himself. As per the curse, Pratapbhanu, Arimardam and Dharmaruchi are all killed as other neighboring kings invade Kaikay.",
"Pratapbhanu is reborn as Ravan, Arimardam is reborn as Kumbhkarna and Dharmaruchi as Vibhishan. All three take great penances and are approached by Brahma and Shiva and are asked for any boon. Ravan asks that no one should be able to kill me except the tribes of man and monkeys. Kumbhkarna asks for uninterrupted sleep for periods of six months. Vibhishan asks for unshakable love for the feet of Vishnu.",
"The immolation of Sati and the incarnation of Parvati\nThe story of how Shiva came about retelling Ramkatha to his consort Parvati is retold in great detail within the Bālakāṇḍa. This part of the story is narrated by Sant Yajnavalkya to Bharadvaj Muni.\n\nSati's doubts",
"In the age of Treta, Shiva, accompanied by his consort Bhavani Sati, went to visit Rishi Agastya. The Rishi being pleased with Shiva's visit, began to narrate the eternal story of Ram. Shiva listens with great pleasure and then they return towards Their abode. Around these exact days Ram had descended on earth and was wandering the Dandaka forest with Sita and Lakshman. Shiva ponders how he can catch sight of Ram",
". Shiva ponders how he can catch sight of Ram. He finally sees Ram, who is frantically searching for Sita and instantly joins his palms and prays \"Glory to the Redeemer of the universe, who is Truth, Consciousness and Bliss\". Sati cannot recognize Ram and wonders why her Supreme Shiva is praising a mortal. Shiva is the knower of all truth and instantly reads Sati's thoughts. He advises her to not harbor such doubts and accept that she had seen Ram, whom Agastya had praised earlier",
". He finally says that if she is still not convinced then she should seek to verify this truth herself. Shiva observes as Sati takes the guise of Sita. Ram and Lakshman instantly see through Sati's disguised and asks about Shiva's whereabouts. Sati feels very uncomfortable and heads towards Shiva, thinking of how she is going to explain her folly of questioning his word.",
"Shiva asks her to tell the truth of how she tested Ram. Sati is unable to tell the truth and says that she did not test Ram, but praised his as You had. Sati forgets that Shiva knows all that has happened and is disappointed that she was disguised as his Sita. He decides that Sati is too chaste to abandon and it is a sin to continue to be her Husband and so from then he has no connection with Sati in her current body",
". Sati concludes that Shiva has come to know everything and feels foolish for having tried to deceive Him. Shiva sits under a banyan tree and enters into a long trance. Sati feels sorry but accepts that providence is repaying her for her sins. Many years pass and Shiva finally ends his trance whilst praising Ram. Sati bows down at Shiva's feet, after which he seats Sati opposite him and he begins to tell stories of Vishnu's exploits.",
"Daksha's sacrifice",
"While Shiva is narrating the stories of Vishnu, the air is filled with celestial beings. Sati asks Shiva what the occasion is. Shiva explains that her father Daksha has organised a great sacrifice where many demigods were invited. All except Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva were invited as Daksha had developed a hatred towards the Gods. Sati thinks of her father and asks if She may visit him at this time",
". Sati thinks of her father and asks if She may visit him at this time. Shiva says that they have no formal invite and that all of Sati's sisters are invited but because of his animosity towards Shiva, Her father has not invited us. Shiva tries to reason with Sati, that no good can come of her attending, but Tulsidas explains that a daughters ties to her father are very strong.",
"When she reaches her father's abode, no one welcomes her apart from her mother. Daksha does not even acknowledge her and actually burns with anger that she has turned up uninvited. Sati looks around and sees no oblations set apart for Shiva and the lack of respect of her father causes her mind to rage with great anger. She faces her father's court and announces that Shiva is the father of the universe and the beneficent of all. It is the same Shiva that her father vilifies",
". It is the same Shiva that her father vilifies. She burns her body with the fires of Yoga. Her guards are beaten and thrashed. When Shiva discovers this, he sends Virabhadra, who wreaks havoc of the sacrifice and Daksha is slain. As Sati is about to die, she asks Lord Hari of the boon that she be devoted to Shiva's feet in successive births. She is reborn as Parvati, the daughter of Himavan and Mainavati.",
"Parvati and Nārad's prophecy",
"Years after the birth of Parvati, Nārad Muni visits her parents Himavan and Maina. Himavan asks Nārad what the future holds for his daughter. Nārad says that Parvati will be adorned with good traits and win unfailing love of her husband. She will remain ever united with him and bring great glory upon her parents. The only drawback is that her husband will be an ascetic with matted hair who is naked and of hideous accouterments",
". Himavan and Maina become disconsolate while Parvati is greatly pleased, as she senses from Nārad's words that her boon from Vishnu is coming true. Nārad explains to Himachal that the only person who shows the virtues as described by him is Shiva. Parvati's parents are immediately uplifted and as Nārad leaves, he asks Parvati to fix Her thoughts on Hari and practice austerity. The young Parvati enters the forest and performs great penances in order to obtain Shiva",
". The young Parvati enters the forest and performs great penances in order to obtain Shiva. Her body thins greatly due to her self-mortification after which Brahma declares that she should cease her severe penances as Shiva would soon be hers. History had produced many great sages, but none had performed such penances as this. Brahma instructs that her father would soon come for her and that she should return home with him.",
"Ever since Sati had quit her body, Shiva had begun chanting Ram's name and entered into a great trance. Through his mystic power, Ram asks Shiva to marry Parvati. Shiva says that this is not a justifiable request but the word of a master cannot be set aside and must be obeyed. Shiva remains in his great trance. Around that time the demon Tāraka was causing distress and was in full flourish",
". Around that time the demon Tāraka was causing distress and was in full flourish. Brahma declares that the son of Shiva will kill Tāraka, but for this to happen His wedding with Parvati needs to be arranged and for that to happen, Shiva's trance has to be broken. It is decided that the God of Love should be sent to awaken Shiva. He fires five arrows of flowers at Shiva's breast, the trance is broken and Shiva awakens. Shiva is enraged and, through his third eye, reduces Love to ashes",
". Shiva is enraged and, through his third eye, reduces Love to ashes. Love's consort Rati faints as soon as she hears of her husband's demise. Seeing the helpless woman, Shiva foretells that her husband will now be called bodiless and shall dominate all without a body form. When Krishna descends on earth, her husband would be born as his son Pradyumna. Thereafter Brahma and other gods approach Shiva and declare that they wish to witness His wedding with their own eyes",
". Remembering Vishnu's early request, Shiva gladly agrees and Brahma proceeds to arrange the marriage.",
"The wedding of Shiva and Parvati",
"Shiva has no real family and so his attendants begin to adorn him for his wedding to Parvati. His hair is formed into a crown with serpents forming a crest. Serpents form His earrings, bracelets and adorn his neck and He is smeared in ashes and has lion's skin wrapped around His loins. He heads the wedding procession and Vishnu and Brahma, as well as a host of spirits, Gandharavs and Danavs follow behind",
". After the wedding, Parvati and Shiva return to Kailash where Parvati asks questions around Rama's divinity. Here Shiva begins his narration of Ram Leela.",
"The divinity of Ram in the Manas\n\nRam's divine birth",
"On the ninth day of the Chaitra month, the Manas describes that the Sun is at its meridian and the climate is neither cold nor hot. There is a cool, soft and fragrant breeze. The woods are full of blossom and the rivers are in full flow. Brahma deduces that the time for Ram's birth is approaching and the heavenly beings all crowd over the skies to glimpse sight of the auspicious moment. The sky resounds of music and songs as the heavenly beings offer their praises to the Supreme Personality of Godhead.",
"Here begins one of the most famous chhands from the Manas, the Ram Janam Stuti. The stuti begins with the appearance of Ram. Mother Kaushalya's heart is filled with joy as she marvels over Ram's dark complexion and his four armed form. He is adorned with jewels and a garland of Sylvan flowers and is described as being an ocean of beauty. Kaushalya joins her palms and prays. \"O Infinite, How can I praise You! The Vedas and Puranas reveal you to be the repository of all virtues",
". You are the Lord of Lakshmi and the lover of all of Your devotees and have appeared for my good. Every pore of Your body contains multitudes of universes and the thought that You stayed in my womb is truly staggering.\" Ram smiles and exhorts Kaushalya by telling her the charming account of her previous birth so that she can accept Him as her own child. Kaushalya asks Ram to give up his current superhuman form and to start to indulge in childish sports that are dear to a mother's heart",
". Ram, described as the Lord of immortals, immediately becomes an infant and begins to cry.",
"Tulsidas concludes that whoever sings this Stuti attains the abode of Lord Vishnu and never falls into the well of mundane existence. The Stuti has therefore been immortalized and it is a popular prayer sung on the occasion of Ram's birthday.\n\nDeliverance of Ahalya",
"Ahalya, the wife of Rishi Gautam, was a beautiful woman. Indra, king of the gods, was tempted and decided to seduce her with trickery. Early morning Rishi Gautam when the dawn had arrived go down to the nearby Ganges for his usual morning bath. While the Rishi was bathing at the river, Indra assumed Gautam's form and visited Ahalya, fooling her into thinking he was her husband. When Gautam returned, he encountered Indra, emerging from his hut in his (Gautam's) form",
". When Gautam returned, he encountered Indra, emerging from his hut in his (Gautam's) form. Spiritually powerful, Gautam employed his divine vision to see the whole episode. Enraged, he cursed Indra with impotence. Losing his potency, Indra lost heaven to demons and sat prayerfully in a lotus flower for thousands of years in order to repent. Rishi Gautam, in a blind rage, also cursed his wife, Ahalya, to turn into a boulder. Innocent of any intentional wrongdoing, Ahalya begged for forgiveness",
". Innocent of any intentional wrongdoing, Ahalya begged for forgiveness. Gautam relented somewhat and said that when Ram is incarnated, he will bless her and break her curse.",
"Ram, while going to Mithila for Sita Svayamvar along with Sage Vishwamitra and Laksman, stopped at the, then-uninhabited, hermitage of Rishi Gautam. Vishwamitra narrated Ahalya's story to Ram, and asked him to free her. Ram touched the boulder with his foot and Ahalya was immediately released from the curse. She fell to Ram's feet and washed his feet with her tears. She felt that her curse had become her fortune as she got the opportunity to seek Ram's refuge in person",
". She then returned to her husband's place.",
"The abrupt ending",
"Many scholars have commented on the sudden ending to the Manas. Valmiki's Uttar Kānd goes into great detail about Sita going into the forest, as a result of disapproving gossip of the citizens of Ayodhya, during the rule of Ram over Ayodhya. Sitaji asks mother Earth to receive her and Ram leaves his human form and returns to his celestial abode. Tulsidas decides not to mention these at all",
". Tulsidas decides not to mention these at all. The Katha Kar Morari Bapu has mentioned in many of his retellings of Ram Katha, that Tulsidasji didn't want to end the Manas in heartache for Sita. Tulsidas refers to Sita as his mother (as well as the mother of the entire universe) many times in the poem and so, on an emotional level, this becomes very understandable. She has endured enough pain throughout the Manas and so ends his retelling at a relatively happy moment",
". It is said that there are some Vaishnav devotees who will only recite the Bālakāṇḍa of the Manas, as this is seen as the happiest period of Ram and Sita's leela on earth.",
"Translations\n\nEnglish\nFrederic Growse translated the Ramcharitmanas into English under the title The Ramayan of Tulsidas during the nineteenth century.\n\nAn unpublished English poetic translation was made by Binda Prasad Khattri of New Market, Banda, Uttar Pradesh. Apparently, the translation can be sung essentially in the same way and with the same rhythm as the original Hindi work.",
"Malayalam\nC. G. Rajagopal translated Ramcharitmanas into Malayalam as Tulasidasasa Ramayanam. For this translation, he received the Sahitya Akademi Translation Prize 2019, presented by Sahitya Akademi, India's National Academy of Letters.\n\nSee also\nTulsi Manas Mandir\nRamnami Samaj\n\nNotes and references\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nOnline sources\n\n \n\nBibliography\n\nExternal links",
"Notes and references\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nOnline sources\n\n \n\nBibliography\n\nExternal links\n\n Ramcharitmanas Bhavarth Bodhini Tika by Swami Rambhadracharya\n Avadhi and Romanised text with translation by Gita Press, Gorakhpur\n Akhil Bhakti Yoga Foundation\n Complete Ramcharitmanas\n\nEpic poems in Hindi\nHindu texts\nIndian poems\nWorks based on the Ramayana\n16th-century Indian books\n16th-century poems"
] |
October 1958
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/October%201958
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[
"The following events occurred in October 1958:",
"October 1, 1958 (Wednesday)\nChina inaugurated its second TV broadcaster, Shanghai Television, 29 days after launching Peking Television.\nIndia adopted the metric system of measurement to replace the Imperial units that had been the standard under British rule.\nTunisia and Morocco joined the Arab League.",
"Tunisia and Morocco joined the Arab League.\nL'Union pour la nouvelle République (UNR), a new political party organized by French Prime Minister Charles de Gaulle and many of his supporters who had been part of the Social Republicans (Centre national des républicains sociaux or CNRS), was founded to field candidates for the November 23 parliamentary elections.",
"Nigeria Airways began operations as West African Airways Corporation Nigeria (WAAC) with a Boeing 377 Stratocruiser for long range flights between Lagos and London, and several Douglas DC-3 airplanes to fly to Dakar in Senegal.",
"The National Aeronautics and Space Administration, NASA, started operations and replaced the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) as the United States space agency. The nonmilitary space projects which had been conducted by the Advanced Research Projects Agency were transferred to the jurisdiction of the NASA.\nBorn:\nMark Bathum, American paralympic Alpine skier; in Seattle\nLieutenant General Dick Stenberg, Chief of the Swedish Air Force from 1973 to 1982; in Falun (d. 2004)\nDied:",
"Died:\nItzikl Kramtweiss, 92, Russian-born American musician who specialized in the klezmer music form\nAntonijs Springovičs, 81, Latvian Roman Catholic priest and Archbishop of Riga since 1923",
"October 2, 1958 (Thursday)",
"The West African nation of Guinea declared itself independent from France, with colonial prime minister Ahmed Sékou Touré as its first president, by a vote of the colonial legislators of the Assembly of French Guinea. The parliament renamed itself the \"Constituent Assembly of the Republic of Guinea\", and lowered the French Tricolore flag, but had no flag to raise in its place over the Assembly Building in Conakry (and would not until November 10)",
". In retaliation for Guinea having become the lone French colony to vote against becoming a member of the French Community, the former French colonial administrators began removing all colonial government property, and France halted payment of pensions to Guinean soldiers who had fought for France during World War One and World War Two",
". According to a 1984 account after Touré's death, \"as a warning to other French-speaking territories, the French pulled out of Guinea over a two-month period, taking everything they could with them. They unscrewed light bulbs, removed plans for sewage pipelines in Conakry, the capital, and even burned medicines rather than leave them for the Guineans.\"",
"A Touch of the Poet, a play completed by Eugene O'Neill in 1942 but never staged during his lifetime, was performed for the first time, premiering almost five years after his death. The initial run of 284 performances at The Little Theatre on Broadway starred Helen Hayes and Eric Portman, and featured Betty Field and Kim Stanley in supporting roles. The play would be revived three times on Broadway between 1967 and 2005.\nBorn:",
"Born:\nDr. Augusto Cury, Brazilian psychiatrist and popular writer who pioneered the Multifocal Theory regarding human cognition; in Colina, São Paulo state\nDaniel Peacock, English TV comedian; in Hammersmith, Middlesex\nDied: Marie Stopes, 77, British scientist and women's rights activist",
"October 3, 1958 (Friday)\nTelevision Iran (TVI) began broadcasting from Tehran, bringing the first TV programming to the Middle Eastern kingdom. Initially, the station, founded by industrialist Habib Sabet, featured locally produced quiz shows, and American TV shows that were re-dubbed into the Persian language, Farsi. The general manager was Vance Hallack, an American TV executive for NBC and later for Baghdad Television in Iraq.",
"France's Prime Minister Charles de Gaulle spoke to an audience at the Algerian city of Constantine and unveiled his proposed economic development program to bring the standard of living for Algerians closer to that of Metropolitan France within five years. The Constantine Plan was also intended to weaken support for independence activists and to prevent foreign intervention from the Soviet Union. The plan would fail to prevent Algerian independence, which would happen in 1962",
". The plan would fail to prevent Algerian independence, which would happen in 1962. While the crowd applauded de Gaulle, most of them refused to join him in a singing of the French national anthem, \"La Marseillaise\".",
"French explorer Alain Bombard, an expert on survival-at-sea, was one of only five survivors in rough seas off the coast of the French town of Étel, after a wave capsized a rubber dinghy that he and six crew were testing, and a second wave capsized the lifeboat and crew of seven more that came to the rescue. Nine of the 14 people on board were swept away in the waters of the Bay of Biscay. A nearby tugboat saved Dr. Bombard and four men, while another boat located eight of the nine bodies.",
"Elections were held in Brazil for the 326 seats of the Câmara dos Deputados and 21 of the 63 seats of the Senado Federal. Candidates from nine different political parties ran for office, with President Juscelino Kubitschek's Partido Social Democrático (PSD) and its coalition candidates winning 37% of the vote.",
"The Committee on Space Research (COSPAR) was founded by representatives of the U.S., the Soviet Union and other world powers at a meeting of the General Assembly of the International Council of Scientific Institutions.\nStudies and plans of the American crewed satellite project were presented to the Advanced Research Projects Agency.",
"Died: Margarita Morozova, 83, Russian socialite, patron of the arts and philanthropist in Imperial Russia, who later lived in poverty in the Soviet Union after the confiscation of her properties.",
"October 4, 1958 (Saturday)",
"The new Constitution of France was signed into law, establishing the French Fifth Republic with a 576-member Assemblée Nationale elected directly by the people. The upper house of the French Parliament, the 309-member Sénat, was elected later by municipal representatives rather than by popular vote. The parliament's powers were limited, and the President of France had broad authority to promulgate regulations",
". A nine-member Constitutional Council had the authority to review statutes and executive regulations to determine whether they conformed to the new constitution.",
"The first transatlantic jet airplane service flight took place as the British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC) began using the new De Havilland Comet 4 aircraft. The first flight took off from London's Heathrow Airport at 9:55 in the morning toward Idlewild (now JFK International) Airport in New York City, where it arrived 10 hours later with 32 passengers, including BOAC Chairman Gerard d'Erlanger",
". Two hours and six minutes after the BOAC flight departed London, another Comet 4 took off from New York, bound for London, and crossed the Atlantic in only 6 hours and 12 minutes, compared to 11½ hours for the same eastward trip in a piston-driven airliner. The flight came 22 days ahead of Pan American World Airways (Pan Am)'s October 26 flight with the Boeing 707 jet.",
"Cooke Air Force Base in southern California was renamed Vandenberg Air Force Base in honor of the late Hoyt Vandenberg, a 4-star general who had served as the second Chief of Staff of the U.S. Air Force from 1948 to 1953.",
"October 5, 1958 (Sunday)\nMoeslim Taher, a 24-year-old professor, founded Jayabaya University, a private university in Jakarta in Indonesia, which originally had only 11 students. As of 2022, it has more than 4,000 students.\nTwo years after U.S. oil prospector James W. Menhall discovered the Karatchok oil field in Syria, the United Arab Republic nationalized the Syrian oil industry and confiscated the Menhall Company's equipment and three drilling rigs without compensation.",
"Congolese nationalists from different ethnic groups, seeking independence from Belgium, founded the Mouvement National Congolais (MNC) political party in the Belgian Congo. Patrice Lumumba of Tetela ethnicity, and Cyrille Adoula and Joseph Iléo of Bangala origin, signed the MNC charter. Joseph Kasa-Vubu, a Kongo leader, refused to join the group. Kasa-Vubu would become the first president upon Congolese independence, and Lumumba the first prime minister.",
"Clinton High School in the U.S., a formerly all-white school in Clinton, Tennessee that had admitted 12 African-American students in 1956, was heavily damaged by a series of dynamite explosions, apparently placed by opponents of racial desegregation. Nobody was injured in the blast, but the school sustained $300,000 worth of damages, equivalent to three million dollars 60 years later.\nBorn:",
"Born:\nDr. André Kuipers, Dutch physician and astronaut who spent 203 days in two Soyuz missions to the International Space Station; in Amsterdam\nManuel Landeta (stage name for José Manuel Goenaga), Mexican TV actor\nRaul \"Rolly\" Quizon, Philippine comedian and TV actor; in Manila (d. 2018)\nNeil deGrasse Tyson, American astrophysicist, author, and TV host; in New York City\nDied: William F. Buckley Sr., 77, American lawyer and oil magnate",
"October 6, 1958 (Monday)\nThe government of Pakistan suppressed a brief rebellion by Yar Khan of Kalat, who had been ruler of the Khanate of Kalat from 1933 to 1947, when Pakistan had been part of British India and Kalat was one of the princely states. Police in Pakistan's Balochistan province raided the Khan's palace and charged him with sedition.",
"Continental Classroom, an educational television program offered in the early morning hours by the NBC television network in the U.S., went on the air as the first widely seen distance learning program that offered college credit. While correspondence courses had been a staple around the world since the 19th century, Continental Classroom was the first distance learning program taught simultaneously to students across the United States",
". The program, designed to upgrade science education, continued until 1963, providing instruction starting with a physics course and a chemistry course in the first year. The premiere half-hour episode, at 6:30, was conducted by Dr. Harvey Elliott White, professor of physics at the University of California, who had as his guest Professor James R. Killian Jr., president of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.",
"Personnel from the Langley Research Center visited the Army Ballistic Missile Agency to open negotiations for procuring Redstone and Jupiter launch vehicles for crewed satellite projects.\nDied: Lieutenant Colonel Klavdia Fomicheva, 40, Soviet Russian fighter pilot during World War II and Heroine of the Soviet Union, died after a prolonged illness.",
"October 7, 1958 (Tuesday)\nPakistan's President Iskander Mirza suspended the Asian nation's constitution, fired Prime Minister Feroz Khan Noon, declared martial law and appointed General Muhammad Ayub Khan to command the Pakistani Armed Forces and to enforce military rule.",
"In the mountainous Rif region of northern Morocco, Mohammed Sellam Amezian of the Berbers minority instigated rioting against the French military presence by demanding the eviction of the French population and the return to Morocco of Abd el-Krim, who had briefly governed a breakaway republic before being arrested and sent into exile in 1926. The uprising would last until March 13, 1959.",
"U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower gave the authorization for \"Project Astronaut\", to select and train military pilots to become the first Americans to travel into outer space. On the same day, studies and plans of the project were presented to Dr. T. Keith Glennan, NASA Administrator, who approved the project by saying, in effect, \"Let's get on with it.\" Glennan would officially announce the project on December 17 as Project Mercury.\nBorn: \nTimothy Ackroyd, British stage actor; in London",
"Born: \nTimothy Ackroyd, British stage actor; in London\nTomio Imamura, Japan Karate Association champion 1988 and 1990, and master of Shotokan karate; in Kagoshima Prefecture",
"October 8, 1958 (Wednesday)",
"Arne Larsson, a 43-year-old engineer in Sweden, became the first human being to receive a heart pacemaker. A heart surgeon at the Karolinska Institute in Solna, Dr. Åke Senning, implanted the experimental device (which inventor Rune Elmqvist and he had designed), into Mr. Larsson after Mrs. Larsson had pleaded with them to save her husband. The battery of the first implant failed after eight hours and Senning implanted the only other model into Larsson, who would live 59 more years after the first surgery.",
"The Space Task Group was unofficially established.",
"The New York Yankees, who had lost three of the first four games of the World Series, then won Game 5, forced a seventh game in the best-4-of-7 championship. The Milwaukee Braves, defending champions of Major League Baseball, had a 2 to 1 lead after five innings before the Yankees scored, leaving the score tied, 2 to 2 after nine innings. In the 10th inning, the Yankees scored two runs on Gil McDougald's homer for a 4 to 2 lead",
". In the 10th inning, the Yankees scored two runs on Gil McDougald's homer for a 4 to 2 lead. The Braves then scored a run and, with two outs, still had the potential tying run on third base, with another runner on first base. Frank Torre hit to right field \"but McDougald, the Yankee second baseman and the hero apparent because of his homer, tore back on the grass. He leaped high in the air and pulled down the ball, which suddenly had lost its height and momentum,\" for the third out.",
"Born: Ursula von der Leyen, Belgian-born German politician and President of the European Commission since 2019; in Ixelles\nDied:\nFrank Kramer, 78, American bicyclist who won 16 consecutive U.S. championships from 1901 to 1916 and world champion, 1912.\nMerle L. Youngs, 71, American entrepreneur whose companies, Youngs Rubber Corporation and Holland-Rantos, manufactured and promoted one of the world's most popular condoms, the Trojan brand.",
"October 9, 1958 (Thursday)",
"Pope Pius XII, born as Eugenio Pacelli and Roman Catholic pontiff since 1939, died at the age of 82 after a reign of 19 years. The Pope had suffered a sudden stroke three days earlier. The official announcement from Castel Gandolfo in the Vatican stated, \"The Supreme Pontiff, Pope Pius XII, is dead. Pius XII, the most esteemed and venerated man in the world, one of the greatest Pontiffs of the century, with sanctity passed away at 3:52 A.M., October 9, 1958",
".M., October 9, 1958.\" Cardinal Aloisi Masella was elected by the cardinals present as the Camerlengo, or Chamberlain, to administer church affairs until a new Pope could be elected.",
"In behalf of the crewed satellite project, an air drop program for full-scale parachute and landing system development was started at Langley.",
"The New York Yankees won the World Series in Game 7 of the best-4-of-7 major league baseball championship, defeating the Milwaukee Braves, 6 to 2, after having almost been eliminated the day before. The game had been tied, 2-2, after seven innings but in the eighth, with two outs, Yogi Berra scored a run for the Yankees.Bill Skowron hit a home run with men on first and second the bases and drove in three more runs.",
"All 19 U.S. Air Force personnel on a C-123 transport plane were killed, including five pilots on the U.S. Air Force Thunderbirds air show team, when the aircraft flew into a flock of geese and went down near the town of Payette, Idaho. Most of the other crash victims worked at maintaining the Thunderbirds' aircraft. \nBorn: Satoko Fujii, Japanese avant-garde jazz pianist; in Tokyo",
"October 10, 1958 (Friday)\nCommodore International, known for creating the most popular personal computer of the early 1980s, the Commodore 64, was incorporated by Jack Tramiel and Manfred Kapp in Canada as Commodore Portable Typewriter, Ltd., initially to import and sell Czechoslovakian-manufactured portable typewriters.",
"The TransCanada pipeline, at from Burstall, Saskatchewan to Montreal in Quebec the longest natural gas pipeline in the world at the time, was completed to transport gas from the production fields in Alberta.",
"A battle began in the Alto Paraguay Department of the remote Gran Chaco area of northern Paraguay, as hostile members of the indigenous Ayoreo people surrounded 24 American and Paraguayan engineers at a camp managed by the Pure Oil Company. For the next 32 hours, the camp near Fortin Madrejon was under siege by Ayoreo spears and arrows until troops from the Paraguayan Army came to the rescue in the early morning hours of October 12.\nBorn: Tanya Tucker, American country music singer; in Seminole, Texas",
"October 11, 1958 (Saturday)",
"The United States and the Soviet Union, taking advantage of the conditions for a launch of a probe to the Moon, launched lunar spacecraft the same day, and both were unsuccessful in reaching their target. Pioneer 1 became the first spacecraft launched by the newly formed agency NASA. Sent from Cape Canaveral as the payload of a Thor-Able missile, the probe went into Earth orbit and stayed up for 43 hours, reaching an apogee of . A few hours later, the Soviet Luna E-1 No",
". A few hours later, the Soviet Luna E-1 No.2 was sent from the Baikonur Cosmodrome as the payload of a Luna 8K72 rocket, but disintegrated two minutes and four seconds after launch. The failed Soviet attempt was not reported by that nation's press, which normally waited until after a success to reveal a launch, although the U.S. liftoff was in the Soviet Union's news with an emphasis on the deviation of the rocket from its intended course.",
"Grandstand, one of the United Kingdom's longest-running sports programs (lasting more than 38 years) premiered on BBC1, with Peter Dimmock as the presenter.\nDied: \nMaurice de Vlaminck, 82, French painter \nJohannes R. Becher, 67, East German politician who served as the Cultural Minister of East Germany from 1954 to 1958 until his demotion by the ruling SED Party and spent his final months as a critic of Communism",
"October 12, 1958 (Sunday)",
"Alexei Larionov, the General Secretary of the Communist Party Committee for Russia's Ryazan Oblast, met with the Soviet Communist Party's Chairman, Nikita Khrushchev, and convinced the Soviet Premier that the farms of Ryazan could triple the production of meat within a single year. The result was the launching by the Soviet Party of Larionov's pledge, and Larionov's \"Ryazan miracle\", fulfilled by fraud",
". A year later, Ryazan would deliver 150,000 tons of meat to the Soviet government, three times the amount delivered at the end of 1958. It would turn out that Larionov had ordered the slaughter of most of the Ryazan farmers' livestock and had used agricultural funds intended for other purposes to purchase meat from neighboring oblasts. After his deceit was exposed, Larionov would commit suicide in 1960.",
"A dynamite bomb charge wrecked one of Atlanta's largest synagogues, the Hebrew Benevolent Congregation Temple, after Rabbi Jacob Rothschild had lobbied for racial equality in Atlanta. The next day, five suspects were arrested and indicted at the end of the week one of whom confessed and implicated the anti-Semitic and racist National States Rights Party",
". The suspect would later retract his confession and be acquitted after two trials, and nobody would ever be convicted of the bombing, which took place days after the bombing of Clinton High School in Tennessee.",
"A total eclipse of the Sun became the first to be observed and studied by Earth rockets, as a U.S. Navy ship fired eight Nike-Asp rockets equipped with cameras and other instruments. The area over which the eclipse was visible from Earth was limited to a few islands in the South Pacific Ocean and the South American nation of Chile",
". The rocket tests confirmed that disruption of earth's ionosphere and radio communications came from x-radiation from the corona of the Sun, and that ultraviolet radiation originated from the chromosphere of the Sun.",
"October 13, 1958 (Monday)",
"France's premier Charles de Gaulle, acting within his emergency rule authority as commander of the nation's armed forces, ordered all members of the French Army to avoid involvement in politics and to permit free legislative elections in French Algeria to take place on November 23",
". Major General Jacques Massu, who had led the revolution by French Algerians against the government on May 13, quietly obeyed General de Gaulle's order, resigning from the \"All-Algeria Committee of Public Safety\", along with the other 11 officers who had formed the committee with right-wing civilians. Four other French Army generals (Maurice Challe, Edmond Jouhaud, André Zeller, and Raoul Salan) were angry at the order and would rebel against de Gaulle in 1961.",
"The popular children's book character Paddington Bear was introduced with the publication by William Collins, Sons, of the book A Bear Called Paddington, written by Michael Bond, and illustrated by Peggy Fortnum.",
"Harold H. Burton, an Associate Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court since being appointed by U.S. President Harry S. Truman in 1945, resigned from his seat \"with regret but in accordance with competent medical advice and with a desire to serve the best interest of all concerned.\" Potter Stewart, a judge of the U.S. Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals in Cincinnati, Ohio, was nominated by President Eisenhower, subject to confirmation by the U.S. Senate, to replace Burton.",
"Penny Coelen was crowned Miss World 1958 during the 8th Miss World Pageant, becoming the first South African to win the title.\nBorn: \nJamal Khashoggi, Saudi Arabian journalist and dissident (murdered 2018)\nArne Sorenson, American businessman who was president and CEO of the Marriott hotel chain from 2012 until his death; to American parents in Tokyo, Japan (d. 2021 of pancreatic cancer)\nDied: \nWaheed el Solh, 57, Lebanon's Minister of Planning, was assassinated by three men outside his office in Beirut.",
"Lorraine Geller, 30, American jazz pianist, died of heart failure\nAlexander Veprik, 59, Soviet Jewish composer of classical music who spent four years in a Russian gulag after being convicted of \"Jewish nationalism\"",
"October 14, 1958 (Tuesday)\n \nConstruction of the Tokyo Tower, at the tallest free-standing tower in the world at the time, was completed with the bolting into place of a broadcast antenna. The structure, to be dedicated on December 23, was designed to look like France's the Eiffel Tower, which it exceeded in height by .",
"On the island of Madagascar, the Malagasy Republic was proclaimed as the first autonomous state within the French Community under France's Fifth Republic constitution, and began the transition to full independence, which would be achieved on June 26, 1960. The Malagasy Republic was administered by President Philibert Tsiranana with oversight from a French High Commissioner. Two days after the republic was proclaimed, a constitutional assembly of 90 members was elected to draft the law for the Republic.",
"Creation of the United Nations Special Fund (UNSF) was approved in the UN General Assembly by a vote of 77 to 0, with one abstention, for the purpose of assisting economic development in the world's poorer nations.",
"Potter Stewart was sworn in as the 92nd Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court, effective immediately, after U.S. President Eisenhower nominated him the day before while the U.S. Senate was not in session. Under existing law, he could act temporarily until the Senate could vote on confirmation of a permanent appointment.\nThe World of Suzie Wong, an adaptation by Paul Osborn of the 1957 bestselling Richard Mason novel, opened at the Broadhurst Theatre on Broadway with France Nuyen in the title role.",
"Born: Peter Kloeppel, German journalist and TV anchorman for RTL Television; in Frankfurt am Main, West Germany\nDied: Douglas Mawson, 76, English-born Australian explorer on two Antarctic expeditions in the early 20th century",
"October 15, 1958 (Wednesday)\nIn Yugoslavia, one researcher was fatally injured by radiation, and four others sustained serious injuries that had to be treated with bone marrow transplantation, when a research reactor at the Boris Kidric Nuclear Energy Institute in Vinča sustained a criticality accident with an uncontrolled nuclear chain reaction. Života Vranić died despite receiving treatment from Dr. Georges Mathé, while the others recovered.",
"The North American X-15 rocket plane was rolled out from North American Aviation's factory in Los Angeles, with a goal of being able to reach outer space (defined as an altitude of 100 kilometers or 62 miles) and then landing on a runway for reuse. The initial version, scheduled to make its first test flight in February, was designed to make suborbital flights, with future versions capable of going into orbit.\nBorn: Chris Smith, South African-born English national cricket team batsman; in Durban \nDied:",
"Born: Chris Smith, South African-born English national cricket team batsman; in Durban \nDied: \nJack Norton (stage name for Mortimer J. Naughton), 76, American stage and film comedian, character actor known for his portrayal of drunk men, although he was a teetotaler in real life. Norton said after his retirement that he thoroughly disliked drinking the simulated alcohol used on stage, consisting of \"ginger ale spiked with bicarbonate of soda\".",
"John Hamilton, 71, American television actor known for portraying Daily Planet editor Perry White on Adventures of Superman from 1952 to 1958",
"October 16, 1958 (Thursday)\nThe long-running BBC Television children's programme Blue Peter was first broadcast. Intended as an after school show for children who were 5 to 8 years old, the initial broadcast as presented by actor Christopher Trace and by the 1957 Miss Great Britain queen, Leila Williams. The show was broadcast for 15 minutes from 5:00 to 5:15 in the afternoon.",
"The Soviet Union's Council of Ministers passed a resolution canceling the property tax exemptions that had existed for the nation's monasteries, initiating a new campaign against organized religion in the USSR.",
"Three weeks into its third season, the TV game show Twenty-One, under investigation by a grand jury, was announced as canceled a few hours before the new episode was to be seen on NBC. A spokesman for Pharmaceuticals said, \"Twenty-One was dropped because of a decline in ratings. We must admit that the investigation had something do with this decline,\" after the October 9 show had the lowest rating in its history.",
"Born: Tim Robbins, American film actor known for Mystic River and The Shawshank Redemption; in West Covina, California\nDied: Walter Spence, 57, British Guiana-born Canadian swimmer and 1933 U.S. national champion, was killed when he slipped from a moving train while on his way home from work",
"October 17, 1958 (Friday)",
"All 80 persons aboard died in the crash of an Aeroflot Tupolev Tu-104 jet airliner that was bringing diplomats from the People's Republic of China, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, France, and Hungary from Beijing to Moscow. Because of bad weather, the crew of the chartered Aeorflot plane had diverted to an alternate landing site. The plane was at an altitude of when it ran into a powerful updraft that sent it upward and then threw it into a vertical dive",
". The impact was near the Apnerka railroad station west of Kanash in the Chuvash ASSR within the Russian SFSR.",
"In Upper Volta, a French West African colony whose voters had approved joining the French Community, Moro Naba Kougri made an unsuccessful attempt to install a constitutional monarchy with himself as King. Mobri was the King of the Mossi people and had held the title of the Mogho Naba of Ougadougou since 1957",
". Kougri, who had the support of the commander of the French Army in Upper Volta, gathered around 3,000 of his supporters around the assembly and attempted to influence the choice of the new president of the council of ministers. Maurice Yaméogo, the acting head of the government, responded quickly to stop the coup and would be chosen as the permanent successor of Ouezzin Coulibaly.",
"On October 17 and 18, Langley Research Center personnel visited the Air Force Ballistic Missile Division, Inglewood, California, to open negotiations for procuring Atlas launch vehicles for the crewed satellite project.",
"An Evening with Fred Astaire, the first television presentation to be recorded on color videotape (as opposed to film), was broadcast live on NBC in the United States as Astaire's first-ever appearance on live television. The one-hour show was critically acclaimed, with one commentator opining that \"Mr. Astaire and his colleagues have set a new standard for musical TV. By this time Western Union should be limp from delivering congratulatory wires.\"",
"Born: Alan Jackson, American country singer; in Newnan, Georgia\nDied:\nCelso Costantini, 82, Chancellor of the Roman Catholic Church, died eight days after Pope Pius XII and eight days before he was to begin the selection of a new Pope.\nCora Hartshorn, 85, American pioneer in birth control\nPaul Outerbridge, 62, controversial American photographer and artist\nCharlie Townsend, 81, English national cricket team batsman in 199 first-class matches",
"Charlie Townsend, 81, English national cricket team batsman in 199 first-class matches\nZheng Zhenduo, 59, Chinese novelist and journalist, killed in the Aeroflot crash in the Soviet Union",
"October 18, 1958 (Saturday)",
"Tennis for Two, a game invented by William Higinbotham and considered to be the first video computer game, visible on an oscilloscope and intended solely for entertainment rather than for instructional purposes was introduced at the Brookhaven National Laboratory, at Brookhaven, New York in the United States, at the annual Visitors' Day Exhibit.",
"Ahmadou Ahidjo, the prime minister of the French Cameroons, an overseas territory of France, signed an agreement with Bernard Cornut-Gentille, the Minister of the Overseas, pledging full independence for Cameroon by January 1, 1960.",
"Julia Rajk, a participant in the 1956 Hungarian Revolution who had been imprisoned in the Soviet Union for two years, was released and allowed to return to Hungary, along with her 9-year-old son, László Rajk Jr., who had been allowed to stay with her. Their freedom came after publicity from the Robert Ardrey documentary Shadow of Heroes, which had premiered in London on October 7.",
"Born: Thomas \"The Hitman\" Hearns, American professional boxer who was world welterweight champion (1980-1981), light middleweight champion (1982-1984), light heavyweight champion (1987-1988, 1991–1992) and cruiserweight champion (1994-2000); in Grand Junction, Tennessee\nDied: Max Gerlach, 73, German-born American millionaire who had been the inspiration for the character of \"Jay Gatsby\" in F. Scott Fitzgerald's novel The Great Gatsby",
"October 19, 1958 (Sunday)\nMike Hawthorn of Great Britain won the 1958 Formula One season, despite having finished first in only one of the 11 races on the schedule. Hawthorn finished a single point (42 to 41) ahead of fellow Briton Stirling Moss, who had won four races, including that day's Moroccan Grand Prix. Hawthorn won based on having finished first in one race and in second place in five others.",
"Skeid Fotball, based in Oslo, defeated Lillestrøm SK, 1 to 0, to win the Norgesmesterskapet, the championship tournament of Norway's soccer football league, the Norges Fotballforbund (NFF).\nBorn: \nMichael Steele, conservative African-American politician, lieutenant governor of Maryland 2003-2007 and Chairman of the Republican National Committee 2009 to 2011; at Andrews Air Force Base hospital near Morningside, Maryland",
"Karen Agustiawan, Indonesian businesswoman and chief executive officer of the government-owned oil and gas company Pertamina from 2009 to 2014; as Galaila Karen Kardinah in Bandung, West Java\nHiromi Hara, Japanese soccer football forward with 75 appearances for the national team; in Nasushiobara, Tochigi Prefecture\nDied: Mary F. Hoyt, 100, the first female federal government employee in the U.S. civil service. In 1883, she was appointed as a clerk at the U.S. Treasury Department's Bank Redemption Agency.",
"October 20, 1958 (Monday)\nThai Army Field Marshal Sarit Thanarat led a bloodless coup d'état and overthrew the elected government of Prime Minister Thanom Kittikachorn. Thanarat had led a coup in September 1957 and had installed a civilian, Pote Sarasin, as premier. The next morning, all political parties were banned, 10 newspapers were closed, and arrests were made of editors, teachers, writers, students and businessmen suspected to be Communists or sympathizers.",
"The Little Rock Private School Corporation, set up by white supporters of racial segregation after Arkansas Governor Orval E. Faubus had ordered the closing of Little Rock's four high schools on September 12, began classes for all 12th grade students at the Arkansas capital's three white high schools (Central High, R. C. Hall High, and Little Rock Tech). The private Little Rock High School, which enrolled 230 students, began classes at a former orphanage with capacity for 475 students",
". Other students began registration for a private high school, sponsored by several local Baptist churches and the Ouachita Baptist College, with 407 beginning classes at Little Rock Baptist High School. In addition, 45 other students started classes at Hazen High School in nearby Hazen, Arkansas, east of Little Rock. Classes were not available for African-American students, nor for children of any race from first grade to ninth grade.",
"Born: \nViggo Mortensen, American film actor known for portraying Aragorn in the Lord of the Rings trilogy; in Watertown, New York\nMark King, English bass guitarist known for his slap style; in Cowes, Isle of Wight",
"October 21, 1958 (Tuesday)\nWith the opening of Parliament in the United Kingdom, women took their seats in the House of Lords for the first time as two ladies— Stella Isaacs, Baroness Swanborough and Barbara Wootton, Baroness Wootton of Abinger— were admitted as life peers in an elaborate ceremony. The next day, Baroness Elliot and Baroness Ravensdale were admitted to the Lords.",
"The Boeing 707 made its first transatlantic flight, five days ahead of the official introduction of commercial service set for October 26. Carrying a load of 103 passengers, all of them news reporters, the Pan American World Airways jet departed New York on the evening of October 20 at 7:10, and landed in Paris at 10:23 the next morning, after stopping in the Azores for refueling.",
"For the first time, the United States joined in voting in favor of a United Nations resolution condemning the South African policy of apartheid, after a longstanding policy of abstaining. The U.N. General Assembly Special Political Committee voted, 68 to 5, for the resolution, with four abstentions. The U.S. would join the full General Assembly in the condemnation in another vote on October 30.",
"The Curtiss-Wright Corporation, manufacturer of aircraft, became the first company to purchase the technology for the Wankel engine, commonly called the \"rotary engine\", to use in a product as an alternative to the piston engine and the turbojet. The company agreed to pay $2.1 million and a 5% commission on all engines sold to become the sole license holder of the rotary engine technology in the United States.",
"A bidders' briefing for the Little Joe launch vehicle was held. This launch vehicle was to be used in the development phase of the American crewed satellite project. The Little Joe launch vehicle was in height, weighed (at maximum) , was in diameter, consisted of four Pollux and four Recruit clustered, solid-fuel rockets, could develop a thrust of , and could lift a maximum payload of .\nBorn: Julio Medem, Spanish Basque film director; in San Sebastián, Gipuzkoa province",
"October 22, 1958 (Wednesday)\nAll 31 people aboard British European Airways Flight 142 were killed when the Vickers Viscount airliner collided with an Italian Air Force F-86E jet at an altitude of over an area near the Nettuno Air Base. An investigation determined that the airliner had strayed into restricted military airspace while approaching Naples at the end of a flight from London.",
"After the school board of Norfolk, Virginia closed its public schools rather than carry out a federal court order to admit African-American students into all-White Norfolk schools, the \"Tidewater Academy\" was opened for 250 white students, with funding provided by the private Defenders of State Sovereignty and Individual Liberties organization, and classes meeting at local churches.",
"October 23, 1958 (Thursday)\nThe Australian resort town of South Coast, Queensland, which had been formed in 1949 by the merger of the towns of Coolangatta and Southport, renamed itself Gold Coast, Queensland, as part of a plan to convert the beach resort into a major tourist destination.",
"Chiang Kai-shek, President of the Republic of China on the island of Taiwan, announced from Taipei in a joint statement with U.S. Secretary of State John Foster Dulles that, after discussion, he had abandoned plans previously announced to attempt to conquer the mainland of the People's Republic of China, and that Taiwan would gradually reduce its force of troops on the islands of Quemoy and Matsu, claimed by both Chinas.",
"The Nobel Committee announced that Soviet Russian novelist Boris Pasternak was the winner of the 1958 Nobel Prize for Literature for his novel Doctor Zhivago. Pasternak would not be allowed to travel to Stockholm to accept the prize.",
"Comic book writer and artist Pierre Culliford, who used the pen name \"Peyo\" to sign his comic strip \"Johan and Peewit\" in the weekly comic book magazine Le Journal de Spirou, introduced a blue-skinned character in white clothes, which he called a \"Schtroumpf\". In the course of the serialized story \"La Flûte à six trous\" (\"The Flute with Six Holes\"), Johan and Peewit found that a magic flute they were searching for was in the possession of a colony of Schtroumpfs",
". Adventures of the Schtroumpfs became more popular than the Johan and Peewit series and they soon received their own series in 1959, along with promotions for merchandising of Schtroumpfs. In the Flemish and Dutch language translation of the comics, \"Les Schtroumpfs\" were dubbed \"De Smurfen\" and, in 1973, would be introduced as \"The Smurfs\", now a worldwide franchise.",
"A vast rockfall in an underground coal mine killed 75 miners near Springhill, Nova Scotia, at the Springhill Colliery mine that had suffered deadly disasters in 1891 and in 1956. The event was a \"bump\", the collapse of support pillars resulting in a seismic wave that can spread throughout the rest of the mine. The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation carried continuous live news coverage of the disaster, originating the suspension of regular programming after an interruption for \"breaking news\".",
"Born: Michael Eric Dyson, American academic author and biographer; in Detroit",
"October 24, 1958 (Friday)\nThe 52 members of the Roman Catholic Church's College of Cardinals, having come to Italy from 20 nations, entered the Sistine Chapel for the first papal election in more than 19 years, to stay inside behind closed doors until a new pontiff could be selected.. For the first time, cardinals from African nations, as well as from China, Australia and India, were present, along with those from the Latin American nations of Chile, Colombia, Cuba and Ecuador.",
"Died: G. E. Moore, 84, English philosopher",
"October 25, 1958 (Saturday)\nThe last United States troops departed Lebanon 102 days after \"Operation Blue Bat\" had started on July 15 to support the existing Lebanese government during an ongoing civil war. At the height of the crisis, there were 14,179 American troops— 8,509 U.S. Army personnel and 5,670 members of the U.S. Marines— stationed in Lebanon.",
"Born: Kornelia Ender, East German swimmer who won four gold medals in the 1976 Summer Olympics and held the women's 100m butterfly and 200m individual medley world records twice between 1973 and 1977, and then quit because she refused to take steroids; in Plauen, East Germany\nDied: Edward Aloysius Mooney, 76, American Catholic Cardinal and Archbishop of Detroit, died suddenly while in the Sistine Chapel, waiting to participate in the first voting for the new Pope.",
"October 26, 1958 (Sunday)",
"The first round of balloting took place in the voting by the College of Cardinals for a new Pope, with no candidate receiving the required two-thirds plus one of the votes— 35 — of the 51 cardinals present. At 11:53 in the morning, the first signal of a result was given, with white smoke— the signal that a new Pope had been selected— coming from a chimney at first before turning dark black, the signal that nobody had received the required majority",
". Four candidates were believed to be the front runners, Angelo Giuseppe Roncalli, the Patriarch of Venice; Valerio Valeri, Prefect of the Sacred Congregation of the Religious; Benedetto Aloisi Masella, the Camerlengo of the Church. All three were from Italy, while a fourth, Gregorio Pietro Agagianian, Patriarch of the Armenians, was considered less likely.",
"Regular service of the new Boeing 707 jet from the U.S. to Europe began as the four engine aircraft took off from New York International Airport in Idlewild, Queens, at 7:20 in the evening with 111 passengers and 12 crew on a flight to Le Bourget Airport in Paris.\nBorn: Pascale Ogier (stage name for Pascale Marguerite Nicolas), French film actress; in Paris (d. of heart attack, 1984)\nDied:",
"Died: \nJosé Gustavo Guerrero, 82, El Salvador jurist who was the last president of the Permanent Court of International Justice of the League of Nations from 1937 to 1946, and the first president of the International Court of Justice of the United States from 1946 to 1949, continuing as one of the 15 World Court judges until his death.",
"Sid Simpson, 64, U.S. Representative for Illinois, collapsed and died after having delivered the principal address in the dedication of a new wing of the local hospital in Pittsfield, Illinois. Simpson, a Republican Congressman since 1943, died in the hospital's emergency room nine days before the November 4 election for a ninth term.",
"October 27, 1958 (Monday)",
"Twenty days after he had dismissed the civilian government, suspended the constitution and instituted military rule in Pakistan, President Iskander Mirza abruptly resigned under pressure and turned the presidency over the man whom he had just appointed as Prime Minister, General Muhammad Ayub Khan",
". Mirza said in a statement, \"In our efforts to evolve an effective structure for future administration of this country and based on our experience of the last three weeks, I have come to the conclusion that any semblance of dual control is likely to hamper effective performance of this immense task,\" and \"An unfortunate impression exists... that General Ayub and I may not always act in unison. Such an impression... if allowed to continue, would be damaging to our cause",
". Such an impression... if allowed to continue, would be damaging to our cause. I have therefore decided to step aside and hand all powers to General Ayub Khan. I wish General Ayub Khan and his colleagues the best of luck. Long live Pakistan!\" General Ayub told reporters three days later that he had dismissed President Mirza after making arrangements for Mirza to draw his retirement pension in foreign currency. \"Certain things did come to my knowledge that I wouldn't talk about,\" he said",
". \"Certain things did come to my knowledge that I wouldn't talk about,\" he said. \"We must have a man at the helm that people have complete faith in. Anyhow, there should be no doubts about his past,\" adding \"I felt it my duty— my very reluctant duty because he is an old friend of mine and he has some very wonderful qualities— to tell him what the people are feeling.\" At 10:00 in the evening, Ayub sent three Army generals to tell Mirza to resign or to forfeit his pension.",
"The first scheduled Boeing 707 flight landed in Paris at 10:01 local time after departing the night before from New York City. The Pan American World Airways airplane than made a westward flight back to New York that departed Paris at 6:52 in the evening local time and arrived back in New York 10 hours and 13 minutes later, including a three-hour refueling stop.",
"The date of October 1, 1960, was agreed upon for independence from the United Kingdom for Nigeria, at a constitutional conference convened in London under the chairmanship of Alan Lennox-Boyd, Britain's Secretary of State for the Colonies",
". Lennox-Boyd conferred with the regional chief ministers of Nigeria's three subdivisions, the Northern, Southern and Western Regions, who agreed to a timetable for self-government on domestic affairs to start on April 15, 1969, and postponing the Nigerians' original demand for April 2, 1960 as the independence day.",
"A special Committee on Life Sciences was established at Langley to determine qualifications and attributes required of personnel to be selected for America's first human spaceflight and to give advice on other human aspects of the crewed satellite program.",
"An explosion killed 22 coal miners at the Pocahontas Fuel Company's underground mine at Bishop, West Virginia, located near the border of the U.S. states of West Virginia and Virginia. Out of 188 miners, 166 were able to make it to safety. The disaster occurred during a change of shifts at the mines, killing eight miners who were preparing to leave and 14 who had just arrived. An accident at the same mine 18 months earlier had killed 37 employees.",
"Born: Simon Le Bon, British musician and lead singer for Duran Duran; in Bushey, Hertfordshire",
"October 28, 1958 (Tuesday)",
"On the third day of balloting in the College of Cardinals of the Roman Catholic Church, and after 10 rounds of voting had taken place without the required majority of two-thirds plus one, Angelo Giuseppe Roncalli, the Patriarch of Venice, was elected as the successor to Pope Pius XII",
". Roncalli received at least 35 votes on the third vote taken that day and, when Cardinal Eugène Tisserant, Dean of the College of Cardinals asked Roncalli whether he would agree to the offer of the papacy, Roncalli became Pope John XXIII shortly before 5:00 in the afternoon when he uttered the single word \"Accepto\". His coronation was scheduled for November 9. As the 262nd Supreme Pontiff, he was the first to take the name John since the year 1334, when Pope John XXII last reigned",
". Baldassarre Cossa, an \"antipope\" not recognized by the Catholic Church as a rightful heir to Saint Peter, had used the name John XXIII from 1410 to 1415 during a schism within the Church.",
"The monopoly of the Radio Corporation of America (RCA) on the manufacture of color television sets came to an end as the RCA company agreed to a consent judgment and a $100,000 fine to settle antitrust criminal charges brought on February 1 by the U.S. Department of Justice. As one observer noted, \"The effort to sell color television to the public has thus far been largely an R.C.A. and N.B.C",
".C.A. and N.B.C. show,\" noting RCA made the only commercial color sets, and that its subsidiary, the National Broadcasting Company (NBC) carried the only television programs broadcast in color.",
"The Royal Swedish Academy of Science announced that the Nobel Prize for Physics would be awarded to three Soviet physicists, Pavel Cherenkov, Ilya Frank and Igor Tamm for their discovery of the antiproton and for spurring the study of cosmic radiation, while the Nobel Prize for Chemistry was announced for Britain's Frederick Sanger of Cambridge University for developing a method for studying the structure of proteins and isolating and identifying the molecular components of insulin.",
"The second coal mine disaster in two days in the U.S. state of West Virginia killed 13 miners aat the Oglebay-Norton Company mine near Summersville, West Virginia.",
"The co-pilot and the engineer of a Panagra airlines DC-7 averted disaster to the 45 people on board by making a steep dive to avoid a collision with three U.S. Air Force planes at an altitude of . The Panagra flight was traveling from New York to Miami, with a final scheduled destination of Lima, Peru, and was over Wilmington, North Carolina when the engineer spotted a refueling tanker and two USAF jets flying towards the plane. The pilot was talking to passengers in the cabin at the time",
". The pilot was talking to passengers in the cabin at the time. According to the engineer, \"The tanker cleared us over our left wing.\"",
"Born: Raúl Pellegrin, Chilean anti-government guerrilla leader (murdered 1988)",
"October 29, 1958 (Wednesday)\nSoviet Russian author Boris Pasternak, vilified at home for his book Dr. Zhivago, became the first person ever to reject the Nobel Prize. He sent a cable to the Swedish Academy saying that he was \"immensely thankful, touched, proud, astonished and abashed\", but that he was making a \"voluntary refusal\" of the Nobel Prize for Literature.",
"Officials of the United States Department of the Post Office ordered all U.S. postal stations to halt delivery of the November 1958 issue of the magazine Playboy, pending a hearing on whether the contents qualified as obscene. The following morning, the Judge David A. Pine of the United States District Court for the District of Columbia issued a five-day temporary restraining order barring postal officials from halting delivery and directing them to send copies in the same manner as other magazines",
". Two judges of the D.C. circuit's U.S. Court of Appeals rejected an appeal of Judge Pine's order the same day, and Post Office Department concluded that the matter would be a moot point, since almost all of the issues would reach subscribers within five days.",
"Born: Stefan Dennis, Australian television actor known for his recurring role as Paul Robinson in the soap opera Neighbours; in Tawonga, Victoria\nDied: Zoe Akins, 71, American playwright and Pulitzer Prize winner",
"October 30, 1958 (Thursday)\nFor the first time, white tigers were born in captivity, after five years of breeding attempts. The births of the four cubs (one male and three females) took place at the private zoo of conservationist Martand Singh, the Maharaja of Rewa, in Govindgarh in the Madhya Pradesh state.",
"The Swedish Academy announced that the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine would go to George Beadle and Edward Tatum for their discovery that genes transmit hereditary characteristics by controlling chemical reactions, and to 33-year-old Dr. Joshua Lederberg of the University of Wisconsin for his discovery of the recombination and organization of the genetic material of bacteria.",
"The explosion of a car bomb on a crowded street killed nine people in the Algerian city of Tiaret, and injured 26 others, 12 of them critically. Two 105 mm artillery shells had been hidden by terrorists inside a sedan parked along the main street. Six Muslim Algerians, 3 of them children, were killed along with three French Algerians.",
"The basis for the medical procedure of coronary angiography was accidentally discovered by Dr. F. Mason Sones, a cardiologist at the Cleveland Clinic, when a 26-year-old patient accidentally received an amount of contrast dye in the patient's right coronary artery rather than in the intended target for catheterization, the aorta",
". Rather than going into fibrillation, the patient's heart restarted and Sones realized that small amounts of contrast dye could be injected into a coronary artery, which would permit accurate observation of arterial blockages.",
"The United States carried out four nuclear tests on the final day before a moratorium was to begin at midnight Universal Time (4:00 in the afternoon at the Nevada test site). Because of the October 31 scheduled halt to testing of hydrogen and atomic bombs, the U.S., the United Kingdom and the USSR had all raced to perform as many detonations as possible during October, with 29 by the U.S. alone during the month of October. The final American test, code-named Titania, took place at 20:34:00",
". The final American test, code-named Titania, took place at 20:34:00.2 UTC (12:34 local time). The Soviet Union joined the moratorium after making its last test on November 3.",
"Born: Joe Delaney, American football running back; in Henderson, Texas (drowned 1983)\nDied: Philip Scrutton, 35, British golfer and winner of the Walker Cup (1955 and 1957), and John Pritchett, 27, 1948 Boys Amateur Championship winner, were killed when Scrutton's car was hit by a British Army truck.",
"October 31, 1958 (Friday)\nA moratorium on nuclear weapons testing by the three nuclear powers at the time— the United States, the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union— went into effect as the U.S. and the UK suspended their testing and the Soviets said at the nuclear weapons talks in Geneva that they would soon join. The Soviet Union, which had resumed testing in September after a voluntary hold on March 31, waited until November 3 to announce that it would join the moratorium.",
"The Union of Soviet Writers expelled Boris Pasternak after a meeting and a closed-door hearing by the Union's leader, in which the author of Doctor Zhivago was denounced as \"a Fascist fifth columnist\". The expulsion effectively barred Pasternak from being published in the Soviet Union, where membership in the Communist Party-sponsored Union was a requirement for publication.",
"The Lisbon Agreement for the Protection of Appellations of Origin and their International Registration was signed in the capital of Portugal to amend the 1883 Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property and to establish the International Register of Appellations of Origin, but would be ratified by only nine nations in the first 10 years. It would go into effect on September 25, 1966.",
"The representatives of Venezuela's three major political parties— Acción Democrática (AD), COPEI (Social Christian Party), and Unión Republicana Democrática (URD)— signed the Puntofijo Pact, agreeing to respect the results of the presidential and legislative elections scheduled for December 7.",
"Edwin M. Turner and William P. Turner filed the patent application for their invention, the scimitar antenna, designed for use on U.S. aircraft and space vehicles. U.S. Patent No. 3,015,101 would be granted on December 26, 1961.\nBorn:\nJeannie Longo, French women's road racing cyclist, 1996 Olympic gold medalist, 5-time UCI road world champion (1985-1987, 1989, 1995); in Annecy, Haute-Savoie département",
"Simon Poidevin, Australian national rugby union team flanker with 59 appearances for Australia in international competition; in Goulburn, New South Wales\nDied: Tom Pittman (stage name for Jerry Lee Alten), 26, American TV and film actor, was killed in an automobile accident after departing a Halloween party in his Porsche 550 Spyder. Pittman crashed through a guard rail and plunged into a deep ravine. His body would not be discovered until November 19.",
"References\n\n1958-10\n1958\nOctober 1958 events\n1958-10"
] |
340B Drug Pricing Program
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/340B%20Drug%20Pricing%20Program
|
[
"The 340B Drug Pricing Program is a US federal government program created in 1992 that requires drug manufacturers to provide outpatient drugs to eligible health care organizations and covered entities at significantly reduced prices. The intent of the program is to allow covered entities to \"stretch scarce federal resources as far as possible, reaching more eligible patients and providing more comprehensive services",
".\" Maintaining services and lowering medication costs for patients is consistent with the purpose of the program, which is named for the section authorizing it in the Public Health Service Act (PHSA) It was enacted by Congress as part of a larger bill signed into law by President George H. W. Bush.",
"Program description and history",
"Congress created the Medicaid Drug Rebate Program in 1990. It required pharmaceutical manufacturers to provide rebates for medication purchases, based on sales to Medicaid beneficiaries, as a condition of having their products covered by Medicaid",
". The amount of the rebates paid to the states were based on a \"best price\" calculation that did not take into account the discounted prices that manufacturers were offering directly to Federally funded clinics and public hospitals serving large numbers of low-income and uninsured patients.",
"Congressional hearings in 1992 found that failing to exempt these voluntary discounts under the Medicaid Drug Rebate Program caused prices to rise \"dramatically\" for such facilities. According to a detailed study of the most widely used outpatient drugs at five public hospitals, hospital costs for the previously discounted drugs increased, on average, by 32 percent, far in excess of the historical 5 to 9 percent annual increases in drug prices experienced by public hospitals",
". The steep rise reflected the size of the discounts previously offered, and the dramatic shift once \"best prices\" were imposed in place of voluntary discounts. Consequently, Congress created the 340B program in November 1992 through the enactment of Public Law 102–585, the Veterans Health Care Act of 1992, which is codified as Section 340B of the Public Health Service Act (created under Section 602 of the Veterans Health Care Act of 1992)",
". The law protected specified clinics and hospitals (\"covered entities\") from drug price increases and gave them access to price reductions",
". This law requires pharmaceutical manufacturers participating in the Medicaid program to enter into a second agreement with the Secretary of HHS—called a pharmaceutical pricing agreement (PPA)—under which the manufacturer agrees to provide statutorily specified discounts on \"covered outpatient drugs\" purchased by government-supported facilities, known as covered entities, that are expected to serve the nation's most vulnerable patient populations",
". These discounts only apply to purchases of covered outpatient drugs. Covered entities are allowed to dispense the discounted medication both to uninsured patients, and patients covered by Medicare or private insurance",
". In cases where the covered entity treats an insured patient with discounted medication, the federal government or the patient's private insurance routinely reimburses the entity for the full price of the medication, and the entity is able to retain the difference between the reduced price it pays for the drug and the full amount for which it is reimbursed.",
"The number of covered entity sites (\"parent\" sites plus off-site outpatient facilities, also referred to as \"child\" sites) that take advantage of the 340B program has grown from 8,605 in 2001 to 16,572 in 2011. From 2005 to 2011, the number of hospitals participating nearly tripled, from 591 to 1,673, and the number of hospital sites (separate locations of a given hospital that all participate in 340B) almost quadrupled, from 1,233 to 4,426",
". As of October 2017, there are 12,722 covered entities participating in the program. The program's growth can be attributed in part to three laws that Congress passed over the last decade. Growth in the number of covered entity sites also stems from a recent federal policy change. In 2012, the Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA) began requiring hospitals to register all offsite facilities using 340B drugs",
". Previously, hospitals had to register only those sites at separate addresses that received direct shipments of 340B drugs. Additionally, all clinics located off-site of the parent hospital, regardless of whether those clinics are in the same building, must register with HRSA as outpatient facilities of the parent 340B-eligible hospital if the covered entity purchases and/or provides 340B drugs to patients of those facilities. Approximately one-third of all U.S. hospitals participate in the 340B program.",
"Pharmaceuticals purchased at 340B pricing now account for five percent of all medicines purchased in the United States each year. As of 2016 covered entities' spending on 340B drug purchases was estimated to be about $16.2 billion annually.\n\nAdministration",
"The program is administered by the Office of Pharmacy Affairs (OPA), located within the Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA) of the Department of Health and Human Services, (HHS). OPA is charged with designing and implementing necessary policies and procedures to enforce agency objectives and assess program risk",
". These policies and procedures are supposed to include internal controls that provide reasonable assurance that an agency has effective and efficient operations and that program participants are in compliance with applicable laws and regulations.",
"Eligibility",
"Eligibility for the 340B program is defined under federal law. Six categories of hospitals are eligible to participate in the program: disproportionate share hospitals (DSHs), children's hospitals and cancer hospitals exempt from the Medicare prospective payment system, sole community hospitals, rural referral centers, and critical access hospitals (CAH)",
". Hospitals in each of the categories must be (1) owned or operated by or under contract with state or local government non-profit, (2) a public or private non-profit corporation that is formally granted governmental powers by a state or local government, or (3) a private non-profit hospital that has a contract with a state or local government to provide indigent care and, with the exception of CAHs, all hospitals must meet payer-mix criteria related to the Medicare DSH program",
". There are also ten categories of non-hospital covered entities that are eligible based on receiving federal funding. They include federally qualified health centers (FQHCs), FQHC \"look-alikes\", Ryan White HIV/AIDS program grantees, tuberculosis, black lung, family planning and sexually transmitted disease clinics, hemophilia treatment centers, public housing primary care clinics, homeless clinics, Urban Indian clinics, and Native Hawaiian health centers.",
"To participate in the 340B program covered entities must register, be enrolled, and comply with all program requirements. Once enrolled, covered entities are assigned a 340B identification number that vendors must verify before allowing an organization to purchase discounted drugs. Covered entities must complete the recertification process on the Office of Pharmacy Affairs (OPA) 340B database website every year. Failure to recertify will result in removal from the 340B program.",
"Two specific criteria are common to most of the 340B-eligible hospital types: the requirement for a \"disproportionate share hospital (DSH) adjustment percentage\" above a certain level; and the requirement that the hospital: (a) be owned or operated by a state or local government; (b) be a private nonprofit hospital \"formally granted governmental powers\" by a state or local government; or (c) be a private nonprofit hospital with a contract with a state or local government to provide care to low-income",
"nonprofit hospital with a contract with a state or local government to provide care to low-income individuals who are not eligible for Medicare or Medicaid",
".",
"The Disproportionate Share Hospital (DSH) Adjustment Percentage",
"The DSH adjustment percentage determines whether hospitals receive higher cash payments from the federal government under Medicare's Inpatient Prospective Payment System. The DSH adjustment percentage was implemented as part of the Medicare program in 1986 so that hospitals with substantial low-income patient loads could get higher payments to cover the higher costs of treating low-income patients",
". Since then, some policymakers have viewed the DSH adjustment as a way to help hospitals with their uncompensated care. \"Uncompensated care\" is a general measure of hospital care provided for which no payment was received from the patient or insurer, usually in the form of charity care or bad debt. Policymakers have used the DSH adjustment percentage as an indicator of how much uncompensated care hospitals are providing patients without receiving payment.",
"Expansion",
"Covered Entity Eligibility",
"In 1994 HRSA issued guidance clarifying which hospital outpatient facilities may use 340B drugs. The guidance said that hospital outpatient facilities whose costs are listed on a reimbursable line of the hospital's Medicare cost report(meaning their services are reimbursable under the Medicare program)are an \"integral\" part of the hospital and are eligible to use 340B discounted drugs",
". In April 2012, HRSA made clear that hospitals must improve transparency by registering all outpatient facilities using 340B drugs with OPA and list these sites on OPA's database, which led to an increase in the number of sites enrolled in 340B.",
"In 2003, Congress enacted a law that allowed more rural and small urban hospitals to become eligible for the program by meeting the DSH percentage threshold required for program enrollment.\n\nIn 2005, Congress expanded the program under the Deficit Reduction Act to make certain free standing children's hospitals eligible.",
"In 2010, the Affordable Care Act (ACA) broadened the program to cover four new types of eligible entities: outpatient settings of certain free-standing cancer hospitals, rural referral centers, sole community hospitals, and critical access hospitals.",
"Patient definition \nNot all patients are qualified to receive outpatient prescription drugs at 340B prices. Participating hospitals are not required to provide discounted medications to patients in need. Only \"outpatients\" are eligible for 340B prices because the program is an outpatient program. In 1996, HRSA issued guidance for an individual to qualify as a patient of a 340B facility. Individuals are considered \"patients\" if:",
"the covered entity has an established relationship with the individual, defined as maintaining health records of the individuals \n the individual receives a health care service for which the covered entity is responsible\n the individual receives a health care service from the covered entity consistent with qualifying grant funding or \"look-a like status\". Hospitals are exempt from this requirement.",
"In 2007, HRSA stated that \"some 340B covered entities may have interpreted the definition too broadly, resulting in the potential for diversion of medications purchased under the 340B program.\" The GAO noted in a 2011 study that this definition of \"patient\" lacked clear direction and \"raised concerns that the guidance may be interpreted in ways that are inconsistent with its intent\" and that \"covered entities could interpret it either too broadly or too narrowly.\"",
"Contract pharmacies \nIn 1996 HRSA guidance allowed covered entities without an in-house pharmacy to contract with a single outside pharmacy. In April 2010, HRSA allowed 340B covered entities to contract with multiple pharmacies. Between April 2010, when this change went into effect, and 2013 the number of contract pharmacies increased 700%, from 3,785 to 30,046 according to HRSA enrollment data.\n\nGovernment reports \nThere have been a number of government reports relating to the 340B program.",
"Contract Pharmacy Arrangements",
"Covered entities that participate in the 340B program may contract with pharmacies to dispense drugs purchased through the program on their behalf. Although the majority of covered entities do not use contract pharmacies, their use has increased rapidly over the past few years. Additionally, recent HRSA audits of covered entities have found program violations related to contract pharmacies",
". The Department of Health and Human Services Office of Inspector General conducted this study to learn about how participating covered entities operate and oversee their contract pharmacy arrangements, and what steps they may or may not take to effectively prevent diversion and duplicate discounts in contract pharmacy arrangements.",
"Findings: (1) Since 2010, the percentage of all covered entities that use contract pharmacies has risen from 10 percent to 22 percent. Moreover, the number of unique pharmacies serving as 340B contract pharmacies has grown by 770 percent, and the total number of contract pharmacy arrangements has grown by 1,245 percent. (2) 340B contract pharmacy arrangements create complications in preventing diversion, and covered entities are addressing these complications in different ways",
". The covered entities reviewed in the study reported different methods of identifying 340B eligible prescriptions to prevent diversion in their contract pharmacy arrangements. In some cases, these different methods lead to differing determinations of 340B eligibility from one covered entity to another for similar types of prescriptions. As a result, there is inconsistency within the 340B Program as to which prescriptions filled at contract pharmacies are treated as 340B eligible",
". (3) Contract pharmacy arrangements create complications in preventing duplicate discounts. Most covered entities in the study prevent duplicate discounts by not dispensing 340B purchased drugs to Medicaid beneficiaries through their contract pharmacies. However, some covered entities that do dispense 340B purchased drugs to Medicaid beneficiaries through their contract pharmacies did not report a method to avoid duplicate discounts",
". (4) Some covered entities in the study do not offer the discounted 340B price to uninsured patients in their contract pharmacy arrangements. (5) Most covered entities in the study do not conduct all of the oversight activities recommended by HRSA. Although almost all covered entities reported monitoring their contract pharmacy arrangements, the extent of such monitoring varies",
". Few covered entities reported retaining independent auditors for their contract pharmacy arrangements as recommended in HRSA guidance.",
"Manufacturer Discounts Offer Benefits, but Federal Oversight Needs Improvement\nWe examined (1) the extent to which covered entities generate 340B revenue, factors that affect revenue generation, and how they use the program; (2) how manufacturers' distribution of drugs at 340B prices affects covered entities' or non-340B providers' access to drugs; and (3) HRSA's oversight of the 340B program.",
"Findings: Thirteen of the 29 covered entities GAO interviewed reported that they generated 340B program revenue that exceeded drug-related costs, which includes the costs of purchasing and dispensing drugs. Of those remaining, 10 did not generate enough revenue to exceed drug-related costs, and six did not report enough information for GAO to determine the extent to which revenue was generated. Several factors affected 340B revenue generation, including drug reimbursement rates",
". Several factors affected 340B revenue generation, including drug reimbursement rates. Regardless of the amount of revenue generated, all covered entities reported using the program in ways consistent with its purpose. For example, all covered entities reported that program participation allowed them to maintain services and lower medication costs for patients. Entities generating 340B program revenue that exceeded drug-related costs were also able to serve more patients and to provide additional services.",
"According to 340B program stakeholders that GAO interviewed, manufacturers' distribution of drugs at 340B prices generally did not affect providers' access to drugs. However, 340B stakeholders reported issues with covered entities accessing intravenous immune globulin (IVIG) at 340B prices. Stakeholders reported that manufacturers restricted the distribution of the drug at 340B prices, resulting in 340B hospitals having to purchase at higher prices in order to meet their demand",
". These restrictions happen on an ongoing basis because the IVIG is susceptible to drug shortages.",
"GAO said that HRSA's oversight of the 340B program is inadequate to provide reasonable assurance that covered entities and drug manufacturers are in compliance with program requirements—such as, entities' transfer of drugs purchased at 340B prices only to eligible patients, and manufacturers' sale of drugs to covered entities at or below the 340B price. GAO said HRSA primarily relies on participant self-policing to ensure program compliance",
". GAO said HRSA primarily relies on participant self-policing to ensure program compliance. However, GAO continued, HRSA's guidance on program requirements often lacks the necessary level of specificity to provide clear direction, making participants' ability to self-police difficult and raising concerns that the guidance may be interpreted in ways inconsistent with the agency's intent. Other than relying on self-policing, HRSA engages in few activities to oversee the 340B program, GAO said",
". Moreover, GAO said the 340B program has increasingly been used in settings, such as hospitals, where the risk of improper purchase of 340B drugs is greater, in part because they serve both 340B and non-340B eligible patients. The 2010 changes allowing unlimited outside contract pharmacies to distribute 340B discounted medications were also seen by GAO as a specific source of heightened concern for HRSA's inadequate oversight",
". To ensure appropriate use of the 340B program, GAO recommended that HRSA take steps to strengthen oversight regarding program participation and compliance with program.",
"Recommendations (1) HRSA was instructed to conduct selective audits of 340B covered entities to deter potential diversion. HRSA began conducting such audits in 2012. In FY2012, HRSA completed 51 audits of 340B covered entities, the reports of which are available on the HRSA website. (2) HRSA was instructed to finalize new, more specific guidance on the definition of a 340B patient. HRSA reportedly is studying the matter",
". HRSA reportedly is studying the matter. (3) HRSA should be instructed to further specify its 340B nondiscrimination guidance for cases in which distribution of drugs is restricted and to require reviews of manufacturers' plans to restrict distribution of drugs at 340B prices. HRSA has issued guidance on these issues. (4) HRSA should be instructed to further specify the criteria that hospitals that are not publicly owned or operated must meet to be eligible for the 340B program",
". Since then HRSA has issued guidance on this issue (Release No. 2013-3).",
"State Medicaid Policies and Oversight Activities\n\nObjective: To describe state Medicaid agencies' policies and oversight activities related to drugs purchased under 340B.",
"Findings: (1) Approximately half of states have written 340B policies that direct covered entities to bill Medicaid at cost for 340B-purchased drugs. (2) States do not have necessary pricing information to create prepay edits for 340B-purchased drugs; 20 States conduct post-pay reviews to identify overpayments. (3) Over half of states developed alternatives to OPA's Medicaid Exclusion File to identify 340B claims and prevent duplicate discounts.",
"Recommendations: (1) The Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS) should direct states to create written 340B policies. (2) CMS should inform States about tools they can use to identify claims for 340B-purchased drugs. (3) HRSA should share 340B ceiling prices with states. (4) HRSA, in conjunction with CMS, should improve the accuracy of the Medicaid Exclusion File.\n\nReview of 340B Prices",
"Review of 340B Prices\n\nObjective: To determine whether 340B covered entities pay more than the statutory defined 340B ceiling price and, if so, the potential reason for the price discrepancies.",
"Findings: (1) In June 2005, 14 percent of total purchases by 340B entities exceeded 340B ceiling prices, resulting in total overpayments of $3.9 million. (2) The largest overpayments were due to prices that did not follow HRSA's \"penny price\" policy in situations to which the statutory 340B ceiling price calculation yielded a negative number. (3) Low-volume entities, manufacturers, and wholesalers were associated with higher rates of overpayments",
". (4) Inaccuracies in HRSA's ceiling prices limit HRSA's ability to monitor 340B program compliance.",
"Recommendations: (1) HRSA should improve its oversight of the 340B program to ensure that entities are charged at or below the 340B ceiling price. (2) HRSA should provide technical assistance regarding 340B program implementation to all participating entities, manufacturers, and wholesalers. (3) HRSA should publish guidelines regarding its penny price policy. (4) To accurately calculate 340B ceiling prices, HRSA should obtain data on consistent unit of measure and package size.",
"Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Overcharged 340B-Covered Entities\n\nObjective: To determine (1) whether five manufacturers of 11 prescription drugs sold them to 340B covered entities using the correct Medicaid rebate amount; and (2) the extent of any overcharges.\n\nFindings: The five manufacturers overcharged 340B covered entities an estimated $6.1 million for sales during the one-year period ending on September 30, 1999.",
"Recommendations: HRSA should require the five drug manufacturers identify the exact amounts of the overcharges for each of the affected 340B- covered entities and apply the overcharged amounts as offsets or credits to each entities future purchases.\n\nOther reports",
"Other reports\n\nAnalysis of 340B DSH Hospital Services Delivered to Vulnerable Patient Populations\nA 2015 study commissioned by 340b Health, a coalition of hospitials receiving 340b drug discounts, concluded that hospitals in the 340B drug pricing program care for nearly twice as many poor patients as other hospitals and also shoulder a much higher burden of uncompensated care.",
"The study, conducted by the healthcare economics and policy consulting firm Dobson DaVanzo & Associates, set out to determine the extent to which disproportionate share (DSH) hospitals enrolled in the 340B drug pricing program focus their services on vulnerable patient populations. The study found that:\n340B DSH hospitals provide nearly twice as much care as non-340B hospitals – 41.9 percent versus 22.8 percent – to Medicaid beneficiaries and low-income Medicare patients.",
"340B hospitals provide 40 percent more uncompensated care as a percent of total patient care costs than non-340B hospitals – $24.6 billion to $17.5 billion. Although 340B hospitals accounted for only 35 percent of all hospitals included in the analysis, 340B hospitals provided 58 percent of all uncompensated care",
". In addition, when taking hospital size into account and looking at uncompensated care as a percent of total patient care costs, 340B hospitals across all hospital sizes provided consistently high levels of uncompensated care.",
"A higher percentage of 340B DSH hospitals provide public health and specialized services – many of which are unprofitable but essential to their communities – than non-340B hospitals.",
"Outpatient Prescription Dispensing Patterns Through Contract Pharmacies In 2012\nA study published in the November 2014 edition of Health Affairs provided the first comparison of 340B prescriptions and all prescriptions dispensed by retail pharmacies operating under contracts with 340B covered entities. The study used 2012 data from Walgreens, the national leader in 340B contract pharmacies. The study found that:",
"Medications used to treat chronic conditions such as diabetes, high cholesterol levels, asthma, and depression accounted for an overwhelming majority of all prescriptions dispensed at Walgreens as part of the 340B program.\nA higher percentage of anti-retrovirals used to treat HIV/AIDS were dispensed through 340B prescriptions than through all prescriptions dispensed at Walgreens.",
"The majority of 340B prescriptions dispensed at Walgreens originated at tuberculosis clinics, consolidated health centers, disproportionate-share hospitals, and Ryan White clinics.\n340B contract pharmacies dispense medications used to treat Americans' chronic disease burden and disproportionately dispense medications used by key vulnerable populations targeted by the program.",
"Federal Drug Discount Program Critical for Oregon's Health\nA study commissioned by the Oregon Primary Care Association concluded that the 340B program is vital to helping health providers in Oregon better treat the vulnerable and underserved.'",
"Specifically, the report found that 340B savings allow federally qualified health centers in the state to provide:\nfinancial assistance to patients unable to afford their prescriptions\nclinical pharmacy services, such as disease management programs or medication therapy management\nadditional clinics\ncommunity outreach programs",
"\"FQHCs rely on the 340B funding to offset the costs of providing these and other important (yet unreimbursed) services. And as safety-net community providers, FQHCs use the funding to benefit all patients of the community, indirectly passing savings to the state as a whole,\" said the report which was commissioned by the Oregon Primary Care Association.\n\nOregon is weighing whether to require these health centers to hand over essentially all of their savings on 340B drugs provided to Medicaid beneficiaries.",
"\"Policies that shift cost savings to the state may not actually be effective and could adversely impact patient care,\" the study concluded.\n\nUnfulfilled Expectations: An analysis of charity care provided by 340B hospitals\n\nA new analysis published in 2014 indicates that a substantial portion of hospitals enrolled in the 340B program provide only a minimal amount of charity care; as such, they may not be fulfilling Congress' expectations.",
"The study, compiled from newly available public data noted that the 340B drug discount program was designed by Congress to help safety net providers improve access to prescription medicines for uninsured, vulnerable patients in the outpatient hospital setting. Yet, the analysis shows, most hospitals that benefit from the program provide less charity care than the national average for all hospitals, and charity care in about a quarter of all 340B hospitals represents 1% or less of total patient costs",
". A small number of 340B hospitals provide the lion's share of all charity care delivered by 340B hospitals.",
"The analysis raises questions about whether the current 340B eligibility criteria specifically used for DSH hospitals are serving the spirit and intent of the law in that they may be overly broad and not just target those entities that serve high numbers of vulnerable, uninsured patients. Specifically, the new research shows:",
"More than two-thirds of hospitals that receive 340B drug discounts provide less charity care as a percent of patient costs than the national average for all hospitals, including for-profit hospitals which do not qualify for 340B under current eligibility criteria.\n For approximately a quarter (24%) of 340B hospitals, charity care represents 1% or less of the hospitals' total patient costs.\n Approximately one-fifth (22%) of 340B hospitals provide 80% of all charity care delivered by 340B DSH hospitals.",
"Currently, hospitals that qualify for the program claim 340B discounts for most outpatient prescription drugs, for both insured and uninsured patients",
". And while the 340B program lowers outpatient drug costs for qualifying hospitals on the presumption that it will help significant numbers of vulnerable, uninsured patients, participating hospitals currently see no restrictions on the way they spend the revenue generated if they charge both insured and uninsured patients higher prices than the 340B-discounted price.",
"This stands in contrast to many other covered entities that participate in the 340B program as a result of a specific grant (often referred to as \"grantees\") from the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. The grant-approval process typically requires these providers to demonstrate that they provide services to certain specified vulnerable populations, at times based upon the patients' \"ability to pay\", and that the entities reinvest resources into services for those populations.",
"According to the report, overly-broad eligibility criteria for hospitals have led to an explosion in the number of hospitals that have come into the 340B program. Today, one-third of all hospitals in the country participate in the 340B program and get 340B discounts; that number is expected to grow, particularly absent an effort to tighten eligibility requirements. Drug purchases through the 340B program will almost double, from $6 billion in 2010 to $13",
". Drug purchases through the 340B program will almost double, from $6 billion in 2010 to $13.4 billion by 2016, though little of the billions of dollars in discounts has been directly tracked to or linked with charity care for vulnerable indigent patients.",
"While not disputing the report's findings, Safety Net Hospitals for Pharmaceutical Access (SNHPA), the main group that lobbies on behalf of the hospitals studied in the report, issued a statement in response to the report stating:In its continued public relations campaign to discredit the 340B drug discount program, the pharmaceutical industry has financed another study that intentionally misrepresents its purpose",
". This report goes a step further by suggesting that many hospitals don't deserve to be in the program based on a narrow and misleading interpretation of care to needy patients.",
"The 340B program has lived up to congressional expectations, which is why Congress chose to add several new categories of hospitals to its ranks under both Republican and Democratic administrations.",
"Congress was clear when it established the program that eligible hospitals must serve a disproportionately high percentage of Medicaid patients, low-income seniors or be located in remote rural areas. Congress allows these hospitals to advance the real purpose of the program: to stretch their limited resources so that they are less dependent on taxpayers dollars.",
"The report is based on unreliable estimates of charity care that even the government refuses to use to determine uncompensated hospital expenses. In addition, hospitals are significantly underpaid by Medicaid, a fact completely omitted from the analysis.\nThe average 340B hospital provides three times more uncompensated care than non-340B hospitals.\nPrivate oncology practices refer their Medicare, Medicaid and uninsured patients to hospitals.",
"The 340B program represents only 2 percent of the $325 billion U.S. pharmaceutical market.Another lobbying group, the American Hospital Association issued a statement in response to the report stating:The AHA today said a report examining the charity care levels of 340B hospitals \"ignores the fact that the 340B program enables hospitals to provide essential health care services to the nation's most vulnerable populations",
".\" The Alliance for Integrity and Reform of 340B report found that some hospitals enrolled in the 340B Drug Pricing Program provided only a minimal amount of charity care. However, AHA Senior Vice President for Public Policy Analysis and Development Linda Fishman noted that the report is \"based on Medicare's worksheet S-10, which is still in the development stages and judged by Medicare policymakers to be not yet ready for use in payment calculations",
".\" Fishman also said that 62% of all uncompensated care provided by U.S. hospitals is provided by 340B hospitals, and \"charity care alone does not account for the myriad programs and services that hospitals provide, which are tailored to the needs of their own unique community.\"",
"RAND Corporation 2011 Study",
"In 2011 the RAND Corporation published a study of policy options for addressing medicare payment differentials across ambulatory settings. sponsored by the Assistant Secretary of Planning and Evaluation in the U.S",
". sponsored by the Assistant Secretary of Planning and Evaluation in the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services that analyzed potential options for modifying Medicare payment policies to improve the value of services provided in ambulatory settings by addressing the differential in the amount that Medicare pays for similar facility services in various ambulatory settings",
". In their summary the authors verify that \"The findings confirm that payments tend to be highest for services provided in hospitals, but they also indicate that payment differentials generally exceed cost differentials and vary by procedure.\"",
"Page 55 of the RAND Study states:There has been a substantial increase in hospital purchases of provider practices in recent years, largely to expand the hospital's referral base and to position the hospital system as an accountable care organization. However, the consequences are increased Medicare payments and beneficiary coinsurance, as well as additional",
"competition for community-based practices...For oncology practices, one reason cited for the growth is the opportunity to expand the patient base for drugs purchased under the 340B discount drug purchase plan. The program allows facilities to purchase outpatient drugs at prices below market",
". The program allows facilities to purchase outpatient drugs at prices below market. Because the [Outpatient Prospective Payment System] payment rates for drugs furnished to hospital outpatients are the same for all hospitals without regard to whether the drugs were purchased through the 340B program, hospitals have an incentive to increase margins by expanding their patient base for chemotherapy administration",
". At the same time, changes in Medicare payments for chemotherapy drugs furnished in [physician offices] have limited the ability of oncologists to profit on these drugs and have increased the attractiveness of affiliating with a hospital.The Oncology Business Review published a similar report in September 2011",
".The Oncology Business Review published a similar report in September 2011. The authors of that piece found that the acquisition of community oncology practices by hospitals with 340B pricing is leading to more cancer patients being treated by hospitals rather than in specialized community practices, reversing a 20-year trend.",
"In 2008, the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services solicited public comment on whether it should adjust Outpatient Prospective Payment System (OPPS) payments to hospitals for separately payable drugs based on\nhospitals' participation in the 340B program. After receiving and reviewing comments, it decided not to make any changes.",
"Charlotte News Observer April 2012 Series: \"Prognosis: Profits\" and Subsequent Congressional Investigation\nIn April 2012 the Charlotte Observer and The News & Observer of Raleigh, North Carolina, published a five-part series under the headline \"Nonprofit hospitals thrive on profits\".",
"In response to those stories Senator Chuck Grassley (R-Iowa), former Chairman of the Senate Finance Committee and current ranking Republican on the Senate Judiciary Committee initiated a series of letters to the hospitals identified in the series to investigate whether the 340B program is functioning as intended. In a September 28, 2012 letter to the Carolinas Medical Center Senator Grassley stated: \"The intent and design of the [340B] program is to help lower outpatient drug prices for the uninsured",
". It is not intended to subsidize covered entities for providing inpatient services to those who are covered by private insurance, Medicare, or Medicaid. As such, I have been examining the 340B",
"program.\"",
"Safety Net Hospitals for Pharmaceutical Access (SNHPA) Report",
"\"Setting the Record Straight on 340B: A Response to Critics,\" was released on July 9, 2013, by Safety Net Hospitals for Pharmaceutical Access (SNHPA), a 501(c)(6) non-profit organization of 1,000 public and private non-profit hospitals and health systems throughout the U.S. that participate in the Public Health Service 340B drug discount program",
".S. that participate in the Public Health Service 340B drug discount program. The report, which includes documented independent research funded by SNHPA, describes the program and provides examples of how some providers are using their savings. It also argues the program is saving money for federal, state, and local governments and taxpayers and attempts to refute many of the statements made by critics of the program.",
"The report calls for a number of reforms to modernize the program, including more pricing transparency to ensure that health care providers are not being overcharged, audits of drug manufacturers, as well as a look at the use of contract pharmacies to determine whether the program is helping vulnerable patients better access prescription medications and pharmacy care. As part of its advocacy SNHPA also assists its members maximize the benefits of the 340B program.",
"Senator Charles Grassley (R-Iowa), a leader in the Senate investigating the operations of the 340B report responded to the SNHPA report by stating: \"A report by an association representing the affected hospitals is not objective. Through my inquiries, I've been able to document that several hospitals are profiting from the 340B program rather than simply providing discounted drugs to the uninsured",
". Instead of using the deeply discounted drugs these hospitals receive for the most vulnerable in need, the hospitals are up-selling those drugs to patients with Medicare and private insurance because those patients can pay more. The hospitals are keeping the difference.\"",
"Third Way: As the ACA Stands Up, Can Programs for the Uninsured Stand Down?Given the uncertainty facing safety net hospitals, no one is proposing to end programs like disproportionate share and 340B. In fact, it is very likely that some version of these programs will be needed for the foreseeable future because, under the best-case scenario, the ACA will still leave millions without adequate coverage",
". But the Administration has an opportunity to bolster the oversight of programs like 340B to ensure the most vulnerable are protected and no one is abusing the program. That will make it easier when the time comes to recalibrate safety net programs for a level of services appropriate to the number of remaining uninsured.",
"Legislative oversight\n A September 2005 letter from Sen. Charles Grassley (R-IA) to HRSA asked for an accounting of what the government had done to recover overcharges of 340B covered entities by Aventis, Bristol-Myers Squibb, GlaxoSmithKline, and TAP Pharmaceuticals reported by OIG in 2003 and 2004.",
"December 2005 House hearing on Oversight and Administration of the 340B Drug Discount Program: Improving Efficiency and Transparency* September 2012 letter from Sen. Charles Grassley (R-IA) to Carolinas Medical Center inquiring into participation in the 340B program.\n September 2011 from House and Senate members to HRSA requesting information on oversight and effectiveness of the 340B program.\n July 2012 letter from House members to HRSA requesting an updated definition of 340B \"patient.\"",
"July 2012 letter from House members to HRSA requesting an updated definition of 340B \"patient.\"\n September 2012 letter from Sen. Charles Grassley (R-IA) to Carolinas Medical Center inquiring into participation in the 340B program.\n January 2013 Senate letter to HRSA seeking details on 340B program oversight.\n May 8, 2013 News Release by Sen. Charles Grassley, \"Questions Continue About 340B Discount Drug Program\"",
"June 18, 2013 News Release by Sen. Charles Grassley, \"Discount Drug Program, Hospital Executive Bonuses\" \n July 9, 2013 News Release by Sen. Charles Grassley, \"Grassley on Hospital Industry Report on Discount Drug Program: A report by an association representing the affected hospitals is not objective\" \n September 26, 2013 letters by Sen. Charles Grassley, \"Grassley Seeks Answers from Drug Companies on Providing Required Discounts\"",
"340B and Medicaid\nState Medicaid programs must administer their coverage of prescription outpatient drugs in a manner that accounts for participation in the 340B Drug Pricing Program. Typically, state Medicaid programs obtain rebates for dispensed outpatient prescription drugs through the Medicaid Drug Rebate Program. However, duplicate discounts are prohibited. Therefore, state Medicaid programs cannot obtain rebates on drugs that were acquired through the 340B Drug Pricing Program.\n\nReferences",
"References\n\nHealth Resources and Services Administration\nDrug pricing"
] |
The Man Who Killed Don Quixote
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Man%20Who%20Killed%20Don%20Quixote
|
[
"The Man Who Killed Don Quixote is a 2018 adventure-comedy film directed by Terry Gilliam and written by Gilliam and Tony Grisoni, loosely based on the 1605/1615 novel Don Quixote by Miguel de Cervantes. Gilliam tried to make the film many times over 29 years, which made it an infamous example of development hell.",
"Gilliam started work on the film in 1989 but was unable to secure funding until 1998 when it entered full pre-production with a budget of $32.1 million without American financing, with Jean Rochefort as Quixote, Johnny Depp as Toby Grummett, a 21st-century marketing executive thrown back through time and Vanessa Paradis as the female lead",
". Shooting began in 2000 in Navarre, but difficulties such as sets and equipment being destroyed by flooding, the departure of Rochefort due to illness, problems obtaining insurance for the production and other financial difficulties led to a sudden suspension of the production and its subsequent cancellation. The original production was the subject of the documentary film Lost in La Mancha, which was intended to be a making-of but was released on its own in 2002.",
"Gilliam tried to relaunch production between 2003 and 2016, which included Depp, Ewan McGregor and Jack O'Connell as Toby and Robert Duvall, Michael Palin and John Hurt as Quixote. All were cancelled for various reasons, such as failing to secure funds, Depp's busy schedule and eventual loss of interest in the project and Hurt being diagnosed with cancer that eventually led to his death",
". After yet another failed attempt, it was unexpectedly reported in March 2017 that filming had finally started, with Adam Driver, who was confirmed as Toby in 2016 and helped secure funding, and Jonathan Pryce as Quixote. On 4 June 2017, Gilliam announced that the shooting of the film was complete, 17 years after it originally started.",
"The Man Who Killed Don Quixote premiered on 19 May 2018, simultaneously acting as the closing film at the 2018 Cannes Film Festival and being released in French theaters. Gilliam faced difficulties in the process of releasing the film worldwide, partially due to a lengthy legal dispute with former producer Paulo Branco",
". Subsequently, the film was only released in a few other countries, including Belgium, Spain and Portugal; it was released in the United States and Canada on 10 April 2019 and in the United Kingdom and Ireland on 31 January 2020.",
"Plot",
"Toby Grummett, a director, is in rural Spain, struggling with the production of a commercial featuring Don Quixote and Sancho Panza. After an unsuccessful day of shooting, Toby's superior, the Boss, introduces him to a Romani street merchant who sells him an old DVD of The Man Who Killed Don Quixote. By coincidence, Toby wrote and directed the film ten years earlier as a student. Toby watches the film while in bed with the Boss's wife, Jacqui",
". Toby watches the film while in bed with the Boss's wife, Jacqui. When the Boss returns to the hotel room, Toby barely escapes without being recognized.",
"A flashback shows student Toby casting elderly cobbler Javier Sanchez as Don Quixote. Javier initially falters in his characterization, but upon rushing to defend teenage waitress Angelica when a member of Toby's crew plays a prank on her, succeeds in embodying that \"I am Don Quixote\".",
"Toby realizes that his current shoot is near the shooting location of The Man Who Killed Don Quixote. Taking a motorbike to Los Sueños, he learns that Angelica has moved away from her father Raul. Toby meets Javier, now working as a tourist attraction. He discovers that Javier has become convinced that he is the real Don Quixote, and that Toby is his squire, Sancho Panza. Quixote accidentally causes a fire that spreads through the town, as Toby escapes on the motorbike.",
"On the set, police are investigating the \"break in\" of Jacqui's room. The police notice that Toby's bike was the one spotted in Los Sueños and take him in for questioning. En route, they encounter Don Quixote on his horse Rocinante, who demands that the officers release Toby. When they dismiss him, Quixote attacks, culminating in one of the officers being shot and the Romani man stealing the police car. Quixote supplies Toby with a donkey and clothes from the set, and they set off for adventures.",
"Quixote notices a windmill and believes it is a giant attacking a woman. Receiving a head wound after being knocked by one of the windmill's blades, Quixote and Toby are led by the woman to a decrepit ruin occupied by impoverished people. The leader, Barbero, welcomes them warmly but locks them in an attic",
". The leader, Barbero, welcomes them warmly but locks them in an attic. That night, Toby comes to suspect that they are secretly terrorists, but soon finds that the ruin has transformed into a 17th-century village and its inhabitants are Moriscos hiding their Muslim faith from the Spanish Inquisition. Toby manages to evade the inquisitors, then awakens the next morning, the night's events having seemingly been a dream, and learns that the residents are not terrorists but fearful undocumented immigrants",
". Quixote, having experienced Toby's \"dream\", is regaling them with a tale of it.",
"Moving on with Quixote, Toby finds a bag of old Spanish gold and attempts to hide it, but accidentally falls down a ravine into a cave. There he re-encounters Angelica, who tells him that she works as an escort. She mounts a horse and rides off, with Toby chasing her.",
"Quixote finds Toby, and joins him on a quest to find Angelica, but soon enters a jousting match with the \"Knight of Mirrors\", revealed to be Raul. He and several Los Sueños townspeople had been disguising themselves in an attempt to get Javier to come home. After Quixote rides off, Raul punches Toby for indirectly causing his daughter to become an escort.",
"Waking up, Toby finds Quixote whipping himself with thorns to prove his love to Dulcinea del Toboso. Healing his wounds by a river, Toby is found by Jacqui on horseback, dressed for a costume party thrown by Alexei Miiskin, a Russian vodka company owner entering a business deal with the Boss. Arriving at Miiskin's castle, Toby learns that Angelica is Miiskin's \"property\" and sees him behave cruelly towards Angelica and Quixote",
". Toby tries to convince both of them to leave but Quixote refuses and Angelica is captured. Toby rescues Angelica, but finds it is Jacqui wearing a mask, who reveals that Angelica is being burned alive by Miiskin as part of his entertainment. Toby accidentally knocks Quixote out of a window; dying on the ground, Quixote regains his sanity, asserting he is shoemaker Javier Sanchez and gives Toby his sword, telling him that he never truly saw him as lowly",
". Angelica's burning is shown to be a special effect and Quixote dies while Toby recalls Quixote's claim of immortality.",
"The next morning, Toby and Angelica are returning Javier's body to his village for burial. Toby, now Quixote, attacks three windmills, believing them to be giants, with Angelica at his side. The two agree to call her Sancho Panza and they ride into the sunset.",
"Cast \n Adam Driver as Toby Grummett, a director who comes back to the village where he filmed his student film ten years ago, and whom Quixote mistakes for his trusted squire Sancho Panza. Robin Williams, Johnny Depp, Ewan McGregor, and Jack O'Connell were all previously cast in the role.",
"Jonathan Pryce as Javier Sanchez/\"Don Quixote\", an old Spanish shoemaker who played the part of Quixote in Toby's old student film, but has since become convinced he is actually the famous literary character. John Cleese, Jean Rochefort, Michael Palin, Robert Duvall, and John Hurt were all previously cast in the role; Pryce was also a part of the original 2000 production, in a different role.\n Stellan Skarsgård as The Boss, Toby's superior.\n Olga Kurylenko as Jacqui, the Boss' wife.",
"Stellan Skarsgård as The Boss, Toby's superior.\n Olga Kurylenko as Jacqui, the Boss' wife.\n Joana Ribeiro as Angélica Fernández, a young woman who played a supporting role in Toby's film ten years earlier.\n Óscar Jaenada as the Gypsy, a mysterious character who keeps crossing paths with Toby.\n Jason Watkins as Rupert, Toby's ambitious agent.\n Sergi López as the Farmer.\n Rossy de Palma as The Farmer's Wife.\n Hovik Keuchkerian as Raul, Angélica's father.\n Jordi Mollà as Alexei Miiskin, a cruel oligarch.",
"Production",
"Origins (1989–1997)",
"Terry Gilliam first read the novel in 1989, and started conceptualizing an adaptation right away. He saw a personal project in adapting Don Quixote, as it embodies many of the themes that run through his own work—such as the individual versus society, and the concept of sanity. Instead of a literal adaptation, Gilliam's film was about \"an old, retired, and slightly kooky nobleman named Alonso Quixano [who] reads too many chivalric romances",
". Taking leave of his senses, he sets out to fix the world and revive chivalry, clad in makeshift armor and accompanied by a donkey-owning farmer named Sancho Panza, who serves as his squire\".",
"Gilliam signed a deal with Phoenix Pictures as the studio to make the film in 1990 under the name Don Quixote. Sean Connery was in talks to star as Quixote, but Gilliam disliked the idea because \"Quixote is air and Sean is earth\". Nigel Hawthorne and Danny DeVito were also in talks to star as Quixote and Panza respectively",
". Nigel Hawthorne and Danny DeVito were also in talks to star as Quixote and Panza respectively. However, Gilliam ultimately decided that the budget the studio offered him was too low and dropped from the project to focus on The Defective Detective, another film he ultimately failed to make. Phoenix Pictures chose Fred Schepisi to replace Gilliam, with John Cleese as Quixote and Robin Williams as Panza, and Steven Haft, Quincy Jones and David Salzman as producers",
". This version would have been based on an old screenplay by Waldo Salt. However, it was officially cancelled in 1997.",
"In 1997, Gilliam stated, \"The years I wasted on this one! I was so frustrated with Hollywood, I went after European money, needing $20 million. And they said, 'You're on.' But I found out I needed more money. [...] That really hurts, that I let a project I'm convinced I'm the best director on the planet to do, slip by.\"\n\nOriginal aborted production (1998–2000)",
"Writing",
"After Schepisi's project collapsed, Gilliam resumed working on the film with co-writer Tony Grisoni, giving it the new name The Man Who Killed Don Quixote. Instead of featuring a man named Alonso Quixano and Sancho Panza, this new version would instead feature Toby (in early versions \"Toby Grisoni\", as a joke between Gilliam and co-writer Tony Grisoni), a 21st-century marketing executive thrown back through time and who meets Don Quixote",
". Their version would also have borrowed elements from Mark Twain's 1889 novel A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court, including its time travel elements; after having failed Don Quixotes original attempt, Gilliam had unsuccessfully tried to adapt A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court into a film.",
"Development",
"Gilliam announced Don Quixote to be his next project at the UK premiere of Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas in 1998, with pre-production starting the same year. Gilliam, tired with Hollywood wanting creative control on his films, had decided to make the film in Europe instead, which according to him was \"one big monstrous problem\". It was set to have been one of the biggest continental European films ever made, with a budget of $32",
".1 million that had been scaled back from an original $40 million, and would have been filmed in Spain and throughout Europe. It was to have been one of Gilliam's most ambitious films, produced without any American financing; according to Gilliam, this budget was \"half the money we need\". René Cleitman was one of the film's producers. At the time, Gilliam stated, \"I hope it's going to be fun. It's been such a long slog to get to this point today",
". It's been such a long slog to get to this point today.\" Working Title Films was offered the project, but turned it down because of the needed budget.",
"Casting \n\nJean Rochefort was picked to play Don Quixote, in preparation for which he spent seven months learning English. Toby was to be played by Johnny Depp, who had starred in Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas, and Vanessa Paradis would have been his love interest. Other actors who were to appear in the film included Miranda Richardson, Christopher Eccleston, Rossy de Palma, Jonathan Pryce, and Sally Phillips.",
"Filming and cancellation",
"Filming started in September 2000, with Nicola Pecorini as cinematographer. The first location shoot was at Bardenas Reales, a scenic, barren area in Navarre, Spain, near a NATO military base. Shortly before filming, the crew unexpectedly found out that several actors had conflicting schedules that would not match each other, making it unsure how and when to film scenes that would feature those same actors at the same time",
". On the very first day of shooting, F-16 fighter aircraft flew overhead repeatedly, ruining the audio recording and mandating a later re-dubbing in post-production. A flash flood then followed on the second day of filming, washing away and destroying significant portions of equipment and changing the color of the barren cliffs, making previously filmed material unusable due to continuity issues",
". The crew spent the next days trying to recover the equipment or obtain new supplies, but it eventually turned out that the film's insurance did not cover the damage caused by the flood. Several actors also did not show up on set for filming.",
"On the fifth day, filming resumed, but when Rochefort, an able horseman, attempted to ride and act, he was obviously wincing in pain, and required assistance dismounting and walking; he notably suffered from prostate issues, which proved very problematic when riding a horse",
". This made the newly filmed footage unusable, as Rochefort's pain was obvious on camera, and production was suspended while Rochefort flew hurriedly to his doctor in Paris, where he was additionally diagnosed with a double herniated disc. For several days the crew attempted to shoot scenes that did not involve Rochefort – including a scene with Depp at Monasterio de Piedra – but as time passed, it became unclear whether Rochefort would be able to return or not",
". Pecorini stated at the time \"Never in 22 years of being in this business have I seen such a sum of bad luck.\" Gilliam was very disappointed by this, as he had spent two years trying to cast the perfect actor for Quixote. Despite his continued efforts, production was finally cancelled in November 2000.",
"Later attempts (2003–16)",
"After the production had been cancelled, an insurance claim was filed on behalf of the film's investors. US$15 million were reportedly paid, and the rights to the screenplay passed on to the insurance companies. From 2003 on, Gilliam kept on trying to make the film, but to no avail. His first new attempt, six months after the release of Lost in La Mancha, was quickly turned down. In 2005, Gilliam voiced his interest in re-casting the role of Don Quixote with Gérard Depardieu",
". In 2005, Gilliam voiced his interest in re-casting the role of Don Quixote with Gérard Depardieu. The film quickly gained the reputation of being cursed, notably after the release of Lost in La Mancha, making it even harder for Gilliam to find financial support.",
"In the meantime, Gilliam made other films, stating, \"Every film I've done since then has been because I couldn't get Quixote made",
".\" Those other productions mostly collapsed, like the Nicolas Cage-led The Defective Detective or an adaptation of Terry Pratchett and Neil Gaiman's novel Good Omens (which was cancelled after the September 11 attacks due to the content being judged too dark), or were also met with significant issues: he notably clashed with producers Bob and Harvey Weinstein on the making of The Brothers Grimm, leading to them firing his cinematographer Nicola Pecorini",
", leading to them firing his cinematographer Nicola Pecorini, and had to replace The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassuss lead actor Heath Ledger after his death halfway through filming",
".",
"In July 2006, after nearly six years of legalities between the French producers and German insurers, the issue over the rights was settled. Terry Gilliam announced this at the Munich International Documentary Film Festival, saying that the production company was willing to give Gilliam the rights, and that Jeremy Thomas was still interested in producing",
". In August 2006, Gilliam indicated at a post-screening Q&A for Tideland that the complex legal case concerning the film's collapse was finally being wrapped up, and that the rights to the script would hopefully be given back to Gilliam and co-writer Grisoni in the near future. He stated his intention to completely reshoot the film.",
"Johnny Depp was at times still connected to the project, but it remained unclear if Depp's filming schedule would have allowed for his participation and if he wanted to join the production at all. During a press junket in 2009 for his film Public Enemies, Depp stated: [Gilliam and I] have talked about it. But to be honest, the thing about Terry... I love Terry, and I'd do anything the guy wants to do. But with Quixote... my dance card is pretty nutty for the next couple of years",
". But with Quixote... my dance card is pretty nutty for the next couple of years. So I'd hate to put him in a position—or ask to be in a position—where he'd have to wait for me. That would be wrong. But also, I feel like we went there and tried something, and whatever it was—the elements and all the things that got up underneath us—were there and happened and were documented well in that film Lost in La Mancha. So I don't know if it's right for me to go back there",
". So I don't know if it's right for me to go back there. I don't know if it's right for Terry too, but if he wants to...",
"In 2008, Gilliam restarted preliminary work on a new version of the film. The film would be reshot completely, and Rochefort's role had been recast. In 2008, Michael Palin reportedly entered talks with Gilliam to step in for Rochefort and play Don Quixote. In November 2009, Gilliam said he had finished re-casting the role, but he refused to disclose the actor's identity",
". In a December 2009 interview with Collider, Robert Duvall claimed on-camera to be Gilliam's new choice for Don Quixote; this was later confirmed by Gilliam, with Depp still attached to co-star as Toby. Since Depp was signed for two Disney films, further production delays were suspected, but commencement of shooting was scheduled for early 2010. Whether the production timetable would have been maintained is unknown, because Depp stated that he would not make room in his tight schedule for Gilliam's film",
". Depp even noted that he was not sure if he wanted to revisit the revived film project at all. The film was to be produced by Jeremy Thomas for Recorded Picture Company. International sales would have been handled by HanWay Films. On 17 May 2010, it was announced Ewan McGregor had been cast in the film.",
"Gilliam entered main pre-production once again in 2009. After finally retrieving the rights to the screenplay, Gilliam and Grisoni started to rewrite the plot in January 2009 and hoped to be finished within a month. In 2010, Gilliam stated that primary casting was finalised, with Duvall and McGregor still attached; however on 5 September of the same year, he revealed that funding had collapsed a month and half earlier and as a result shooting was delayed",
". By 2012, Duvall was still potentially attached to the film, but not McGregor, with Tony Grisoni commenting the same year \"Us survivors of Don Q are a strange kind of dysfunctional family. Every year since we have rewritten the screenplay. And we've got quite good at it. You will be pleased to hear the Don is back up and in the saddle and ready to ride under new colours",
".\" In November 2013 during the promotion of The Zero Theorem at the Venice Film Festival, Gilliam told Variety \"I'm going to try to do it again, [...] We'll see if it happens. I just want to make it and get rid of it. Get it out of my life.\"",
"In January 2014, Gilliam published on his Facebook page that \"Dreams of Don Quixote have begun again. [...] Will we get the old bastard back on his horse this year?\" In an interview with Empires website, Gilliam stated that production would start up again 29 September 2014 in the Canary Islands. Spanish producer Adrián Guerra was on board to fund the project. Gilliam said of Guerra, \"He's really smart, loves movies",
". Gilliam said of Guerra, \"He's really smart, loves movies. He's young enough to still love movies, but we've still got to cast it and get the money but other than that, that's the deal.\" New concept art by Gilliam collaborator Dave Warren was also released",
".\" New concept art by Gilliam collaborator Dave Warren was also released. In August 2014, in an interview with TheWrap, Gilliam revealed that he had received funding, and that the plot of the film has changed: \"Our main character actually made a Don Quixote movie a lot earlier in his history, and the effect it had on many people wasn't very nice. Some people go mad, some people turn to drink, some people become whores",
". Some people go mad, some people turn to drink, some people become whores.\" In September 2014, actor John Hurt confirmed he had become attached to the film in the titular role of Quixote, replacing Robert Duvall.",
"In a September 2014 interview with Rolling Stone, Gilliam said that making Don Quixote next \"[...] is my plan, but plans have nothing to do with reality. We shall see what happens. I really can't say anything at the moment, because there's been a little hiccup — once again. The Sisyphean rock that keeps rolling back. Just as we almost get to the top of the mountain... We'll see what happens. I'm not a happy camper at the moment",
"... We'll see what happens. I'm not a happy camper at the moment.\" When asked why he continues to attempt making the film, Gilliam said, \"Oh, I don't know, pigheadedness, stupid – I really don't know anymore. I'm beginning to actually think, 'If it doesn't work this time, I'm gonna dump it.' I've wasted far too much of my life doing it. If you're going to do Quixote, you have to become as mad as Quixote. [...] I've wasted how many years? Fifteen? Yeah, there's a certain point",
". [...] I've wasted how many years? Fifteen? Yeah, there's a certain point. It's kind of the determination to be crazy and unreasonable. Every intelligent person around me says, 'Walk away from it.' But those are reasonable people.\" In November 2014, Jack O'Connell was cast as Toby. Commenting on the changes on the script compared to the original version, Gilliam stated, \"It all takes place now, it's contemporary. It's more about how movies can damage people.\"",
"On 9 June 2015, Gilliam obtained a deal with Amazon Studios to release the film theatrically, followed by a streaming Amazon début. Gilliam said of the deal: \"I'm intrigued by their way of doing it. They go into the cinemas first and then a month or two afterwards they go into streaming. And I think that's good because you get a chance to see it on the big screen, and yet I know that more people have seen my films on DVD than they have in the cinemas and that's the reality of life now",
".\" In September 2015, the film's production was suspended once again, due to Hurt being diagnosed with pancreatic cancer shortly before filming. He eventually died from his cancer on 25 January 2017. Gilliam paid homage to him on Facebook, stating, \"Sadly, the earthly marvel that was John Hurt has departed us. Two years ago, he and I were off to make The Man Who Killed Don Quixote when he was diagnosed with a particularly evil brand of cancer",
". Despite the terrible prognosis he was determined to carry on working. And he did. Right to the final curtain. In the end, cancer was the windmill that he couldn't defeat. John was not just a phenomenal actor, but a wickedly wonderful human being. I felt honoured to be a friend.\" That same year, original Quixote portrayer Jean Rochefort also died. Gilliam also paid homage to him: \"When I saw him a couple of years ago he seemed to be growing younger, not older",
". I imagined that, like Quixote, he was capable of living forever. That he should be gone is unbelievably sad. Farewell, Jean.\"",
"With Paulo Branco as producer (2016) \n\nAt the 66th Berlin International Film Festival in February 2016, Gilliam, in need of a minimum 16 million euros for the budget in order to make the film, was introduced to Portuguese producer Paulo Branco, who promised that he would obtain the needed budget by September, a few weeks before they would start the eleven weeks-long shoot.",
"With the film having entered pre-production once again, Gilliam cast Palin as Quixote, Adam Driver as Toby, and Olga Kurylenko as the female lead. Reportedly, Driver would have been paid 610,000 euros for the film, with Palin being paid 285,000 euros. Both of them took equitation lessons for the film shortly after being hired. Gilliam hired his daughter Amy Gilliam as unit production manager",
". Gilliam hired his daughter Amy Gilliam as unit production manager. The new version would be set in modern day, with Toby as a director shooting a commercial and coming across a copy of his old student film, a re-telling of the famous Don Quixote story, which leads him back to the little Spanish village where he shot it back in the days, only to get embroiled in a series of adventures and catastrophes.",
"Tensions soon arose, with Branco wanting creative control over the project; however, and despite having been warned against working with Branco, Gilliam believed that he had no other choice than to collaborate with him if he wanted Don Quixote to be filmed in the year, encouraged by Branco's successful financing of David Cronenberg's 2012 film Cosmopolis. Similarly, Branco felt that Gilliam had \"a deep hate towards producers\"",
". Similarly, Branco felt that Gilliam had \"a deep hate towards producers\". Shortly before the 2016 Cannes Film Festival, Amazon withdrew from the project because of Branco's reputation as producer, with Amazon representative Matthew Heintz sending a mail stating that \"in regard of the interactions we had with [Branco], we do not wish to pursue further negotiations with him\". Nevertheless, Gilliam stated during the Cannes Film Festival that the film would start shooting in October 2016.",
"Conflict escalated further when Branco tried to reduce the budget down from the promised 16 million. He also cut Palin's pay from 285,000 euros to 100,000 euros, which deeply angered Palin; when Gilliam wrote to Branco to complain that Palin's unexpected salary cut felt like a \"slap on the face\", Branco answered that the film needed \"a true producer\", referring to himself as the \"captain\" of the project",
". On 29 April 2016, Gilliam signed a deal where in exchange for producing the film, Branco would earn, in addition to his own salary, the salary of 750,000 euros Gilliam would have been paid for writing and directing the film. In addition to severing ties with several other production companies interested in the project, Branco soon tried to reduce the salaries of other crew members, including the hair stylist, the assistant director, and Amy Gilliam",
". He also tried to push Palin away from the project, considering him too old, to have his own sister hired as costume designer, to have filming moved forward by several months, and to have the film shot in digital instead of the 35 mm Gilliam wanted. Some of the film's other producers and its distributor stated that Branco told Gilliam \"Either you make this film my way, or you irremediably compromise the feasibility of the project and your film is condemned. It will never see the light of day.\"",
"Ultimately, Branco did not provide the promised funds for the film. When Gilliam complained, Branco answered that he \"would not accept this kind of spoiled kid behavior.\" On 6 August, Branco sent a mail to Gilliam urging him to accept his conditions, including a reduced budget, and to give Branco full creative control over the project, threatening to cancel the project altogether and fire the entire crew and cast otherwise",
". Terry Gilliam answered that those demands were unacceptable, and \"incompatible with the contract I have signed\", while Amy Gilliam called Branco's actions \"the behavior of a tyrant and a bully\". In response, Branco officially suspended production on 2 October. Gilliam kept on working, however, with new producers, stating, \"We should be here [at the Cannes Film Festival] next year with the finished film, and then you can ask me why I made such a mess of it or why I made such a wonderful film.\"",
"Final production (2016–2018)",
"Writing",
"Over the years, Gilliam and Grisoni kept on re-writing The Man Who Killed Don Quixote as they kept on trying to make the film. The most notable change was the removal of the time travelling element central to the original 2000 production; instead of the character of Toby being thrown back through time, the film would instead take place in modern times, with the \"period elements\" being characters having a party dressed like in the ancient times",
". Toby would be revisiting a Spanish village he had once filmed a student film in and discover that the shoemaker he had cast in the title role all those years ago has been living as Quixote ever since.",
"Gilliam stated, \"I'm incorporating the idea of the damage that films do to people, so it's become a bit more autobiographical.\" Jonathan Pryce, who was a part of both the original and final productions, stated, \"from what I can remember of the original script, this is an altogether better version. It's a clearer story. Terry's done a lot of rewrites – and he's had a lot of time to do rewrites.\"",
"Casting",
"After Gilliam found new producers, he started production once again. Driver and Kurylenko were still attached as Toby and the female lead, with Pryce cast as Don Quixote. Pryce had previously starred in Gilliam's films Brazil (1985), The Adventures of Baron Munchausen (1988), and The Brothers Grimm (2005), and was also cast in the original 2000 production of The Man Who Killed Don Quixote in a different role",
". Gilliam stated, \"Jonathan has been wanting to [play Quixote] for 15 years – he's been making my life a misery. And now he's here and he's just extraordinary. The editor, who is Spanish, says that she can never imagine another Quixote. So it's as if the time was right: everything seemed to be ready to make this thing.\"",
"Gilliam stated that Driver was the perfect cast choice for Toby, calling him \"the guy I've been looking for all these years.\" Cast members later announced included Joana Ribeiro, Óscar Jaenada, Jason Watkins, Rossy de Palma, and Jordi Mollà.\n\nFilming",
"Filming \n\nHaving found new producers who obtained the needed budget, Gilliam unexpectedly announced in March 2017 that filming had started for the first time since the original 2000 attempt; the announcements of Pryce's role, and Driver and Kurylenko still being attached to their roles, soon followed.",
"During filming in May, Gilliam stated, \"In the end, we're doing this for much less money than we honestly need. But everyone involved, from the cast to the crew, are all working their asses off for a fraction of what they would normally be paid, because they just want to see this thing done. It's odd how being obsessive and not giving up can inspire other people to get involved",
". It's odd how being obsessive and not giving up can inspire other people to get involved. Fools that they are!\" He also stated, \"It was terrifying starting shooting this film finally after, well it originally started in 1989. That's a long time ago! To be thinking, dreaming it, writing and rewriting it, it was a horrible feeling... Yet what's interesting about a film – at a certain point it starts making itself. So it's not actually the film I set out to make. This is a slightly different film",
". So it's not actually the film I set out to make. This is a slightly different film. It's doing its own work, and I'm just holding on for dear life!\" Driver stated that \"Terry couldn't control his enthusiasm, nor how deeply ingrained this movie was within his body. It seemed like an exorcism, every day we were making it.\" During filming, Gilliam commented on how well they were doing: \"I still worry. We've had too much luck, so it could go wrong at any moment. Today, the clouds are building",
". We've had too much luck, so it could go wrong at any moment. Today, the clouds are building. They'll probably block out the light and we'll have to go home.\"",
"On 4 June 2017, Gilliam announced that filming had finally been completed, 17 years after it originally started.\n\nOnly a few crew members constantly worked on the film between 2000 and the final product, including Gilliam, his daughter Amy (who co-produced the film), co-writer Tony Grisoni, cinematographer Nicola Pecorini, and production designer Benjamin Fernandez.",
"Post-production \nIn November 2017, Gilliam stated that editing was nearly complete: \"We're just fiddling now, figuring out a few things here and there so it's pretty much what it is. We've got still months of work to do on visual effects, sound, music. But as far as the tale, it's pretty tight now and it's surprisingly wonderful\". On 23 December he stated \"The year is almost finished.. and so is The Man Who Killed Don Quixote.\"",
"In May 2018, at the same time Amazon Studios dropped from the project, Gilliam suffered a minor medical complication that was erroneously reported as a stroke.",
"Convent of Christ controversy",
"During filming in Portugal, Gilliam's team was accused of damaging public properties, as well as the Convent of Christ, a notable convent in Tomar and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The accusation came from a report by Portuguese news channel RTP1, who stated that the crew had \"left behind chipped masonry, broken roof tiles and uprooted trees at the 12th-century Convent of Christ in Tomar, central Portugal",
".\" Gilliam denied the accusations, stating, \"I think the Convent of Christ is one of the most glorious buildings I have ever seen. Everything we did there was to protect the building from harm... and we succeeded. Trees were not cut down, stones were not broken. [...] There was not an iota of disrespect involved. People should begin by getting the facts before howling hysterically",
". People should begin by getting the facts before howling hysterically.\" An investigation by the Portuguese government took place during the following weeks to determine if the news report was accurate, with the presence of \"some damage\" being acknowledged, which was catalogued by the convent officials who monitored the filming. The destruction of the trees was determined to have occurred during the production of an earlier, unrelated film",
". On 4 July 2017, Portuguese authorities ruled that Gilliam's crew was only responsible for \"insignificant damage\", adding that the accusations \"lacked rigor and revealed a lack of scientific knowledge\".",
"Legal dispute with Paulo Branco",
"Paulo Branco, a former producer of the film, stated in June 2017 that this new version was \"illegal\" and that he, not Gilliam, owned the rights to the film, and that as such, any content shot for the film was the property of Alfama Films, one of the film's former production companies. Branco was a producer on the film during Gilliam's previous attempt at making it in 2016, and was supposed to find funds for the film; in exchange, Gilliam would give his salary as writer-director to Branco",
". Eventually, Branco did not provide the funds promised and suspended production only a few weeks before filming, leading Gilliam to find other producers with whom he was able to make the film. However, Branco claimed that he still owned the rights and was still owed Gilliam's salary despite not providing financial backing for the film as planned: according to Gilliam and the film's producers, he asked to be paid a total of 3.5 million euros, with 2 million before the release and 1.5 million afterwards.",
"Considering that Branco's failure to secure funds nullified their deal, Gilliam tried to have the legal contract invalidated in court twice in early 2017, once in Paris and once in London, so he could use the money from his salary to make the film; however, the court ruled in Branco's favor both times. In spring 2017, Gilliam attempted once again to nullify the contract, but the court of first instance ruled against it",
". Branco also accused Gilliam of having obtained the new funds for the film illegally, which Gilliam denied, claiming that HM Revenue and Customs was well-aware of the nature of said funds.",
"The film's current producers answered that Branco's claims were \"preposterous\" and that he had \"no rights whatsoever to Don Quixote\". Recorded Picture Company CEO Peter Watson stated, \"Senhor Branco's interpretation of the law borders on the picaresque. If he really wants to kill the venerable don, I suggest he takes up jousting",
". If he really wants to kill the venerable don, I suggest he takes up jousting.\" Gilliam himself stated that Branco \"wallows in his dark twisted madness dreaming megalomanic triumphs while spreading lies and threats\", while Branco stated that Gilliam was \"mad and mythomaniac\".",
"As of April 2018, Branco still claimed that the film could not be released without his permission, leading to the issue being debated in court; as a result, the premiere of the film at the 2018 Cannes Film Festival was cancelled",
". Both Gilliam's lawyer and Océan Films, the French distributor of the film, stated that Branco was actively trying to prevent the film from being included in festivals to pressure the producers into paying him so the issue could be settled in time for festivals, with Océan Films stating that Branco \"was never, is not and never will be the producer of Terry Gilliam's Don Quixote\" and adding that the producers and distributors \"would not yield to this attempt at intimidation\"",
". They also stated that Branco had previously attempted to have filming cancelled, but that his claim had been rejected by the court on 19 May 2017.",
"The verdict was originally expected to be delivered on 15 May 2018, but was later delayed to 18 May, one day only before the possible release, where it was ultimately ruled that the film would be authorized to premiere in French cinemas. Branco immediately stated that he would keep on pursuing legal action against Gilliam and the film's release.",
"Additionally, Branco was also trying to prevent the film from premiering at the Cannes Film Festival, with a hearing taking place on 7 May to decide whether or not the film would be authorized to air at the festival. On 9 May, it was announced that the film would be allowed to premiere at Cannes.",
"The festival's organizers answered Branco's claims by stating, \"The Festival de Cannes' mission is to choose works purely on artistic grounds and the selection must, above all, be with the agreement of the film's director. This is the case here. Past experience had made us aware of possible legal action and of the risks we were running, but as it happens, when we took our decision, there was no opposition to the screening of the film at the festival",
".\" They added, \"Our entire profession knows that 'forcing matters' has always been Mr. Branco's favorite method, and we should recall that he organized a press conference a few years ago where he denounced the Festival de Cannes because it had not kept a 'promise to select' one of his films. This was an accusation which didn't go anywhere, because the festival does not make promises to select films.\"",
"In June 2018, the Paris Court of Appeal ruled in favor of Branco owning all rights to the film; Branco explained that he will seek damages from not only Gilliam (who the Court demanded pay €10,000 ($11,600) to Branco's production company), but to all parties involved in the making, completion, promotion, and screenings of the film: \"The ruling means that the rights to the film belong to Alfama",
". Any exploitation of the film up until now has been completely illegal and without the authorisation of Alfama,\" said Branco. \"We will be seeking damages with interest from all the people involved in this illegal production and above all, all those who were complicit in its illegal exploitation. We're holding everyone responsible. [..",
". We're holding everyone responsible. [...] the film's producers, [Paris-based sales company and producer] Kinology, all the others who supported the film, including those who distributed the film in France [Ocean Films] and the Cannes Film Festival, everyone.\" Branco said he found it \"astounding\" that all these parties had continued with the production and exploitation of the film without holding the rights. \"The film belongs in its entirety to Alfama. The film was made illegally",
". \"The film belongs in its entirety to Alfama. The film was made illegally. It's the first time, I've ever seen so many people embark on a mission to produce and exploit a film, without holding the rights. It's a unique case.\"",
"Later that month, it was reported that although the Court ruled in favor of Branco, producer Mariela Busuievsky clarified that Gilliam in fact still retains the rights to the film, saying that Branco overstated his victory in the ruling. Gilliam never shot a frame of the film under the deal with Branco, and as such, the former producer does not own any rights",
". However, since Gilliam did a poor job of terminating his contract with Branco, there will be a financial settlement that will have to be made between the two parties and the ex-producer has been using this to claim a right to the finished film. Busuievsky went on to say that the latest ruling does say that Gilliam owes €10,000 and there will probably be more money required to settle. However, these financial issues don't affect the film's release",
". However, these financial issues don't affect the film's release. According to the producer, they chose to remain quiet about the actual major details because it didn't feel necessary, but when Branco went public with his victory and claimed rights to the film, they felt they had to step forward and air all the \"dirty laundry\". The producer said in 2018 that they were making plans for European territories, with US distribution to follow shortly",
". She said that \"there are many options\" in regards to US distributors.",
"Promotion \nThe first image of the film, showing Don Quixote and Toby riding horses, was released on 21 February 2018. The first trailer was released for the French market on 5 April, featuring French text and subtitles, followed by an English-language trailer the following day.\n\nRelease \n\nThe film premiered on 19 May 2018 as the closing film of the 2018 Cannes Film Festival (where it received a standing ovation), and was released in French theaters the same day.",
"Paulo Branco, whose legal dispute with Gilliam prevented the film from competing for the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival, attempted to prevent the film from both being released in France and from being shown at Cannes. A hearing took place on 7 May to debate if the film could be shown at the festival, with the decision expected two days later. On 9 May, the court ruled in favor of the film being shown at Cannes",
". On 9 May, the court ruled in favor of the film being shown at Cannes. On May 18, court ruled in Gilliam's favor once again and authorized the film to be released in French theaters the following day; it would have a limited release, and would be shown in 255 theaters across the country. Critics at the Cannes Film Festival received an early screening the day before the release.",
"On 8 May 2018, despite contributing significant funding to the production, Amazon Studios confirmed that they would no longer distribute the film in the United States. It was released in Spain on 1 June 2018.",
"The film premiered in Belgium on 20 June at the Brussels international Film Festival, before being released nationwide on 25 June. It was released in China via the Turbo Film production company. On 17 September, Gilliam announced that the film would premiere in the United States on 20 September at Fantastic Fest. On 17 December, Screen Media Films acquired the North American rights to the film and set a March 2019 release",
". The film was released in the US and Canada on April 10, 2019 as a one night only showing in select theaters through Fathom Events.",
"As of April 2021, the 132-minute cut of the film is available in the United States on Hulu.\n\nReception",
"Reception\n\nCritical response \nOn review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of , based on reviews, with an average rating of . The website's critical consensus reads, \"The Man Who Killed Don Quixote may not live up to long-gestating expectations, but it bears enough of director Terry Gilliam's signature creative stamp to satisfy fans.\" Metacritic gives the film a weighted average rating of 58 out of 100, based on 25 critics, indicating \"mixed or average reviews\".",
"Peter Debruge with Variety called the film \"a loud, belligerent, barely coherent mess\", stating \"the result feels like evidence of someone [Gilliam] who spent too long obsessing over Don Quixote, losing sight somewhere along the way of whatever attracted him in the first place.\" Gregory Ellwood at Collider felt that the film \"simply doesn't live up to its storied legacy in the annals of Hollywood film development\", giving it a C rating.",
"Ben Croll writing for TheWrap called The Man Who Killed Don Quixote \"an awful lot of fun. Of course, the fun can be far from perfect. The film is also messy and hysterical in places, and by running an exhausting 132 minutes, it rather insistently overstays its welcome [...] We're so thrilled by the film's improbable existence that we're willing to go wherever Gilliam wants to take us, but respond with an extra degree of disappointment whenever he stumbles along the way",
".\" He summarized by saying, \"It's too much, it's out of step with today and it's oddly endearing.\"",
"Robbie Collin for The Daily Telegraph felt that:\"Even when the film feels like a circuitous, effortful mess, it's often an intentional one – and for everything in the film that doesn't quite connect, that element of self-portraiture, with the artist as sap, strikes a wistful chord. [...] Driver and Pryce fling themselves at everything with beady resolve, just as Gilliam gives it everything he has",
". Around 50 percent of it sticks – and to pretend the film was any more successful than that would do a disservice to this director's truly great films, not least Brazil. But after everything Quixote has been through, 50 percent feels like enough.\" Peter Bradshaw at The Guardian stated: \"It may not be Gilliam's masterpiece, but it is a movie with sprightliness, innocence and charm and it is a morale boost to anyone who cares about creativity that Gilliam has got the film made at all",
". His own intelligence and joy in his work shine out of every frame, and his individuality is a delight when so much of mainstream cinema seems to have been created by algorithm.\"",
"Accolades\n\nLegacy",
"Development hell",
"In the years that followed its original cancellation, The Man Who Killed Don Quixote became widely recognized as one of the most infamous examples of development hell in film history, and as one of the most famous films never made, even gaining the reputation of being cursed",
". IndieWire called the film \"one of the most troubled productions in the history of cinema\", while /Film believed they \"could write a book about the movie's problems\", stating, \"Heaven and hell seemed to unite in defiance of Terry Gilliam's The Man Who Killed Don Quixote.",
"Commenting on the making of the film, The Guardian commented on \"Mr Gilliam's visionary project disintegrating like a slow-motion car crash. The double hernia and slipped disc that zonked his lead actor, Jean Rochefort, the flash floods that swept away his camera equipment, the overhead NATO jets which wrecked his soundtrack, the actors who didn't show up, and finally, the implacable money-men who declared that the star's indisposition was not covered by insurance as it was an Act of God",
". The Act of a furious Old Testament God with a serious grudge against Terry Gilliam\". Geeks of Doom called the film's failure a \"legendary collapse\", while the BBC stated that the film is \"synonymous with sustained and calamitous misfortune\".",
"When the final film encountered legal issues due to the dispute with Paulo Branco in 2018, several journalists commented on the issue by stating that regarding the infamously complicated history of the film, its current legal issues were relatively inconsequential, with The Guardian stating, \"It's another bump in the long road for this most troubled of productions, though given the director has waited nearly two decades to see his magnum opus on screen, he can stand to hold on for a few more months",
".\" The BBC stated before the film's release \"It is almost unbelievable that The Man Who Killed Don Quixote is still being wounded by the slings and arrows of outrageous fortune\" while Vox stated \"It remains to be seen whether the film is any good. But at this point, it almost doesn't matter",
". But at this point, it almost doesn't matter. It will be a long time before The Man Who Killed Don Quixote can be seen just as a movie, separate from its long saga of dreams and woes and catastrophes—which may actually be beneficial in the case of a movie about a knight with a foolish dream",
". The behind-the-scenes saga is part of the film's mystique and history, and whether it's great, terrible, or somewhere in between, that story is what historians, critics, and crowds will remember, long after the movie leaves theaters.\"",
"Gilliam himself admitted in May 2017 that the film's legendary reputation added more pressure on him: \"The problem is that people have very high expectations. And a lot of people say I'm a fool to make the film, and that it would have been better to let people imagine how great it would have been, rather than making it a reality and disappointing them. People love Roman ruins because they're not complete and you can imagine them. So I may be making a great mistake",
". So I may be making a great mistake. Maybe the film would be better as a fantasy.\"",
"Lost in La Mancha",
"After his 1988 film The Adventures of Baron Munchausen was almost abandoned, Gilliam decided to document the making of all his films in case one of them was canceled",
". For The Man Who Killed Don Quixote, he asked Keith Fulton and Louis Pepe, who had been in charge of the making-of of his film 12 Monkeys, to film what should have ultimately been its making-of; however, after Don Quixote was canceled, Lost in La Mancha was released in 2002 as a stand-alone documentary film about Gilliam's failed attempt at making the film.",
"The documentary received critical praise for its relevance on the difficulties inherent to filmmaking, and for its depiction of Gilliam as an artist. BBC called the film \"painful to watch: an astonishing 'un-making of' documentary which defines the phrase 'catalogue of disasters'\". Olga Kurylenko, who starred in the eventual 2018 film, stated about Lost in La Mancha, \"You watch and you think, poor Terry. Why does this have to happen to this wonderful man? He doesn't deserve this. It's just crazy",
". Why does this have to happen to this wonderful man? He doesn't deserve this. It's just crazy. But it wasn't meant to be, I guess. It wasn't the moment.\"",
"He Dreams of Giants",
"Keith Fulton and Louis Pepe, the writers and directors of Lost in La Mancha, released a follow-up film, titled He Dreams of Giants, which covers the entire history of the film's making, with particular focus on what happened after the events depicted in Lost in La Mancha. The documentary film was released on November 10, 2019. Pepe said that the film is \"more introspective\" than Lost in La Mancha: \"This is more a film about an internal struggle in an artist's mind",
". What is it like for an artist to be standing on the brink of actually finishing this project finally? [...] Even on the set we would say the conflicts raging around Terry right now of making the movie are not nearly as interesting as what's going on inside his head.\"",
"Notes\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links",
"External links \n \n \n\nFilms directed by Terry Gilliam\nFilms based on Don Quixote\n2018 films\nEnglish-language Spanish films\nEnglish-language Portuguese films\nFilms about film directors and producers\nFilms about filmmaking\nFilms shot in the Canary Islands\nFilms shot in Portugal\n2010s adventure comedy films\nMagritte Award winners\nFilms with screenplays by Terry Gilliam\n2018 comedy films\nRecorded Picture Company films\nTornasol Films films\nMovistar Plus+ films\n2010s English-language films\nScreen Media films"
] |
Civil Air Patrol
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil%20Air%20Patrol
|
[
"Civil Air Patrol (CAP) is a congressionally chartered, federally supported non-profit corporation that serves as the official civilian auxiliary of the United States Air Force (USAF). CAP is a volunteer organization with an aviation-minded membership that includes members from all backgrounds. The program is established as an organization by Title 10 of the United States Code and its purposes defined by Title 36.",
"Membership in the organization consists of cadets ranging from 12 to just under 21 years of age, and senior members 18 years of age and up. These two groups each have the opportunity to participate in a wide variety of pursuits; the cadet program contributes to the development of the former group with a structured syllabus and an organization based upon United States Air Force ranks, while the older members serve as instructors, supervisors, and operators",
". Most members wear uniforms while performing their duties. However, there is a category of Aerospace Education Member available to educators. These AEMs do not wear uniforms or attend meetings but do take advantage of professionally generated textbooks, lesson plans and other CAP-provided resources, in their capacity as educators.",
"Nationwide, CAP is a major operator of single-engine general aviation aircraft used in the execution of its various missions, including orientation flights for cadets and the provision of significant emergency services capabilities. Because of these extensive flying opportunities, many CAP members become licensed pilots.",
"The hierarchical and military auxiliary organization is headed by the National Headquarters (with authority over the national organization) followed by eight regional commands and 52 wings (each of the 50 states plus Washington, D.C., and Puerto Rico). Each wing supervises the individual groups and squadrons that comprise the basic operational unit of the organization.\n\nHistory",
"Civil Air Patrol was conceived in the late 1930s by aviation advocate Gill Robb Wilson, who foresaw general aviation's potential to supplement America's military operations. With the help of New York Mayor Fiorello H. LaGuardia, in his capacity as then-Director of the Office of Civilian Defense, CAP was created with Administrative Order 9, signed by LaGuardia on 1 December 1941 and published 8 December 1941. Civil Air Patrol had 90 days to prove itself to Congress. Major General John F",
". Civil Air Patrol had 90 days to prove itself to Congress. Major General John F. Curry was appointed as the first national commander. Texas oilman David Harold Byrd was a co-founder of CAP.",
"During World War II, CAP was seen as a way to use America's civilian aviation resources to aid the war effort instead of grounding them. The organization assumed many missions, including anti-submarine patrol and warfare, border patrols, and courier services. During World War II, CAP's coastal patrol reportedly flew 24 million miles and sighted 173 enemy U-boats, dropping a total of 82 bombs and depth charges during the conflict",
". Two submarines were reportedly destroyed by CAP aircraft, but later research found there was no basis for this claim. By the end of the war, 68 CAP members had died in the line of duty.",
"With the passing of the National Security Act of 1947 and the creation of the United States Air Force, CAP became the auxiliary of the USAF 26 May 1948, and its incorporating charter declared that it would never again be involved in direct combat activities, but would be of a benevolent nature. The \"supervisory\" USAF organization overseeing CAP has changed several times",
". The \"supervisory\" USAF organization overseeing CAP has changed several times. This has included the former Continental Air Command in 1959, the former Headquarters Command, USAF in 1968, to the Air University (AU) in 1976. Following Air University's reassignment as a subordinate command to the Air Education and Training Command (AETC) in 1993, USAF oversight of CAP has flowed from AETC at the 4-star level, to AU at the 3-star level, to AU's Jeanne M",
". Holm Center for Officer Accessions and Citizen Development at the 1-star level, to a subordinate unit of 1st Air Force at the 3-star level with Civil Air Patrol–U.S. Air Force as a stand-alone unit lead at the Colonel (O-6) level. Since its incorporation charter, CAP has maintained its relationship with the USAF and has continued its three congressionally mandated missions.",
"On 14 June 2011, Civil Air Patrol was awarded the Roving Ambassador of Peace by the World Peace Prize Awarding Council for its positive impact in American communities, its lifesaving efforts, and for \"preserving liberty for all\". During the 113th United States Congress, both the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives voted to pass a bill that would award the Congressional Gold Medal to the World War II members of Civil Air Patrol",
". The medal would be presented \"in recognition of their military service and exemplary record during World War II.\"",
"In October 2021, Civil Air Patrol was awarded the Master's Trophy for the North America Region for that year by the Honourable Company of Air Pilots. The award citation noted the auxiliary's service during the COVID-19 pandemic and disaster relief response to Hurricane Ida.\n\nOrganization",
"Organization \n\nAlthough a civilian organization, Civil Air Patrol is organized along military lines, with a streamlined and strictly hierarchical chain of command and a rank system patterned on that of the U.S. Air Force. There are several distinct echelons in its structure: National Headquarters, regions, wings, squadrons and flights. An additional group echelon may be placed between a wing and its squadrons and flights, at the wing commander's discretion.\n\nNational headquarters",
"The volunteer leadership of the CAP consists of the National Commander of the Civil Air Patrol and their staff, comprising a Vice National Commander, a chief of staff, a national legal officer, a national comptroller, the chief of the CAP Chaplain Service, and the CAP inspector general. The national commander holds the grade of CAP major general, the national vice commander holds the grade of CAP brigadier general. The rest of the national commander's staff hold the grade of CAP colonel.",
"CAP is governed by a board of governors, established by federal law in 2001 and consisting of 11 members: four Civil Air Patrol members (currently the national commander, national vice commander, and two members-at-large appointed by the CAP National Executive Committee), four U.S. Air Force representatives appointed by the United States Secretary of the Air Force, and three members from the aviation community jointly appointed by the CAP national commander and the Secretary of the Air Force",
". The board of governors generally meets two or three times annually and primarily provides strategic vision and guidance to the volunteer leadership and corporate staff.",
"CAP National Headquarters is located at Maxwell Air Force Base outside Montgomery, Alabama. The headquarters employs a professional staff of over 100 and is led by the CAP executive director (analogous to a corporate chief operating officer), who reports to the board of governors. The national headquarters staff provides program management for the organization and membership support for the 1,700-plus volunteer field units across the United States.",
"Headquarters Civil Air Patrol-U.S. Air Force (CAP-USAF) is an active-duty U.S. Air Force unit that operates under the joint jurisdiction of CAP National Headquarters and the U.S. Air Force Air Combat Command, First Air Force. Commanded by an aeronautically rated Air Force colonel, Headquarters CAP-USAF consists of approximately 75 active-duty Air Force, United States Air Force Reserve, Air National Guard, and civilian U.S",
".S. Air Force personnel; all of the Air Force civil service personnel at CAP-USAF also are CAP members, and 22 of whom are stationed at National Headquarters, staff CAP-USAF. These members ensure CAP is organized, trained, and equipped to fulfill Air Force-assigned missions; advise, assist, and oversee Civil Air Patrol's operations; and provide liaison between CAP and the U.S. Air Force and other United States Government agencies. , the commander of CAP-USAF is Colonel Mark A. Wootan, USAF.",
"Regions and wings",
"Below the national headquarters level are eight geographic regions and a handful of overseas squadrons at various military installations worldwide. Each region, commanded by a CAP colonel, encompasses several statewide organizations referred to as wings. There are 52 CAP wings, one in each of the 50 U.S. states, one (known as the National Capital Wing) in the District of Columbia, and one in the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico",
". Each wing has a commander who is a CAP colonel and is the sole corporate officer for that state, the District of Columbia, or Puerto Rico. Each wing commander oversees a wing headquarters staff made up of experienced volunteer members.",
"The regions and their subordinate wings are:\n Northeast Region: Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, and Vermont wings\n Mid Atlantic Region: Delaware, Maryland, National Capital (District of Columbia), North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia, and West Virginia wings\n Great Lakes Region: Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Michigan, Ohio, and Wisconsin wings\n Southeast Region: Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Mississippi, Puerto Rico, and Tennessee wings",
"Southeast Region: Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Mississippi, Puerto Rico, and Tennessee wings\n North Central Region: Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota and South Dakota wings\n Southwest Region: Arizona, Arkansas, Louisiana, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas wings\n Rocky Mountain Region: Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Utah, and Wyoming wings\n Pacific Region: Alaska, California, Hawaii, Nevada, Oregon, and Washington wings",
"CAP-USAF assigns active-duty U.S. Air Force personnel to each CAP region and wing to provide liaison for them.\n\nGroups\n\nThe group is an optional level of command in CAP below that of wing. A wing commander may form a group within his or her wing when he or she deems a geographic area or the number of subordinate units to be too large for effective control by the wing alone. If a CAP group is formed, it must include no fewer than five squadrons.",
"Squadrons\nLocal units are called squadrons. Squadrons are the main functioning bodies and primary operational commands in the CAP. Reporting directly to the wing, or to a group if the wing commander chooses to form one or more groups, squadrons have the responsibility to carry out plans and programs formulated by higher echelons of CAP.",
"Civil Air Patrol squadrons are designated as either cadet, senior, or composite squadrons. A CAP composite squadron consists of both cadets and senior members, who may be involved in any of the three missions of CAP. Composite squadrons have two deputy commanders to assist the squadron commander: a Deputy Commander for Seniors and a Deputy Commander for Cadets. A senior squadron includes only senior members, who participate in the emergency services or aerospace education missions of CAP",
". A cadet squadron is largely made up of cadets, with a small number of senior members as necessary for the supervision of cadets and the proper execution of the cadet program. Overseas squadrons operate independently of this structure, reporting directly to the National Headquarters.",
"Flights",
"The lowest level of CAP organization is the flight. Flights are temporary units, usually formed in remote areas with too few CAP personnel to form a squadron, but with a goal of forming a new squadron as quickly as possible by recruiting additional CAP members locally to increase its membership. A flight may consist of no more than 14 CAP members",
". A flight may consist of no more than 14 CAP members. It may be formed by as few as eight CAP senior members, but if a flight is formed by a mix of senior members and cadets, at least three of the flight's personnel must be senior members. A wing commander may direct a flight to report to a squadron, directly to a group, or directly to the wing itself.",
"A CAP flight is a semi-independent unit that is used mainly as a stepping-stone for a new unit until they are large enough to be designated a squadron. Due to their transitory nature, there are very few flights within CAP structure at any one time. A flight will be assigned to a squadron \"parent\", and it is the job of the flight and squadron commanders to work together to build the flight into a full and independent squadron. Flights are also used as temporary units within a squadron",
". Flights are also used as temporary units within a squadron. These flights are dismissed after the activity or meeting they were created for. A flight within a squadron is assigned a letter, so a flight could be designated \"Charlie Flight, Thunderbolt Squadron\", for example. In larger squadrons, flights are permanent subunits and cadets are assigned to them.",
"Missions \nCivil Air Patrol has five congressionally mandated missions:",
"To provide an organization to encourage and aid citizens of the United States in contributing their efforts, services, and resources in developing aviation and in maintaining air supremacy; and encourage and develop by example the voluntary contribution of private citizens to the public welfare.\n To provide aviation education and training, especially to its senior and cadet members.\n To encourage and foster civil aviation in local communities.",
"To encourage and foster civil aviation in local communities.\n To provide an organization of private citizens with adequate facilities to assist in meeting local and national emergencies.\n To assist the Department of the Air Force in fulfilling its non-combat programs and missions.",
"The organization condenses these mandates into three core program areas, which are aerospace education, cadet programs, and emergency services.\n\nEmergency services",
"Emergency services \n\nCivil Air Patrol covers several emergency services areas. The principal categories include search and rescue missions, disaster relief, humanitarian services, and United States Air Force support. Other services, such as homeland security and actions against drug-trafficking operations, are becoming increasingly important. CAP missions are assigned on a case-by-case basis by the AFRCC.",
"Civil Air Patrol is well known for its search activities in conjunction with search and rescue (SAR) operations. CAP is involved with approximately three quarters of all aerial inland SAR missions directed by the United States Air Force Rescue Coordination Center at Tyndall Air Force Base, Florida. Outside of the contiguous United States, CAP directly supports the Joint Rescue Coordination Centers in Alaska, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico. CAP is credited with saving an average of 100 lives per year.",
"CAP is active in disaster relief operations, especially in areas such as Florida, Mississippi and Louisiana that are frequently struck by hurricanes as well as Oklahoma and Texas which are frequented by large, damaging tornadoes. CAP aircrews and ground personnel provide transportation for cargo and officials, aerial imagery to aid emergency managers in assessing damage, and donations of personnel and equipment to local, state and federal disaster relief organizations during times of need",
". In 2004, several hurricanes hit the southeast coast of the United States, with Florida being the worst damaged; CAP was instrumental in providing help to affected areas.",
"Civil Air Patrol conducts humanitarian service missions, usually in support of the Red Cross. CAP aircrews transport time-sensitive medical materials, including blood and human tissue, when other means of transportation (such as ambulances) are not practical or possible. Following the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center in New York City when all general aviation was grounded, one of the first planes to fly over the World Trade Center site was a CAP aircraft taking photographs.",
"CAP performs several missions that are not combat-related in support of the United States Air Force, including damage assessment, transportation of materials, transportation of officials, communications support (as \"Highbird\" repeaters) and low-altitude route surveys. The CAP fleet is used in training exercises to prepare USAF pilots to intercept enemy aircraft over the Continental United States",
". Civil Air Patrol aircraft are flown into restricted airspace, where United States Air Force pilots may practice low-speed intercepts.",
"Civil Air Patrol also provides non-emergency assistance to the U.S. Customs and Border Protection, Drug Enforcement Administration, and United States Forest Service in the War on Drugs. In 2005, CAP flew over 12,000 hours in support of this mission and led these agencies to the confiscation of illegal substances valued at over US$400 million. Civil Air Patrol makes extensive use of the Airborne Real-time Cueing Hyperspectral Enhanced Reconnaissance system, mounted on the Gippsland GA8 Airvan",
". The system is able to evaluate spectral signatures given off by certain objects, allowing the system to identify, for example, a possible marijuana crop.",
"As a humanitarian service organization, CAP assists federal, state and local agencies in preparing for and responding to homeland security needs. The Red Cross, Salvation Army and other civilian agencies frequently request Civil Air Patrol aircraft to transport vital supplies including medical technicians, medication, and other vital supplies. They often rely on CAP to provide airlift and communications for disaster relief operations. CAP also assists the United States Coast Guard and Coast Guard Auxiliary",
". CAP also assists the United States Coast Guard and Coast Guard Auxiliary. The Civil Air Patrol routinely drills for emergencies through Search and Rescue exercises (SAREX). CAP also requires members to renew their qualifications for emergency services usually done during SAREXs.",
"Aerospace education \nThe Aerospace Education Program provides aviation-related education and educational activities for members, including formal, graded courses about all aspects of aviation including flight physics, dynamics, history, and application. Courses covering the space program, and new technologies and advances in aviation and space exploration, are also available. There are several programs for CAP pilots to improve their flying skills and earn Federal Aviation Administration ratings.",
"The Cadet Program has a mandatory aerospace education program; to progress, a cadet must take several courses and tests relating to aviation. Cadets also have educational opportunities through museum tours, National Cadet Special Activities, military and civilian orientation rides, and guest speakers.",
"Senior members may study aerospace through the Senior Member Professional Development Program. CAP encourages its senior members to learn about aviation and its history, although this is not mandatory. Those who complete the Aerospace Education Program for Senior Members may earn the Charles E. \"Chuck\" Yeager Aerospace Education Award.",
"Through outreach programs, including the External Aerospace Education program, CAP helps school teachers integrate aviation and aerospace into the classroom by providing seminars, and course materials and through sponsorship of the National Congress on Aviation and Space Education. Members also provide their communities with resources for better management of airports and other aviation-related facilities and promote the benefits of such facilities",
". The organization also works with other groups, such as the Boy Scouts of America, the Girl Scouts of the USA and 4-H to fulfill the education goal set down in the organization's Congressional charter – to \"encourage and foster civil aviation in local communities.\"",
"Membership \n, CAP had 65,531 members – 36,119 senior members and 29,332 cadets – in over 1,600 local units in all fifty states; Washington, D.C.; and Puerto Rico, and at numerous overseas United States Air Force installations. CAP members are civilians and are not paid by the United States government for their service. Rather, members are responsible for paying annual membership fees and must pay for their uniforms and other related expenses.",
"Senior membership is open to all U.S. citizens, and U.S. legal permanent residents aged 18 and over who can pass an FBI background check. There is no upper age limit, nor membership restrictions for physical disabilities, due to the number of different tasks which members may be called on to perform",
". Cadet membership is open to those aged between 12 and 18 who maintain satisfactory progress in school, as determined by the cadet's unit commander; upon their 18th birthday, cadets may become senior members or remain in the Cadet Program until they are 21.",
"The Civil Air Patrol motto, to which all members subscribe, is \"Semper Vigilans\", Latin for \"Always Vigilant\". All CAP members are also obligated by their service to the organization to abide by its core values: integrity, volunteer service, excellence, and respect.\n\nSenior members",
"Senior members are members who joined CAP for the first time past the age of 18, or who are former cadets who transferred to the senior member program, which must happen by the cadet's 21st birthday. Senior members who have not yet turned 21 years are eligible for flight officer grades, which include flight officer, technical flight officer, and senior flight officer, after completion of Level 2, Part one of Senior Member training",
". There is no mandatory retirement age for CAP members, and there are no physical requirements for joining. Members may enter retired status after twenty years of service. The only physical requirements senior members must follow are the weight and grooming standards required to wear the United States Air Force-style uniforms. Senior members who do not meet the weight and grooming standards of the United States Air Force may wear alternative uniforms known as CAP Corporate uniforms.",
"Officer grades up to lieutenant colonel reflect progression in training and organizational seniority, rather than command authority. Because of this, it is not uncommon for senior members commanding groups and squadrons to have members of superior grades serving under them",
". Current, retired and former members of the United States Armed Forces may be promoted directly to the CAP grade equivalent to their military grade, after completion of Level 2, Part one of Senior Member training, although some choose to follow the same standards as non-prior-service members",
". Except for a few exceptional cases, senior members are promoted to the grade of CAP colonel only upon appointment as a Region Commander, responsible for overseeing multiple states, or Wing Commander, responsible for the administration of CAP units across an entire state. Only the vice national commander holds the rank of brigadier general, and only the national commander holds the rank of major general.",
"Former military enlisted personnel from E-4 up may choose to retain their grade as senior members in the Civil Air Patrol, with grades E-5 (CAP staff sergeant) through E-9 (CAP chief master sergeant) available, after completion of Level 2, Part one of Senior Member training. Former CAP national commander, Major General Carr, unveiled plans to restructure the CAP NCO program to allow individuals to \"enlist\" as NCOs and progress through a specific professional development program. According to a U.S",
". According to a U.S. Air Force article on the subject, \"The current design of the NCO corps in the CAP only allows former active-duty NCOs to be a part of the corps, with no upgrade training for promotion within the ranks. The newly signed corps structure will mirror the Air Force NCO force structure with an established process to promote and develop NCOs.\" By 2018 a professional development and promotion pathway was in place for former military enlisted personnel who joined CAP at their previous rank.",
"Senior members are provided with an optional Senior Member Professional Development program and are encouraged to progress within it. The professional development program consists of five levels, corresponding with grades from second lieutenant to lieutenant colonel. Each level of development has components of leadership training, corporate familiarization and aerospace education, and also professional development within chosen \"Specialty Tracks\"",
". There are many Specialty Tracks and they are designed both to support the organization and to provide opportunities for senior members to take advantage of skills they have from their private lives.",
"Available Specialty Tracks include Logistics, Communications, Cadet Programs, Public Affairs, Legal, Administration, Emergency Services, Finance, and many more. Additionally, senior members with specific civilian professional qualifications may be awarded grades based on their professional qualifications",
". Examples include FAA Certified Flight Instructors, Certified Ground Instructors, attorneys, medical professionals, Certified Public Accountants, clergy, and licensed educators or administrators who are often promoted directly to second lieutenant, first lieutenant or captain, after completion of Level 2, Part one of Senior Member training. Additional promotion may be available after one year time in grade.",
"In 2020, Civil Air Patrol introduced a new senior professional development program called Volunteer University. The Volunteer University provides education and training to CAP senior members through modules and instruction, replacing the previous system including the: Officer Basic Course, Squadron Leadership School, Region Staff College, and National Staff College.",
"The Civil Air Patrol University senior member professional development awards recognize those members who have dedicated themselves to leadership and personal development in CAP. These awards include:\n Membership Ribbon\n Leadership Award\n Benjamin O. Davis Jr. Award. There is no ribbon for this award.\n Grover Loening Award\n Paul E. Garber Award\n Gill Robb Wilson Award\n\nCadet members",
"Cadet members \n\nCivil Air Patrol's cadet program is a traditional military-style cadet program with almost 28,000 cadets nationwide and is one of the three main missions of the Civil Air Patrol. CAP cadets wear modified versions of United States Air Force uniforms, hold rank and grade, and practice military customs and courtesies. They are required to maintain physical fitness standards and are tested on their knowledge of leadership and aerospace subjects at each promotion opportunity.",
"Concept",
"The current CAP Cadet Program was designed by John V. \"Jack\" Sorenson who held the position of Civil Air Patrol's Director of Aerospace Education in the 1960s. This program has four phases (Learning, Leadership, Command, and Executive) each of which is divided into several achievements. Achievements generally correspond to grade promotions, while phases are tied to levels of responsibility",
". The Cadet Program operates at a local unit (squadron) level with weekly meetings and weekend activities but also has national and wing-sponsored events, including week-long and multi-week summer activities and camps.",
"As cadets progress through the program, they are given additional responsibility for scheduling, teaching, guiding and commanding the other cadets in their units. They also assist their senior staff in executing the Cadet Program. It is not unusual for a cadet officer to command an encampment of hundreds of junior Cadets. Cadets are given many opportunities to lead and to follow; they may hold leadership positions at squadron and wing activities and are often involved in planning these activities",
". Cadets may complete paperwork, command other cadets, and teach at weekly meetings and at weekend and summer events. The U.S. Congress stated in the Recruiting, Retention, and Reservist Promotion Act of 2000 that CAP and similar programs \"provide significant benefits for the Armed Forces, including significant public relations benefits\".",
"Cadet program awards and grade structure",
"Cadets have a rank structure similar to the United States Air Force enlisted and officer grades, excluding those of general officers. A cadet starts as a cadet airman basic and is promoted as he or she completes each achievement. Unlike the regular armed forces, where it is possible to enter either directly as a commissioned following completion of some form of officer training (service academy, college ROTC, or OCS/OTS, etc",
".), or enlist and eventually advance to non-commissioned officer or petty officer status, a CAP cadet must be promoted through every CAP cadet enlisted grade to achieve the rank of CAP cadet second lieutenant.",
"To complete an achievement, a cadet must pass a physical fitness test and two written tests, one for leadership and one for aerospace education. The only exceptions to this rule are the promotions to cadet airman and cadet staff sergeant, which have no aerospace test. For some achievements, an additional test of drill proficiency is required. In the new promotion system, effective as of 2010, there is a drill test for all CAP cadet enlisted grades.\n\nCadet Officer Ranks\n\nCadet Enlisted Ranks",
"Cadet Officer Ranks\n\nCadet Enlisted Ranks\n\nThe milestones in the Civil Air Patrol Cadet Program are the Wright brothers Award, the General Billy Mitchell Award, the Amelia Earhart Award, the General Ira C. Eaker Award and the General Carl A. Spaatz Award. As of July 2021, 2,343 Spaatz Awards had been earned since the first was awarded to Cadet Douglas Roach in 1964. Cadet Roach went on to a United States Air Force career and later became a pilot in the Air Force Thunderbirds aerial demonstration team.",
"Each milestone award in Civil Air Patrol confers upon a cadet various benefits. Upon earning the Mitchell Award and the grade of cadet second lieutenant, a cadet is eligible for promotion the rank of airman first class (E-3) upon enlistment in the United States Air Force. A cadet earning the Earhart Award and being promoted to C/Capt and, if age 17 or older, is eligible to be selected to attend the International Air Cadet Exchange.",
"According to the CAP Knowledgebase website, the percentages for cadets receiving the milestone awards are estimated to be as follows:\n Mitchell: 15%\n Earhart: 5%\n Eaker: 2%\n Spaatz: ≈0.5%\n\nAccelerated promotions are available for CAP cadets who are also enrolled in Junior Reserve Officer Training Corps units.",
"Cadets that transfer to the senior member side between the ages of 18 and 20 receive the grade of flight officer (if the highest cadet award earned was the Mitchell), technical flight officer (if the highest cadet award earned was the Earhart) or senior flight officer (if the highest cadet award earned was the Spaatz) after completion of Level 2, Part one of Senior Member training",
". If the cadet waits until their 21st birthday, at which point they are required to transfer to the senior member program, they are eligible for the grade of second lieutenant (if the highest cadet award was the Mitchell), first lieutenant (if the highest cadet award was the Earhart), or captain (if the highest cadet award was the Spaatz). After completion of Level 2, Part one of Senior Member training.",
"Activities",
"Cadets under the age of 18 are eligible for ten orientation flights in Civil Air Patrol aircraft, including five glider and five airplane flights. Glider flights can be replaced by \"powered\" flights at the discretion of the Wing Commander, depending on the availability of the aircraft. Cadets are also eligible for an unlimited number of back-seat airplane flights if conditions allow",
". Cadets are also eligible for an unlimited number of back-seat airplane flights if conditions allow. Cadets over 18 years of age can still participate in military orientation flights, and some CAP wings have flight academies where cadets can learn to fly",
". The United States Air Force and United States Army also frequently schedule orientation flights for CAP cadets in transport aircraft such as the KC-135 Stratotanker, KC-10 Extender, C-130 Hercules and the C-17 Globemaster III or, in the case of the Army, UH-60 Black Hawk and CH-47 Chinook helicopters.",
"Civil Air Patrol's core cadet activity is the summer encampment. Typically a seven to ten-day event, cadets are put into an intense, military-structured environment with emphasis on physically and mentally demanding tasks, in addition to required classes and activities. These classes include aerospace education, United States Air Force organization, cadet programs, and drug demand reduction. Activities include classroom courses, physical training, leadership development, and drill & ceremonies",
". Encampments are usually held at the wing (state) level and, when available are usually at military installations, preferably active United States Air Force, Air Force Reserve Command or Air National Guard installations, with military support.",
"The Region Cadet Leadership Schools (RCLS) provide training to increase knowledge, skills, and attitudes regarding leadership and management. Cadets who attend RCLS are often serving in, or preparing to enter, cadet leadership positions within their squadron. RCLSs are conducted at region level, or at wing level with region approval. The RCLS programs are more or less modeled on USAFA upperclassmen programs, the college Air Force ROTC Professional Officer Course (POC) and the latter stages of OTS",
". One variation on this theme are CAP Cadet Non-Commissioned Officer Schools and Academies, which are cadet NCO schools designed to teach basic leadership and principles to cadet leaders during their earlier duty positions in the cadet program.",
"At the national level, cadets are allowed to participate in the National Blue Beret program, where they help support operations during the EAA AirVenture Oshkosh event.\n\nOath \nCadets ascribe to the following oath during their membership, and must recite it from memory before gaining their C/Amn promotion :",
"I pledge that I will serve faithfully in the Civil Air Patrol Cadet Program, and that I will attend meetings regularly, participate actively in unit activities, obey my officers, wear my uniform properly, and advance my education and training rapidly to prepare myself to be of service to my community, state, and nation. \n\nOne requirement for promotion in the Cadet Program is the ability to recite this oath, verbatim, from memory.",
"Aerospace education member\nAerospace education members (AEM) are formal or informal educators at the kindergarten to grade 12 level (K-12) at schools, youth organizations, and libraries. The AEM does not belong to, or attend meetings of, a local squadron, nor wear a uniform. These members are eligible to receive K-12 books, STEM kits, and student materials. They are also eligible to participate in free Teacher Orientation Program flights.",
"Relationship to the military \nWhile CAP is chartered by Congress and is the auxiliary of the Air Force, it is not an operating reserve component under the United States Air Force or the federal government. The Secretary of the Air Force may use the services of Civil Air Patrol to fulfill the non-combat programs and missions of the Department of the Air Force.",
"Civil Air Patrol members are not subject to the Uniform Code of Military Justice and do not have command or authority over any members of the United States military. Similarly, military officers have no command authority over CAP members. As part of recognition of CAP's service to the USAF, however, senior members in the grade of second lieutenant and above are allowed to wear the \"U.S.\" collar insignia as an official part of their dress blue uniform",
".S.\" collar insignia as an official part of their dress blue uniform. All CAP members are required to render military courtesies to all members of the US military and those of friendly foreign nations; however, as CAP officers are not commissioned by the President of the United States, military personnel are not required to render military courtesies to CAP personnel, though this can be done as a courtesy. CAP members, however, are expected to render military courtesies to one another.",
"Although CAP retains the title \"United States Air Force Auxiliary\" this auxiliary status only applies when CAP members and resources are on a United States Air Force-assigned mission with an Air Force-assigned mission number. When CAP resources are engaged in a USAF mission they are reimbursed by the Air Force for communications expenses, fuel and oil, and a share of aircraft maintenance expenses",
". In addition, CAP members are covered by the Federal Employees Compensation Act (FECA) in the event of injury while participating in the mission. At all other times, such as when aiding civilian authorities, CAP remains and acts as a private, non-profit corporation.",
"The USAF's Air Combat Command (ACC), through 1st Air Force, is the parent command of CAP. In October 2002, the USAF announced plans to move CAP \"operational\" mission activities from the Air Force's operations directorate (HAF/A3) to the Air Force's newly created homeland security directorate.",
"In an announcement on 28 August 2015 by Gen. Mark Welsh, Air Force Chief of Staff, Civil Air Patrol is included in the U.S. Air Force's definition of the \"total force\". To accomplish this, the USAF updated Doctrine Volume 2, Leadership, to expand the descriptions of total force and \"Airmen\" to consist of active duty Air Force, Air National Guard, Air Force Reserve, Air Force Auxiliary, and Air Force Civilian Service members",
". Part of that Total Force inclusion was a realignment in the responsible command which moved Civil Air Patrol-U.S. Air Force (CAP-USAF) from Air Education and Training Command through the Jeanne M. Holm Center for Officer Accession and Citizen Development at Maxwell AFB, Alabama, to Air Combat Command through 1st Air Force. This change took place on 24 June 2016.",
"Uniforms \nCivil Air Patrol's uniforms provide a distinctive and standard set of uniform items intended to provide a positive public image, build morale, and enhance the professionalism of the organization's membership.",
"CAP members wear the same uniforms as active duty, guard, and reserve members, but worn with distinctive emblems, insignia, and badges to identify them as CAP members; these are categorized as \"USAF-style uniforms\". USAF-style uniforms may be worn by all cadets under age 18, and by cadets over age 18 and senior members who meet height and weight standards set by CAP's uniform manual.",
"In addition, CAP has a series of what are categorized as \"Corporate-style uniforms\" which may be worn by all senior members, and also by those cadets over age 18 who do not meet height and weight standards set for the USAF-style uniform.",
"Uniforms are categorized in CAP's uniform manual by the environment in which the uniform is to be worn or the work to be accomplished.\n\nThese uniform types are composed of:",
"United States Air Force-style uniforms:\n Service Dress Uniform (Class A) – the United States Air Force's service dress uniform, consisting of dark blue trousers, light blue shirt with tie, dark blue jacket, and a flight or service cap. Rank is indicated on CAP-distinctive gray epaulets (for senior member officers) or sleeve stripes (for senior member non-commissioned officers). Cadet ranks are shown by epaulets, metal grade insignia.",
"Blue Service Uniform (Class B) – identical to the service dress uniform, except without the dark blue jacket. The tie is optional when in short sleeves. Cadet enlisted and NCOs wear metal grade insignia on the collar.",
"Airman Battle Uniform (ABU) – the digital tiger stripe style United States Air Force field uniform, which is in the process of being phased out by the USAF, with dark blue name tapes, silver text, metal insignia on the collar for enlisted grade cadets, and cloth insignia for cadet officers and senior members. (Phase in beginning 15 June 2016, mandatory wear date is 15 June 2021)",
"Flight Duty Uniform (FDU) – green Nomex one-piece CWU 27/P flight suit worn by United States Air Force flight crews, styled similar to Air Mobility Command flight crews, but with CAP insignia. This is worn by CAP flight personnel only.\n Mess Dress Uniform – the dark blue United States Air Force mess dress uniform with CAP-distinctive insignia and sleeve braid. This is worn by senior members only.\n Corporate-style (\"CAP distinctive\") uniforms:",
"Corporate-style (\"CAP distinctive\") uniforms:\n Corporate Field Uniform – a dark blue version of the battle dress uniform.\n Aviator Shirt Uniform – an aviator white shirt with gray epaulets, and gray trousers.\n Corporate Flight Duty Uniform – a dark blue version of the one-piece flight suit made of Nomex or cotton material.\n Corporate Service Dress Uniform – a dark blue blazer jacket worn with a white shirt, gray trousers, and a CAP or United States Air Force tie.",
"Corporate Working Uniform – a dark blue short-sleeve polo shirt with the CAP seal screened or embroidered on the chest, and gray trousers. This is only worn by senior members.",
"Equipment \n\nCivil Air Patrol operates and maintains fixed-wing aircraft, training gliders, ground vehicles, and a national radio communications network.\n\nCivil Air Patrol owns and operates a fleet of predominantly Cessna 172 Skyhawk and Cessna 182 Skylane aircraft. The aircraft are in a phased refurbishment program that began in 2008, replacing engines, interior, avionics, and paint at a lower cost than new purchases.",
"In 2003, the Australian designed and built eight-seat GippsAero GA8 Airvan was added to the fleet. Sixteen of Civil Air Patrol's fleet of 18 Airvans carry the Airborne Real-time Cueing Hyperspectral Enhanced Reconnaissance (ARCHER) system, which can be used to search for aircraft wreckage based on its spectral signature. Other aircraft types include the Cessna 206 and the Maule MT-235",
". Other aircraft types include the Cessna 206 and the Maule MT-235. CAP also has a number of gliders, such as the LET L-23 Super Blaník, the Schleicher ASK 21 and the Schweizer SGS 2-33, used mainly for cadet orientation flights.",
"In addition to CAP's own corporate fleet, many member-owned aircraft are made available for official tasking by CAP's volunteers should the need arise",
". Aircraft on search missions are generally crewed by at least three qualified aircrew members: a mission pilot, responsible for the safe flying of the aircraft; a mission observer, responsible for navigation, communications and coordination of the mission as well as ground observation; and a mission scanner who is responsible for looking for crash sites and damage clues. Additionally, the mission scanner may double as a satellite digital imaging system (SDIS) operator",
". Additionally, the mission scanner may double as a satellite digital imaging system (SDIS) operator. Larger aircraft may have additional scanners aboard, providing greater visual coverage. Because of the additional ARCHER equipment, the crew of a Civil Air Patrol GA8 Airvan may also include an operator of the ARCHER system, depending upon the requirements of the mission and the capabilities of the aircraft.",
"CAP owns over 1,000 vehicles (mostly vans for carrying personnel) and assigns them to units for use in the organization's missions. Members who use their own vehicles are reimbursed for fuel, oil and communications costs during a USAF-assigned emergency services mission.",
"CAP operates a national radio network of HF (SSB) and VHF (FM) radio repeaters. There are over 500 of these repeaters strategically located across the United States. Radio communications are now facilitated under NTIA specifications, to which Civil Air Patrol directorates have applied even more stringent standards. CAP's radio network is designed for use during a national or regional emergency when existing telephone and Internet communications infrastructure is not available",
". Outside of such emergencies, most of CAP's internal communications are conducted on the Internet. CAP Units are allowed to use radio encryption when working with other agencies on sensitive missions, or when on a network that requires encryption.",
"Some aircraft in the CAP fleet are equipped with the SDIS. This system allows CAP to send back real-time images of a disaster or crash site to anyone with an e-mail address, allowing the mission coordinators to make more informed decisions. There are approximately 100 federally funded SDIS systems strategically located across the United States, with more than 20 additional systems funded by state and local governments.",
"The ARCHER imaging system, mounted aboard the GA8 Airvan, uses visible and near-infrared light to examine the surface of the Earth and find suspected crash sites, evaluate areas affected by disasters, or examine foliage from an airborne perspective in order to flag possible marijuana plantations. Both the SDIS and ARCHER systems were used to great success in the response to Hurricane Katrina; ARCHER may be used in coordination with the SDIS system.",
"A hand-held radio direction finder, most commonly the L-Tronics Little L-Per, is used by ground teams to search for downed aircraft.",
"The ground teams carry equipment on their person that they use while in the field. This equipment includes flashlights, signal mirrors, tactical vests, safety vests, and food that will last them at least 24 hours. The equipment carried by ground teams varies much by the mission at hand. Urban direction finding (UDF) missions necessitate only a small kit of gear",
". Urban direction finding (UDF) missions necessitate only a small kit of gear. But intensive mountain search and rescue can require packs that provide for up to 72 hours of operational supplies and tools for the location, rescue and extraction of lost or crashed parties. This gear includes the above, plus additional water, meals, and survival gear. Although a standardized list is provided by the national command, many teams modify the list to match the needs of the mission.",
"Several states have legislation in place to help transfer surplus equipment to Civil Air Patrol. For example, Texas considers its wing a state agency, and therefore legally allowed to acquire surplus or salvage property, while Alaska has a program for transferring forfeited aircraft to the Alaska Wing.",
"Funding \nCivil Air Patrol is a non-profit corporation established by Public Law 79-476. It receives its funding from four major sources: membership dues, corporate donations, Congressional appropriations, and private donations.",
"Squadron and group financial support comes from donations and fundraising. Some units charge their own membership dues above and beyond CAP membership dues. These donations and fundraisers are how the squadrons and groups pay for their equipment, rent for facilities, and activities at the local level. A portion of funds are proceeds made during fundraisers. These are organized by individual squadrons and often include prizes for the cadets who sell the most tickets",
". Cadets that sell tickets will receive 50% of the proceeds they made in a personal CAP \"bank\" in that squadron. These funds do not transfer if a cadet transfers to a different squadron or wing.",
"Today, apart from member dues, Civil Air Patrol receives funding from donations and grants from individuals, foundations and corporations; from grants and payments from state governments for patrolling and other tasks as agreed by memorandums of understanding; and from federal funding for reimbursement of fuel, oil and maintenance plus capital expenses for aircraft, vehicles and communications equipment.",
"There are few paid positions in Civil Air Patrol. Most are located at National Headquarters, although some wings have paid administrators or accountants. During 2011, Civil Air Patrol had 182 paid employees.\n\nSee also",
"See also \n\n Awards and decorations of Civil Air Patrol\n Civil Air Patrol National Cadet Competition\n Civil Air Patrol National Blue Beret\n Cadet#United States\n Other search and rescue organizations\n United States Coast Guard Auxiliary\n State defense forces\n Explorer Search and Rescue – Boy Scouts of America program\n Civil Air Support – United Kingdom civil aviation program\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n\nExternal links",
"Notes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n\nExternal links \n\n \n Civil Air Patrol Newsroom\n Civil Air Patrol 2021 Fact Sheet\n Civil Air Patrol National History Program\n Civil Air Patrol Historical Foundation and National Museum\n Spaatz Association",
"1941 establishments in the United States\nNonpartisan organizations in the United States\nOrganizations based in Montgomery, Alabama\nOrganizations established in 1941\nPatriotic and national organizations chartered by the United States Congress\nUnited States home front during World War II"
] |
Champagne
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Champagne
|
[
"Champagne (, ) is a sparkling wine originated and produced in the Champagne wine region of France under the rules of the appellation, that demand specific vineyard practices, sourcing of grapes exclusively from designated places within it, specific grape-pressing methods and secondary fermentation of the wine in the bottle to cause carbonation.",
"The grapes Pinot noir, Pinot meunier, and Chardonnay are used to produce almost all Champagne, but small amounts of Pinot blanc, Pinot gris (called Fromenteau in Champagne), Arbane, and Petit Meslier are vinified as well.\n\nChampagne became associated with royalty in the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries. The leading manufacturers made efforts to associate their Champagnes with nobility and royalty through advertising and packaging, which led to its popularity among the emerging middle class.\n\nOrigins",
"Still wines from the Champagne region were known before medieval times. The Romans were the first to plant vineyards in this area of northeast France, with the region being tentatively cultivated by the 5th century. Cultivation was initially slow due to the unpopular edict by Emperor Domitian that all colonial vines must be uprooted",
". When Emperor Probus, the son of a gardener, rescinded the edict, a temple to Bacchus was erected, and the region started to produce a light, fruity, red wine that contrasted with heavier Italian brews often fortified with resin and herbs. Later, church owned vineyards, and monks produced wine for use in the sacrament of the Eucharist. French kings were traditionally anointed in Reims, and champagne was served as part of coronation festivities",
". The Champenois were envious of the reputation of the wines made by their Burgundian neighbours to the south and sought to produce wines of equal acclaim. However, the northern climate of the region gave the Champenois a unique set of challenges in making red wine. At the far extremes of sustainable viticulture, the grapes would struggle to ripen fully and often would have bracing levels of acidity and low sugar levels",
". The wines would be lighter bodied and thinner than the Burgundy wines they sought to outdo.",
"Contrary to legend and popular belief, Dom Pérignon did not invent sparkling wine, though he did make important contributions to the production and quality of both still and sparkling Champagne wines. The oldest recorded sparkling wine is Blanquette de Limoux, which was invented by Benedictine monks in the Abbey of Saint-Hilaire, near Carcassonne, in 1531. They achieved this by bottling the wine before the initial fermentation had ended",
". They achieved this by bottling the wine before the initial fermentation had ended. Over a century later, the English scientist and physician Christopher Merret documented the addition of sugar to a finished wine to create a second fermentation six years before Dom Pérignon set foot in the Abbey of Hautvillers. Merret presented a paper at the Royal Society, in which he detailed what is now called i.e. Traditional method, in 1662",
".e. Traditional method, in 1662. Merret's discoveries coincided also with English glass-makers' technical developments that allowed bottles to be produced that could withstand the required internal pressures during secondary fermentation. French glass-makers at this time could not produce bottles of the required quality or strength. As early as 1663, the poet Samuel Butler referred to \"brisk champagne\".",
"In France, the first sparkling champagne was created accidentally; the pressure in the bottle led it to be called \"the devil's wine\" (), as bottles exploded or corks popped. At the time, bubbles were considered a fault. In 1844, Adolphe Jaquesson invented the muselet to prevent the corks from blowing out. Initial versions were difficult to apply and inconvenient to remove",
". Initial versions were difficult to apply and inconvenient to remove. Even when it was deliberately produced as a sparkling wine, champagne was for a very long time made by the , where the wine was bottled before the initial fermentation had finished. Champagne did not use the until the 19th century, about 200 years after Merret documented the process",
". The 19th century saw a dramatic growth in champagne production, going from a regional production of 300,000 bottles a year in 1800 to 20 million bottles in 1850. In 2007, champagne sales hit a record of 338.7 million bottles.",
"In the 19th century, champagne was noticeably sweeter than today's champagnes. The trend towards drier champagne began when Perrier-Jouët decided not to sweeten his 1846 vintage before exporting it to London. The designation Brut Champagne was created for the British in 1876.\n\nRight to the name Champagne",
"The Champagne winemaking community, under the auspices of the (CIVC), has developed a comprehensive set of rules and regulations for all wine produced in the region to protect its economic interests. They include codification of the most suitable growing places, the most suitable grape types (most Champagne is a blend of up to three grape varieties, though other varieties are allowed), and a lengthy set of requirements specifying most aspects of viticulture",
". This includes pruning, vineyard yield, the degree of pressing, and the time that wine must remain on its lees before bottling. It can also limit the release of Champagne to market to maintain prices. Only when a wine meets these requirements may it be labelled Champagne. The rules agreed upon by the CIVC are submitted for the final approval of the (formerly the , INAO).",
"In 2007, the INAO, the government organization that controls wine appellations in France, was preparing to make the largest revision of the region's legal boundaries since 1927 in response to economic pressures. With soaring demand and limited production of grapes, Champagne houses say the rising price could produce a consumer backlash that would harm the industry for years into the future. That and political pressure from villages that wanted to be included in the expanded boundaries led to the move",
". Changes are subject to significant scientific review and are said not to impact Champagne-produced grapes until 2020. A final decision is not expected until 2023 or 2024.",
"Use of the word Champagne",
"Sparkling wines are produced worldwide, but many legal structures reserve the word Champagne exclusively for sparkling wines from the Champagne region, made in accordance with regulations",
". In the European Union and many other countries, the name Champagne is legally protected by the Madrid system under an 1891 treaty, which reserved it for the sparkling wine produced in the eponymous region and adhering to the standards defined for it as an ; the protection was reaffirmed in the Treaty of Versailles after World War I. Over 70 countries have adopted similar legal protection",
". Over 70 countries have adopted similar legal protection. Most recently Australia, Chile, Brazil, Canada and China passed laws or signed agreements with Europe that limit the use of the term \"Champagne\" to only those products produced in the Champagne region. The United States bans the use of all new U.S.-produced wine brands. However, those that had approval to use the term on labels before 2006 may continue to use it, provided the term is accompanied by the wine's actual origin (e.g., \"California\")",
".g., \"California\"). The majority of US-produced sparkling wines do not use the term Champagne on their labels, and some states, such as Oregon, ban producers in their states from using the term. However, outside North America, the American sparkling wine Schmittmann's is called Schmittmann's Champagne, despite being produced in Allen, Texas.",
"Several key U.S. wine regions, such as those in California (Napa, Sonoma Valley, Paso Robles), Oregon, and Walla Walla, Washington, came to consider the remaining semi-generic labels as harmful to their reputations (cf. Napa Declaration on Place).",
"Even the terms and Champagne method were forbidden by an EU court decision in 1994. the description most often used for sparkling wines using the second fermentation in the bottle process, but not from the Champagne region, is . Sparkling wines are produced worldwide, and many producers use special terms to define them: Spain uses Cava, Italy designates it , and South Africa uses . An Italian sparkling wine made from the Muscat grape uses the DOCG Asti and from the Glera grape the DOC Prosecco",
". In Germany, Sekt is a common sparkling wine. Other French wine regions cannot use the name Champagne: e.g., Burgundy and Alsace produce . In 2008, more than 3,000 bottles of sparkling wine produced in California labelled with the term \"Champagne\" were destroyed by Belgian government authorities.",
"Regardless of the legal requirements for labeling, extensive education efforts by the Champagne region, and the use of alternative names by non-Champagne sparkling wine producers, some consumers, and wine sellers, including \"Korbels California Champagne\", use Champagne as a generic term for white sparkling wines, regardless of origin.",
"The village of Champagne, Switzerland has traditionally made a still wine labelled as \"Champagne\": the earliest records of viticulture dated to 1657. In 1999, in an accord with the EU, the Swiss government conceded that, by 2004, the village would phase out the use of the name. Sales dropped from 110,000 bottles a year to 32,000 after the change. In April 2008, the villagers resolved to fight against the restriction following a Swiss open-air vote.",
"In the Soviet Union, all sparkling wines were called (, Russian for \"that, which is of Champagne\"). The name is still used today for some brands of sparkling wines produced in former Soviet republics, such as and . In 2021, Russia banned the use of the designation for imported sparkling wine, including sparkling wine produced in the Champagne wine region, reserving the designation for domestically produced sparkling wine only.\n\nProduction",
"Formerly known as méthode champenoise or méthode classique, champagne is produced by a traditional method. After primary fermentation and bottling, a second alcoholic fermentation occurs in the bottle. This second fermentation is induced by adding several grams of yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and rock sugar to the bottle - although each brand has its own secret recipe. According to the a minimum of 1.5 years is required to completely develop all the flavour",
". According to the a minimum of 1.5 years is required to completely develop all the flavour. For years where the harvest is exceptional, a is declared and some champagne will be made from and labelled as the products of a single vintage (vintage champagne) rather than a blend of multiple years' harvests. This means that the champagne will be very good and has to mature for at least 3 years. During this time the champagne bottle is sealed with a crown cap similar to that used on beer bottles.",
"After aging, the bottle is manipulated, either manually or mechanically, in a process called (or \"riddling\" in English), so that the lees settle in the neck of the bottle. After chilling the bottles, the neck is frozen, and the cap removed. This process is called disgorgement. The 6 bar pressure in the bottle forces out the ice containing the lees. Some wine from previous vintages and additional sugar () is added to maintain the level within the bottle and adjust the sweetness of the finished wine",
". The bottle is then quickly corked to maintain the carbon dioxide in solution.",
"Bubbles",
"An initial burst of effervescence occurs when the champagne contacts the dry glass on pouring. These bubbles form on imperfections in the glass that facilitate nucleation or, to a minimal extent, on cellulose fibres left over from the wiping and drying process as shown with a high-speed video camera",
". However, after the initial rush, these naturally occurring imperfections are typically too small to consistently act as nucleation points as the surface tension of the liquid smooths out these minute irregularities. The nucleation sites that act as a source for the ongoing effervescence are not natural imperfections in the glass, but actually occur where the glass has been etched by the manufacturer or the customer",
". This etching is typically done with acid, a laser, or a glass etching tool from a craft shop to provide nucleation sites for continuous bubble formation (note that not all glasses are etched in this way). In 1662 this method was developed in England, as records from the Royal Society show.",
"Dom Pérignon was originally charged by his superiors at the Abbey of Hautvillers to get rid of the bubbles since the pressure in the bottles caused many of them to burst in the cellar. As sparkling wine production increased in the early 18th century, cellar workers had to wear a heavy iron mask to prevent injury from spontaneously bursting bottles. The disturbance caused by one bottle exploding could cause a chain reaction, with it being routine for cellars to lose 20–90% of their bottles this way",
". The mysterious circumstance surrounding the then unknown process of fermentation and carbonic gas caused some critics to call the sparkling creations \"The Devil's Wine\".",
"Champagne producers\n\nThere are more than one hundred champagne houses and 19,000 smaller (vine-growing producers) in Champagne. These companies manage some 32,000 hectares of vineyards in the region. The type of champagne producer can be identified from the abbreviations followed by the official number on the bottle:",
"NM: . These companies (including the majority of the larger brands) buy grapes and make the wine\n CM: . Cooperatives that make wines from the growers who are members, with all the grapes pooled together\n RM: . (Also known as Grower Champagne) A grower that also makes wine from its own grapes (a maximum of 5% of purchased grapes is permitted). Note that co-operative members who take their bottles to be disgorged at the co-op can now label themselves as RM instead of RC",
"SR: . An association of growers making a shared Champagne but who are not a co-operative\n RC: . A co-operative member selling champagne produced by the co-operative under its own name and label\n MA: or . A brand name unrelated to the producer or grower; the name is owned by someone else, for example a supermarket\n ND: . A wine merchant selling under his own name",
"Marketing",
"In the 19th century, champagne was produced and promoted to mark contemporary political events, for example, the Franco-Russian Alliance of 1893, and Tennis Court Oath to mark the centennial of French Revolution. By selling champagne as a nationalist ideology, négociant manages to associate champagne with leisure activities and sporting events",
". In addition, négociant successfully appeal champagne to broader consumers by introducing the different qualities of sparkling wine, associating champagne brands with royalty and nobility, and selling off-brands under the name of the importer from France at a lower cost. Though selling off-brands at a lower expense proved to be unsuccessful since \"there was an assumption that cheap sparkling wine was not authentic",
".\" From the start to end of Belle Époque period, champagne has gone from a regional product with a niche market audience to a national commodity that distributed globally.",
"A large popularity of champagne is attributed to the success of champagne producers in marketing the wine's image as a royal and aristocratic drink. Laurent-Perrier's advertisements in late 1890 boasted their champagne was the favourite of Leopold II of Belgium, George I of Greece, Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, Margaret Cambridge, Marchioness of Cambridge, and John Lambton, 3rd Earl of Durham, among other nobles, knights, and military officers",
". Despite this royal prestige, champagne houses also portrayed champagne as a luxury enjoyable by anyone, for any occasion. This strategy worked, and, by the turn of the 20th century, the majority of champagne drinkers were middle class.",
"In the 19th century, champagne producers made a concentrated effort to market their wine to women. This is done by having the sweeter champagne associates with female, whereas the dry champagne with male and foreign markets. This was in stark contrast to the traditionally \"male aura\" that the wines of France had—particularly Burgundy and Bordeaux",
". Laurent-Perrier again took the lead in this area with advertisements touting their wine's favour with the Countess of Dudley, the wife of the 9th Earl of Stamford, the wife of the Baron Tollemache, and the opera singer Adelina Patti. Champagne labels were designed with images of romantic love and marriage as well as other special occasions that were deemed important to women, such as the baptism of a child.",
"In some advertisements, the champagne houses catered to political interest such as the labels that appeared on different brands on bottles commemorating the centennial anniversary of the French Revolution of 1789. On some labels there were flattering images of Marie Antoinette that appealed to the conservative factions of French citizens that viewed the former queen as a martyr",
". On other labels there were stirring images of Revolutionary scenes that appealed to the liberal left sentiments of French citizens. As World War I loomed, champagne houses put images of soldiers and countries' flags on their bottles, customizing the image for each country to which the wine was imported. During the Dreyfus affair, one champagne house released a champagne antijuif with antisemitic advertisements to take advantage of the wave of Antisemitism that hit parts of France.",
"Champagne is typically drunk during celebrations. For example, British Prime Minister Tony Blair held a champagne reception to celebrate London winning the right to host the 2012 Summer Olympics. It is also used to launch ships when a bottle is smashed over the hull during the ship's launch. If the bottle fails to break this is often thought to be bad luck.\n\nWine districts, grape varieties and styles of Champagne",
"Wine districts, grape varieties and styles of Champagne\n\nWine-producing Districts of Champagne \nChampagne is a single but the territory is divided into next sub-regions, known as wine-producing districts, and each of them has distinct characteristics. The main wine-producing districts of the Champagne wine region: Reims, Marne Valley, Côte des Blancs, Côtes des Bar, Côtes de Sezzane.",
"As a general rule, grapes used must be the white Chardonnay, or the dark-skinned \"red wine grapes\" Pinot noir or Pinot Meunier, which, due to the gentle pressing of the grapes and absence of skin contact during fermentation, usually also yield a white base wine",
". Most Champagnes, including Rosé wines, are made from a blend of all three grapes, although (\"white from whites\") Champagnes are made from 100% Chardonnay and (\"white from blacks\") Champagnes are made solely from Pinot noir, Pinot Meunier or a mix of the two.",
"Four other grape varieties are permitted, mostly for historical reasons, as they are rare in current usage. The 2010 version of the appellation regulations lists seven varieties as allowed, Arbane, Chardonnay, Petit Meslier, Pinot blanc, Pinot gris, Pinot Meunier, and Pinot noir. The sparsely cultivated varieties (0.02% of the total vines planted in Champagne) of Arbanne, Petit Meslier, and Pinot blanc can still be found in modern cuvées from a few producers",
". Previous directives of INAO make conditional allowances according to the complex laws of 1927 and 1929, and plantings made before 1938. Before the 2010 regulations, the complete list of the actual and theoretical varieties also included and Pinot Rosé. The Gamay vines of the region were scheduled to be uprooted by 1942, but due to World War II, this was postponed until 1962, and this variety is no longer allowed in Champagne.",
"The dark-skinned Pinot noir and Pinot meunier give the wine its length and backbone. They are predominantly grown in two areas – the Montagne de Reims and the Vallée de la Marne. The Montagne de Reims run east–west to the south of Reims, in northern Champagne. They are notable for north-facing chalky slopes that derive heat from the warm winds rising from the valleys below. The River Marne runs west–east through Champagne, south of the Montagne de Reims",
". The River Marne runs west–east through Champagne, south of the Montagne de Reims. The Vallée de la Marne contains south-facing chalky slopes. Chardonnay gives the wine its acidity and biscuit flavour. Most Chardonnay is grown in a north–south-running strip to the south of Épernay, called the , including the villages of Avize, Oger and . These are east-facing vineyards, with similar to the",
". These are east-facing vineyards, with similar to the . The various account for the differences in grape characteristics and explain the appropriateness of blending juice from different grape varieties and geographical areas within Champagne, to get the desired style for each Champagne house.",
"Types of Champagne",
"Most of the Champagne produced today is \"Non-vintage\", meaning that it is a blended product of grapes from multiple vintages. Most of the base will be from a single year vintage with producers blending anywhere from 10 to 15% (even as high as 40%) of wine from older vintages. If the conditions of a particular vintage are favourable, some producers will make a vintage wine that must be composed of 100% of the grapes from that vintage year",
". Under Champagne wine regulations, houses that make both vintage and non-vintage wines are allowed to use no more than 80% of the total vintage's harvest for the production of vintage Champagne. This allows at least 20% of the harvest from each vintage to be reserved for use in non-vintage Champagne. This ensures a consistent style that consumers can expect from non-vintage Champagne that does not alter too radically depending on the quality of the vintage",
". In less than ideal vintages, some producers will produce a wine from only that single vintage and still label it as non-vintage rather than as \"vintage\" since the wine will be of lesser quality and the producers have little desire to reserve the wine for future blending.",
"Prestige",
"A is a proprietary blended wine (usually a Champagne) that is considered to be the top of a producer's range. Famous examples include Louis Roederer's Cristal, 's , 's Dom Pérignon, Duval-Leroy's , Armand de Brignac Gold Brut, and Pol Roger's . Perhaps the first publicly available prestige was Moët & Chandon's Dom Pérignon, launched in 1936 with the 1921 vintage",
". Until then, Champagne houses produced different of varying quality, but a top-of-the-range wine produced to the highest standards (and priced accordingly) was a new idea. In fact, Louis Roederer had been producing Cristal since 1876, but this was strictly for the private consumption of the Russian tsar. Cristal was made publicly available with the 1945 vintage. Then came Taittinger's (first vintage 1952), and 's in 1960, a blend of three vintages (1952, 1953, and 1955) and 's",
". In the last three decades of the 20th century, most Champagne houses followed these with their own prestige , often named after notable people with a link to that producer and presented in non-standard bottle shapes (following Dom Pérignon's lead with its 18th-century revival design).",
"A French term (literally \"white from blacks\" or \"white of blacks\") for a white wine produced entirely from black grapes. The flesh of grapes described as black or red is white; grape juice obtained after minimal possible contact with the skins produces essentially white wine, with a slightly yellower colour than wine from white grapes. The colour, due to the small amount of red skin pigments present, is often described as white-yellow, white-grey, or silvery",
". Blanc de noirs is often encountered in Champagne, where a number of houses have followed the lead of Bollinger's prestige cuvée Vieilles Vignes Françaises in introducing a cuvée made from either pinot noir, pinot meunier or a blend of the two (these being the only two black grapes permitted within the Champagne AOC appellation).",
"A French term that means \"white from whites\", and is used to designate Champagnes made exclusively from Chardonnay grapes or in rare occasions from Pinot blanc (such as from Cedric Bouchard). The term is occasionally used in other sparkling wine-producing regions, usually to denote Chardonnay-only wines rather than any sparkling wine made from other white grape varieties.\n\nRosé Champagne",
"Rosé Champagnes are characterized by their distinctive blush color, fruity aroma, and earthy flavor. Rosé Champagne has been produced since the late 18th century; storied French Champagne houses Rinault and Veuve Clicquot have each claimed to have shipped and sold the first bottles. The wine is produced by one of two methods. Using the saignée method, winemakers will leave the clear juice of dark grapes to macerate with the skins for a brief time, resulting in wine lightly colored and flavored by the skins",
". In the more common d'assemblage method, producers will blend a small amount of still red wine to a sparkling wine cuvée. Champagne is light in color even when it is produced with red grapes, because the juice is extracted from the grapes using a gentle process that minimizes contact with the skins",
". By contrast, Rosé Champagne, especially that created by d'assemblage, results in the production of rosé with a predictable and reproducible color, allowing winemakers to achieve a consistent rosé appearance from year to year.",
"The character of rosé Champagne has varied greatly since its production began. Thought to be a sign of extravagance when originally introduced, by the early 20th century these wines were colloquially known as \"Pink Champagne,\" and had gained a reputation of frivolousness or even dissipation. The 1939 Hollywood film Love Affair was reportedly approached to promote it by featuring the main characters bonding over enjoying the unpopular drink, and caused a sales boost after the film's release",
". It is also cited by The Eagles as a beverage of choice in the titular \"Hotel California.\" Rosé Champagnes, particularly brut varieties, began regaining popularity in the late 20th century in many countries. Because of the complex variety of flavors it presents, rosé Champagne is often served in fine dining restaurants, as a complementary element in food and wine pairing.",
"Sweetness\nJust after disgorgement a \"liqueur de dosage\" or liqueur d’expédition - a blend of, typically, cane sugar and wine (sugar amounts up to 750 g/litre) - is added to adjust the levels of sugar in the Champagne when bottled for sale, and hence the sweetness of the finished wine. Today sweetness is generally not looked for per se, dosage is used to fine tune the perception of acidity in the wine.",
"For Caroline Latrive, cellar master of Ayala, a Champagne house that pioneered drier champagnes at the end of the 19th century, dosage represents the final touch in champagne making and must be as subtle as possible to bring the right balance.",
"Also, dosage protects champagne from oxidation because it includes a bit of , and sugar also acts as a preservative. Benoît Gouez, cellar master of Moët & Chandon says that sugar helps champagne recover from the oxidative shock of disgorgement, and contributes to the wine's aging potential.",
"Wines labeled , more common among smaller producers, have no added sugar and will usually be very dry, with less than 3 grams of residual sugar per litre in the finished wine. The following terms are used to describe the sweetness of the bottled wine:\n\n (less than 6 grams of sugar per litre)\n (less than 12 grams)\n Extra Dry (between 12 and 17 grams)\n (between 17 and 32 grams)\n (between 32 and 50 grams)\n (50 grams)",
"The most common style today is . However, throughout the 19th century and into the early 20th century Champagne was generally much sweeter than it is today. Moreover, except in Britain, Champagne was drunk as dessert wines (after the meal), rather than as table wines (with the meal). At this time, Champagne sweetness was instead referred to by destination country, roughly as:\n (\"English taste\", between 22 and 66 grams); note that today refers to aged vintage Champagne",
"(\"English taste\", between 22 and 66 grams); note that today refers to aged vintage Champagne\n (\"American taste\", between 110 and 165 grams)\n (\"French taste\", between 165 and 200 grams)\n (\"Russian taste\", between 200 and 300 grams)\nOf these, only the driest English is close to contemporary tastes.",
"Champagne bottles",
"Champagne is mostly fermented in two sizes of bottles, standard bottles (750 millilitres) and magnums (1.5 litres). In general, magnums are thought to be higher quality, as there is less oxygen in the bottle, and the volume-to-surface area ratio favours the creation of appropriately sized bubbles. However, there is no hard evidence for this view. Other bottle sizes, mostly named for Biblical figures, are generally filled with Champagne that has been fermented in standard bottles or magnums",
". Gosset still bottles its Grande Réserve in jeroboam from the beginning of its second fermentation.",
"Sizes larger than Jeroboam (3 L) are rare. Primat bottles (27 L)—and, , Melchizedek bottles (30 L)—are exclusively offered by the House Drappier. (The same names are used for bottles containing regular wine and port; however, Jeroboam, Rehoboam, and Methuselah refer to different bottle volumes.)",
"Unique sizes have been made for specific markets, special occasions and people. The most notable example is perhaps the 20 fluid oz. / 56.8 cl (imperial pint) bottle made between 1874 and 1973 for the English market by Pol Roger, often associated with Sir Winston Churchill.",
"In 2009, a bottle of 1825 Champagne was opened at a ceremony attended by 12 of the world's top wine tasters. This bottle was officially recognised by Guinness World Records as the oldest bottle of Champagne in the world. The contents were found to be drinkable, with notes of truffles and caramel in the taste. There are now only two other bottles from the 1825 vintage extant.",
"In July 2010, 168 bottles were found on board a shipwreck near the Åland Islands in the Baltic Sea by Finnish diver Christian Ekström. Initial analyses indicated there were at least two types of bottle from two different houses: in Reims and the long-defunct Champagne house Juglar (absorbed into Jacquesson in 1829.) The shipwreck is dated between 1800 and 1830, and the bottles discovered may well predate the 1825 referenced above",
". When experts were replacing the old corks with new ones, they discovered there were also bottles from a third house, Heidsieck. The wreck, then, contained 95 bottles of Juglar, 46 bottles of , and four bottles of Heidsieck, in addition to 23 bottles whose manufacture is still to be identified. Champagne experts Richard Juhlin and Essi Avellan, MW described the bottles' contents as being in a very good condition",
". It is planned that the majority of the bottles will be sold at auction, the price of each estimated to be in the region of £40,000–70,000.",
"In April 2015, nearly five years after the bottles were first found, researchers led by Philippe Jeandet, a professor of food biochemistry, released the findings of their chemical analyses of the Champagne, and particularly noted the fact that, although the chemical composition of the 170-year-old Champagne was very similar to the composition of modern-day Champagne, there was much more sugar in this Champagne than in modern-day Champagne, and it was also less alcoholic than modern-day Champagne",
". The high sugar level was characteristic of people's tastes at the time, and Jeandet explained that it was common for people in the 19th century, such as Russians, to add sugar to their wine at dinner. It also contained higher concentrations of minerals such as iron, copper, and table salt than modern-day Champagne does.",
"Champagne corks",
"Champagne corks are mostly built from three sections and are referred to as agglomerated corks. The mushroom shape that occurs in the transition is a result of the bottom section's being composed of two stacked discs of pristine cork cemented to the upper portion, which is a conglomerate of ground cork and glue. The bottom section is in contact with the wine. Before insertion, a sparkling wine cork is almost 50% larger than the opening of the bottle",
". Before insertion, a sparkling wine cork is almost 50% larger than the opening of the bottle. Originally, the cork starts as a cylinder and is compressed before insertion into the bottle. Over time, their compressed shape becomes more permanent and the distinctive \"mushroom\" shape becomes more apparent.",
"The aging of the Champagne post-disgorgement can to some degree be told by the cork, as, the longer it has been in the bottle, the less it returns to its original cylinder shape.\n\nChampagne etiquette",
"Champagne is usually served in a Champagne flute, whose characteristics include a long stem with a tall, narrow bowl, thin sides and an etched bottom. The intended purpose of the shape of the flute is to reduce surface area, therefore preserving carbonation, as well as maximizing nucleation (the visible bubbles and lines of bubbles)",
". Legend has it that the Victorian 's shape was modelled on the breast of Madame de Pompadour, chief-mistress of Louis XV of France, or perhaps Marie Antoinette, but the glass was designed in England over a century earlier especially for sparkling wine and champagne in 1663. Champagne is always served cold; its ideal drinking temperature is",
". Champagne is always served cold; its ideal drinking temperature is . Often the bottle is chilled in a bucket of ice and water, half an hour before opening, which also ensures the Champagne is less gassy and can be opened without spillage. Champagne buckets are made specifically for this purpose and often have a larger volume than standard wine-cooling buckets to accommodate the larger bottle, and more water and ice.",
"When it comes to the etiquette behind holding a glass of Champagne, it is important to consider the type of Champagne glass used and the four main parts of any wine glass: the rim, the bowl, the stem and the base. In the case of a flute glass or tulip glass, etiquette dictates holding by the long, narrow stem in order to avoid smudging the glass and warming up the contents with the heat of one’s hand",
". Flute and tulip glasses can be temporarily held by the rim, although this glass hold blocks the area where the taster would take a sip. This hold can also smudge the top section of the glass. These two types of glass can also be held by the disk-shaped base without smudging or warming the liquid inside. When it comes to the coupe glass, with its short stem and shallow, wide-brimmed bowl, the only possible glass hold is by the bowl",
". The top-heavy nature of the glass makes holding by the base or stem impossible, while the large diameter of the top makes grabbing the glass by the rim difficult.",
"Opening Champagne bottles\nTo reduce the risk of spilling or spraying any Champagne, the bottle is opened by holding the cork and rotating the bottle at an angle in order to ease out the stopper. This method, as opposed to pulling the cork out, prevents the cork from flying out of the bottle at speed (the expanding gases are supersonic). Also, holding the bottle at an angle allows air in and helps prevent the champagne from geysering out of the bottle.",
"A sabre can be used to open a Champagne bottle with great ceremony. This technique is called (the term is also used for simply breaking the head of the bottle).",
"Pouring Champagne",
"Pouring sparkling wine while tilting the glass at an angle and gently sliding in the liquid along the side will preserve the most bubbles, as opposed to pouring directly down to create a head of \"mousse\", according to a study, On the Losses of Dissolved CO2 during Champagne serving, by scientists from the University of Reims. Colder bottle temperatures also result in reduced loss of gas. Additionally, the industry is developing Champagne glasses designed specifically to reduce the amount of gas lost.",
"Spraying Champagne\n\nChampagne has been an integral part of sports celebration since started offering their Champagne to the winners of Formula 1 Grand Prix events. At the 1967 24 Hours of Le Mans, winner Dan Gurney started the tradition of drivers spraying the crowd and each other. The Muslim-majority nation Bahrain banned Champagne celebrations on F1 podiums in 2004, using a nonalcoholic pomegranate and rose water drink instead.",
"In 2015, some Australian sports competitors began to celebrate by drinking champagne from their shoe, a practice known as shoey.\n\nCulinary uses \nThe poulet au champagne (\"chicken with Champagne\") is an essentially Marnese specialty. Other well-known recipes using Champagne are huîtres au champagne (\"oysters with Champagne\") and Champagne zabaglione.",
"Champagne price \nThere are several general factors influencing the price of Champagne: the limited land of the region, the prestige that Champagne has developed worldwide, and the high cost of the production process, among possible others.\n\nChampagne producers\n\nA list of major Champagne producers and their respective Cuvée de prestige",
"Champagne producers\n\nA list of major Champagne producers and their respective Cuvée de prestige\n\nShipments\nThe Champagne industry is expected to ship 314 million bottles in 2023, down 3.7% from the previous year, according to the Comité Champagne industry trade group. Nightclub markets remain strong, but consumption of Champagne in the home is losing ground.\n\nSee also",
"See also\n\n Autolysis (wine)\n Champagne breakfast\n Champagne Riots\n Classification of Champagne vineyards\n , term used for non-sparkling (still) wines produced in the same area\n List of Champagne houses\n Louis Bohne, sales agent for in the 19th century\n Zante currants marketed as Champagne grapes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n\nExternal links",
"References\n\nFurther reading\n\nExternal links\n\nWorld History Encyclopedia - The History of Champagne\nComité Interprofessionnel du vin de Champagne official site (CIVC)\nChampagne Bureau U.S. official site\nUnion of Champagne Houses official site\nThe wines of Champagne, official website of France\n\n \nChampagne wine AOCs\nFrench products with protected designation of origin\nFrench wine\nSparkling wines"
] |
Palermo FC
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palermo%20FC
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[
"Palermo Football Club, shortened to Palermo F.C. and usually simply known as Palermo (), is an Italian professional football club based in Palermo, Sicily, that currently plays in Serie B. It is part of the City Football Group.\n\nFounded for the first time on 1 November 1900 as Anglo Palermitan Athletic and Football Club, Palermo is one of the oldest clubs in Italy",
"Among the club's accomplishments are a Coppa Italia Serie C, won in the 1992–93, and five Serie B league titles. It also appeared in three Italian Cup finals: in 1973-74, in 1978-79 and in 2010-11; and made 29 appearances in Serie A.\n\nInternationally, the club has made five appearances in European competitions, all in the UEFA Cup/Europa League.\n\nHistory\n\nEarly history (1898–1947)",
"There is some debate and uncertainty about the exact date the club was founded. Some authorities believe that it may have been founded as early as 1898 due to the existence of papers addressed to Joseph Whitaker, English ornithologist in Palermo and originally believed to be first club president, about a Palermo football team founded in the month of April of that year. Conversely, another source cites that in April 1897, the future founders of Palemo Calcio founded the association Sport Club",
". The most common and officially stated foundation date is 1 November 1900, as the Anglo Palermitan Athletic and Football Club. The club is thought to have been founded by Ignazio Majo Pagano, a young Palermitan colleague of Whitaker who had discovered football while at college in London in the UK, where the modern game of association football originated",
". The initial staff comprised three Englishmen and nine natives of Palermo, with Whitaker as honorary chairman, Edward De Garston as inaugural president and with red and blue as the original team colours. The first recorded football match, played by the team on 30 December 1900, ended in a 5–0 defeat to an unidentified amateur English team. The club’s first official match, played on 18 April 1901 against Messina Football Club, ended in a 3–2 victory for the Palermitan side.",
"In 1907, the club changed its name to Palermo Foot-Ball Club, and the team colours were changed to the current pink and black. From 1908 until Italy’s entry in World War I in 1915, Palermo was featured in the Lipton Challenge Cup, organised by Scottish businessman Sir Thomas Lipton. The competition saw them face off against Naples FBC; Palermo won the competition three times, including a 6–0 victory in 1912.",
"After a gap during the First World War, the club was refounded in 1919 as Unione Sportiva Palermo, by a committee of young university students and sportsmen. During the early 1920s, the club mainly competed in the Campionato Lega Sud, a football league in Southern Italy, reaching the semi-finals in 1924 before being knocked out by Audace Taranto, Alba Roma and Internaples",
". The club was dissolved in 1927 due to financial problems, but was reformed one year later following a merger with Vigor Palermo under the name Palermo FootBall Club. Originally admitted to Prima Divisione (First Division), the equivalent of today's Serie C1, the team was promoted to Serie B in 1930 and finally reached Serie A in 1932",
". From its debut season in Italy's top division, Palermo relocated to a new home, the Stadio Littorio (Lictorian Stadium) in the Favorita neighbourhood, today known as Stadio Renzo Barbera. The club played in Serie A until 1936, when they were relegated to Serie B and first played Catania in the Sicilian derby.",
"In 1936, Palermo was forced by the fascist regime to change its colours to yellow and red, after the official colours of the local municipality. Meanwhile, economic difficulties arose, and in 1940 the club was expelled by the Italian Football Federation because of financial problems. A merger with Unione Sportiva Juventina Palermo brought the foundation of Unione Sportiva Palermo-Juventina, which joined Serie C in 1941 and Serie B in 1942.",
"The club could not finish the 1942–43 season due to the outbreak of World War II. At the same time the pink-and-black colors were chosen because Sicily became a \"war zone\". After the conflict, the club changed its name to US Palermo.",
"Post-war years (1947–2002)",
"After World War II, the team returned to Serie A by winning the Serie B championship of 1947–48. The new Palermo squad featured players such as Czechoslovakian legend Čestmír Vycpálek who signed from Juventus alongside Conti, Carmelo Di Bella and Pavesi. Palermo played Serie A until they were relegated in 1954. Massive changes in the board, as well as the manager's job and the squad, proved successful and the club returned to Serie A in 1956",
". Palermo became a \"yo-yo club\", bouncing up and down between the top two Italian leagues. Several stars played for Palermo during this period, such as Argentine striker Santiago Vernazza (51 goals in 115 games with the Rosanero), goalkeepers Roberto Anzolin and Carlo Mattrel, Giuseppe Furino and Franco Causio. Palermo marked its best campaign in 1961–62 season, finishing in eighth place in Serie A. In 1963, however, they were relegated to Serie B, where they played for five seasons",
". In 1963, however, they were relegated to Serie B, where they played for five seasons. Palermo played again in Serie A between 1968 and 1970.",
"In 1970, Renzo Barbera took over the club as the new chairman. After 1973, Palermo FBC remained firmly rooted in Serie B. Despite this, Palermo reached two Italian Cup finals, both of which they narrowly lost: in 1974 to Bologna on penalty shoot-outs, and in 1979 to Juventus after extra time. Barbera left the club in 1980 and Palermo were relegated to Serie C1 four years later",
". Barbera left the club in 1980 and Palermo were relegated to Serie C1 four years later. The 1985–86 season, however, which ended in the summer, was the last for Palermo FBC, as, having just saved themselves from relegation, the club was expelled by the football federation due to financial problems. In the summer of 1987, after a year without professional football in Palermo, the club was re-founded bearing a new name, and began to play in Serie C2, which it promptly won.",
"In the 1990s, Palermo played between Serie B and Serie C1 with a few highs, such as its 1995–96 Serie B and Coppa Italia campaign, the latter ending in the quarter-finals, and a number of lows such as the 1998 relegation to Serie C2 after defeat in the play-offs to Battipagliese, later revoked by the federation to fill a vacant league slot.",
"In March 2000, Roma chairman Franco Sensi led a holding company to purchase Palermo and Sergio D'Antoni became the president of Palermo and Palermo were promoted to Serie B one year later after a dramatic final week of the season, with Palermo coming back from behind to take first place from league-toppers Sicilian rivals Messina. The first comeback season in the Serie B, with Bortolo Mutti as head coach, was an eventless one, with Palermo ending in a mid-table placement.",
"The Zamparini era: back to Serie A and European years (2002–2013)",
"In the summer of 2002, Friulian businessman and Venezia owner Maurizio Zamparini acquired the club from Franco Sensi in a €15 million bid, with the clear intention to bring Palermo back to Serie A and establish the club as a Serie A regular with aims of participations to European competitions",
". Palermo failed in its first attempt to reach the Serie A in 2002–03 on the final week of the season, but later managed to achieve it after a hard but successful 2003–04 campaign which saw Palermo crowned as Serie B champions and promoted to Serie A after 31 years, under head coach Francesco Guidolin, who was hired in January 2004 as replacement for dismissed Silvio Baldini.",
"The 2004–05 season, the first in Serie A for the Palermo club since 1973, ended with an excellent sixth place, securing qualification for the 2005–06 UEFA Cup for the first time in its history. Luca Toni broke the Palermo Serie A scoring record by notching up 20 league goals. In the following season, despite an unimpressive eighth place in the Serie A table, Palermo reached the last 16 in the UEFA Cup as well as the Coppa Italia semi-finals",
". The club was however admitted to play UEFA Cup again due to the 2006 Calciopoli scandal, with Palermo players Andrea Barzagli, Cristian Zaccardo, Simone Barone and Fabio Grosso being crowned 2006 World Cup winners. A number of impressive signings were made to establish an ambitious team, and a good beginning in the 2006–07 campaign appeared initially to confirm this",
". An 11-game winless streak, however, forced Palermo to fall down from third to seventh place, ending the season in fifth place and ensuring another UEFA Cup qualification. The club successively established as a force in the mid-table part of the Serie A league, also winning a Campionato Nazionale Primavera national title in 2009.",
"The following season started with new manager Walter Zenga, whose appointment from Sicilian arch-rivals Catania was greeted with surprise and dismay from supporters of both parties; Zenga's reign, however, lasted only 13 games, as he was dismissed on 23 November 2009 due to poor performances, ironically after a 1–1 home tie to Sicilian rivals and Zenga's former team, Catania, with former Lazio boss Delio Rossi being appointed at his place",
". Under the tutelage of Delio Rossi, results dramatically improved, and Palermo established a record of seven consecutive home wins, including wins against Italian giants Milan and Juventus, and emerging as serious contenders for a Champions League spot, which they ultimately lost to Sampdoria by only one point. Such season also launched new emerging stars such as midfielder Javier Pastore and goalkeeper Salvatore Sirigu, who went on to become integral part of their respective international teams.",
"The 2010–11 season started with Delio Rossi still in charge of the club, and also marked Palermo's return into continental football in the form of the UEFA Europa League. Palermo reached their third Coppa Italia finals after defeating Milan 4–3 on aggregate on 10 May 2011, losing 3–1 to Internazionale in the final, in what is considered one of the peak moments of Zamparini's period at the club.",
"Zamparini's later years and Serie B return (2011–2018)",
"For the 2011–12 season, Delio Rossi was replaced by former Chievo boss Stefano Pioli, who was, however, sacked before the Serie A kickoff after being eliminated by Swiss minnows FC Thun in the Europa League third preliminary round; new head coach Devis Mangia, with no managerial experience other than at youth team and minor league level; despite that, Mangia turned Palermo fortunes by leading the Rosanero in fifth place thanks to an impressive string of six consecutive home wins",
", thus deserving a long-term deal at the club",
". A string of poor results, however, led Palermo to three consecutive defeats, including elimination from the Coppa Italia and a disappointing loss in the Sicilian derby, persuading Zamparini to replace Mangia with the more experienced Bortolo Mutti. Palermo arrived 16th in that season.",
"For the 2012–13 season, Zamparini came with another staff revolution, appointing Giorgio Perinetti as the new director of football and Giuseppe Sannino as the manager, both coming from Siena. A complete squad restructuring, a total five managerial changes and some staff changes (including a short stint with Pietro Lo Monaco as sports director) did not help, and Palermo ended its season in 18th place, being thus relegated to Serie B after nine consecutive seasons in the top flight.",
"For the new Serie B campaign, Zamparini appointed former Milan and Italy international star Gennaro Gattuso as the new manager, despite him having little prior managerial experience; he was sacked in September 2013, the 28th sacked manager in 11 years",
". Fortune was reversed rather rapidly, however, as Palermo regained promotion back to Serie A for the 2014–15 season under the guidance of new head coach Giuseppe Iachini, with the Rosanero completing a record-breaking Serie B season with 86 points, one more than previous record holders Juventus, Chievo and Sassuolo (all of them in the 22-team Serie B format).",
"With Iachini confirmed in charge, Palermo played a rather successful 2014–15 Serie A season, narrowly missing on a UEFA Europa League spot also thanks to the all-Argentine striking force of Paulo Dybala and Franco Vázquez.",
"In 2015–16 season, Palermo started their season without Dybala after the youngster moved to Juventus; the Rosanero therefore relied on senior striker Alberto Gilardino to play as a partner of Vázquez. Another long list of managerial changes during the season (seven in total, with Davide Ballardini as the final one) marked a very troublesome season, during which Palermo escaped relegation on the last day of the league with the necessary win over Hellas Verona 3–2, securing 16th place.",
"For the 2016–17 season, Zamparini re-appointed Rino Foschi as director of football; he however resigned after just a month in charge and was replaced by former Trapani director Daniele Faggiano. Most senior players such as Gilardino, Sorrentino, Vázquez and Maresca were sold and mostly replaced with Alessandro Diamanti plus a number of young and quasi-unknown foreign players",
". Ballardini, who was originally confirmed as head coach, left his position after a draw at Inter Milan at the second matchday of the season and was replaced with Serie A newbie Roberto De Zerbi who ended his stay after seven league losses in a row, with former club captain Eugenio Corini taking over",
". More managerial and staff changes followed with little luck and, on 27 February 2017, Zamparini stepped down as chairman of Palermo after 15 years in charge, announcing he had agreed in principle to sell his controlling stake to an unspecified Anglo-American fund, led by Italian-American Paul Baccaglini who was named new club president on 6 March.",
"Palermo ended the season in 19th place, being relegated to Serie B. The takeover, originally scheduled to be finalized by 30 April 2017 and then delayed by 30 June, eventually collapsed after Zamparini, who in the meantime had appointed Bruno Tedino as new head coach for the 2017–18 Serie B campaign, rejected the final offer he received from Baccaglini. On 4 July 2017, Baccaglini resigned as Palermo chairman, falling back into the hands of Zamparini, after the necessary funds were not in place.",
"Palermo's campaign in the 2017–18 Serie B aimed for an immediate return to the top flight, with Bruno Tedino as head coach and Fabio Lupo as director of football. Initially, the team's form was good and the Rosanero ended the first half of the season in first place; however, a string of negative results led to the appointment of new manager Roberto Stellone, who was ultimately unable to win promotion, ending the regular season in fourth place and eventually losing the playoff finals to Frosinone.",
"New ownerships, financial issues and Serie B exclusion (2018–2019)",
"For the 2018–19 Serie B season, Palermo (with Rino Foschi back for a third time as sporting director) found themselves having to sell a number of players for financial reasons. On 22 November 2018, the club formally confirmed a takeover agreement between Zamparini and an undisclosed investor, later confirmed to be the London based Sport Capital Group Investments Ltd., with English businessman Clive Richardson, head of the new group, being named as new club chairman",
". Following a January 2019 transfer window with no signings at all and serious tensions within the board, Clive Richardson (chairman) and John Treacy (director) both resigned from the club with immediate effect on 4 February 2019, citing that the full nature of the serious financial situation at the club had not been fully disclosed to them at the time of their purchase",
". Days later, the club was acquired for a nominal fee by Daniela De Angeli (former managing director from the Zamparini days) and Rino Foschi (appointed as chairman), only for them to sell it again to hotel and tourism company Arkus Network S.r.l. later in May. The new owner, Sporting Network S.r.l., subscribed a €5 million capital increase to the club.",
"At the end of the 2018–19 Serie B, Palermo finished in third place with 63 points but was demoted by FIGC to last place in Serie B on 13 May due to serious financial irregularities, which meant relegation to Serie C for the following season. The club appealed to FIGC against this ruling and were successful in having the penalty revised; rather than automatic demotion, the club was merely docked 20 points instead, which consequently placed them in a comfortable mid-table eleventh position",
". However, on 24 June 2019, Palermo incorrectly submitted to FIGC their standard application for the following 2019–20 Serie B season, by failing to provide evidence of a valid insurance policy for the new season. A club trading with no insurance is an extremely serious breach of Italian company law, and as such FIGC had no alternative but to formally exclude the club not only from Serie B, but indeed all professional leagues, on 12 July 2019.",
"A fresh start, City Football Group ownership (2019–present)",
"On 23 July 2019, in compliance of Article 52 of N.O.I.F., Mayor of Palermo Leoluca Orlando confirmed six declarations of interests had been presented for a new phoenix club to be admitted in Serie D, the highest level of non-professional football in Italy, for the 2019–20 season. The next day, Orlando announced his choice of a bid by a company named \"Hera Hora srl\", jointly owned by entrepreneurs Dario Mirri (a Palermo native, and Renzo Barbera's nephew) and a Sicilian-American, Tony DiPiazza",
". Palermo completed their Serie D campaign in first place, and was awarded promotion to Serie C by the Italian Football Federation after all the amateur leagues were stopped in March 2020 due to the global COVID-19 pandemic. On 16 July 2020, the club changed its name to Palermo Football Club.",
"Palermo, under the guidance of Silvio Baldini, concluded the 2021–22 Serie C campaign in third place in the Group C, behind Bari and Catanzaro, and then made it to the promotion playoff final against Padova after eliminating Triestina, Virtus Entella and Feralpisalò in the process (during playoffs, Renzo Barbera stadium was always sold out)",
". On 12 June 2022, Palermo were promoted to Serie B after defeating Padova 2–0 on aggregate thus returning to the Italian second division just three years after having been excluded from the league. On 4 July 2022, at the presence of Manchester City F.C. CEO Ferran Soriano, the club was formally announced to have been acquired by City Football Group, a subsidiary of Abu Dhabi United Group, with outgoing owner Dario Mirri (who was confirmed as club chairman) keeping a 20% of the quotes.",
"Under new head coach Eugenio Corini, former Palermo captain in the 2000s, the Rosanero ended their season in ninth place, missing on promotion playoffs in the final game of the season.\n\nColours and badge",
"Colours and badge\n\nThe new official badge as of 2019 is a white eagle's head and three pink/black feathers within a black stylized letter 'P'. The eagle represents the city of Palermo, as it is also part of the city's official coat of arms. This new badge replaced the long-standing badge of the previous formation of the club, an escutcheon with an eagle poised for flight within it, and the previous official club denomination \"U.S. Città di Palermo\" in capital letters on the top.",
"From its foundation, Palermo originally played with a red and blue shirt as its official colours, but decided to switch to the unusual current choice of pink and black on 27 February 1907, contemporaneously with the change of denomination to \"Palermo FootBall Club\".",
"The colour choice of pink and black was suggested by Count Giuseppe Airoldi, a prominent founding member of the club",
". In a personal letter Airoldi wrote on 2 February 1905 to English club councillor Joseph Whitaker, he defined pink and black poetically as \"colours of the sad and the sweet\", a choice he amusingly asserted to be suited for a team characterised by \"results as up and down as a Swiss clock\", noting also the fact that red and blue were a very commonly used choice of colours around Italy at the time.",
"The club had to wait for their new jerseys for three months, because no pink cotton flannel material was available in Palermo and the appointed tailoring company could only find suitable material from England and had to import it from there. The vivid new shirts were first worn in a friendly match against Sir Thomas Lipton's crew team; the match ended in a 2–1 win for Palermo",
". From 1936 to 1940, the team were forced to play in red and yellow jerseys due to an imposition by the fascist regime of Benito Mussolini (red and yellow being the official colours of the municipality of Palermo.) When the club was refounded in 1941 following a merger with Juventina Palermo, they started dressing in light blue shirts on the pitch, but switched back to the very popular pink and black only one year later.",
"Shirt sponsors and manufacturers\n\nStadium\n\nPalermo plays its home matches at Stadio Renzo Barbera. The stadium was opened in 1932, during the fascist regime, with the name Stadio Littorio (after the Italian name for the fasces symbol). The inaugural match, won by Palermo 5–1, was played on 24 January 1932 against Atalanta. In 1936, the Littorio was renamed Stadio Michele Marrone after a fascist soldier who died in the Spanish Civil War.",
"Initially the stadium featured a running track and no spectator space behind the goals, only terraces and a stand along the side. In 1948, following the end of World War II and the fall of the fascist regime, the stadium was renamed Stadio La Favorita, after the Favorita neighbourhood where it was located. It was also restructured to remove the running track and add two curved end sections, increasing its capacity to 30,000. In 1984 it was enlarged to 50,000",
". In 1984 it was enlarged to 50,000. The new capacity was reached only twice: for a Serie C1 league match against Sicilian rivals Messina and for a friendly match against Juventus. On the occasion of the 1990 FIFA World Cup, the stadium was renovated, some new seats added, but the overall capacity reduced to 37,619. During the 1989 renovation works, five employees died following the collapse of a section of the stadium",
". In 2002 the stadium was renamed in honour of Renzo Barbera, legendary Palermo chairman in the 1970s.",
"In 2007 Palermo chairman and owner Maurizio Zamparini announced plans to move the club to a new state-of-the-art stadium possibly to be located in the ZEN neighbourhood of Palermo not far from the Velodromo Paolo Borsellino, a smaller stadium which had previously hosted some Palermo matches.\n\nSupporters",
"Supporters\n\nThe majority of Palermo supporters come from the city and its neighbourhood. However, Palermo is also widely popular throughout Western Sicily, as well as among Sicilian immigrants in northern Italy, For example, a number of Palermo fans living in and around the German city of Solingen have even founded a club named FC Rosaneri in honour of Palermo which, as of 2007, plays in the Kreisliga B league.",
"Support for Palermo is traditionally closely associated with a strong sense of Sicilian identity; indeed, it is not uncommon to see Sicilian flags waved by fans and ultras during Palermo matches. Palermo fans are also twinned with Lecce ultras",
". Palermo fans are also twinned with Lecce ultras. This friendship was strengthened by the acquisition of Fabrizio Miccoli, who is originally from the city of Lecce and a well-known Lecce supporter who went on to become captain of Palermo and also the club's most prolific player, setting records for: most Serie A league goals (74, from 2007 to 2013); most goals in all competitions (81, from 2007 to 2013); and most Serie A league appearances (165, from 2007 to 2013).",
"Palermo's biggest rivals are fellow islanders Catania. Matches between Palermo and Catania are usually referred to as Sicilian derbies, despite the existence of a third Sicilian team, Messina, who played in Serie A alongside Palermo and Catania in recent years. Rivalry with Messina, although historically older, is generally less intense than that with Catania.",
"The 2006–07 return match between Palermo and Catania, played on 2 February 2007 at Stadio Angelo Massimino, Catania, is remembered due to the death of policeman Filippo Raciti who was injured during riots between the local police and the Catania supporters.",
"According to a survey of 2008, the team has about 1.47 million fans domestically, placing it among the top ten best-supported Italian teams. For example, at the Coppa Italia final played in Rome on 29 May 2011 against Inter, which Palermo lost 3–1, it was estimated that there were 25,000 - 35,000 fans from Palermo, easily outnumbering the Nerazzurri fans present.\n\nPlayers\n\nCurrent squad\n\nOther players under contract\n\nOut on loan",
"Players\n\nCurrent squad\n\nOther players under contract\n\nOut on loan\n\nFormer players\nIn 2020, as part of the celebrations for the club's 120th anniversary, Palermo announced a hall of fame selection, with eleven players and a manager selected from a list of over 100 proposals.\n\nThe most voted players were:",
"The most voted players were:\n\n Fabrizio Miccoli; 4183 votes\n Eugenio Corini; 3924 votes\n Javier Pastore; 3835 votes\n Federico Balzaretti; 3738 votes\n Andrea Barzagli; 3495 votes\n Josip Iličić; 2801 votes\n Paulo Dybala; 2798 votes\n Luca Toni; 2700 votes\n Fabio Grosso; 2575 votes\n Francesco Guidolin; 2516 votes\n Amauri; 2292 votes\n Edinson Cavani; 1702 votes\n Stefano Sorrentino; 1583 votes\n Roberto Biffi; 1566 votes\n Lamberto Zauli; 1490 votes\n\nClub officials\n\nBoard of directors",
"Club officials\n\nBoard of directors\n\n Last updated: 7 August 2022\n Source: Board of directors\n\nCurrent technical staff\n\n Last updated: 7 August 2022\n Source: Technical staff\n\nManagers\n\nIn 2020, as part of the celebrations for the club's 120th anniversary, Palermo announced a hall of fame selection, asking their supporters to select the best manager in the club's history among a list of successful ones from the past.",
"The best manager in the club's history was selected to be Francesco Guidolin, who led Palermo to win promotion to Serie A in 2004 after a 31-year absence, and sixth place in the top flight (best result in the club's history) and consequent first ever European qualification the year after.",
"Other candidates for all-time manager were (in order of votes):\n Delio Rossi\n Giuseppe Iachini\n Ignazio Arcoleo\n Čestmír Vycpálek\n Fernando Veneranda\n Giuseppe Caramanno\n Rosario Pergolizzi\n Corrado Viciani\n Carmelo Di Bella\n Gipo Viani\n Benigno De Grandi\n\nChairmen history\nOver the years Palermo has had various owners and chairmen; here is a chronological list of the known chairmen:",
"Edward De Garston (1900–1903)\n Barone Michele Vannucci (1903–1904)\n Cavaliere Ignazio Majo Pagano (1904–1908)\n Barone Roberto Pottino (1908–1915)\n Valentino Colombo (1920–1923)\n Cavaliere Michele Utveggio (1923–1925)\n Valentino Colombo (1925–1926)\n Conte Liotta di Lemos (1928)\n Barone Giovanni Sergio (1928)\n Conte Guido Airoldi (1928–1929)\n Barone Luigi Bordonaro di Gebbiarossa (1929–1931)\n Francesco Paolo Barresi (1931–1933)\n Cavaliere Giovanni Lo Casto Valenti (1933–1934)\n Valentino Colombo (1934–1935)",
"Cavaliere Giovanni Lo Casto Valenti (1933–1934)\n Valentino Colombo (1934–1935)\n Giovanni De Luca (1935)\n Luigi Majo Pagano (1935–1936)\n Valentino Colombo (1936–1937)\n Paolo Di Pietra (1937–1938)\n Salvatore Barbaro (1938–1940)\n Duilio Lanni (1941–1942)\n Giuseppe Agnello (1942–1947)\n Stefano La Motta (1947–1948)\n Giuseppe Guazzardella (1948–1951)\n Raimondo Lanza di Trabia (1951–1952)\n Barone Carlo La Lomia (1952–1953)\n Mario Fasino (1953–1954)\n Ernesto Pivetti (1954–1955)\n Giuseppe Trapani (1955)",
"Mario Fasino (1953–1954)\n Ernesto Pivetti (1954–1955)\n Giuseppe Trapani (1955)\n Conte Arturo Cassina (1955–1956)\n Giuseppe Seminara (1956–1957)\n Casimiro Vizzini (1957–1963)\n Conte Guglielmo Pinzero (1963–1964)\n Ernesto Di Fresco, Luigi Barbaccia, Franz Gorgone (1964)\n Casimiro Vizzini (1964)\n Conte Guglielmo Pinzero (1964)\n Totò Vilardo (1964–1965)\n Franco Spagnolo (1965)\n Franz Gorgone (1965)\n Luigi Gioia (1965)\n Giuseppe Pergolizzi (1967–1970)\n Renzo Barbera (1970–1980)\n Gaspare Gambino (1980–1982)",
"Giuseppe Pergolizzi (1967–1970)\n Renzo Barbera (1970–1980)\n Gaspare Gambino (1980–1982)\n Roberto Parisi (1982–1985)\n Salvatore Matta (1985–1986)\n Salvino Lagumina (1987–1989)\n Giovanni Ferrara (1989–1993)\n Liborio Polizzi (1993–1995)\n Giovanni Ferrara (1995–2000)\n Sergio D'Antoni (2000–2002)\n Maurizio Zamparini (2002–2017)\n Paul Baccaglini (2017)\n Giovanni Giammarva (2017-2018)\n Clive Richardson (2018-2019)\n Rino Foschi (2019)\n Alessandro Albanese (2019)\n Dario Mirri (2019–)",
"Honours\nSerie B\nChampions (5): 1931–32, 1947–48, 1967–68, 2003–04, 2013–14\nSerie C1\nChampions (4): 1941–42, 1945–46, 1992–93, 2000–01\nSerie C2\nChampions (1): 1987–88\nSerie D\nChampions (1): 2019–20\nPrima Divisione\nChampions (1): 1929–30\nCoppa Italia Serie C\nWinners (1): 1992–93",
"Other Titles\nCoppa Federale Siciliana\nWinners (1): 1920\nWhitaker Challenge Cup\nWinners (1): 1908\nLipton Challenge Cup\nWinners (5): 1910, 1912, 1913, 1914, 1915\nTorneo di Tunisi\nWinners (1): 1923\nCampionato Primavera:\nWinners (1): 2008–09\nCampionato Nazionale Dante Berretti:\nWinners (1): 2000–01\nCoppa Allievi Professionisti:\nWinners (1): 1997–98\nCampionato Giovanissimi Regionali:\nWinners (2): 2011–12, 2012–13\n\nRecords",
"Most appearances in all competitions – 372, Roberto Biffi (1988–1999)\nMost European appearances – 15, Andrea Barzagli, Franco Brienza and Mattia Cassani \nMost Serie A league appearances – 165, Fabrizio Miccoli (2007–2013)\nMost league goals – 74, Fabrizio Miccoli (2007–2013)\nMost Serie A league goals – 74, Fabrizio Miccoli (2007–2013)\nMost Coppa Italia cup goals – 7, Massimo De Stefanis (1979–1984)\nMost Europa League/UEFA Cup goals – 4, Franco Brienza (2000–2013), Abel Hernández (2009–2014)",
"Most Europa League/UEFA Cup goals – 4, Franco Brienza (2000–2013), Abel Hernández (2009–2014)\nMost goals in all competitions – 81, Fabrizio Miccoli (2007–2013)\nMost goals in a season – 30, Luca Toni (2003–2004)\nCurrent player with most appearances – 94, Ivan Marconi (as of 30 June 2023)\nBiggest win and biggest home win in Serie A – 8–0 (v. Pro Patria, 5 November 1950)\nBiggest away win – 8–1 (v. Potenza, 1 March 1942)\nBiggest defeat and biggest away defeat – 0–9 (v. Milan, 18 February 1951)",
"Biggest defeat and biggest away defeat – 0–9 (v. Milan, 18 February 1951)\nBiggest home defeat – 0–7 (v. Udinese, 27 February 2011)\nHighest number of points in Serie A league – 65 pt. (2009–10) 5th position\nBest series without home defeats – 26 (Palermo–Lecce 5–2, 15 March 2009 – Palermo–Cagliari 0–0, 29 August 2010)\nGreatest series of consecutive victories in Serie A league – 5 (2006–07)",
"Competitions\n\nLeague\n\nNational cups\n\nInternational competitions\n\nIn Europe\n\nUEFA Cup / UEFA Europa League\n\nReferences\n\nBibliography\n\nExternal links\n\n \n\n \nFootball clubs in Italy\nFootball clubs in Sicily\nAssociation football clubs established in 1900\nSerie B clubs\nSerie C clubs\nSerie D clubs\n1900 establishments in Italy\n1927 establishments in Italy\n1940 establishments in Italy\n1987 establishments in Italy\n2019 establishments in Italy\nPhoenix clubs (association football)\nCoppa Italia Serie C winning clubs"
] |
List of United Kingdom locations: Wam-Way
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20United%20Kingdom%20locations%3A%20Wam-Way
|
[
"Wam–Was",
"|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wambrook\n| class=\"adr\" | Somerset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wamphray Water\n| class=\"adr\" | Dumfries and Galloway\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wampoo\n| class=\"adr\" | Cumbria\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wampool\n| class=\"adr\" | Cumbria\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wanborough\n| class=\"adr\" | Surrey",
"| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wanborough\n| class=\"adr\" | Surrey\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wanborough\n| class=\"adr\" | Swindon\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wandel Dyke\n| class=\"adr\" | South Lanarkshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wandle Park\n| class=\"adr\" | Croydon\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wandon End",
"| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wandon End\n| class=\"adr\" | Luton\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wandsworth\n| class=\"adr\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wangford \n| class=\"adr\" | Suffolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wanlip\n| class=\"adr\" | Leicestershire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wanlockhead",
"| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wanlockhead\n| class=\"adr\" | Dumfries and Galloway\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wannock\n| class=\"adr\" | East Sussex\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wansford\n| class=\"adr\" | Cambridgeshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wansford\n| class=\"adr\" | East Riding of Yorkshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" |",
"| class=\"adr\" | East Riding of Yorkshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wanshurst Green\n| class=\"adr\" | Kent\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wanson\n| class=\"adr\" | Cornwall\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wanstead\n| class=\"adr\" | Redbridge\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wanstrow\n| class=\"adr\" | Somerset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" |",
"| class=\"fn org\" | Wanstrow\n| class=\"adr\" | Somerset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wansunt\n| class=\"adr\" | Bexley\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wanswell\n| class=\"adr\" | Gloucestershire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wantage\n| class=\"adr\" | Oxfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wants Green\n| class=\"adr\" | Herefordshire\n| class=\"note\" |",
"|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wants Green\n| class=\"adr\" | Herefordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wapley\n| class=\"adr\" | South Gloucestershire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waplington\n| class=\"adr\" | East Riding of Yorkshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wappenbury\n| class=\"adr\" | Warwickshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | Warwickshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wappenham\n| class=\"adr\" | Northamptonshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wapping\n| class=\"adr\" | Southwark\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warbleton\n| class=\"adr\" | East Sussex\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warblington\n| class=\"adr\" | Hampshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" |",
"| class=\"fn org\" | Warblington\n| class=\"adr\" | Hampshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warborough\n| class=\"adr\" | Oxfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warboys\n| class=\"adr\" | Cambridgeshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warbreck\n| class=\"adr\" | Lancashire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warbstow\n| class=\"adr\" | Cornwall\n| class=\"note\" |",
"|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warbstow\n| class=\"adr\" | Cornwall\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warbstow Cross\n| class=\"adr\" | Cornwall\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warburton\n| class=\"adr\" | Trafford\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warburton Green\n| class=\"adr\" | Trafford\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warcop\n| class=\"adr\" | Cumbria",
"| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warcop\n| class=\"adr\" | Cumbria\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warden\n| class=\"adr\" | Powys\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warden\n| class=\"adr\" | Kent\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warden\n| class=\"adr\" | Northumberland\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Ward End\n| class=\"adr\" | Birmingham",
"| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Ward End\n| class=\"adr\" | Birmingham\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warden Hill\n| class=\"adr\" | Gloucestershire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warden Point\n| class=\"adr\" | Isle of Wight\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warden Street\n| class=\"adr\" | Bedfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | Bedfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Ward Green\n| class=\"adr\" | Suffolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Ward Green\n| class=\"adr\" | Barnsley\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Ward Green Cross\n| class=\"adr\" | Lancashire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wardhedges\n| class=\"adr\" | Bedfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" |",
"| class=\"fn org\" | Wardhedges\n| class=\"adr\" | Bedfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wardhill\n| class=\"adr\" | Orkney Islands\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wardington\n| class=\"adr\" | Oxfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wardlaw\n| class=\"adr\" | Scottish Borders\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wardle\n| class=\"adr\" | Rochdale",
"| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wardle\n| class=\"adr\" | Rochdale\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wardle\n| class=\"adr\" | Cheshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wardle Bank\n| class=\"adr\" | Cheshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wardley\n| class=\"adr\" | West Sussex\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wardley",
"| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wardley\n| class=\"adr\" | Gateshead\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wardley\n| class=\"adr\" | Salford\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wardley\n| class=\"adr\" | Rutland\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wardlow\n| class=\"adr\" | Derbyshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wardour",
"| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wardour\n| class=\"adr\" | Wiltshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wardpark\n| class=\"adr\" | North Lanarkshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wardrobes\n| class=\"adr\" | Buckinghamshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wardsend\n| class=\"adr\" | Cheshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | Cheshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wardy Hill\n| class=\"adr\" | Cambridgeshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Ware\n| class=\"adr\" | Devon\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Ware\n| class=\"adr\" | Dorset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Ware\n| class=\"adr\" | Hertfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | Hertfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Ware\n| class=\"adr\" | Kent\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wareham Forest\n| class=\"adr\" | Dorset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warehorne\n| class=\"adr\" | Kent\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waren Burn\n| class=\"adr\" | Northumberland\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | Northumberland\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warenford\n| class=\"adr\" | Northumberland\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waren Mill\n| class=\"adr\" | Northumberland\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wareside\n| class=\"adr\" | Hertfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waresley\n| class=\"adr\" | Cambridgeshire\n| class=\"note\" |",
"|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waresley\n| class=\"adr\" | Cambridgeshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waresley\n| class=\"adr\" | Worcestershire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Ware Street\n| class=\"adr\" | Kent\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warfield\n| class=\"adr\" | Berkshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warfleet\n| class=\"adr\" | Devon",
"| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warfleet\n| class=\"adr\" | Devon\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wargate\n| class=\"adr\" | Lincolnshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wargrave\n| class=\"adr\" | Berkshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wargrave\n| class=\"adr\" | Cheshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warham",
"| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warham\n| class=\"adr\" | Herefordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warham\n| class=\"adr\" | Norfolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warhill\n| class=\"adr\" | Tameside\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warings Green\n| class=\"adr\" | Warwickshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | Warwickshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wark on Tweed\n| class=\"adr\" | Northumberland\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wark on Tyne\n| class=\"adr\" | Northumberland\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wark Common\n| class=\"adr\" | Northumberland\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warkleigh\n| class=\"adr\" | Devon\n| class=\"note\" |",
"|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warkleigh\n| class=\"adr\" | Devon\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warkton\n| class=\"adr\" | Northamptonshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warkworth\n| class=\"adr\" | Northamptonshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warkworth\n| class=\"adr\" | Northumberland\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warlaby",
"| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warlaby\n| class=\"adr\" | North Yorkshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warland\n| class=\"adr\" | Calderdale\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warleggan\n| class=\"adr\" | Cornwall\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warleigh\n| class=\"adr\" | Bath and North East Somerset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | Bath and North East Somerset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warley\n| class=\"adr\" | Essex\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warley Town\n| class=\"adr\" | Calderdale\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warley Woods\n| class=\"adr\" | Sandwell\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warlingham\n| class=\"adr\" | Surrey\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" |",
"| class=\"fn org\" | Warlingham\n| class=\"adr\" | Surrey\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warmbrook\n| class=\"adr\" | Derbyshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warmfield\n| class=\"adr\" | Wakefield\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warmingham\n| class=\"adr\" | Cheshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warminghurst\n| class=\"adr\" | West Sussex\n| class=\"note\" |",
"|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warminghurst\n| class=\"adr\" | West Sussex\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warmington\n| class=\"adr\" | Northamptonshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warmington\n| class=\"adr\" | Warwickshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warminster\n| class=\"adr\" | Wiltshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warminster Common",
"| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warminster Common\n| class=\"adr\" | Wiltshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warmlake\n| class=\"adr\" | Kent\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warmley\n| class=\"adr\" | South Gloucestershire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warmley Hill\n| class=\"adr\" | South Gloucestershire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | South Gloucestershire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warmley Tower\n| class=\"adr\" | South Gloucestershire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warmonds Hill\n| class=\"adr\" | Northamptonshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warmsworth\n| class=\"adr\" | Doncaster\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warmwell\n| class=\"adr\" | Dorset\n| class=\"note\" |",
"|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warmwell\n| class=\"adr\" | Dorset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warnborough Green\n| class=\"adr\" | Hampshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warndon\n| class=\"adr\" | Worcestershire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warndon\n| class=\"adr\" | Worcestershire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warners End",
"| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warners End\n| class=\"adr\" | Hertfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warnford\n| class=\"adr\" | Hampshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warnham\n| class=\"adr\" | West Sussex\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warningcamp\n| class=\"adr\" | West Sussex\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | West Sussex\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warninglid\n| class=\"adr\" | West Sussex\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warpsgrove\n| class=\"adr\" | Oxfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warren\n| class=\"adr\" | Dorset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warren\n| class=\"adr\" | Pembrokeshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" |",
"| class=\"fn org\" | Warren\n| class=\"adr\" | Pembrokeshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warren\n| class=\"adr\" | Sheffield\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warren\n| class=\"adr\" | Cheshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warrenby\n| class=\"adr\" | Redcar and Cleveland\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warren Corner\n| class=\"adr\" | Hampshire",
"| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warren Corner\n| class=\"adr\" | Hampshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warren Corner\n| class=\"adr\" | Hampshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warren Heath\n| class=\"adr\" | Suffolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warren Row\n| class=\"adr\" | Berkshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warren's Green",
"| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warren's Green\n| class=\"adr\" | Hertfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warren Street\n| class=\"adr\" | Kent\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warrington\n| class=\"adr\" | Milton Keynes\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warrington\n| class=\"adr\" | Cheshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | Cheshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warriston\n| class=\"adr\" | City of Edinburgh\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warsash\n| class=\"adr\" | Hampshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warse\n| class=\"adr\" | Highland\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warsill\n| class=\"adr\" | North Yorkshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" |",
"| class=\"fn org\" | Warsill\n| class=\"adr\" | North Yorkshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warslow\n| class=\"adr\" | Staffordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warsop Vale\n| class=\"adr\" | Nottinghamshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warstock\n| class=\"adr\" | Birmingham\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warstone\n| class=\"adr\" | Staffordshire",
"| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warstone\n| class=\"adr\" | Staffordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warter\n| class=\"adr\" | East Riding of Yorkshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warthermarske\n| class=\"adr\" | North Yorkshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warthill\n| class=\"adr\" | North Yorkshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | North Yorkshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wartling\n| class=\"adr\" | East Sussex\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wartnaby\n| class=\"adr\" | Leicestershire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warton\n| class=\"adr\" | Lancashire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warton\n| class=\"adr\" | Lancashire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" |",
"| class=\"fn org\" | Warton\n| class=\"adr\" | Lancashire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warton\n| class=\"adr\" | Northumberland\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warton\n| class=\"adr\" | Warwickshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warton Bank\n| class=\"adr\" | Lancashire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warwick\n| class=\"adr\" | Warwickshire\n| class=\"note\" |",
"|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warwick\n| class=\"adr\" | Warwickshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warwick Bridge\n| class=\"adr\" | Cumbria\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warwick-on-Eden\n| class=\"adr\" | Cumbria\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warwicksland\n| class=\"adr\" | Cumbria\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warwick Wold",
"| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Warwick Wold\n| class=\"adr\" | Surrey\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wasbister\n| class=\"adr\" | Orkney Islands\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wasdale\n| class=\"adr\" | Cumbria\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wasdale Beck\n| class=\"adr\" | Cumbria\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | Cumbria\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wasdale Head\n| class=\"adr\" | Cumbria\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wash\n| class=\"adr\" | Derbyshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Washall Green\n| class=\"adr\" | Hertfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Washaway\n| class=\"adr\" | Cornwall\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | Cornwall\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Washbourne\n| class=\"adr\" | Devon\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Washbrook\n| class=\"adr\" | Somerset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Washbrook\n| class=\"adr\" | Suffolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Washbrook Street\n| class=\"adr\" | Suffolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | Suffolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Washburn\n| class=\"adr\" | North Yorkshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wash Common\n| class=\"adr\" | Berkshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wash Dyke\n| class=\"adr\" | Norfolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Washerwall\n| class=\"adr\" | Staffordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" |",
"| class=\"fn org\" | Washerwall\n| class=\"adr\" | Staffordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Washfield\n| class=\"adr\" | Devon\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Washfold\n| class=\"adr\" | North Yorkshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Washford\n| class=\"adr\" | Somerset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Washford\n| class=\"adr\" | Warwickshire\n| class=\"note\" |",
"|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Washford\n| class=\"adr\" | Warwickshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Washford Pyne\n| class=\"adr\" | Devon\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Washingborough\n| class=\"adr\" | Lincolnshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Washingley\n| class=\"adr\" | Cambridgeshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Washington",
"| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Washington\n| class=\"adr\" | West Sussex\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Washington\n| class=\"adr\" | Sunderland\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Washington Village\n| class=\"adr\" | Sunderland\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Washmere Green\n| class=\"adr\" | Suffolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | Suffolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Washpit\n| class=\"adr\" | Kirklees\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wash Water\n| class=\"adr\" | Hampshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Washwood Heath\n| class=\"adr\" | Birmingham\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wasing\n| class=\"adr\" | Berkshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | Berkshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waskerley\n| class=\"adr\" | Durham\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wasperton\n| class=\"adr\" | Warwickshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wasp Green\n| class=\"adr\" | Surrey\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wasps Nest\n| class=\"adr\" | Lincolnshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" |",
"| class=\"fn org\" | Wasps Nest\n| class=\"adr\" | Lincolnshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wass\n| class=\"adr\" | North Yorkshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wassand\n| class=\"adr\" | East Riding of Yorkshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waste Green\n| class=\"adr\" | Warwickshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wastor\n| class=\"adr\" | Devon",
"| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wastor\n| class=\"adr\" | Devon\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wast Water\n| class=\"adr\" | Cumbria\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|}",
"Wat–Waz",
"|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Watchcombe\n| class=\"adr\" | Devon\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Watchet\n| class=\"adr\" | Somerset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Watchfield\n| class=\"adr\" | Somerset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Watchfield\n| class=\"adr\" | Oxfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Watchgate\n| class=\"adr\" | Cumbria",
"| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Watchgate\n| class=\"adr\" | Cumbria\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Watchhill\n| class=\"adr\" | Cumbria\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Watch House Green\n| class=\"adr\" | Essex\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Watchill\n| class=\"adr\" | Dumfries and Galloway\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Watcombe",
"| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Watcombe\n| class=\"adr\" | Devon\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Watendlath\n| class=\"adr\" | Cumbria\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Water\n| class=\"adr\" | Devon\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Water\n| class=\"adr\" | Lancashire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterbeach",
"| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterbeach\n| class=\"adr\" | West Sussex\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterbeach\n| class=\"adr\" | Cambridgeshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterbeck\n| class=\"adr\" | Dumfries and Galloway\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterdale\n| class=\"adr\" | Hertfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | Hertfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterditch\n| class=\"adr\" | Dorset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Water Eaton\n| class=\"adr\" | Milton Keynes\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Water Eaton\n| class=\"adr\" | Oxfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Water End\n| class=\"adr\" | Bedfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" |",
"| class=\"fn org\" | Water End\n| class=\"adr\" | Bedfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Water End\n| class=\"adr\" | Essex\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Water End\n| class=\"adr\" | Bedfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Water End\n| class=\"adr\" | Bedfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterend\n| class=\"adr\" | Gloucestershire",
"| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterend\n| class=\"adr\" | Gloucestershire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Water End\n| class=\"adr\" | Hertfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterend\n| class=\"adr\" | Hertfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterend\n| class=\"adr\" | Buckinghamshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | Buckinghamshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Water End\n| class=\"adr\" | Hertfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Water End\n| class=\"adr\" | Hampshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterend\n| class=\"adr\" | Cumbria\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Water End\n| class=\"adr\" | East Riding of Yorkshire\n| class=\"note\" |",
"| class=\"fn org\" | Water End\n| class=\"adr\" | East Riding of Yorkshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterfall\n| class=\"adr\" | Staffordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterfoot\n| class=\"adr\" | Argyll and Bute\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterfoot\n| class=\"adr\" | Cumbria\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterfoot\n| class=\"adr\" | Lancashire",
"| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterfoot\n| class=\"adr\" | Lancashire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterfoot\n| class=\"adr\" | East Renfrewshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterford\n| class=\"adr\" | Hampshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterford\n| class=\"adr\" | Hertfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | Hertfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Water Fryston\n| class=\"adr\" | Wakefield\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Water Garth Nook\n| class=\"adr\" | Cumbria\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Watergate\n| class=\"adr\" | Cornwall\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Watergate\n| class=\"adr\" | Cornwall\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" |",
"| class=\"fn org\" | Watergate\n| class=\"adr\" | Cornwall\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Watergore\n| class=\"adr\" | Somerset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterhales\n| class=\"adr\" | Essex\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterham\n| class=\"adr\" | Kent\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterhay\n| class=\"adr\" | Wiltshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" |",
"| class=\"fn org\" | Waterhay\n| class=\"adr\" | Wiltshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterhead\n| class=\"adr\" | Devon\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterhead\n| class=\"adr\" | Cumbria\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterheads\n| class=\"adr\" | Scottish Borders\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterheath\n| class=\"adr\" | Norfolk\n| class=\"note\" |",
"|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterheath\n| class=\"adr\" | Norfolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterhouses\n| class=\"adr\" | Durham\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Water Houses\n| class=\"adr\" | North Yorkshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterhouses\n| class=\"adr\" | Staffordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wateringbury",
"| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wateringbury\n| class=\"adr\" | Kent\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterlane\n| class=\"adr\" | Gloucestershire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterlip\n| class=\"adr\" | Somerset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterloo\n| class=\"adr\" | Cornwall\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | Cornwall\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterloo\n| class=\"adr\" | Derbyshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterloo\n| class=\"adr\" | Highland\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterloo\n| class=\"adr\" | Lancashire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterloo\n| class=\"adr\" | Norfolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | Norfolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterloo\n| class=\"adr\" | Norfolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterloo\n| class=\"adr\" | Norfolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterloo\n| class=\"adr\" | North Lanarkshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterloo\n| class=\"adr\" | Pembrokeshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" |",
"| class=\"fn org\" | Waterloo\n| class=\"adr\" | Pembrokeshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterloo\n| class=\"adr\" | Perth and Kinross\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterloo\n| class=\"adr\" | Poole\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterloo\n| class=\"adr\" | Sefton\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterloo\n| class=\"adr\" | Shropshire\n| class=\"note\" |",
"|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterloo\n| class=\"adr\" | Shropshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterloo\n| class=\"adr\" | Tameside\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterloo Park\n| class=\"adr\" | Sefton\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterloo Port\n| class=\"adr\" | Gwynedd\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterlooville\n| class=\"adr\" | Hampshire",
"| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterlooville\n| class=\"adr\" | Hampshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterman Quarter\n| class=\"adr\" | Kent\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Watermead\n| class=\"adr\" | Gloucestershire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Watermill\n| class=\"adr\" | East Sussex\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | East Sussex\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Watermillock\n| class=\"adr\" | Cumbria\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Watermoor\n| class=\"adr\" | Gloucestershire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Water Newton\n| class=\"adr\" | Cambridgeshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Water of Ae\n| class=\"adr\" | Dumfries and Galloway\n| class=\"note\" |",
"| class=\"fn org\" | Water of Ae\n| class=\"adr\" | Dumfries and Galloway\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Water of Ailnach\n| class=\"adr\" | Moray\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Water of Ailnack\n| class=\"adr\" | Moray\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Water of Aven\n| class=\"adr\" | Aberdeenshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Water of Buchat",
"| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Water of Buchat\n| class=\"adr\" | Aberdeenshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Water of Chon\n| class=\"adr\" | Stirling\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Water of Cruden\n| class=\"adr\" | Aberdeenshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Water of Deugh\n| class=\"adr\" | Dumfries and Galloway\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" |",
"| class=\"adr\" | Dumfries and Galloway\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Water of Deugh\n| class=\"adr\" | Dumfries and Galloway\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Water of Dye\n| class=\"adr\" | Aberdeenshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Water of Fail\n| class=\"adr\" | South Ayrshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Water of Feugh\n| class=\"adr\" | Aberdeenshire",
"| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Water of Feugh\n| class=\"adr\" | Aberdeenshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Water of Fleet\n| class=\"adr\" | Dumfries and Galloway\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Water of Girvan\n| class=\"adr\" | South Ayrshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Water of Ken\n| class=\"adr\" | Dumfries and Galloway\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" |",
"| class=\"adr\" | Dumfries and Galloway\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Water of Leith\n| class=\"adr\" | West Lothian\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Water of Luce\n| class=\"adr\" | Dumfries and Galloway\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Water of Mark\n| class=\"adr\" | Angus\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Water of Minnoch\n| class=\"adr\" | South Ayrshire",
"|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Water of Minnoch\n| class=\"adr\" | South Ayrshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Water of Minnoch\n| class=\"adr\" | Dumfries and Galloway\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Water of Nevis\n| class=\"adr\" | Highland\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Water of Philorth\n| class=\"adr\" | Aberdeenshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | Aberdeenshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Water of Ruchill\n| class=\"adr\" | Perth and Kinross\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Water of Saughs\n| class=\"adr\" | Angus\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Water of Tulla\n| class=\"adr\" | Argyll and Bute\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Water of Unich\n| class=\"adr\" | Angus\n| class=\"note\" |",
"|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Water of Unich\n| class=\"adr\" | Angus\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Water Orton\n| class=\"adr\" | Warwickshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterperry\n| class=\"adr\" | Oxfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterrow\n| class=\"adr\" | Somerset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Watersfield",
"| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Watersfield\n| class=\"adr\" | West Sussex\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Watersheddings\n| class=\"adr\" | Oldham\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterside\n| class=\"adr\" | Buckinghamshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterside\n| class=\"adr\" | Cumbria\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | Cumbria\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterside\n| class=\"adr\" | Derbyshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterside\n| class=\"adr\" | Doncaster\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterside\n| class=\"adr\" | Lancashire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterside\n| class=\"adr\" | Shropshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | Shropshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterside\n| class=\"adr\" | Surrey\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterside\n| class=\"adr\" | East Ayrshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterside\n| class=\"adr\" | East Ayrshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterside\n| class=\"adr\" | East Dunbartonshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" |",
"| class=\"adr\" | East Dunbartonshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterside\n| class=\"adr\" | East Renfrewshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterslack\n| class=\"adr\" | Lancashire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Water's Nook\n| class=\"adr\" | Bolton\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterstein\n| class=\"adr\" | Highland\n| class=\"note\" |",
"|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterstein\n| class=\"adr\" | Highland\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterstock\n| class=\"adr\" | Oxfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterston\n| class=\"adr\" | Pembrokeshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Water Stratford\n| class=\"adr\" | Buckinghamshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waters Upton",
"| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waters Upton\n| class=\"adr\" | Shropshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterthorpe\n| class=\"adr\" | Sheffield\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterton\n| class=\"adr\" | Aberdeenshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterton\n| class=\"adr\" | Bridgend\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | Bridgend\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waterton\n| class=\"adr\" | Lincolnshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Water Yeat\n| class=\"adr\" | Cumbria\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Watford\n| class=\"adr\" | Hertfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Watford\n| class=\"adr\" | Northamptonshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" |",
"| class=\"fn org\" | Watford\n| class=\"adr\" | Northamptonshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Watford Gap\n| class=\"adr\" | Birmingham\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Watford Heath\n| class=\"adr\" | Hertfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Watford Park\n| class=\"adr\" | Caerphilly\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wath\n| class=\"adr\" | Cumbria",
"| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wath\n| class=\"adr\" | Cumbria\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wath (near Ripon)\n| class=\"adr\" | North Yorkshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wath (Ryedale)\n| class=\"adr\" | North Yorkshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wath (near Pateley Bridge)\n| class=\"adr\" | North Yorkshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | North Yorkshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wath Brow\n| class=\"adr\" | Cumbria\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Watherston\n| class=\"adr\" | Scottish Borders\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wath upon Dearne\n| class=\"adr\" | Rotherham\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Watledge\n| class=\"adr\" | Gloucestershire\n| class=\"note\" |",
"|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Watledge\n| class=\"adr\" | Gloucestershire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Watley's End\n| class=\"adr\" | South Gloucestershire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Watlington\n| class=\"adr\" | Oxfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Watlington\n| class=\"adr\" | Norfolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Watnall",
"| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Watnall\n| class=\"adr\" | Nottinghamshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wats Ness\n| class=\"adr\" | Shetland Islands\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Watten\n| class=\"adr\" | Highland\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Watternish\n| class=\"adr\" | Highland\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | Highland\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wattisfield\n| class=\"adr\" | Suffolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wattisham\n| class=\"adr\" | Suffolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wattisham Stone\n| class=\"adr\" | Suffolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wattlefield\n| class=\"adr\" | Norfolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | Norfolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wattlesborough Heath\n| class=\"adr\" | Shropshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Watton\n| class=\"adr\" | Dorset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Watton\n| class=\"adr\" | East Riding of Yorkshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Watton\n| class=\"adr\" | Norfolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" |",
"| class=\"fn org\" | Watton\n| class=\"adr\" | Norfolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Watton-at-Stone\n| class=\"adr\" | Hertfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Watton Green\n| class=\"adr\" | Norfolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Watton's Green\n| class=\"adr\" | Essex\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wattston\n| class=\"adr\" | North Lanarkshire",
"| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wattston\n| class=\"adr\" | North Lanarkshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wattstown\n| class=\"adr\" | Rhondda, Cynon, Taff\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wattsville\n| class=\"adr\" | Caerphilly\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wauldby\n| class=\"adr\" | East Riding of Yorkshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | East Riding of Yorkshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waulkmill\n| class=\"adr\" | Dumfries and Galloway\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waulkmill\n| class=\"adr\" | Angus\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waulkmill\n| class=\"adr\" | Perth and Kinross\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waulkmills\n| class=\"adr\" | Angus\n| class=\"note\" |",
"|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waulkmills\n| class=\"adr\" | Angus\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waun\n| class=\"adr\" | Gwynedd\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waun\n| class=\"adr\" | Powys\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waunarlwydd\n| class=\"adr\" | Swansea\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waun Beddau\n| class=\"adr\" | Pembrokeshire\n| class=\"note\" |",
"|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waun Beddau\n| class=\"adr\" | Pembrokeshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waun Fawr\n| class=\"adr\" | Ceredigion\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waunfawr\n| class=\"adr\" | Gwynedd\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waungilwen\n| class=\"adr\" | Carmarthenshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waungron\n| class=\"adr\" | Swansea",
"| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waungron\n| class=\"adr\" | Swansea\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waun-Lwyd\n| class=\"adr\" | Blaenau Gwent\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waun y Clyn\n| class=\"adr\" | Carmarthenshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waun y Gilfach\n| class=\"adr\" | Bridgend\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wavendon",
"| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wavendon\n| class=\"adr\" | Milton Keynes\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wavendon Gate\n| class=\"adr\" | Milton Keynes\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waver\n| class=\"adr\" | Cumbria\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waverbridge\n| class=\"adr\" | Cumbria\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | Cumbria\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waverton\n| class=\"adr\" | Cumbria\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waverton\n| class=\"adr\" | Cheshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wavertree\n| class=\"adr\" | Liverpool\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wawcott\n| class=\"adr\" | Berkshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | Berkshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wawne\n| class=\"adr\" | East Riding of Yorkshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waxham\n| class=\"adr\" | Norfolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waxholme\n| class=\"adr\" | East Riding of Yorkshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Way\n| class=\"adr\" | Kent\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" |",
"|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Way\n| class=\"adr\" | Kent\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waye\n| class=\"adr\" | Devon\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wayend Street\n| class=\"adr\" | Herefordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wayfield\n| class=\"adr\" | Kent\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wayford\n| class=\"adr\" | Somerset\n| class=\"note\" |",
"|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wayford\n| class=\"adr\" | Somerset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waymills\n| class=\"adr\" | Shropshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wayne Green\n| class=\"adr\" | Monmouthshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Way's Green\n| class=\"adr\" | Cheshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waytown\n| class=\"adr\" | Devon",
"| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waytown\n| class=\"adr\" | Devon\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waytown\n| class=\"adr\" | Devon\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Waytown\n| class=\"adr\" | Dorset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Way Village\n| class=\"adr\" | Devon\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Way Wick\n| class=\"adr\" | North Somerset",
"| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Way Wick\n| class=\"adr\" | North Somerset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|}"
] |
Aegean dispute
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegean%20dispute
|
[
"The Aegean dispute is a set of interrelated controversies between Greece and Turkey over sovereignty and related rights in the region of the Aegean Sea. This set of conflicts has strongly affected Greek-Turkish relations since the 1970s, and has twice led to crises coming close to the outbreak of military hostilities, in 1987 and in early 1996. The issues in the Aegean fall into several categories:\n The delimitation of territorial waters,\n The delimitation of national airspace,",
"The delimitation of territorial waters,\n The delimitation of national airspace,\n The delimitation of exclusive economic zones (EEZ) and the use of the continental shelf,\n The role of flight information regions (FIR) for the control of military flight activity,\n The issue of the demilitarized status assigned to some of the Greek islands in the region,\n Turkish claims of \"grey zones\" of undetermined sovereignty over a number of islets, most notably the islets of Imia.",
"One aspect of the dispute is the differing interpretations of the maritime law: Turkey has not signed up to the Convention on the Continental Shelf nor the superseding United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, which as of May 2022 has been signed by 168 parties, including Greece; as such, Turkey does not recognize a legal continental shelf and EEZ around the Greek islands.",
"Between 1998 and the early 2010s, the two countries came closer to overcoming the tensions through a series of diplomatic measures, particularly with a view to easing Turkey's accession to the European Union. However, differences over suitable diplomatic paths to a substantial solution remained unresolved, and as of 2023 tensions remain.",
"Maritime and aerial zones of influence",
"Several of the Aegean issues deal with the delimitation of both countries' zones of influence in the air and on the sea around their respective territories. These issues owe their virulence to a geographical peculiarity of the Aegean sea and its territories. While the mainland coasts of Greece and Turkey bordering the Aegean Sea on both sides represent roughly equal shares of its total coastline, the overwhelming number of the many Aegean islands belong to Greece",
". In particular, there is a chain of Greek islands lined up along the Turkish west coast (Lesbos, Chios, Samos, and the Dodecanese islands), some of them in very close proximity to the mainland. Their existence blocks Turkey from extending any of its zones of influence beyond a few nautical miles off its coastline",
". As the breadth of maritime and aerial zones of influence, such as the territorial waters and national airspace, are measured from the nearest territory of the state in question, including its islands, any possible extension of such zones would necessarily benefit Greece much more than Turkey proportionally.",
"According to a popular perception of these issues in the two countries, Turkey is concerned that Greece might be trying to extend its zones of influence to such a degree that it would turn the Aegean effectively into a \"Greek lake\". Conversely, Greece is concerned that Turkey might try to \"occupy half of the Aegean\", i.e",
". Conversely, Greece is concerned that Turkey might try to \"occupy half of the Aegean\", i.e. establish Turkish zones of influence towards the middle of the Aegean, beyond the chain of outlying Greek islands, turning these into a kind of exclave surrounded by Turkish waters, and thus cutting them off from their motherland.",
"Territorial waters",
"Territorial waters give the littoral state full control over air navigation in the airspace above, and partial control over shipping, although foreign ships (both civil and military) are normally guaranteed innocent passage through them. The standard width of territorial waters that countries are customarily entitled to has steadily increased in the course of the 20th century: from initially at the beginning of the century, to , and currently",
". The current value has been enshrined in treaty law by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 1982 (Art.3). In the Aegean, the territorial waters claimed by both sides are still at 6 miles. The possibility of an extension to 12 miles has fuelled Turkish concerns over a possible disproportionate increase in Greek-controlled space. Turkey has refused to become a member of the convention and does not consider itself bound by it. Turkey considers the convention as res inter alios acta, i.e",
". Turkey considers the convention as res inter alios acta, i.e. a treaty that can only be binding to the signing parties but not to others. Greece, which is a party to the convention, has stated that it reserves the right to apply this rule and extend its waters to 12 miles at some point in the future in the Aegean Sea (it has already done so in the Ionian Sea to the west)",
". Greece holds that the 12-mile rule is not only treaty law but also customary law, as per the wide consensus established among the international community. Against this, Turkey argues that the special geographical properties of the Aegean Sea make a strict application of the 12-mile rule in this case illicit in the interest of equity. Turkey has itself applied the customary 12-mile limit to its coasts outside the Aegean.",
"Tensions over the 12-mile question ran highest between the two countries in the early 1990s, when the Law of the Sea was going to come into force. On 8 June 1995, the Turkish parliament officially declared that unilateral action by Greece would constitute a casus belli, i.e. reason to go to war. This declaration has been condemned by Greece as a violation of the Charter of the United Nations, which forbids \"the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state\"",
".",
"National airspace",
"National airspace is normally defined as the airspace covering a state's land territory and its adjacent territorial waters. National airspace gives the sovereign state a large degree of control over foreign air traffic. While civil aviation is normally allowed passage under international treaties, foreign military and other state aircraft (unlike military vessels in the territorial waters) do not have a right to free passage through another state's national airspace",
". The delimitation of national airspace claimed by Greece is unique, as it does not coincide with the boundary of the territorial waters. Greece claims of airspace, as opposed to currently 6 miles of territorial waters. Since 1974, Turkey has refused to acknowledge the validity of the outer 4-mile belt of airspace that extends beyond the Greek territorial waters",
". Turkey cites the statutes of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) of 1948, as containing a binding definition that both zones must coincide. Against this, Greece argues that:",
"its claim predates the ICAO statute, having been fixed in 1931, and that it was acknowledged by all its neighbours, including Turkey, before and after 1948, hence constituting an established right;\n its 10-mile claim can also be interpreted as just a partial, selective use of the much wider rights guaranteed by the Law of the Sea, namely the right to a 12-mile zone both in the air and on the water;\n Greek territorial waters are set at the 6-mile boundary only because of Turkey's casus belli.",
"The conflict over military flight activities has led to a practice of continuous tactical military provocations, with Turkish aircraft flying in the outer 4-mile zone of contentious airspace and Greek aircraft intercepting them. These encounters often lead to so-called \"dog-fights\", dangerous flight manoeuvres that have repeatedly ended in casualties on both sides. In one instance in 1996, it has been alleged that a Turkish plane was accidentally shot down by a Greek one.\n\nContinental shelf",
"In the context of the Aegean dispute, the term continental shelf refers to a littoral state's exclusive right to economic exploitation of resources on and under the sea-bed, for instance oil drilling, in an area adjacent to its territorial waters and extending into the High Seas. The width of the continental shelf is commonly defined for purposes of international law as not exceeding 200 nautical miles",
". Where the territories of two states lie closer opposite each other than double that distance, the division is made by the median line.",
"The concept of the continental shelf is closely connected to that of an exclusive economic zone, which refers to a littoral state's control over fishery and similar rights. Both concepts were developed in international law from the middle of the 20th century and were codified in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea in 1982.",
"The dispute between Turkey and Greece is to what degree the Greek islands off the Turkish coast should be taken into account for determining the Greek and Turkish economic zones. Turkey argues that the notion of \"continental shelf\", by its very definition, implies that distances should be measured from the continental mainland, claiming that the sea-bed of the Aegean geographically forms a natural prolongation of the Anatolian land mass",
". This would mean for Turkey to be entitled to economic zones up to the median line of the Aegean (leaving out, of course, the territorial waters around the Greek islands in its eastern half, which would remain as Greek exclaves.) Greece, on the other hand, claims that all islands must be taken into account on an equal basis. This would mean that Greece would gain the economic rights to almost the whole of the Aegean.",
"In this matter, Greece has the UN Law of the Sea on its side, but the same Convention restricts the application of this rule to islands of a notable size, as opposed to small uninhabitable islets and rocks. The precise delimitation of the economic zones is the only one of all the Aegean issues where Greece has officially acknowledged that Turkey has legitimate interests that might require some international process of arbitration or compromise between the two sides",
". Turkey cites the resolution of certain International Court of Justice cases like Territorial and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Maritime Delimitation in the Black Sea case, Canada–France Maritime Boundary Case where court had used equitable approach and limited the continental shelves of islands.",
"Tensions over the continental shelf were particularly high during the mid-1970s and again the late 1980s, when it was believed that the Aegean Sea might hold rich oil reserves. Turkey at that time conducted exploratory oceanographic research missions in parts of the disputed area. These were perceived as a dangerous provocation by Greece, which led to a buildup of mutual military threats in 1976 and again in 1987.",
"Flight information regions",
"Unlike the issues described so far, the question of flight information regions (FIR) does not affect the two states' sovereignty rights in the narrow sense. A FIR is a zone of responsibility assigned to a state within the framework of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). It relates to the responsibility for regulating civil aviation. A FIR may stretch beyond the national airspace of a country, i.e. over areas of high seas, or in some cases even over the airspace of another country",
".e. over areas of high seas, or in some cases even over the airspace of another country. It does not give the responsible state the right to prohibit flights by foreign aircraft; however, foreign aircraft are obliged to submit flight plans to the authorities administrating the FIR",
". Two separate disputes have arisen over flight control in the Aegean: the issue of a unilaterally proposed revision of the FIR demarcation, and the question of what rights and obligations arise from the FIR with respect to military as opposed to civil flights.",
"Demarcation",
"By virtue of an agreement signed in 1952, the whole airspace over the Aegean, up to the boundary of the national airspace of Turkey, has been assigned to Athens FIR, administered by Greece. Shortly after the Cyprus crisis of 1974, Turkey unilaterally attempted to change this arrangement, issuing a notice to airmen (NOTAM) stating that it would take over the administration of the eastern half of the Aegean airspace, including the national airspace of the Greek islands in that area",
". Greece responded with a declaration rejecting this move, and declaring the disputed zone unsafe for aviation due to the conflicting claims to authority. This led to some disruption in civil aviation in the area. Turkey later changed its stance, and since 1980 has returned to recognizing Athens FIR in its original demarcation. In practice, the FIR demarcation is currently no longer a disputed issue.",
"Turkish military overflights",
"the current controversy over the FIR relates to the question whether the Greek authorities have a right to oversee not only civil but also military flight activities in the international parts of the Aegean airspace. According to common international practice, military aircraft normally submit flight plans to FIR authorities when moving in international airspace, just like civil aircraft do",
". Turkey refuses to do so, citing the ICAO charter of 1948, which explicitly restricts the scope of its regulations to civil aircraft, arguing that therefore the practice of including military aircraft in the same system is optional. Greece, in contrast, argues that it is obligatory on the basis of later regulations of the ICAO, which it claims have given states the authority to issue more wide-reaching restrictions in the interest of civil aviation safety.",
"This disagreement has led to similar practical consequences as the issue of 6 versus 10 miles of national airspace, as Greece considers all Turkish military flights not registered with its FIR authorities as transgressions of international air traffic regulations, and routinely has its own air force jets intercepting the Turkish ones",
". In popular perception in Greece, the issue of Turkish flights in the international part of Athens FIR is often confused with that of the Turkish intrusions in the disputed outer 4-mile belt of Greek airspace. However, in careful official usage, Greek authorities and media distinguish between \"violations\" (παραβιάσεις) of the national airspace, and \"transgressions\" (παραβάσεις) of traffic regulations, i.e. of the FIR.",
"One of the routine interception maneuvers led to a fatal accident on 23 May 2006. Two Turkish F-16s and one reconnaissance F-4 were flying in the international airspace over the southern Aegean at without having submitted flight plans to the Greek FIR authorities. They were intercepted by two Greek F-16s off the coast of the Greek island Karpathos. During the ensuing mock dog fight, a Turkish F-16 and a Greek F-16 collided midair and subsequently crashed",
". The pilot of the Turkish plane survived the crash, but the Greek pilot died. The incident also highlighted another aspect of the FIR issue, a dispute over conflicting claims to responsibility for maritime search and rescue operations. The Turkish pilot reportedly refused to be rescued by the Greek forces that had been dispatched to the area",
". After the incident, both governments expressed an interest to revive an earlier plan of establishing a direct hotline between the air force commands of both countries in order to prevent escalation of similar situations in the future.",
"Timeline of incidents\n\nRecent developments: Turkey's claims and reactions",
"On 2 September 2019, Turkey's President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan appeared in a photograph with a map that depicted nearly half of the Aegean Sea and an area up to the eastern coast of Crete as belonging to Turkey",
". The map was displayed during an official ceremony at the National Defense University of Turkey in Istanbul and shows an area labelled as \"Turkey's Blue Homeland\" stretching up to the median line of the Aegean, enclosing the Greek islands in that part of the sea without any indication of the Greek territorial waters around them",
". The Blue Homeland is an irredentist and expansionist concept and doctrine, compared to the German concept of Lebensraum; it was created by the Chief of Staff of the Turkish Navy Commander Cihat Yaycı, and developed with Admiral Cem Gurdeniz in 2006. The Greek side expressed its regret, with the Greek Foreign Minister Nikos Dendias stating that Turkey's tactics are \"communication campaigns that cannot change international legitimacy, merely establishing Turkey's image as a perpetrator\".",
"Lodging claims in UN",
"On 13 November 2019, Turkey submitted to the United Nations a series of claims to Exclusive Economic Zones in the Eastern Mediterranean that are in conflict with Greek claims to the same areas – including a sea zone extending west of the southeastern Aegean island of Rhodes and south of Crete. The Turkish claims were made in an official letter by Turkey's Permanent Representative to the UN Feridun Sinirlioglu, which reflect Ankara's notion of a \"Blue Homeland\" (Mavi Vatan)",
". Greece condemned these claims as legally unfounded, incorrect and arbitrary, and an outright violation of Greece's sovereignty.",
"Turkey's view",
"Turkey holds the view, unlike most other states, that no islands can have a full Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) and should only be entitled to a 12 nautical mile reduced EEZ or no EEZ at all rather than the usual 200 miles that Turkey and every other country are entitled to",
". In this context, Turkey, for the first time on 1 December 2019, claimed that the Greek island of Kastellorizo shouldn't have any EEZ at all, because, from the equity-based Turkish viewpoint, it is a small island immediately across the Turkish mainland (which, according to Turkey, has the longest coastline), and isn't supposed to generate a maritime jurisdiction area four thousand times larger than its own surface",
". Furthermore, according to Turkey's Foreign Ministry, an EEZ has to be coextensive with the continental shelf, based on the relative lengths of adjacent coastlines and described any opposing views supporting the right of islands to their EEZ as \"maximalist and uncompromising Greek and Greek Cypriot claims\"",
". On 20 January 2020, the Turkish President Erdogan challenged even the rights of Crete, Greece's largest island and 5th largest in the Mediterranean, stating that \"They talk about a continental shelf around Crete. There is no continental shelf around the islands, there is no such thing, there, it is only sovereign waters.\"",
"Turkey's view, however, is a 'unique' interpretation not shared by any other country and not in accordance to the United Nations' Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) treaty, which as of May 2022 has been signed by 168 parties (including Greece), but not Turkey. Turkey has refused to ratify the UNCLOS, and argues that it is not bound by its provisions that award islands maritime zones",
". The UNCLOS, and particularly Article 121 clearly states that the islands can have exclusive economic zones and continental shelf just like every other land territory. The Ambassadors of the United States and Russia to Athens, Geoffrey Pyatt and Andrey Maslov respectively, while commenting on Turkey's view, stated that all the islands have the same rights to EEZ and continental shelf as the mainlands do",
". The then US Assistant Secretary of State for European and Eurasian Affairs, Aaron Wess Mitchell, criticized the Turkish view on Cyprus's EEZ, stating that it \"is a minority of one versus the rest of the world.\"",
"Turkey–GNA maritime agreement\n\nOn 28 November 2019, President Erdoğan signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) in Istanbul with the Prime Minister of the Tripoli-based Government of National Accord of Libya (GNA), Fayez al-Sarraj, to demarcate maritime zones in the Eastern Mediterranean on an area between Turkey and Libya, appearing to \"write [the Greek island of] Crete off the map entirely\" in the words of Foreign Policy's Keith Johnson.",
"This agreement was controversial and drew condemnation by Greece and the international community, including the rival Tobruk-based government led by the Libyan House of Representatives and Khalifa Haftar, the European Union, United States, Russia, Egypt, Cyprus, Malta, France, Germany, Italy, Sweden, Serbia, Israel, Syria, Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates and the Arab League",
", Sweden, Serbia, Israel, Syria, Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates and the Arab League, as a violation of the International Law of the Sea and the article 8 of the Skhirat Agreement which prohibits the Libyan Prime Minister from solely clinching international deals without consent of all the cabinet members",
". The Libyan House of Representatives consequently started a bid to suspend the GNA from the Arab League, but did not succeed. The United States stated that it was \"provocative\" and a threat to the stability of the region. Acting foreign minister Israel Katz announced Israel's opposition to the maritime border accord between Ankara and Tripoli, and confirmed that the deal was \"illegal\" according to the Israeli official position, while at the same time noting that Israel does not want a conflict with Turkey.",
"On 18 October 2020, the German Federal Parliament (Bundestag)'s research service reviewed the Turkey-GNA maritime deal and found it to be illegal under international law, and detrimental to third parties.\n\nPost-agreement developments",
"In response to these developments, the GNA Ambassador to Greece Mohamed Younis Menfi was summoned to the Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Athens, where he was given an ultimatum of seven days, to disclose until 5 December the agreement his country signed with Turkey on maritime boundaries, or will be considered \"persona non-grata\" and be expelled from Greece. The authorities of the European Union also urged for the disclosure of the deal's details",
". The authorities of the European Union also urged for the disclosure of the deal's details. Also, the Greek Prime Minister Kyriakos Mitsotakis met with the Turkish President on the sidelines of the 2019 London summit to discuss about it. Greek Foreign Minister Dendias revealed in September 2019 that his GNA counterpart, foreign minister Mohamed Taher Siala had reassured the Greek side that Libya would never sign any illegal agreements with Turkey that would violate the Greek sovereign rights.",
"On 6 December, the GNA Ambassador to Athens was expelled from Greece, prompting strong reactions in both the GNA and Turkey. Furthermore, the President of the Tobruk-based Libyan Parliament, Agila Saleh Issa Gwaider, who condemned and opposed the GNA-Turkey deal, was invited to Athens by the President of the Greek Parliament Konstantinos Tasoulas for talks.",
"Ankara asked for the agreement on maritime boundaries from the Government of National Accord (GNA) in the Libyan Civil War, in exchange for Turkey's long-time support against the rival Tobruk-based House of Representatives.",
"It is believed, according to multiple sources, that Turkey's President Recep Tayyip Erdogan is exploiting the weakness of the GNA headed by Fayez al-Sarraj to force it to sign \"illegal\" agreements which are a serious breach of international laws that disregards the lawful rights of other eastern Mediterranean countries; and that through these exploitations, Turkey is trying to assert its regional power and its control of the Mediterranean sea",
", Turkey is trying to assert its regional power and its control of the Mediterranean sea, at the expense of the rights of the other Mediterranean nations and undermining the peace-making efforts to resolve the Libyan Civil War and the curb of migrant influx to Europe",
".",
"On 4 December 2019, the Turkish Minister of Energy and Natural Resources, Fatih Dönmez, announced Turkey's intentions to start awarding licences to drills for natural gas in Greek waters which Ankara claimed through the Turkey-GNA deal, once it is approved by the two countries' parliaments",
". The same day, Turkish President Erdogan stated that he is \"ready\" to start negotiations with Athens for the delimitation of maritime borders between Turkey and Greece, under the condition that the negotiations are based on Turkey's peculiar perception which is stripping the Greek islands of their sovereign rights, and is violating the UNCLOS treaty.",
"The intentions for drills in Greek waters, was confirmed by President Erdogan on a public broadcast of the Mavi Vatan map and the Turkey-GNA deal. On 5 December 2019, the Turkish Parliament ratified the contentious GNA-Turkey maritime borders deal, where it had a strong backing by four of Turkey's five major political parties - with the exception of the pro-Kurdish People's Democracy Party (HDP)",
". The Libyan Parliament however blocked the ratification and rejected the deal unanimously, with the President of the Parliament, Aguila Saleh Issa, sending a letter to the United Nations declaring it as null and void. Even though the ratification by the Libyan Parliament failed, GNA deposited the maritime agreement to the United Nations on 27 December, with Turkey following on 2 March of the next year",
". On 14 July 2020, it is revealed that five countries sent a joint note verbale to the UN Secretariat calling for the agreement to not be registered and accepted, noting that, per UN procedures, its ratification by the Libyan Parliament is a prerequisite. On 1 October, the UN Secretary-General, Antonio Guterres, registered the Turkey-GNA deal on the delimitation of maritime jurisdiction areas in the Mediterranean",
". The agreement \"has been registered with the Secretariat, in accordance with Article 102 of the Charter of the United Nations,\" said the certificate of registration. On 27 January 2021, a court of appeals in Al-Bayda ruled in favour of a lawsuit filed by the House of Representatives, declaring the Memorandum invalid.",
"According to multiple sources, there is a fear of destabilization in the East Mediterranean and NATO due to Turkey's assertive moves and that an armed conflict between Turkey and Greece draws closer. On 9 December, the vessels of the Libyan Navy which are under the control of the Libyan National Army, announced that they received mandate to sink any Turkish research vessels or drillships that may attempt to conduct researches south of Crete, as part of the Turkey-GNA deal",
". France also signaled its intention to send French frigates and ships to the south of Crete, in coordination with Athens, while Italy sent its frigate \"Martinengo\" to monitor, patrol and safeguard the sea around Cyprus, which has been the subject of claims by Turkey.",
"On 30 May 2020, the Turkish Petroleum Corporation (TPAO) applied to the Turkish Ministry of Energy for exploration permits on the Greek continental shelf, just 6 miles off Crete, Karpathos and Rhodes. TPAO's applications were published to the Turkey's Government Gazette, with a map showing the 24 blocks that Ankara has demarcated from Turkey's shores to the point where its claimed sea borders meet these of Libya, based on the Turkey-GNA maritime agreement",
". This prompted strong reactions both in Greece and abroad, with the Turkish Ambassador to Athens, Burak Özügergin, being summoned to the Greek Foreign Ministry, and the European Union's High Representative of Foreign Affairs, Josep Borrell warning Ankara that the good EU-Turkey relations \"will depend critically on the respect of the sovereignty of Cyprus and Greece on the waters under dispute\"",
". Furthermore, the United States criticized Turkey, with the US Assistant Secretary of State for Energy Resources Francis R. Fannon stating, during a quadrilateral conference organized by both the American-Hellenic Chamber of Commerce and the Atlantic Council with the participation of USA, Greece, Israel and Cyprus, that such \"provocative actions\" must end and that the Turkey-GNA agreement \"cannot as a legal matter affect the rights or obligations of third states\" such as Greece.",
"EastMed Pipeline",
"On 2 January 2020, the leaders of Greece, Cyprus, and Israel signed an accord to build the EastMed pipeline. The planned pipeline will transport natural gas from the Levantine Basin to Greece and from there to Italy and the rest of Europe",
". Energy expert Brenda Schaffer interprets the EastMed pipeline (forecasted to be able to cater to 10% of Europe's gas needs, and decrease reliance on Russia) as a joint attempt to exclude Turkey from the \"Club Med\" gas club, and the decision to sign the pipeline accord was taken in response to the Turkish-GNA deal.",
"On 19 May 2023, Claudio Descalzi, the CEO of Italian energy company Eni, said that any agreement for the construction of the EastMed pipeline must include Turkey; he added that \"there are disputes between Turkey and Cyprus that are difficult to remedy, furthermore Turkey has made an agreement with Libya to define a very vast platform that covers almost the entire EastMed, therefore not only Turkey but also Libya will have a say",
".\" In response to these comments, George Papanastasiou, the Cypriot Minister of Energy, Commerce and Industry, stated that not all people agree with the opinions expressed by Descalzi, and that he respects his opinion",
". These remarks follow reports that Eni, Cyprus and Israel are working on a deal for constructing a natural gas pipeline in the Eastern Mediterranean, connecting both the Cypriot and Israeli offshore gas fields to a processing plant in Cyprus, where the gas will be liquefied for export by ship to Italy and the rest of Europe.",
"Greece–Italy EEZ agreement",
"On 9 June 2020, and in response to Turkey's moves in the region, Greece and Italy signed through their Foreign Ministers Nikos Dendias and Luigi Di Maio a \"historic\" agreement for the demarcation of the EEZ between the two countries. The agreement confirms the full rights of islands to their continental shelf and EEZ, in line with the UNCLOS. It uses the median line that was used for the 1977 Italy-Greece continental shelf demarcation agreement as the basis of the EEZ boundary",
". In the mutually agreed minor adjustments, part of the EEZ of the small Greek islands of Strofades, Othoni, and Mathraki was traded off for an equal area elsewhere (i.e. part of the EEZ of Italy's Calabria). According to Dendias, this creates an extremely favorable legal precedent for Greece in its dispute with Turkey",
". The United States, the Libyan House of Representatives, and the LNA led by Halifa Haftar, welcomed the EEZ agreement between Greece and Italy, with the US calling it \"exemplary\" and \"an example of how these things should be done [in the region]\", while reiterating their opposition to the Turkey-GNA EEZ agreement",
". Following the agreement, the Libyan House of Representatives sent an official invitation to the Hellenic Parliament for a similar EEZ agreement to be reached between Libya and Greece too, with talks beginning on 1 July. Dendias stated that Libyan-Greek talks are \"not within the arbitrariness that so-called Sarraj-Turkey memorandum is constituting\", but within the framework of UNCLOS and in continuation of the 2010 talks between the two countries",
". In this context, a committee of experts is formed by the President of the Libyan Parliament, Aguila Saleh. The LNA published a map with the proposed EEZ boundaries between Libya and Greece, in which Libya fully acknowledges the Greek islands' rights to their continental shelf and EEZ. Furthermore, on 18 June, a high-level delegation from Greece visited Egypt to negotiate and sign an agreement demarcating the Egyptian-Greek EEZ as well.",
"In July 2020, France and Austria have called for sanctions against Turkey, such as the termination of the Turkey's EU accession talks. In the same context the EU's Foreign Affairs Council convened and agreed for a framework of sanctions to be prepared for use in the event Turkey attempts any violations of Greece's sovereign rights. The Greek FM Dendias expressed his country's readiness to activate the Mutual Defence Clause (Article 42) of the EU's Lisbon Treaty for military assistance.",
"On 21 July, Turkey announced plans for a seismic survey south and east of the Greek island of Kastellorizo with the research vessel \"Oruç Reis\", and for this purpose it issued a Navtex covering parts of the Greek, Egyptian and Cypriot waters, prompting strong reactions both in Greece and abroad. The Greek embassy in Ankara sent a complaint to the Turkish Foreign Ministry, Egypt considers the move as an encroachment of its waters, and Germany's Foreign Minister Heiko Maas warned Turkey with consequences",
". Turkey dispatched its naval forces to the region around Kastellorizo, and Turkish armed jets conducted low overflights and dogfights with their Greek counterparts above the island, causing the tourists to evacuate it, and the Greek Armed Forces to be placed on high alert",
". The Turkish Ambassador to Berlin, Ali Kemal Aydın, was summoned to the German Foreign Ministry and the German Chancellor Angela Merkel held phone calls with the Greek Prime Minister Kyriakos Mitsotakis and the Turkish President Tayip Erdogan in a bid to de-escalate the situation. According to the German tabloid newspaper Bild, it was Merkel's last-minute intervention that prevented a crisis between Greece and Turkey. This was later confirmed by the German Defence Minister, Annegret Kramp-Karrenbauer",
". This was later confirmed by the German Defence Minister, Annegret Kramp-Karrenbauer. Along with Germany, France, Spain and the United States also backed Greece, with the French President Emmanuel Macron calling for sanctions against Turkey for the violation of Greece's sovereignty, the US envoy to Athens acknowledging Kastellorizo's \"exactly the same\" rights to EEZ and Continental Shelf as mainlands, and the State Department urging Turkey to halt its plans for surveys in the area around the island",
". A few days later, Turkey announced the suspension of its oil and gas exploration around Kastellorizo.",
"Greece–Egypt EEZ agreement",
"Several days later, on 6 August, the foreign ministers of Egypt and Greece, Sameh Shoukry and Nikos Dendias respectively, signed a maritime agreement partially demarcating the EEZs between the two countries, in line with the UNCLOS which recognizes the right of the islands to their continental shelf and EEZ. According to the Greek side, the Egyptian-Greek agreement cancels in practice the Turkish-GNA memorandum",
". Turkey opposed the agreement and considers it \"null and void\", claiming that \"there is no mutual sea border between Egypt and Greece\". Similarly, the Tripoli-based GNA government led by Al-Sarraj condemned it as a \"violation of Libya's maritime rights\"",
". On the other hand, the Tobruk-based LNA government led by Haftar, Saudi Arabia and the United States, supported and welcomed it, with the LNA stating that Greece \"should solidify a EEZ with the only democratically elected legislative body in Libya, the House of Representatives\" and the US State Department stating that it encourages the peaceful settlement of disputes",
". Also, Manfred Weber, head of the European People's Party, the largest party in the European Parliament, welcomed the Egypt-Greece agreement as a positive development that \"strengthens stability in the East Mediterranean,\" and urged for the European Union to \"stand firmly with Greece\" against what he called as Turkish attempts that \"undermine international law in the region\". In response to this, Turkey announced the next day that it resumed its seismic surveys south of Kastellorizo",
". Τhe US, the EU, France, Germany, Austria, Italy, North Macedonia, Egypt, Cyprus, Israel, the United Arab Emirates, Spain, Portugal, Malta, Sweden and Armenia expressed their opposition to Turkey's renewed explorations in the East Mediterranean, while Azerbaijan counteracted to Armenia's position by lending its support for Turkey's moves",
". On 14 August 2020, Greece's and Turkey's ships collided and suffered minor damages and France intervened by sending its naval forces to the East Mediterranean, to Greece's aid, followed by the United Arab Emirates whose Fighter Jets are stationed at the Souda Bay Naval Base, in Crete",
". Also, the United States beefed up their military presence in the East Med by assigning the USS Hershel \"Woody\" Williams to the Souda Bay as its new permanent home, and talks on moving US assets from the Incirlik Air Base in Turkey, to Souda Bay opened",
". Josep Borrell announced that the European Union is preparing a list of sanctions against Turkey, including tough economic measures, and the former Turkish Prime Minister Ahmet Davutoglu criticized openly his own country's \"power projection\" in the East Mediterranean, which, according to him, risks causing a military conflict",
". On 18 August, the Egyptian Parliament ratified the Greece - Egypt EEZ Agreement and, 9 days later, the Greek Parliament followed suit, before it would be registered at the United Nations on 24 December 2020. Greece announced that reaching EEZ agreements with Albania and Cyprus are among its next priorities. On 17 September, the European Parliament condemned Turkey for its violations of the Greek and Cypriot EEZs and called on the European Council to prepare further sanctions.",
"Due to Turkey's diplomatic isolation, and just a week ahead of the EU Summit where sanctions against the EU-candidate country for its drilling activities were to be evaluated, Oruç Reis withdrew from Kastellorizo and the Turkish surveys on Greek continental shelf were halted. Turkey agreed to resort to diplomatic means for resolving its maritime disputes with Greece",
". Turkey agreed to resort to diplomatic means for resolving its maritime disputes with Greece. Turkey's economy is dependent on foreign markets and especially the European Union, for exports, imports, short-term finance and technology, and thus, the EU's tough economic sanctions could have a \"fatal\" impact on the Turkish economy and the Turkish President Erdogan's political survival",
". The prospect of EU sanctions also have contributed to the Turkish Lira's depreciation to record-low levels, worsening its economy. The United States, which criticized Turkey's assertive policies in the region, welcomed Ankara's decision to adopt a more diplomatic stance over its maritime dispute with Greece, with the head of the American foreign policy, Secretary of State Michael R",
". Pompeo stating that \"the way conflict is resolved is not through shows of force, it's not through demonstrations of power, it's through dialogue. It's through international systems, agreement, conversations, dialogue. That's how these maritime disputes ought to be resolved. We’ve watched the Greeks move in that direction trying to achieve that. We hope the Turkish Government will see it the same way\"",
". We hope the Turkish Government will see it the same way\". Additionally, Pompeo sided with Greece, by asking for a solution that is \"reflective of the fundamental rights of the citizens of Greece\".",
"2020–2021 developments",
"On 8 October 2020, Turkey and Greece agreed, under Germany's mediation and with the United States' full consultation, to resume exploratory talks for resolving their maritime disputes. However, a few days later, on 11 October, Turkey withdrew from the talks and resumed its gunboat diplomacy by releasing a NAVTEX announcing that it will be conducting surveys on the waters just 6.5 nautical miles off Kastellorizo and redeployed its research vessel Oruç Reis, escorted by Turkish frigates, for this purpose",
". These Turkish moves drew the International community's condemnation, with Berlin decrying them as a \"serious blow\" to efforts at easing tensions in the East Mediterranean and accusing Ankara for \"interplay between detente and provocation\", the German Foreign Minister Heiko Maas cancelling his planned official visit to Ankara, and along with France, warning Turkey with consequences, Greece's Foreign Minister Nikos Dendias declaring that \"the Turkish leadership has shown it is not a credible interlocutor",
". Its calls for dialogue are only a pretext. The international community must judge [Ankara] on the basis of actions, not words",
". We must all face reality before it is too late\", the United States \"deploring\" Ankara for its moves, which the State Department described as \"calculated provocations\", Austria's Chancellor Sebastian Kurz condemning Oruc Reis' redeployment and warning Turkey of sanctions, Egypt's Foreign Minister Sameh Shoukry rejecting Turkey's gunboat diplomacy and policy of territorial expansion in the region",
", Sweden's Foreign Minister Ann Linde warning that the Oruç Reis' redeployment is leading to new tensions instead of contributing to de-escalation, Israel expressing its concerns over Turkey's destabilizing role in the East Med, and Russia backing Greece's right to expand its territorial waters to 12 nautical miles and reaffirming that the UNCLOS is a \"cornerstone\" of the international law and applies to the Mediterranean Sea",
". Manfred Weber of the EPP reiterated his call for EU sanctions against Turkey, stating that these initial de-escalation moves by Erdogan were purposeful only, with the aim of avoiding sanctions against his country at the recent European Council. Turkey however rebuffed international criticism of its research vessel's redeployment, insisting that the Oruç Reis is operating in what it claims as \"Turkish waters\".",
"On 17 October, Turkey passed a law expanding its search and rescue (SAR) area to cover all the new territories it claims in the Aegean and Mediterranean seas as part of its Blue Homeland theory",
". Greece condemned this extension of Turkish SAR as illegal under international law which does not permit any deliberate expansions of SAR areas without prior agreements with the relevant neighboring states, and protested strongly due to this expansion overlapping with Greece's Athens SAR and the sovereign rights of Greek islands and their surrounding waters",
". The Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs filed a complaint against it at the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and the International Maritime Organization (IMO). Turkey described the Greek protests as \"groundless\", insisting that the expansion was done \"to ensure the safety of the activities\" within the Greek continental shelf which Ankara claims as \"Turkish\"",
". ICAO's Secretary General Fang Liu, however, responded by rejecting Turkey's unilateral expansion of SAR and reaffirming the Greek position on the matter. According to Liu, no changes may be done to the SAR boundaries between the two countries without Greece's prior consent.",
"On 20 October, Greece and Albania agreed to resume negotiations for the demarcation of their maritime boundaries and that, in the event of no resolution, the two parties may jointly submit the case to the International Court of Justice in The Hague. The two countries had already reached an agreement on the demarcation of their maritime boundaries in 2009. Although ratified by the Greek side, the Albanian one took it to the Albanian Supreme Court where it was deemed unconstitutional",
". According to Cihat Yaycı, a Turkish general and author of the Turkey's \"Blue Homeland\" theory, it was due to Ankara's pressure on Tirana that the agreement's ratification failed. For Turkey, an agreement between Albania and Greece based on the UNCLOS, would have had set a negative legal precedent against Turkey's positions in its maritime disputes with Greece",
". According to US diplomatic cables leaked in 2011, however, the Greek government had blackmailed Albania to accept an unfavourable deal using the veto power that Athens has over EU enlargement.",
"On 18 November, Greece and the United Arab Emirates formed a military alliance by signing a mutual defense pact, which calls for each to help the other in case of an attack. The pact which is regarded as historic, marking the first of its kind in Greece's modern history, aims at countering Turkey's policies in the region.",
"Turkey was criticized at a NATO meeting on 3 December by the then US Secretary of State Mike Pompeo, for what he regarded as undermining NATO's security and cohesion and destabilizing the eastern Mediterranean by stoking tensions with fellow ally Greece, whilst according to Reuters, Turkish sources with knowledge of the meeting saw Pompeo's approach as \"unjust\" as Turkey was \"open to talks with Greece\"",
". On 5 December, Turkey's Ministry of Foreign Affairs tweeted that \"No sanctions will ever make Turkey compromise its sovereign rights, be it in Meis/Kastellorizo or 10 nm airspace",
".\" On 9 December, the US House of Representatives adopted the National Defence Authorization Act (NDAA), a defense legislation which includes sanctionary measures against Turkey because of several international disagreements between Washington and Ankara, including the purchase of the Russian defence system S-400 and the Turkish activities in the Eastern Mediterranean region. Three days after its approval by the US Congress, the Donald Trump administration imposed the sanctions as part of the CAATSA",
". According to Senator Robert Menendez, a member of the United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations and rapporteur of the NDAA amendment for US sanctions, Turkey's behavior in the East Med was one of the reasons contributing to the decision. The European Union's 27 leaders, also decided in the 10 December summit to impose sanctions on Turkey for its activities against Greece and Cyprus in the East Med",
". The EU sanctions include travel bans into the EU territories and asset freezes on Turkish companies and individuals.",
"On 18 September 2021, new diplomatic tensions sparked after an incident between Greece and Turkey where the latter's frigates prevented France's research vessel Nautical Geo from conducting surveys on Greece's behalf at the Greek EEZ, just 6 miles off the Greek island of Crete, whose waters Turkey claims as Turkish, citing its contentious maritime deal with the former Government of National Accord of Libya",
". The tensions come just a day after a high-level EUMed 9 Summit at Athens, where the heads of governments from 9 Mediterranean countries, including Croatia, Cyprus, France, Greece, Italy, Malta, Portugal, Slovenia and Spain, as well as the head of EU's Commission, Ursula von der Leyen, released a joint statement regarding the security and stability in the Mediterranean Sea, urging Turkey to “abstain, in a consistent and permanent manner",
", urging Turkey to “abstain, in a consistent and permanent manner, from provocations or unilateral actions in breach of international law”",
". Turkey's Foreign Ministry rejected the summit's declaration, calling it \"biased\".",
"On 19 September, the main opposition party in Turkey, the Republican People's Party (CHP), opposed the Mavi Vatan (Blue Homeland) doctrine as aggressive and expansionist.",
"2021: France–Greece and US–Greece defense pacts",
"On 28 September 2021, Greece and France signed the Franco-Greek defense agreement whereby either country is obliged to defend the other in the case of attack by a third party. France will supply Greece with navy frigates worth around €3 billion and is committed to help defend Greece if Turkey attacks. The pact is considered to be a landmark and the first of its kind ever signed between NATO allies, and is believed to be the first step in Europe's strategic autonomy and the creation of a European army",
". The deal was welcomed positively by other NATO allies such as the United States Germany, and the EU's Commission, however it is opposed by Turkey as \"harmful\". According to experts, the deal aims to become the basis for the creation of a European defense structure with its own autonomous dynamics and priorities, and part of Greece's efforts in deterring Turkey's neo-Ottoman expansionist policies in the region.",
"On 14 October, Greece and the United States expanded and indefinitely extended their defense pact amid tensions with Turkey. The agreement, known as the US-Greece Mutual Defense Cooperation Agreement, promotes a strategic partnership between the two countries and grants the American forces a broader use of Greek bases, including a military base near the Greece-Turkey border",
". According to the US Secretary of State Antony Blinken, it aims at advancing \"security and stability in the Eastern Mediterranean and beyond\". Furthermore, in his letter accompanying the deal, Blinken vowed \"to mutually safeguard and protect the sovereignty and territorial integrity of both countries against actions threatening peace, including armed attacks\".",
"On 15 December 2021, Turkey's Foreign Minister Mevlüt Çavuşoğlu hinged Greece's sovereignty over the Aegean islands to their demilitarized status, claiming for the first time that Greece loses its sovereign rights even over the major Greek islands (such as Chios, Lesvos, and Rhodes), from the moment it has militarized them. According to him, this claim of sovereignty over islands being dependent to their demilitarization, was reiterated in Turkey's October 2021 letter to the United Nations as well",
". The international community however rejected Çavuşoğlu's positions. The Israeli ambassador to Athens, Yossi Amrani, when commenting about Çavuşoğlu's statements, pointed to the joint Israel, Cyprus and Greece declaration at the tripartite Jerusalem Summit earlier this month, which stressed the need for all countries to respect the sovereign rights of their neighbors in the region. Besides Israel and Cyprus, also the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Ireland, the European Union,",
"Egypt and China lend their support to Greece, with the State Department stating that \"the sovereignty and territorial integrity of all countries must be respected and protected. The sovereignty of Greece οn these islands is not in question,\" and the European Union expressing its disapproval, stating that \"the sovereignty of Greece in these islands is indisputable\" and that \"the international agreements must be respected",
".\" The US ambassador to Athens Geoffrey Pyatt also affirmed his country's solidarity with Greece against the Turkish claims. A few days later, however, the Turkish President Erdogan, reiterated Çavuşoğlu's statements, insisting that their militarization is a \"violation of [international] treaties\" and that \"the issue of the islands is always controversial\"",
". Greece's Foreign Minister Nikos Dendias expressed his regret for Erdogan's remarks, stating that they go against the spirit of the United Nations's Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) and raises questions about Turkey's membership in the North Atlantic Alliance (NATO). Turkey's retired ambassadors, and Selim Kuneralp, questioned their country's foreign policy regarding the Greek islands, noting that it is harmful for its own interests",
". While commenting on the Turkish government's attempts to challenge their sovereignty, Eralp stated that “There are many claims of sovereignty that the islands were given on condition [of demilitarization]. There is no such thing. The islands located beyond three miles were given to Greece and Turkey has accepted it for many years. Putting this into question now – in diplomacy – makes Turkey an aggressive state”, adding that \"there are over 2,400 islands and islets in the Mediterranean",
". A treaty to count all these islands is out of the question. We have not seen it [happening] anywhere. [The Treaty of] Lausanne gave the islands beyond three miles to Greece, whether we like it or not.”",
"On 9 July 2022, officials from Turkey's AKP-led ruling coalition, the People's Alliance, appeared for the first time in photographs with a revisionist map claiming Greece's largest island, Crete, as belonging to Turkey. Besides Crete, the entire eastern half of the Aegean Sea, its islands and their waters, which were initially claimed as part of the \"Blue Homeland\" doctrine, are also shown as Turkish",
". This prompted strong reactions and condemnation both in Greece and abroad, with Athens regarding the unprecedented move as an aggressive act, and the Greek Prime Minister asking publicly the Turkish President to clarify his position on the new map, something he avoided doing. The United States and Germany also rebuked the map's claims as unacceptable",
". The United States and Germany also rebuked the map's claims as unacceptable. Following these developments, the head of the US Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, Senator Robert Menendez, announced congressional amendments conditioning future US arm sales of F-16 to Turkey on its respect of Greek sovereignty",
". These amendments which require that the US administration shows the US Congress that Turkey has \"not violated the sovereignty of Greece\" in the past 120 days prior to the sale, and that concrete steps have been taken \"to ensure no such F-16s are used by Turkey for repeated unauthorized territorial overflights of Greece\", passed on 14 July.",
"On August 23, Turkey's Defense Ministry claimed that Greek Air Force fighter jets placed radar locks on Turkish F-16s escorting US B-52 bombers as part of the NATO mission. Following the incident, Turkey summoned the Greek military attaché and filed a complaint with NATO. A few days later, it also claimed that the radar of a Greek S-300 missile system based on the island of Crete has been used to locked on to the Turkish F-16s",
". These allegations were denied by Greece, while a Western military official noted that Turkey has yet to provide any evidence to support them. According to experts, it is believed that Turkey uses fake news regarding the use of S-300 by Greece to create analogies between Turkey's S-400 and Greece's S-300 in a bid to convince the US administration to lift the Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act (CAATSA) sanctions which were imposed on Turkey for acquiring them from Russia",
". However the United States refuted Turkey's attempts to create any analogies between its S-400 and Greece's S-300. In the past, Turkey has again unsuccessfully attempted to justify the use of S-400 and thus lift the CAATSA sanctions on Ankara, by pointing again to Greece's S-300.",
"September 2022: Threat of invasion",
"By 3 September 2022, Turkey's President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan threatened Greece with a Turkish military invasion of the Greek islands which, according to him, are \"occupied\". Greece responded by reiterating its right to defend its islands against what it described as an \"expansionist\" Turkish stance, and pointed to Turkey's Aegean coast just opposite the Greek islands, noting that Turkey maintains there its landing fleet, the largest in Europe, along with a full formation of its army",
". Greece furthermore announced that it is informing the United Nations and NATO about the leader's remarks. The European Union and its presiding country, the Czech Republic condemned Erdoğan's threats as \"unacceptable\", while France's Foreign Minister Catherine Colonna responded by recalling the mutual assistance clause signed last year that unites Paris and Athens",
". According to the international media, the Turkish leader's remarks constitute an escalation of his rhetoric as he is preparing for the 2023 elections in his country, which are seen as crucial for his nearly 20-year rule; increasing the political rhetoric against a neighboring country would rally his nationalist base amid Turkey's ongoing economic troubles",
". According to Greek analysts, these threats of invasion made Greece's position appear more credible to the international community as the need to maintain a military presence on its islands for deterrence against Turkey is now fully justifiable.",
"On 11 December, Erdogan also stated that the Turkish-manufactured Tayfun missiles \"will hit Athens\", Greece's capital city, if the Greek islands continue to be armed up.",
"Further developments",
"On 10 January 2023, the Court of Appeals of Tripoli suspended an energy exploration deal signed a few months earlier, on 3 October 2022, between Turkey and Libya's Government of National Unity (GNU) which is based at Tripoli. The agreement had included scope for oil and gas exploitation in waters that Ankara and Tripoli have claimed as their own through the 2019 Turkey–GNA maritime agreement, which partially overlaps with waters claimed by Egypt and Greece as part of their 2020 EEZ agreement.",
"In February 2023, south-central Turkey was hit by devastating earthquakes, to which Greece responded immediately by sending quake-relief aid. The newspaper Süddeutsche Zeitung noted that the Greek aid came despite severe diplomatic tensions in recent months, and Erdoğan's repeated threats to militarily invade Greece's islands. According to Deutsche Welle, these developments marked the revival of the Greek–Turkish earthquake diplomacy of 1999 between the two countries, once again",
". This improvement in the bilateral relations, resulted in the cessation of Turkey's practice of military overflights above Greece's territories and the violations of its national airspace, ever since.",
"Status of islands\n\nThere have been a number of disputes related to the territories of the Greek islands themselves. These have related to the demilitarized status of some of the main islands in the area; to Turkish concerns over alleged endeavours by Greece to artificially expand settlements to previously uninhabited islets; and to the existence of alleged \"grey zones\", an undetermined number of small islands of undetermined sovereignty.",
"Demilitarized status",
"The question of the demilitarized status of some major Greek islands is complicated by a number of facts. Several of the Greek islands in the eastern Aegean as well as the Turkish straits region were placed under various regimes of demilitarization in different international treaties. The regimes developed over time, resulting in difficulties of treaty-interpretation",
". The regimes developed over time, resulting in difficulties of treaty-interpretation. However, the military status of the islands in question did not constitute a serious problem in the bilateral relations until the Cyprus crisis of 1974, after which both Greece and Turkey re-interpreted the stipulations of the treaties. Greece, claiming an inalienable right to defend itself against Turkish aggression, reinforced its military and National Guard forces in the region",
". Furthermore, Greece maintains the position that it has the right to militarize its islands in the same context as the rest of Europe, where the appliance of demilitarization statute on islands and territories ceased with the creation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization and the Warsaw Pact; i.e",
".e. the cessation of demilitarization of Italy's Panteleria, Lampedusa, Lampione and Linosa islands, and West Germany from the NATO side, and the cessation of demilitarization of Bulgaria, Romania, East Germany, and Hungary from the Warsaw Pact's side, and the cessation of demilitarization of Finland. Turkey, on the other hand, denounces this as an aggressive act by Greece and as a breach of international treaties",
". From a legal perspective, three groups of islands may be distinguished: (a) the islands right off the Turkish Dardanelles straits, i.e. Lemnos and Samothrace; (b) the Dodecanese islands in the southeast Aegean; and (c) the remaining northeast Aegean islands (Lesbos, Chios, Samos, and Ikaria).",
"Lemnos and Samothrace",
"These islands were placed under a demilitarization statute by the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923, to counterbalance the simultaneous demilitarization of the Turkish straits area (the Dardanelles and Bosphorus), Imbros and Tenedos. The demilitarization on the Turkish side was later abolished through the Montreux Convention Regarding the Regime of the Turkish Straits in 1936",
". Greece holds that, by superseding the relevant sections of the earlier treaty, the convention simultaneously lifted also the Greek obligations with respect to these islands. Against this, Turkey argues that the Montreux treaty did not mention the islands and has not changed their status",
". Greece, on the other hand, cites Turkish official declarations, by the then Turkish Minister for Foreign Affairs, Rustu Aras, to that effect made in 1936, assuring the Greek side that Turkey would consider the Greek obligations lifted.",
"Dodecanese",
"These islands were placed under a demilitarization statute after the Second World War by the Treaty of peace with Italy (1947), when Italy ceded them to Greece. Italy had previously not been under any obligation towards Turkey in this respect. Turkey, in turn, was not a party to the 1947 treaty, having been neutral during WWII",
". Turkey, in turn, was not a party to the 1947 treaty, having been neutral during WWII. Greece therefore holds that the obligations it incurred towards Italy and the other parties in 1947 are res inter alios acta for Turkey in the sense of Article 34 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, which states that a treaty does not create obligations or rights for a third country, and that Turkey thus cannot base any claims on them",
". Turkey argues that the demilitarization agreement constitutes a status treaty (an objective régime), where according to general rules of treaty law such an exclusion does not hold.",
"Lesbos, Chios, Samos, and Ikaria",
"The remaining islands (Lesbos, Chios, Samos, and Ikaria) were placed under a partial demilitarization statute by the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923. It prohibited the establishment of naval bases and fortifications, but allowed Greece to maintain a limited military contingent recruited from the local population, as well as police forces. With respect to these islands, Greece has not claimed that the treaty obligations have been formally superseded",
". However, in recent years it has argued that it is entitled to discount them, invoking Article 51 of the Charter of the United Nations. It argues that after the Turkish occupation of northern Cyprus and the Turkish threat of war over the 12 miles issue, re-armament is an act of legitimate self-defence.",
"\"Grey zones\"\n\nImia",
"The first time a dispute between the two countries in the Aegean touched on questions of actual sovereignty over territories was in early 1996 at the tiny barren islets of Imia (known as Kardak in Turkey), situated between the Dodecanese island chain and the Turkish mainland. The conflict, triggered by the stranding of a Turkish merchant ship on the islets, was originally caused by factual inconsistencies between maps of the area, some of which assigned these islets to Greece, others to Turkey",
". The media of the two countries took up the issue and gave it a nationalistic turn, before the two governments even had the time to come to a full technical understanding of the true legal and geographical situation. Both governments finally adopted an intransigent stance, publicly asserting their own claims of sovereignty over the islets. The result was military escalation, which was perceived abroad as quite out of proportion with the size and significance of the rocks in question",
". The two countries were at the brink of war for a few days, until the crisis was defused with the help of foreign mediation.",
"During the crisis and in the months following it, both governments elaborated legal arguments to support their claims to sovereignty. The arguments exchanged concerned the interpretation of the Treaty of Lausanne of 1923, which forms the principal basis for the legal status of territories in most of the region, as well as certain later diplomatic dealings between Turkey, Greece and Italy.",
"Other \"grey zones\"",
"In the wake of the Imia crisis, the Turkish government widened its argumentation to include not only Imia but also a possibly large number of other islands and small formations across the Aegean. Since then, Turkish authorities have spoken of \"grey zones\" of undetermined sovereignty",
". Since then, Turkish authorities have spoken of \"grey zones\" of undetermined sovereignty. According to the Turkish argument, these islets, while not explicitly retained under Turkish sovereignty in 1923, were also not explicitly ceded to any other country, and their sovereignty has therefore remained objectively undecided.",
"The Turkish government has avoided stating exactly which islets it wishes to include in this category. On various occasions, Turkish government sources have indicated that islands such as Pserimos, Agathonisi, Fournoi and Gavdos (situated south of Crete) might be included. Most of them, unlike Imia, had undeniably been in factual Greek possession, which had never previously been challenged by Turkey, and all but the final two listed below have Greek residents and infrastructure",
". Furthermore, the islands are covered by previous treaties such as the Treaty of Lausanne, which defines Turkish sovereignty as limited to within 3 miles of the Anatolian mainland in the majority of cases. In a 2004 publication by Turkish authors close to the Turkish military leadership the following (among other, even smaller ones) were listed as potentially \"grey\" areas:",
"Oinousses (between Chios and the Turkish coast),\n Antipsara (west of the islands of Psara and Khios),\n Fournoi,\n Arkoi,\n Agathonisi (Gaidaros),\n Pharmakonisi,\n Kalolimnos (near Imia),\n Pserimos,\n Gyali (between Kos and Nisyros),\n Syrna (SE of Astypalaia)\n Kandheliousa (south of Kos),\n Kalogeroi (islets) (small rocks 41 km northeast of Andros)",
"Military overflights over Greek territory",
"While Turkey has not attempted to challenge Greek sovereignty on the ground, its claims about \"grey area\" islands add to the number of minor military incidents, already numerous due to the 10-mile airspace and the FIR issues. Greek authorities routinely report that the Turkish Air Force ignores their national airspace. According to Greek press reports, the number of airspace violations rose sharply in 2006, as did the number of unauthorized Turkish military flights directly over Greek islands themselves",
". Renewed reports of systematic Turkish military flights directly over Greek islands like Pharmakonisi and Agathonisi were made in late 2008 and early 2009.",
"During the late 2010s, tensions rose again as Turkish fighter aircraft increased the number of direct armed overflights above inhabited Greek islands. While most overflights continue to occur above small islands that Turkey considers \"grey areas\", such as Agathonisi or Oinousses, some incidents have also repeatedly been reported involving major and undisputed islands such as Rhodes, Lesbos, Chios or Leros",
". Flying over the territory of a country is considered a serious violation of its sovereignty and one of the most provocative acts by Turkey, directly challenging Greek territorial sovereignty.",
"In 2020, Turkish fighter aircraft also begun overflights above the Greek mainland, on Evros.\n\nA regional Foreign Minister conference held on 11 May 2020 with the participation of Cyprus, Egypt, France, Greece and the United Arab Emirates, concluded with a joint declaration condemning Turkey for its practice of conducting armed overflights above the inhabited Greek islands.",
"In 2022, Turkish bomber aircraft approached the major Greek city of Alexandroupolis on Evros, within 2.5 miles. The jets reportedly flew near the US base located in the city's port",
".5 miles. The jets reportedly flew near the US base located in the city's port. This move is considered to be unprecedented, prompting protests from both the Greek authorities and the European Union, as well as USA's disapproval, with the Head of Turkey's Permanent Representation to the European Union Mehmet Bozay being summoned at Brussels by the Secretary General of the European Union External Action Service, Stefano Sannino.",
"Turkish incidents with Frontex\nIn September 2009, a Turkish military radar issued a warning to a Latvian helicopter patrolling in the eastern Aegean—part of the EU's Frontex programme to combat illegal immigration—to leave the area. The Turkish General Staff reported that the Latvian Frontex aircraft had violated Turkish airspace west of Didim.",
"According to a Hellenic Air Force announcement, the incident occurred as the Frontex helicopter—identified as an Italian-made Agusta A109—was patrolling in Greek air space near the small isle of Farmakonisi, which lies on a favorite route used by migrant smugglers ferrying mostly illegal migrants into Greece and the EU from the opposite Turkish coastline",
". Frontex officials stated that they simply ignored the Turkish warnings as they did not recognise their being in Turkish airspace and continued their duties.",
"Another incident took place in October 2009 in the aerial area above the eastern Aegean sea, off the island of Lesbos. On 20 November 2009, the Turkish General Staff issued a press note alleging that an Estonian Border Guard aircraft Let L-410 UVP taking off from Kos on a Frontex mission had violated Turkish airspace west of Söke.",
"Strategies of conflict resolution\nThe decades since the 1970s have seen a repeated heightening and abating of political and military tensions over the Aegean. Thus, the crisis of 1987 was followed by a series of negotiations and agreements in Davos and Brussels in 1988. Again, after the Imia crisis of 1996, there came an agreement over peaceful neighbourly relations reached at a meeting in Madrid in 1997. The period since about 1999 has been marked by a steady improvement of bilateral relations.",
"For years, the Aegean dispute has been a matter not only about conflicting claims of substance. Rather, proposed strategies of how to resolve the substantial differences have themselves constituted a matter of heated dispute. Whereas Turkey has traditionally preferred to regard the whole set of topics as a political issue, requiring bilateral political negotiation, Greece views them as separate and purely legal issues, requiring only the application of existing principles of international law",
". Turkey has advocated direct negotiation, with a view to establishing what it would regard as an equitable compromise. Greece refuses to accept any process that would put it under pressure to engage in a give-and-take over what it perceives as inalienable and unnegotiable sovereign rights. Up to the late 1990s, the only avenue of conflict resolution that Greece deemed acceptable was to submit the issues separately to the International Court of Justice in The Hague.",
"The resulting stalemate between both sides over process was partially changed after 1999, when the European summit of Helsinki opened up a path towards Turkey's accession to the EU. In the summit agreement, Turkey accepted an obligation to solve its bilateral disputes with Greece before actual accession talks would start. This was perceived as giving Greece a new tactical advantage over Turkey in determining which paths of conflict resolution to choose",
". During the following years, both countries held regular bilateral talks on the level of technical specialists, trying to determine possible future procedures. According to press reports, both sides seemed close to an agreement about how to submit the dispute to the court at The Hague, a step which would have fulfilled many of the old demands of Greece",
". However, a newly elected Greek government under Kostas Karamanlis, soon after it took office in March 2004, opted out of this plan, because Ankara was insisting that all the issues, including Imia and the \"grey zones\", belonged to a single negotiating item. Athens saw them as separate. However, Greek policy remained at the forefront in advocating closer links between Ankara and the EU",
". This resulted in the European Union finally opening accession talks with Turkey without its previous demands having been fulfilled.",
"According to some commentators, the 2020 fall of energy prices, combined with the discovery of gas within the Turkish EEZ in the Black Sea means there is enough energy in Turkey that further exploration for gas is unnecessary.",
"According to Greece's Foreign Minister Nikos Dendias, the disputes which are plaguing the Greek-Turkish relations for decades, can easily be resolved once Turkey accepts the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). To this, Dendias opined that the United States, due to their position and influence in the region, are an \"ideal partner\" in persuading Turkey to do so",
". Furthermore, he noted that the UNCLOS has been ratified by all the member states of the European Union, is part of the EU's acquis communautaire, and therefore Greece's talks with EU-candidate member Turkey on the delimitation of maritime zones are bound by it",
". Ronald Meinardus, head of the Friedrich Naumann Foundation, analyst and author in Deutsche Welle, while commenting on the statements Dendias made during his official visit to Ankara in April 2021 about the UNCLOS being a prerequisite for joining the EU, confirmed that the Law of the Sea is a precondition for Turkey's EU membership.",
"See also\n Cyprus dispute\n Cyprus–Turkey maritime zones dispute\n Exclusive economic zone of Greece\n Libya (GNA)–Turkey maritime deal\n Foreign relations of Greece\n Foreign relations of Turkey\n Imia/Kardak\n\nReferences\n\n1970s establishments in Greece\n1970s establishments in Turkey\nDisputed waters\nPolitics of Greece\nGreece–Turkey relations\nTerritorial disputes of Greece\nTerritorial disputes of Turkey\nGreece–Turkey border\nAegean Sea\nInternational Court of Justice cases"
] |
Great Britain at the 2020 Summer Olympics
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20Britain%20at%20the%202020%20Summer%20Olympics
|
[
"Great Britain, or in full Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the team of the British Olympic Association (BOA), which represents the United Kingdom, competed at the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo. Originally scheduled to take place from 24 July to 9 August 2020, the Games were postponed to 23 July to 8 August 2021, because of the COVID-19 pandemic.",
"British athletes have appeared in every Summer Olympic Games of the modern era, alongside those of Australia, France, Greece, and Switzerland, although Great Britain is the only team to have won at least one gold medal at all of them. This streak was maintained in Tokyo when Adam Peaty successfully defended his 100 metre breaststroke title on the third morning of the Games.",
"The first medals of the Games for Great Britain were won by martial artists with taekwondo-ka Bradly Sinden guaranteeing Team GB at least a silver medal by qualifying for the final of the −68 kg event in taekwondo. Before the final took place, however, judoka Chelsie Giles secured a bronze medal in the 52 kg class via the repechage.\n\nSummary",
"The 2020 Games saw members of the Great Britain team achieve a number of prominent milestones. In the pool, Adam Peaty became the first British swimmer to successfully defend an Olympic gold medal, winning the 100 metre breaststroke for the second time",
". The British swimming team also had its most successful Olympics in history winning eight medals (with four golds) eclipsing the previous Olympic swimming best of seven medals (which also included four golds) which had stood since the London 1908 Games (113 years). This included a 1–2 finish in the final of the Men's 200m freestyle for Duncan Scott (who took silver) and Tom Dean (who took gold) which was the first time British swimmers had achieved this in any Olympic swimming event since 1908",
". Scott also became Britain's most successful athlete in any sport at a single games in terms of number of medals won with four medals in total made up of one gold and three silver medals. However, Adam Peaty, James Guy and Tom Dean were more successful in terms of gold medals winning two golds to Scott's single gold",
". By winning gold alongside James Guy and Adam Peaty in the mixed 4x100 metres medley relay Freya Anderson, Kathleen Dawson and Anna Hopkin became the first British female swimmers since Rebecca Adlington took double individual gold in the 400 metre freestyle and 800m freestyle events at the Beijing 2008 games to win an Olympic gold medal",
". However, no British female swimmer won a medal in any of the individual women's events making the medals from mixed medley the only ones won by British female swimmers at the Games.",
"On 4 August Sky Brown became the youngest British Olympian ever to win a medal when she won bronze in the Women's Park Skateboarding at the age of 13 years and 28 days.",
"Gymnast Max Whitlock also clinched his second consecutive Olympic title on the pommel horse becoming one of the most successful gymnasts ever in the history of that specific apparatus – having also won three World Championship titles in the discipline – and the fourth man in Olympic history to successfully defend their pommel horse title. In doing do he cemented his position as Great Britain's most successful Olympic gymnast with six medals overall including three golds",
". Bryony Page in the Women's Trampoline competition claimed her second consecutive Olympic medal in the event with a bronze medal having won a silver in Rio. A team containing Jennifer Gadirova, Jessica Gadirova, Alice Kinsella and Amelie Morgan also won a Bronze in the Women's Team Artistic All-Round event. giving the gymnastics squad three medals at Tokyo 2020 overall down from the seven achieved by gymnastics in Rio in 2016.",
"Keely Hodgkinson and Laura Muir secured silver medals in the Women's 800 metres and 1500 metres respectively. These were the first medals in either of these events for a British athlete since Kelly Holmes won double gold at the Athens 2004 Games. Josh Kerr by winning bronze in the Men's 1500m also became the first British athlete to win an Olympic medal in that event since Seoul 1988 where Peter Elliott won a silver medal",
". Holly Bradshaw also won her first medal in either Olympic or outdoor World Championship competition with bronze in the women's pole vault. The women's 4x100 relay squad also won a bronze.",
"Despite failing to medal in the men's match sprint Jason Kenny took sole ownership of the record as Great Britain's most successful Olympian, most decorated Olympian and the most successful and most decorated Olympic cyclist of any nation, with silver in the men's team sprint and gold in the men's keirin",
". This was the fourth consecutive keirin title for Great Britain, and took Kenny's career tally to seven gold and two silver medals and was the fourth consecutive Olympics in which he had won one or more golds. His wife Laura Kenny lost her omnium title after a major crash in the opening scratch race, and only managed a silver medal in the women's team pursuit",
". However, in the inaugural Olympic women's Madison she and partner Katie Archibald won the event, gaining a lap and winning all but two of the intermediate sprints. This took her career tally to five golds and one silver making her the most decorated British female Olympian, and the most successful and most decorated female Olympic cyclist of any nation. Together the Kennys also became the most successful married Olympians in history where both partners have won a gold medal",
". Britain's other track cycling gold came courtesy of Matt Walls in the men's omnium- the first time a male British Olympic cyclist has won the Olympic title in that event. Walls also won a silver medal alongside Ethan Hayter in the men's Madison event.",
"On the waves, Giles Scott secured Great Britain's sixth consecutive gold medal in sailing's Finn class which was making its final Olympic appearance, while Hannah Mills became Great Britain's most successful female Olympic sailor defending her Women's 470 title with Eilidh McIntyre having won the same class with Saskia Clark in 2016. McIntyre was emulating her father Michael who had won gold in the Star class alongside Bryn Vaile at the 1988 Games in Seoul.",
"On a less positive note a number of iconic 'streaks' of British success were broken. The men's team pursuit title left British hands for the first time since 2004, as did the men's team sprint with both Ed Clancy and Jason Kenny denied fourth consecutive gold medals in the same event. The men's match sprint in cycling also left British hands for the first time since 2004, although Jack Carlin won a bronze medal",
". The men's coxless four lost the Olympic title for the first time since 1996, while the rowing team - having been the only British sporting team during the disastrous Great Britain at the 1996 Summer Olympics to have won gold, and thus maintained Great Britain's streak of at least one gold medal in every Summer Games - won no gold medals for the first time since 1980 winning only 2 medals in total across the whole Olympic rowing regatta.",
"Despite winning five medals in total, these Olympics were the first time since 1996 that Great Britain's athletics team failed to win a gold medal. This was partly due to unfortunately timed injuries to reigning world champions Dina Asher-Smith (200 metres) and Katarina Johnson-Thompson (Heptathlon) who were seen as Britain's best medal hopes in the athletics events. The men's 4 × 100 metres relay squad were also pipped to gold by Italy by 0",
". The men's 4 × 100 metres relay squad were also pipped to gold by Italy by 0.01 seconds on the finish line having been leading going into the anchor leg. However, it subsequently emerged the British quartet could lose their silver medals after a member of the quartet CJ Ujah was revealed on 12 August 2021 to have failed a drugs test with Ujah provisionally suspended by the Athletics Integrity Unit following the games pending further investigation",
". The matter was referred to the Court of Arbitration For Sport Anti-Doping Division to decide if the British 4x100 male quartet should be disqualified from the final results. On 18 February 2022, it was confirmed the British Mens 4x 100 metres athletics relay quartet would be stripped of their silver medals meaning Great Britains final medal tally from the game is 64 - one less than achieved at the London 2012 Olympics",
". Three medals across the four middle distance events, a long hoped-for global medal for Holly Bradshaw in pole vault and a bronze medal for the women's sprint relay team ensured the British athletics team did not leave Tokyo empty handed.",
"A number of British defending champions from 2016 (including some 'double' champions who won gold medals in 2012 and 2016) either were not selected, or were unable to retain their titles, including Mo Farah, Alistair Brownlee, Jade Jones, Charlotte Dujardin and Andy Murray",
". In comparison, three former multiple world champions, but long time 'nearly men' on the Olympic stage finally reached the top step of the rostrum, Jonathan Brownlee winning the inaugural triathlon mixed relay, James Guy in both the men's 4 × 200 metre freestyle relay and the mixed medley relay, and Tom Daley, winning gold in the men's 10 metre synchro with debutant Matty Lee, before his bronze in the individual event made him the first British diver to win four career Olympic medals.",
"Great Britain had some notable success in new sports and events, winning the inaugural gold medals for women's BMX freestyle, mixed 4 x 100 metre medley swimming relay (in a new world record), women's madison and the triathlon mixed team relay, and medals in men's BMX freestyle, women's skateboarding and women's featherweight boxing. The women's +87 kg weightlifting event was technically a new event, but was in reality simply an adjusted version of the existing super-heavyweight class",
". Nonetheless, Emily Campbell's silver medal was the first ever won in weightlifting by a British woman, the first British weightlifting medal for either sex since 1984 and the first at a non-boycotted Games since Louis Martin medalled in consecutive Olympics in 1960 and 1964",
". Indeed, the weightlifting event at the Games was a significant success for Great Britain, with top-seven finishes for all four selected lifters, and Sarah Davies coming agonisingly close to winning a second silver medal in the −64 kg class.",
"Great Britain also had great success in both of the men's and women's modern pentathlon events with Kate French taking gold in the women's event, while Joseph Choong became the first British male modern pentathlete to win an individual medal when taking gold in the men's event. The victories of French and Choong marked the first time since the introduction of the women's event in 2000 that a 'double' had been achieved, with the same nation winning both men's and women's events.\n\nMedallists",
"Medallists\n\n| width=\"78%\" align=\"left\" valign=\"top\" |\n\n| width=\"22%\" align=\"left\" valign=\"top\" |\n\nMultiple medallists\nThe following Team GB competitors won multiple medals at the 2020 Olympic Games.",
"Charlotte Dujardin's two bronze medals added to her two golds from London 2012 and her gold and silver from Rio 2016 made her the first female British athlete to win six Olympic medals, a feat later equalled by Laura Kenny. Dujardin also became the first female British athlete to win multiple medals at three consecutive Games (two in London, two in Rio and two in Tokyo), a feat which was again equalled by Kenny",
". Two medals for Jason Kenny made him the first British athlete of either sex to win multiple medals at four successive games (2 in 2008, 2 in 2012, 3 in 2016 and 2 in 2020), a feat also unequalled by anyone in the Olympic sport of cycling. With silver in the Men's 4 × 100 m medley relay, Duncan Scott becomes the first British Olympian to win four medals in a single Games.",
"Administration\nOn 9 April 2018, the British Olympic Association announced that Mark England would be their Chef de Mission in Tokyo following his success in this role at Rio 2016. Under his leadership Team GB had become the first nation to increase its medal haul at the summer games after acting as host at London 2012.",
"Medal targets\nOn 9 July 2021, UK Sport announced they had set a medal target of 45–70 medals for the team. No individual targets have been set for each sport as it was considered impossible to properly evaluate the position of each sport in the context of the coronavirus pandemic, and the large scale disruption to both training and sports events that entailed.",
"Competitors",
"The team included nine sets of siblings: Tom and Emily Ford (Rowing), Jennifer and Jessica Gadirova (Gymnastics), Charlotte and Mathilda Hodgkins-Byrne (Rowing), Joe and Max Litchfield (Swimming), Luke and Pat McCormack (Boxing), Andy and Jamie Murray (Tennis), Tiffany Porter and Cindy Sember (Athletics), Hannah and Jodie Williams (Athletics), and Adam and Simon Yates (Cycling). The Gadirovas, McCormacks and Yateses are all twins",
". The Gadirovas, McCormacks and Yateses are all twins. In addition, Hannah Martin was a member of the women's hockey team while her brother Harry Martin, a two time Olympian, was a travelling reserve for the men's team. There was also one married couple in multi gold medallists: Jason and Laura Kenny (Cycling).",
"Dressage rider Carl Hester was competing at his sixth Olympic Games. Only fellow equestrian rider Nick Skelton has represented Great Britain at more Games with seven appearances. Meanwhile, archer Naomi Folkard was making her fifth consecutive appearance. Among British female athletes only six time Olympians Tessa Sanderson and Alison Williamson have competed at more Games.",
"In addition to the 376 strong British delegation Team GB confirmed the selection of 22 travelling reserves for various sports. These included the reserves for football, hockey and rugby 7s",
". These included the reserves for football, hockey and rugby 7s. On 3 July 2021, the IOC, having consulted with the individual federations of these three sports together with those of handball and water polo, announced that each team would be able to select their teams from both the original squads and the travelling reserves without the need to permanently replace one individual with another",
". This effectively increased the size of the squads from 18 to 22 for football, 16 to 18 for hockey and 12 to 13 for rugby 7s.",
"Archery",
"British archers qualified each for the men's and women's events by reaching the quarterfinal stage of their respective team recurves at the 2019 World Archery Championships in 's-Hertogenbosch, Netherlands. The rules of qualification also stipulate that a nation that qualifies at least one male and one female archer, as Great Britain have done, is automatically entered in the mixed team event. On 21 April 2021, Team GB announced the selection of the six archers who will represent the team in Tokyo.\n\nMen",
"Men\n\nWomen\n\nMixed\n\nArtistic swimming",
"Great Britain qualified two athletes to the artistic swimming duet competition as a result of Spain's success in the final Artistic Swimming Olympic Team Qualification competition event on 11 June 2021. Spain's elevation to the team event freed a quota place in the 2019 European Champions Cup competition inherited by Great Britain. This slot was then superseded by the top seven finish achieved by Great Britain itself at the final FINA Artistic Swimming Olympic Qualification Tournament",
". On 22 June 2021, Team GB announced the selection of Kate Shortman and Isabelle Thorpe for Tokyo.",
"Athletics",
"British athletes achieved the entry standards, either by qualifying time or by world ranking, in several track and field events (up to a maximum of 3 athletes in each event): The team will be selected based on the results of the 2021 British Athletics Championships ( 25 to 27 June) to be held in Manchester, England. Relay qualification is achieved by a top eight finish at the 2019 World Athletics Championships in a relay event, or a top eight ranking in that event not including previously qualified nations",
". The first confirmed place was therefore assured when Great Britain finished fourth in the mixed 4 × 400 metres relay event at the Worlds in Doha. Great Britain secured top eight finishes, and therefore Olympic qualification, in the other four relay events in Doha on 5 and 6 October – along with the United States, they were the only teams to gain Olympic places in all five relay events at Doha.",
"In December 2019, UK Athletics confirmed the preselection of Callum Hawkins for the men's marathon. On 26 March 2021, at the 2021 British Athletics Marathon and 20km Walk Trial in Kew Gardens, Chris Thompson, Ben Connor, Stephanie Davis and Tom Bosworth confirmed qualification for Tokyo with a top two finish in their respective races, having already gained the qualification time",
". On 1 April 2021, Team GB announced the selection of these five athletes together with marathon runners Jess Piasecki and Steph Twell for Tokyo. On 4 June 2021, World Athletics confirmed that Cameron Corbishley and Dominic King had qualified by World Rankings for the Men's 50 km walk event. However, they have not met the qualification time requirements set out in British Athletics selection policy document and it remains to be seen whether they will be selected on the basis of future potential.",
"On 29 June 2021, Team GB announced the selection of a further 65 athletes following the completion of the British trials. The squad of 72 includes reigning world champions Dina Asher-Smith and Katarina Johnson-Thompson subject to the latter proving her fitness. On 2 July 2021, the final four athletes were confirmed by Team GB resulting in a 76 strong squad for Tokyo",
". Laura Muir later withdrew from the women's 800 m to concentrate on the 1500 m and her place was taken by Alexandra Bell increasing the final squad to 77.",
"Track & road events\nMen\n\nWomen\n\nMixed\n\nField events\nMen\n\nWomen\n\nCombined events – Women's heptathlon\n\n Ran in the heats only.\n\nBadminton",
"Great Britain entered badminton players for each of the following events into the Olympic tournament based on the BWF World Race to Tokyo Rankings of 15 June 2021: one entry each in the men's and women's singles and a pair in the men's, women's, and mixed doubles. On 28 June 2021, Team GB announced the squad of seven players who will represent the team in Tokyo",
". On 28 June 2021, Team GB announced the squad of seven players who will represent the team in Tokyo. Ben Lane and Sean Vendy were selected to compete in the men's doubles even though Rio 2016 bronze medallists Marcus Ellis and Chris Langridge finished ahead of them in the rankings.",
"Boxing",
"Great Britain entered eleven boxers (seven men and four women) to compete for each of the following weight classes into the Olympic tournament. Rio 2016 Olympian and 2018 Commonwealth Games champion Galal Yafai (men's flyweight) and 2019 world bronze medallist Peter McGrail (men's featherweight) were the first boxers to secure their spots on the British squad by winning the round of 16 match of their respective weight divisions at the 2020 European Qualification Tournament in London",
". After being suspended due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the qualifying tournament resumed in Villebon-sur-Yvette, France. Nine further boxers secured places in their respective weight divisions, including Rio 2016 Olympian Pat McCormack in the men's welterweight. The final total of eleven qualified boxers is the joint highest (with Uzbekistan and the ROC) of any nation at the 2020 Summer Olympics",
". On 23 June 2021, Team GB announced the names of the eleven boxers who would represent the team in Tokyo – each place went to the boxer who had obtained the quota place in qualification.",
"Men\n\nWomen\n\nCanoeing\n\nSlalom\nBritish canoeists qualified boats in all four classes for the Games through the 2019 ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships in La Seu d'Urgell, Spain. On 10 October 2019, Team GB announced the names of the slalom canoeists selected for the Games, as a result of their performances at three selection meets: the British Senior and Olympic Trials, the 2019 ICF World Cup series in Lee Valley Park, and the World Championships.",
"Sprint",
"Great Britain qualified a single boat in the men's K-1 200 m with a gold-medal victory at the 2019 ICF Canoe Sprint World Championships in Szeged, Hungary. On 10 October 2019, reigning Olympic champion Liam Heath headed the list of canoeists being selected for the Games. Following the re-allocation of quota places gained at the World Championships and in subsequent competitions, Great Britain secured a place in the women's K-1 500 m",
". On 30 June 2021, Team GB announced the selection of the remaining members of their sprint canoe squad for Tokyo. On 8 July 2021, it was confirmed that Team GB had been reallocated a quota in the women's C-1 200 m and that Katie Reid would join the British canoe sprint squad in Tokyo.",
"Qualification Legend: FA = Qualify to final (medal); FB = Qualify to final B (non-medal)\n\nCycling\n\nOn 21 June 2021, Team GB announced the selection of their cycling squad for Tokyo. Notable inclusions were multiple gold medallists Geraint Thomas, Ed Clancy, and Jason and Laura Kenny. For the fourth Olympics in a row, Great Britain topped the medal table in cycling.",
"Road\nGreat Britain entered a squad of six riders (four men and two women) to compete in their respective Olympic road races, by virtue of their respective positions in the UCI World Ranking for nations as at 22 October 2019. Included were three Grand Tour winners, Geraint Thomas (2018 Tour de France), Simon Yates (2018 Vuelta a Espana) and Tao Geoghegan Hart (2020 Giro d'Italia). Former World Champion and London 2012 silver medallist Lizzie Deignan highlighted the women's team.\n\nWomen",
"Women\n\nJames Knox and Joscelin Lowden were named as travelling reserves.\n\nTrack\nFollowing the completion of the 2020 UCI Track Cycling World Championships, British riders accumulated spots in men's team sprint, men's and women's team pursuit, and men's and women's madison, as well as both the men's and women's omnium. As a result of their place in the men's team sprint, Great Britain won the right to enter two riders in both men's sprint and men's keirin.",
"Unable to earn a quota place in the women's team sprint, Great Britain won a single quota place in the women's individual sprint through the UCI Olympic rankings. Qualification for the individual sprint means a quota place is also gained in the women's keirin.",
"Great Britain's most successful male and female Olympians, Jason and Laura Kenny return, along with Ed Clancy. Both Jason Kenny (team sprint) and Clancy (team pursuit) are seeking to set a record for consecutive victories (four) in a single Olympic cycling event. Jason Kenny will also be seeking to gain the outright records for gold medals for a British Olympian, which he currently shares with Chris Hoy and most medals for any Olympic cyclist, currently held by Bradley Wiggins",
". Laura Kenny will seek to increase her lead as the British female Olympian with the most gold medals, and surpass Charlotte Dujardin as Britain's most decorated female Olympian, and Leontien Van Moorsel from the Netherlands as the most successful and most decorated Olympic female cyclist.",
"Sprint\n\nTeam sprint\nWith silver in the team sprint, Jason Kenny became Great Britain's outright most successful Olympian, cycling's most successful Olympian and the joint most decorated British and cycling Olympian with Bradley Wiggins.\n\nQualification legend: FA=Gold medal final; FB=Bronze medal final\n* Philip Hindes travels as reserve.\n\nPursuit",
"Pursuit\n\n* Charlie Tanfield originally travelled as a reserve. Following the qualification ride of the men's team pursuit, Ed Clancy withdrew from the men's team, citing a back injury, and announced his immediate retirement. As a consequence, Tanfield was called into the main squad and rode the heat and placing final. In the former, he suffered a crash when clipped from behind by the Denmark team. \n\nKeirin\n\nOmnium\n\nMadison",
"Keirin\n\nOmnium\n\nMadison\n\nMountain biking\nGreat Britain entered single mountain bikers to compete in both the men's and women's cross-country races. The men's quota was gained by finishing in the top two eligible nations of the under-23 division at the 2019 UCI Mountain Bike World Championships in Mont-Sainte-Anne, Canada. The women's quota was secured by virtue of their position in the UCI World Ranking for nations as at 16 May 2021.",
"Tom Pidcock's preparations for the men's event were disrupted when he broke his collarbone after being hit by a car during training in May 2021. However, he recovered to be able to compete in the Games where we won Britain's first ever Olympic mountain biking medal, winning gold by a margin of 20 seconds over second placed Mathias Flückiger of Switzerland.",
"BMX\nGreat Britain received two quota spots (one per gender) for BMX racing at the Olympics. The men's place was secured as a result of the nation's seventh-place finish in the UCI Olympic Ranking List of 1 June 2021, while the women's was derived from Bethany Shriever's individual ranking.\n\nIn BMX freestyle, two places (one per gender) were awarded to the British squad at the Olympics; both were secured as a result of the nation's top-five finish in the UCI Olympic Ranking List of 8 June 2021.\n\nRace",
"Race\n\n* Ross Cullen travels as reserve.\n\nFreestyle\n\nDiving",
"British divers gained a full quota of 16 places for the following individual spots and synchronized teams at the Games through the 2019 FINA World Championships, the 2019 European Championships and the 2021 FINA Diving World Cup. The divers who secured the places for Great Britain were not necessarily the athletes who would be selected to represent their team in these events. Instead, they needed to compete at the Olympic trials to book their places for the Games",
". Instead, they needed to compete at the Olympic trials to book their places for the Games. A team of 12 divers was announced on 2 June 2021, including defending champions Jack Laugher and Daniel Goodfellow in the men's synchronized springboard; and two-time world champion and multiple Olympic medallist Tom Daley",
". James Heatly, Katherine Torrance and Matty Lee make Olympic debuts, having all won gold in the inaugural European Games in 2015 as juniors with the returning Lois Toulson, while Grace Reid will do so as a reigning Commonwealth Games champion. European bronze and silver medallist Andrea Spendolini-Sirieix, the youngest of the squad, debuts at 16 years old.",
"Laugher, Daley, Reid and Touslon will double up in individual and synchronised events, with their quota places released to be filled by next-in-line alternates.\n\nMen\n\nWomen\n\nEquestrian",
"Men\n\nWomen\n\nEquestrian\n\nBritish equestrians qualified a full squad in the team dressage, eventing, and jumping competitions by virtue of a top-six finish at the 2018 FEI World Equestrian Games in Tryon, North Carolina, United States in dressage and eventing, and a top-three finish among eligible nations in the jumping competition at the 2019 FEI European Championships in Rotterdam, Netherlands.",
"On 1 July 2021, Team GB announced the selection of their dressage and eventing teams for Tokyo. Included in the dressage team were triple gold medallist Charlotte Dujardin and Carl Hester who will be competing at his sixth Olympic Games. The following day Team GB revealed the names of the three riders who will compete in the jumping events in Tokyo. The team included London 2012 gold medallists Scott Brash and Ben Maher.",
"In the team dressage the British team of Dujardin, Hester and Charlotte Fry finished in the bronze medal position. This was Dujardin's fifth Olympic medal, tying her with rower Katherine Grainger and tennis player Kathleen McKane Godfree as the female British athletes with the most Olympic medals",
". The following day in the individual dressage Dujardin, who was the two-time defending Olympic champion in the event, took another bronze medal, making her the first female British athlete to win six Olympic medals.",
"Dressage\n\nTravelling reserve: Gareth Hughes (Sintano Van Hof Olympia)\n\nQualification Legend: Q = Qualified for the final; q = Qualified for the final as a lucky loser\n\nEventing\n\nTravelling reserve: Rosalind Canter (Allstar B)\n\nJumping\n\n* Harry Charles was the travelling reserve and he was called on to substitute for Holly Smith in the individual event and for Scott Brash in the team competition following an injury to the latter's horse, Hello Jefferson.\n\nFencing",
"Fencing\n\nGreat Britain entered one fencer into the Olympic competition. 2019 world silver medallist Marcus Mepstead claimed a spot in the men's foil as one of the two highest-ranked fencers vying for qualification from Europe in the FIE Adjusted Official Rankings.\n\nField hockey\n\nSummary\n\nMen's tournament",
"Field hockey\n\nSummary\n\nMen's tournament\n\nGreat Britain men's national field hockey team qualified for the Olympics by securing one of the seven team quotas available from the 2019 Men's FIH Olympic Qualifiers, defeating Malaysia 9–3 on aggregate in a two-match playoff in London.\n\nSquad\n\nTravelling reserves: Alan Forsyth and Harry Martin\n\nGroup play\n\nQuarterfinal\n\nWomen's tournament",
"Travelling reserves: Alan Forsyth and Harry Martin\n\nGroup play\n\nQuarterfinal\n\nWomen's tournament\n\nGreat Britain women's national field hockey team qualified for the Olympics by securing one of the seven team quotas available from the 2019 Women's FIH Olympic Qualifiers, defeating Chile 5–1 on aggregate in a two-match playoff in London. On 17 June, Great Britain Hockey announced the selection of the squad that would represent the team in Tokyo.\n\nSquad\n\nGroup play\n\nQuarterfinal\n\nSemifinal\n\nBronze medal game",
"Squad\n\nGroup play\n\nQuarterfinal\n\nSemifinal\n\nBronze medal game\n\nFootball\n\nSummary\n\nWomen's tournament",
"The FIFA Women's World Cup serves as the UEFA qualifying competition for the Olympic football tournament, with the top three sides qualifying. On 27 June 2019, England reached the semi-finals of the 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup; the following day, the United States were confirmed as their opponents",
". This made England one of the top three European sides in the competition, which, under an agreement between the FA and the other three home nations and FIFA, allowed Great Britain to take up the qualifying place for the 2020 Olympics won by England.",
"Squad\n\nGroup play\n\nQuarter-finals\n\nGolf",
"Great Britain entered a total of two male and two female golfers into the Olympic tournament. Tyrrell Hatton and Paul Casey qualified directly among the top 60 eligible players for the men's event. However, Hatton announced his withdrawal on 21 June 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic and he was replaced by Tommy Fleetwood. Mel Reid and Jodi Ewart Shadoff qualified in a similar manner through the women's rankings",
". Mel Reid and Jodi Ewart Shadoff qualified in a similar manner through the women's rankings. The latter following the withdrawal of higher-ranked British golfers Charley Hull and Georgia Hall. On 6 July 2021, Team GB confirmed the selection of the four golfers who will represent the team in Tokyo.",
"Gymnastics",
"Artistic",
"Great Britain fielded a full squad of four gymnasts in the women's artistic gymnastics events by finishing fourth out of the nations eligible for qualification in the team all-around qualification round at the 2019 World Artistic Gymnastics Championships in Stuttgart, Germany. The top nine eligible nations were awarded qualification places",
". The top nine eligible nations were awarded qualification places. The men's artistic gymnastics team also secured a place after finishing second among the nations eligible for qualification in the team all-around qualification round at the same championships. Again, nine team berths were available at this competition in total",
". Again, nine team berths were available at this competition in total. On 24 May 2021, Team GB announced the selection of the four members of the men's squad including reigning individual pommel horse and floor exercise champion Max Whitlock together with three debutants. In June 2021, Team GB announced the selection of the four members of the women's team; all of them will make their Olympic debuts, including the twin sisters Jennifer and Jessica Gadirova.",
"Men\nTeam\n\nIndividual \n\nWomen\nTeam\n\nIndividual\n\n* Originally first reserve, Jennifer Gadirova was promoted to the floor final following the withdrawal of Simone Biles.",
"Trampoline\nGreat Britain qualified one gymnast for the women's trampoline by finishing in the top eight at the 2019 World Championships in Tokyo, Japan. Great Britain secured a second quota when Rio silver medallist Bryony Page finished fourth in the 2020/21 Trampoline World Cup series. On 10 June 2021, Page and Laura Gallagher were selected to fill these quotas in Tokyo.\n\nJudo",
"Great Britain, at the conclusion of the 2021 World Judo championships, had achieved quota places in the following weight categories. Nekoda Smythe-Davis had qualified a continental quota place in the −57 kg category, but had already withdrawn from Olympic consideration for health reasons",
". On 5 July 2021, Team GB announced the judokas who will compete in Tokyo, including debutant Sarah Adlington in the women's heavyweight category, who had been awarded a continental quota following the official withdrawal of Smythe-Davis.",
"Modern pentathlon",
"British athletes qualified for the following spots in the modern pentathlon at the Games. Rio 2016 Olympian Joe Choong secured an outright berth in the men's event by winning the gold medal at the 2019 UIPM World Cup Final in Tokyo, Japan, becoming the first athlete to be named to Team GB for Tokyo 2020. World champion Jamie Cooke and fellow Briton Kate French confirmed places in their respective events with a podium finish (gold for Cooke and silver for French) at the 2019 European Championships in Bath",
". Following the conclusion of the 2021 UIPM Worlds, a second and final women's quota place was confirmed based on the world rankings. On 24 June 2021, Team GB announced the names of the four modern pentathletes chosen to compete in Tokyo.",
"Rowing",
"Great Britain qualified ten out of fourteen boats for each of the following rowing classes into the Olympic regatta, with all of the crews confirming Olympic places for their boats at the 2019 FISA World Championships in Ottensheim, Austria. On 9 June 2021, Team GB announced the names of the 41 rowers who would represent them in Tokyo. Notable rowers in the squad included double Olympic champion Helen Glover and two-time medallist Moe Sbihi",
". In addition, four travelling reserves were named: Morgan Bolding, Matthew Tarrant, Madeleine Arlett and Saskia Budgett.",
"Men\n\nWomen\n\nQualification Legend: FA=Final A (medal); FB=Final B (non-medal); FC=Final C (non-medal); FD=Final D (non-medal); FE=Final E (non-medal); FF=Final F (non-medal); SA/B=Semifinals A/B; SC/D=Semifinals C/D; SE/F=Semifinals E/F; QF=Quarterfinals; R=Repechage\n\nRugby sevens",
"Rugby sevens\n\nIn international competition the constituent nations of Great Britain ordinarily compete as separate unions representing England, Scotland and Wales. Northern Irish players who normally represent Ireland would have been eligible however the IRFU insisted that they do not play for Great Britain.",
"For the purposes of qualification for the 2020 Olympics the three British unions agreed in advance of the 2017–18 men's and women's Sevens World Series that their highest-finishing teams in that season would represent all three unions in the first stage of qualification during the 2018–19 series. The England men's and women's teams earned the right to represent the British unions in that stage of their respective competitions, but failed to qualify for the Olympic events through a top four finish.",
"As a result, England took part in the Rugby Europe Olympic qualification events for both men and women.\n\nSummary\n\nMen's tournament\n\nThe England men's team secured a qualifying berth for Great Britain at the Olympics by winning the 2019 Rugby Europe Sevens Olympic Qualifying Tournament, defeating France in the final. The British Olympic Association will select a team of twelve from the three home nations to represent Great Britain at the Games.\n\nSquad\n\nGroup play\n\nQuarterfinal\n\nSemifinal",
"Squad\n\nGroup play\n\nQuarterfinal\n\nSemifinal\n\nBronze medal match\n\nWomen's tournament\n\nThe England women's team secured a qualifying berth for Great Britain at the Olympics by winning the 2019 Rugby Europe Women's Sevens Olympic Qualifying Tournament, defeating Russia in the final. The British Olympic Association will select a team of twelve from the three home nations to represent Great Britain at the Games.\n\nSquad\n\nGroup play\n\nQuarterfinal\n\nSemifinal\n\nBronze medal match\n\nSailing",
"British sailors qualified boats in all Olympic classes at the 2018 Sailing World Championships, bringing the maximum quota of 15 sailors, in ten boats. On 1 October 2019, Team GB announced the names of the first twelve sailors selected for the Tokyo 2020 regatta, including Saskia Tidey, who previously competed for Ireland in Rio 2016, defending champions Giles Scott (Finn) and Hannah Mills (women's 470), and London 2012 silver medallists Luke Patience (men's 470) and Stuart Bithell (49er)",
". The Nacra 17 crew (Gimson & Burnet) was added to the list of confirmed athletes for Tokyo on 24 January 2020. Laser sailor Elliot Hanson completed Team GB's sailing lineup for the Olympics on 29 February 2020.",
"Men\n\nWomen\n\nMixed\n\nM = Medal race; DSQ = Disqualification; EL = Eliminated – did not advance into the medal race; UFD = \"U\" Flag disqualification\n\nShooting",
"British shooters achieved quota places for the following events by virtue of their best finishes at the 2018 ISSF World Championships, the 2019 ISSF World Cup series, European Championships or Games, and European Qualifying Tournament, as long as they obtained a minimum qualifying score (MQS) by 31 May 2020. On 13 January 2021, Team GB announced the selection of four athletes to fill the quotas secured by the team to date",
". Amber Hill secured a quota in the women's skeet after finishing at the top of the qualifying rankings for that event by winning the ISSF World Cup in New Delhi on 21 March 2021. On 27 May 2021, Hill secured a quota for Team GB by winning the bronze medal at the 2021 European Shooting Championships in Osijek, Croatia, superseding the earlier quota she had won and releasing it to a shooter from another NOC. On 15 June 2021, Team GB confirmed that Hill had been selected for Tokyo",
". On 15 June 2021, Team GB confirmed that Hill had been selected for Tokyo. On 21 July, the British Olympic Association confirmed that Hill, having failed a COVID-19 test before flying to Tokyo, had been forced to withdraw from the Games.",
"Matthew Coward-Holley, won Britain's only shooting medal of the Games, a bronze in the men's trap. The reigning European and World champion, who had twice broken his back playing rugby as a teenager, missed his first three targets but then hit 14 in a row to secure the bronze medal.\n\nSkateboarding",
"Skateboarding\n\nGreat Britain entered two skateboarders to compete across all events at the Games. Sky Brown and Bombette Martin qualified among the top 16 eligible skateboarders in the women's park, respectively, based on the World Skate Olympic Rankings of 30 June 2021. On 1 July 2021, Team GB announced the selection of both athletes to represent the team in Tokyo.\n\nSport climbing",
"Sport climbing\n\nGreat Britain entered one sport climber into the Olympic tournament. Shauna Coxsey qualified directly for the women's combined event, by advancing to the final stage and securing one of the seven provisional berths at the 2019 IFSC World Championships in Hachioji, Japan. On 11 February 2020, Team GB confirmed Coxsey's selection for Tokyo.\n\nSwimming",
"British swimmers must qualify by finishing in the top two of the Olympic trials, gaining the GB qualifying A standard set by British Swimming in the relevant final (that time being the fastest time of the sixteenth fastest swimmer internationally in that event in 2019). The standard is typically well in advance of the qualification time set by the international federation FINA; therefore, the number and identity of swimmers who will represent Great Britain will not be known until the period concludes",
". British Swimming have set a maximum of 35 swimmers for the team, although one swimmer may swim in multiple events.",
"All selected British swimmers must further achieve the qualifying standards in the events (up to a maximum of 2 swimmers in each event at the Olympic Qualifying Time (OQT), and potentially 1 at the Olympic Selection Time (OST)):",
"Great Britain may also enter a team for relay events with a top 12 finish at the 2019 FINA World Championships, or having one of the four best times of a team outside that top 12 in a relay event. At the 2019 Championships, Great Britain secured 5 top 12 finishes out of 7 relay events, including the full set of male and mixed relay events, thus confirming Great Britain's first guaranteed places in the pool for Tokyo 2020.",
"On 20 January 2021, British Swimming announced that following a change of selection policy to deal with the COVID-19 pandemic, four male swimmers who won individual medals at the 2019 World Aquatics Championships would be pre-selected for their respective events, including the current Olympic champion and world record holder Adam Peaty in the men's 100 m breaststroke.",
"On 17 April 2021, Team GB and British Swimming announced a further 24 swimmers would join the team, consisting of all the swimmers who had met the Olympic Consideration Time in any event at the National Trials, plus two further swimmers who had met the consideration time in the men's 200 metre freestyle, and were thus considered for the men's 4 × 200 metre freestyle relay squad. Following the 2021 European Aquatics Championships",
". Following the 2021 European Aquatics Championships. and Glasgow Open Swimming Meet, two further swimmers, Lucy Hope and Laura Stephens, were added to the final squad of thirty. Due to possible scheduling conflicts, Great Britain returned a quota place in the Women's freestyle relay, which was then reallocated to Brazil.",
"In June 2021, Hector Pardoe and Alice Dearing won quotas in the men's and women's 10 km marathon by virtue of finishing first and fourth respectively in the final qualifying event in Setúbal, Portugal. On 25 June, Team GB confirmed their selection for Tokyo. Dearing becomes the first black female swimmer to compete for Team GB at the Olympics.",
"During the competition Adam Peaty won Team GB's first gold medal of the Games and became the first British swimmer to successfully defend an Olympic title, winning the men's 100 m breaststroke. In the men's 200 m freestyle Tom Dean won the gold medal with teammate Duncan Scott taking silver, the first time since 1908 that two male British swimmers had won medals in the same event",
". Dean then won a second gold medal, alongside Scott, James Guy and Matt Richards as Great Britain won the 4 × 200 m freestyle relay.",
"Men\n\nWomen\n\nMixed\n\n Swimmers who participated in the heats only.\n\nTable tennis",
"Great Britain entered three athletes into the table tennis competition at the Games. Two-time Olympian Liam Pitchford and double Commonwealth Games medallist Tin-Tin Ho were automatically selected among the top ten table tennis players vying for qualification in their respective singles events based on the ITTF Olympic Rankings of 1 June 2021. Ho becomes the first British female table tennis player to compete at the Games since 1996",
". Ho becomes the first British female table tennis player to compete at the Games since 1996. On 7 July 2021, Paul Drinkhall was granted a reallocated quota for the men's singles.",
"Taekwondo",
"Great Britain will enter a squad of five athletes into the taekwondo competition for the first time at the Games",
". Two-time defending Olympic champion Jade Jones (women's 57 kg), 2019 world champions Bradly Sinden (men's 68 kg) and Bianca Walkden (women's +67 kg), and former European and world junior champion Lauren Williams (women's 67 kg) qualified directly for their respective weight classes by finishing among the top five taekwondo practitioners in the WT Olympic Rankings at the end of the qualification period",
". With the 2019 World Taekwondo Grand Slam winner already qualified through the rankings, 2019 world silver medallist and Grand Slam Series runner-up Mahama Cho (men's +80 kg) secured a fifth and final spot for Great Britain, as the next highest-placed eligible taekwondo practitioner. As Great Britain have achieved two quota places or more in each sex, they will not be eligible for any further places through remaining continental or global qualification routes",
". On 1 June 2021, Team GB confirmed the selection of the five athletes who had secured qualification for Tokyo.",
"Tennis",
"On 24 June 2021, Team GB announced the selection of the six players who will represent the team in Tokyo. The most notable selection was that of defending singles champion and double gold medallist Andy Murray. In addition to these players Cameron Norrie also qualified through the rankings but declined the opportunity to attend the Games due to other professional commitments, while Kyle Edmund was recovering from surgery",
". Mixed doubles pairings are decided on rankings only when all players have been chosen, but Team GB are expected to be able to select a mixed doubles pair based on rankings.",
"On 13 July, Johanna Konta was forced to withdraw from the squad as a result of being diagnosed with SARS‑CoV‑2. This left Heather Watson as the only female player in the squad, and meant that, in the absence of a potential replacement (no British woman being ranked high enough to qualify), there would be no entry in the Women's Doubles tournament. On 14 July, Dan Evans withdrew from both men's singles and men's doubles due to a positive COVID-19 test",
". The following day it was announced that Jamie Murray would replace Evans as Neal Skupski's partner in the men's doubles. After further withdrawals from the men's singles event Liam Broady secured a place in the tournament based on his world ranking. On 25 July, Andy Murray withdrew from the men's singles due to a thigh strain and was replaced in the draw by Australian Max Purcell; Murray decided to continue his participation in the doubles.",
"Triathlon",
"Great Britain confirmed five quota places in the triathlon events for Tokyo. British Triathlon announced the athletes to occupy four of those places on 4 November 2020, including returning medallists Jonathan Brownlee and Vicky Holland. Reigning double Olympic champion Alistair Brownlee was not confirmed in the fifth and final quota place, which remains to be filled. On 14 June 2021, Team GB announced that Alex Yee had been selected to fill the remaining place on the British triathlon squad for Tokyo.",
"Individual\n\nRelay\n\nWeightlifting",
"Four female weightlifters qualified for Great Britain, one in each of the following weight classes. Former Commonwealth Games champion Zoe Smith (women's 59 kg), European medallist Sarah Davies (women's 64 kg), and European champion Emily Campbell (women's +87 kg) secured one of the top eight slots each in their respective weight divisions based on the IWF Absolute World Rankings. On 30 June 2021, Team GB confirmed their selection for Tokyo",
". On 30 June 2021, Team GB confirmed their selection for Tokyo. On 4 July 2021, Colombia confirmed they would cede the women's −76 kg quota place as part of an agreement with the IWF following multiple doping violations, thus granting Emily Muskett, European champion in the non-Olympic −71 kg category, a quota place in the event. Muskett's place on the Olympic team was confirmed by Team GB on 6 July 2021.",
"Sports not contested by Great Britain in Tokyo\n\nBasketball",
"Neither the men's nor the women's team qualified for the full court tournaments. The men's team were eliminated in the early stages, failing to emerge from their first-round group in qualification for the FIBA Basketball World Cup. The women's team fared much better, after a groundbreaking run to a fourth-place finish in the Women's EuroBasket tournament meant that they made the final qualification tournament in Belgrade",
". The team narrowly missed out on qualification at that tournament, largely due to a tight loss to South Korea, with whom they were vying for the third of three qualification places behind Spain and China.",
"Neither the men's nor women's 3x3 teams qualified.\n\nBaseball\n\nGreat Britain failed to emerge from the 2019 European Baseball Championship to reach the final qualification tournament, finishing ninth.\n\nHandball\n\nGreat Britain's 10th-place finish at the 2017 IHF Emerging Nations Championship ended their participation in qualification for the men's Olympic tournament. Great Britain did not enter a team in qualification for the women's Olympic event.\n\nKarate",
"Karate\n\nAt the conclusion of the Final Karate Olympic Qualification Tournament, Great Britain had failed to advance any karateka to the Olympic Karate tournament.\n\nSoftball\n\nGreat Britain lost to Italy in the final of the combined Africa/Europe continental qualifying tournament so narrowly missing out on a place in Tokyo.\n\nSurfing\n\nGreat Britain failed to qualify any surfers for the Games.\n\nVolleyball\n\nTeam GB had no qualified teams in either full court or beach volleyball.\n\nWater polo",
"Volleyball\n\nTeam GB had no qualified teams in either full court or beach volleyball.\n\nWater polo\n\nTeam GB did not qualify.\n\nWrestling\n\nGreat Britain did not qualify any athletes.\n\nSee also\nGreat Britain at the Olympics\nGreat Britain at the 2020 Summer Paralympics\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links \n\n Team GB official website\n\nNations at the 2020 Summer Olympics\n2020\n2021 in British sport\nImpact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the 2020 Summer Olympics"
] |
Ford of Europe
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford%20of%20Europe
|
[
"Ford of Europe GmbH is a subsidiary company of Ford Motor Company founded in 1967 in Cork, Ireland, with headquarters in Cologne, Germany.",
"History",
"Ford of Europe was founded in 1967 by the merger of Ford of Britain, Ford Germany, and Irish Henry Ford & Son Ltd divisions of the Ford Motor Company. The front-engined Ford Transit range of panel vans launched in 1965, was the first formal co-operation between the two entities, simultaneously developed to replace the German Ford Taunus Transit and the British Ford Thames 400E",
". Prior to this, the two companies avoided marketing their vehicles in one another's domestic markets, and in much of the rest of western Europe were direct competitors, with totally separate product lines, despite being owned by the same American parent, in a similar manner to General Motors’ Opel and Vauxhall subsidiaries at the same time - indeed GM followed Ford's precedent in the 1970s by merging the operations of Opel and Vauxhall into General Motors Europe",
". The process took several years to complete, as new model ranges arrived and the older model ranges were gradually phased out. One of the key justifications for keeping separate divisions was to circumvent the high trade tariffs imposed on vehicles being exported between Britain and the European Economic Community, however once the UK joined the bloc in 1973, it made sense to standardise the model ranges throughout Britain and Continental Europe",
". Crucially merging the two companies' operations and having a common product range would allow Ford to double source cars and components from either British or Continental plants (the Fiesta for example was simultaneously assembled at Dagenham, Valencia and Cologne), something which was especially important due to the fraught industrial relations problems which plagued the British motor industry in the 1970s",
", and would prove crucial in Ford's ascendancy in the UK market and overtaking the troubled British Leyland",
".",
"1967–1973: Cortina and Escort",
"The first new model launched after the creation of Ford of Europe was the Escort, built in England from October 1967 and launched to market at the beginning of 1968. The Escort was a rear-wheel drive small family saloon that took the place of the British Anglia range and was built in both Britain and from 1970, Germany, although it was sold there from the outset. It was first available as a two-door saloon and later in estate, van and four-door saloon bodystyles",
". Power came from 950 CC, 1100 CC, and 1300 CC petrol engines. Later there was also a 2000 cc unit which came in the RS2000 performance version and was capable of . It quickly became popular with buyers, outselling key UK competitors from BMC (later British Leyland), Vauxhall (Opel in Germany) and the Rootes Group. The Escort would never achieve such dominance in Europe's largest auto market, but nevertheless took significant market share from the Opel and Volkswagen competitors of the time.",
"Ford Europe's second new car launch was the Capri sporting coupé at the beginning of 1969. Loosely based on Ford UK's rear-wheel drive Mk II Cortina saloon platform, it came with engines ranging from 1300 cc to 3000 cc and was made in Britain and Germany (with a different range of German V4 and V6 engines) and was an instant success, frequently featuring as one of Britain's top 10 best-selling cars and also doing well in most other European markets.",
"August 1970 saw the launch of the British Ford Cortina Mk III and its German cousin, the Taunus (replacing the Taunus 12M & 15M). The British and German models were based on the same platform, but had different sheet metal and used engines from their home countries, though both models could be had with the new German-built 2000cc OHC petrol engine",
". By 1972, the Cortina was the best-selling car in Britain and would stay at the top spot until 1981, except for 1976 when the smaller Escort was Britain's top-selling car for that year.",
"In March 1972, Ford Europe replaced their executive models from Britain (Zephyr/Zodiac) and Germany (17M/20M/26M) with the Consul and Granada (large saloon, estate and coupé) which was aimed directly at the Opel Rekord, Rover P6, Audi 100 and Triumph 2000. It quickly outsold its rivals in many countries and in 1973 was the tenth best-selling car in Britain",
". Like the Capri and Cortina/Taunus models, the early Consuls and Granadas were built in both Britain and Germany, each with a unique range of national engines.",
"In the early 1970s, Ford took the decision to enter the growing European supermini market and began to develop a competitor for the well-received new Fiat 127 and Renault 5. A site near Valencia, Spain, was chosen to build a new factory in order to accommodate production for the new car which was scheduled for a mid-1970s launch.\n\n1974–1980: MK 2 Escort and New Fiesta",
"1974–1980: MK 2 Escort and New Fiesta\n\nA revised Capri II arrived in early 1974 which saw a hatchback replacing the traditional \"boot\". This was the first time that Ford had produced a car with a hatchback, adopting this new concept which had first been patented by Renault in the mid-1960s.",
"Ford launched the Escort II at the start of 1975 which was essentially a rebodied version of the 1968 car and was largely mechanical identical, despite the larger, squarer body. The entry-level 950 cc engine which was rare in any country, was discontinued.\n\nIn 1975, Ford overtook British Leyland (the combine which included Austin, Morris and Rover) as the most popular make of car in the United Kingdom.",
"1976 saw Ford Europe enter the supermini market with its first ever front-wheel-drive model. The Fiesta I was built at the company's new Valencia plant in Spain (and would also be produced at Dagenham and Cologne) and came with 950 cc, 1100 cc and 1300 cc petrol engines. It was briefly exported to the United States and Canada between 1978 and 1980. From 1981, it was available with a 1600 cc unit for the sporty XR2 version",
". From 1981, it was available with a 1600 cc unit for the sporty XR2 version. In Britain where it launched in February 1977 and most of the rest of Europe took to it straight away and it was quickly among the best-selling cars in most of the continent, fighting off competition from the Volkswagen Polo, Renault 5, Fiat 127, Vauxhall Chevette and Peugeot 104.",
"The new Taunus saloon and estate were launched on the continent at the end of 1975, with the UK market Cortina version being launched in late September 1976. The integration of the Ford range across Europe was now virtually complete, with the different nameplates on the Taunus/Cortina being the only separator.\n\nFord launched the Granada II range in September 1977. In 1976, all Granada production had been concentrated to Cologne, Germany. The Consul badge was abandoned in 1975.",
"In 1977, Ford finally overtook British Leyland as the market leader in the UK.\n\nThe Mk III Capri coupé arrived in early 1978. By now Capri production was also concentrated at Cologne. In 1979, the Cortina/Taunus was given a very light facelift to create the \"Cortina 80\" (or Cortina Mk5). However, this was very much a short-term measure, as Ford was beginning to develop an all-new successor ready for a 1982 launch.",
"1980 saw one of the most important car launches in Ford's history. The Escort III went on sale across Britain and Europe in September that year, with its ultra-modern aerodynamic styling and updated front-wheel drive mechanical layout. It was also available as a hatchback for the first time, with the Escort-based Orion saloon not arriving until 1983. The 2000 cc engine was dropped and the range-topping Escort was now the XR3 which came with a fuel-injected 1600 cc unit",
". It was a huge sales success for the company throughout the 1980s, being Britain's best selling car from 1982 to 1989 and also topping the sales charts in several other countries.",
"1981–1989: Breaking new ground\nThe 1980s saw a radical change in most of the European Fords which had begun in September 1980 when the Escort switched to front-wheel drive and a hatchback from the traditional rear-wheel drive saloon which became a huge sales success across Europe.",
"20 years of Cortina production came to an end in October 1982 with the launch of the new Ford Sierra. The new car retained the traditional rear-wheel-drive chassis, perhaps surprisingly at the time when a front-wheel drive system was becoming almost exclusive in this sector of car. But in place of its predecessor's conventional, square styling was Sierra's ultramodern aerodynamic styling that was way ahead of its time compared to the competition",
". Initial sales were disappointing, but demand soon increased and the Sierra was Britain's third best-selling car in 1983, its first full year on sale. It was built in Great Britain and Belgium and sold well in just about every European country. Cosworth versions of the Sierra were built from 1986, all of which were capable of . The three-door Sierra hatchback, mostly sold with only a 1",
". The three-door Sierra hatchback, mostly sold with only a 1.3 petrol engine, was not a popular choice and had been discontinued by the time the Sierra was facelifted in early 1987 when a Sapphire saloon version was launched and the 1.3 engine dropped. The original Sierra Cosworth was the last model in the range to feature a three-door hatchback.",
"1983 saw the seven-year-old Ford Fiesta receive an updated MK2 version that retained the three-door hatchback bodyshell but smoothed out the previously boxy edges to give it a more modern look and keep it competitive with a string of new European and Japanese superminis which hit the market during 1982 and 1983. The sporty XR2 version was relaunched and its power output was increased, as well as receiving the first five-speed gearbox ever fitted to a Fiesta",
". Also in that year, Ford introduced a new four-door saloon to meet the demands of buyers looking for a booted alternative to the Escort and Sierra hatchbacks and estates. The saloon derived version of the Escort was named as the Orion but was aimed more upmarket than the Escort with no 1.1 litre engined version and initially only GL and Ghia trim levels. It was almost as long as a Sierra and many saw it as a true replacement for the traditional Cortina.",
"Ford launched another ground-breaking new car in May 1985 with the Granada-replacing Ford Scorpio, although the Granada name was retained in the United Kingdom and Ireland with \"Scorpio\" being used as a sub-brand for the highest specification models. It was based on a stretched version of Sierra's rear-wheel-drive chassis and was far more modern looking than any other cars in its sector at this time, being similar in appearance to the smaller Sierra",
". It was also the world's first volume production car to feature anti-lock brakes as standard. High equipment levels, a comfortable interior and solid build quality ensured that the German-built Scorpio was a success all over Europe and was voted European Car of the Year for 1986. A saloon version had joined the range by early 1990, as had a 2.9 V6 Cosworth high-performance hatchback while an estate version arrived in early 1992 as it was nearing replacement.",
"An updated Escort and Orion appeared in March 1986, called the \"Mark 4\", it featured Scorpio-influenced front-end styling, revised engine options and an all-new interior.",
"Production of the Capri coupé ended in December 1986 after 18 years and there was no replacement, although stocks of the model were sold into 1987, as sporting coupés were less popular at this time following the rise in popularity of fast hatchbacks such as the Ford Escort XR3i, Vauxhall Astra GTE, Peugeot 309 GTI and Volkswagen Golf GTI. Ford had proved successful in this sector with faster versions of the Fiesta, Escort, and Sierra.",
"The Sierra was facelifted in early 1987 and gained a saloon version for the first time, called the Sapphire, ensuring that it continued to sell well into the 1990s.",
"The third generation Fiesta was launched in March 1989 and the big news of the launch was the long-awaited availability of a five-door version, something that was already available on key rivals like the Austin Metro, Vauxhall Nova, Fiat Uno, SEAT Ibiza and the Peugeot 205. New to the range were the new 1.0 and 1.1 HCS (High Compression Swirl) petrol engines which ran alongside the long-running 1.4 unit. There was also a 1.8 diesel as well as the 1",
".4 unit. There was also a 1.8 diesel as well as the 1.6 fuel injected XR2i and RS Turbo sports models, the first Fiestas to feature fuel injection. Upmarket Ghia models were the first versions of the Fiesta to feature items such as electric windows and anti-lock brakes and was only available with the new five-door version.",
"For much of the 1980s, the Ford Escort was the most popular model of car in the world and from 1982 to 1989, it was the best-selling new car in the UK every year. Despite the launch of the MK4 in March 1986, it was started to look a little dated by the end of the decade in the face of newer rivals like the Rover 200, Peugeot 309, Fiat Tipo and Renault 19.\n\n1990–1997: Into the 1990s",
"The Mk5 Escort was launched in September 1990, along with the Orion saloon, but the motoring public and press gave it mixed to negative reviews. The car's styling lacked the flair of some rivals and it received mostly negative ratings for ride and handling, while it also retained the engine line-up of the previous generation with 1.3, 1.4 & 1.6 petrol units and a 1.8 diesel",
".3, 1.4 & 1.6 petrol units and a 1.8 diesel. The standard Escort models were later joined by the RS2000, XR3i and RS Cosworth performance versions that attracted a much more positive reaction. The RS2000 nameplate had been abandoned back in 1980 and the new version was undoubtedly the best, with its 2.0 16-valve I4 engine and the option of four-wheel drive, as well as its impressive top speed of more than",
". The RS Cosworth was a turbocharged version of the RS2000 and had a top speed of which helped bolster its fortunes in international rallies.",
"In spite of this and impressive new models being launched by rival companies Vauxhall and Rover, Ford were still firmly positioned at the top of the British car sales charts in the early 1990s and enjoyed a strong market share in virtually all European countries, expanding into Eastern Europe at the beginning of the 1990s following the collapse of communism",
". They even enlisted the help of Brian May to record a new song, Driven by you which featured in their new TV advertising campaign for the whole Ford range in the UK.",
"Ford responded to criticism of the Escort's shortcomings in September 1992 with a minor facelift which saw the introduction of its impressive new 1.4, 1.6 and 1.8 Zetec 16-valve units, the latter of which also found its way into the Fiesta RS1800. The Orion also received the same changes, only for the name to be shelved a year later and the saloon models absorbed into the Escort range. Ride and handling was also improved.",
"For 1993, Ford introduced a standard driver's airbag on all production models, with many cars also coming with a passenger's airbag as either standard or optional equipment.",
"February 1993 saw Ford launch a ground-breaking new family car in the shape of the Mondeo, the replacement for the Sierra made to rival the newer Opel Vectra/Vauxhall Cavalier, Peugeot 405 and Nissan Primera. Finally making the transition to front-wheel drive, the Mondeo came with an impressive range of new 16-valve Zetec petrol engines as well as a 2.5 V6 that joined the line-up in 1994. It was also one of the first volume production cars to feature an airbag as standard",
". It was also one of the first volume production cars to feature an airbag as standard. Hatchback, saloon and estate versions made up the range which won European Car of the Year accolade the following year. 1993 also saw the launch of its first European 4x4 model, the Maverick, which was based on the Nissan Terrano II. However, the Maverick was not a strong seller and it was discontinued in early 1999",
". However, the Maverick was not a strong seller and it was discontinued in early 1999. 1994 was the year where Ford regained leadership of the large family car sector market in Britain in terms of sales, as the Vauxhall Cavalier had been the best seller of this size for the previous four years. From 1996 to 2001, Ford also imported its Explorer SUV to Europe from the USA, but like the smaller Spanish-built Maverick, it was not a strong seller either.",
"Ford reentered the coupé market in early 1994 with its American-built, Mazda-based Probe. Available with 2.0 16-valve and 2.5 V6 petrol engines, the Probe was well regarded for its handling and performance but failed to sell as well as Ford had hoped and was withdrawn from Europe three years later. Its American-built replacement, the Ford Cougar, was imported from Europe but was even shorter-lived and less successful in Europe, with imports finishing after just two years.",
"October 1994 saw the launch of the second generation Scorpio which replaced the long-running Granada nameplate in the UK and Ireland and sold with saloon and estate models only, the model quickly gained attention due to its controversial styling which was often criticised in the motoring press.",
"1995 saw Ford launch its MK4 Fiesta and MK6 Escort ranges to keep them on the pace with the ever-growing number of new rivals that were threatening to decimate Ford's market share. Another new car launch that year was the Galaxy multi-purpose vehicle in June that was based upon the VW Sharan which quickly went straight to the top of the people carrier sales charts, remaining in production until the launch of an all-new replacement in 2006.",
"Ford entered the city car market in September 1996 with its oddly-named and oddly-styled Ka and was beaten into second place in the 1997 European Car of the Year award by the Renault Scenic. It made use of the Fiesta's chassis and 1300 cc petrol engine which gave it strong handling for such a small car. Going against the appeal were its cramped rear seats and tiny boot, but it managed to sell well for most of its 12-year production run",
". A month later in October, the Mondeo gained a facelift which saw the exterior styling brought up to date and the seating redesigned to improve space for rear seat passengers.",
"The Fiesta chassis also spawned the stylish Puma coupé in 1997 which included the Fiesta's floorpan and 1.4 engine as well as its own 1.7 unit. The Puma won plaudits for its styling, handling and performance. Despite its popularity, there was no direct successor when production finished in 2002.",
"Ford pulled out of the executive car market in 1998 upon the demise of its Scorpio which had replaced the Granada four years earlier. As well as a Europe-wide transition from mainstream brands to prestige brands during the 1990s, the Scorpio's sales potential was held back by its controversial styling.\n\n1998–2003: New Edge design",
"1998–2003: New Edge design\n\nIn the late 1990s, Ford adopted a distinctive \"New Edge\" design on its model range. Some of the cars adopting this eye-catching new look were entirely new, while others were facelifted versions of earlier and more conservative designs.",
"The end was in sight for the Escort in October 1998 when its distinctively-styled successor, the Focus, went on sale. Its radical design meant that Ford kept the Escort on sale alongside it for two years, the van until 2002, giving buyers a more conventionally-styled alternative, perhaps in fear of a repeat of the controversy it had faced some 16 years earlier when the Sierra went on sale",
". But Ford need not have worried about the public's reaction to the new Focus which was European Car of the Year for 1999 and being one of the best-selling cars on the continent. At the height of its production, there was a new Ford Focus coming off a production line at an average of one every 12 seconds (Saarlouis, Germany, Valencia, Spain, Wayne, Michigan, USA and Hermosillo, Mexico). However, the Focus was never built in Britain.",
"1998 also saw the launch of the Probe's replacement: the Cougar. Like its predecessor, the Cougar was built in the USA and used 2.0 and 2.5 petrol engines. Unlike its predecessor, it was based on the front-wheel-drive chassis of the Mondeo. It was very spacious for a coupé and offered superb road-holding and cruising ability. Sales were relatively low in Europe and it was dropped in Europe after 2000, with sales limited to its home market.",
"In 1999, Ford's European headquarters relocated from Brentwood in England to its current (2019) location in Cologne, Germany. It was from the adjacent Cologne factory that the 30 millionth Ford, a Fiesta, emerged from the production line on 19 November 1999. The aging MK4 Fiesta received a facelift in the Autumn of 1999 and continued to attract huge sales thanks to its excellent ride and handling that disguised its age well",
". The interior was, by now, one of the smartest in the supermini sector, though interior space, particularly in the back, was far from the best. This shortcoming was solved in Spring 2002 when the all-new MK5 Fiesta went on sale. This new Fiesta was to be built at Ford Cologne and Ford Valencia, each plant producing one Fiesta every 27 seconds",
". This also marked the end of Ford passenger car production in the UK after some 90 years, though commercial vehicles continued to be produced at Dagenham alongside the engine assembly for the passenger vehicles. In addition, Ford's Halewood plant was converted for Jaguar X-Type assembly in 2001. Ford also continued to build vans at its Southampton plant until relocating production to Turkey in 2013.",
"The Ford Mondeo was relaunched in an all-new MK2 version in late 2000 and was pipped for the European Car of the Year award by the Alfa Romeo 147. The new Mondeo was more competitively priced than its predecessor, but its real strengths were its excellent accommodation and driving experience which put it back on top of the large family car sector",
". Although demand for cars of this size dipped slightly across Europe during the 2000s, the Mondeo remained Britain's most popular large family car until 2007, when it was outsold by the facelifted Vauxhall Vectra.",
"The Maverick returned in late 2000, this time being a rebadged US-market Escape which launched in the same year, but sales were slow and was axed after 4 years.\n\nThe demise of the Puma in 2002 left Ford without a competitor in the coupé sector once more while the Focus ST170 which launched at that time could be seen as an indirect successor.",
"Ford entered the expanding compact MPV market in late 2003 with the Ford Focus C-Max which was unusually, the first car on the platform that would spawn the next generation Focus hatchback a year later. 2003 also saw a convertible version of the Ka launched as the StreetKa alongside a facelifted Mondeo.\n\n2004–2011: Kinetic Design",
"The second generation Focus hatchback, saloon and estate models went on sale in late 2004, picking up where the original model left off. Excellent ride and handling, good equipment levels, solid build quality and a comfortable interior all won praise for those who experienced the new car",
". The only major criticism of the Focus was its unoriginal styling which differed little from that of its predecessor but it remained one of the most popular cars in Europe during a production life which lasted more than six years.",
"November 2005 saw the launch of a facelifted Fiesta which offered new styling inside and out as well as new colour options.\n\n2006 saw Ford launch two new people carriers, the S-MAX and the Ford Galaxy MK2. Both cars used the same underpinnings, but the S-MAX was a cheaper and sportier alternative to the more upmarket and practical Galaxy. The S-MAX then became the first full-size people carrier to be voted European Car of the Year.",
"Ford launched the third generation Mondeo in May 2007 and new generations of the Fiesta and Ka in late 2008.\n\n4 years after the Maverick was axed, Ford returned to the 4x4 market in early 2008 with the Focus-based Kuga which unlike its Maverick predecessors became a strong seller.",
"In 2005, Ford celebrated its 30th anniversary as Britain's most popular car brand. The Focus was the country's top-selling car, while the Fiesta occupied fifth place and the Mondeo ninth. In spite of this, the gap between Ford and its competitors was about as narrow as it had ever been, with Vauxhall and Renault just a short margin behind Ford in sales figures.",
"In 2008, Ford acquired a majority stake in Automobile Craiova of Romania. The Ford Transit Connect was Ford's first model produced in Craiova, followed in 2012 by the new Fiesta-based MPV B-Max and the small displacement engine 1.0-litre EcoBoost.\n\n2011–present: One Ford",
"The first major car launch by Ford under the new \"One Ford\" policy for the 2010s was the third generation Focus in early 2011. For Europe, the Focus featured a lesser model range than its predecessors, with only a five-door hatchback and five-door estate being sold there were no saloon or three-door hatchback versions although the former bodystyle was sold in some European nations. The larger Mondeo had been facelifted the previous Autumn but this did little to halt dwindling sales over the next four years",
". Early 2013 saw the launch of a new-generation Kuga as well as a facelifted Fiesta.",
"In 2013, Ford announced that it would close three of its factories in Europe, two of them in the UK, the Southampton facility, manufacturing the Ford Transit van and the associated stamping facility in Dagenham in mid-2013. and the Genk, Belgium major car plant (producing the Mondeo and the Galaxy and S-Max MPV's) by the end of 2014. This amounted for 1,400 and 4,300 job cuts respectively, in an attempt by the company to stem losses in Europe on the background of a declining market.",
"After several delays and moving production to Valencia, Ford eventually launched a new-generation Mondeo in late 2014 which was based upon the US-market Fusion, around the same time, a facelifted Focus went on sale, as did a new small SUV, the EcoSport.\n\n2015 saw new versions of the S-Max & Galaxy MPV's launch which are again based on the Mondeo while the facelifted C-Max also launched.",
"In 2016, Ford once again returned to the coupe market with the US-sourced Mustang which would also be sold in RHD in the UK for the first time while the Edge crossover also joined the European line-up.\n\nIn late 2016, 20 years after the original launched, Ford relaunched the Ka as the Ka+ which would now be a five-door hatchback made in India but hasn't enjoyed the popularity of the original car and was axed after three years on sale. Around the same time, a facelifted Kuga launched.",
"2017 saw the big-selling Fiesta enter its seventh-generation. It retained the dimensions of its predecessor but with new styling and more new features than ever before while new additions to the range includes an upmarket Vignale version as well as an SUV-inspired version called the Active.",
"20 years after the original model launched, Ford's big-selling Focus entered its fourth-generation with all-new styling and being better to drive than its predecessor and like the smaller Fiesta also saw Vignale & Active models join the line-up.\n\nTrucks\nThe commercial vehicles arm of Ford of Britain was part of the operation until it was sold to Fiat's Iveco division in 1986. Its last significant models under Ford ownership were the Transcontinental and the Cargo.",
"Tractors\nThe production of tractors in Europe by Ford ceased following the sale of the division to Fiat in 1993, and the name changed from Ford New Holland to New Holland. New Holland Agriculture is now part of CNH Industrial. Tractor production had been based at the Antwerp (now only builds drivelines) and Basildon factories.\n\nFacilities\n\nCurrent\n\nFormer\n\nModels\n\nCurrent model range\nThe following tables list Ford production vehicles that are sold in Europe as of 2023:\n\nPassenger cars\n\nST models",
"Passenger cars\n\nST models\n\nFord produces high-performance derivatives of their cars developed by their Ford Performance division.\n\nLight commercial vehicles\n\nHeavy commercial vehicles",
"Discontinued models\n Model A (1903) (1903–1904)\n Model A (1928) (1928–1931)\n Model AA (1931–1932)\n Model T (1911–1927)\n Model TT (1918–1928)\n Model B (1932–1934)\n Model BB (1932–1934)\n Rheinland (1933–1936)\n Model Y (1932–1937)\n Köln (1933–1936)\n 7Y (1938–1939)\n Anglia (1939–1967)\n Fordson E04C (1945–1948)\n Fordson E494C (1948–1954)\n Thames 307E (1961–1967)\n Anglia Torino (1965–1967)\n Model C Ten (1934–1937)\n CX (1935–1937)\n Eifel (1935–1940)\n 7W (1937–1938)\n Prefect (1938–1961)\n Thames 300E (1954–1961)",
"CX (1935–1937)\n Eifel (1935–1940)\n 7W (1937–1938)\n Prefect (1938–1961)\n Thames 300E (1954–1961)\n Squire (1955–1961)\n Model 48 (1935–1936)\n V8-51 (1935–1945)\n 1937 Ford (1937–1940)\n De Luxe Ford (1937–1940)\n Thames 7V (1937–1949)\n V-3000 (1938–1948)\n E83W (1938–1957)\n 77-81 (1939–1942)\n WOT (1939–1945)\n Taunus (1939–1982)\n Cortina (1962–1982)\n 20 M TS (1967–1968)\n F917WS (1940–1943)\n 472A (1946–1948)\n Pilot (1947–1951)\n Vedette (1948–1954)\n Abeille (1952–1954)\n Rhein (1948–1955)\n Ruhr (1948–1958)",
"Pilot (1947–1951)\n Vedette (1948–1954)\n Abeille (1952–1954)\n Rhein (1948–1955)\n Ruhr (1948–1958)\n Thames ET (1949–1957)\n Cargo (1950) (1950–1954)\n Comète (1951–1954)\n FK (1951–1961)\n Consul (1951) (1951–1962)\n Zephyr (1951–1972)\n Zodiac (1954–1972)\n Executive (1966–1972)\n Consul Classic (1961–1963)\n Consul Capri (1962–1964)\n Vendôme (1953–1954)\n Popular (1953–1962)\n G398 (1956–1961)\n Trader (1957–1965)\n Thames 400E (1957–1965)\n E-Series (1961–2008) (Iceland only)\n GT40 (1964–1969)\n Corsair (1964–1970)",
"E-Series (1961–2008) (Iceland only)\n GT40 (1964–1969)\n Corsair (1964–1970)\n R-Series (1964–1986)\n D-Series (1965–1981)\n Escort (1967–2002)\n Orion (1983–1993)\n Capri (1968–1986)\n GT70 (1970–1973)\n Consul (1972) (1972–1975)\n Granada (1972–1994)\n Scorpio (1985–1998)\n A-Series (1973–1983)\n Transcontinental (1975–1984)\n Fiesta (1976–2023)\n LTD (1979–1980)\n Bronco (1981) (1981–1986)\n Sierra (1982–1993)\n P100 (1982–1995)\n RS200 (1984–1986)\n Econovan (1985–1993)\n Probe (1990–1997)\n Courier (1991–2002)",
"P100 (1982–1995)\n RS200 (1984–1986)\n Econovan (1985–1993)\n Probe (1990–1997)\n Courier (1991–2002)\n Maverick (1993) (1993–1998)\n Maverick (2001) (2001–2007)\n Escape (2001–2010) (Iceland only)\n Mondeo (1993–2022)\n Windstar (1995–2002)\n Galaxy (1995–2022)\n Ka (1996–2021)\n Puma (1997) (1997–2002)\n Cougar (1998–2002)\n TH!NK (1999–2006)\n Excursion (2000–2005) (Iceland only)\n Explorer Sport Trac (2000–2010) (Iceland only)\n Fusion (2002–2012)\n Freestar (2003–2006) (Netherlands only)\n C-Max (2003–2019)",
"Fusion (2002–2012)\n Freestar (2003–2006) (Netherlands only)\n C-Max (2003–2019)\n Grand C-Max (2011–2019)\n GT (2005) (2005–2006)\n GT (2018) (2018–2022)\n Freestyle (2005–2007) (Iceland only)\n S-Max (2006–2023)\n Edge (2007–2021)\n B-Max (2012–2017)",
"European Car of the Year\nFord has produced five winners of the European Car of the Year competition:\n\n1981 – Ford Escort\n1986 – Ford Scorpio/Granada\n1994 – Ford Mondeo\n1999 – Ford Focus\n2007 – Ford S-Max\n\nShortlisted models\nSeveral models have been shortlisted, including the:\n\n1976 – Ford Fiesta\n1978 – Ford Granada\n1983 – Ford Sierra\n1989 – Ford Fiesta\n1997 – Ford Ka\n2001 – Ford Mondeo\n2007 – Ford Focus\n2008 – Ford Mondeo\n2009 – Ford Fiesta\n2012 – Ford Focus\n\nSee also",
"See also\n\nHenry Ford (Founder of Ford Motor Company)\nHenry Ford II (Chairman and chief executive officer of Ford Motor Company at the time of Ford Europe's founding)\nMerkur\nCarrozzeria Ghia\nVignale\nFord Team RS\nCosworth\nFord Sollers\nList of automobile manufacturers of Germany\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n \n FoE History Conf, Bordeaux, France, Nov 2003\n\n \n\nCar manufacturers of Germany\n1967 establishments in West Germany\nVehicle manufacturing companies established in 1967"
] |
Crossed (comics)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crossed%20%28comics%29
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[
"Crossed is a comic book written by Garth Ennis and drawn by Jacen Burrows (for the first ten issues), published by Avatar Press. Following volumes Crossed: Family Values, Crossed 3D, and Crossed: Psychopath were written by David Lapham. A new series, Crossed: Badlands, was written and drawn by rotating creative teams. The franchise has also spawned two webcomics: Crossed: Wish You Were Here, which ran from 2012–2014, and Crossed: Dead or Alive, which began syndication in November 2014.",
"Publication history\nCrossed is a creator-owned series from writer Garth Ennis and artist Jacen Burrows. It began with Crossed #0 on August 27, 2008, and all 10 issues have been released.\n\nThe second series, Crossed: Family Values, is written by David Lapham and drawn by Javier Barreno. Ennis described how this unusual situation for a creator-owned property came about:\n\nPlot synopsis",
"The story follows survivors dealing with a pandemic that causes its victims to carry out their most evil thoughts. Carriers of the virus are generally known as the \"Crossed\" due to a large, cross-like rash that appears on their faces – other names include \"cross-faces\" and \"plus-faces\"",
". This contagion is primarily spread through bodily fluids, which the Crossed have used to great effect by treating their weapons with their fluids, as well as through other forms of direct fluidic contact such as rape and bites, assuming the victim lives long enough to turn. A major difference between the Crossed and other fictional zombie or insanity-virus epidemics (e.g",
". A major difference between the Crossed and other fictional zombie or insanity-virus epidemics (e.g., in the film 28 Days Later) is that while the Crossed are turned into homicidal violent psychopaths, they still retain a basic human-level of intelligence: thus, they are still capable of using tools and weapons, driving motor vehicles, setting complex traps, and other actions",
". It is occasionally noted in the series that a Crossed retains any skills they had prior to their infection; most simply lack the patience or sanity to do anything not immediately related to their vicious impulses.",
"The contagion spread across the entire world, with the Crossed killing, raping, engaging in cannibalism and maiming for fun, with governments and military overwhelmed; friends and family butchered each other with anything they laid their hands on, and cities were turned into vast charnel houses. Much of the Middle East was wiped out when Israel deployed nuclear weapons. The last organized act by the U.S",
". The last organized act by the U.S. government was to shut down as many nuclear power plants as possible and then kill the nuclear scientists and technicians to prevent them from reactivating the plants. A few nuclear power plants were not reached in time, however, such as Wolf Creek in Kansas and Browns Ferry in Alabama, detonated by Crossed who removed the control rods. One by one, the remaining military bases are overrun",
". One by one, the remaining military bases are overrun. Soon human civilization is all but gone, and mankind is an increasingly endangered species.",
"Plot elements",
"Depiction of the Crossed",
"The Crossed themselves show considerable variation, as they are still self-aware individuals – albeit turned into homicidal maniacs. One of the most visible examples is the actual level of insanity demonstrated. Many Crossed are practically feral savages with absolutely no regard for their own self-preservation, to the point that they will gleefully mutilate themselves for the sheer thrill of it, including amputating their own limbs",
". Others will be so driven to kill that they will carry out suicide attacks, crashing vehicles or causing nuclear meltdowns. Most are capable of basic (albeit deranged) speech, and wield whatever clubs, knives, or sharp objects are at hand to attack anything around them. The more insane Crossed will even attack each other, though they apparently prefer the non-Crossed",
". The more insane Crossed will even attack each other, though they apparently prefer the non-Crossed. Some characters speculate that this preference is due to their need for sadistic gratification: given that the Crossed are so insane that they will mutilate themselves voluntarily, it isn't as fun to torture fellow Crossed as it is to torture uninfected, frightened victims.",
"As stated by Garth Ennis:",
"In many cases, the personality and resultant madness of a Crossed individual will be affected by memories and relationships they had prior to infection",
". Examples of this include several Crossed in The Golden Road attacking Sanarkand specifically to exact vengeance on Gideon Welles, Eve carrying around the severed head of her boyfriend and sexually taunting Oliver (who betrayed her friends to the Crossed and raped her prior to her infection) in The Quisling, and Hazuki refusing to harm her friends after becoming Crossed in Five Bloody Fingers",
". It is also implied that certain mind-altering drugs can further influence a Crossed's personality; in Gore Angels, the Crossed known as \"Al the Chemist\" ate several hallucinogenic mushrooms prior to his infection, later exhibiting a fascination with \"enlightenment\" and apparently seeing uninfected humans as \"purple people\".",
"On rare occasions, pregnant women who have been infected and turned survive long enough to give birth, but their babies are born infected as well – apparently the placental barrier provides no protection against the infection (though it is possible that it does, but unsanitary birth conditions infect them during delivery itself, like neonatal conjunctivitis). Crossed women who have given birth are, however, gleefully willing to murder their own newborn babies.",
"The rate at which a person becomes infected ranges from several hours to a matter of minutes, and once infected there is no turning back. In most situations, the rate of infection is incredibly fast, in the range of one to three minutes. No cure exists for the Crossed, and there is almost no hint that scientists were able to study the infection long enough to do any sort of thorough research on the dilemma",
". While cover art has shown infected lab monkeys, animals generally seem immune, with predators such as leopards and lions freely mauling and biting Crossed with no sign of infection.",
"Some survivors have attempted to slip past the Crossed by painting red cross-marks on their faces to simulate the rashes from the infection – the Crossed will attack other Crossed if they're bored or frustrated, but at least some of the time will leave other Crossed alone. The effectiveness of the ruse varies between stories, but it rarely works for long",
". In The Fatal Englishman, the main characters note that they have never seen this trick succeed in the five years they survived since the outbreak; on the other hand, the survivors seen at the beginning of The Quisling attribute their survival to the \"fake cross\" tactic, although they admit that they weren't sure if it would've fooled the Crossed for more than a passing glance (it should also be noted that they carried parts of the dismembered corpse whose blood they used for the fake crosses with them",
", which may or may not have \"enhanced\" the illusion to the Crossed)",
".",
"\"Evolution\"",
"As time goes on in-universe, characters note that the Crossed have apparently been developing new habits. Some Crossed have been shown to be quite capable of complex pre-meditated actions. Not consumed by unthinking bloodlust to the extent that many of the other infected are, they have enough intellectual wherewithal to plan ambushes and traps, and organize gangs of Crossed to assault survivor enclaves",
". The more mindless rage-consumed Crossed will still know how to use firearms if they find them, but usually won't think rationally enough to plan out where to acquire more firearms. The more rational and calculating Crossed, in contrast, will actively seek out armories to acquire new firearms. Some of these more rational Crossed will consciously coat their weapons in their own bodily fluids, actively trying to turn non-infected survivors into more Crossed.",
"The series frequently presents Crossed specimens with unusual levels of focus and restraint, allowing them to form gangs of Crossed around them. Major examples of such characters include Horsecock in the original series, Ashley and Ashlynne in Homo Superior, Smokey in The Quisling, the nun Aoileann in Wish You Were Here, and serial killer Beau Salt, whose journal and descendants survive to Crossed +100",
". In comics by Simon Spurrier, this is attributed to some quality in the infected or their circumstances before infection; it's suggested in one issue that the disease doesn't always take proper hold in a \"broken brain\". Shaky says that Aoileann is good at \"holding back passion\" (which is mistaken for control) and simply passed this on to her group",
". Russian gangster Mattias had periods of control (followed by violent mania) due to brain damage from long-term ketamine use, and an Australian was focused on getting revenge. In Wish You Were Here, it is vaguely implied that Aoileann's unusual reaction to the Crossed infection may also be due to her having epilepsy, altering how it affected her brain. Beau Salt, already a prolific serial killer before 'The Surprise', as he called it, was largely unaffected by the infection, retaining all his faculties",
". He spent decades weeding out feral Crossed in order to build a functioning society of Crossed, passing his legacy down to his children, named after The Seven Dwarves.",
"Aoileann is capable of having lucid conversations with other people, making complex future plans and traps, and even seems to have retained certain empathetic emotions, as she is actually horrified at the prospect of personally killing other people (though she lets her followers kill uninfected people) and attempts to hold back her followers from killing Shaky (other humans are fair game). Mattias displays not only cognitive thinking but also strong emotional feelings",
". Mattias displays not only cognitive thinking but also strong emotional feelings. In his human life he fell in love with his parole officer, Serena; following his infection, he is determined to find and protect her, only to go insane with grief when he finds he came too late. This showed traces of positive emotions such as love and sadness that is almost never observed in other Crossed. If and how his ketamine habit affects this is unknown",
". If and how his ketamine habit affects this is unknown. Smokey is one of the smartest Crossed ever seen, being able to organize and lead a large group of Crossed. He is even able to strike deals with survivors, protecting them from the other Crossed in exchange for their assistance in luring out other survivors. An exact reason why he is so much smarter is never given; although there were medical reasons behind Aoileann and Mattias, no such conditions are ever stated with him",
". He does not display emotions, he is just more intelligent. The twin sisters Ashley and Ashlynne in the Florida Keys are also intelligent, for unknown reasons, though the fact that they are identical twins may indicate that it is due to some random genetic mutation",
". In issue #97, a navy patrol ship captain with access to a long-range communications system (communicating with other survivors across continents) told Smokey that such intelligent \"super-Crossed\" were exceedingly rare, being more of a scary campfire story that survivors shared with each other",
". The captain mentioned that besides Smokey, he had heard rumors of a nun in England (Aoileann), twin sisters in Florida (Ashley and Ashlynne), and an autistic kid in Montreal (similar to epilepsy, apparently his Autism made his brain structure different enough that the virus didn't take full hold).",
"Of all these \"super-Crossed\", there is one who takes it to another level: Salt, an infamous serial killer (known as the \"Phonebook Killer\") who was infected on C-Day. Because Salt was already homicidally insane and had no restrictions on his impulses, the Crossed virus did not significantly change him (perhaps because his psychopathic brain structure was already significantly altered from normal)",
". Retaining all of his intellect and long-term planning ability, Salt soon became a dark messiah of sorts to the Crossed. He created the hundred-year plan to ensure the Crossed survive and continue the apocalyptic cycle indefinitely.",
"The \"super-Crossed\" tend to appear in comics that take place long after the outbreak first occurred, up to five years later by The Fatal Englishman. As Shaky explained in Wish You Were Here, it is not so much that the Crossed \"evolved\" during these years, but rather the process of natural selection setting in",
". Logically, many of the Crossed who were so insane that they didn't care about their own self-preservation have died off, while the far more dangerous rational and calculating ones took steps to survive over a long period of time. Those Crossed with little sense of preservation, not even the sense to put on warm clothing in colder weather, tended to die off in the winters",
". The Crossed who survived that long tend to be the more rational and lucid ones who have the wherewithal to preserve themselves, use combat tactics like avoiding gunfire, use guns themselves, and setting complex ambushes. Meanwhile, the few surviving non-infected are hardened veterans who have been combating the Crossed for years, further increasing the pressure of natural selection as the Crossed are forced to become smarter and more cunning to catch the survivors off-guard.",
"Most of the completely \"anti-social\" Crossed die out in the heavy fighting of the initial outbreak. By the time of Crossed: Family Values, survivors observe that most Crossed usually form up into gangs of about five to fifteen members – any larger than that and they start fighting each other again, bringing the number back down to below about fifteen",
". The more coherent Crossed who survived many years, however, are capable of forming into even larger groups of over a hundred without fighting each other (as seen in The Fatal Englishman and the webcomics). As seen in Family Values and the webcomics, when there are no more uninfected around to attack, after a while a group of Crossed will usually fall into a sort of bored stupor, aimlessly wandering in one direction until they find more people to attack",
". A number of Crossed, however, appear to be naturally smarter or, at least, more capable of patience and planning: deferring immediate pleasure to have a greater atrocity later. These tend to become the leaders of large gangs, numbering in the many dozens or, in Crossed +100, a whole community. These appear more often in stories set months or years after the outbreak.",
"Outbreak",
"Before The Thin Red Line, the Crossed stories agreed that the infection was stunningly rapid, so fast that the news media and most world governments had little, if any, time to respond, but the exact specifics of the outbreak differed from writer to writer. Depending on the story, it took anywhere from a week to a mere matter of hours for the infection to spread across the globe",
". In the original story, the infection erupts suddenly across the entire United States without warning and later spreads; a survivor says Canada tried to fortify the border \"in the first week,\" and were unaware the virus had reached them until after that point",
". In contrast, Badlands #14–18, #40–43, and Wish You Were Here have the infection erupting across the entire planet in the same day, the latter two showing United Kingdom and Japan being rapidly overrun; Badlands #16 has the White House (and Surgeon General) and part of the news media still around the next day, reporting on the crisis",
". Badlands #10–13 ignores this, and has the Crossed tearing through small towns without being noticed, getting more and more numerous over the course of a week; and Badlands #26, also by Ennis, has a British soldier named Harry (later appearing in The Thin Red Line) say he's been aware of the Crossed for \"the past three days\" by the time the outbreak is public.",
"In the Crossed: Dead or Alive webcomic, the characters discuss a collapsed bridge, and speculate it was detonated by the U.S. Army in \"the first few days,\" in an effort to cut major road arteries and slow traffic between the eastern and western sections of the United States to slow the spread of the virus. In the stories where the infection is sudden, the Crossed are shown overrunning the United States at sunset/night and London in the afternoon",
". Badlands arc 62–70 shows the initial outbreak in the city of San Diego and the attempts by the US military to restore order in the city, and, as the epidemic got out of hand, evacuate thousands of surviving civilians from the city to waiting cruise ships and extract them to a supposedly secure island off the California coastline. However, a U.S",
". However, a U.S. Navy fleet sent from Pearl Harbor to protect the evacuation ships at San Diego harbor somehow falls victim to the infection and ultimately massacres much of the civilian evacuation vessels still residing in San Diego, killing and maiming hundreds or possibly thousands of survivors.",
"Homo Tortor by Kieron Gillen introduced a fringe scientific theory that a viral pandemic of sociopathy had caused the mass extinction of prehistoric hominids. When the outbreak happened, one man attempted to find the theory's professor in the hope of learning about the origins of the Crossed – there turned out to be no link, with the prehistoric scenes being an in-universe story by the Crossed about the world they were making now.",
"The Thin Red Line (Badlands #50–56) finally established an origin and timeline of the infection as happening in the summer of 2008, the time of the first comic. Other stories have gone with this, and Crossed +100 gives a specific date of July 27, 2008, for when Americans see the \"Surprise\" as starting.(This origin clashes with other outbreak stories: London is not overrun for several days, the White House is overrun before most of the U.S",
".S., and the Crossed are public before an outbreak in Japan or most of the United States).",
"The outbreak began in Yorkshire, United Kingdom: the patient zero was a man who had a psychotic breakdown and murdered his family, and the infection spread rapidly from two local policemen to the entire population of the village of Tethersby. Within a few days, there were reports of infections in France, Chad, Australia, South Africa, Pakistan, Russia, and the United States. During the story, government scientist Dr",
". During the story, government scientist Dr. Chopra points out that the British \"patient zero\" cannot logically be the patient zero if the infection is appearing so far abroad, and theorizes if the virus is \"something in the D.N.A....the planet's\" that has manifested, and this is why it doesn't follow any known scientific laws",
".A....the planet's\" that has manifested, and this is why it doesn't follow any known scientific laws. \"Patient Zero\" himself was aware of events he could not possibly have seen or heard, and saw visions of atrocities he was unaware of, suggesting a paranormal angle, and refers to it as something that \"cleanses.\"",
"In the U.K., indecisiveness by Prime Minister Gordon Brown meant that a state of emergency wasn't declared until after a Sky News team found and filmed the villagers committing a mass suicide. From this point the infection spread rapidly, and the Prime Minister and his staff were moved into a secure bunker guarded by the SAS and SO1 police officers, which also doubled as a medical research centre where \"Patient Zero\" was placed under quarantine",
". Soon after, the Crossed had overrun most of Yorkshire and other parts of northern England and Scotland, with smaller outbreaks appearing further south. Under the belated state of emergency, the U.K. suspended all public transport, airlifted troops back from Afghanistan, and blockaded the M1 motorway just north of Northampton; south of there, cordons held and prevented large-scale refugee migration, which could bring more of the infected south.",
"As the infection appeared worldwide, a group of Pakistani Crossed dropped a nuclear bomb on Delhi, wiping out most – if not all of – India's government; India's remaining military at least had the wherewithal not to launch a nuclear counterstrike against Pakistan, realizing it would achieve nothing",
". Shortly thereafter, Russian Prime Minister (and Acting President following Dmitri Medvedev's incapacitation) Vladimir Putin requested the RAF shoot down 40 Crossed-piloted Tu-95 bombers before NORAD – unable to launch planes due to similar problems – feel obliged to launch nukes. When Gordon Brown contacts the White House, the person answering (implied to be President George W. Bush) is clearly infected, confirming Washington D.C. has been overrun",
". Bush) is clearly infected, confirming Washington D.C. has been overrun. A single Tornado GR1 is launched to intercept the Russians, and the crew sacrifice themselves to prevent nuclear war from breaking out.",
"After this, the government is evacuated to bunkers, civil authority is superseded by the Armed Forces, and orders go out to shut down all nuclear facilities. However, Prime Minister Brown says in the long term they should \"hopefully\" regain control, and that government scientist Dr. Chopra has a chance of finding an answer to the virus",
". Chopra has a chance of finding an answer to the virus. Unfortunately, Brown's advisor – acting without clearing it with the PM – had ordered two of the SAS to torture \"patient zero\" for information, which led to their infection and \"zero\" turning fully-Crossed. As the bunker is being sealed, it's revealed Chopra is infected, and about to butcher the Prime Minister.",
"In the United States, the President declared a national state of emergency with the full backing of Congress, whilst forty-two state governors imposed martial law in their home states. FEMA and the National Disaster Medical System were activated, but were late in mobilizing. Within days of the outbreak, the power grid had failed in Atlanta, St. Louis, Columbus, and Chicago, and likely most other cities, as well",
". Louis, Columbus, and Chicago, and likely most other cities, as well. NDMS deployed mobile mortuary teams across the eastern seaboard in an attempt to contain the epidemic, and private health-care centres were federalised.",
"One hundred years after the initial outbreak, as depicted in Crossed: +100, it is revealed that around 2050 A.D., Crossed numbers began to drop significantly, and eventually regular humans once again outnumber the infected, though small family-groups of Crossed continued to inhabit some areas, breeding new generations by refraining from killing their young. Crossed +100 shows that in the long run, Crossed will even learn to breed and form dysfunctional family-units",
". Human society has somewhat begun to rebuild in the former United States, but is still socially and technologically backwards compared to society before \"The Surprise,\" as C-Day is referred to in 2108.",
"Series",
"Crossed (Volume One)\nThe first story (Volume One in trade) takes place ten months after the outbreak, with flashbacks to those events, as a small group make their way toward Alaska in the belief that its low population before the outbreak will mean there are fewer Crossed to be avoided, and that the Crossed's gleeful bloodlust hampers their ability to look after themselves. However, they encounter a small group of Crossed who have a degree of self-control and subsequently begin a hunt for the survivors.",
"Crossed: Family Values (Volume 2)\nIn Family Values, the story centers on a religious family who escapes their North Carolinian ranch to survive in a mountain compound led by the protagonist Adaline's father, who, while being a strong leader against the Crossed, is a sexual predator who has routinely raped his daughters.\n\nCrossed: 3D",
"Crossed: 3D\n\n3D was written with the 3D effect in mind and is not available in a 2D format. The story follows SWAT veteran Lt. Hunt MacAvoy as he leads a rescue mission into the middle of Crossed-infested New York City to rescue a stranded doctor. At 48 pages, the 3D one-shot is about a quarter of the size of one of the collected \"Volumes\".\n\nCrossed: Psychopath (Volume 3)",
"In Psychopath, the story follows a group of survivors who pick up an injured man, Harold Lorre, who understands the way the Crossed think and is tracking a specific group of Crossed. Lorre is the titular psychopath, and he is killing members of his group of humans as he deems them problematic, passing the deaths off as the grisly acts of Crossed. The Crossed group they are tracking killed a woman Lorre had stalked, prior to the outbreak, and subsequently forced a relationship upon her as they survived",
". After she was turned into a Crossed and killed, Lorre kept a fragment of her breast in a plastic bag.",
"The first Crossed Annual spins off from Wish You Were Here, featuring the lifestyle of the psychotic SBS marine Jackson. He appears to be tracking down the scientist who created the Crossed virus, an earlier version of which drove Jackson mad; this is simply a delusion of his, as he'd always been psychotic and the 'weapon' does not exist.\n\nCrossed: Badlands (Volumes 4–17)\n\nBadlands features shorter story arcs of varying length, by different authors.",
"Issues #1–3 (Of the World and Its Becoming, by Ennis and Burrows) follow a group of United Kingdom survivors traveling across Scotland. As they struggle to stay ahead of a horde of Crossed – hoping that the harsh conditions of the Scottish mountains will wear down the self-destructive Crossed – the leader of the group, Ian, relates his introspection on the purpose of survival when there is no hope. By the end of the third issue, the entire group is killed and/or turned.",
"Issues #4-#9 (Homo Superior, by Jamie Delano and Leandro Rizzo) follow individual survivors in the Everglades – Steve, a former military woman who has become cruel and sadistic after countless traumas in her past; Greg, a jaded family man who lives off the grid to get away from his dreary home life; Leon, a teenage \"swamp rat\" living at a fortified \"base\" with his domineering extended family; and the twins Ashley and Ashlynn, who fled the city after the Crossed outbreak began",
". The survivors eventually meet and band together, only for their individual psychoses to ultimately cause them all to become Crossed, with Steve infecting herself willingly after realizing that she was barely different from the infected in the first place.",
"Issues #10–13 (Yellow Belly, by David Lapham and Burrows), a teenage survivor named Edmund (nicknamed Yellow Belly for his cowardice) relates his experience of being at a carnival where the clowns and other workers become infected in the early hours of the outbreak, turning fun times into depraved terror. In issue #13, he crosses paths with Harold Lorre, the main character of Crossed: Psychopath, who encourages Yellowbelly to use the Crossed-infested world as an opportunity to obtain power by force",
". Ultimately though, he is killed by a biker woman he fled with, when he confided his cowardice that resulted in the death of her sister-in-arms.",
"Issues #14–18 (The Golden Road, written by David Hine), are set just prior to the outbreak, in the town of Stableford, Wisconsin. The town gained the colloquial nickname of \"Stumptown\" after its residents participated in a mass insurance fraud by \"losing\" limbs to collect payouts, only to have their scheme exposed by infamous transgressive writer Gideon Welles, who used the town as inspiration. To add insult to injury, Welles built his massive estate, Samarkand, on the outskirts of the area",
". To add insult to injury, Welles built his massive estate, Samarkand, on the outskirts of the area. The story centers around aspiring writer Clooney and his girlfriend Tabitha, who Welles has invited to Samarkand for a writer's retreat. Unfortunately, Welles is a sadist who psychologically breaks down his guests; worse yet, a horde of Crossed has arrived in town by train",
". Emasculated and humiliated by Welles' debauched sex orgy with his girlfriend and other guests, Clooney uses the Crossed to turn on his fellow writers, leading to all of them being killed or turned by the horde. The only survivor is Philly, the young niece of town cop Lorna; she escapes by boat after being forced to kill her aunt, who was infected when a dead Crossed fell on her.",
"Issues #19–20 (Conquers All, by Si Spurrier (Crossed: Wish You Were Here) and Raulo Caceres (Crossed: Psychopath)) involve Mattias, a former criminal who was turned into one of the Crossed, but still retains a level of self-control and rationality compared to the other Crossed. A paroled enforcer for a local mobster, Mattias fell in love with his parole officer, Serena, and they had a relationship that ended due to the conflict between their duties and their love",
". In the present, Mattias travels to the police station to find Serena, only to find she had taken her own life days earlier. After a ketamine-enhanced rampage, he passes out in a parking lot, reawakening with no memory of his search for Serena and repeating his futile journey.",
"Issues #21–24 (The Livers, by David Lapham and Miguel Garrido) rejoin Amanda, the survivor of David Lapham's Psychopath arc. Having been scarred by her experience with Lorre, she no longer trusts anyone, and uses whatever means at her disposal to survive, while paranoia ultimately causes her to kill anyone who takes her in before they can get her",
". She falls in with The Livers, three survivors that have formed a close bond despite their mutual insanity and occasional cannibalistic tendencies, and finds a new way to survive.",
"Issues #25–28 (The Fatal Englishman, by Ennis and Caceres) are set five years after C-Day. Four British Army soldiers (representing each nation of the United Kingdom) go on a suicide mission to break into Porton Down and release the biological weapons, hoping it will wipe out the Crossed but leave enough humans alive for Britain to rebuild and go on an offensive war against the infected",
". Along the way, they become guardians of a group of children and a Catholic priest, with whom the title character shares his wisdom. Eventually, after ensuring the survival of the priest and his flock, they decide against their genocidal plan, instead blowing up the entrance of Porton Down to stop anyone from using its lethal cargo before setting off to make a final stand against the Crossed",
". However, the leader of the group realizes that he cannot see his friends suffer a grisly end at the hands of the Crossed; thus, he shoots them dead on the way up before confronting a horde of Crossed with nothing but a half-filled pistol.",
"Issues #29–32 (Quisling, written by Christos Gage) follow Oliver, an anthropologist and self-proclaimed \"survivor\" who studies the Crossed while doing whatever it takes to prolong his life. While hiding out with a group of survivors, he observes an imposing axe-wielding member of the Crossed, dubbed \"Smokey\" for his fireman's garb, noting that he seems to have much greater intelligence that allows him to lead his fellow infected (paralleling the character Big Daddy from Land of the Dead)",
". After being cornered by Smokey's band, Oliver betrays his fellow survivors and strikes a deal with the Crossed, helping them hunt other survivors while hoping for a chance to escape or to find a group capable enough to fight back",
". As his guilt grows and rumors of other \"Super-Crossed\" reach him (featuring a cameo of the twins from the Homo Superior arc), Oliver realizes that Smokey is far too dangerous to leave alive; especially when the Crossed reads his journal and assaults a nuclear base for its weapons. Ultimately, Oliver gives his life to stop Smokey's plans, willingly infecting himself to prevent his \"partner\" from using him any longer",
". Enraged, Smokey slaughters his band of Crossed before storming out of the base, setting out for Florida in search of more \"Super-Crossed\" like him.",
"Issues #33–36 (Breakdown, by Lapham and Miguel Ruiz) pick up with Amanda as she is hunting for the Livers and is forced to hide from a religiously-themed tribe of Crossed pursuing the same prey. She hides in a crawlspace for days, but is devastated when the Crossed bring in her two Liver companions – one captive, and the other infected – and she loses the strength of the delusions they supported",
". She attempts to re-integrate with another group of survivors, but her growing insanity (represented by hallucinations of Harold Lorre from Psychopath) drives her to kill them all before returning to the crawlspace, determined to remain until she either dies or overcomes her madness.",
"Issues #37–39 (American Quitters, by Spurrier and Rafael Ortiz) follow the odd couple of a stoned out hippy and a hardcore biker traveling cross-country to San Diego to die by the ultimate overdose and while exacting revenge on a rival biker gang leader, respectively. Along the way, they pick up a pregnant Mexican woman fleeing from the drug lord father, trying to reach an island sanctuary off the Baja California peninsula",
". Ultimately, 'no lesson is learned' as all three of them die in unexpected ways; the biker is overrun by Crossed while overdosing on the ultimate high, the hippy is killed fulfilling the biker's revenge, and the pregnant woman is torn apart by her infected relatives on the island.",
"Issues #40–43 (Gore Angels, by David Hine) look into the broken mind of an abused girl during the early days of the Crossed epidemic in rural Japan. After being drugged, gang-raped, and humiliated on the Internet while in America, Emiko channels her anger and shame into Gore Angels, an incredibly violent manga sold under a pseudonym with the help of her friend Satoshi",
". By chance, one of her few friends from America has come to Japan with the instigator of the incident (and the latter's girlfriend) in hopes of finding a resolution to Emiko's pain, but everything goes off the rails when the Crossed begin to emerge...",
"Issues #44–49 (Grave New World, by Daniel Way and Emiliano Urdinola) follow a group of US Coast Guard personnel who hope to outlast the Crossed by setting out on a boat and finding an island to call home. However, taking on a pair of survivors leads to a whole new array of problems, not the least of which include a horde of Crossed pirates and the increasingly erratic behavior of their own Captain.",
"Issues #50–56 (The Thin Red Line, by Ennis and Christian Zanier) reintroduce the four men from The Fatal Englishman, revealing them to have once been security for British Prime Minister Gordon Brown. The story shows the very beginning of the Crossed outbreak, focusing on Britain's efforts to contain the madness and discover its source; however, they soon realize that the situation is far worse than they could have ever realized.",
"Issues #57–61 (by Justin Jordan and Georges Duarte) follow Esperanza and Jane, a pair of young women fleeing from Alejandro, Esperanza's Crossed brother, and the horde of infectees at his command. They eventually find safe haven at a woodland camp commanded by Sutter, a hardened survivalist with plans of his own that have little to do with the survival of his campmates...",
"Issues #62–70 (by Lapham and Francisco Manna) concern Gavin Edward Land, a former police detective seeking vengeance against the people who raped and murdered his daughter. As he works through his list and the Crossed outbreak in San Diego, U.S., he learns more than he wanted to know after Wentz, his final target, seems to have turned a new leaf in the wake of the apocalypse.",
"Issues #71–74 (Five Bloody Fingers, written by David Hine) focus on Uboshita Satoshi, the friend of Emiko briefly seen in Gore Angels. When C-Day breaks out in Japan, Satoshi sets out to find his blood brothers, the Five Bloody Fingers, and help them survive C-Day. Finding Hazuki, the girl he loves (and one of his blood brothers) turns to be a harder task than he thought, as her father is a yakuza boss who is also on the lookout for her",
". The friends find themselves making a stand against the Crossed at a Japanese cosplay convention, where their blood oath may be tested with the relentless threat of the Crossed...assuming that Boss Yamada doesn't first feed them to Usama, his pet lion, in the end all 5 infect each other renewing their blood oath, becoming infected, and die fighting other Crossed.",
"Issues #75–80 (Homo Tortor, written by Kieron Gillen) show two simultaneous narratives.",
"The main story concerns the attempts of a survivor group, led by college student Washington, to find a possible cure to the Crossed from the notes of Professor Nelson, a man who believed that a race of early humans similar to the Crossed nearly wiped out humanity 75,000 years ago (See the Toba catastrophe theory)",
". Hounded by the Crossed at every turn, Washington's group eventually discover Professor Nelson's bunker, containing information about the early humans, which he has dubbed Homo tortor (\"man who tortures\").",
"The second narrative goes 75,000 years in the past, where a group of early humans, led by the young hunter Lion, are captured by the \"Blood Men\" (Homo tortor) after their village is wiped out; they are subsequently brought to the Blood Men's \"city of cities\" to fight in an arena against men and giant beasts that the Blood Men had collected. When the \"festivities\" are cut short by a Crossed outbreak, Lion and his group must attempt to survive the ensuing carnage.",
"Ultimately, Washington discovers that everything about Homo tortor was made up by Professor Nelson, who has become Crossed during the outbreak. Along with his similarly-infected assistant (and Washington's college girlfriend) Amy, he wrote the story not as an attempt to falsify history, but as a vision of the society he intends to create with his band of Crossed.",
"Issues #81–86 (The Lesser of Two Evils, by Mike Wolfor) begins shortly after C-Day, with a group of survivors stranded on a partially-collapsed overpass. Although they are safe from the lingering Crossed, things begin to unravel after they are joined by Morgan and Olivia, a pair of women who claim to have survived the Crossed due to their \"bible\": \"Surviving D-Day\" a best-selling \"zombie survival guide\" novel (similar to The Zombie Survival Guide).",
"Issues #87–90 (Shrink, by Max Bemis and Fernando Melek) follow two brothers; the straight-laced psychologist Jack and the hedonistic bully Clancy",
". As Jack and Tiffany (a close friend of his) prepare themselves for the day the Crossed outbreak finally hits their suburban neighborhood, Clancy crashes by and asks Jack for a favor; after willingly infecting himself with the Crossed plague, he has his brother lock him in the basement and attempt to psychoanalyze his Crossed self, hoping that Jack can learn something of importance about the outbreak and its source.",
"Issues #91–92 (Anti-Crossed, by Bemis and German Erramouspe) follow a group of 5 survivors – 4 men and a female author named Leigha – surviving in a barricaded comic book store as they struggle with their depleting morale and growing boredom. It is soon revealed that the male survivors – all massive comic book fans – had taken Leigha hostage early in the outbreak, and have since been periodically raping her at gun point",
". Due to their growing boredom, the guys make a deal with Leigha; if she writes them an \"Anti-Crossed\" comic, they will refrain from maltreating her and give her other \"privileges\". Leigha reluctantly agrees, making a comic that fulfills all of her captor's twisted fantasies, but things may change when two strangers arrive at the store.",
"Issues #93–99 (by Gage and Fernando Heinz) begins by following a band of survivors led by Cody, an opportunistic man who designed disaster shelters for the elite before stealing one for himself when C-Day hit. His state-of-the-art bunker serves the group well until it comes afoul of Smokey, the \"Super-Crossed\" last seen in the Quisling arc",
". After being driven out and left at Smokey's mercy, Cody saves himself by offering to help Smokey mold the Crossed into a coherent society, advising him on means of controlling the others' bloodlust and promising them fresh victims by breeding uninfected like cattle. When this inevitably fails (in part due to a remorseful Cody sacrificing himself to undo his own work), Smokey seeks out other Super-Crossed like himself, eventually finding the Crossed twins from the Homo Superior arc.",
"Issue #100 (also by Gage and Fernando Heinz) follows Smokey and the twins as they attempt to fulfill the former's dream of ending the self-destructive nature of the Crossed. Although they manage to establish a reasonably-functional homestead with dozens of followers, Smokey remains depressed and laments to an old Cody that it is a far cry from the new society he had hoped to create",
". The children he fathered with the twins also seem to be no more intelligent than regular Crossed, leading Smokey to believe that their species is doomed to die out within a generation. Years later, the aging Smokey kills Cody by quickly breaking his neck, sparing him from a slow and painful death",
". Shortly after, Smokey is betrayed and left for dead by the twins and his own son, now revealed to have been a \"Super-Crossed\" the entire time; the twins explain that they prefer immediate self-indulgence over long-term planning. Smokey survives the attempted assassination by jumping into a river, emerging later and limping off to fight another day with a smile on his face.",
"The final issue, foreshadows the resurgence of human society a century later in Crossed: +100, with Smokey's homestead receiving news of human colonies beginning to re-establish themselves as the feral Crossed die out.\n\nCrossed: Wish You Were Here",
"Crossed: Wish You Were Here\n\nIn the webcomic Crossed: Wish You Were Here (written by Si Spurrier and drawn by Javier Barreno (Vol.1) and Fernando Melek (Vol.2)), former writer \"Shaky\" (short for Shakespeare) writes in his journal of life on the island of Cava off of the coast of Scotland, where he and a handful of other survivors try to have some semblance of society while desperately trying to keep the wandering Crossed at bay.",
"In the first volume, Shakespeare must deal with the logistics of living on an Cava with his group, under two men Rab and Don with very different leadership styles.",
"Crossed: Dead or Alive",
"The first series was originally optioned for an independently funded film, with Ennis writing the screenplay. It was going to be financed by Trigger Street Productions and produced by Michael De Luca, Jason Netter, and Kevin Spacey. In the end of 2012, however, Ennis announced that he and Avatar Press had recovered the rights to the franchise. They made plans to launch a series of webisodes in an attempt to generate interest for a feature film",
". In March 2013 Crossed: Dead Or Alive, an upcoming series of live action webisodes written and directed by Ennis, was announced. DOA will be accompanied by an Ennis-penned tie-in webcomic that will expand and further develop the concepts of the film series and its characters. A goal was set to film all the episodes for Crossed: Dead or Alive season 1 in early 2014.",
"The webcomic was launched on November 13, 2014, with the plans to start production on the live-action series as soon as the fundraising campaign began to make money.\n\nCrossed +100\nA series called Crossed +100, written by Alan Moore and with art by Gabriel Andrade for the first six issues, debuted in December 2014. It follows a group of humans 100 years after the outbreak. After running across a group of Crossed, they find that the infected have begun to multiply again after having almost disappeared.",
"One hundred years on from the initial outbreak, it is revealed that around 2050 AD, Crossed numbers began to drop significantly and eventually regular humans once again outnumbered the infected, though small family groups of Crossed continued to inhabit some areas, breeding new generations by refraining from killing their young",
". Again, this was simply the result of natural selection: Crossed populations which attacked their own children died out from old age eventually, while only those which didn't would still survive a hundred years later. The Crossed started diminishing in numbers by 2050 because by forty years later, any adults infected in the initial outbreak (i.e. 20 or older) were starting to get too old to survive such a violent lifestyle (against both Crossed, the uninfected, and the elements)",
". Teenagers and children infected in the initial outbreak were not strong enough to compete against adult Crossed at the time, so they didn't tend to survive forty years of constant fighting.",
"The Crossed infection is stated to have spread around the planet on July 27, 2008, an event commonly called \"the Surprise\". By 2108, human society has somewhat begun to rebuild in the former United States, but is still socially and technically backwards compared to society before the Surprise. The society of the human survivors has drastically changed after a hundred years, with slang derived from a post-Crossed world",
". In the Tennessee region shown in Crossed: +100, major religions such as Judaism and Christianity have died out, and most people are irreligious, though there are a few survivor enclaves that still practice Islam (the comic creators stated that one of the reasons the story was set in Tennessee is due to the large Muslim population in present-day Murfreesboro; other large Muslim populations in the United States are concentrated in major metropolitan areas",
", which thus stood lower chance of surviving the Crossed epidemic)",
". Few survivors living in 2108 have even seen a Crossed person, to the point that many younger people mockingly imitate the Crossed with face paint, and chasing each other pretending to be Crossed is a childhood game.",
"In 2108, a group of survivors from the rebuilt settlement at Chattanooga, Tennessee (called \"Chooga\"), make a horrifying discovery through the diary entries of Beauregard Salt, an infamous serial killer (known as the \"Phonebook Killer\") who was infected on C-Day. Because Salt was already homicidally insane and had no restrictions on his impulses, the Crossed virus did not significantly change him (perhaps because his psychopathic brain structure was already significantly altered from normal)",
". Salt considered the new world of the Crossed to be a paradise, but he also had the foresight to realize that it would be difficult to sustain indefinitely – given that many Crossed will rape and eat their own small children. Salt therefore began self-consciously conducting conditioning experiments on other Crossed, to weed out the uncontrollable ones and actively select for the ones that could display enough restraint to follow long-term plans",
". Salt also came to realize that because the Crossed were constantly fighting the uninfected, the survivors were becoming battle-hardened and difficult for the Crossed to fight; therefore, he prepared a plan which would take decades to reach fruition (an explicit reference to the Seldon Plan in Isaac Asimov's Foundation Series), in which the Crossed would basically let the uninfected survivor enclaves \"lie fallow\" for a full generation at a time; over time, the uninfected would get soft",
", the uninfected would get soft, unused to a daily fight for survival against the Crossed",
". Salt even planned out that the return attacks of the Crossed against survivor enclaves would take place on the day of the 100th anniversary of the Surprise, in July 2108. Chaos unfolds as the uninfected humans seek to protect the remaining settlements in the east coast area of the US, while trying to uncover the conspiracy laid out by Salt a hundred years earlier.",
"Crossed +100: Mimic",
"A six-issue series (April 2018–October 2018) with story by Christos Gage and art by Emiliano Urdinola, set in the world of Moore's +100. It follows Julie (an uninfected archivist) and Fleshcook (a Crossed raised by one of the twelve disciples of Beauregard Salt) as they attempt to forge an alliance between infected and uninfected",
". The main story is backed by Crossed +100: American History X, a series of stand-alone stories written by Pat Shand and with art by Raulo Caceres, set at various points in the decades between Crossed and Crossed +100.",
"Collected editions\n\nLegacy \nThe Sadness (), a 2021 Taiwanese body horror film that was heavily inspired by the Crossed comic book series.\n\nNotes\n\nExternal links\n\nTwitter\nFacebook\n \n \n\nCrossed #0 Review , #1 and #4 , Comics Bulletin\n Crossed from Viewcomic\n\nComics by Garth Ennis\nComics by Alan Moore\nViral outbreaks in comics\nComics controversies\nComics about serial killers\nCannibalism in fiction\nDystopian comics\nComics set in the 22nd century"
] |
Politeness theory
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politeness%20theory
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[
"Politeness theory, proposed by Penelope Brown and Stephen C. Levinson, centers on the notion of politeness, construed as efforts on redressing the affronts to a person's self-esteems or effectively claiming positive social values in social interactions. Such self-esteem is referred as the sociological concept of face (as in \"save face\" or \"lose face\") to discuss politeness as a response to mitigate or avoid face-threatening acts such as requests or insults",
". Notable components in the framework of the theory include positive and negative faces, face threatening act (FTA), strategies for doing FTAs and factors influencing the choices of strategies; each described below.",
"Among the studies of politeness in a variety of cultures for many years, Penelope Brown and Stephen Levinson's politeness theory has become very influential. Though Brown and Levinson proposed their model as universally applicable, their theory has been challenged by other scholars in varied aspects such as its cross-cultural applicability or ways to interpret and conceptualize politeness.",
"Positive and negative face",
"The concept of face was derived from Chinese into English in the 19th century. “Face” conceptualized as an individual's positive claim of social values in socializing contact was introduced into academia by Erving Goffman through his theories of \"face\" and \"facework\". According to Brown and Levinson's assumption in politeness theory based on Goffman's “face”, one's face is categorized into two forms: positive and negative",
". Brown and Levinson defined positive face two ways: as \"the want of every member that his wants be desirable to at least some others executors\" (p. 62), or alternatively, \"the positive consistent self-image or 'personality' (crucially including the desire that this self-image be appreciated and approved of) claimed by interactants\" (p. 61)",
". 61). Negative face was defined as \"the want of every 'competent adult member' that his actions be unimpeded by others\", or \"the basic claim to territories, personal preserves, rights to non-distraction—i.e. the freedom of action and freedom from imposition\". Whereas positive face involves a desire for connection with others, negative face needs include autonomy and independence.",
"Ten years later, Brown characterized positive face by desires to be liked, admired, ratified, and related to positively, noting that one would threaten positive face by ignoring someone. At the same time, she characterized negative face by the desire not to be imposed upon, noting that negative face could be impinged upon by imposing on someone. Positive face refers to one's self-esteem, while negative face refers to one's freedom to act",
". Positive face refers to one's self-esteem, while negative face refers to one's freedom to act. These two aspects of face are the basic wants in any social interaction; during any social interaction, cooperation is needed amongst the participants to maintain each other's face. Participants can do this by using positive politeness and negative politeness, which pay attention to people's positive and negative face needs respectively.",
"Face-threatening acts",
"According to Brown and Levinson, positive and negative face exist universally in human culture; it has been argued that the notion of face is the actual universal component to their proposed politeness theory. A face threatening act is an act that inherently damages the face of the addressee or the speaker by acting in opposition to the wants and desires of the other",
". Face threatening acts can be verbal (using words/language), paraverbal (conveyed in the characteristics of speech such as tone, inflection, etc.), or non-verbal (facial expression, etc.). Based on the terms of conversation in social interactions, face-threatening acts are at times inevitable. At minimum, there must be at least one of the face threatening acts associated with an utterance. It is also possible to have multiple acts working within a single utterance.",
"Negative face-threatening acts \nNegative face is threatened when an individual does not avoid or intend to avoid the obstruction of their interlocutor's freedom of action. It can cause damage to either the speaker or the hearer, and makes one of the interlocutors submit their will to the other. Freedom of choice and action are impeded when negative face is threatened.",
"Damage to the hearer \nThe following are cases in which the negative face of the hearer (the person being spoken to) is threatened.\nAn act that affirms or denies a future act of the hearer creates pressure on the hearer to either perform or not perform the act.\nExamples: orders, requests, suggestions, advice, remindings, threats, or warnings.\nAn act that expresses the speaker's sentiments of the hearer or the hearer's belongings.",
"An act that expresses the speaker's sentiments of the hearer or the hearer's belongings.\nExamples: compliments, expressions of envy or admiration, or expressions of strong negative emotion toward the hearer (e.g. hatred, anger, distrust).\nAn act that expresses speaker’s future imposing of positive effects toward the hearer, as either rejection or acceptance put pressure on the hearer and may incur a debt.\nExamples: offers and promises.",
"Damage to the speaker \n\nThe following are cases in which the negative face of the speaker (the person talking) is threatened.\nAn act that speaker’s humbles his own face or accept debt to maintain hearer’s face and make good for the hearer.\nExamples: expressing thanks, acceptance of gratitude or apology, excuse, acceptance of offers, pretending unaware of H’s mistakes, committing do something unfavorable.",
"Positive face-threatening acts \nPositive face is threatened when the speaker or hearer does not care about their interactor's feelings, wants, or does not want what the other wants. Positive face threatening acts can also cause damage to the speaker or the hearer. When an individual is forced to be separated from others so that their well-being is treated less importantly, positive face is threatened.",
"Damage to the hearer \nThe following are cases in which the positive face of the hearer (the person being spoken to) is threatened.\nAn act that expresses the speaker's negative assessment of the hearer's positive face or an element of his/her positive face.\nThe speaker directly or indirectly indicating that he dislike some aspect of the hearer's possessions, desires, or personal attributes.\nExamples: disapproval, criticism, contempt or ridicule, complaints and reprimands, accusations, insults.",
"The speaker expresses disapproval by stating or implying that the hearer is wrong, irrational, or misguided.\nExamples: contradictions or disagreements, challenges.\nAn act that expresses the speaker's indifference toward the addressee's positive face.\nThe addressee might be embarrassed for or fear the speaker.\nExamples: excessively emotional expressions.\nThe speaker indicates that he doesn't have the same values or fears as the hearer",
"The speaker indicates that he doesn't have the same values or fears as the hearer\nExamples: disrespect, mention of topics which are inappropriate in general or in the context.\nThe speaker indicates that he is willing to disregard the emotional well being of the hearer.\nExamples: belittling or boasting.\nThe speaker increases the possibility that a face-threatening act will occur. This situation is created when a topic is brought up by the speaker that is a sensitive societal subject.",
"Examples: topics that relate to politics, race, religion.\nThe speaker indicates that he is indifferent to the positive face wants of the hearer. This is most often expressed in obvious non-cooperative behavior.\nExamples: interrupting, non sequiturs.\nThe speaker misidentifies the hearer in an offensive or embarrassing way. This may occur either accidentally or intentionally. Generally, this refers to the misuse of address terms in relation to status, gender, or age.",
"Example: Addressing a young woman as \"ma'am\" instead of \"miss.\"",
"Damage to the speaker \nThe following are cases in which the positive face of the speaker (the person talking) is threatened.\nAn act that shows that the speaker is in some sense wrong, has own dignity offended, or unable to control himself.\nExamples: apologies, acceptance of compliment, inability to control one’s physical self, inability to control one’s emotional self, self-humiliation, confessions.",
"Refusals as threatening both positive and negative face \nIn their study of refusals to requests, Johnson et al. argue refusals can threaten both the positive and negative face of the refuser (the person who was asked a favor), and the positive face of the requester (the person asking for a favor). Obstacles, or reasons for non-compliance with a person's request, can \"vary on three dimensions: willingness-unwillingness, ability-inability, and focus on-focus away from the requester\".",
"The willingness dimension differentiates between refusals where the refuser states, \"I don't want to help you\" and \"I'd like to help.\" Ability differentiates between, \"I'm short on cash\" and \"I have some extra money.\" Focus on-focus away from requester differentiates between, \"It's your problem, so you take care of it\" and \"It's terrible that your mom won't give you the money.\"When a person makes a request, their positive face is threatened mostly along the ability and unwillingness dimensions",
". People tend to make requests of \"intimates,\" people they are supposed to know well/have a good relationship with. Threat to the requester's positive face increases when the requester chooses a person who has low ability/inability to fulfill the request or is unwilling to comply (the person being asked has to refuse the request); choosing a person with low ability suggests the requester has poor relational knowledge",
". On the other hand, choosing a person with high ability decreases threat to the requester's positive face because it shows the requester's competence; choosing a person with high willingness reinforces the requester's choice and decreases threats to positive face.",
"Choosing to refuse or not refuse a request can threaten the requester's positive and negative faces in different ways. When a person refuses to comply with a request from an intimate, they are violating relational expectations and increasing threat to their positive face; however, focusing attention away from the requester can decrease threat to the requester's positive face even if they are unwilling to help",
". In contrast, focusing attention on the requester can increase threat to positive face since it highlights the refuser's unwillingness. Accepting a request is the least threatening act.",
"Threats to the refuser's negative face vary along the ability and focus dimensions. Focusing away from the requester allows the refuser to maintain their autonomy while maintaining the relationship; this leads to less face-threat if the refuser has high ability because they can choose whether to comply or not",
". Focusing on the requester would threaten their relationship with the requester and their long-term autonomy (the requester may be unwilling to comply to future requests when the roles are reversed); however, if the refuser has low ability, focusing on the requester can actually decrease threats to negative face by showing they are unable to comply even if they wanted to.",
"*Note: the requester and refuser would be analogous to the \"speaker\" and \"hearer\" roles discussed earlier in the section \"Face-threatening acts\".",
"Politeness strategies \nPoliteness strategies are used to formulate messages in order to save the hearer's positive and negative face when face-threatening acts are inevitable or desired. Brown and Levinson outline four main types of politeness strategies: bald on-record, negative politeness, positive politeness, and off-record (indirect) as well as simply not using the face-threatening act.",
"Bald on-record",
"Bald on-record strategy does not attempt to minimize the threat to the hearer's face, although there are ways that bald on-record politeness can be used in trying to minimize face-threatening acts implicitly, such as giving advice in a non-manipulative way. Often using such a strategy will shock or embarrass the addressee, and so this strategy is most often utilized in situations where the speaker has a close relationship with the listener, such as family or close friends",
". Brown and Levinson outline various cases in which one might use the bald on-record strategy, including:",
"Situations and examples \n\nSituations with no threat minimization\nUrgency or desperation\nWatch out!\nWhen efficiency is necessary\nHear me out:...\nTask-oriented\nPass me the hammer.\nLittle or no desire to maintain someone's face\nDon't forget to clean the blinds!\nDoing the face-threatening act is in the interest of the hearer\nYour headlights are on!\nSituations where the threat is minimized implicitly\nWelcomes\nCome in.\nOffers\nLeave it, I'll clean up later.\nEat!",
"Positive politeness",
"Positive politeness strategies seek to minimize the threat to the hearer's positive face. These strategies are used to make the hearer feel good about themselves, their interests or possessions, and are most usually used in situations where the audience knows each other fairly well, or an individual's positive face needs, or self-worth, have to be met",
". In addition to hedging and attempts to avoid conflict, some strategies of positive politeness include statements of friendship, solidarity, compliments, and the following examples from Brown and Levinson:",
"Situations and examples",
"Attend to H's interests, needs, wants\nYou look sad. Can I help you?\n Use solidarity in-group identity markers\nHey, mate, could you lend me 3 dollars?\n Be optimistic\nDon't worry. You'll do just fine!\n Include both speaker (S) and hearer (H) in activity\nYou and I are going swimming together!\n Make offers or promises\nIf you wash the dishes, then I'll vacuum the floor.\n Exaggerate interest in H and his interests\nThat's a nice haircut. Where'd you get it?\n Avoid disagreement",
"That's a nice haircut. Where'd you get it?\n Avoid disagreement\nYeah, it's rather long; it only looks short from a distance.\n Make jokes\nYour hair's even longer than my uncle's!",
"Other purposes and usages",
"Positive politeness strategies can also emerge in situations where the speakers do not know each other well. For example, Charlotte Rees and Lynn Knight have explored the role politeness theory plays in general practice consultations. They found that, in an effort to remain polite, patients agreed to the presence of a student observer during a general practice consultation even when the patient preferred a private consultation",
". Rees and Knight concluded that politeness strategies in the medical field can inhibit patients from providing complete and accurate information.",
"Another use of positive politeness is polite or formal speech such as Japanese honorifics. Again, this type of formal speech can be used to protect the hearer's positive face.",
"Negative politeness \nNegative politeness strategies are oriented towards the hearer's negative face and emphasize avoidance of imposition on the hearer. By attempting to avoid imposition from the speaker, the risk of face-threat to the hearer is reduced. These strategies presume that the speaker will be imposing on the listener and there is a higher potential for awkwardness or embarrassment than in bald on record strategies and positive politeness strategies. Examples from Brown and Levinson include:",
"Situations and examples",
"Be indirect\nWould you know where Oxford Street is?\n Use hedges or questions\nPerhaps, he might have taken it, maybe.\nCould you please pass the rice?\n Be pessimistic\nYou couldn't find your way to lending me a thousand dollars, could you?\nSo I suppose some help is out of the question, then?\n Minimize the imposition\nIt's not too much out of your way, just a couple of blocks.\n Use obviating structures, like nominalizations, passives, or statements of general rules\nI hope offense will not be taken.",
"I hope offense will not be taken.\nVisitors sign the ledger.\nSpitting will not be tolerated.\n Apologetic\nI'm sorry; it's a lot to ask, but can you lend me a thousand dollars?\n Use plural pronouns\nWe regret to inform you.",
"Three main stages of favor seeking \nFavor seeking, or a speaker asking the hearer for a favor, is a common example of negative politeness strategies in use. Held observes three main stages in favor-seeking: the preparatory phase, the focal phase, and the final phase:",
"The preparatory phase is when the favor-seeking is preceded by elaborate precautions against loss of face to both sides. It often involves signals of openings and markers to be used to clarify the situation (e.g. 'You see,' or 'so,'). The request is often softened, made less direct, and imposing (e.g. past continuous 'I was wondering'; informal tag 'What d'you reckon?). The speaker must also reduce his own self-importance in the matter and exaggerate the hearer's (down-scaling compliments).",
"The focal stage is subdivided into elements such as asker's reasons or constraints (e.g. 'I've tried everywhere but can't get one'), the other's face (e.g. 'You're the only person I can turn to'), and more.\n The third stage is the final stage which consists of anticipatory thanks, promises, and compliments (e.g. 'I knew you would say yes. You're an angel.').\nMcCarthy and Carter provide an example of negative politeness using the following dialogue from the Australian television soap opera, \"Neighbours\":",
"Clarrie: So I said to him, forget your books for one night, throw a party next weekend.\nHelen: A party at number 30! What will Dorothy say about that?",
"Helen: A party at number 30! What will Dorothy say about that?\nClarrie: Well, what she doesn't know won't hurt her. Of course, I'll be keeping my eye on things, and (SIGNAL OF OPENING) that brings me to my next problem. (EXPLAIN PROBLEM) You see, these young people, they don't want an old codger like me poking my nose in, so I'll make myself scarce, but I still need to be closer to hand, you see. So, (ASK FAVOR) I was wondering, would it be all right if I came over here on the night? What d'you reckon?",
"Helen: Oh, Clarrie, I...\nClarrie: Oh (MINIMIZATION) I'd be no bother. (REINFORCE EXPLANATION) It'd mean a heck of a lot to those kids.\nHelen: All right.\nClarrie: (THANK WITH BOOST) I knew you'd say yes. You're an angel, Helen.\nHelen: Ha! (laughs)",
"All of this is done in attempt to avoid imposition on the hearer. Negative politeness is concerned with proceeding towards a goal in the smoothest way and with sensitivity to one's interlocutors. In English, deference ('Excuse me, sir, could you please close the window') is associated with the avoidance or downplaying of an imposition; the more we feel we might be imposing, the more deferential we might be",
". It is clearly a strategy for negative politeness and the redressing of a threat to negative face, through actions such as favor-seeking.",
"Off-record (indirect)",
"The final politeness strategy outlined by Brown and Levinson is the indirect strategy; This strategy uses indirect language and removes the speaker from the potential to be imposing. The strategy of doing off-record is to express something general or different than the speaker's true meaning and relies on the hearer's interpretation to have the speaker's purpose get conveyed. The speaker can get credit for not imposing on the hearer or give the hearer a chance to be helpful and generous",
". This strategy relies heavily on pragmatics to convey the intended meaning while still utilizing the semantic meaning as a way to avoid losing face (see below in Choice of strategy).",
"Situations and examples \n\n· Minimizing the threaten toward the hearer's freedom (S-Speaker, H-Hearer)\n\n-S: Do you have a free chair over there? -H: Yes, I do. (grab the chair for the speaker)\n-S: Are you going out? -H: Yes, but I’ll come home early.\n\n Giving the hearer a chance to show good personality in caring for others\n\n-S: My head aches a lot. -H: Oh, I’ll get some pain-killer pills for you.\n\nChoice of strategy",
"Paul Grice argues that all conversationalists are rational beings who are primarily interested in the efficient conveying of messages. Brown and Levinson use this argument in their politeness theory by saying that rational agents will choose the same politeness strategy as any other would under the same circumstances to try to mitigate face. They show the available range of verbal politeness strategies to redress loss of face",
". They show the available range of verbal politeness strategies to redress loss of face. Face-threatening acts have the ability to mutually threaten face, therefore rational agents seek to avoid face-threatening acts or will try to use certain strategies to minimize the threat. In certain situations, an over application of any particular strategy may actually achieve the opposite of the intended effect, as \"certain speakers consistently evaluate polite behavior as unnecessary and offensive.\"",
"Speaker (S) will weigh:\n the want to communicate the content of the face-threatening act in question\n the want to be efficient or urgent\n the want to maintain H's face to any degree\n\nIn most cooperative circumstances where 3. is greater than 2., S will want to minimize the face-threatening act.\n\nPayoffs associated with each strategy \nIn deciding which strategy to use, the speaker runs through the individual payoffs of each strategy.\n\n Bald on-record",
"Bald on-record\n\nenlists public pressure, puts H in the public eye if there are others present\nS gets credit for honesty, outspokenness which avoids the danger of seeming manipulative, yet can come across as abrasive and tactless\nS avoids danger of being misunderstood by putting intended meaning directly into utterance without the reliance upon the pragmatic meaning\n\n Positive politeness",
"minimizes threatening aspect by assuring that S considers to be of the same kind with H, increasing the sense of solidarity and decreasing their social distance\ncriticism may lose much of its sting if done in a way that asserts mutual friendship\nwhen S includes themself equally as a participant in the request or offer, it may lessen the potential for face-threatening act debt",
"Ex: a person says \"Let's get on with dinner\" to their spouse in front of the television: by using the first person plural of the imperative form of the verb, the speaker is able to include themself as a recipient of the order, just like the hearer, likewise increasing solidarity.",
"Negative politeness\n\nHelps avoid future debt by keeping social distance and not getting too familiar with H\npays respect or deference by assuming that you may be intruding on the hearer in return for the face-threatening act.\nEx: \"I don't mean to bother you, but can I ask a quick question?\"\n\n Off record",
"get credit for being tactful, non-coercive\navoid responsibility for the potentially face-damaging interpretation\ngive the addressee an opportunity to seem to care for S because it tests H's feelings towards S",
"give the addressee an opportunity to seem to care for S because it tests H's feelings towards S\nIf S wants H to close the window, he may say \"It's cold in here.\" If H answers \"I'll go close the window\" then he is responding to this potentially threatening act by giving a \"gift\" to the original speaker and therefore S avoids the potential threat of ordering H around and H gets credit for being generous or cooperative",
"Don't do the face-threatening act.\n\nS avoids offending H at all\nS also fails to achieve his desired communication\nAn example might be a physician avoiding bringing up the need for a patient to lose weight.\n\nSociological variables \nThree sociological factors affect the choice of politeness strategy and the seriousness of the face threatening action: distance between speaker and listener; the power difference between the speaker and listener; and ranking of the seriousness of the face threat.",
"Social distance between parties (symmetric relation)\n Distinguishes kin or friend from a stranger with whom you may have the same social status, but who is still separate because of social distance. Different acts may be seen as face-threatening or non-face threatening depending on the social distance between speaker and listener\n \n Example: We may use less elaborate positive strategies or we may choose to use positive rather than negative politeness when speaking with family rather than a stranger",
"Power relations between parties (asymmetric relation)\n We are inclined to speak to our social equals differently than those whose status is higher or lower than our own in a given situation.",
"Example: If a professor is working in her office and people are being very loud and disruptive in the next room, she will go over there and tell them to be quiet but the way she does it will differ depending on who it is. If they are students she will use the bald on-record strategy to make sure there is no confusion in what she is asking, saying: \"Stop talking so loud!\".",
"But if they are colleagues she will claim common ground with them using the positive politeness strategy or frame an indirect request for them to stop talking, saying: \"I'm working on a lecture and it's really hard to concentrate with all this noise.\"\n Additionally if they are really high status directors of the department she may end up saying nothing at all or apologize for interrupting them, refraining from the face-threatening act.\n The absolute ranking of the threat of the face-threatening act",
"The absolute ranking of the threat of the face-threatening act\n Some impositions are considered more serious than others. Highly imposing acts like requests demand more redress to mitigate their increased threat level.",
"Overall the formula for the weight of a face-threatening act is:\n\nWeight = Social distance (speaker, hearer) + power difference (speaker, hearer) + rank of imposition\n\nHierarchy of strategies \nThe greater potential for loss of face requires greater redressive action. If the potential for loss of face is too great, the speaker may make the decision to abandon the face-threatening acts completely and say nothing.",
"The number next to each strategy corresponds to the danger-level of the particular face-threatening act. The more dangerous the particular face-threatening act is, the more S will tend to use a higher numbered strategy.",
"No redressive action\n *Bald On-Record- leaves no way for H to minimize the face-threatening act.\n Positive redressive action\n *S satisfies a wide range of H's desires not necessarily related to the face-threatening act.\n **Shows interest in H\n **Claims common ground with H\n **Seeks agreement\n **Gives sympathy\n Negative redressive action\n *S satisfies H's desires to be unimpeded—the want that is directly challenged by the face-threatening act.\n **Be conventionally indirect\n **Minimize imposition on H",
"**Be conventionally indirect\n **Minimize imposition on H\n **Beg forgiveness\n **Give deference\n *This implies that the matter is important enough for S to disturb H\n Off-Record\n *S has the opportunity to evade responsibility by claiming that H's interpretation of the utterance as a face-threatening act is wrong\n Don't do the face-threatening act.",
"Application examples \nAlthough the politeness theory originated from the curiosity of linguistics and language forming, scholars are beginning to see its other benefits: its ability to not only help with interpersonal relationships, workplace environments, and beyond.",
"Business world",
"One study by Cynthia Dunn observed a Japanese business that required etiquette training for their new employees. Employees were taught the company's definition of politeness; they were expected to incorporate these beliefs into their day-to-day behavior, such as \"kindness,\" \"consideration for others,\" and \"deference and respect\". However, self-presentation was also a critical feature employers wanted their employees to improve upon",
". An attractive self-presentation through various nonverbals and word choice would not only reflect the individual's politeness but the corporation's as well. This decision had very positive consequences in the workplace environment.",
"Through new studies there is the possibility that the politeness theory may penetrate deeper areas. For example, maybe more businesses will begin to take on these concepts and incorporate them into their discussion and conflict-resolution strategies. These could be effective in achieving long-term goals. Whatever the case may be, the politeness theory has a solid foundation in the field of communication and will certainly contribute positively to the assimilation of language and civility.",
"Art world",
"In his 1967 work, Interaction Ritual: Essays on Face-to-Face Behavior, Goffman posits numerous times that with every remark people make, they risk maintaining their face and the face of others. Politeness theory is generally applied when assessing speech acts or remarks. However, a study conducted by Jurgita Sribaitė looked at politeness theory as it applied to written art reviews",
". The study focused on art reviews in Lithuania in the early and mid-1970s and analyzed the different strategies used by the art reviewers as they attempted to critique pieces of art while maintaining their face as well as the face of the artists. The study was able to identify face-saving acts and all four politeness strategies at work",
". The study was able to identify face-saving acts and all four politeness strategies at work. The author states, \"Reviewers usually appear to have in mind the addressee's positive face (the desire to be liked and be approved of) as well as his negative face (the desire to be left free to act as he chooses).\" The examples given show that even the reviewers, who hold the obvious advantage over the addressees, cared to save both their face and the face of the artists.",
"Humor",
"Positive politeness strategies are used as a way of giving someone a sense of belonging and as seen in the politeness strategies section, jokes are considered a positive politeness strategy. Therefore, joking can be a way of making someone feel as if though they belong. However, some contemporary researchers have noted that humor is complex and not all jokes can be considered polite",
". In fact, many instances of humor usage can negatively affect face for a number of reasons: the hearers ability to understand the joke is tested, the hearer may interpret verification of the willingness to hear a joke as aggressive, and the hearer can be threatened even by non aggressive humor if it tests their ability to understand the joke or their emotions",
". In a study conducted by Marta Dynel, in 2016, different occasions of humor used in the television show, House, were assessed and analyzed as polite or (im)polite. In reference to the conclusions of study Dynel states, \"Specifically, humor may serve politeness and/or impoliteness depending on the speaker's intention and awareness of the consequences his/her utterance may carry, the hearer's recognition of the speaker's intention, as well as his/her ultimate amusement or taking offense",
".\" In general, humor can provide face-saving tactics that enable solidarity, but it can also be a risky strategy to use because the speaker and the hearer must be on the same page.",
"Delivering bad news",
"When delivering bad news the speaker has a lot to consider regarding his or her own face and the face of the hearer. In 2015, Miroslav Sirota and Marie Juanchich conducted a study on uncertainty communication with negative outcomes. The authors suggest \"First, speakers making a prediction may intend not only to inform about a probability level, but also to manage the hearer's faces or their own...Second, speakers perform face-managing intentions by altering (e.g",
"...Second, speakers perform face-managing intentions by altering (e.g. lessening or magnifying) the explicitly communicated probablility of a negative outcome...Thus, politeness theory posits that speakers use uncertainty quantifiers to pursue informative intentions and also to sugar-coat threatening news to manage the hearers' or their own faces.\"",
"The study conducted required people to communicate bad news to a friend regarding two scenarios. In the first scenario the subjects had to communicate a 50% probability that their friend's new car was going to break-down, and in the second scenario the subjects communicated a 50% chance that their friend's stock were going to lose their value",
". The subjects of the study reported that \"speakers intended to manage hearer's faces from threatening news or to manage their own faces from being wrong… speakers communicated an altered (in the case of our scenarios, lower) outcome probability when they intended to be tactful or cautious than when they intended to be informative.\"",
"In 2002, an oncologist by the name of Jerome Groopman wrote an article entitled, Dying Words; How should doctors deliver bad news?. In his article he recalls one of the first experiences in which he had to tell a young woman that she has malignant terminal cancer. He said to her, \"Claire, with this disease, a remission would ordinarily last three to six months. A person could expect to survive between one to two years",
". A person could expect to survive between one to two years.\" He found that this type of strategy (bald on-record) deeply shook the patient (negatively threatened her negative face). He now uses different strategies and realized that with sensitive information tact must be used, but also that the patient must be aware of the true probability of negative outcome",
". Many doctors, he argues, do not find that balance and tend to hedge information, \"More than forty percent of oncologists withhold a prognosis from a patient if he or she does not ask for it or if the family requests that the patient not be told. A similar number speak in euphemisms, skirting the truth.\" This statement reads similarly to the Sirota and Juanchich study; bad news is very frequently sugar-coated in attempt to save face.",
"Mitigated speech",
"In his book, Outliers, Malcolm Gladwell wrote a chapter entitled, \"The Ethnic Theory of Plane Crashes.\" The chapter attempts to explain why so many planes that crash end up crashing from human error, and not mechanical issues. One of the most prominent reasons, Gladwell points out, is the lack of effective communication due to the power dynamic between the captain and the first officer",
". He uses numerous examples of black box recordings in which the first officer hints at a problem instead of addressing it outright. He introduces the linguistic term, mitigated speech, and states, \"We mitigate when we're being polite, or when we're ashamed or embarrassed, or when we're being deferential to authority.\" First officers tend to use mitigated speech when addressing their captain and this has caused plane crashes in the past.",
"Linguists Ute Fischer and Judith Orasanu conducted a study with a group of captains and first officers. They gave them a scenario in which they had to communicate to each other the need to change course to avoid a thunderstorm. Overwhelmingly the captains used commands, or what Brown and Levinson would consider bald on-record politeness strategy, to communicate with their first officer",
". On the other hand, the first officers only used hints, similar to what politeness theory would consider an off-record politeness strategy, to communicate with their superior, the captain. Airlines have been taking this issue seriously and have made strides in teaching captains and first officers how to communicate with each other effectively.",
"Intercultural Communication",
"Various researches have analyzed the application of politeness theory in communication between different cultural groups. Communicative expectations, patterns of communicative activities and choice of politeness strategies vary among cultures. For instance, Morisaki and Gudykunst argue that members from individualist cultures prefer to use negative politeness strategies in conflict management, while members from collectivist cultures would rather use positive politeness strategies. 12",
"In addition, some other researchers focused on the acquaintance of politeness strategies and knowledge about politeness difference in foreign language education. Japanese researcher Kawai found that there is a lack of “cultural learning” in English education makes the Japanese student weak in effectively using politeness strategies in English, such as the reliance on context understanding in Japanese may cause face-threatening acts when in inter-cultural communication with western cultures",
". Tanaka and Kawade found differences in the usage pattern of politeness strategies among native English speakers and ESL learners.",
"Critiques \nBrown and Levinson's politeness theory is very applicable not only in the area of study within the communication field but also helpful in guiding individuals in ways to improve their speech and actions Two qualities in particular stand out:",
"Good Heuristic Value: This theory has motivated scholars to implement more research into grasping these ideas or finding alternatives to this way of thinking.\n Broad Scope: This theory considers factors that play a role in the field of communication such as \"language, identity, relational definition ... social power, distance, and culture\".\n\nOn the other hand, Although Brown and Levinson's theory is widely applicable, some weaknesses in their theory have been noted.",
"Cultural differences",
"Many academics have critiqued that many cultures use politeness strategies differently than how Brown and Levinson theorized. Many sociologists criticize that politeness theory is heavily based on Western cultures where individualism is highly valued compared to many non-Western cultures where group identity is valued over the individual",
". Some of this intracultural difference is, in part, due to diverse \"knowledge and values\" within a particular society, but Brown and Levinson argue that their theory is universal.",
"Although everyone has face wants, there are different ways strategies they use to accomplish these wants or mitigate face threats based on their culture. For example, negative politeness is the norm in some cultures (Japan and Britain) but not others that prefer positive politeness (Australia) and some cultures use politeness strategies when there is no face threat, such as the Japanese honorific system. Ide et al",
". Ide et al. shows that the roughly equivalent term in Japanese, teneina, has different sets of connotations associated with it from the English term \"politeness\". Gu (1998) pointed out that some face concerns in Western culture are not taken into account in Eastern cultures",
". In a series of interviews conducted by Blum-Kulka, House and Kasper in 1989 of fifty-two Israeli families, they conclude that as suggested already by the semantic definitions offered for the term \"politeness\" by Israelis, the constituents of \"tact\" and its appropriate modes of expression are very much subject to cultural interpretation.",
"Inclusiveness of politeness strategies \nSome claim that a few of these techniques may be used in more than one type of situation or more than one at a time. Additionally, a given speech act (of any politeness strategy) can have multiple consequences, rather than affecting only positive face or negative face as the current theory suggests.",
"Nonverbal aspects of communication \nSometimes nonverbal actions speak louder than verbal communication and might alter how the politeness strategy is interpreted or which politeness strategy is used.\n\nIndividual differences \nAn individual may have a pattern or way of communicating that they have habitually used in the past that others may consider face threatening or vice versa. Mood may also drive how they choose to respond to a situation regardless of politeness strategies.",
"Issues with terminology and their definitions",
"Various definitions of 'politeness' which make reference to considering others' feelings, establishing levels of mutual comfort, and promoting rapport have been found to be lacking, in that often whether a verbal act is face threatening or not depends upon preemptively knowing how the hearer will interpret it",
". This view shifts the focus from predominantly upon the speaker to upon both speaker and hearer, implying that politeness is socially constructed and therefore not universal, requiring cross-cultural examination",
". Additionally, a distinction has been made between first- and second-order politeness, due to the appropriation of an English word for a scientific concept: first-order politeness \"correspond[s] to the various ways in which polite behavior is perceived and talked about by members of socio-cultural groups\", meaning the connotation of 'politeness' for those not studying it, and second-order politeness is \"a theoretical construct, a term within a theory of social behavior and language usage\"",
", a term within a theory of social behavior and language usage\", meaning the scientific application of the term",
".",
"Spencer-Oatey argues that sociality rights also plays a role in relationship management other than \"face\", and Brown and Levinson's \"negative face\" is not about face concerns but should be conceptualized into sociality rights. Watts (2003) argues that \"it is impossible to evaluate (im) politeness behaviour out of the context of real, ongoing verbal interaction\" and also \"social interaction is negotiated on-line.\"",
"Hierarchy politeness",
"Scholars suggest power differences vary between strangers and acquaintances, which in turn, shape the effects of the politeness strategies. Social similarity and intimacy are other aspects to consider, as these connections create an increased awareness of the other person's meaning and request and therefore minimize the face-threatening act. In 1964, socio-psychologist Edward E",
". In 1964, socio-psychologist Edward E. Jones wrote a book on ingratiation and defines it as \"a class of strategic behaviors illicitly designed to influence a particular other person concerning the attractiveness of one's personal qualities.\" The concept of ingratiation has helped spur further investigation into how its power dynamics play into Brown and Levinson's politeness theory",
". The claim has been made that Brown and Levinson's theory does not take into account the effect unique dynamic power relations and rankings has on the way people interact with one another (i.e. ingratiation).",
"An article written by Akio Yabuuchi argues a case for a new trichotomous politeness system to replace politeness theory's dichotomous politeness system; hierarchy politeness The proposed system is made up of fellowship politeness (similar to Brown and Levinson's positive politeness), autonomy politeness (similar to Brown and Levinson's negative politeness), and hierarchy politeness. Hierarchy politeness recognizes ingratiation as a way to communicate within power dynamics.",
"See also \n Complimentary language and gender\n Cooperative principle\n Politeness maxims\n\nReferences",
"Further reading \n Brown, Penelope and Stephen C. Levinson. 1987. Politeness: Some universals in language usage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [First published 1978 as part of Esther N. Goody (ed.): Questions and Politeness. Cambridge University Press]\n Cameron, Deborah. 2001. Working with Spoken Discourse. Sage Productions\n Coulmas, Florian. 1998. The handbook of sociolinguistics. Wiley-Blackwell.\n \n Foley, William. 1997. Anthropological Linguistics: An introduction. Blackwell.",
"Foley, William. 1997. Anthropological Linguistics: An introduction. Blackwell.\n Goldsmith, D. J. (2006). Brown and Levinson's politeness theory. In B. Whaley & W. Samter (Eds.) Explaining communication: Contemporary theories and exemplars (pp. 219–236). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.\n Goffman, Erving. 1955. On Face-Work: An analysis of ritual elements in social interaction, Psychiatry: Journal of Interpersonal Relations 18:3, pp. 213–231 [reprinted in Interaction Ritual, pp. 5–46].",
"Kadar, Daniel Z., and Michael Haugh (2013). Understanding Politeness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.\n Lakoff, R. 1973. The logic of Politeness; or minding your p's and q's. Papers from the 9th Regional Meeting, Chicago Linguistics Society. Chicago: Chicago Linguistics Society.\n \n \n \n Schiffrin, Deborah. 1994. Approaches to Discourse. Wiley-Blackwell.\n Yule, George. 1996. Pragmatics. Oxford University Press.",
"Discourse analysis\nPragmatics"
] |
Battlefield 1
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battlefield%201
|
[
"Battlefield 1 is a first-person shooter game developed by DICE and published by Electronic Arts. It is the tenth installment in the Battlefield series and the first main entry in the series since Battlefield 4 in 2013. It was released for PlayStation 4, Windows, and Xbox One in October 2016.",
"Battlefield 1 received positive reviews from critics, who saw it as an improvement over the series' previous installments, Battlefield 4 and Battlefield Hardline. Most of the praise was directed towards its World War I setting, single-player campaigns, multiplayer modes, visuals, and sound design.\nThe game was a commercial success, selling over 15 million copies, and was followed by Battlefield V in 2018.",
"Gameplay",
"Similar to its predecessors, Battlefield 1 is a first-person shooter game that emphasizes teamwork. It is set in the period of World War I, and is inspired by historical events. Players can make use of World War I weapons, including bolt-action rifles, submachine guns, automatic and semi-automatic rifles, artillery, flamethrowers, and poison gas to combat opponents. Melee combat was reworked, with DICE introducing new melee weapons such as sabres, trench clubs, and shovels into the game",
". These melee weapons were divided into three groups: heavy, medium and light. Players can also take control of various armored vehicles, including light and heavy tanks, armored trucks, cars, torpedo boats, bi- and tri-plane aircraft, an armored train, reconnaissance vehicles, a dreadnought and an M-class zeppelin, as well as ride horses into battle. Destructible environments and weapon customization, features present in the previous games, returned in Battlefield 1 and are more dynamic.",
"The game's world designer, Daniel Berlin, said the campaign mode has larger and more open environments than those in previous installments in the franchise, with more options and choices in terms of paths to completing levels and how to approach combat. Players can control several characters in the campaign. If the player dies in the prologue, they will then take control of another soldier and role instead of reloading from a checkpoint. These roles can range from tank gunner to rifleman",
". These roles can range from tank gunner to rifleman. Unlike its predecessors, the game features a collection of war stories, similar to an anthology.",
"The game's multiplayer mode supports up to 64 players. The new squad system allows a group of players to enter and leave game servers together. According to Berlin, playing without joining a squad would make gameplay significantly more difficult. Multiplayer maps are based on locations around the world, including Arabia, the Western Front, and the Alps. You can also play on the Eastern Front with DLC",
". You can also play on the Eastern Front with DLC. The game launched with nine maps and six modes, which include Conquest, Domination, Operations, Rush, Team Deathmatch, and War Pigeons, a mode in which players must secure war pigeons and use them to call for an artillery strike.",
"Multiplayer modes\nBattlefield 1s multiplayer mode features numerous game types seen in previous entries in the franchise, as well as new modes;",
"Conquest: one of the standard game modes in the Battlefield series. Teams capture objectives across the map, earning points based on the number of objectives they hold. If a team is suffering from a major point deficit, a Behemoth-class vehicle (such as a Zeppelin L 30, an armoured train, a Dreadnought, or a Char 2C) becomes available for their use.\nDomination: a version of Conquest with a smaller map and fewer control points.",
"Rush: another standard game mode in the series, played between a defending and attacking team. An attacking team with a limited number of respawns must attempt to plant bombs in two telegraph stations located within a sector of the map, while the defending team must protect the stations and defuse planted bombs before they explode. If the attackers are successful, their respawns are replenished and the defending team falls back to the next sector",
". The game ends if the defending team exhausts the attackers' respawn tickets, or the attacking team captures the final telegraph stations. Unlike Rush modes in previous Battlefield games, the telegraph stations can also be used to call for artillery fire against the attackers.",
"Operations: A new mode which takes place across multiple maps to simulate a campaign from the war. An attacking team controls a battalion with limited respawn tickets; similarly to Rush, they must progress across sectors of a map by capturing their control points. If the attacking team exhausts their tickets, they lose one of their three battalions, and must try again. If the attackers are successful, the teams move onto a different map",
". If the attackers are successful, the teams move onto a different map. The attacking team wins if they successfully clear all maps without running out of battalions, while the defenders win if they eliminate all three of their opponents' battalions. The attacking team can be granted a Behemoth vehicle if they lose a battalion. Conversely, if the defending team is losing too rapidly, they will be granted a behemoth to even the odds.",
"Team Deathmatch: a standard game in which teams compete to reach a target number of kills, or the highest number of kills before time expires.",
"War Pigeons: a new, capture the flag-like mode in which two teams must attempt to capture a messenger pigeon used to signal artillery fire. After the pigeon is captured, the player must be defended while they prepare the message to be sent, and the pigeon must be released outside. However, the opposing team can still shoot down the pigeon. The first team to successfully release 3 pigeons wins the game.",
"Frontlines: A new mode added in the They Shall Not Pass DLC, described as a \"tug of war\" combining aspects of Operations and Rush. A map contains five control points along a linear path connecting the bases of the two teams. Beginning at the centre of the map, a team must progress towards their opponents' base by capturing each successive control point. If the point is captured by the opposing team instead, they are pushed back towards their own territory",
". If a team reaches their opponent's base, they must then destroy the two telegraph stations within to win the game. As in Rush, the defending team can use the telegraph stations to call for artillery fire. If the attacking team does not destroy both stations before they run out of tickets, they are pushed out and must capture the final objective again before they can make another attempt.",
"Supply Drop: A new mode added in the In the Name of the Tsar DLC. This game mode is inspired by the huge areas the Eastern Front of World War 1 took place on. Teams fight over these supply drops, which give the capturing team all sorts of goodies – ammo, health, vehicles, and pickups for Elite classes. The team that then captures more points, wins. Ammo and health is more commonly found in supply drops, but vehicles and Elite class pickups are made to turn the tide of battle in the attacking team's favour.",
"Air Assault: The newest multiplayer game mode, added as part of the Apocalypse DLC. This game mode, only available on two maps, features \"frantic dogfights\" and centers on aerial combat. Each opposing vehicle destroyed gains your team points. On the map \"Razor's Edge,\" only single-seat planes are available, while in \"London Calling\" a wide variety of planes - and a zeppelin - are at each team's disposal.",
"Shock Operations: A new mode added in the 2018 June Patch. Shock Operations are like Operations but instead these are shorter, faster with 40 players per server unlike normal 64 players per server and only play on one map. There are only five available maps in this game mode. These maps are called Giant's Shadow, Prise de Tahure, Lupkow Pass, Zeebrugge and River Somme.",
"Classes\nBattlefield 1s multiplayer features four main classes, three spawn-based vehicle classes, and five pick-up based Elite classes:",
"Infantry-based:\n Assault: The primary anti-vehicle/CQB class. Assault players have submachine guns, machine pistols, and shotguns at their disposal. They contribute using explosives such as dynamite or anti-tank grenades to destroy vehicles such as tanks and armored vehicles.\n Medic: The Medic class is primarily focused on reviving teammates and healing them. The primary weapons in this class area are semi-automatic rifles, and some fully automatic rifles.",
"Support: Support troops have access to light-machine guns and semi-automatic carbines. In addition they have access to smaller explosive devices, such as mortars, limpet charges and crossbows which launch grenades. They also contribute to the team by replenishing their teammates' ammo and repairing stationary weapons and vehicles.",
"Scout: Scouts use a variety of lever-action and bolt-action service rifles. The class contributes to the team by spotting enemies either by firing a flare gun, which spots nearby enemies in the vicinity of the flare on the mini-map, or using a periscope.\nVehicle-based:\n Tanker: Players choosing to spawn into a tank automatically spawn as the tanker class. The class is new to the series, and features a hammer wrench that can repair allied vehicles and damage enemy vehicles.",
"Pilot: Players who spawn into a plane automatically spawn as the pilot class. Outside of tanks and planes, tankers and pilots have access to pistol carbines and a sawed-off shotgun.",
"Cavalry: Players who choose to spawn on a horse spawn as the cavalry class. The cavalry class is equipped with a cuirass granting them extra defense, a Russian 1895 cavalry rifle, a cavalry saber or a cavalry lance as well as the ability to replenish health and ammo to both themselves, their horse and their teammates through the use of medical packs and ammunition packs.\nElite Classes:",
"Elite Classes:\n Flame Trooper Kit: Players who pick up the Flame Trooper Kit automatically equip a Gas mask, a Wex flamethrower, and three Incendiary grenades. They are also equipped with a trench club.\n Sentry Kit: Players who pick up the Sentry Kit gain plate armour and a MG 08/15 or Villar Perosa (depending on map), as well one Frag grenade and a trench club. The plate armour includes a helmet which prevents headshots to the player, but leaves them unable to don a gas mask.",
"Tank Hunter Kit: Players who pick up the Tank Hunter Kit equip both a Mauser 1918 T-Gewehr, capable of doing massive amounts of damage to vehicles and infantry, and a sawed-off shotgun. They also gain access to a periscope and Geballteladung anti-tank grenades. Furthermore, the player dons a respirator and goggles, granting them a permanent Gas Mask, while being able to aim down their sights without obscured vision. Their armor remains the same as that of a normal soldier.",
"Trench Raider Kit: Players who pick up the Trench Raider Kit wield a Trench Club that kills enemies in one hit, Smoke Grenades, a Medical crate, and a No. 3 Revolver, and three Frag grenades. This kit is exclusive to the They Shall Not Pass expansion.",
"Infiltrator Kit: Players who pick up this kit receive a Martini-Henry Grenade Launcher, a sawed-off shotgun, a spawn beacon in the form of a heliograph, and a signal flare gun that calls in artillery strikes. The player's helmet is exchanged for a scuba mask, allowing them to swim further underwater than the average soldier, but (as with the Sentry) unable to don a gas mask. This elite class is exclusive to the Turning Tides expansion.",
"Campaigns",
"Characters\nDuring the single-player campaigns, the player controls six different characters from a first-person perspective over six different chapters (known as War Stories). Unlike previous campaigns in the series, Battlefield 1s single-player story mode is composed of six separate \"War Stories\", each shown through the eyes of separate Allied soldiers from different nationalities: \n\"Storm of Steel\" – the prologue of the game, set in France through the eyes of several Harlem Hellfighters",
"\"Through Mud and Blood\" – set in France through the eyes of a British tank driver \n\"Friends in High Places\" – set in France and the UK and seen through the eyes of a Royal Flying Corps fighter pilot \n\"Avanti Savoia\" – set in Italy and seen through the eyes of a mournful survivor and member of the Arditi \n\"The Runner\" – taking place on the Gallipoli Peninsula (part of the Ottoman Empire) through the eyes of an ANZAC runner",
"\"Nothing is Written\" – set in the Kingdom of Hejaz through the eyes of a Bedouin warrior under the command of Lawrence of Arabia",
"Plots",
"Storm of Steel",
"The prologue, set in 1918, sees players take control of different members of the Harlem Hellfighters as they defend their positions against a German offensive in France during the Meuse–Argonne offensive. The player initially starts out near the front line and must survive as long as possible against waves of German soldiers. If the player survives the attack, an artillery barrage will rain down on them and then the game's perspective will shift to another soldier",
". During the course of the gameplay, an unnamed narrator (one of the Hellfighters) gives commentary on the nature of the war as the battle continues and player-controlled soldiers are killed.",
"At the start of the battle, the Hellfighters initially lose ground to the Germans, but British tanks force the German troops into a retreat until the tanks are stalled by artillery during Hundred Days Offensive. The Hellfighters mount a counteroffensive and push forward, sustaining casualties as the Germans hold their ground",
". When the player switches perspective to the final soldier in the gameplay, a German soldier attempts to kill the player character with a shovel but is stopped short by an artillery barrage that wipes out all of the combatants on the battlefield and renders the player unconscious. When the player character regains consciousness, he initially appears to be the lone survivor but quickly encounters a German survivor",
". Although the two-point their weapons at one another, exhaustion and battle fatigue set in as both realize the futility of their situation, inclining both men to lower their weapons. The game then proceeds to an introduction cinematic that opens up to the other War Stories.",
"Through Mud and Blood\nSet in the Autumn of 1918 during the Battle of Cambrai in the Hundred Days Offensive, players assume the role of Daniel Edwards, a former chauffeur who enlists in the war as a British tank driver. Edwards is assigned to a Mark V tank dubbed \"Black Bess,\" and meets the rest of his crew: Townsend, the tank crew's commander; McManus, a cynical gunner who doubts Edwards' abilities and the likelihood of the crew's success; Pritchard, another gunner; and Finch, the friendly mechanic.",
"The crew must penetrate German lines to reach the French town of Cambrai and help capture strategic positions and destroy artillery batteries. Finch is killed by machine-gun fire early on while trying to repair the tank, and later on, the tank becomes trapped in mud and surrounded by German infantry. Townsend decides to summon an artillery strike on their own position with the tank's messenger pigeon to save the tank, which McManus objects to vehemently",
". Pritchard is shot and killed trying to release the pigeon, forcing Edwards to do so, which enables British artillery to save the tank. Encountering thick fog in the nearby Bourlon Wood, Edwards acts as a forward scout to guide the tank. Clearing the forest, the tank becomes beset with mechanical problems, and Townsend sends Edwards and McManus to salvage spark plugs from British tanks captured by the Germans. McManus expresses his disdain for their orders and abandons the mission, deserting",
". McManus expresses his disdain for their orders and abandons the mission, deserting. However, McManus has a change of heart later on and returns just in time to save Edwards from a German soldier.",
"With the tank repaired, the crew proceeds to a railway station defended by German forces. Although Bess is the only British tank in the area, the crew attacks the railway station to deceive the Germans into thinking that a large British offensive is underway. Eliminating the German forces at the railway station, the tank proceeds to Cambrai but is immobilized by artillery and attacked by German soldiers",
". Edwards and McManus are wounded defending the tank, and an injured Townsend sacrifices himself by igniting a gas leak inside the tank, killing himself and the Germans. With Bess destroyed and Edwards and McManus the only survivors, the two proceed alone on foot to Cambrai. Closing subtitles indicate that with the participation of more than 300 tanks at the Battle of Cambrai, the war ended a month later.",
"Friends in High Places",
"In this story, set in the Spring of 1917 during the Battle of Arras players control Clyde Blackburn, an American pilot and gambler with a habit of deceitful behavior. Early on, Blackburn cheats George Rackham, a pilot of British nobility, in a game of cards and steals the latter's plane. Posing as Rackham, Blackburn introduces himself to Rackham's gunner, Wilson, and the two set off on an aerial exercise",
". During the exercise, German aircraft ambush the duo, and the two pilots take photographs of a German munitions base they stumble upon after fighting off the enemy fighters. Although Wilson is reluctant to show the photos to British Command out of fears of being accused of insubordination, Blackburn cajoles him into doing so with the prospect of winning medals. Wilson agrees on the condition that Blackburn returns them both safe from future missions.",
"Blackburn and Wilson escort British bombers in an assault on the photographed German munitions base. Although the base is destroyed, Blackburn and Wilson are caught in a bomb explosion and crash behind enemy lines, separated. Blackburn sneaks through German positions and discovers Wilson is injured",
". Blackburn sneaks through German positions and discovers Wilson is injured. Knowing that he will be unable to return to British lines safely while carrying Wilson, Blackburn contemplates putting his companion out of his misery but changes his mind when Wilson reveals he knew Blackburn's true identity all along. Blackburn carries Wilson through no-man's land to friendly lines but is detained by British Provosts under the orders of Rackham.",
"On the way to the court-martial in London, the vessel carrying Blackburn, Rackham, and Wilson is attacked by a German aerial raid, and Rackham is killed. Blackburn and Wilson commandeer a plane and fight off the German raid. Blackburn and Wilson first destroy a wave of German bombers and fighters before crashing into a German Zeppelin and using its anti-aircraft gun to destroy another Zeppelin. The two pilots jump into the River Thames after the Zeppelin plummets to the ground",
". The two pilots jump into the River Thames after the Zeppelin plummets to the ground. The story ends with Blackburn climbing out of the river unharmed, reflecting on his experiences. He notes that mixed accounts of his exploits may arise due to the confusing nature of the war, but suggests that his version of events is the truth. The story ends on an ambiguous note by leaving the question open as to whether the events of the story truly occurred as they did.",
"Avanti Savoia!",
"Taking place during the autumn of 1918 in the Dolomites in Northern Italy during the Italian front, players assume the role of Luca Vincenzo Cocchiola, a member of the Arditi unit. The story is conveyed by an aged Luca years after the war as he recounts his memories to his American daughter on his birthday. He and his twin brother, Matteo, take part in a major offensive to seize an Austro-Hungarian fortress, days after their 21st birthday",
". While Matteo takes part in the main thrust of the offensive, Luca's unit plays an auxiliary role, eliminating barriers to the main advance forces. Donning heavy body armor and using a MG08/15 Luca spearheads the assault on key Austro-Hungarian positions, capturing strongpoints, destroying an artillery gun, and thwarting an enemy aerial assault.",
"In desperation to stop the assault on the fort, the Austro-Hungarian bombers trigger a landslide to obstruct the Italian offensive. Desperate to save his brother, Luca sets off alone into the battlefield to find his brother's unit, armed with Villar Perosa and Beretta M1915. Along the way, he assists trapped Italian units and pushes toward the direction of the enemy fort",
". Along the way, he assists trapped Italian units and pushes toward the direction of the enemy fort. After clearing the fortress, Luca finds the remains of his brother's unit and stumbles upon his deceased brother; much to his grief and dismay. A mourning Luca in the present-day bids his brother farewell and happy birthday, while a concluding subtitle states that the war affected both nation-states and empires, as well as families, with survivors and the deceased of the war named the \"Lost Generation.\"",
"The Runner",
"Set during the Gallipoli Campaign of 1915, the player takes on the role of Australian messenger and Second Boer War veteran, Frederick Bishop. The story starts with Bishop encountering young Jack Foster, who says he is Bishop's new charge. While initially cynical, Bishop reluctantly relents and takes Foster under his wing, but warns Foster to refrain from battle due to his inexperience and young age. Bishop storms the beaches of Gallipoli at Cape Helles and captures a strategic enemy position",
". Bishop storms the beaches of Gallipoli at Cape Helles and captures a strategic enemy position. Bishop fires a flare to signify the capture of the position but is startled by a lone Foster, who disobeyed Bishop's command to only move up with the rest of the Allied forces. Bishop berates Foster for his naivety and view of war as a glorious activity, given that Foster had lied about his age to enlist",
". Foster becomes appalled at the sight of the carnage around him, but Bishop softens his rhetoric and reassures Foster that they will be alright.",
"The next day, Bishop volunteers as a runner in place of Foster, whom Bishop considers inexperienced for the task. Bishop returns to HQ to deliver a message and is saved by Foster, who shoots a nearby Ottoman soldier. British officer Whitehall dispatches Bishop to a rear command post to inform them that the British intend to advance further. Bishop finds the rear CP deserted, and discovers that the British intend to retreat and cover the withdrawal with artillery fire",
". Remembering that Foster is still on the frontlines, Bishop rushes back to retrieve him. Finding Whitehall, Bishop is shocked to discover that Foster has joined an assault on an Ottoman fortress. Bishop decides to pursue Foster, while a distressed Whitehall permits Bishop to disobey the fallback order to get Foster, telling him he has not much time.",
"Bishop finds Foster and informs him of the imminent artillery strike, but the young Australian says that they cannot abandon their wounded. Bishop attacks the fort to cover the withdrawal, but tells Foster to fire a flare when the retreat is completed so that the former can make his own escape. Bishop then single-handedly captures the fort and is mortally wounded in the process, but sees Foster's flare and is relieved to see that the retreat was successful",
". The story ends as Bishop dies from his wounds, watching as British warships shell the fort. Closing subtitles state that the Ottomans eventually won the Battle at Gallipoli, and several notable survivors went on to lead a postwar Turkey. Australian and New Zealand troops fought at Gallipoli under their own flags, distinguishing themselves in combat after marking the Anzac Day.",
"Nothing is Written",
"Taking place in the spring of 1918, players assume control of Zara Ghufran, a Bedouin rebel working directly alongside British intelligence officer T. E. Lawrence (better known as Lawrence of Arabia) as they fight to undermine the Ottoman occupation of the Arabian Peninsula. Zara infiltrates a derailed Ottoman train in \"Al-Ajdar\" and retrieves a manual with Ottoman communication codes. Although caught in a trap by Tilkici, an Ottoman officer, Zara is rescued by Lawrence and several Bedouin insurgents",
". Zara and Lawrence decide to interrogate Tilkici on how to use the code manually to lure the Canavar, an Ottoman armored train, into a trap, but Tilkici scoffs that the rebels will not triumph.",
"Having interrogated Tilkici, the rebels discover that they must use message capsules held by three Ottoman officers to ask the train to stand down. Zara proceeds alone, successfully infiltrating Ottoman camps to release two message capsules by a pigeon while eliminating the Ottoman commanders. However, as she prepares to release the third capsule, she is knocked unconscious by Tilkici, who managed to escape from Lawrence",
". Tilkici drags Zara out into the desert and taunts her, having already ordered the Canavar to strike Lawrence's camp. However, Zara kills Tilkici before he can execute her.",
"Returning to Lawrence, who survived the attack by relocating following Tilkici's escape, Zara and Lawrence decide to attack the armored train while it stops for supplies. Zara infiltrates the village where the Canavar stops and destroys segments of the train to impede the train's movement. Zara and the rebels destroy the train in an intense battle, ending the threat to their forces. Having achieved her \"revenge\" against the Canavar, Zara joins Lawrence to strike at targets in the Suez Canal",
". The closing subtitles indicate that although the Ottomans lost the war, the Allies refused to grant the Arabs full autonomy and that conflicts in the region continue into the 21st century.",
"Development",
"According to game designer Daniel Berlin, the team picked World War I as the game's setting as they believed that the weapons and gadgets featured in that period of time suit players with different playstyles. The game was named Battlefield 1, since the team considered World War I as \"the dawn of all-out warfare\". Melee weapons were reworked so as to introduce more depth to the system",
". Melee weapons were reworked so as to introduce more depth to the system. According to creative director Lars Gustavsson, the setting was a concept for a very long time, and it had been the \"dream\" for the team to create a game based on that period. According to Berlin, gameplay was the most important aspect when they were developing the game, and he promised that it would not be slowed down due to the game's historical setting",
". The story of the game is told through multiple protagonists, and explores the stories of unknown war heroes. Patrick Söderlund, the executive at Electronic Arts responsible for overseeing DICE, originally rejected the idea of having a World War One shooter as he thought that it would not be fun to play. He later accepted the pitch after being convinced by a demo created by DICE. Aleksander Grøndal, Senior Producer at DICE, prepared his own research into the war by looking at visual references",
". He favored colored images of the war in an attempt to visualize what the soldiers lived through. “I wanted to see the pictures and I wanted to imagine how they'd look with a mobile lens,” Grøndal expressed when interviewed. “I wanted to start off with all the footage and imagine that footage in our game with a modern take.” He specifically favored Apocalypse: World War I, a 2014 colorized French documentary, and World War I in Colour by Charles Messenger, a 2004 book of colorized war time photographs",
". Grøndal favored colored material as he felt, \"It's quite interesting and it sucks you in because it feels much closer when you see everything in color.\" Despite his personal penchant for colored visuals, his self ascribed \"big inspiration\" was Blueprint for Armageddon, a six-part audio documentary by Dan Carlin for the latter's Hardcore History podcast series.",
"In June 2015, DICE revealed that they were working on an unannounced game. In January 2016, EA announced that Titanfall 2, Mass Effect: Andromeda and an unannounced video game set in the Battlefield universe would be released prior to the end of the company's fiscal year. Both the title, the game's release date, and the plot of the game were leaked prior to the official announcement on May 6, 2016",
". The game was officially unveiled on that day through a livestream on Twitch, showcasing a reveal trailer of the game featuring a remix of The White Stripes' \"Seven Nation Army\" by The Glitch Mob. The game's Collector's Edition includes items such as a statue of a Harlem Hellfighter, a code for exclusive downloadable content (DLC) of the Doughboy M1911 Pistol, and a Steelbook case",
". Pre-order bonuses include early access to a DLC map named Giant's Shadow which takes place in the Battle of the Selle, and the Harlem Hellfighter Pack. The Heroes Bundle includes the pre-order bonuses, as well as three days early access to the game, the Red Baron Pack, the Lawrence of Arabia Pack, and five Battlepacks. Battlefield 1 was released worldwide on October 21, 2016, for PlayStation 4, Windows, and Xbox One.",
"Battlefield 1s open beta became available on August 31, 2016, for PlayStation 4, Windows, and Xbox One. It ended on September 8, 2016. The open beta allowed the team to ensure that major technical bugs, glitches, and crashes can be patched prior to the game's official launch. 13.2 million players participated in the beta.\n\nDownloadable content\nDICE released four downloadable content expansions for Battlefield 1; They Shall Not Pass, In the Name of the Tsar, Turning Tides, and Apocalypse.",
"They Shall Not Pass",
"In December 2016, DICE announced the first major expansion for Battlefield 1, They Shall Not Pass, which was released on March 14, 2017, with a two-week exclusivity period for Premium holders. It focuses on the new playable faction, the French Army; the expansion features four new maps set in the Battle of Verdun and the Second Battle of the Marne; Fort de Vaux, Soissons, Rupture, and Verdun Heights",
". They Shall Not Pass adds new weapons and vehicles, the Char 2C behemoth, as well as the new melee-oriented \"Trench Raider\" elite class. Two additional maps named Nivelle Nights and Prise de Tahure, both set during and after the Nivelle Offensive, are included as part of the expansion and were released in Summer 2017. As of May 5, 2018, \"They Shall Not Pass\" is free for all players via the Xbox, PC, and PlayStation websites, and remained free until May 15 as part of The Road to Battlefield V.",
"In the Name of the Tsar",
"In April 2017, DICE released the first images of the In the Name of the Tsar DLC. This DLC was confirmed during EA Play 2017, where a short amount of footage of it was also shown. In the Name of the Tsar focuses on the Russian Empire during the Great War. The Scout class for the Russian Empire faction features a female soldier representing the Women's Battalion",
". Four maps in the expansion are set on the Eastern Front; Lupkow Pass, Galicia, Brusilov Keep, and Albion, while two other maps are set in the Russian Civil War between the White Guard and Red Army; Tsaritsyn and Volga River. It also adds 11 new infantry weapons to the game and various new vehicles. In the Name of the Tsar also features a new horseback weapon called the Cavalry Lance. The expansion was released on September 5, 2017, for Premium Pass, with a worldwide release two weeks later",
". The cover art for this downloadable content expansion features Vendela Lindblom, the Playmate of the Month for the January 2019 issue of Playboy, as a female soldier.",
"Turning Tides",
"The Turning Tides DLC is focused on aspects of the naval and amphibious combat during World War I. DICE released the first half of the expansion to Premium Pass holders on December 11, 2017, containing 2 maps set during the Gallipoli Campaign: Achi Baba and Cape Helles. This expansion adds six new infantry weapons to the game, as well as a new \"Infiltrator\" elite class, which is equipped with a heliograph spawn beacon gadget, signal flare gun, and the Martini-Henry Grenade Launcher",
". Turning Tides also brings back the Conquest Assault game mode from previous Battlefield installments. The L-Class Destroyer was introduced as a new naval vehicle in the DLC. For the second half of the expansion, released on January 30, 2018, Turning Tides: North Sea brought more locations involving naval warfare from the Great War. Two new maps were added: Heligoland Bight and Zeebrugge, along with the Royal Marines as a new faction to battle the German Army",
". The North Sea release also introduced the C-Class Airship as a new air vehicle.",
"Apocalypse",
"The fourth and final DLC for Battlefield 1, the Apocalypse DLC, is centered around some of the most brutal battles of the Great War. The DLC was released on February 20, 2018, containing five maps, six guns, and a new game mode, among other additions. The three infantry-based maps of Apocalypse reflect three of the bloodiest battles of World War I; Caporetto set in present-day Slovenia, Passchendaele in Belgium, and River Somme in France",
". The DLC brought no new factions to the game, but introduced a new game mode titled \"Air Assault\" in the remaining two maps. These two maps, both only plane and zeppelin focused, are named \"Razor's Edge\" and \"London Calling.\" While both maps feature combat above detailed landscapes (Razor's Edge taking place in the Alps and London Calling occurring over the city of London), neither are based on factual battles. Apocalypse brought new weapons and gadgets to Battlefield 1 as well",
". Apocalypse brought new weapons and gadgets to Battlefield 1 as well. In addition, melee weapons were introduced to the game. DICE and the Battlefield team also added a number of other components to the game, including vehicles, gadgets for various infantry classes, and the stationary Livens Projector/Gaswurfminen, located on each of the three infantry-based maps. The DLC also features two new air vehicles, the Airco DH.10 Amiens and the Hansa-Brandenburg G.I.",
"Reception",
"Pre-release",
"The game received positive response from the community after its official announcement. As of May 9, 2016, the Battlefield 1 reveal trailer had become the most liked trailer on YouTube, with over 2 million likes. Electronic Arts expected the game to sell at least 14 million units in its first year of release. Writing for Wired, Julie Muncy felt worried that the game may not be able to reflect the complex situations in World War I, and thought that the war may not be an ideal setting for a video game",
". In contrast, Zam'''s Robert Rath reflected on the same themes, and noted that World War I was largely forgotten in popular culture due to its inability to inspire passion or interest; Rath suggested Battlefield 1 could rejuvenate popular interest in the war",
". At The Guardian, Alex Hern criticized what he perceived as the hypocrisy of those objecting to a video game portrayal of WWI, writing: \"Asking whether the First World War is an appropriate topic for a first-person shooter may reveal a more pressing question: why do we think any war is?\"",
"Post-releaseBattlefield 1 received \"generally favorable\" reviews from critics, according to review aggregator Metacritic.",
"Reviewers praised the game's unique, refreshing setting, as well as the risk DICE took when developing a WW1-themed game. The multiplayer component was praised for its solid mechanics, the new game mode Operations, the soundtrack, and the maps, amongst other things. Although praise was given to the single-player campaign for its story and level design, it was nonetheless criticized for being too short",
". PC World also criticized that all six campaigns take place from the viewpoint of the Allied Powers and the viewpoint from the Central Powers is absent.",
"SalesBattlefield 1 was the best-selling retail game in the UK in its week of release. Its launch week sales surpassed the combined sales of both Battlefield 4 and Battlefield Hardline. The PlayStation 4 version topped sales charts in Japan, selling 113,083 copies in its first week. As of January 18, 2017, the PlayStation 4 version has sold 249,053 copies in Japan. Battlefield 1'' was the top-selling game in the US in the month of its release.\n\nAccolades\n\nSee also\nList of World War I video games\n\nNotes",
"Accolades\n\nSee also\nList of World War I video games\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links",
"2016 video games\nBattlefield (video game series)\nElectronic Arts games\nFiction with unreliable narrators\nFirst-person shooters\nFrostbite (game engine) games\nMultiplayer and single-player video games\nMultiplayer online games\nPlayStation 4 games\nPlayStation 4 Pro enhanced games\nVideo game prequels\nVideo games developed in Sweden\nVideo games about chemical war and weapons\nVideo games featuring female protagonists\nVideo games set in Belgium\nWar video games set in the British Empire\nVideo games set in Estonia",
"Video games set in Belgium\nWar video games set in the British Empire\nVideo games set in Estonia\nVideo games set in Egypt\nVideo games set in France\nVideo games set in Iraq\nVideo games set in Italy\nVideo games set in Jordan\nVideo games set in Kuwait\nVideo games set in London\nVideo games set in Poland\nVideo games set in Qatar\nVideo games set in Saudi Arabia\nVideo games set in Slovenia\nVideo games set in the Russian Empire\nVideo games set in Turkey\nVideo games set in Ukraine\nVideo games set in Yemen",
"Video games set in Turkey\nVideo games set in Ukraine\nVideo games set in Yemen\nVideo games set in the Ottoman Empire\nCultural depictions of T. E. Lawrence\nTrains in fiction\nNaval video games\nAirships in fiction\nWindows games\nWorld War I video games\nXbox One games\nXbox One X enhanced games\nVideo games set in Russia\nMeuse–Argonne offensive\nHundred Days Offensive\nArab Revolt\nWorks about the Gallipoli campaign\nBattle of Verdun\nItalian front (World War I)\nWorks about the Russian Civil War"
] |
List of United Kingdom locations: Woof-Wy
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20United%20Kingdom%20locations%3A%20Woof-Wy
|
[
"Wo (continued)\n\nWoof-Wool",
"|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woofferton\n| class=\"adr\" | Shropshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wookey\n| class=\"adr\" | Somerset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wookey Hole\n| class=\"adr\" | Somerset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wool\n| class=\"adr\" | Dorset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolacombe\n| class=\"adr\" | Devon\n| class=\"note\" |",
"|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolacombe\n| class=\"adr\" | Devon\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolage Green\n| class=\"adr\" | Kent\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolage Village\n| class=\"adr\" | Kent\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolaston\n| class=\"adr\" | Gloucestershire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolaston Common",
"| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolaston Common\n| class=\"adr\" | Gloucestershire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolaston Slade\n| class=\"adr\" | Gloucestershire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolaston Woodside\n| class=\"adr\" | Gloucestershire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolavington\n| class=\"adr\" | Somerset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" |",
"| class=\"fn org\" | Woolavington\n| class=\"adr\" | Somerset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolbeding\n| class=\"adr\" | West Sussex\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wooldale\n| class=\"adr\" | Kirklees\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wooler\n| class=\"adr\" | Northumberland\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wooler Water\n| class=\"adr\" | Northumberland",
"| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wooler Water\n| class=\"adr\" | Northumberland\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolfall Heath\n| class=\"adr\" | Knowsley\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolfardisworthy\n| class=\"adr\" | Devon\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolfardisworthy\n| class=\"adr\" | Devon\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | Devon\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolfold\n| class=\"adr\" | Bury\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolfords Cottages\n| class=\"adr\" | South Lanarkshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolford's Water\n| class=\"adr\" | Dorset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolgarston\n| class=\"adr\" | Dorset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" |",
"| class=\"fn org\" | Woolgarston\n| class=\"adr\" | Dorset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolgreaves\n| class=\"adr\" | Wakefield\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolhampton\n| class=\"adr\" | Berkshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolhope\n| class=\"adr\" | Herefordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolhope Cockshoot\n| class=\"adr\" | Herefordshire",
"|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolhope Cockshoot\n| class=\"adr\" | Herefordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolland\n| class=\"adr\" | Dorset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woollard\n| class=\"adr\" | Bath and North East Somerset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woollaston\n| class=\"adr\" | Staffordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woollaton",
"| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woollaton\n| class=\"adr\" | Devon\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woollensbrook\n| class=\"adr\" | Hertfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolley\n| class=\"adr\" | Cornwall\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolley\n| class=\"adr\" | Cambridgeshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | Cambridgeshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolley\n| class=\"adr\" | Wiltshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolley\n| class=\"adr\" | Bath and North East Somerset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolley\n| class=\"adr\" | Wakefield\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolley\n| class=\"adr\" | Derbyshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" |",
"| class=\"fn org\" | Woolley\n| class=\"adr\" | Derbyshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolley Bridge\n| class=\"adr\" | Tameside\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolley Green\n| class=\"adr\" | Wiltshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolley Green\n| class=\"adr\" | Berkshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolmere Green\n| class=\"adr\" | Worcestershire",
"| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolmere Green\n| class=\"adr\" | Worcestershire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolmer Green\n| class=\"adr\" | Hertfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolmer Hill\n| class=\"adr\" | Surrey\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolmersdon\n| class=\"adr\" | Somerset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | Somerset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolminstone\n| class=\"adr\" | Somerset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolpack Corner\n| class=\"adr\" | Kent\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolpit\n| class=\"adr\" | Suffolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolpit Green\n| class=\"adr\" | Suffolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | Suffolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolpit Heath\n| class=\"adr\" | Suffolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolridge\n| class=\"adr\" | Gloucestershire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolsbridge\n| class=\"adr\" | Dorset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolscott\n| class=\"adr\" | Warwickshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" |",
"| class=\"fn org\" | Woolscott\n| class=\"adr\" | Warwickshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolsery\n| class=\"adr\" | Devon\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolsgrove\n| class=\"adr\" | Devon\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolsington\n| class=\"adr\" | Newcastle upon Tyne\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolstanwood\n| class=\"adr\" | Cheshire",
"| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolstanwood\n| class=\"adr\" | Cheshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolstaston\n| class=\"adr\" | Shropshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolsthorpe By Belvoir\n| class=\"adr\" | Leicestershire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth\n| class=\"adr\" | Lincolnshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | Lincolnshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolston\n| class=\"adr\" | Somerset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolston\n| class=\"adr\" | Somerset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolston\n| class=\"adr\" | City of Southampton\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolston\n| class=\"adr\" | Cornwall\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" |",
"| class=\"fn org\" | Woolston\n| class=\"adr\" | Cornwall\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolston\n| class=\"adr\" | Devon\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolston\n| class=\"adr\" | Shropshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolston\n| class=\"adr\" | Cheshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolston\n| class=\"adr\" | Shropshire\n| class=\"note\" |",
"|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolston\n| class=\"adr\" | Shropshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolstone\n| class=\"adr\" | Gloucestershire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolstone\n| class=\"adr\" | Milton Keynes\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolstone\n| class=\"adr\" | Oxfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolston Green",
"| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolston Green\n| class=\"adr\" | Devon\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolton\n| class=\"adr\" | Liverpool\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolton Hill\n| class=\"adr\" | Hampshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolvers Hill\n| class=\"adr\" | North Somerset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | North Somerset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolverstone\n| class=\"adr\" | Suffolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolverton\n| class=\"adr\" | Somerset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolwell\n| class=\"adr\" | Devon\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woolwich\n| class=\"adr\" | Greenwich\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|}",
"Woon-Woot",
"|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woon\n| class=\"adr\" | Cornwall\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woonton\n| class=\"adr\" | Herefordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woonton\n| class=\"adr\" | Herefordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wooperton\n| class=\"adr\" | Northumberland\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wooplaw",
"| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wooplaw\n| class=\"adr\" | Scottish Borders\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woore\n| class=\"adr\" | Shropshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wooth\n| class=\"adr\" | Dorset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wooton\n| class=\"adr\" | Shropshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wooton",
"| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wooton\n| class=\"adr\" | Shropshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wootten Green\n| class=\"adr\" | Suffolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wootton\n| class=\"adr\" | Bedfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wootton\n| class=\"adr\" | Hampshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | Hampshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wootton (Almeley)\n| class=\"adr\" | Herefordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wootton (Dormington)\n| class=\"adr\" | Herefordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wootton\n| class=\"adr\" | Isle of Wight\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wootton\n| class=\"adr\" | Kent\n| class=\"note\" |",
"|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wootton\n| class=\"adr\" | Kent\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wootton\n| class=\"adr\" | North Lincolnshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wootton\n| class=\"adr\" | Northamptonshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wootton\n| class=\"adr\" | Oxfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wootton\n| class=\"adr\" | Oxfordshire",
"| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wootton\n| class=\"adr\" | Oxfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wootton (Oswestry Rural)\n| class=\"adr\" | Shropshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wootton (Onibury)\n| class=\"adr\" | Shropshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wootton (East Staffordshire)\n| class=\"adr\" | Staffordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" |",
"| class=\"adr\" | Staffordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wootton (Stafford)\n| class=\"adr\" | Staffordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wootton Bourne End\n| class=\"adr\" | Bedfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wootton Bridge\n| class=\"adr\" | Isle of Wight\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wootton Broadmead\n| class=\"adr\" | Bedfordshire",
"|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wootton Broadmead\n| class=\"adr\" | Bedfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wootton Common\n| class=\"adr\" | Isle of Wight\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wootton Courtenay\n| class=\"adr\" | Somerset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wootton Fitzpaine\n| class=\"adr\" | Dorset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | Dorset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wootton Green\n| class=\"adr\" | Solihull\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wootton Green\n| class=\"adr\" | Bedfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wootton Rivers\n| class=\"adr\" | Wiltshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woottons\n| class=\"adr\" | Staffordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" |",
"| class=\"fn org\" | Woottons\n| class=\"adr\" | Staffordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wootton St Lawrence\n| class=\"adr\" | Hampshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wootton Wawen\n| class=\"adr\" | Warwickshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|}",
"Wor-Wou",
"|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worbarrow\n| class=\"adr\" | Dorset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worcester\n| class=\"adr\" | Worcestershire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worcester Park\n| class=\"adr\" | Surrey\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wordsley\n| class=\"adr\" | Dudley\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wordwell\n| class=\"adr\" | Suffolk",
"| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wordwell\n| class=\"adr\" | Suffolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worfe\n| class=\"adr\" | Shropshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worfield\n| class=\"adr\" | Shropshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worgret\n| class=\"adr\" | Dorset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Workhouse Common",
"| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Workhouse Common\n| class=\"adr\" | Norfolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Workhouse End\n| class=\"adr\" | Bedfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Workhouse Green\n| class=\"adr\" | Suffolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Workhouse Hill\n| class=\"adr\" | Essex\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | Essex\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Workington\n| class=\"adr\" | Cumbria\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worksop\n| class=\"adr\" | Nottinghamshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worlaby\n| class=\"adr\" | North Lincolnshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worlaby\n| class=\"adr\" | Lincolnshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" |",
"| class=\"fn org\" | Worlaby\n| class=\"adr\" | Lincolnshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | World's End\n| class=\"adr\" | West Sussex\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worlds End\n| class=\"adr\" | Hampshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worlds End\n| class=\"adr\" | Solihull\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | World's End\n| class=\"adr\" | Suffolk\n| class=\"note\" |",
"|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | World's End\n| class=\"adr\" | Suffolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | World's End\n| class=\"adr\" | Buckinghamshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | World's End\n| class=\"adr\" | Enfield\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | World's End\n| class=\"adr\" | Berkshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worle",
"| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worle\n| class=\"adr\" | North Somerset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worlebury\n| class=\"adr\" | North Somerset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worleston\n| class=\"adr\" | Cheshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worley\n| class=\"adr\" | Gloucestershire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | Gloucestershire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worlingham\n| class=\"adr\" | Suffolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worlington\n| class=\"adr\" | Devon\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worlington\n| class=\"adr\" | Suffolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worlingworth\n| class=\"adr\" | Suffolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" |",
"| class=\"fn org\" | Worlingworth\n| class=\"adr\" | Suffolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wormbridge\n| class=\"adr\" | Herefordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wormbridge Common\n| class=\"adr\" | Herefordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wormegay\n| class=\"adr\" | Norfolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wormelow Tump\n| class=\"adr\" | Herefordshire",
"| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wormelow Tump\n| class=\"adr\" | Herefordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wormhill\n| class=\"adr\" | Derbyshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wormingford\n| class=\"adr\" | Essex\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worminghall\n| class=\"adr\" | Buckinghamshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wormington",
"| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wormington\n| class=\"adr\" | Gloucestershire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worminster\n| class=\"adr\" | Somerset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wormit\n| class=\"adr\" | Fife\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wormleighton\n| class=\"adr\" | Warwickshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | Warwickshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wormley\n| class=\"adr\" | Surrey\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wormley\n| class=\"adr\" | Hertfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wormleybury\n| class=\"adr\" | Hertfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wormley West End\n| class=\"adr\" | Hertfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" |",
"| class=\"adr\" | Hertfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worms Ash\n| class=\"adr\" | Worcestershire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wormscleuch Burn\n| class=\"adr\" | Scottish Borders\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worms Head\n| class=\"adr\" | Swansea\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worms Hill\n| class=\"adr\" | Kent\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" |",
"| class=\"fn org\" | Worms Hill\n| class=\"adr\" | Kent\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wormshill\n| class=\"adr\" | Kent\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wormsley\n| class=\"adr\" | Herefordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wornish Nook\n| class=\"adr\" | Cheshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worplesdon\n| class=\"adr\" | Surrey\n| class=\"note\" |",
"|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worplesdon\n| class=\"adr\" | Surrey\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worrall\n| class=\"adr\" | Sheffield\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worrall Hill\n| class=\"adr\" | Gloucestershire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worsbrough\n| class=\"adr\" | Barnsley\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worsbrough Bridge",
"| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worsbrough Bridge\n| class=\"adr\" | Barnsley\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worsbrough Common\n| class=\"adr\" | Barnsley\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worsbrough Dale\n| class=\"adr\" | Barnsley\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worsham\n| class=\"adr\" | Oxfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | Oxfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worsley\n| class=\"adr\" | Salford\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worsley Hall\n| class=\"adr\" | Wigan\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worsley Mesnes\n| class=\"adr\" | Wigan\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worstead\n| class=\"adr\" | Norfolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | Norfolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worsthorne\n| class=\"adr\" | Lancashire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worston\n| class=\"adr\" | Devon\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worston\n| class=\"adr\" | Lancashire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worten\n| class=\"adr\" | Kent\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"fn org\" | Worten\n| class=\"adr\" | Kent\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worth\n| class=\"adr\" | Somerset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worth\n| class=\"adr\" | West Sussex\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worth\n| class=\"adr\" | Kent\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worth Abbey\n| class=\"adr\" | West Sussex\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" |",
"| class=\"fn org\" | Worth Abbey\n| class=\"adr\" | West Sussex\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wortham\n| class=\"adr\" | Suffolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worthen\n| class=\"adr\" | Shropshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worthenbury\n| class=\"adr\" | Wrexham\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worthing\n| class=\"adr\" | West Sussex\n| class=\"note\" |",
"|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worthing\n| class=\"adr\" | West Sussex\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worthing\n| class=\"adr\" | Norfolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worthington\n| class=\"adr\" | Leicestershire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worth Matravers\n| class=\"adr\" | Dorset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worthy\n| class=\"adr\" | Somerset",
"| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worthy\n| class=\"adr\" | Somerset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worthybrook\n| class=\"adr\" | Monmouthshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worting\n| class=\"adr\" | Hampshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wortley\n| class=\"adr\" | Barnsley\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wortley",
"| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wortley\n| class=\"adr\" | Gloucestershire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wortley\n| class=\"adr\" | Leeds\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worton\n| class=\"adr\" | North Yorkshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worton\n| class=\"adr\" | Oxfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worton",
"| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Worton\n| class=\"adr\" | Wiltshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wortwell\n| class=\"adr\" | Norfolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wotherton\n| class=\"adr\" | Shropshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wothorpe\n| class=\"adr\" | Northamptonshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wotter",
"| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wotter\n| class=\"adr\" | Devon\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wotton\n| class=\"adr\" | Devon\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wotton\n| class=\"adr\" | Gloucestershire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wotton\n| class=\"adr\" | Surrey\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wotton-under-Edge",
"| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wotton-under-Edge\n| class=\"adr\" | Gloucestershire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wotton Underwood\n| class=\"adr\" | Buckinghamshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woughton on the Green\n| class=\"adr\" | Milton Keynes\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wouldham\n| class=\"adr\" | Kent\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" |",
"| class=\"fn org\" | Wouldham\n| class=\"adr\" | Kent\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Woundale\n| class=\"adr\" | Shropshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|}",
"Wr",
"|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wrabness\n| class=\"adr\" | Essex\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wrafton\n| class=\"adr\" | Devon\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wragby\n| class=\"adr\" | Lincolnshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wragby\n| class=\"adr\" | Wakefield\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wragholme\n| class=\"adr\" | Lincolnshire\n| class=\"note\" |",
"|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wragholme\n| class=\"adr\" | Lincolnshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wramplingham\n| class=\"adr\" | Norfolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wrangaton\n| class=\"adr\" | Devon\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wrangbrook\n| class=\"adr\" | Wakefield\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wrangle\n| class=\"adr\" | Lincolnshire",
"| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wrangle\n| class=\"adr\" | Lincolnshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wrangle Bank\n| class=\"adr\" | Lincolnshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wrangle Lowgate\n| class=\"adr\" | Lincolnshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wrangle Low Ground\n| class=\"adr\" | Lincolnshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | Lincolnshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wrangway\n| class=\"adr\" | Somerset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wrantage\n| class=\"adr\" | Somerset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wrawby\n| class=\"adr\" | North Lincolnshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wraxall\n| class=\"adr\" | Dorset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | Dorset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wraxall (near Nailsea)\n| class=\"adr\" | North Somerset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wraxall (Ditcheat, near Castle Cary)\n| class=\"adr\" | Somerset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wray\n| class=\"adr\" | Lancashire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wray Common\n| class=\"adr\" | Surrey\n| class=\"note\" |",
"|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wray Common\n| class=\"adr\" | Surrey\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wraysbury\n| class=\"adr\" | Berkshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wrayton\n| class=\"adr\" | Lancashire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wrea Green\n| class=\"adr\" | Lancashire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wreaks End\n| class=\"adr\" | Cumbria",
"| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wreaks End\n| class=\"adr\" | Cumbria\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wreath\n| class=\"adr\" | Somerset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wreaths\n| class=\"adr\" | Angus\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wreay (Carlisle)\n| class=\"adr\" | Cumbria\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wreay (Eden)",
"| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wreay (Eden)\n| class=\"adr\" | Cumbria\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wrecclesham\n| class=\"adr\" | Surrey\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wrekenton\n| class=\"adr\" | Gateshead\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wrelton\n| class=\"adr\" | North Yorkshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | North Yorkshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wrenbury\n| class=\"adr\" | Cheshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wreningham\n| class=\"adr\" | Norfolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wrentham\n| class=\"adr\" | Suffolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wrenthorpe\n| class=\"adr\" | Wakefield\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | Wakefield\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wrentnall\n| class=\"adr\" | Shropshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wressle\n| class=\"adr\" | East Riding of Yorkshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wressle\n| class=\"adr\" | North Lincolnshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wrestlingworth\n| class=\"adr\" | Bedfordshire\n| class=\"note\" |",
"|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wrestlingworth\n| class=\"adr\" | Bedfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wretton\n| class=\"adr\" | Norfolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wrexham\n| class=\"adr\" | (Wrecsam) Wrexham\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wrexham Street\n| class=\"adr\" | Buckinghamshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wreyland",
"| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wreyland\n| class=\"adr\" | Devon\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wribbenhall\n| class=\"adr\" | Worcestershire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wrickton\n| class=\"adr\" | Shropshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wrightington Bar\n| class=\"adr\" | Lancashire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | Lancashire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wright's Green\n| class=\"adr\" | Essex\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wrights Green\n| class=\"adr\" | Cheshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wrinehill\n| class=\"adr\" | Staffordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wringsdown\n| class=\"adr\" | Cornwall\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" |",
"| class=\"fn org\" | Wringsdown\n| class=\"adr\" | Cornwall\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wrington\n| class=\"adr\" | North Somerset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wrinkleberry\n| class=\"adr\" | Devon\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Writhlington\n| class=\"adr\" | Somerset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Writtle\n| class=\"adr\" | Essex\n| class=\"note\" |",
"|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Writtle\n| class=\"adr\" | Essex\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wrockwardine\n| class=\"adr\" | Shropshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wrockwardine Wood\n| class=\"adr\" | Shropshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wroot\n| class=\"adr\" | North Lincolnshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wrose\n| class=\"adr\" | Bradford",
"| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wrose\n| class=\"adr\" | Bradford\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wrotham\n| class=\"adr\" | Kent\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wrotham Heath\n| class=\"adr\" | Kent\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wroughton\n| class=\"adr\" | Swindon\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wroxall\n| class=\"adr\" | Isle of Wight",
"| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wroxall\n| class=\"adr\" | Isle of Wight\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wroxeter\n| class=\"adr\" | Shropshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wroxhall\n| class=\"adr\" | Warwickshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wroxham\n| class=\"adr\" | Norfolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wroxton",
"| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wroxton\n| class=\"adr\" | Oxfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|}",
"Wy",
"|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wyaston\n| class=\"adr\" | Derbyshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wyatts Green\n| class=\"adr\" | Essex\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wybers Wood\n| class=\"adr\" | North East Lincolnshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wyberton\n| class=\"adr\" | Lincolnshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wyboston",
"| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wyboston\n| class=\"adr\" | Bedfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wybunbury\n| class=\"adr\" | Cheshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wychbold\n| class=\"adr\" | Worcestershire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wych Cross\n| class=\"adr\" | East Sussex\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | East Sussex\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wychnor\n| class=\"adr\" | Staffordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wychnor Bridges\n| class=\"adr\" | Staffordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wyck\n| class=\"adr\" | Hampshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wyck Rissington\n| class=\"adr\" | Gloucestershire\n| class=\"note\" |",
"| class=\"fn org\" | Wyck Rissington\n| class=\"adr\" | Gloucestershire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wycliffe\n| class=\"adr\" | Durham\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wycoller\n| class=\"adr\" | Lancashire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wycomb\n| class=\"adr\" | Leicestershire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wycombe\n| class=\"adr\" | Buckinghamshire",
"| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wycombe\n| class=\"adr\" | Buckinghamshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wyddial\n| class=\"adr\" | Hertfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wydra\n| class=\"adr\" | North Yorkshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wye\n| class=\"adr\" | Buckinghamshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wye",
"| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wye\n| class=\"adr\" | Derbyshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wye\n| class=\"adr\" | Kent\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wye\n| class=\"adr\" | Monmouthshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wye\n| class=\"adr\" | Powys\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wyebanks\n| class=\"adr\" | Kent",
"| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wyebanks\n| class=\"adr\" | Kent\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wyegate Green\n| class=\"adr\" | Gloucestershire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wyesham\n| class=\"adr\" | Monmouthshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wyfordby\n| class=\"adr\" | Leicestershire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wyke",
"| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wyke\n| class=\"adr\" | Bradford\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wyke\n| class=\"adr\" | Dorset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wyke\n| class=\"adr\" | Shropshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wyke\n| class=\"adr\" | Surrey\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wyke Champflower",
"| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wyke Champflower\n| class=\"adr\" | Somerset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wyke Green\n| class=\"adr\" | Devon\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wykeham\n| class=\"adr\" | Lincolnshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wykeham\n| class=\"adr\" | Ryedale, North Yorkshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | Ryedale, North Yorkshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wykeham\n| class=\"adr\" | Scarborough, North Yorkshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wyken\n| class=\"adr\" | Coventry\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wyken\n| class=\"adr\" | Shropshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wyke Regis\n| class=\"adr\" | Dorset\n| class=\"note\" |",
"|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wyke Regis\n| class=\"adr\" | Dorset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wykey\n| class=\"adr\" | Shropshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wykin\n| class=\"adr\" | Leicestershire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wylam\n| class=\"adr\" | Northumberland\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wylde\n| class=\"adr\" | Herefordshire",
"| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wylde\n| class=\"adr\" | Herefordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wylde Green\n| class=\"adr\" | Birmingham\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wyllie\n| class=\"adr\" | Caerphilly\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wylye\n| class=\"adr\" | Wiltshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wymans Brook",
"| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wymans Brook\n| class=\"adr\" | Gloucestershire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wymbush\n| class=\"adr\" | Milton Keynes\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wymering\n| class=\"adr\" | City of Portsmouth\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wymeswold\n| class=\"adr\" | Leicestershire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | Leicestershire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wymington\n| class=\"adr\" | Bedfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wymondham\n| class=\"adr\" | Leicestershire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wymondham\n| class=\"adr\" | Norfolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wymondley Bury\n| class=\"adr\" | Hertfordshire\n| class=\"note\" |",
"|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wymondley Bury\n| class=\"adr\" | Hertfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wymott\n| class=\"adr\" | Lancashire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wyndham\n| class=\"adr\" | Bridgend\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wyndham Park\n| class=\"adr\" | The Vale Of Glamorgan\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wynds Point",
"| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wynds Point\n| class=\"adr\" | Herefordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wynford Eagle\n| class=\"adr\" | Dorset\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wyng\n| class=\"adr\" | Orkney Islands\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wynn's Green\n| class=\"adr\" | Herefordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | Herefordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wyre\n| class=\"adr\" | Orkney Islands\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wyre Forest\n| class=\"adr\" | Shropshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wyre Piddle\n| class=\"adr\" | Worcestershire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wysall\n| class=\"adr\" | Nottinghamshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" |",
"| class=\"fn org\" | Wysall\n| class=\"adr\" | Nottinghamshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wyson\n| class=\"adr\" | Herefordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wythall\n| class=\"adr\" | Worcestershire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wytham\n| class=\"adr\" | Oxfordshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wyth Burn\n| class=\"adr\" | Cumbria\n| class=\"note\" |",
"|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wyth Burn\n| class=\"adr\" | Cumbria\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wythenshawe\n| class=\"adr\" | Manchester\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wythop Mill\n| class=\"adr\" | Cumbria\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wyton\n| class=\"adr\" | Cambridgeshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wyton",
"| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wyton\n| class=\"adr\" | East Riding of Yorkshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wyverstone\n| class=\"adr\" | Suffolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wyverstone Green\n| class=\"adr\" | Suffolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wyverstone Street\n| class=\"adr\" | Suffolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"",
"| class=\"adr\" | Suffolk\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|- class=\"vcard\"\n| class=\"fn org\" | Wyville\n| class=\"adr\" | Lincolnshire\n| class=\"note\" | \n| class=\"note\" | \n|}"
] |
History of copyright
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20copyright
|
[
"The history of copyright starts with early privileges and monopolies granted to printers of books. The British Statute of Anne 1710, full title \"An Act for the Encouragement of Learning, by vesting the Copies of Printed Books in the Authors or purchasers of such Copies, during the Times therein mentioned\", was the first copyright statute. Initially copyright law only applied to the copying of books",
". Initially copyright law only applied to the copying of books. Over time other uses such as translations and derivative works were made subject to copyright and copyright now covers a wide range of works, including maps, performances, paintings, photographs, sound recordings, motion pictures and computer programs.",
"Today national copyright laws have been standardised to some extent through international and regional agreements such as the Berne Convention and the European copyright directives. Although there are consistencies among nations' copyright laws, each jurisdiction has separate and distinct laws and regulations about copyright. Some jurisdictions also recognize moral rights of creators, such as the right to be credited for the work.",
"Copyrights are exclusive rights granted to the author or creator of an original work, including the right to copy, distribute and adapt the work. Copyright does not protect ideas, only their expression or fixation. In most jurisdictions copyright arises upon fixation and does not need to be registered. Copyright owners have the exclusive statutory right to exercise control over copying and other exploitation of the works for a specific period of time, after which the work is said to enter the public domain",
". Uses which are covered under limitations and exceptions to copyright, such as fair use, do not require permission from the copyright owner. All other uses require permission and copyright owners can license or permanently transfer or assign their exclusive rights to others.",
"Early developments",
"The earliest recorded historical case-law on the right to copy comes from ancient Ireland. The Cathach is the oldest extant Irish manuscript of the Psalter and the earliest example of Irish writing. It contains a Vulgate version of Psalms XXX (30) to CV (105) with an interpretative rubric or heading before each psalm. It is traditionally ascribed to Saint Columba as the copy, made at night in haste by a miraculous light, of a Psalter lent to Columba by St. Finnian",
". Finnian. In the 6th century, a dispute arose about the ownership of the copy and King Diarmait Mac Cerbhaill gave the judgement \"To every cow belongs her calf, therefore to every book belongs its copy.\" The Battle of Cúl Dreimhne was fought over this issue.",
"Modern copyright law has been influenced by an array of older legal rights that have been recognized throughout history, including the moral rights of the author who created a work, the economic rights of a benefactor who paid to have a copy made, the property rights of the individual owner of a copy, and a sovereign's right to censor and to regulate the printing industry. The origins of some of these rights can be traced back to ancient Greek culture, ancient Jewish law, and ancient Roman law",
". In Greek society, during the sixth century B.C.E., there emerged the notion of the individual self, including personal ideals, ambition, and creativity. The individual self is important in copyright because it distinguishes the creativity produced by an individual from the rest of society. In ancient Jewish Talmudic law there can be found recognition of the moral rights of the author and the economic or property rights of an author.",
"Prior to the invention of movable type in the West in the mid-15th century, texts were copied by hand and the small number of texts generated few occasions for these rights to be tested. During the Roman Empire, a period of prosperous book trade, no copyright or similar regulations existed, copying by those other than professional booksellers was rare. This is because books were, typically, copied by literate slaves, who were expensive to buy and maintain",
". Thus, any copier would have had to pay much the same expense as a professional publisher. Roman book sellers would sometimes pay a well-regarded author for first access to a text for copying, but they had no exclusive rights to a work and authors were not normally paid anything for their work. Martial, in his Epigrams, complains about receiving no profit despite the popularity of his poetry throughout the Roman Empire.",
"The printing press came into use in Europe in the 1400s and 1500s, and made it much cheaper to produce books. As there was initially no copyright law, anyone could buy or rent a press and print any text. Popular new works were immediately re-set and re-published by competitors, so printers needed a constant stream of new material. Fees paid to authors for new works were high, and significantly supplemented the incomes of many academics.",
"Printing brought profound social changes. The rise in literacy across Europe led to a dramatic increase in the demand for reading matter. Prices of reprints were low, so publications could be bought by poorer people, creating a mass-market readership. In German-speaking areas, most publications were academic papers, and most were scientific and technical publications, often autodidactic practical instruction manuals on topics such as dike construction",
". After copyright law became established (in 1710 in England, and in the 1840s in German-speaking areas) the low-price mass market vanished, and fewer, more expensive editions were published. Heinrich Heine, in a 1854 letter to his publisher, complains: \"Due to the tremendously high prices you have established, I will hardly see a second edition of the book anytime soon. But you must set lower prices, dear Campe, for otherwise I really don't see why I was so lenient with my material interests.\"",
"Early privileges and monopolies",
"The origin of copyright law in most European countries lies in efforts by the church and governments to regulate and control the output of printers. Before the invention of the printing press, a writing, once created, could only be physically multiplied by the highly laborious and error-prone process of manual copying by scribes. An elaborate system of censorship and control over scribes did not exist, as scribes were scattered and worked on single manuscripts",
". Printing allowed for multiple exact copies of a work, leading to a more rapid and widespread circulation of ideas and information (see print culture). In 1559 the Index Expurgatorius, or List of Prohibited Books, was issued for the first time.",
"In Europe printing was invented and widely established in the 15th and 16th centuries. While governments and church encouraged printing in many ways, which allowed the dissemination of Bibles and government information, works of dissent and criticism could also circulate rapidly. As a consequence, governments established controls over printers across Europe, requiring them to have official licences to trade and produce books",
". The licenses typically gave printers the exclusive right to print particular works for a fixed period of years, and enabled the printer to prevent others from printing the same work during that period. The licenses could only grant rights to print in the territory of the state that had granted them, but they did usually prohibit the import of foreign printing.",
"The republic of Venice granted its first privilege for a particular book in 1486. It was a special case, being the history of the city itself, the Rerum venetarum ab urbe condita opus of Marcus Antonius Coccius Sabellicus. The second author in the world to achieve copyright, Royal printing privileges, was the humanist and grammarian Antonio de Nebrija, in Lexicon hoc est Dictionarium ex sermone latino in hispaniensem (Salamanca, 1492).",
"From 1492 onwards Venice began regularly granting privileges for books. The Republic of Venice, the dukes of Florence, and Leo X and other Popes conceded at different times to certain printers the exclusive privilege of printing for specific terms (rarely exceeding 14 years) editions of classic authors.",
"The first copyright privilege in England bears date 1518 and was issued to Richard Pynson, King's Printer, the successor to William Caxton. The privilege gives a monopoly for the term of two years. The date is 15 years later than that of the first privilege issued in France. Early copyright privileges were called \"monopolies,\" particularly during the reign of Queen Elizabeth, who frequently gave grants of monopolies in articles of common use, such as salt, leather, coal, soap, cards, beer, and wine",
". The practice was continued until the Statute of Monopolies was enacted in 1623, ending most monopolies, with certain exceptions, such as patents; after 1623, grants of Letters patent to publishers became common.",
"The earliest German privilege of which there is trustworthy record was issued in 1501 by the Aulic Council to an association entitled the Sodalitas Rhenana Celtica, for the publication of an edition of the dramas of Hroswitha of Gandersheim, which had been prepared for the press by Conrad Celtes",
". According to historian Eckhard Höffner indicated that there was no effective copyright legislation in Germany in the early 19th century. Prussia introduced a copyright law in 1837, but even then authors and publishers just had to go to another German state to circumvent its ruling.",
"As the \"menace\" of printing spread, governments established centralized control mechanisms, and in 1557 the English Crown thought to stem the flow of seditious and heretical books by chartering the Stationers' Company. The right to print was limited to the members of that guild, and thirty years later the Star Chamber was chartered to curtail the \"greate enormities and abuses\" of \"dyvers contentyous and disorderlye persons professinge the arte or mystere of pryntinge or selling of books",
".\" The right to print was restricted to two universities and to the 21 existing printers in the city of London, which had 53 printing presses. The French crown also repressed printing, and printer Etienne Dolet was burned at the stake in 1546. As the English took control of type founding in 1637, printers fled to the Netherlands. Confrontation with authority made printers radical and rebellious, and 800 authors, printers and book dealers were incarcerated in the Bastille before it was stormed in 1789",
". The notion that the expression of dissent or subversive views should be tolerated, not censured or punished by law, developed alongside the rise of printing and the press. The Areopagitica, published in 1644 under the full title Areopagitica: A speech of Mr. John Milton for the liberty of unlicensed printing to the Parliament of England, was John Milton's response to the English parliament re-introducing government licensing of printers, hence publishers",
". In doing so Milton articulated the main strands of future discussions about freedom of expression. By defining the scope of freedom of expression and of \"harmful\" speech Milton argued against the principle of pre-censorship and in favour of tolerance for a wide range of views.",
"Early British copyright law",
"In England the printers, known as stationers, formed a collective organisation, known as the Stationers' Company. In the 16th century the Stationers' Company was given the power to require all lawfully printed books to be entered into its register. Only members of the Stationers' Company could enter books into the register. This meant that the Stationers' Company achieved a dominant position over publishing in 17th-century England (no equivalent arrangement formed in Scotland and Ireland).",
"The monopoly came to an end in 1695, when the English Parliament did not renew the Stationers' Company's power.",
"In 1707 the parliaments of England and Scotland were united as a result of the Anglo-Scottish Union. The new parliament was able to change the laws in both countries and an important early piece of legislation was the Copyright Act of 1710, also known as the Statute of Anne, after Queen Anne. The act came into force in 1710 and was the first copyright statute",
". The act came into force in 1710 and was the first copyright statute. Its full title was \"An Act for the Encouragement of Learning, by vesting the Copies of Printed Books in the Authors or purchasers of such Copies, during the Times therein mentioned\".",
"The enforcement of the Statute of Anne in April 1710 marked a historic moment in the development of copyright law. As the world's first copyright statute it granted publishers of a book legal protection of 14 years with the commencement of the statute. It also granted 21 years of protection for any book already in print. The Statute of Anne had a much broader social focus and remit than the monopoly granted to the Stationers' Company",
". The statute was concerned with the reading public, the continued production of useful literature, and the advancement and spread of education. The central plank of the statute is a social quid pro quo; to encourage \"learned men to compose and write useful books\" the statute guaranteed the finite right to print and reprint those works. It established a pragmatic bargain involving authors, the booksellers and the public",
". It established a pragmatic bargain involving authors, the booksellers and the public. The Statute of Anne ended the old system whereby only literature that met the censorship standards administered by the booksellers could appear in print. The statute furthermore created a public domain for literature, as previously all literature belonged to the booksellers forever.",
"According to Patterson and Lindberg, the Statute of Anne:",
"\"... transformed the stationers' copyright - which had been used as a device of monopoly and an instrument of censorship - into a trade-regulation concept to promote learning and to curtail the monopoly of publishers ... The features of the Statute of Anne that justify the epithet of trade regulation included the limited term of copyright, the availability of copyright to anyone, and the price-control provisions",
". Copyright, rather than being perpetual, was now limited to a term of fourteen years, with a like renewal term being available only to the author (and only if the author were living at the end of the first term).\"",
"When the statutory copyright term provided for by the Statute of Anne began to expire in 1731 London booksellers thought to defend their dominant position by seeking injunctions from the Court of Chancery for works by authors that fell outside the statute's protection. At the same time the London booksellers lobbied parliament to extend the copyright term provided by the Statute of Anne",
". Eventually, in a case known as Midwinter v Hamilton (1743–1748), the London booksellers turned to common law and started a 30-year period known as the battle of the booksellers. The battle of the booksellers saw London booksellers locking horns with the newly emerging Scottish book trade over the right to reprint works falling outside the protection of the Statute of Anne. The Scottish booksellers argued that no common law copyright existed in an author's work",
". The Scottish booksellers argued that no common law copyright existed in an author's work. The London booksellers argued that the Statute of Anne only supplemented and supported a pre-existing common law copyright. The dispute was argued out in a number of notable cases, including Millar v Kincaid (1749–1751) and Tonson v Collins (1761–1762).",
"Common law copyright",
"A debate raged on whether printed ideas could be owned and London booksellers and other supporters of perpetual copyright argued that without it scholarship would cease to exist and that authors would have no incentive to continue creating works of enduring value if they could not bequeath the property rights to their descendants",
". Opponents of perpetual copyright argued that it amounted to a monopoly, which inflated the price of books, making them less affordable and therefore prevented the spread of the Enlightenment. London booksellers were attacked for using rights of authors to mask their greed and self-interest in controlling the book trade",
". When Donaldson v Beckett reached the House of Lords in 1774, Lord Camden was most strident in his rejection of common law copyright, warning the Lords that, should they vote in favour of common law copyright, effectively a perpetual copyright, \"all our learning will be locked up in the hands of the Tonsons and the Lintots of the age\". Moreover, he warned, booksellers would then set upon books whatever price they pleased \"till the public became as much their slaves, as their own hackney compilers are\"",
". He declared that \"Knowledge and science are not things to be bound in such cobweb chains.\"",
"In its ruling the House of Lords established that the rights and responsibilities in copyright were determined by legislation. There is however still disagreement over whether the House of Lords affirmed the existence of common law copyright before it was superseded by the Statute of Anne. The Lords had traditionally been hostile to the booksellers' monopoly and were aware of how the doctrine of common law copyright, promoted by the booksellers, was used to support their case for a perpetual copyright",
". The Lords clearly decided against perpetual copyright and, by confirming that the copyright term (the length of time that a work is in copyright) did expire according to statute, the Lords also affirmed the public domain. The ruling in Donaldson v Beckett confirmed that a large number of works and books first published in Britain were in the public domain, either because the copyright term granted by statute had expired or because they were first published before the Statute of Anne was enacted in 1710",
". This opened the market for cheap reprints of works by Shakespeare, Milton and Chaucer, works now considered classics. The expansion of the public domain in books broke the dominance of the London booksellers and allowed for competition, with the number of London booksellers and publishers rising nearly threefold, from 111 to 308, between 1772 and 1802.",
"Eventually an understanding was established whereby authors had a pre-existing common law copyright over their work, but that with the Statute of Anne parliament had limited these rights in order to strike a more appropriate balance between the interests of the author and the wider social good. According to Patterson and Livingston, confusion about the nature of copyright has remained ever since",
". Copyright has come to be viewed both as a natural-law right of the author and as the statutory grant of a limited monopoly. One theory holds that copyright is created simply by the creation of a work, the other that it is owed to a copyright statute.",
"In August 1906 The Copyright Law for Music Act 1906, known as the T.P. O'Connor Bill was added to copyright law when it was passed by the British Parliament, following many of the popular music writers at the time dying in poverty due to extensive piracy by gangs during the piracy crisis of sheet music in the early 20th century. The gangs would buy a copy of the music at full price, copy it, and resell it, often at half the price from the original.\n\nEarly French copyright law",
"In pre-revolutionary France all books needed to be approved by official censors and authors and publishers had to obtain a royal privilege before a book could be published. Royal privileges were exclusive and usually granted for six years, with the possibility of renewal. Over time it was established that the owner of a royal privilege has the sole right to obtain a renewal indefinitely",
". In 1761 the Royal Council awarded a royal privilege to the heirs of an author rather than the author's publisher, sparking a national debate on the nature of literary property similar to that taking place in Britain during the battle of the booksellers.",
"In 1777 a series of royal decrees reformed the royal privileges. The duration of privileges were set at a minimum duration of 10 years or the life of the author, which ever was longer. If the author obtained a privilege and did not transfer or sell it on, he could publish and sell copies of the book himself, and pass the privilege on to his heirs, who enjoyed an exclusive right into perpetuity. If the privilege was sold to a publisher, the exclusive right would only last the specified duration",
". The royal decrees prohibited the renewal of privileges and once the privilege had expired anyone could obtain a \"permission simple\" to print or sell copies of the work. Hence the public domain in books whose privilege had expired was expressly recognised.",
"After the French Revolution a dispute over Comédie-Française being granted the exclusive right to the public performance of all dramatic works erupted and in 1791 the National Assembly abolished the privilege. Anyone was allowed to establish a public theatre and the National Assembly declared that the works of any author who had died more than five years ago were public property",
". In the same degree the National Assembly granted authors the exclusive right to authorise the public performance of their works during their lifetime, and extended that right to the authors' heirs and assignees for five years after the author's death. The National Assembly took the view that a published work was by its nature a public property, and that an author's rights are recognised as an exception to this principle, to compensate an author for his work.",
"In 1793 a new law was passed giving authors, composers, and artists the exclusive right to sell and distribute their works, and the right was extended to their heirs and assigns for 10 years after the author's death. The National Assembly placed this law firmly on a natural right footing, calling the law the \"Declaration of the Rights of Genius\" and so evoking the famous Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen",
". However, author's rights were subject to the condition of making depositing copies of the work with the Bibliothèque Nationale and 19th-century commentators characterised the 1793 law as utilitarian and \"a charitable grant from society\".",
"Early United States copyright law",
"The Statute of Anne did not apply to the American colonies. The economy of early America was largely agrarian and only three private copyright acts had been passed in America prior to 1783. Two of the acts were limited to seven years, the other was limited to a term of five years",
". Two of the acts were limited to seven years, the other was limited to a term of five years. In 1783 several authors' petitions persuaded the Continental Congress \"that nothing is more properly a man's own than the fruit of his study, and that the protection and security of literary property would greatly tend to encourage genius and to promote useful discoveries.\" But under the Articles of Confederation, the Continental Congress had no authority to enact copyright law",
". The Continental Congress passed a resolution urging the States to \"secure to the authors or publishers of any new book not hitherto printed ... the copy right of such books for a certain time not less than fourteen years from the first publication; and to secure to the said authors, if they shall survive the term first mentioned, ... the copy right of such books for another term of time no less than fourteen years",
"... the copy right of such books for another term of time no less than fourteen years. Three states had already enacted copyright statutes in 1783 prior to the Continental Congress resolution, and in the subsequent three years all of the remaining states except Delaware passed a copyright statute. Seven of the States followed the Statute of Anne and the Continental Congress' resolution by providing two fourteen-year terms",
". The five remaining States granted copyright for single terms of fourteen, twenty and twenty one years, with no right of renewal.",
"At the Philadelphia Convention in 1787, both James Madison of Virginia and Charles Cotesworth Pinckney of South Carolina submitted proposals that would allow Congress the power to grant copyright for a limited time. These proposals are the origin of the Copyright Clause in the United States Constitution, which allows the granting of copyright and patents for a limited time to serve a utilitarian function, namely \"to promote the progress of science and useful arts\"",
". The first federal copyright act was the Copyright Act of 1790. It granted copyright for a term of 14 years \"from the time of recording the title thereof\" with a right of renewal for another 14 years if the author survived to the end of the first term. The act covered not only books, but also maps and charts. Only works both printed within the United States and created by citizens were eligible",
". Only works both printed within the United States and created by citizens were eligible. With exception of the provision on maps and charts the Copyright Act of 1790 is copied almost verbatim from the Statute of Anne.",
"At the time works only received protection under federal statutory copyright if the statutory formalities, such as a proper copyright notice, were satisfied. If this was not the case the work immediately entered into the public domain. In 1834 the Supreme Court ruled in Wheaton v",
". In 1834 the Supreme Court ruled in Wheaton v. Peters (a case similar to the 1774 case of Donaldson v Beckett in Britain) that although the author of an unpublished work had a common law right to control the first publication of that work, the author did not have a common law right to control reproduction following the first publication of the work.",
"Early internationalisation",
"The Berne Convention was first established in 1886, and was subsequently re-negotiated in 1896 (Paris), 1908 (Berlin), 1928 (Rome), 1948 (Brussels), 1967 (Stockholm) and 1971 (Paris). The convention relates to literary and artistic works, which includes films, and the convention requires its member states to provide protection for every production in the literary, scientific and artistic domain",
". The Berne Convention has a number of core features, including the principle of national treatment, which holds that each member state to the convention would give citizens of other member states the same rights of copyright that it gave to its own citizens (Article 3-5).",
"Another core feature is the establishment of minimum standards of national copyright legislation in that each member state agrees to certain basic rules which their national laws must contain. Though member states can if they wish increase the amount of protection given to copyright owners. One important minimum rule was that the term of copyright was to be a minimum of the author's lifetime plus 50 years",
". Another important minimum rule established by the Berne Convention is that copyright arises with the creation of a work and does not depend upon any formality such as a system of public registration (Article 5(2)). At the time some countries did require registration of copyright, and when Britain implemented the Berne Convention in the Copyright Act 1911 it had to abolish its system of registration at Stationers' Hall.",
"The Berne Convention focuses on authors as the key figure in copyright law and the stated purpose of the convention is \"the protection of the rights of authors in their literary and artistic works\" (Article 1), rather than the protection of publishers and other actors in the process of disseminating works to the public. In the 1928 revision the concept of moral rights was introduced (Article 6bis), giving authors the right to be identified as a such and to object to derogatory treatment of their works",
". These rights, unlike economic rights such as preventing reproduction, could not be transferred to others.",
"The Berne Convention also enshrined limitations and exceptions to copyright, enabling the reproduction of literary and artistic works without the copyright owners prior permission. The detail of these exceptions was left to national copyright legislation, but the guiding principle is stated in Article 9 of the convention",
". The so-called three-step test holds that an exception is only permitted \"in certain special cases, provided that such reproduction does not conflict with a normal exploitation of the work and does not unreasonably prejudice the legitimate interests of the author\". Free use of copyrighted work is expressly permitted in the case of quotations from lawfully published works, illustration for teaching purposes, and news reporting (Article 10).",
"Copyright in communist countries",
"Copyright and technology\n Digital technology introduces a new level of controversy into copyright policy.\n Inclusion of software as copyright subject matter on the recommendation of CONTU and then later with the EU Computer Programs Directive.\n Enactment of Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS).",
"Enactment of Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS).\n Controversy over the copyrightability of databases (Feist Publications v. Rural Telephone Service and contradictory cases); links to the debate over sui generis Database rights.\n Enactment of the World Intellectual Property Organization Copyright Treaty; nations begin passing anti-circumvention laws.",
"Commentators such as Barlow (1994) have argued that digital copyright is fundamentally different and will remain persistently difficult to enforce; others such as Stallman (1996) have argued that the Internet deeply undermines the economic rationale for copyright in the first place. These perspectives may lead to the consideration of alternative compensation systems in place of exclusive rights for all types of information, including software, books, movies, and music.",
"Expansions in scope and operation\n Move from common law and ad hoc grants of monopoly to copyright statutes.\n Expansions in subject matter (largely related to technology).\n Expansions on duration.\n Creation of new exclusive rights (such as performers' and other neighbouring rights).\n Creation of collecting societies.\n Criminalisation of copyright infringement.\n Creation of anti-circumvention laws.\n Courts' application of secondary liability doctrines to cover file sharing networks\n\nSee also",
"See also\n\n History of music piracy\n History of patent law\n Copyleft\n International copyright\n Copyright infringement\n\nReferences",
"Further reading\nEaton S. Drone, A Treatise on the Law of Property in Intellectual Productions, Little, Brown, & Co. (1879).\n Dietrich A. Loeber, '\"Socialist\" Features of Soviet Copyright Law', Columbia Journal of Transnational Law, vol. 23, pp 297–313, 1984.\n Joseph Lowenstein, The Author's Due : Printing and the Prehistory of Copyright, University of Chicago Press, 2002",
"Christopher May, \"The Venetian Moment: New Technologies, Legal Innovation and the Institutional Origins of Intellectual Property\", Prometheus, 20(2), 2002.\n Millar v. Taylor, 4 Burr. 2303, 98 Eng. Rep. 201 (K.B. 1769).\n Lyman Ray Patterson, Copyright in Historical Perspective, Vanderbilt University Press, 1968.\n Eric Anderson, Pimps and Ferrets: Copyright and Culture in the United States, 1831–1891, 2010. https://archive.org/details/PimpsAndFerretsCopyrightAndCultureInTheUnitedStates1831-1891",
"Brendan Scott, \"Copyright in a Frictionless World\", First Monday, volume 6, number 9 (September 2001), http://firstmonday.org/issues/issue6_9/scott/index.html.\n Charles Forbes René de Montalembert, The Monks of the West from St Benedict to St Bernard, William Blackwood and Sons, London, 1867, Vol III.\n Augustine Birrell, Seven Lectures on the Law and History of Copyright in Books, Rothman Reprints Inc., 1899 (1971 reprint).",
"Drahos, P. with Braithwaite, J., Information Feudalism, The New Press, New York, 2003. (hc.)\n Paul Edward Geller, International Copyright Law and Practice, Matthew Bender. (2000).\n New International Encyclopedia\n Computer Associates International, Inc. v. Altai, Inc., 982 F.2d 693 (2d Cir. 1992)\n Armstrong, Elizabeth. Before Copyright: the French book-privilege system 1498-1526. Cambridge University Press (Cambridge: 1990)",
"Siegrist, Hannes, The History and Current Problems of Intellectual Property (1600–2000), in: Axel Zerdick ... (eds.), E-merging Media. Communication and the Media Economy of the Future, Heidelberg 2004, p. 311–329.\n Gantz, John and Rochester, Jack B. (2005), Pirates of the Digital Millennium, Upper Saddle River: Financial Times Prentice Hall;",
"Löhr, Isabella, Intellectual cooperation in transnational networks: the league of nations and the globalization of intellectual property rights, in: Mathias Albert ... (eds.), Transnational political spaces. agents - structures - encounters, Frankfurt/Main 2009, p. 58–88.\n Ronan Deazley, Martin Kretschmer and Lionel Bently (eds) Privilege and Property: Essays on the History of Copyright. Open Book Publishers (Cambridge: 2010).",
"Selle, Hendrik; \"Open Content? Ancient Thinking on Copyright\", Revue internationale de droit de l’Antiquité 55 (2008) 469–84.",
"External links\n Primary Sources on Copyright (1450–1900) (British, French, German, Italian, US documents)\n International Copyright and Neighbouring Rights: The Berne Convention and Beyond Companion website with historical documents related to international copyright\n\n \nCopyright law"
] |
Perp walk
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perp%20walk
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[
"A perp walk, walking the perp, or frog march, is a practice in law enforcement of taking an arrested suspect, usually right after arrest, out in public, usually from the police station to the vehicle to the courthouse and then after the court hearing back to the vehicle, creating an opportunity for a media frenzy to take photographs and video of the event. The defendant is typically handcuffed or otherwise restrained, and is sometimes dressed in prison garb",
". Within the United States the perp walk is most closely associated with New York City. The practice rose in popularity in the 1980s under U.S. Attorney Rudolph Giuliani, when suspects charged with felonies were perp-walked.",
"The perp walk arose incidentally from the need to transport a defendant from a police station to court after arrest. Law enforcement agencies often coordinate with the media in scheduling and arranging them. It has been criticized as a form of public humiliation that violates a defendant's right to privacy and is prejudicial to the presumption of innocence, but is defended as promoting transparency in the criminal justice system",
". American courts have permitted it on the grounds that it arises from the limitations and necessity of police procedure, but have also limited it only to those times when it is actually necessary.",
"Procedure\n\nIn the United States, once a person has been charged with a crime, the government may request that a judge either issue a summons for that person or an arrest warrant, which can lead to a perp walk. The choice of which to request is largely at the discretion of the prosecutor, with judges often deferring to it.",
"Since the arrest power is meant to ensure the defendant's presence in court, lawyers defending the white-collar criminals who have been perp-walked since the late 1980s have complained it is unnecessary and superfluous in their clients' cases, even if it does give the appearance of preferential treatment for wealthy defendants",
". Lea Fastow, the wife of former Enron executive Andrew Fastow, cited the perp walk she was made to take even though she had expressed her willingness to surrender to a summons in an unsuccessful motion for a change of venue. Some, like Martha Stewart, have still managed to avoid being perp-walked by responding to summonses, or surrendering in the courtroom as soon as the indictment is presented in open court.",
"This did not prevent another Houston-area defendant, former Dynegy natural gas trader Michelle Valencia, from undergoing a perp walk in 2003. After waiting all day for the indictment, her attorney told prosecutors she would return there the next morning. Instead, she was arrested at her home before the courthouse opened. Her attorney said prosecutors were bullying her for refusing to cooperate with them",
". Her attorney said prosecutors were bullying her for refusing to cooperate with them. Similarly, lawyers for Adelphia Communications chairman John Rigas criticized prosecutors for having him arrested at his home on Manhattan's Upper East Side in 2002 despite his offer to surrender",
". Defense lawyers have been advised that if they are aware an indictment and arrest is imminent, to announce to the media that their client will surrender at a particular time in the near future, making a subsequent arrest and perp walk seem gratuitous.",
"Law enforcement",
"The ultimate discretion over whether a perp walk occurs belongs to the arresting law enforcement agency. Local departments may inform the media prior to an arrest even occurring, if they wish to have footage of that being broadcast. Federal agencies, on the other hand, are generally prohibited from informing the media of arrests in advance by Justice Department policy",
". However, they cannot prohibit photography or video of a defendant being transported through public places after the arrest has been publicized.",
"Once the decision is made to arrest the suspect, or they have voluntarily surrendered, they are photographed and fingerprinted at a police station, and then taken to the appropriate courthouse for an arraignment or similar procedure that brings the case into the legal system",
". The New York City Police Department (NYPD) usually advises the media as to when this will happen in cases that may be of interest; other large departments do not, so photographers and camera crews wait at the central location in hopes of getting a perp-walk image. In 2011, some New York camera crews and photographers waited 15 hours for former International Monetary Fund director Dominique Strauss-Kahn to be brought by for his arraignment on charges of sexually assaulting a hotel maid.",
"Many police departments require that defendants facing felony charges wear at least handcuffs regardless of the nature of the crime they are accused of. The defendant taken to court is usually brought in through an entrance from a public area such as the street or sidewalk, often escorted by plainclothes police officers (who may be those who have investigated the case and made the arrest, especially if multiple agencies were involved) and sometimes accompanied by his or her attorney",
". Those areas are accessible to all, including the media. It is there that they may take still or moving images of the defendant, and often ask questions of him or her. In high-profile cases, with major media interest, such as a crime which has received considerable public attention or in which the defendant is a celebrity, measures such as barricades or extra uniformed officers will be present to ensure there is space to get the defendant and escorting officers into the building",
". \"You naturally assume you're seeing a barbaric mob wreaking random havoc,\" writes New York Times columnist John Tierney of such scenes. \"But that's not the case. It's actually a barbaric mob wreaking exquisitely planned havoc.\"",
"Defendants",
"Most law enforcement agencies will allow suspects to temporarily hide their faces during their perp walks. They may simply (if they are cuffed in the front or not cuffed at all) use their hands to shield their faces from onlookers and the press. Some may wear sunglasses, and some may wear hooded shirts or jackets that they then wrap tightly around their faces. Suspects sometimes pull clothing over their heads or walk with their heads down to hide their faces",
". Suspects also often struggle to walk and hide their faces at the same time as they are often bombarded with the microphones and cameras of the press covering their arraignments or cases. The police also sometimes provide certain defendants, such as accused current or former police officers and criminals who have been useful to them as informants, with hoods and abbreviated perp walks from a side entrance",
". Conversely, in a high-profile case, the police may accommodate the media by extending the perp walk into a \"perp parade\" beyond the necessary distance, such as around the block, or delaying the court proceeding until the media can be present, as was the case at the 1999 arraignment of former Wu-tang Clan rapper Russell Jones on charges that were later dropped. Perp walks were restaged for the benefit of the media until a 2000 court ruling restricted them to those necessary for law enforcement purposes.",
"Defendants who can anticipate their arrest often dress with the perp walk in mind. Two former federal prosecutors turned defense attorneys advise that a white-collar defendant \"should be prepared to look as professional as possible under the circumstances,\" as the fictional character Sherman McCoy does after he surrenders to face a charge stemming from a hit-and-run accident in Tom Wolfe's 1987 novel The Bonfire of the Vanities. New York publicist Mortimer Matz recommends an old raincoat",
". New York publicist Mortimer Matz recommends an old raincoat. In addition to concealing the handcuffs, he says, it is not a problem when the garment inevitably gets smudged by fingerprint ink remaining on the defendant's hands. New York Mafia boss John Gotti wore the expensive custom-tailored suits that earned him his \"Dapper Don\" nickname during perp walks, in contrast to the sweatpants and jackets seen among other contemporary organized-crime figures.",
"Susan McDougal, subjected to a brief perp walk in a miniskirt, leg irons and a waist chain as she was taken to jail for refusing to testify before special prosecutor Kenneth Starr's grand jury investigating Whitewater, wrote of the experience in her memoir, The Woman Who Wouldn't Talk:\n\nIn The Bonfire of the Vanities, lawyer Tommy Killian similarly advises Sherman McCoy to affect aloofness and indifference prior to his perp walk.",
"Ed Hayes, the lawyer Killian was modeled on, gives similar advice to his own clients.\n\nMedia",
"Reporters usually ask questions such as \"Did you do it?\" if the defendant is not known to have confessed to the crime, or \"Why did you do it?\" when they have. Usually defendants do not answer or even acknowledge, since by that point they have been advised, as required under the Fifth Amendment, of their right to remain silent. One exception was Emmanuel Torres, arrested in 1984 on suspicion of murdering a woman in the course of an attempted rape",
". He told reporters that the victim was a \"slut\" and deserved her fate. At trial he protested his innocence. His remarks during the perp walk were introduced into evidence, and he was convicted. Another defendant, in 1993, suspected of stealing Marilyn Monroe memorabilia, turned to face the cameras and apologized to his dead parents. Actor Judd Hirsch's son Alex, arrested in 1995 by Chicago police on drug charges that were later dropped, promoted an upcoming appearance by his band",
". An Ohio murder suspect once said \"Hi Mom!\" to the cameras.",
"Photographers find perp walks their second most-dreaded assignment after going to the home of someone who has recently died to ask for a picture. They must wait a long time for a period of a few seconds in which they will be competing with a potentially large group of other photographers and television crews",
". This presents the possibility that they can be trampled beneath the group, as depicted in the 1994 film The Paper, and the difficulty of photographing a defendant who may be looking downward to keep his face from view. Marty Lederhandler, an Associated Press photographer who worked for the last half of the 20th century and shot the perp walks of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg, as well as David Berkowitz, describes the perp walk as \"it's, 'He'll be out in 10 minutes.' You line up",
".' You line up. He comes out and into the car, and you've got your picture. Nice.\" When he began in the years after World War II, Lederhandler says, the media was more polite during perp walks than they are now. \"We all had the same lenses those days, and everybody would stand 8 or 10 feet back, and nobody was pushing or shoving.\"",
"Some photographers have found creative ways around these limitations. Louie Liotta of The New York Post told John Tierney he holds his camera near the ground, pointing upward, and walks with it for a short distance, in order to get a shot of the defendant's face as he or she is ducking downwards to avoid the cameras. Andrew Savulich of the Daily News looks for unusual angles and juxtapositions, once putting the station house's sleeping cat in the foreground",
". To catch the defendant's face, he stands near the front door at the top of the steps. \"For some reason, even when a guy has decided to duck his head, he usually lifts it for a second when he starts to go down steps\", he explains. \"You sometimes catch this lost-in-space look, the eyes fixed at a distance, as if he's trying very hard to be somewhere else",
".\" Jim Estrin of the Times says the police officers at the door sometimes block that shot for him, so he starts in the middle, shooting as he runs, and then gets on the other side of the police car for a shot as the defendant enters.",
"Purpose",
"The perp walk has been described as primarily serving the interests of the police and the media rather than the defendant or justice. \"Cynics might call the perp walk the crime reporter's red carpet\", says crime reporter Art Miller. \"Police and prosecutors get to show off their trophy",
". \"Police and prosecutors get to show off their trophy. [We] lap it up because that's all we know we're going to get\" since so many other aspects of the criminal justice system prior to trial take place out of public view, and even trials themselves may not always be televised or even photographed. \"Those 30 seconds of a perp walk are the lifeblood to the TV news. Between that and the mug shot that is often all you got as visuals to tell a crime story",
". Between that and the mug shot that is often all you got as visuals to tell a crime story.\" Retired NYPD detective Nicholas Casale likens it to a service: \"It promotes the arrest, it allows the defendant an opportunity to make a statement to the press, and it's centralized\".",
"Prosecutors say it sends a message that no one is above the law, and the likelihood of being perp-walked after arrest deters criminal behavior on the part of offenders, especially white-collar criminals, who might otherwise believe they could successfully avoid conviction. Mary Jo White, former United States Attorney for the Southern District of New York, the federal prosecutor's office that handles most crimes committed in the financial sector, believes perp walks in such cases restore investor confidence",
". Police say that the image of a suspect being taken into custody, when publicized, can encourage other witnesses to come forward with relevant information. Lastly, prosecutors may be trying to get an advantage in a bail hearing if they consider the defendant to be a flight risk, since it bolsters their case if the defendant apparently had to be arrested.",
"Outside of its tactical benefit to law enforcement, \"[i]t does perform some social functions\", says Tierney. \"A community shaken by an act of deviancy wants reassurance that moral order has been restored, and a perp walk accomplishes this much more quickly than the courts can. But, then, so does a lynching.\" He argues its real social value lies in shaming:",
"In a 2014 paper, Sandrine Boudana of Tel Aviv University agrees with Tierney's analysis in more academic terms, also evoking The Scarlet Letter, saying that the perp walk, like other shaming rituals, is \"the physical representation of the isolation of an individual, who is exposed ... to the gaze of an anonymous mass of others who, by their position of viewers, physically express that they (still) belong to one homogeneous group",
".\" Following the lead of psychology, she differentiates shame from guilt in that the former divides the self by forcing those shamed to see themselves through the eyes of others while guilt leaves the self unified. \"In the media ritual, this split is not imagined by the self but actually experienced.\"",
"\"Interestingly,\" Boudana suggests, \"in its performance, the perp walk reconciles Guy Debord and Michel Foucault's visions of modern society.\" In the 1970s, Foucault contrasted Debord's notions of the Spectacle as a key element of modern society with his own theories of the surveillance society, where the gaze is invisible",
". \"The perp walk altogether turns justice into a spectacle and puts its audience under surveillance with the media offering the transparency of a virtual panopticon: the threat of media shaming should deter one from perpetrating criminal acts.\"",
"Financier Martin Shkreli's perp walk after his 2015 arrest on securities fraud charges led to another motive being acknowledged, especially in cases where a defendant had a strongly negative public perception, as Shkreli had since he had come to the public's attention several months earlier after dramatically raising the price of a drug used by AIDS patients and responding to the criticism in a manner widely seen as arrogant and self-absorbed: Schadenfreude",
", or the malicious joy taken in the sufferings of others",
". Many users of the social media platforms where Shkreli had gained that reputation responded to the arrest with taunting posts that included pictures of a handcuffed Shkreli, clad in a grey hoodie, being escorted by FBI agents from the Eastern District federal courthouse in Brooklyn where he was arraigned to a car taking him to detention until he made bail.",
"\"Let's all look at the bad man in chains,\" Gawker exhorted readers, in the midst of pictures and tweets taunting Shkreli.\n\n\"Shkreli's arrest and perp walk meets everyone's criteria for a satisfying experience—excepting Shkreli himself, of course,\" Vocativ commented. The hashtag #Shkrelifreude trended on Twitter for several days afterwards.",
"Writing for a panel of the Second Circuit Court of Appeals, federal judge Guido Calabresi found the perp walk serves the interests of both law enforcement and media. \"[It] both publicizes the police's crime-fighting efforts and provides the press with a dramatic illustration to accompany stories about the arrest\". He nevertheless held that perp walks that did not arise naturally from the transport of arrestees but rather were staged purely for media purposes violated the Fourth Amendment.",
"In a later Second Circuit decision upholding the general constitutionality of perp walks, Judge Fred I. Parker agreed that perp walks were primarily driven by media interest. \"Whether the accused wrongdoer is wearing a sweatshirt over his head or an Armani suit on his back, we suspect that perp walks are broadcast by networks and reprinted in newspapers at least in part for their entertainment value.\" But he found them to serve a legitimate state interest as well:\n\nHistory",
"History \n\nPerp walks have historical antecedents in public spectacles around the administration of justice throughout history. Within the United States, again particularly in New York City, the process has evolved over time and through some celebrated instances.\n\nMedieval Europe",
"Medieval Europe\n\nIn medieval Europe, the end of the judicial process, often an execution, was often its most public, and sometimes the only public, aspect. French philosopher Michel Foucault wrote in Discipline and Punish, his influential history of the evolution of criminal justice over the course of the Enlightenment:",
"At that point, \"[i]t was the task of the guilty man to bear openly his condemnation and the truth of the crime he had committed.\" Convicts wore placards summing up their offense, and on the way to the gallows were stopped at churches to make an amende honorable, a ceremonial plea for forgiveness. The executions themselves were long, almost theatrical spectacles, such as the 1757 drawing and quartering of Robert-François Damiens for his attempted assassination of King Louis XV",
". A detailed account of that procedure, the last execution by that method in French history, opens Foucault's book.",
"In medieval England as well, those convicted of high treason were paraded through the streets in an open wagon to their executions. Originally they had been dragged by horses, but some arrived almost dead from that treatment, unable to live through the hanging, castration, disemboweling and drawing and quartering that followed. While being transported, they were often pelted with objects thrown at them by onlookers",
". While being transported, they were often pelted with objects thrown at them by onlookers. \"This was a symbolic process that led the criminal to oblivion,\" observed Charles Spencer in Killers of the King, his 2014 account of the regicides of Charles I, many of whom were executed this way. \"The drawing through the streets provided a final, degrading journey from the living world.\"",
"In the 19th century, as penal-reform efforts began to succeed, imprisonment began to replace execution as the preferred punishment for egregious crimes, since it offered the possibility of the convict's eventual repentance. The spectacles surrounding execution became more restrained, even when those were held in public. By the middle of the century larger cities were establishing police departments, professionalizing the prevention and investigation of crime.\n\n1890s–1960s: The early years",
"In the United States, the perp walks dates back more than a century, to when cameras' shutter speed became fast enough to allow photography of a small group of individuals walking. It is believed to have been done even prior to Theodore Roosevelt's tenure as New York City police commissioner in the 1890s. The city's newspaper photographers soon ritualized it. J",
". The city's newspaper photographers soon ritualized it. J. Edgar Hoover, the first director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), made sure the press could witness his agents bringing accused gangsters Alvin Karpis and Harry Campbell to justice.",
"One of the earliest precursors of the perp walk, before the term came into use, occurred in 1903. NYPD inspector George W",
". NYPD inspector George W. McClusky had arrested the principal members of the Morello crime family, one of the earliest dominant Mafia groups in the city, following the discovery of a mutilated, dismembered corpse later identified as a Morello associate from Buffalo in a barrel outside a Little Italy apartment house, the most notorious of the city's organized crime-related Barrel Murders around the turn of the 20th century",
". After they had been in lockup for a night, McClusky had the cuffed suspects marched through the streets of Little Italy, in full view of their fellow Italian immigrants, from police headquarters to the nearby Third Judicial District Courthouse for arraignment, claiming that the paddy wagons in which this would normally be done had not arrived as scheduled.",
"American Mafia historian Thomas Reppetto not only likens this to present-day perp walks but sees further historical precedents. Italian police of the era sometimes paraded arrested mafiosi before their communities as well, \"dramatizing their powerlessness.\" Before them, the ancient Romans had done the same with prisoners of war.",
"Many of the immigrants watching the chained Morellos being walked past them were, The New York Times reported, believed to be supporting them. The police eventually had to disperse them when they feared an attempt was underway to free them from custody. \"The papers liked such stories,\" Repetto wrote, \"and so did the police. Portraying the Mafia as an all-powerful organization made their occasional victories seem all the more impressive.\"",
"ABC News reporter John Miller, who has also worked as a press secretary for law enforcement agencies, has identified three distinct stages in the evolution of the perp walk. Until the 1940s, suspects were paraded before reporters across a stage in the basement of police headquarters. The reporters decided if any would make a good story. After that period, reporters were assigned to individual station houses, and watched as suspects were booked and fingerprinted",
". They often were allowed to talk to them, and if any were deemed worthy of coverage a photo opportunity was usually provided. Bank robber Willie Sutton's legendary response (which he denied ever having made) of \"Because that's where the money is\" to a question about why he robbed banks, was said to have been uttered during a perp walk held in this fashion",
". A variant of the perp walk from this era, now no longer practiced, was the \"confession shot\" in which the defendant would be photographed signing or reviewing his written statement admitting to the crime.",
"This era ended with the 1962 Borough Park Tobacco warehouse robbery in Brooklyn. Two detectives were killed; the first double homicide of NYPD officers in 30 years led to a massive manhunt. One of the accused robbers, Tony Dellernia, surrendered in Chicago. Upon his extradition to New York, he was perp-walked. Some photographers complained to the police at the Brooklyn precinct house where he was being held that they had missed it",
". Albert Seedman, a high-ranking detective, not only restaged it for reporters three hours after the original walk, he held up Dellernia's head so it would be visible. The defendant's pained expression, next to Seedman with a cigar stub in his mouth, \"stretching the suspect's face as if it were pizza dough\", as the New York Times put it years later, was captured in the photographs, leading to public outrage",
". Seedman, who later became the department's chief detective, knew he would regret it, and was later reprimanded. Another, Jerry Rosenberg, also surrendered. \"He is the killer,\" Ray Martin, the detective in charge, told the press during the perp walk, \"and he is going to burn for it.\" After his conviction, Rosenberg sued the city and Martin for that and alleged police brutality during his arrest",
". Representing himself, the beginning of his career as a jailhouse lawyer, Rosenberg won a small verdict against Martin in district court that was later reversed on appeal.",
"The next year a perp walk ended with the defendant's death. After the assassination of President John F. Kennedy, Lee Harvey Oswald, suspected of the crime and the related killing of a Dallas police officer, was frequently taken before the media, whose questions he sometimes answered, at the police station where he had been arrested. During the perp walk for his transfer to the county jail, he was fatally shot on live television by Jack Ruby, a civilian who was a frequent visitor to the police station",
". As a result of that, security would be tightened on future perp walks to prevent similar killings.",
"1960s–1980s: The televised perp walk",
"In New York, the rise of television news later in that decade led to other changes. Reporters came with camera crews, which could no longer be accommodated inside precinct houses. In 1969 a group of journalists, judges and police officers drew up guidelines for perp walks after a conference. \"Law enforcement and court personnel should not prevent the photographing of defendants when they are in public places outside the courtroom\", they read",
". \"They should neither encourage nor discourage pictures or televising, but they should not pose the accused.\" A few years later they were formally adopted by the NYPD.",
"Later that decade, in 1977, an amused-looking David Berkowitz, the \"Son of Sam\" serial killer, was paraded in front of a large group of media after his arrest, a spectacle that calmed a city his murders had left on edge. Three years later, following Mark David Chapman's arrest after he killed John Lennon, police took precautions against the sort of revenge killing that had happened to Oswald.\n\n1980s–1990s: White-collar perp walks",
"In the 1980s, white-collar criminals began to be perp-walked as well, as federal prosecutors saw the public-relations value of the practice. During his tenure as United States Attorney for the Southern District of New York, Rudolph Giuliani often had Wall Street investment bankers perp-walked",
". Defendants such as Richard Wigton, a Kidder Peabody trader accused of insider trading, were arrested at their place of business and walked off a trading floor in handcuffs with a uniformed police escort, as Charlie Sheen's character Bud Fox is in Oliver Stone's 1987 film Wall Street. \"Rudy Giuliani made an art form out of [the perp walk]\", says Loyola Law School professor Laurie Levenson. Former Manhattan district attorney Robert Morgenthau agrees, calling Giuliani \"the master of the perp walk\".",
"At the same time, the term \"perp walk\" became common usage for the practice. New York Times language columnist William Safire found 1986 to be its earliest use in the media. His colleague John Tierney claims the term was in use among photographers and the police as early as the 1940s.",
"Major figures in organized crime had always been perp-walked when arrested. Later in the 1980s, one of these, John Gotti, head of the Mafia's Gambino family, \"took the perp walk to a whole new level\", according to Miller. He made his walks wearing the expensive custom-tailored suits that earned him the \"Dapper Don\" nickname. Reporters would politely ask him how he was doing as he walked. A Times freelancer once asked him the question in formal Italian: \"Buona sera, signore, come sta?\"",
". A Times freelancer once asked him the question in formal Italian: \"Buona sera, signore, come sta?\". Gotti responded in kind \"Bene, grazie\" and turned to the cameras and smiled, giving the photographers and television cameras the memorable image they had sought.",
"During the Whitewater investigation in the 1990s, Susan McDougal, held in contempt for refusing to testify before special prosecutor Kenneth Starr's grand jury, was perp-walked wearing leg irons and a waist chain as well as handcuffs, which she wore over an ensemble consisting of a jacket, white blouse, miniskirt, black stockings and high heels. Starr was criticized for what was seen as a gratuitous attempt to humiliate an uncooperative witness",
". He claimed his office had nothing to do with the level of restraint she wore, and the marshals' service said that was standard for all prisoners in transit. In 1995 Oklahoma City bomber Timothy McVeigh, already in Oklahoma Highway Patrol custody for a firearms violation, was paraded before television cameras by the FBI nearly three hours before he was officially arrested for the bombing",
". His lawyers later asked to have eyewitness identifications of him excluded from evidence, on the grounds that they were all based on the widely televised perp walk and none of the witness had been asked to pick him out of a lineup.",
"1990s–present: Legal challenges and resumption",
"Some of the NYPD's own officers were subjected to a notable perp walk in 1994. After a wide-ranging investigation found extensive corruption at the 30th Precinct in Harlem, a large group of officers were arrested in uniform and led out in handcuffs before the media. William Bratton, then the city's new police commissioner was present, holding a news conference to announce the arrests. He removed the officers' badges, with the cameras rolling, and threw them in the garbage.",
"In the late 1990s, the NYPD stopped doing perp walks when one led to a lawsuit. John Lauro, doorman at an Upper East Side apartment building, was arrested on theft charges in 1995. After his original perp walk, the detective, Michael Charles, did another one three hours later so a local television news crew could film the event",
". The charges were later dropped, and he filed a Section 1983 suit against Charles, the police and the city in federal court, arguing that the perp walk was an unreasonable seizure of his person that thus violated his Fourth Amendment rights. The judge agreed the perp walk violated the Fourth Amendment. On appeal that judgement was limited strictly to perp walks staged for the media.",
"At the same time, another suit challenged the constitutionality of perp walks per se. In 1999, the government of Westchester County, the suburban area directly to the north of New York City, had several of its correctional officers arrested for filing falsified injury claims. They were videotaped by county employees immediately after their arrest at government offices, then taken to be arraigned in a local court where county executive Andrew Spano gave a news conference on the arrests",
". It culminated with the defendants being perp-walked before the media present. The district court, relying on the Lauro case as precedent, found the perp walk constitutional since it was necessary for law enforcement to take the defendants to court for arraignment, a decision again upheld on appeal.",
"Perp walks resumed, with many corporate executives charged in the scandals of the early 2000s, such as Andrew Fastow and John Rigas, subjected to them. In 2003, former U.S. ambassador to Iraq Joseph C",
". In 2003, former U.S. ambassador to Iraq Joseph C. Wilson evoked the perp walk, and provided another term for it, when accusing a senior Bush Administration official of leaking the name of his wife, Valerie a spy, to the media as retaliation for a New York Times op-ed in which he had cast doubt on key aspects of the administration's claims in support of the Iraq War: \"It's of keen interest to me to see whether or not we can get Karl Rove frog-marched out of the White House in handcuffs",
".\" Liberal critics of the administration created images of that occurring; in 2008 a Code Pink protester in San Francisco attempted to make a citizen's arrest of Rove, who had by then left the government.",
"Back in Iraq, deposed dictator Saddam Hussein made what an American photographer present called \"the ultimate perp walk\", in restraints, escorted by two Iraqi security personnel, with a media presence, to the start of his trial in 2004. \"I felt his anger at my camera, at me,\" Karen Ballard recalled, \"and actually thought he might spit on me. He didn't know exactly what was about to happen and, suddenly, the formerly fierce dictator seemed small and disheveled",
".\" To her, and other observers, it symbolized the end of his reign and the beginning of hopes for a more democratic Iraq.",
"In the first years of the next decade, two prominent foreign citizens were perp-walked by American law enforcement agencies. Viktor Bout, a Russian long wanted by the U.S. and other governments for arms smuggling, was arrested in Thailand and taken past waiting media by federal Drug Enforcement Administration agents upon his extradition in 2010",
". The next year, Dominique Strauss-Kahn, then director of the International Monetary Fund and considered a leading candidate to challenge Nicolas Sarkozy in the 2012 French presidential election, was arrested and charged with the attempted rape of a hotel housekeeper. French journalists covering the incident in New York were stunned into silence when a handcuffed Strauss-Kahn was brought by them",
". In France, where it is illegal to publish pictures of an identifiable person in handcuffs or police custody unless they have been convicted, the images sparked considerable public outrage.",
"Two months later, criticism of the perp walk resumed when Strauss-Kahn's bail terms were reduced from house arrest to his own recognizance after the office of Manhattan district attorney Cyrus Vance, Jr. found the housekeeper had been dishonest with them about other aspects of her story than the attack. Mayor Michael Bloomberg, who had earlier defended the perp walk, criticized it as \"outrageous\". City Councilman David G. Greenfield introduced legislation that would ban perp walks",
". City Councilman David G. Greenfield introduced legislation that would ban perp walks. \"I honestly believe it's unconstitutional,\" he said. \"If we banned it here we could send a message to the country.\" Police Commissioner Raymond Kelly said the media was to blame, not his department. \"If they make a decision to stake out a location when someone is walked out of the front of a precinct ... it's not a decision that the Police Department makes\", he said",
"... it's not a decision that the Police Department makes\", he said. \"We have been walking prisoners out of the front doors of stationhouses for 150 years in the Police Department ... This is how we transport people to court ... I don't think the genie's ever gonna be put back inside the bottle. That's the way it is.\" The legislation was seen as unlikely to pass.",
"Legality",
"In the 1931 Near v. Minnesota decision, the United States Supreme Court held that laws limiting what could be published, called prior restraint, infringed on the freedom of the press guaranteed by the First Amendment to the Constitution. \"The fact that the liberty of the press may be abused by miscreant purveyors of scandal\", wrote Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes, \"does not make any the less necessary the immunity of the press from previous restraint",
".\" Later the Court would allow a limited exception for national security purposes, in the Pentagon Papers case, New York Times Co. v. United States.",
"In the early 1980s a series of cases established the right of the press to cover all aspects of criminal proceedings in court. The first, Richmond Newspapers v. Virginia, held that the right to be informed about government action was specifically protected by the Constitution",
". Judges may still close criminal court proceedings to the media if they believe that coverage would create a \"substantial probability\" of denying the defendant his or her right to a fair trial, but must state their reasons for doing so on the record.",
"With this underlying law, no defendant had challenged the constitutionality of the perp walk prior to John Lauro. Despite criticisms that it undermined the presumption of innocence, defendants who had been convicted or pleaded guilty never claimed their rights had been violated by the perp walk, and could not claim injury to reputation from it. Lauro, who had been perp-walked only to have the charges later dropped, was the first claimant to have standing.\n\nLauro v. Charles",
"In 1995 Lauro, doorman at a small Upper East Side apartment building, was arrested on burglary charges after a resident sent video from a hidden camera to police that apparently showed Lauro stealing from his apartment while on vacation. After his arrest the detectives were told he should be taken on a perp walk for cameras from a local TV station, to which the tenant had licensed his surveillance video",
". He was taken, in handcuffs, out to a police car, driven around the block and walked back into the building.",
"While the video showed Lauro looking through the tenant's drawers and closets, it did not show him taking anything. On further investigation the tenant, who had allowed Lauro to enter his apartment during his vacation to water plants and deliver mail, could not identify any missing items in the areas Lauro had looked through. The charges were reduced to attempted petit larceny, a misdemeanor, and adjourned in contemplation of dismissal. Lauro, who had been fired, was unable to get his job back.",
"Lauro filed a Section 1983 lawsuit against the city, the police department and Detective Michael Charles in federal court for the Southern District of New York. He alleged the arrest and perp walk violated his rights under the Fourth, Sixth, Eighth and Fourteenth amendments. Judge Allen G. Schwartz held in 1999 that the arrest was lawful but the perp walk was not.",
"\"The perp walk conducted with plaintiff\", Schwartz wrote, \"was a seizure that intruded on plaintiff's privacy interests and personal rights, and was conducted in a manner designed to cause humiliation to plaintiff with no legitimate law enforcement objective or justification.\" He found it even more humiliating than the police stops approved by the Supreme Court in Terry v. Ohio",
". Ohio. \"In addition to the indignity of the walk itself is the fact that the police were aware that the walk was to be featured on the Fox 5 News and exposed to the entire New York metropolitan area. All this in a nation where an accused is presumed to be innocent until proven otherwise.\"",
"He ruled that Charles was not entitled to qualified immunity for his actions since Ayeni v. Mottola, a previous decision of the Second Circuit Court of Appeals, which has appellate jurisdiction over New York, held that unnecessary media exposure by law enforcement was unconstitutional. Charles appealed to the Second Circuit himself, arguing that no court had held the perp walk unconstitutional",
". The next year, 2000, a panel of three judges agreed and reversed the district court, while still finding a constitutional violation.",
"Charles relied on two precedents, the Supreme Court's Paul v. Davis and the Second Circuit's own Rosenberg v. Martin, Jerry Rosenberg's case, to support his argument that the injury to Lauro's reputation did not in itself deprive him of his constitutional rights. Writing for the panel, Guido Calabresi, former dean of Yale Law School, rejected those two arguments since in neither case had the plaintiffs asserted a Fourth Amendment violation, as Lauro had",
". He turned to the perp walk itself, which he agreed seemed to be a question of first impression.",
"He looked to Ayeni and Wilson v. Layne, decided by the Supreme Court the year before, as precedents. In the latter case the Court had unanimously held it was unconstitutional for reporters to accompany federal marshals executing an arrest warrant in a private residence since their presence served no valid law enforcement purpose",
". Since the two cases involved private homes with a reasonable expectation of privacy, he distinguished Lauro's by noting the perp walk had occurred on a public street and sidewalk in front of the police station.",
"Instead, what rendered Lauro's perp walk a violation of his rights was that it had been staged. \"Even assuming that there is a legitimate state interest in accurate reporting of police activity,\" Calabresi wrote, \"that interest is not well served by an inherently fictional dramatization of an event that transpired hours earlier",
".\" He declined to rule on the constitutionality of perp walks as a general issue since that question was not before the court, and held that Charles indeed had qualified immunity because the facts of Ayeni were not sufficiently identical with Lauro's case to consider it settled law as of 1995.",
"Caldorola v. County of Westchester",
"As the district court was getting ready to rule on Lauro's case, another challenge to the perp walk was beginning. In 1998 the Department of Corrections in Westchester County just north of New York City began investigating whether several of its corrections officers were falsely claiming disability benefits. Video surveillance found four were seemingly more active than their claimed disabilities would allow, and a fifth was living outside the state in violation of a residency requirement.",
"They were charged with third-degree grand larceny, a felony, and arrested at DOC offices. County employees videotaped them being led, handcuffed, to vehicles after their arrest. At a press conference that afternoon, County Executive Andrew Spano announced the arrests and showed the surveillance video. He told the reporters the defendants were being arraigned at a nearby municipal court, and the defendants were made to wait until the media could film them being led into the courthouse.",
"They filed suit in the Southern District, alleging that the maximized media exposure of their perp walk violated their Fourth Amendment rights even though it had not been staged as Lauro's had. In 2001 Judge Colleen McMahon ruled for the county",
". In 2001 Judge Colleen McMahon ruled for the county. Videotaping the defendants under arrest on county property did not violate their privacy, since \"[t]he fact that a person can be found in a particular place at a particular time does not give rise to some possessory interest, and it would be unreasonable to conclude otherwise.\" In fact, she wrote, \"[p]laintiffs have not identified any possessory interest they had in not being videotaped, and this [c]ourt can think of none",
".\" On the other hand, the county could have had many reasons for videotaping the defendants, such as protecting itself from later accusations of abuse or other improper conduct.",
"McMahon agreed with the plaintiffs that the arrests were \"choreographed\", but distinguished their perp walks from Lauro's: \"[T]he footage shot in this case was 'reality television' (albeit with scripted stage directions). Plaintiffs were actually being transported for arrest processing, so what was filmed was legitimate law enforcement activity—not a wholly fictitious event.\" In conclusion, she went further than the appeals court had in Lauro.",
"On appeal, a panel composed of judges Fred I. Parker, Dennis Jacobs (now the Second Circuit's chief judge), and Sonia Sotomayor (later elevated to the Supreme Court) affirmed the district court. For the panel, Parker elaborated on the defendants' minimal expectation of privacy on the property where they were arrested, saying it was irrelevant that the media were not generally allowed there: \"DOC employees ..",
"... are generally aware that it is their employer's prerogative, not their own, to decide who may have access to DOC grounds ... [They] could have no reasonable expectation that other County employees would be excluded from access to DOC property merely because [they] had been arrested.\" His opinion otherwise echoed McMahon's, and reaffirmed Lauro's distinction between residential and public spaces where privacy interests are at stake.",
"Reactions\n\nThe perp walk has been both criticized and defended by lawyers, journalists, politicians and the general public, both inside and outside the United States.\n\nLegal\n\nIn a footnote to his decision in the Lauro case, Judge Schwartz made his distaste for all perp walks clear.",
"Critics have also said it is detrimental to the presumption of innocence. \"It's a way for the police to try their case in the press and to get the intimation of guilt by virtue of an arrest,\" says New York Civil Liberties Union director Donna Lieberman. \"The question is, does it poison the right to a fair trial? And that depends on each case",
". \"The question is, does it poison the right to a fair trial? And that depends on each case.\" Nat Hentoff of the Village Voice observed that \"[u]nder such circumstances, even Mother Teresa would look extremely suspicious, especially if her hands were cuffed behind her back",
".\" Acknowledging a common response to such criticisms, that no arrested defendant is spared the perp walk, law professor Patricia Williams says \"the perp walk is a social equalizer all right, but not in a good way\" since the United States leads the world in incarceration rates. \"[It] is hardly the greatest icon of equal rights\".",
"The case of Richard Wigton has been cited as an example of the destructive effects of a perp walk. At the behest of Rudolph Giuliani, then U.S. Attorney for the Southern District of New York, Wigton, then head of risk arbitrage at now-defunct Kidder Peabody was arrested at his office on insider trading charges in 1987. He sobbed openly as he was walked in handcuffs past his coworkers",
". He sobbed openly as he was walked in handcuffs past his coworkers. Three months later the charges against him and an associate were dropped, supposedly to seek an expanded indictment that never came. Giuliani's successor closed the investigation, by which time Wigton had been forced into retirement. Shortly before his death in 2007, Wigton said that he was a \"victim of Giuliani's ambition.\"",
"Legal criticism of the perp walk is not limited to the defense bar. Charles Hynes, former district attorney for New York City's borough of Brooklyn, opposed perp walks and refused to have those his office prosecuted subjected to them",
". In her novel Final Jeopardy, Linda Fairstein, former head of the Manhattan district attorney's sex crimes unit, has her main character, prosecutor Alexandra Cooper, ask a detective to hold off on the perp walk until all the victims have had the chance to pick the defendant out of a police lineup, since defense lawyers were often able to exclude such identifications made after the perp walk had been broadcast.",
"Journalistic",
"Some journalists have criticized the behavior of their colleagues covering perp walks. Stephen Stock, investigative reporter for WFOR-TV in Miami, argues that \"showing this 'walk' in such circumstances is exploitative\" and might be viewed as \"knocking someone down a peg,\" if they were already well-known. \"Perp walks are often the very first 'money shots' of a high-profile crime case,\" says Lori Waldon, news director for Milwaukee station WISN. \"Those first images are important when the story breaks",
". \"Those first images are important when the story breaks. But we also know that the perp walk often looks and feels like a circus. Unfortunately, those images often portray journalists at their worst.\"",
"In particular, Waldon criticizes reporters asking questions like \"'Did you kill your wife?'\" \"It's those silly questions that elevate a perp walk to a circus. That's the stuff of a Saturday Night Live skit. I think any question that's insulting, presumptuous or bullying is totally off limits.\" Crime reporter Art Harris suggests that such questions are not designed to elicit real answers: \"Usually you get no response",
". The journalists who shout probably know they are not going to get an answer but the reporter gets the voice on tape and his boss says, 'Hey, hey he is out there doing his job.'\"",
"The images are often broadcast in slow motion. \"Everyone looks guilty when they're slo-mo'ed\" says Waldon. She is particularly critical of the reuse of the perp walk repeatedly throughout coverage of the case, suggesting that \"Those images become caricatures.\" Boudana focuses on the images of the perp walk in the media, rather than the information they convey, as damaging the presumption of innocence",
". \"[They] do not only identify the suspect; they stage the 'being a suspect', that is, they offer a performance that frames our attention.\"",
"Edward Wasserman, a journalist and later journalistic ethics professor, observed that \"U.S. practices are rooted in an adversarial principle—that the criminal-justice system, like any governmental function, needs to be watched carefully and held accountable publicly by a skeptical watchdog press ..",
"... Yet with criminal suspects, the media routinely operate not as a check on the prosecutorial state but as its servant, and unwittingly mete out punishments that are less deliberate, less proportionate, less deserved, and far less accountable than those pronounced by judges.\"",
"Strauss-Kahn case\nIn 2011 detectives from the New York City Police Department's Special Victims Unit walked a handcuffed Dominique Strauss-Kahn past waiting reporters on the way to his arraignment on charges of sexually assaulting a hotel housekeeper. His case drew significant attention since he was, at the time, director of the International Monetary Fund and considered a leading candidate to challenge Nicolas Sarkozy in the 2012 French presidential election. The charges were later dismissed.",
"The police department's handling of the Strauss-Kahn case was heavily criticized in his native France. Élisabeth Guigou, who as French minister of justice in 2000 had lobbied successfully for the passage of a law that forbids the publication of any images of an identifiable defendant in handcuffs who has not yet been convicted, criticized the walk, stating: \"I found that image to be incredibly brutal, violent and cruel ... I don't see what the publication of images of this type adds",
"... I don't see what the publication of images of this type adds.\" Another former member of the French cabinet, Jack Lang, Minister of Culture in the early 1980s, likened the perp walk to a lynching. French Senator Jean-Pierre Chevènement, a longtime acquaintance of Strauss-Kahn's, wrote on his blog that \"The heart can only contract before these humiliating and poignant images ..",
"... A horrible global lynching! And what if it were all a monstrous injustice?\" The French newspaper Le Monde editorialized: \"When one of the world's most powerful men is turned over to press photos, coming out of a police station handcuffed, hands behind his back, he is already being subjected to a sentence which is specific to him ..",
"... Is it necessary that a man's fame deprive him of his presumption of innocence in the media? Because if they must assuredly be equal before the justice system, all men are not equal before the press.\"",
"The Conseil supérieur de l'audiovisuel (CSA), the agency of the French government which oversees broadcast media, reminded television stations there that it was still illegal to broadcast footage of the perp walk, as some did, even though it took place overseas. Violators could face a fine as high as €15,000; but the CSA said it would leave it to Strauss-Kahn to pursue complaints",
". French journalists such as Olivier Ravanello, deputy managing editor at i-Télé, stated that the law was inapplicable to criminal proceedings in foreign countries, stating that \"We can't cover the DSK story like a French story for the simple reason it is happening in the U.S. The images we saw are brutal indeed, but that's because of the nature of the U.S. judiciary.\"",
"Not all French observers reacted negatively. Eva Joly, who as a magistrate brought corruption charges against Strauss-Kahn (of which he was later acquitted) and was herself expected to run for the French presidency on the Europe Écologie-The Greens line, agreed that the images were \"very violent\" but noted that the American system \"doesn't distinguish between the director of the I.M.F. and any other suspect",
".M.F. and any other suspect. It's the idea of equal rights\" and pointed out that while American prosecutors always have to convince a jury of the defendant's guilt, their French counterparts must only do so in the most serious cases.",
"New York City mayor Michael Bloomberg agreed it was humiliating, but defended the practice, stating: \"If you don't want to do the perp walk, don't do the crime. I don't have a lot of sympathy for that.\" New York novelist Jay McInerney observed, \"The mayor seems to have forgotten about the presumption of innocence, but his statement probably reflects the attitude of his constituents pretty accurately. New York's a tough place. Deal with it",
". New York's a tough place. Deal with it.\" Seven weeks later, when doubts about the accuser's credibility made it unlikely the case would be tried, Bloomberg reversed position, stating: \"I've always thought perp walks were outrageous ... [W]e vilify them for the benefit of theater, for the circus. You know they did it in Roman times, too.\"",
"American-born British journalist Janet Daley remarked that the uproar in the French media over Strauss-Kahn's treatment missed the point about America's robustly open society: \"The U.S. does not like secrets. Its political culture takes as a basic premise that nothing should take place out of the public view except the most critical life-or-death security matters ... And it certainly has no privacy law of the kind that has protected the great and powerful in France for generations.\"",
"A paper by Israeli researcher Sandrine Boudana two years later analyzed responses to the Strauss-Kahn perp walk in French and American print media within the context of the countries' respective cultures. While the predominant theme was French media condemning the practice and American media defending it, commentators on both sides took the occasion to reflect inwardly",
". Some American writers said the French had a point, and French writers in turn noted the difficulty of enforcing the Guigou law in an era where technology cannot prevent the images it forbids from being viewed in France when published overseas. Others noted that the incident also showed the pitfalls of the French media's practice of not reporting on the private lives of politicians, noting that rape allegations had been raised earlier about Strauss-Kahn on a French talk show with no media followup.",
"Responses and defenses\nJohn Tierney says that without the perp walk, reporters \"would start buying old snapshots and home videos from disgruntled relatives and neighbors\" and use them to depict the defendant, and those images might be more invasive and prejudicial. Some broader social benefits have been suggested, in particular transparency. The perp walk allows the police to demonstrate that they did not physically abuse the defendant upon arrest or during the subsequent interrogation.",
"New York City Major Michael Bloomberg stated that \"Our judicial system works where the public can see the alleged perpetrators.\" Art Miller dismisses concerns that the perp walk prejudices the jury pool: \"This is not Napoleonic justice where the judge is the fact finder, prosecutor and jury. Here the people will decide ultimately. And no matter who you are, if you have been arrested for something, it is understood you are going to be subject to all the scrutiny the press is going to give you",
".\" Israeli researcher Boudana admits that, on a purely informational level, the perp walk itself is harmless. \"Indeed, from the moment when the press releases the names of suspects and the motive for their arrest, the persons are identifiable and their presumption of innocence seems to be already compromised,\" she observes. In a Slate on public shaming as punishment, Emily Bazelon wrote that Americans have become too accustomed to perp walks for them to have any stigmatizing effect",
". \"[It's] become part of the wallpaper of the American criminal justice system,\" she wrote.",
"Her description of the American perp walk as a \"circus\" notwithstanding, Lisa Taylor is opposed to remedies like France's Guigou Law which forbid such photos from being published. \"People who have been treated unfairly should have civil remedies, but to be that prescriptive to put a blanket on coverage, this freedom of expression proponent is nervous about a prohibition of photographing and publishing anything.\" Al Tompkins of the Poynter Institute says the remedy for the perp walk's effect is to:",
"In other countries\n\nIn Canada, reporters are similarly allowed to witness defendants being brought to court in restraints, and photograph it. However, Toronto Metropolitan University journalism professor Lisa Taylor says that such activities, were they undertaken deliberately to shame or humiliate a defendant, could lead to \"a legal claim for abuse of legal process\". This, she explains, helps avoid \"the deliberate or circus atmosphere that so often surrounds high-profile arrests in the States.\"",
"Policies elsewhere in the world vary. In Britain and France defendants are brought to court in vans with blacked-out windows. In some other European countries the accused's name may not be published, or the media decline to, in order to make it easier for an offender to resume normal life after conviction",
". Edward Wasserman speculates that criticism of European criminal-justice systems in light of a perceived rise in crime stemming from immigration, and the availability of suppressed or unreported information online, may lead to a greater openness there. \"The next U.S. export to join Starbucks and iPads in the Old World may yet be the perp walk.\"",
"Similar practices, some involving greater exposure and potential incrimination of the defendant, exist outside Europe and North America. Police in some Latin American countries have those arrested confess to the crime before the cameras. In Mexico, the equivalent practice is called a presentacion (Spanish for \"introduction\"). Defendants suspected of involvement in the drug trade are posed for pictures surrounded by weapons, cash, and drugs, clothed in whatever they were wearing when arrested",
". Presentaciones have drawn criticisms similar to those directed at the perp walk.",
"In some Asian countries an arrested suspect is also exposed to the media. Police in Japan and South Korea often invite the media to re-enactments of crimes staged by the accused, a practice common in Thailand as well. In 2010, South Korean police had a man suspected of raping a child re-enact the crime at the scene, with not only the media but angry, jeering neighbors looking on",
". Prosecutors there also frequently parade white-collar suspects before the media, although even convicted felons can bring cases against them for an offense against honor. China, where images of chained suspects have often been broadcast to deter crime, ended in 2010 a long practice of forcing suspected prostitutes to walk in \"shame parades\" through the streets, after public outrage.",
"In 2011, police and other security forces in Iraq began making similar displays of suspected insurgents and other criminals. Two defendants were taken to crime scenes to recount their role in a massacre to assembled media, while alleged members of a gang of robbers were posed behind tables stacked with the goods they had supposedly stolen",
". In one instance that officials later admitted they lost control of, suspected terrorists were led into an auditorium where the acting Minister of the Interior attempted to detail their crimes before not only the media but an audience of the family members of the victims. He was unable to finish as members of the latter group interrupted him with calls for the defendants' execution and shoeing attempts. These practices increased after U.S. troops left Iraq",
". These practices increased after U.S. troops left Iraq. When the government announced an arrest warrant against former deputy prime minister Tariq al-Hashimi, who had fled to the Kurdish-controlled regions of the country, it broadcast the confessions of three of his bodyguards to support charges that he had ordered the assassinations of rivals. This, and the other public displays of accused criminals, was criticized by foreign observers and some Iraqi officials",
". \"It is a crime to put this on television\" said one of the latter. \"It is a shame, and it is a legacy of the former dictator.\" Security officials responded that they were trying to assure the Iraqi public that they were actively working to protect them and apprehend terrorists. \"If we say we caught the leader of Al Qaeda, who will believe it?\" said an Interior Ministry official. \"This is to show credibility. We are sure we are doing the right thing.\"",
"In the United Kingdom photographing or filming defendants on court premises is illegal under section 41 of the Criminal Justice Act 1925. and the Contempt of Court Act 1981. Former EDL leader Tommy Robinson was arrested for violating these statutes on May 10, 2017 when he tried to film suspected 'Muslim pedophiles' two days earlier.",
"In Italy in 1983, Enzo Tortora was subjected to a perp walk \"in the late morning, only after all the journalists had been duly warned and were able to film him with the handcuffs on his wrists, while he was taken to the Regina Coeli prison. The monster is served.\" Public indignation after the acquittal of Tortora, declared fully not guilty, led to the victory of the yes vote in the referendum to strengthen the civil liability of judges in Italy.",
"In El Salvador, during the 2022–23 Salvadoran gang crackdown, prisoners have been frog marched.\n\nSee also\n\nCrime in New York City\nMedia circus\nTrial by media\n Walk of shame\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n \n Constitutional Protections Against the Harm to Suspects in Custody Stemming from Perp Walks\n\nInformal legal terminology\nLaw enforcement in the United States\nWalking"
] |
Tetrabiblos
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrabiblos
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[
"Tetrabiblos () 'four books', also known in Greek as Apotelesmatiká () \"Effects\", and in Latin as Quadripartitum \"Four Parts\", is a text on the philosophy and practice of astrology, written in the 2nd century AD by the Alexandrian scholar Claudius Ptolemy ( AD 90– AD 168).",
"Ptolemy's Almagest was an authoritative text on astronomy for more than a thousand years, and the Tetrabiblos, its companion volume, was equally influential in astrology, the study of the effects of astronomical cycles on earthly matters. But whilst the Almagest as an astronomical authority was superseded by acceptance of the heliocentric model of the Solar System, the Tetrabiblos remains an important theoretical work for astrology.",
"Besides outlining the techniques of astrological practice, Ptolemy's philosophical defense of the subject as a natural, beneficial study helped secure theological tolerance towards astrology in Western Europe during the Medieval era. This allowed Ptolemaic teachings on astrology to be included in universities during the Renaissance, which brought an associated impact upon medical studies and literary works.",
"The historical importance of the Tetrabiblos is seen by the many ancient, Medieval and Renaissance commentaries that have been published about it. It was copied, commented on, paraphrased, abridged, and translated into many languages. The latest critical Greek edition, by Wolfgang Hübner, was published by Teubner in 1998.",
"Overview and influence",
"Ptolemy is referred to as \"the most famous of Greek astrologers\" and \"a pro-astrological authority of the highest magnitude\". As a source of reference his Tetrabiblos is described as having \"enjoyed almost the authority of a Bible among the astrological writers of a thousand years or more\". Compiled in Alexandria in the 2nd century, the work gathered commentaries about it from its first publication",
". It was translated into Arabic in the 9th century, and is described as \"by far the most influential source of medieval Islamic astrology\".",
"With the translation of the Tetrabiblos into Latin in the 12th century, \"Ptolemaic astrology\" became integrated by Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas into medieval Christian doctrine. This theological acceptance encouraged the teaching of Ptolemaic astrology in universities, often linked to medical studies. This, in turn, brought attention in literary works, such as Dante's, which helped shape the moral, religious and cosmological paradigm of Western Europe during the Medieval era",
". The Tetrabiblos was largely responsible for laying down the basic precepts of Renaissance astrology, and was a necessary textbook in some of the finest universities of Renaissance and early modern Europe.",
"Ptolemaic astrology continued to be taught at European universities into the 17th century, but by the mid-17th century the study struggled to maintain its position as one of the respected Liberal sciences. At this time, the contents of the Tetrabiblos started to draw stigmatisation as part of \"a diabolical art of divination\". One 17th-century critic was to write of its subject: \"no superstitious art is more fitted to forward the aims of the devil than the astrology of Ptolemy\".",
"The intellectual standing of astrology collapsed rapidly at the end of the 17th century, but the historical impact of the Tetrabiblos upon world culture continues to engage the attention of scholars of classical philosophy and the history of sciences in antiquity. It also maintains its position as an influential textbook for practitioners of modern western astrology, and English translations of the text were published by astrologers in the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries",
". The early 20th-century Humanist astrologer Dane Rudhyar reported that the astrology of his era \"originated almost entirely in the work of the Alexandrian astrologer, Claudius Ptolemy\". Even 21st-century astrological textbooks have described the Tetrabiblos as being \"without a doubt, indispensable for any serious student of astrology\".",
"The work's enduring significance is attributed to several factors: Ptolemy's reputation as one of the greatest philosophers and scientists of the ancient world, the text's astrological importance as one of the oldest complete manuals on that subject, and the unprecedented order and quality of Ptolemy's astrological explanations.",
"The \"outstanding mark of Ptolemy’s astrology\" is described as \"informed by the philosophical and scientific spirit of his age\". Ptolemy wrote at a time when \"physics\" was defined by philosophy, and his account of stellar effects was expressed in terms of the four Aristotelian qualities (hot, cold, wet, and dry) set against the philosophical notion of universal unity and cosmic harmony",
". His objective was to explain the rationale of astrology in such terms, so the work is also notable for its dismissal of astrological practices which lack a direct astronomical basis:",
"The book opens with an explanation of the philosophical framework of astrology which aims to answer the arguments of critics who questioned the subject's validity. Of this, Lynn Thorndike, in his History of Magic and Experimental Science, writes: \"Only the opponents of astrology appear to have remained ignorant of the Tetrabiblos, continuing to make criticisms of the art which do not apply to Ptolemy's presentation of it or which had been specifically answered by him\".",
"Ptolemy was not responsible for originating the astrological techniques he presented in the Tetrabiblos. His contribution was to arrange the material systematically, in order to demonstrate that astrology is based upon logical, hierarchical principles. Astrological influences are frequently referred to the meteorological effects of humoral shifts, which were presumed to result from celestial cycles bringing correlated changes in the heating, cooling, moistening, and drying effects of the atmosphere.",
"The historical importance and influence of the Tetrabiblos is attested by the many ancient, Medieval and Renaissance commentaries published about it, as well as the many translations and paraphrased editions that aim to reproduce its content in an accessible manner. The Greek text has undergone transmission into Arabic, Latin and many modern languages",
". The Greek text has undergone transmission into Arabic, Latin and many modern languages. The first English translation did not appear until the 18th century, but by the end of the 19th century the American astrologer Luke Broughton reported he had at least half a dozen different English translations in his possession.",
"Title and date of composition",
"The commonly known Greek and Latin titles (Tetrabiblos and Quadripartitum respectively), meaning 'four books', are traditional nicknames for a work which in some Greek manuscripts is entitled , 'Mathematical treatise in four books'. Frank Eggleston Robbins, editor of the Loeb English translation published in 1940, considered it likely that this was the title used by Ptolemy himself, although he acknowledged that many other Greek manuscripts use the title , 'The prognostics addressed to Syrus'",
". An ancient anonymous commentary on the work states that some considered the term Tetrabiblos to be a fictitious name.",
"Hübner, editor of the 1998 Teubner Greek edition, uses the title Apotelesmatiká (biblía), '(books on) effects', which has been followed by recent scholars. Alexander Jones, editor of the Springer publication Ptolemy in Perspective (2010), considers that Ptolemy's own title remains unknown, but agrees that the term Apotelesmatika is \"a credible guess\"",
". This term is variously translated to mean 'influences', 'effects' or 'prognostics'; reflecting the theme of work, which is concerned with gaining foreknowledge of the effects of predictable astronomical cycles.",
"There is no firmly established date for the compilation of the Tetrabiblos, but Ptolemy discloses in his 'Introductory Address' that he wrote his astrological treatise after completing his astronomical one: the Almagest",
". Evidence within the Almagest reveals that the astronomical work could not have been completed before about 145 AD, which demonstrates that Ptolemy wrote the Tetrabiblos towards the end of his life, sometime between completing the Almagest and his death, generally reported to be around 168 A.D.",
"Book I: principles and techniques\n\nOpening chapters",
"The text begins with Ptolemy's address to \"Syrus\", an unidentified character to whom all Ptolemy's works are dedicated. In this Ptolemy differentiates between two types of astronomical study: the first (astronomy proper) which discovers the astronomical cycles and movements; the second (astrology) which investigates the changes these movements bring about",
". He states that each has its own science and the former is desirable in its own right \"even though it does not attain the result given by its combination with the second\". This is taken to demonstrate Ptolemy's view that astronomy and astrology are complementary studies, so that whilst astrology is less self-sufficient and factual, its employment makes the practice of astronomy more useful",
". Although the terms astronomia and astrologia were used interchangeably in ancient texts, this also demonstrates the early definition of two differentiated subjects which were discussed at length by Ptolemy in two separate works.",
"Ptolemy states that having dealt with the former subject (astronomy) in its own treatise, he \"shall now give an account of the second and less self-sufficient method in a properly philosophical way, so that one whose aim is the truth might never compare its perceptions with the sureness of the first\"",
". In this, and further introductory remarks, he reveals his view that astrological prediction is extremely difficult and easily subject to error, but satisfactorily attainable to those who possess the necessary skill and experience, and of too much benefit to be dismissed simply because it can sometimes be mistaken.",
"Ptolemy's philosophical arguments",
"Chapters 2 and 3 are important for giving Ptolemy's philosophical defense of his subject. Franz Boll noticed the arguments were paralleled in older sources, particularly those of the Stoic philosopher Posidonius (135 BCE–AD 51 BCE). Equally, Ptolemy's narrative was drawn upon by later philosophers and astronomers, such as Johannes Kepler, who used similar examples and the same order of arguments to explain the physical foundation of some astrological claims",
". Described as \"scientifically speaking, perfectly laudable\" by one modern commentator, another has condemned these chapters as the place where Ptolemy's \"knowledge, intelligence and rhetorical skill\" are most \"misused\".",
"In chapter one Ptolemy asserts the legitimacy of the study and identifies the two main arguments set against it: \n the complexity of the subject makes its claim of providing reliable foreknowledge unattainable;\n reliable foreknowledge—if it can be attained—would imply such fatalism as to make the subject's purpose useless (since if the future is predictable, anything which is destined to happen will happen whether predicted or not).\nPtolemy then answers each criticism in the following two chapters.",
"Argument on the extent of astrology's reliability\nIn chapter two Ptolemy maintains that knowledge gained by astronomical means is attainable and he attempts to define its limits according to \"Aristotelian-Stoic\" logic. He points out how the Sun has the greatest influence upon the Earth's seasonal and daily cycles, and that most things in nature are synchronised by the Moon:",
"He extends this ability to stir the weather and steer the biological patterns of earthly creatures to the fixed stars and planets, so that everything which experiences cycles of growth, or patterns of behaviour, is in some way responsive to the celestial cycles. These bring about elemental changes (hot, windy, snowy or watery conditions, etc): led by the Sun, activated by the Moon and aided by the planetary configurations and the fixed stars' phenomena",
". The prevailing meteorological qualities are then considered to determine the temperament – the quality of the moment of time at a specific place – which is presumed to be impressed, as a sort of temporal imprint, upon the seed of anything which comes into germination or manifestation at that moment in time",
". Ptolemy admits that successful analysis of this temperament is not easily attained but is capable of being determined by someone who is able to regard the data \"both scientifically and by successful conjecture\". He questions why, if a person can reliably predict the general weather patterns and their effects upon agricultural seeds and animals from the knowledge of the celestial cycles:",
"Whilst suggesting that such arguments are enough to demonstrate the validity of astrology",
", Ptolemy accepts that many mistakes are made in its practice – partly because of \"evident rascals\" who profess to practice it without due knowledge and pretend to foretell things which cannot be naturally known (sometimes using the term 'astrology' for practices which are not true to the genuine study of astrology) and because legitimate practitioners must acquire a magnitude of knowledge and experience within a limited life-span",
". His summary is that the study is usually only able to give reliable knowledge in general terms; that astrological advice should be welcomed but not expected to be faultless; and that the astrologer should not be criticised but encouraged to integrate non-celestial information within the compilation of a judgement (such as what is known of an individual's ethnic background, nationality and parental influences).",
"Argument on whether astrology is natural and useful",
"In chapter three Ptolemy argues that astrological prediction is both natural and beneficial. The translation of these ideas into Latin in the 12th century are described as being \"of critical importance\" to the adoption of a favourable attitude towards astrology within Christianity than it was in the European Dark Ages in the Medieval period.",
"Ptolemy first proposes that it is not \"useless\" to create predictions of what is likely to happen, even if the predictions do not provide the means to avoid impending disaster. This was one of the well known classical criticisms that had been brought to prominence in Cicero's text De Divinatione, in the argument that no good comes from warnings of imminent disasters when they offer no means of escape",
". Ptolemy gives a more positive view of divination in his assessment of astrology as a subject \"by which we gain full view of things human and divine\", which, he argues, gives a better perception of \"what is fitting and expedient for the capabilities of each temperament\"",
". He views astrology as a subject which encourages enhanced self-knowledge, to be valued as a source of pleasure and well-being; since even if astrology cannot aid in the acquisition of riches or fame; the same can be said of all philosophy, which concerns itself with \"greater advantages\"",
". Hence, in the case of unfortunate events that will necessarily take place, Ptolemy asserts that astrological prediction still brings benefits, because \"foreknowledge accustoms and calms the soul by experience of distant events as though they were present, and prepares it to greet with calm and steadiness whatever comes\".",
"Ptolemy's next argument was to avoid the criticisms that arise when the practice of prediction is seen to suggest fatal necessity. This point was crucial to later theological acceptance, since Medieval religious doctrine dictates that the individual soul must possess free will, in order to be responsible for its own choices and the consequences that flow from them",
". Gerard of Feltre's 13th-century text Summa on the Stars demonstrates the problem that astrological determinism creates for the theological argument: \"If the stars make a man a murderer or a thief, then all the more it is the first cause, God, who does this, which it is shameful to suggest\"",
". Ptolemy's comments counter the criticism by proposing that whilst the celestial cycles are entirely reliable and \"eternally performed in accordance with divine, unchangeable destiny\", all earthly things are also subject to \"a natural and mutable fate, and in drawing its first causes from above it is governed by chance and natural sequence\"",
". He therefore declares that nothing is irrevocably ordained, and we are not to imagine that \"events attend mankind as the result of the heavenly cause as if … destined to take place by necessity without the possibility of any other cause whatever interfering\".",
"In this discussion Ptolemy makes a point that was to be called upon by many later astrological writers, that \"the lesser cause always yields to the stronger\". He sees an individual as unable to resist the greater cycles of change which happen to the wider community, so even a man whose horoscope indicates gain may perish at a time that his community is struck by natural disaster or pestilence",
". However, Ptolemy also maintains that disastrous events will only follow a natural course if no counter action is taken to avert the problem, as when \"future happenings to men are not known, or if they are known and the remedies are not applied\". He takes a balanced position in the argument of fate versus free will in writing that certain things, because their effective causes are numerous, become inevitable, whilst others are able to be averted by the act of astrological prediction",
". The astrologer's position is compared to that of the physician, who must be able to recognise beforehand which ailments are always fatal, and which admit of aid.",
"It is therefore reasonable, in Ptolemy's estimation, to moderate actions with awareness of how the prevailing and future temperament prospers or injures the natal temperament, or to elect to act at a time that is astrologically suitable to the activity – just as it is deemed rational to use knowledge of the stars to ensure safety at sea; to use knowledge of the lunar cycle to ensure successful breeding and sowing, or to cool ourselves against the extremes of temperature in order that we suffer less.",
"Ptolemy's philosophical conclusion on the subject, which helped to secure its intellectual standing until the 18th century, is thus: \"even if it be not entirely infallible, at least its possibilities have appeared worthy of the highest regard\". Having justified his intellectual involvement in the study, according to the philosophical principles of his day, Ptolemy then turns his attention to the practical theory of astrology, and the rationale that lies behind the arrangement of its principles.",
"Introduction of principles",
"One of the unique features of the Tetrabiblos, amongst the astrological texts of its period, is the extent to which the first book not only introduces the basic astrological principles, but synthesises and explains the reasoning behind their reported associations in line with Aristotelian philosophy. Chapter four, for example, explains the \"power of the planets\" through their associations with the creative humoral qualities of warmth or moisture, or the reductive qualities of cold and dryness",
". Hence Mars is described as a destructive planet because its humoral association is excessive dryness, whilst Jupiter is defined as temperate and fertilising because its association is moderate warmth and humidity. These associations are based on the arrangements of the planets with regard to the Sun, as perceived from the geocentric perspective, by which their orbits are measured is if they are centred upon the Earth.",
"Uniting these Aristotelian principles with a prevalent Greek philosophy employed by Zeno of Citium and the Pythagoreans, the next three chapters arrange the planets into pairs of opposites",
". They may be benefic (moderately warming or moistening) or malefic (excessively cooling or drying); masculine (drying) or feminine (moistening); active and diurnal (suited to the qualities of the day and aligned with the nature of the Sun) or passive and nocturnal (suited to the qualities of the night and aligned with the nature of the Moon)",
". Since these humoral associations derive from configurations with the Sun, chapter eight describes how they are subtly modified according to the phase of each planet's synodic cycle with the Sun.",
"Chapter nine discusses the \"power of the fixed stars\". Here, rather than give direct humoral associations, Ptolemy describes their \"temperatures\" as being like that of the planets he has already defined. Hence Aldebaran (\"called the Torch\") is described as having \"a temperature like that of Mars\", whilst other stars in the Hyades are \"like that of Saturn and moderately like that of Mercury\"",
". At the end of the chapter Ptolemy clarifies that these are not his proposals, but are drawn from historical sources, being \"the observations of the effects of the stars themselves as made by our predecessors\".",
"Chapter ten returns to the humoral theme more explicitly, clarifying that the zodiac is aligned to the seasons and so expressive of the shifting emphasis through moisture, warmth, dryness and cold, (as brought about by spring, summer, autumn, and winter). Similarly, the four angles of the chart present an humoral emphasis through association with the effects of the four cardinal winds that blow from their aligned directions",
". The remainder of book one (up to the final two chapters which concern the planetary phases and aspectual applications), presents the rulerships, divisions, and configurations of the zodiac signs, most of which are related to astronomical definitions, seasonal effects, physics and geometry. Geometrical principles are used to define the favourable or unfavourable quality of astrological aspects, based on the angular relationship of planets and signs with ecliptic degrees.",
"In Ptolemy's era the boundaries of the zodiac signs were close to those of the visible constellations whose names they bear, but Ptolemy demonstrates the theoretical distinction between the two frames of reference in describing the starting point of the zodiac as fixed, not to the stars, but to the mathematically calculated vernal equinox",
". This determines the seasonally based tropical zodiac which takes its name from the Greek word τροπικός tropikos: ‘of the turning’, because it is set by the turn of the seasons and, being subject to precession, experiences a slow and gradual revolution through the visible constellations",
". For the same reason, the signs that mark the Sun's summer and winter solstice points (Cancer and Capricorn) are described as the 'tropical signs', since these are the places where the Sun 'turns' its direction in celestial latitude, (thereby defining the terrestrial circles of latitude known as the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn).",
"Whereas other ancient astrological writers gave their emphasis to the astrological interpretation of such definitions (for example, in describing how tropical signs are indicative of quickly changing situations), Ptolemy's focus is notably different; given to the astronomical and philosophical factors that underlie the definitions rather than their astrological meaning in practice",
". Ptolemy explains that the definitions of the zodiac are not his own, but present \"the natural characters of the zodiacal signs, as they have been handed down by tradition\". His approach finds elegant expression where he is demonstrating the logic of schematic arrangements (such as the philosophical principles behind the planetary rulership of signs), but is noted to convey detachment in regard to the elements of astrology that are not so obviously plausible",
". This can be seen in the way that Ptolemy avoids going into detail on the facets of astrology that rely on mythological, or symbolic associations, and how he is willing to outline the reasoning behind conflicting astrological proposals without revealing any personal preference for one scheme over another.",
"Some commentators have viewed Ptolemy's comparatively dispassionate approach towards points of astrological contention as reason to suppose he was more interested in the theoretical principles than the actual practice of astrology",
". On the other hand, the objective tone that marks his style; his assertion that the subject is natural (by which he makes no demand for oaths of secrecy from its students as some contemporaries do); and the way he shows respectful reference to alternative views without vilifying authors whose practices might differ from his own, all helped to secure the text's historical reputation as an intellectually superior one",
". Classics scholar Mark Riley raised these points in his assessment that Ptolemy approached the subject of astrology with exactly the same theoretical inclination that he applied to astronomy, geography and the other sciences on which he wrote. This distinctive style of approach led Riley to conclude: \"The respect shown to Ptolemy’s work by all later astrologers was due, not to its usefulness to the practitioner, but to his magisterial synthesis of astrology and science\".",
"Book II: Mundane astrology",
"Book II presents Ptolemy's treatise on mundane astrology. This offers a comprehensive review of ethnic stereotypes, eclipses, significations of comets and seasonal lunations, as used in the prediction of national economics, wars, epidemics, natural disasters and weather patterns. No other surviving ancient text offers a comparable account of this topic, in terms of the breadth and depth of detail offered by Ptolemy",
". Although no demonstrated examples are given, he writes with authority in this branch of his subject, which suggests it was of particular interest to him. Modern commentators have remarked that Ptolemy was \"consciously taking a different approach\" to contrast \"with the 'old', infinitely complicated methods\".",
"Ptolemy begins by stating he has briefly reviewed the important principles and will now develop the details of astrology in the appropriate order. His point is that astrological assessment of any 'particular' individual must rest upon prior knowledge of the 'general' temperament of their ethnic type; and that the circumstances of individual lives are subsumed, to some extent, within the fate of their community.",
"The second chapter gives a broad generalisation of how differences in physical traits occur between the inhabitants of the various climes (a demarcation based on latitude). Communities that live close to the equator, for example, are described as having black skins, small statures, and thick woolly hair, as a protective response to the burning heat of that location. By contrast, communities that have settled in high northern regions are defined by their colder environment and its greater share of moisture",
". Their bodily forms are paler, taller, with finer hair, and in their characteristics they are described as \"somewhat cold in nature\". Both types are described as lacking civilisation because of the extremes of their environment, whereas communities that live in temperate regions are medium in colouring, moderate in stature and enjoy a more equable lifestyle. The several regions are similarly defined according to the mix that arises within this kind of analysis",
". Ptolemy explains that such considerations are only dealt with summarily, as a background consideration for what follows. He also makes clear that such traits are to be found \"generally present, but not in every individual\".",
"In chapter 3 Ptolemy unites his interests in astrology and geography, to outline the astrological associations of \"our inhabited world\". Maps based on Ptolemy's Geographica show Ptolemy's definition of the inhabited world as (roughly) extending from the equator to latitude 66°N, covering the land mass between the Atlantic Ocean and East China Sea",
". Ptolemy extends the logic given in ancient Babylonian texts where the four quarters of the known world are attributed to the four triplicity arrangements of the zodiac. The attribution is based on association between the planets that govern the triplicities and the directions and winds those planets are affiliated with. For example, the 'Aries triplicity' (which includes Aries, Leo and Sagittarius) is chiefly dominated by Jupiter and assisted by Mars",
". Jupiter rules the north wind and Mars the west wind; therefore this triplicity governs the north-west quarter of Ptolemy's \"inhabited world\": the area known as Europe.",
"Again, these divisions are general, and specific rulership of each nation is modified by location and observed cultural distinctions. For example, in Europe, only those regions that lie to the north-west extremes are fully attributed to Jupiter and Mars, since those that lie towards the centre of the inhabited area incline towards the influence of opposing regions",
". In this way, the \"inhabited region\" experiences a drift of astrological correspondence rather than sharp divisions within its quarters, and independent nations are variously affiliated with the signs of each triplicity and the planets that rule them. Ptolemy names Britain and Spain as two nations appropriately placed in the north-west quarter to accept the rulership of Jupiter and Mars",
". Such nations are described as \"independent, liberty-loving, fond of arms, industrious\", based on characteristics attributed to those planets. Being predominantly governed by masculine planets they are also \"without passion for women and look down upon the pleasures of love\"",
". Observed characteristics influence his categorisation of Britain as having a closer affinity with Aries and Mars (by which \"for the most part its inhabitants are fiercer, more headstrong and bestial\"), whilst Spain is reported to be more subject to Sagittarius and Jupiter, (from which is evidenced \"their independence, simplicity and love of cleanliness\").",
"Though Ptolemy describes his analysis as a \"brief exposition\", the chapter builds into an extensive association between planets, zodiac signs and the national characteristics of 73 nations. It concludes with three additional assertions which act as core principles of mundane astrology:\n Each of the fixed stars has familiarity with the countries attributed to the sign of its ecliptic rising.",
"The time of the first founding of a city (or nation) can be used in a similar way to an individual horoscope, to astrologically establish the characteristics and experiences of that city. The most significant considerations are the regions of the zodiac which mark the place of the Sun and Moon, and the four angles of the chart – in particular the ascendant.",
"If the time of the foundation of the city or nation is not known, a similar use can be made of the horoscope of whoever holds office or is king at the time, with particular attention given to the midheaven of that chart.",
"Use of eclipses",
"The remainder of the book shows how this information is used in the prediction of mundane events. Focus is given to eclipses, as the \"first and most potent\" cause of change, supplemented by examination of the 'stations' of the superior planets: Saturn, Jupiter and Mars. Although eclipses are deemed relevant to any nation affiliated with the zodiac signs in which they occur, Ptolemy's scrutiny is reserved for regions where they are visible, which he argues will manifest the effects most noticeably",
". The period of obscuration determines the endurance of the effect, with each hour proportioning to years for a solar eclipse and months for a lunar eclipse. The location of the eclipse with relation to the horizon is then used to judge whether the effects are most prevalent at the beginning, middle or end of the period, with times of intensification identified by planetary contacts to the degree of the eclipse which occur within this period.",
"Chapter 7 begins the examination of what type of event will manifest. This is judged by the angle of the horizon which precedes the eclipse in the chart set for the location under scrutiny and the planet(s) that dominate this angle by rulership and powerful aspectual connections. Whether the predicted effect is beneficial or destructive depends on the condition of these planets, whilst the type of manifestation is judged by the zodiac signs, fixed stars and constellations involved",
". The resulting prediction is of relevance to nations, but Ptolemy points out that certain individuals are more resonant to the effects than others; namely those have the Sun or Moon in their horoscopes in the same degree as the eclipse, or the degree that directly opposes it.",
"Within his Almagest Ptolemy explains that he had access to eclipse records kept for 900 years since the beginning of the reign of king Nabonassar (747 BC). In chapter 9 of the Tetrabiblos he shows knowledge of the Babylonian lore that accompanied these records in detailing the omens based on visual phenomena",
". The colours of eclipses and \"the formations that occur near them, such as rods, halos, and the like\" are considered along with the astrological significance of comets, in whether they take the form of \"'beams', 'trumpets', 'jars', and the like\". Meaning is derived from their position relative to the Sun and assessment of \"the parts of the zodiac in which their heads appear and through the directions in which the shapes of their tails point\"",
". It is noted that here Ptolemy uses principles that fall outside the neat theoretical logic he presents in book I, being explicable only in terms of the mythological and omen tradition inherited from his ancient sources. He also defends the subjective nature of the analysis involved, asserting that it would be impossible to mention the proper outcome of all this investigation, which calls for enterprise and ingenuity from the astrologer creating the judgement.",
"The remaining chapters of book II are dedicated to meteorological matters. Chapter 10 specifies that the new or full Moon preceding the Sun's ingress into Aries can be used as a starting point for investigations concerning the weather patterns of the year",
". Lunations which precede the Sun's ingress into any the other equinoctial and solstice signs (Cancer, Libra and Capricorn) can also be used for seasonal concerns, and within these \"monthly investigations\" bring more particular details based on lunations and the conjunctions of the planets",
". The recorded weather effects of the fixed stars in the zodiac constellations are systematically discussed, concluding with the relevance of generally observed sky phenomena such as shooting stars, cloud formations and rainbows. These final considerations are expected to add localised details to the original exploration of eclipse cycles",
". Ptolemy's theme throughout the book is that charts of this nature cannot be judged in isolation, but are to be understood within the pattern of cycles to which they belong, and where there are strong connections between the degree points involved; for:",
"With the astrologer expected to have knowledge and awareness of the mundane cycles that outline the background principles of the personal horoscope, Ptolemy closes this book with the promise that the next will supply \"with due order\" the procedure which allows predictions based on the horoscopes of individuals.\n\nBook III: Individual horoscopes (genetic influences and predispositions)",
"Books III and IV explore what Ptolemy terms \"the genethlialogical art\": the interpretation of a horoscope set for the moment of the birth of an individual. He explains that there are several cycles of life to consider but the starting point for all investigation is the time of conception or birth",
". The former \"the genesis of the seed\"” allows knowledge of events that precede the birth; the latter \"the genesis of the man\" is \"more perfect in potentiality\" because when the child leaves the womb and comes \"forth into the light under the appropriate conformation of the heavens\" the temperament, disposition and physical form of the body is set",
". The two moments are described as being linked by a \"very similar causative power\", so that the seed of the conception takes independent form at an astrologically suitable moment, whereby the impulse to give birth occurs under a \"configuration of similar type to that which governed the child's formation in detail in the first place\"",
". Chapter 2 continues this theme in discussing the importance of calculating the precise degree of the ascendant at birth, the difficulty of recording local time precisely enough to establish this, and the methods available for rectification (i.e., ensuring the chart is correct).",
"Chapter 3 describes how the analysis of the chart is divided into predictions of:\n essential, genetic qualities established prior to birth (such family and parental influences),\n those that become known at the birth (such as the sex of the child and birth defects), and\n those that can only be known post-natally (such as length of life, the quality of the mind, illnesses, marriage, children, and material fortunes).",
"Ptolemy explains the order by which each theme becomes relevant, and follows this in his arrangement of topics presented in the remaining chapters of books III and IV.",
"First he deals with the prenatal matters, covering the astrological significators of the parents in chapter 4, and siblings in chapter 5. Then he deals with the matters \"directly concerned with the birth\", explaining how to judge such issues as whether the child will be male or female (ch.6); whether the birth will produce twins or multiple children (ch.7); and whether it will involve physical defects or monstrous forms; if so, whether these are accompanied by mental deficiency, notability or honour (ch",
".8).",
"The exploration of post-natal concerns begins in chapter 9 with a review of astrological factors that occur when children are not reared. This considers the indications of still births and babies that seem \"half-dead\", or those that have been left exposed (including whether there is possibility they may be taken up and live). Chapter 10 then details the techniques for establishing the length of life under normal circumstances",
". This is an important and lengthy passage of text, the techniques of which require precise astronomical detail and advanced knowledge of complex progressive techniques. Jim Tester has commented on how Ptolemy goes into an unusual level of detail in a responsibility that Bouché-Leclercq described as \"the chief task of astrology, the operation judged most difficult by practitioners, most dangerous and damnable by its enemies\"",
". Such a prediction involves judicial skill as well as mathematical expertise since several 'destructive' periods may be identified but countered by other, protective astrological influences, resulting in periods of danger or illness that does not lead to death. This is followed, in chapter 11, by the astrological principles from which judgement is made of bodily appearance and temperament",
". The planetary significations follow the logic of their humoral associations, so that Jupiter (associated with warmth and moisture, an humoral combination which promotes growth) gives largeness in bodily form. Since these define, to some extent, predisposition towards bodily afflictions, there is a natural flow towards the content of chapter 12, which focuses on the astrological significators relating to injuries and diseases",
". The details of planetary associations with bodily organs and functions are given, such as Saturn ruling the spleen and Jupiter the lungs. Jim Tester has pointed out that several lists of this type exist \"more or less agreeing in detail\".",
"The third book concludes with a discussion in chapters 13 and 14 of what is described as a \"largely overlooked\" facet of Ptolemaic doctrine: the \"psychological\" one, which concerns the quality of the soul (or psyche)",
". Historian Nicholas Campion has discussed the roots of the notion that celestial and psychological realms are connected, which can be traced to the 6th century BC, and in Ptolemy's case presents a mixture of Aristotelian and Stoic philosophy, resting on the Platonic view that \"the soul comes from the heavens\" which explains \"how human character comes to be determined by the heavens\".",
"The soul, for Ptolemy, includes the faculty for conscious reasoning, which is rational and attributed to the condition of Mercury, and the subconscious and unconscious elements of the mind (the \"sensory and irrational part\"), which is sensitive and attributed to the condition of the Moon. These two chapters make analysis of instinctual impulses and moral inclinations, being concerned with psychological motives and behavioural expression rather than the physical temperament described in chapter 11",
". Diseases of the soul are defined as \"affections which are utterly disproportionate and as it were pathological\" including insanity, inability to exercise moderation or restraint, instability of the emotions, depraved sexuality, morbid perversions, and violent afflictions of the intellectual and passive parts of the mind",
". The astrological explanations are mainly related to the exaggerated influence of destructive planets which are also in difficult configurations with Mercury and the Sun or Moon, or the planet associated with the psychological impulse (for example, Venus in matters of sexuality)",
". Campion has pointed out that these planetary associations with psychological qualities are not original to Ptolemy, being present in the Corpus Hermeticum which was in circulation in Alexandria at the time Ptolemy compiled his text.",
"Within this book Ptolemy has surveyed all the topics that relate to inner qualities, genetic patterns, predispositions and the natural tendencies present from birth. His exploration of individual horoscopes continues into book IV, the only distinction of content being that subsequent topics relate to material matters and life experiences: what Ptolemy refers to as \"external accidentals\".",
"Book IV: Individual horoscopes (external accidentals)",
"Book IV is presented with a brief introduction to reaffirm the arrangement of content as previously described. It starts with the topics of riches and honour. Ptolemy says: \"as material fortune is associated with the properties of the body, so honour belongs to those of the soul\"",
". Chapter 2, on material wealth, employs the \"so-called 'Lot of Fortune'\" although Ptolemy's instruction conflicts with that of many of his contemporaries in stating that for its calculation \"we measure from the horoscope the distance from the sun to the moon, in both diurnal and nocturnal nativities\"",
". Ptolemy's reputation ensured this approach to calculation was adopted by many later Medieval and Renaissance astrologers, although it is now realised that most Hellenistic astrologers reversed the formula of calculation for nocturnal births",
". It is notable that in his discussion \"Of the fortune of Dignity\", in chapter three, Ptolemy makes no reference to the Lot of Spirit (or Daimon), which would normally be used as the spiritual counterpart to the material wealth and happiness associated with the Lot of Fortune. This is viewed as a demonstration of his general dislike (declared in bk. III.3) for \"lots and numbers of which no reasonable explanation can be given\".",
"The subsequent chapter, the title of which is translated by Robbins as 'Of the Quality of Action', concerns professional inclinations and the significators of career advance (or decline). This is followed by the treatment of marriage in chapter 5, which is primarily referred to the Moon in a man's chart, to describe his wife, and the Sun in a woman's chart to describe her husband",
". Here Ptolemy shows employment of the astrological technique known as synastry, in which the planetary positions of two separate horoscopes are compared with each other for indications of relationship harmony or enmity.",
"The next four chapters complete the survey of natal themes, dealing with the topics of children (ch.6); friends and enemies (ch.7); the dangers of foreign travel (ch.8) and the quality (or type) of death (ch.9 – as opposed to the time of death considered in III.10).",
"The final chapter of the work is described as \"a curious one\" for introducing a separate theme at the end of the book. This refers to the seven 'ages of man', which Ptolemy briefly mentioned in III.1 as a matter which varies the emphasis of astrological configurations according to the time in life they occur: \"we predict events that will come about at specific times and vary in degree, following the so called ages of life.",
"His argument is that, just as an astrologer must consider cultural differences \"lest he mistake the appropriate customs and manners by assigning, for example, marriage with a sister to one who is Italian by race, instead of to the Egyptian as he should\", it is necessary to consider the age in life that important astrological events occur",
". This is to ensure the prediction will \"harmonise those details which are contemplated in temporal terms with that which is suitable and possible for persons in the various age-classes\" and avoid out-of-context predictions such as imminent marriage for a young child, or \"to an extremely old man the begetting of children or anything else that fits younger men\". This leads into a discussion of the planetary themes of the seven ages of life which:",
"The information in the passage can be summarised as follows:\n\nThe book ends with a brief discussion of astronomical and symbolic cycles used in the prediction of timed events, which includes mention of (primary) directions, annual profections, ingresses, lunations and transits.",
"The translator of the Loeb 1940 English translation, F. E. Robbins, reports a \"puzzling problem\" regarding the final paragraph of the book. One group of manuscripts have either been left unconcluded or supplied with text that matches an Anonymous Paraphrase of the work (speculatively attributed to Proclus); the other presents text which is the same in general content, but longer, according with manuscripts that were transmitted through Arabic translations",
". Robbins considers it certain that the ending which concurs with the text of the Paraphrase is spurious. Robert Schmidt, the English translator of the later Project Hindsight edition agrees with his choice, stating that the text of the latter \"sounds more generally Ptolemaic\".",
"Robbins explains that the lack of an ending usually occurs when ancient books are compiled in the form of a codex rather than a roll. Since the Paraphrase edition of the Tetrabiblos aimed to present the work's meaning without Ptolemy's own complicated style of text construction, Robbins says that he \"cannot conceive how anyone (except perhaps Ptolemy) could have reversed the process and evolved the tortuous, crabbed Greek of the latter from the comparatively simple language of the former\"",
". He therefore offers both versions of the ending whilst lending his support to that which is found in the Arabic version of the text. This has the book conclude with Ptolemy declaring \"since the topic of nativities has been summarily reviewed, it would be well to bring this procedure also to a fitting close\".",
"Criticism\nDespite Ptolemy's prominence as a philosopher, the Dutch historian of science Eduard Jan Dijksterhuis criticizes the Tetrabiblos, stating that \"it only remain puzzling that the very writer of the Almagest, who had taught how to develop astronomy from accurate observations and mathematical constructions, could put together such a system of superficial analogies and unfounded assertions.\"",
"Editions and translations",
"No original manuscripts of the text have survived; its contents are known from translations, fragments, paraphrased copies, commentaries and later Greek manuscripts",
". Astrological researcher Deborah Houlding, in an analysis of how specific points agree or vary between different editions, suggests that areas of conflicting details have been affected by three main streams of transmission: manuscripts that have passed through Arabic translation; those based on a paraphrased edition, and manuscripts that are dated four centuries later than the Arabic ones, but which have not undergone translation out of Greek.",
"Arabic translations\nThe oldest extant manuscript is an Arabic translation compiled in the 9th century by Hunayn ibn Ishaq. This was first translated into Latin, in Barcelona, by Plato de Tivoli in 1138 and became influential as the first complete introduction of Ptolemy's astrological work in Medieval Europe. It survives in at least nine manuscripts and five Renaissance printings.",
"Other Latin translations made from Arabic sources include an anonymous (unpublished) work compiled in 1206 and another of the 13th century by Egidio Tebaldi (Aegidius de Thebaldis). Typically, the Latin translations made from Arabic texts were circulated with a commentary compiled by Ali ibn Ridwan (Haly) in the 11th century.",
"Egidio Tebaldi's translation was first published by Erhard Ratdolt in 1484 together with Haly's commentary and a \"pseudo-Ptolemaic\" list of aphorisms known as the Centiloquium. This has been described as \"the creature of late-fifteenth-century Italian presses\".",
"Paraphrase based editions\nAn anonymous Greek paraphrase is speculatively attributed to the 5th-century philosopher Proclus. It is often referred to as the Proclus' Paraphrase although its authenticity is questioned, being described as \"very doubtful\" by Professor Stephan Heilen. The content of the Paraphrase is close to that of manuscripts of the Tetrabiblos, but it uses simplified text with the aim of providing what Heilen calls \"a more easily understandable version of the difficult original work\".",
"There is no modern critical edition of this text. The oldest extant manuscript is dated to the 10th century and housed in the Vatican Library (Ms. Vaticanus gr.1453, S. X., ff.1–219). Some of the text of the Paraphrase was published with a Latin translation and Preface by Philipp Melanchthon in Basel, 1554, but this was not widely circulated",
". A full reproduction with an accompanying Latin translation was made around 1630 by the Vatican scholar Leo Allatius \"for his own private gratification\" and this was published by the Elzevir typsetters in Leiden, 1635, apparently without Allatius's knowledge or consent.",
"Allatius' Latin translation was used as the source of all English translations of the Tetrabiblos prior to the Robbins' edition of 1940. These include translations made by John Whalley (1701); the Whalley \"corrected edition\" made by Ebenezer Sibly and his brother (1786); J.M. Ashmand (1822); James Wilson (1828); and other 19th-century privately circulated manuscripts such as that of John Worsdale.",
"Greek manuscripts\nAlthough no copies of Ptolemy's original manuscript remain, there are other ancient works, such as Hephaistio's Apotelesmatics I, which describe or reproduce some of its passages. These have been used to help verify disputed areas of content.",
"The oldest fairly complete Greek manuscript of the text (rather than the paraphrased edition made of it) is dated to the 13th century. Two or three others are dated to the 14th century but most are dated to the 15th and 16th centuries. In the 'Introduction' to his 1940's translation, Frank Eggleston Robbins reported the existence of at least 35 manuscripts containing all or a large part of the Tetrabiblos in European libraries.",
"The first printed edition was made in 1535 with an accompanying Latin translation by the German classical scholar Joachim Camerarius. This was reprinted in 1553 and is \"notable for offering the first Latin translation based upon a Greek rather than Arabic source\"",
". Robbins noted the page numbers of the 1553 edition in the Greek text which faces his English translation, stating \"My collations have been made against Camerarius' second edition, because thus far this has been the standard text and it was most convenient\".",
"Also in 1940, a Greek critical edition was published by Teubner, in Germany, based on the unpublished work of Franz Boll which was completed by his student Emilie Boer. Robbins expressed regret at not being able to refer to this in the preparation of his English translation.",
"In 1994 the 'Boll-Boer' edition became the basis of a serialised English translation by Robert Schmidt, published by Project Hindsight. The 'Translator's Preface' was critical of Robbins' understanding of some of the \"conceptual issues involved\" and argued the need for a new English translation which recognised the \"probable superiority of the Teubner text edited by Boll and Boer in 1940\".",
"The most recent critical edition of the Greek text was made by the German scholar Professor Wolfgang Hübner, and published by Teubner in 1998. Based on 33 complete and 14 partial manuscripts, Hübner also incorporated the unpublished notes of Boer and the reasoning given in the Robbins and Boll-Boer editions. This is now considered the authoritative edition. A reviewer's comment in The Classical Review declares of it \"Progress over previous editions is evident on virtually every page\".\n\nAssociated texts",
"Commentary\nIn addition to the Arabic commentary on the Tetrabiblos made by Ali ibn Ridwan (Haly) in the 11th century,",
"significant attention is given to an anonymous Greek Commentary, which has older, obscure origins. It was written at an uncertain date, in either late antiquity or the Byzantine period. This is also attributed to Proclus, as the presumed author of the Paraphrase, although Heilen has remarked that such an attribution \"looks like guesswork\"",
". Houlding has also pointed out that differences in tabulated information presented within the Paraphrase and the Commentary \"is a telling argument that both cannot be the work of the same author\".",
"The Greek Commentary was first printed in 1559 with an accompanying Latin translation by Hieronymus Wolf. This claimed to be based on a heavily corrupted manuscript which required numerous conjectures by a scholarly friend of Wolf, who preferred to remain anonymous rather than face reproaches for \"dabbling in this sort of literature\". Wolf's edition was bound with an Introduction to the Tetrabiblos, attributed (speculatively) to Porphyry, and the scholia of Demophilus.",
"The purpose of the Commentary was to offer demonstrated illustrations and fuller explanation of the astrological principles described by Ptolemy. Following Wolf's edition, large passages were incorporated into Latin astrological works which featured extensive collections of example horoscopes. Two notable examples are Jerome Cardan's Ptolemaei De Astrorvm Ivdiciis (Basel, 1578) and Francisco Junctinus's Speculum Astrologiae (Lugduni, 1583)",
". Modern translators continue to make reference to the Hieronymous Wolf Commentary in their explanatory annotations.",
"Centiloquium",
"The Centiloquium 'one hundred (sayings)' was the common Latin title of a collection of 100 important astrological aphorisms. It was also known in Latin as Liber Fructus (Arabic: Kitab al-Tamara; Hebrew: Sefer ha-Peri) 'Book of the Fruit'. The latter reflected the belief that this offered a summation of Ptolemy's key astrological principles, and therefore presented \"The Fruit of his Four Books\"",
". It began, as all Ptolemy's works did, with a dedication to \"Syrus\", which helped support the assumption of the work's Ptolemaic authenticity.",
"Early manuscripts were commonly accompanied by a commentary on their use authored by Ahmad ibn Yusuf al-Misri (835–912). This became translated into Latin at the same time as translations were being made of the Arabic editions of the Tetrabiblos. The earliest translations were made by Johannes Hispanensis in 1136 and Plato of Tivoli in 1138.",
"Ali ibn Ridwan (Haly), who had produced the Arabic commentary on Ptolemy's work, noticed that the aphorisms highlighted principles of interrogational astrology, and wondered why Ptolemy had not included coverage of these themes in his Tetrabiblos",
". Jerome Cardan was the first to declare the work a forgery based on such differences, referring in his commentary on the Tetrabiblos to an argument of Galen: \"In the old days, kings who were trying to establish great libraries bought the books of famous men at very high prices. By doing so they caused men to ascribe their own works to the ancients\".",
"The authorship of the text is now ascribed to \"Pseudo-Ptolemy\". Some scholars suggest that Ahmad ibn Yusuf was its true author. Others believe that the Centiloquium, though not Ptolemy's, may preserve some collation of authentic materials from Hellenistic astrology. Ultimately, the historical assumption that the Centiloquium was part of Ptolemy's astrological legacy gave it widespread influence in the medieval period, by which it became established as an important text within the astrological tradition.",
"See also\nBabylonian astronomy – the ancient sources transmitted to Ptolemy\nGreek astronomy – the astronomy of Ptolemy's era\nPtolemy's world map – map of the ancient world as described by Ptolemy\n\nFootnotes\n\nWorks cited \n\n \n \n\n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n .\n .",
"Further reading \n Theoretical and Practical Astrology: Ptolemy and his Colleagues by Mark Riley, 1974; Transactions of the American Philological Association, 117, (Baltimore; London: Johns Hopkins University Press). Explores the difference of approach taken by Ptolemy to that of other contemporary astrologers.",
"Science and Tradition in the Tetrabiblos by Mark Riley, 1988; Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 132.1, (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society). Considers the question of what Ptolemy contributed to astrology and why his work was so significant.",
"External links",
"English language reproductions of the Tetrabiblos and associated texts\nHenry Coley, Centiloquium from Clavis Eliminata (1676); London: Josuah Coniers. Skyscript; retrieved 26 November 2011.\nJ. M. Ashmand's translation of Paraphrase (1822); London: Davis and Dickson. Sacred Texts Archive; retrieved 16 November 2011.\nJames Wilson's translation Paraphrase (1828); London: William Hughes. Google Books; retrieved 16 November 2011.",
"Frank E. Robbins' translation of Tetrabiblos (1940); Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press; London: W. Heinemann. LacusCurtius; retrieved 16 November 2011.\nFrank E. Robbins' translation of Tetrabiblos bound with W. G. Waddell's translation of Manetho's History of Egypt (1940). Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press; London: W. Heinemann. Internet Archive, retrieved 16 November 2011.",
"Greek and Latin reproductions of the Tetrabiblos and associated texts\nErhard Ratdolt, Venice, 1484. First printed Latin edition of Tetrabiblos based on Egidio Tebaldi's 13th-century Latin translation out of Arabic. Also includes the Centiloquium and Commentary by Haly Abenragel (Albohazen). Biblioteca Virtual del Patrimonio Bibliografico; retrieved 10 November 2011.",
"Bonetum Locatellum, Venice, 1493. Compemdium of Latin texts including the Tetrabiblos, Centiloquium, and Ali ibn Ridwan's Commentary. Gallica Bibliothèque nationale de France; retrieved 20 November 2011.\nHeirs of Octavius Scoti, Venice, 1519. Compendium of Latin texts including the Tetrabiblos and Centiloquium. Universidad de Sevilla; retrieved 20 November 2011.\nJohannes Hervagius, Basel, 1533. Latin edition based on Plato de Tivoli's translation. Warburg Institute; retrieved 19 November 2011.",
"Heinrich Petri, Basel, 1541. Latin edition containing Ptolemy's Almagest, Tetrabiblos, and the Centiloquium. Biblioteca Virtual del Patrimonio Bibliografico; retrieved 19 November 2011.\nHeinrich Petri, Basel, 1591. Latin reproduction of Hieronymous Wolf's translation the 'anonymous' Commentary attributed to Proclus. Biblioteca Virtual del Patrimonio Bibliografico; retrieved 19 November 2011.",
"Leo Allatius, Lugd. Batavorum, 1635. Greek and Latin translation of the 'anonymous' Proclus Paraphrase (Procli Diadochi Paraphrasis) based on manuscripts housed in the Vatican Library (oldest dates to 10th century: Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1453). Warburg Institute; retrieved 19 November 2011.\nEmily Boer, Leipzig, 1961. Greek language edition of the Centiloquium published by Teubner. Open Library; retrieved 26 November 2011.",
"Greek and Latin astrological works with substantial reference to the Tetrabiblos and the Commentary\nJerome Cardan, Lyon, 1578. Cl. Ptolemæi, de Astrorum Iudiciis (Latin). Herzog August Bibliothek Wolfenbuttel; retrieved 19 November 2011.\nFrancisco Junctinus, Basel, 1583. Speculum astrologiae (Latin). Universad de Sevilla; retrieved 19 November 2011.",
"Astrological texts\nHellenistic astrology\nWestern astrology\n2nd-century books\nBooks about the history of science\nLatin textbooks\nCultural studies\nAncient Greek physics\nAncient Roman philosophical literature"
] |
Alexander Grothendieck
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander%20Grothendieck
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[
"Alexander Grothendieck (; ; ; 28 March 1928 – 13 November 2014) was a French mathematician who became the leading figure in the creation of modern algebraic geometry. His research extended the scope of the field and added elements of commutative algebra, homological algebra, sheaf theory, and category theory to its foundations, while his so-called \"relative\" perspective led to revolutionary advances in many areas of pure mathematics",
". He is considered by many to be the greatest mathematician of the twentieth century.",
"Grothendieck began his productive and public career as a mathematician in 1949. In 1958, he was appointed a research professor at the Institut des hautes études scientifiques (IHÉS) and remained there until 1970, when, driven by personal and political convictions, he left following a dispute over military funding. He received the Fields Medal in 1966 for advances in algebraic geometry, homological algebra, and K-theory",
". He later became professor at the University of Montpellier and, while still producing relevant mathematical work, he withdrew from the mathematical community and devoted himself to political and religious pursuits (first Buddhism and later, a more Catholic Christian vision). In 1991, he moved to the French village of Lasserre in the Pyrenees, where he lived in seclusion, still working tirelessly on mathematics and his philosophical and religious thoughts until his death in 2014.",
"Life",
"Family and childhood",
"Grothendieck was born in Berlin to anarchist parents. His father, Alexander \"Sascha\" Schapiro (also known as Alexander Tanaroff), had Hasidic Jewish roots and had been imprisoned in Russia before moving to Germany in 1922, while his mother, Johanna \"Hanka\" Grothendieck, came from a Protestant German family in Hamburg and worked as a journalist. As teenagers, both of his parents had broken away from their early backgrounds",
". As teenagers, both of his parents had broken away from their early backgrounds. At the time of his birth, Grothendieck's mother was married to the journalist Johannes Raddatz and initially, his birth name was recorded as \"Alexander Raddatz.\" That marriage was dissolved in 1929 and Schapiro acknowledged his paternity, but never married Hanka Grothendieck. Grothendieck had a maternal sibling, his half sister Maidi.",
"Grothendieck lived with his parents in Berlin until the end of 1933, when his father moved to Paris to evade Nazism. His mother followed soon thereafter. Grothendieck was left in the care of Wilhelm Heydorn, a Lutheran pastor and teacher in Hamburg. According to Winfried Scharlau, during this time, his parents took part in the Spanish Civil War as non-combatant auxiliaries. However, others state that Schapiro fought in the anarchist militia.",
"World War II",
"In May 1939, Grothendieck was put on a train in Hamburg for France. Shortly afterward his father was interned in Le Vernet. He and his mother were then interned in various camps from 1940 to 1942 as \"undesirable dangerous foreigners.\" The first camp was the Rieucros Camp, where his mother contracted the tuberculosis that would eventually cause her death in 1957. While there, Grothendieck managed to attend the local school, at Mendel. Once, he managed to escape from the camp, intending to assassinate Hitler",
". Once, he managed to escape from the camp, intending to assassinate Hitler. Later, his mother Hanka was transferred to the Gurs internment camp for the remainder of World War II. Grothendieck was permitted to live separated from his mother.",
"In the village of Le Chambon-sur-Lignon, he was sheltered and hidden in local boarding houses or pensions, although he occasionally had to seek refuge in the woods during Nazi raids, surviving at times without food or water for several days. \n\nHis father was arrested under the Vichy anti-Jewish legislation, and sent to the Drancy internment camp, and then handed over by the French Vichy government to the Germans to be sent to be murdered at the Auschwitz concentration camp in 1942.",
"In Le Chambon, Grothendieck attended the Collège Cévenol (now known as the Le Collège-Lycée Cévenol International), a unique secondary school founded in 1938 by local Protestant pacifists and anti-war activists. Many of the refugee children hidden in Le Chambon attended Collège Cévenol, and it was at this school that Grothendieck apparently first became fascinated with mathematics.\n\nIn 1990, for risking their lives to rescue Jews, the entire village was recognized as \"Righteous Among the Nations\".",
"Studies and contact with research mathematics \nAfter the war, the young Grothendieck studied mathematics in France, initially at the University of Montpellier where at first he did not perform well, failing such classes as astronomy. Working on his own, he rediscovered the Lebesgue measure. After three years of increasingly independent studies there, he went to continue his studies in Paris in 1948.",
"Initially, Grothendieck attended Henri Cartan's Seminar at , but he lacked the necessary background to follow the high-powered seminar. On the advice of Cartan and André Weil, he moved to the University of Nancy where two leading experts were working on Grothendieck's area of interest, topological vector spaces: Jean Dieudonné and Laurent Schwartz. The latter had recently won a Fields Medal",
". The latter had recently won a Fields Medal. He showed his new student his latest paper; it ended with a list of 14 open questions, relevant for locally convex spaces. Grothendieck introduced new mathematical methods that enabled him to solve all of these problems within a few months.",
"In Nancy, he wrote his dissertation under those two professors on functional analysis, from 1950 to 1953. At this time he was a leading expert in the theory of topological vector spaces. In 1953 he moved to the University of São Paulo in Brazil, where he immigrated by means of a Nansen passport, given that he had refused to take French nationality (as that would have entailed military service against his convictions)",
". He stayed in São Paulo (apart from a lengthy visit in France from October 1953 - March 1954) until the end of 1954. His published work from the time spent in Brazil is still in the theory of topological vector spaces; it is there that he completed his last major work on that topic (on \"metric\" theory of Banach spaces).",
"Grothendieck moved to Lawrence, Kansas at the beginning of 1955, and there he set his old subject aside in order to work in algebraic topology and homological algebra, and increasingly in algebraic geometry. It was in Lawrence that Grothendieck developed his theory of Abelian categories and the reformulation of sheaf cohomology based on them, leading to the very influential \"Tôhoku paper\".",
"In 1957 he was invited to visit Harvard by Oscar Zariski, but the offer fell through when he refused to sign a pledge promising not to work to overthrow the United States government—a refusal which, he was warned, threatened to land him in prison. The prospect of prison did not worry him, so long as he could have access to books.",
"Comparing Grothendieck during his Nancy years to the -trained students at that time (Pierre Samuel, Roger Godement, René Thom, Jacques Dixmier, Jean Cerf, Yvonne Bruhat, Jean-Pierre Serre, and Bernard Malgrange), Leila Schneps said:\n\n His first works on topological vector spaces in 1953 have been successfully applied to physics and computer science, culminating in a relation between Grothendieck inequality and the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen paradox in quantum physics.",
"IHÉS years",
"In 1958, Grothendieck was installed at the Institut des hautes études scientifiques (IHÉS), a new privately funded research institute that, in effect, had been created for Jean Dieudonné and Grothendieck. Grothendieck attracted attention by an intense and highly productive activity of seminars there (de facto working groups drafting into foundational work some of the ablest French and other mathematicians of the younger generation)",
". Grothendieck practically ceased publication of papers through the conventional, learned journal route. He was, however, able to play a dominant role in mathematics for approximately a decade, gathering a strong school.",
"Officially during this time, he had as students Michel Demazure (who worked on SGA3, on group schemes), Luc Illusie (cotangent complex), Michel Raynaud, Jean-Louis Verdier (co-founder of the derived category theory), and Pierre Deligne. Collaborators on the SGA projects also included Michael Artin (étale cohomology), Nick Katz (monodromy theory, and Lefschetz pencils). Jean Giraud worked out torsor theory extensions of nonabelian cohomology there as well",
". Jean Giraud worked out torsor theory extensions of nonabelian cohomology there as well. Many others such as David Mumford, Robin Hartshorne, Barry Mazur and C.P. Ramanujam were also involved.",
"\"Golden Age\"",
"Alexander Grothendieck's work during what is described as the \"Golden Age\" period at the IHÉS established several unifying themes in algebraic geometry, number theory, topology, category theory, and complex analysis. His first (pre-IHÉS) discovery in algebraic geometry was the Grothendieck–Hirzebruch–Riemann–Roch theorem, a generalisation of the Hirzebruch–Riemann–Roch theorem proved algebraically; in this context he also introduced K-theory",
". Then, following the programme he outlined in his talk at the 1958 International Congress of Mathematicians, he introduced the theory of schemes, developing it in detail in his Éléments de géométrie algébrique (EGA) and providing the new more flexible and general foundations for algebraic geometry that has been adopted in the field since that time",
". He went on to introduce the étale cohomology theory of schemes, providing the key tools for proving the Weil conjectures, as well as crystalline cohomology and algebraic de Rham cohomology to complement it. Closely linked to these cohomology theories, he originated topos theory as a generalisation of topology (relevant also in categorical logic)",
". He also provided, by means of a categorical Galois theory, an algebraic definition of fundamental groups of schemes giving birth to the now famous Étale fundamental group and he then conjuctured the existence a further generalization of it, which is now known as the fundamental group scheme. As a framework for his coherent duality theory, he also introduced derived categories, which were further developed by Verdier.",
"The results of his work on these and other topics were published in the EGA and in less polished form in the notes of the Séminaire de géométrie algébrique (SGA) that he directed at the IHÉS.",
"Political activism",
"Grothendieck's political views were radical and pacifistic. He strongly opposed both United States intervention in Vietnam and Soviet military expansionism. To protest against the Vietnam War, he gave lectures on category theory in the forests surrounding Hanoi while the city was being bombed. In 1966, he had declined to attend the International Congress of Mathematicians (ICM) in Moscow, where he was to receive the Fields Medal",
". He retired from scientific life around 1970 after he had found out that IHÉS was partly funded by the military. He returned to academia a few years later as a professor at the University of Montpellier.",
"While the issue of military funding was perhaps the most obvious explanation for Grothendieck's departure from the IHÉS, those who knew him say that the causes of the rupture ran more deeply. Pierre Cartier, a visiteur de longue durée (\"long-term guest\") at the IHÉS, wrote a piece about Grothendieck for a special volume published on the occasion of the IHÉS's fortieth anniversary",
". In that publication, Cartier notes that as the son of an antimilitary anarchist and one who grew up among the disenfranchised, Grothendieck always had a deep compassion for the poor and the downtrodden. As Cartier puts it, Grothendieck came to find Bures-sur-Yvette as \"une cage dorée\" (\"a gilded cage\"). While Grothendieck was at the IHÉS, opposition to the Vietnam War was heating up, and Cartier suggests that this also reinforced Grothendieck's distaste at having become a mandarin of the scientific world",
". In addition, after several years at the IHÉS, Grothendieck seemed to cast about for new intellectual interests. By the late 1960s, he had started to become interested in scientific areas outside mathematics. David Ruelle, a physicist who joined the IHÉS faculty in 1964, said that Grothendieck came to talk to him a few times about physics. Biology interested Grothendieck much more than physics, and he organized some seminars on biological topics.",
"In 1970, Grothendieck, with two other mathematicians, Claude Chevalley and Pierre Samuel, created a political group entitled Survivre—the name later changed to Survivre et vivre. The group published a bulletin and was dedicated to antimilitary and ecological issues. It also developed strong criticism of the indiscriminate use of science and technology. Grothendieck devoted the next three years to this group and served as the main editor of its bulletin.",
"Although Grothendieck continued with mathematical enquiries, his standard mathematical career mostly ended when he left the IHÉS. After leaving the IHÉS, Grothendieck became a temporary professor at Collège de France for two years. He then became a professor at the University of Montpellier, where he became increasingly estranged from the mathematical community. He formally retired in 1988, a few years after having accepted a research position at the CNRS.",
"Manuscripts written in the 1980s \nWhile not publishing mathematical research in conventional ways during the 1980s, he produced several influential manuscripts with limited distribution, with both mathematical and biographical content.\n\nProduced during 1980 and 1981, La Longue Marche à travers la théorie de Galois (The Long March Through Galois Theory) is a 1600-page handwritten manuscript containing many of the ideas that led to the Esquisse d'un programme. It also includes a study of Teichmüller theory.",
"In 1983, stimulated by correspondence with Ronald Brown and Tim Porter at Bangor University, Grothendieck wrote a 600-page manuscript entitled Pursuing Stacks. It began with a letter addressed to Daniel Quillen. This letter and successive parts were distributed from Bangor (see External links below)",
". This letter and successive parts were distributed from Bangor (see External links below). Within these, in an informal, diary-like manner, Grothendieck explained and developed his ideas on the relationship between algebraic homotopy theory and algebraic geometry and prospects for a noncommutative theory of stacks. The manuscript, which is being edited for publication by G. Maltsiniotis, later led to another of his monumental works, Les Dérivateurs",
". Maltsiniotis, later led to another of his monumental works, Les Dérivateurs. Written in 1991, this latter opus of approximately 2000 pages, further developed the homotopical ideas begun in Pursuing Stacks. Much of this work anticipated the subsequent development during the mid-1990s of the motivic homotopy theory of Fabien Morel and Vladimir Voevodsky.",
"In 1984, Grothendieck wrote the proposal Esquisse d'un Programme (\"Sketch of a Programme\") for a position at the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS). It describes new ideas for studying the moduli space of complex curves. Although Grothendieck never published his work in this area, the proposal inspired other mathematicians to work in the area by becoming the source of dessin d'enfant theory and Anabelian geometry",
". Later, it was published in two-volumes and entitled Geometric Galois Actions (Cambridge University Press, 1997).",
"During this period, Grothendieck also gave his consent to publishing some of his drafts for EGA on Bertini-type theorems (EGA V, published in Ulam Quarterly in 1992–1993 and later made available on the Grothendieck Circle web site in 2004).",
"In the 1,000-page autobiographical manuscript, Récoltes et semailles (1986), Grothendieck describes his approach to mathematics and his experiences in the mathematical community, a community that initially accepted him in an open and welcoming manner, but which he progressively perceived to be governed by competition and status. He complains about what he saw as the \"burial\" of his work and betrayal by his former students and colleagues after he had left the community",
". The Récoltes et semailles work is now available on the internet in the French original, and an English translation is underway. A Japanese translation of the whole book in four volumes was completed by Tsuji Yuichi (1938–2002), a friend of Grothendieck from the Survivre period",
". The first three volumes (corresponding to Parts 0 to III of the book) were published between 1989 and 1993, while the fourth volume (Part IV) was completed and, although unpublished, copies of it as a typed manuscript are circulated. Grothendieck helped with the translation and wrote a preface for it, in which he called Tsuji his \"first true collaborator\". Parts of Récoltes et semailles have been translated into Spanish, as well as into a Russian translation that was published in Moscow",
". The French original was finally published in two volumes in January 2022, with additional texts by people of various professions who discuss certain aspects of the book.",
"In 1988, Grothendieck declined the Crafoord Prize with an open letter to the media. He wrote that he and other established mathematicians had no need for additional financial support and criticized what he saw as the declining ethics of the scientific community that was characterized by outright scientific theft that he believed had become commonplace and tolerated",
". The letter also expressed his belief that totally unforeseen events before the end of the century would lead to an unprecedented collapse of civilization. Grothendieck added however that his views were \"in no way meant as a criticism of the Royal Academy's aims in the administration of its funds\" and he added, \"I regret the inconvenience that my refusal to accept the Crafoord prize may have caused you and the Royal Academy.\"",
"La Clef des Songes, a 315-page manuscript written in 1987, is Grothendieck's account of how his consideration of the source of dreams led him to conclude that a deity exists. As part of the notes to this manuscript, Grothendieck described the life and the work of 18 \"mutants\", people whom he admired as visionaries far ahead of their time and heralding a new age. The only mathematician on his list was Bernhard Riemann",
". The only mathematician on his list was Bernhard Riemann. Influenced by the Catholic mystic Marthe Robin who was claimed to have survived on the Holy Eucharist alone, Grothendieck almost starved himself to death in 1988. His growing preoccupation with spiritual matters was also evident in a letter entitled Lettre de la Bonne Nouvelle sent to 250 friends in January 1990. In it, he described his encounters with a deity and announced that a \"New Age\" would commence on 14 October 1996.",
"The Grothendieck Festschrift, published in 1990, was a three-volume collection of research papers to mark his sixtieth birthday in 1988.\n\nMore than 20,000 pages of Grothendieck's mathematical and other writings are held at the University of Montpellier and remain unpublished. They have been digitized for preservation and are freely available in open access through the Institut Montpelliérain Alexander Grothendieck portal.",
"Retirement into reclusion and death",
"In 1991, Grothendieck moved to a new address that he did not share with his previous contacts in the mathematical community. Very few people visited him afterward. Local villagers helped sustain him with a more varied diet after he tried to live on a staple of dandelion soup. At some point, Leila Schneps and Pierre Lochak located him, then carried on a brief correspondence. Thus they became among \"the last members of the mathematical establishment to come into contact with him\"",
". After his death, it was revealed that he lived alone in a house in Lasserre, Ariège, a small village at the foot of the Pyrenees.",
"In January 2010, Grothendieck wrote the letter entitled \"Déclaration d'intention de non-publication\" to Luc Illusie, claiming that all materials published in his absence had been published without his permission. He asked that none of his work be reproduced in whole or in part and that copies of this work be removed from libraries. He characterized a website devoted to his work as \"an abomination\". His dictate may have been reversed in 2010.",
"On 13 November 2014, aged 86, Grothendieck died in the hospital of Saint-Girons, Ariège.",
"Citizenship",
"Grothendieck was born in Weimar Germany. In 1938, aged ten, he moved to France as a refugee. Records of his nationality were destroyed in the fall of Nazi Germany in 1945 and he did not apply for French citizenship after the war. Thus, he became a stateless person for at least the majority of his working life and he traveled on a Nansen passport. Part of his reluctance to hold French nationality is attributed to not wishing to serve in the French military, particularly due to the Algerian War (1954–62)",
". He eventually applied for French citizenship in the early 1980s, after he was well past the age that exempted him from military service.",
"Family \nGrothendieck was very close to his mother to whom he dedicated his dissertation. She died in 1957 from the tuberculosis that she contracted in camps for displaced persons. \n\nHe had five children: a son with his landlady during his time in Nancy; three children, Johanna (1959), Alexander (1961), and Mathieu (1965) with his wife Mireille Dufour; and one child with Justine Skalba, with whom he lived in a commune in the early 1970s.",
"Mathematical work",
"Grothendieck's early mathematical work was in functional analysis. Between 1949 and 1953 he worked on his doctoral thesis in this subject at Nancy, supervised by Jean Dieudonné and Laurent Schwartz. His key contributions include topological tensor products of topological vector spaces, the theory of nuclear spaces as foundational for Schwartz distributions, and the application of Lp spaces in studying linear maps between topological vector spaces",
". In a few years, he had become a leading authority on this area of functional analysis—to the extent that Dieudonné compares his impact in this field to that of Banach.",
"It is, however, in algebraic geometry and related fields where Grothendieck did his most important and influential work. From approximately 1955 he started to work on sheaf theory and homological algebra, producing the influential \"Tôhoku paper\" (Sur quelques points d'algèbre homologique, published in the Tohoku Mathematical Journal in 1957) where he introduced abelian categories and applied their theory to show that sheaf cohomology may be defined as certain derived functors in this context.",
"Homological methods and sheaf theory had already been introduced in algebraic geometry by Jean-Pierre Serre and others, after sheaves had been defined by Jean Leray. Grothendieck took them to a higher level of abstraction and turned them into a key organising principle of his theory. He shifted attention from the study of individual varieties to his relative point of view (pairs of varieties related by a morphism), allowing a broad generalization of many classical theorems",
". The first major application was the relative version of Serre's theorem showing that the cohomology of a coherent sheaf on a complete variety is finite-dimensional; Grothendieck's theorem shows that the higher direct images of coherent sheaves under a proper map are coherent; this reduces to Serre's theorem over a one-point space.",
"In 1956, he applied the same thinking to the Riemann–Roch theorem, which recently had been generalized to any dimension by Hirzebruch. The Grothendieck–Riemann–Roch theorem was announced by Grothendieck at the initial Mathematische Arbeitstagung in Bonn, in 1957. It appeared in print in a paper written by Armand Borel with Serre. This result was his first work in algebraic geometry",
". This result was his first work in algebraic geometry. Grothendieck went on to plan and execute a programme for rebuilding the foundations of algebraic geometry, which at the time were in a state of flux and under discussion in Claude Chevalley's seminar. He outlined his programme in his talk at the 1958 International Congress of Mathematicians.",
"His foundational work on algebraic geometry is at a higher level of abstraction than all prior versions. He adapted the use of non-closed generic points, which led to the theory of schemes. Grothendieck also pioneered the systematic use of nilpotents. As 'functions' these can take only the value 0, but they carry infinitesimal information, in purely algebraic settings",
". His theory of schemes has become established as the best universal foundation for this field, because of its expressiveness as well as its technical depth. In that setting one can use birational geometry, techniques from number theory, Galois theory, commutative algebra, and close analogues of the methods of algebraic topology, all in an integrated way.",
"Grothendieck is noted for his mastery of abstract approaches to mathematics and his perfectionism in matters of formulation and presentation. Relatively little of his work after 1960 was published by the conventional route of the learned journal, circulating initially in duplicated volumes of seminar notes; his influence was to a considerable extent personal. His influence spilled over into many other branches of mathematics, for example the contemporary theory of D-modules",
". Although lauded as \"the Einstein of mathematics\", his work also provoked adverse reactions, with many mathematicians seeking out more concrete areas and problems.",
"EGA, SGA, FGA\nThe bulk of Grothendieck's published work is collected in the monumental, yet incomplete, Éléments de géométrie algébrique (EGA) and Séminaire de géométrie algébrique (SGA). The collection, Fondements de la Géometrie Algébrique (FGA), which gathers together talks given in the Séminaire Bourbaki, also contains important material.",
"Grothendieck's work includes the invention of the étale and l-adic cohomology theories, which explain an observation made by André Weil that argued for a connection between the topological characteristics of a variety and its diophantine (number theoretic) properties. For example, the number of solutions of an equation over a finite field reflects the topological nature of its solutions over the complex numbers",
". Weil had realized that to prove such a connection, one needed a new cohomology theory, but neither he nor any other expert saw how to accomplish this until such a theory was expressed by Grothendieck.",
"This program culminated in the proofs of the Weil conjectures, the last of which was settled by Grothendieck's student Pierre Deligne in the early 1970s after Grothendieck had largely withdrawn from mathematics.",
"Major mathematical contributions \nIn Grothendieck's retrospective Récoltes et Semailles, he identified twelve of his contributions that he believed qualified as \"great ideas\". In chronological order, they are:\n Topological tensor products and nuclear spaces\n \"Continuous\" and \"discrete\" duality (derived categories, \"six operations\")\n Yoga of the Grothendieck–Riemann–Roch theorem K-theory relation with intersection theory\n Schemes\n Topoi\n Étale cohomology and l-adic cohomology",
"Schemes\n Topoi\n Étale cohomology and l-adic cohomology\n Motives and the motivic Galois group (Grothendieck ⊗-categories)\n Crystals and crystalline cohomology, yoga of \"de Rham coefficients\", \"Hodge coefficients\"...\n \"Topological algebra\": ∞-stacks, derivators; cohomological formalism of topoi as inspiration for a new homotopical algebra\n Tame topology\n Yoga of anabelian algebraic geometry, Galois–Teichmüller theory",
"Tame topology\n Yoga of anabelian algebraic geometry, Galois–Teichmüller theory\n \"Schematic\" or \"arithmetic\" point of view for regular polyhedra and regular configurations of all kinds",
"Here the term yoga denotes a kind of \"meta-theory\" that may be used heuristically; Michel Raynaud writes the other terms \"Ariadne's thread\" and \"philosophy\" as effective equivalents.",
"Grothendieck wrote that, of these themes, the largest in scope was topoi, as they synthesized algebraic geometry, topology, and arithmetic. The theme that had been most extensively developed was schemes, which were the framework \"par excellence\" for eight of the other themes (all but 1, 5, and 12). Grothendieck wrote that the first and last themes, topological tensor products and regular configurations, were of more modest size than the others",
". Topological tensor products had played the role of a tool rather than of a source of inspiration for further developments; but he expected that regular configurations could not be exhausted within the lifetime of a mathematician who devoted oneself to it. He believed that the deepest themes were motives, anabelian geometry, and Galois–Teichmüller theory.",
"Influence \nGrothendieck is considered by many to be the greatest mathematician of the twentieth century. In an obituary David Mumford and John Tate wrote:",
"Although mathematics became more and more abstract and general throughout the 20th century, it was Alexander Grothendieck who was the greatest master of this trend. His unique skill was to eliminate all unnecessary hypotheses and burrow into an area so deeply that its inner patterns on the most abstract level revealed themselves–and then, like a magician, show how the solution of old problems fell out in straightforward ways now that their real nature had been revealed.",
"By the 1970s, Grothendieck's work was seen as influential, not only in algebraic geometry and the allied fields of sheaf theory and homological algebra, but influenced logic, in the field of categorical logic.",
"Geometry",
"Grothendieck approached algebraic geometry by clarifying the foundations of the field, and by developing mathematical tools intended to prove a number of notable conjectures. Algebraic geometry has traditionally meant the understanding of geometric objects, such as algebraic curves and surfaces, through the study of the algebraic equations for those objects. Properties of algebraic equations are in turn studied using the techniques of ring theory",
". Properties of algebraic equations are in turn studied using the techniques of ring theory. In this approach, the properties of a geometric object are related to the properties of an associated ring. The space (e.g., real, complex, or projective) in which the object is defined, is extrinsic to the object, while the ring is intrinsic.",
"Grothendieck laid a new foundation for algebraic geometry by making intrinsic spaces (\"spectra\") and associated rings the primary objects of study. To that end, he developed the theory of schemes that informally can be thought of as topological spaces on which a commutative ring is associated to every open subset of the space. Schemes have become the basic objects of study for practitioners of modern algebraic geometry",
". Schemes have become the basic objects of study for practitioners of modern algebraic geometry. Their use as a foundation allowed geometry to absorb technical advances from other fields.",
"His generalization of the classical Riemann–Roch theorem related topological properties of complex algebraic curves to their algebraic structure and now bears his name, being called \"the Grothendieck–Hirzebruch–Riemann–Roch theorem\". The tools he developed to prove this theorem started the study of algebraic and topological K-theory, which explores the topological properties of objects by associating them with rings",
". After direct contact with Grothendieck's ideas at the Bonn Arbeitstagung, topological K-theory was founded by Michael Atiyah and Friedrich Hirzebruch.",
"Cohomology theories \nGrothendieck's construction of new cohomology theories, which use algebraic techniques to study topological objects, has influenced the development of algebraic number theory, algebraic topology, and representation theory. As part of this project, his creation of topos theory, a category-theoretic generalization of point-set topology, has influenced the fields of set theory and mathematical logic.",
"The Weil conjectures were formulated in the later 1940s as a set of mathematical problems in arithmetic geometry. They describe properties of analytic invariants, called local zeta functions, of the number of points on an algebraic curve or variety of higher dimension. Grothendieck's discovery of the ℓ-adic étale cohomology, the first example of a Weil cohomology theory, opened the way for a proof of the Weil conjectures, ultimately completed in the 1970s by his student Pierre Deligne",
". Grothendieck's large-scale approach has been called a \"visionary program\". The ℓ-adic cohomology then became a fundamental tool for number theorists, with applications to the Langlands program.",
"Grothendieck's conjectural theory of motives was intended to be the \"ℓ-adic\" theory but without the choice of \"ℓ\", a prime number. It did not provide the intended route to the Weil conjectures, but has been behind modern developments in algebraic K-theory, motivic homotopy theory, and motivic integration. This theory, Daniel Quillen's work, and Grothendieck's theory of Chern classes, are considered the background to the theory of algebraic cobordism, another algebraic analogue of topological ideas.",
"Category theory",
"Grothendieck's emphasis on the role of universal properties across varied mathematical structures brought category theory into the mainstream as an organizing principle for mathematics in general. Among its uses, category theory creates a common language for describing similar structures and techniques seen in many different mathematical systems. His notion of abelian category is now the basic object of study in homological algebra",
". His notion of abelian category is now the basic object of study in homological algebra. The emergence of a separate mathematical discipline of category theory has been attributed to Grothendieck's influence, although unintentional.",
"In popular culture \nThe novel Colonel Lágrimas (Colonel Tears in English, available by Restless Books) by Puerto Rican–Costa Rican writer Carlos Fonseca is a semibiographic novel about Grothendieck.\n\nThe band Stone Hill All Stars have a song named after Alexander Grothendieck.\n\nIn the novel When We Cease to Understand the World, Benjamin Labatut dedicates one chapter to the story of Grothendieck.",
"In the novel The Passenger and its sequel Stella Maris by Cormac McCarthy, one of the main characters is a student of Grothendieck.\n\nPublications\n\nSee also",
"∞-groupoid\n λ-ring\n AB5 category\n Abelian category\n Accessible category\n Algebraic geometry\n Algebraic stack\n \n Barsotti–Tate group\n Chern class\n \n \n \n \n \n Descent (mathematics)\n Dévissage\n \n Dunford–Pettis property\n \n Excellent ring\n \n Formally smooth map\n \n Fundamental group scheme\n \n \n K-theory\n Hilbert scheme\n Homotopy hypothesis\n \n List of things named after Alexander Grothendieck\n \n Nakai conjecture\n \n \n Nuclear operator\n Nuclear space\n Parafactorial local ring\n Projective tensor product",
"Nuclear operator\n Nuclear space\n Parafactorial local ring\n Projective tensor product\n \n \n Quasi-finite morphism\n Quot scheme\n \n Scheme (mathematics)\n Section conjecture\n Semistable abelian variety\n Sheaf cohomology\n Stack (mathematics)\n Standard conjectures on algebraic cycles\n Sketch of a program\n Tannakian formalism\n Theorem of absolute purity\n Theorem on formal functions\n Ultrabornological space\n Weil conjectures\n Vector bundles on algebraic curves\n Zariski's main theorem",
"Notes\n\nReferences\n\nSources and further reading \n\n \n \n \n \n English translation of .\n \n English translation: \n\n \n\n \n\n First part of planned four-volume biography. \n English version.\n \n A review of the German edition\n\n Third part of planned four-volume biography; crowd-financed translation into English.\n First 4 chapters from the incomplete second part of planned four-volume biography.\n\nExternal links",
"Séminaire Grothendieck is a peripatetic seminar on Grothendieck view not just on mathematics \n Grothendieck Circle, collection of mathematical and biographical information, photos, links to his writings\n The origins of 'Pursuing Stacks': This is an account of how 'Pursuing Stacks' was written in response to a correspondence in English with Ronnie Brown and Tim Porter at Bangor, which continued until 1991. See also Alexander Grothendieck: some recollections.\n Récoltes et Semailles",
"Récoltes et Semailles\n \"Récoltes et Semailles\" et \"La Clef des Songes\", French originals and Spanish translations\n English summary of \"La Clef des Songes\"\n Video of a lecture with photos from Grothendieck's life, given by Winfried Scharlau at IHES in 2009\n Can one explain schemes to biologists —biographical sketch of Grothendieck by David Mumford & John Tate\n Archives Grothendieck\n \"Who Is Alexander Grothendieck?, Winfried Scharlau, Notices of the AMS 55(8), 2008.",
"\"Who Is Alexander Grothendieck?, Winfried Scharlau, Notices of the AMS 55(8), 2008.\n \"Alexander Grothendieck: A Country Known Only by Name, Pierre Cartier, Notices of the AMS 62(4), 2015.\n Alexandre Grothendieck 1928–2014, Part 1, Notices of the AMS 63(3), 2016.\n A. Grothendieck by Mateo Carmona\n Les-archives-insaisissables-d-alexandre-grothendieck\n Kutateladze S.S. Rebellious Genius: In Memory of Alexander Grothendieck\n Alexandre-Grothendieck-une-mathematique-en-cathedrale-gothique",
"Alexandre-Grothendieck-une-mathematique-en-cathedrale-gothique\n Les-archives-insaisissables-d-alexandre-grothendieck",
"1928 births\n2014 deaths\n20th-century French mathematicians\nAlgebraic geometers\nAlgebraists\nEmigrants from Nazi Germany to France\nFields Medalists\nFrench pacifists\nFunctional analysts\nGerman people of Russian-Jewish descent\nNancy-Université alumni\nNicolas Bourbaki\nNon-interventionism\nOperator theorists\nScientists from Berlin\nStateless people"
] |
Moses in Islam
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moses%20in%20Islam
|
[
"Mūsā ibn ʿImrān (, ) is an important prophet and messenger of God and is the most frequently mentioned individual in the Quran, with his name being mentioned 136 times and his life being narrated and recounted more than that of any other prophet. He is one of the most important prophets and messengers of Islam.",
"According to the Quran, Musa was born to an Israelite family. In his childhood, he is put in a basket which flows towards Nile, and eventually Musa is discovered by Pharaoh's (Fir'awn) wife (not named in the Quran but called Asiya in Islamic tradition), who takes Musa as her adopted son. After reaching adulthood, Musa then resides in Midian, before departing for Egypt again to threaten the Pharaoh",
". During his prophethood, Musa is said to have performed many miracles, and is also reported to have personally talked to God, who bestows the title 'Speaker of God' () upon Musa. The prophet's most popular miracle is him dividing the Red sea, with a miraculous staff provided by God. Apart from the Quran, Musa is also described and praised in the Hadith literature as well. After Pharaoh's death, Musa and his followers travel towards Jerusalem, where the prophet eventually dies",
". In Islamic tradition, he is believed to have been buried at Nabi Musa, and eventually raised towards the heavens. Afterwards, he is reported to have met Muhammad in the seven heavens following the latter's ascension from Jerusalem during the Night Journey (). During the journey, Musa is said by Muslims to have repeatedly sent Muhammad back, and request a reduction in the number of required daily prayers, originally believed to be fifty, until only the five obligatory prayers remained.",
"Musa is viewed as a very important figure in Islam. According to Islamic theology, all Muslims must have faith in every prophet and messenger of God, which includes Musa and his brother Harun. The life of Musa is generally seen as a spiritual parallel to the life of Muhammad, and Muslims consider many aspects of the two individuals' lives to be shared",
". Islamic literature also describes a parallel relation between their people and the incidents that occurred in their lifetimes; the exodus of the Israelites from ancient Egypt is considered to be similar in nature to the migration of Muhammad and his followers from Mecca to Medina as both events unfolded in the face of persecution—of the Israelites by the ancient Egyptians, and of the early Muslims by the Meccans, respectively",
". His revelations, such as the Ten Commandments, which form part of the contents of the Torah and are central to the Abrahamic religions of Judaism and Christianity. Consequently, Jews and Christians are designated as \"People of the Book\" for Muslims and are to be recognized with this special status wherever Islamic law is applied",
". Musa is further revered in Islamic literature, which expands upon the incidents of his life and the miracles attributed to him in the Quran and hadith, such as his direct conversations with God.",
"Generally, Moses is seen as a legendary figure by biblical scholars, some of whom consider it possible that Moses or a Moses-like figure existed in the 13th century BCE.\n\nLife",
"Childhood",
"to Islamic tradition, Musa was born into a family of Israelites living in Egypt. Of his family, Islamic tradition generally names his father 'Imran, corresponding to the Amram of the Hebrew Bible, traditional genealogies name Levi as his ancestor. Islam states that Musa was born in a time when the ruling King had enslaved the Israelites after the time of the prophet Yusuf (Joseph)",
". Islamic literature states that around the time of Musa's birth, the Pharaoh has a dream in which he sees fire coming from the city of Jerusalem, which burns everything in his kingdom except in the land of the Israelites (another version says that the Pharaoh dreams of a little boy who catches the Pharaoh's crown and destroys it, although there is no authentic Islamic reference to whether the dreams actually occurred)",
". When the Pharaoh is informed that one of the male children would grow up to overthrow him, he orders the killing of all newborn Israelite males in order to prevent the prediction from occurring. Experts of economics in Pharaoh's court advise him that killing the male infants of the Israelites would result in loss of manpower. Therefore, they suggest that male infants should be killed in one year but spared the next",
". Therefore, they suggest that male infants should be killed in one year but spared the next. Musa's brother, Harun, was born in the year when infants were spared, while Musa was born in the year when infants were to be killed.",
"Incident of the Nile",
"According to Islamic tradition, Jochebed, Musa's mother, suckles him secretly during this period. When they are in danger of being caught, God inspires her to put him in a wicker basket and set him adrift on the Nile. She instructs her daughter to follow the course of the ark and report back to her. As her daughter follows the ark along the riverbank, Musa is discovered by the Pharaoh's wife, Asiya, who convinces the Pharaoh to adopt him. When Asiya ordered wet nurses for Musa, Musa refuses to be breastfed",
". When Asiya ordered wet nurses for Musa, Musa refuses to be breastfed. Islamic tradition states that this is because God forbids Musa from being fed by any wet nurse in order to reunite him with his mother. His sister worries that Musa has not been fed for some time, so she appears to the Pharaoh and informs him that she knows someone who can feed him. After being questioned, she is ordered to bring the woman being discussed",
". After being questioned, she is ordered to bring the woman being discussed. The sister brings their mother, who feeds Musa, and thereafter, she is appointed as the wet nurse of Musa.",
"Historicity\n\nProphethood",
"Test of prophecy",
"According to Isra'iliyat hadith, when Musa is playing on the Pharaoh's lap in his childhood, he grabs the Pharaoh's beard and slaps him in the face. This action prompts the Pharaoh to consider Musa as the Israelite who would overthrow him, and the Pharaoh wants to kill Musa. The Pharaoh's wife persuades him not to kill him because he is an infant. Instead, he decides to test Musa. Two plates are set before young Musa, one containing rubies and the other glowing coals",
". Two plates are set before young Musa, one containing rubies and the other glowing coals. Musa reaches out for the rubies, but the angel Gabriel directs his hand to the coals. Musa grabs a glowing coal and puts it in his mouth, burning his tongue. After the incident, Musa suffers a speech defect, but is spared by the Pharaoh.",
"Escape to Midian and Marriage",
"After having reached adulthood, according to the Quran, Musa is passing through a city when he comes across an Egyptian fighting with an Israelite. The Israelite man is believed to be Sam'ana, known in the Bible to be a Samaritan, who asks Musa for his assistance against the Egyptian who is mistreating him. Musa attempts to intervene and becomes involved in the dispute. Musa strikes the Egyptian in a state of anger, which results in his death",
". Musa strikes the Egyptian in a state of anger, which results in his death. Musa then repents to God, and the following day, he again comes across the same Israelite fighting with another Egyptian. The Israelite again asks Musa for help, and as Musa approaches the Israelite, he reminds Musa of his manslaughter and asks if Musa intended to kill the Egyptian. Musa is reported, and the Pharaoh orders Musa to be killed. However, Musa flees to the desert after being alerted to his punishment",
". However, Musa flees to the desert after being alerted to his punishment. According to Islamic tradition, after Musa arrives in Midian, he witnesses two female shepherds driving back their flocks from a well. Musa approaches them and inquires about their work as shepherds and their retreat from the well. Upon hearing their answers and about the old age of their father, Shuaib, Musa waters their flocks for them. The two shepherds return to their home and inform their father of Musa",
". The two shepherds return to their home and inform their father of Musa. They then invite Musa to a feast. At that feast, their father asks Musa to work for him for eight years in return for marriage to one of his daughters. Musa consents and works for him for ten years.",
"Preaching\n\nCall to prophethood",
"According to the Quran, Musa departs for Egypt along with his family after completing the contracted time period. During their travel, as they stop near At-Tur, Musa observes a large fire and instructs the family to wait until he returns with fire for them. When Musa reaches the Valley of Tuwa, God calls out to him from the right side of the valley from a tree, on what is revered as Al-Buq‘ah Al-Mubārakah (\"The Blessed Ground\") in the Quran",
". Musa is commanded by God to remove his shoes and is informed of his selection as a prophet, his obligation of prayer and the Day of Judgment. Musa is then ordered to throw his rod, which turns into a snake, and later instructed to hold it. The Quran then narrates Musa being ordered to insert his hand into his clothes and when he revealed it, it shines a bright light. God states that these are signs for the Pharaoh, and orders Musa to invite Pharaoh to the worship of one God",
". Musa expresses his fear of Pharaoh and requests God to heal his speech impediment and grant him Harun as a helper. According to Islamic tradition, both of them state their fear of Pharaoh, but are assured by God that He would be observing them and commands them to inform the Pharaoh to free the Israelites. Therefore, they depart to preach to the Pharaoh.",
"The Quran states that Musa was sent by God to confront the erstwhile (pharaoh) of ancient Egypt and to guide the Israelites, who were enslaved by the former. The Quran directly validates Musa and Harun as prophets chosen by God:",
"Arrival at Pharaoh's court",
"When Musa and Harun arrive in the court of Pharaoh and proclaim their prophethood to the Pharaoh, the Pharaoh begins questioning Musa about the God he follows. The Quran narrates that Musa answers the Pharaoh by stating that he follows the God who gives everything its form and guides them. The Pharaoh then inquires about the generations who passed before them, and Musa answers that knowledge of the previous generations is with God",
". The Quran also mentions the Pharaoh questioning Musa: “And what is the Lord of the worlds?” Musa replies that God is the lord of the heavens, the earth and what is between them. The Pharaoh then reminds Musa of his childhood with them and the killing of the man he has done. Musa admits that he has committed the deed in ignorance, but insists that he is now forgiven and guided by God",
". Pharaoh accuses him of being mad and threatens to imprison him if he continues to proclaim that the Pharaoh is not the true god. Musa informs him that he has come with manifest signs from God. When the Pharaoh demands to see the signs, Musa throws his staff to the floor, and it turns into a serpent. He then draws out his hand, and it shines a bright white light. The Pharaoh's counselors advises him that this is sorcery, and on their advice he summons the best sorcerers in the kingdom",
". The Pharaoh challenges Musa to a battle between him and the Pharaoh's magicians, asking him to choose the day. Musa chose the day of a festival.",
"Confrontation with sorcerers",
"When the sorcerers come to the Pharaoh, he promises them that they would be among the honored among his assembly if they won. On the day of the festival of Egypt, Musa grants the sorcerers the chance to perform first and warned them that God would expose their tricks. The Quran states that the sorcerers bewitch the eyes of the observers and cause them terror. The summoned sorcerers throw their rods on the floor, and they appear to change into snakes by the effect of their magic",
". At first, Musa becomes concerned witnessing the tricks of the magicians, but is assured by God to not be worried. When Musa does the same his rod, the serpent devours all the sorcerers' snakes. The sorcerers realize that they have witnessed a miracle. They proclaim belief in the message of Musa and fall onto their knees in prostration despite threats from the Pharaoh. The Pharaoh is enraged by this and accuses them of working under Musa",
". The Pharaoh is enraged by this and accuses them of working under Musa. He warns them that if they insist in believing in Musa, he would cut their hands and feet on opposite sides, and crucify them on the trunks of palm trees for their betrayal of the Pharaoh. The magicians, however, remain steadfast to their newfound faith and are punished by Pharaoh.",
"Exodus",
"Plagues of Egypt",
"After losing against Musa, the Pharaoh continues to plan against Musa and the Israelites, ordering meetings with the ministers, princes and priests. According to the Quran, the Pharaoh is reported to have ordered his minister, Haman, to build a tower so that he \"may look at the God of Musa\". Gradually, the Pharaoh begins to fear that Musa may convince the people that he is not the true god, and wants to have Musa killed",
". After this threat, a man from the family of Pharaoh, who had years ago warned Musa, comes forth and warns the people of the punishment of God for the wrongdoers and reward for the righteous. The Pharaoh defiantly refuses to allow the Israelites to leave Egypt. The Quran states that God decrees punishments over him and his people",
". The Quran states that God decrees punishments over him and his people. These punishments come in the form of floods that demolish their dwellings, swarms of locust that destroy the crops, pestilence of lice that makes their life miserable, toads that croak and spring everywhere, and the turning of all drinking water into blood. Each time the Pharaoh is subjected to humiliation, his defiance becomes greater",
". Each time the Pharaoh is subjected to humiliation, his defiance becomes greater. The Quran mentions that God instructs Musa to travel at night with the Israelites and warns them that they would be pursued. The Pharaoh chases the Israelites with his army after realizing that they have left during the night.",
"Dividing the sea",
"Having escaped and now being pursued by the Egyptians, the Israelites stop when they reach the seafront. The Israelites exclaim to Musa that they would be overtaken by Pharaoh and his army. In response, God commands Musa to strike the Red Sea with his staff, instructing them not to fear being inundated or drowning in sea water. Upon striking the sea, Musa splits it into two parts, forming a path that allows the Israelites to pass through",
". The Pharaoh witnesses the sea dividing alongside his army, but as they also try to pass through, the sea closes in on them. As he is about to die, Pharaoh proclaims belief in the God of Musa and the Israelites, but his belief is rejected by God. The Quran states that the body of the Pharaoh is made a sign and warning for all future generations. As the Israelites continue their journey to the Promised Land, they come upon people who are worshipping idols",
". The Israelites request to have an idol to worship, but Musa refuses and states that the polytheists would be destroyed by God. They are granted manna and quail as sustenance from God, but the Israelites ask Musa to pray to God for the earth to grow lentils, onions, herbs and cucumbers for their sustenance",
". When they stop in their travel to the Promised Land due to lack of water, Musa is commanded by God to strike a stone, and upon its impact twelve springs came forth, each for a specific tribe of the Israelites.",
"Years in the wilderness\n\nRevelation of the Torah",
"After leaving Egypt, Musa leads the Israelites to Mount Sinai (Tur). Upon arrival, Musa leaves the people, instructing them that Harun is to be their leader during his absence. Musa encountered Iblis at Mount Sinai and Musa asked him why he refused to prostrate before Ādam. Musa is commanded by God to fast for thirty days and to then proceed to the valley of Tuwa for guidance. God orders Musa to fast again for ten days before returning",
". God orders Musa to fast again for ten days before returning. After completing his fasts, Musa returns to the spot where he had first received his miracles from God. He takes off his shoes as before and goes down into prostration. Musa prays to God for guidance and begs God to reveal himself to him",
". Musa prays to God for guidance and begs God to reveal himself to him. It is narrated in the Quran that God tells him that it would not be possible for Musa to perceive God, but that He would reveal himself to the mountain, stating: \"By no means canst thou see Me (direct); But look upon the mount; if it abide in its place, then shalt thou see Me.\" When God reveals himself to the mountain, it instantaneously turns into ashes, and Musa loses consciousness",
". When he recovers, he goes down in total submission and asks forgiveness of God.",
"Musa is then given the Ten Commandments by God as Guidance and as Mercy. Meanwhile, in his absence, a man named Samiri creates a Golden Calf, proclaiming it to be the God of Musa. The people begin to worship it. Harun attempts to guide them away from the Golden Calf, but the Israelites refuse to do so until Musa returns. Musa, having thus received the scriptures for his people, is informed by God that the Israelites has been tested in his absence, and they have gone astray by worshiping the Golden Calf",
". Musa comes down from the mountain and returns to his people. The Quran states that Musa, in his anger, grabs hold of Harun by his beard and admonishes him for doing nothing to stop them, but when Harun tells Musa of his fruitless attempt to stop them, Musa understands his helplessness, and they both pray to God for forgiveness. Musa then questions Samiri for creating the Golden Calf. Samiri replies that it had simply occurred to him, and he had done so",
". Samiri replies that it had simply occurred to him, and he had done so. Samiri is exiled, and the Golden Calf is burned to ashes, and the ashes are thrown into the sea. The wrong-doers who have worshipped the Calf are ordered to be punished for their crime.",
"Musa then chooses 70 elites from among the Israelites and orders them to pray for forgiveness. Shortly thereafter, the elders travel alongside Musa to witness the speech between Musa and God. Despite witnessing the speech between them, they refuse to believe until they see God with their own eyes, so as punishment, a thunderbolt kills them. Musa prays for their forgiveness, and they are resurrected. They return to camp and set up a tent dedicated to worshiping God, as Harun had taught them from the Torah",
". They resume their journey towards the Promised Land.",
"The Israelites and the cow",
"Islamic exegesis narrates the incident of an old and pious man who lives among the Israelites and earns his living honestly. As he is dying, he places his wife, his little son, and his only possession—a calf in God's care—instructing his wife to take the calf and leave it in a forest. His wife does as she is told, and after a few years, when the son has grown up, she informs him about the calf. The son travels to the forest with a rope. He prostrates and prays to God to return the calf to him",
". He prostrates and prays to God to return the calf to him. As the son prays, the now-grown cow stops beside him. The son takes the cow with him. The son is also pious and earns his living as a lumberjack.",
"One wealthy man among the Israelites dies and leaves his wealth to his son. The relatives of the wealthy son secretly murder the son in order to inherit his wealth. The other relatives of the son come to Musa and ask for his help in tracing the killers. Musa instructs them to slaughter a cow, cut out its tongue, and then place it on the corpse; this would reveal the killers",
". The relatives do not believe Musa and do not understand why they are instructed to slaughter a cow when they are trying to find the killers. They accuse Musa of joking, but Musa manages to convince them that he is serious. Hoping to delay the process, the relatives ask the type and age of the cow they should slaughter, but Musa tells them that it is neither old nor young but in-between the two ages",
". Instead of searching for the cow described, they inquire about its colour, to which Musa replies that it is yellow. They ask Musa for more details, and he informs them that it is unyoked, and does not plow the soil nor does it water the tilth. The relatives and Musa search for the described cow, but the only cow that they find to fit the description belongs to an orphaned youth. The youth refuses to sell the cow without consulting his mother. All of them travel together to the youth's home",
". All of them travel together to the youth's home. The mother refuses to sell the cow, despite the relatives constantly increasing the price. They urge the orphaned son to tell his mother to be more reasonable. However, the son refuse to sell the cow without his mother's agreement, claiming that he would not sell it even if they offered to fill its skin with gold. At this, the mother agrees to sell it for its skin filled with gold",
". At this, the mother agrees to sell it for its skin filled with gold. The relatives and Musa consent, and the cow is slaughtered and the corpse is touched by its tongue. The corpse rises back to life and reveals the identity of the killers.",
"Meeting with Khidr",
"One hadith recounts that when Musa is delivering an impressive sermon, an Israelite inquires if there were anyone more knowledgeable than him. When Musa denies any such person exists, he receives a revelation from God, which admonishes Musa for not attributing absolute knowledge to God and informs Musa that there is someone named Khidr who is more knowledgeable than him. Upon inquiry, God informs Musa that Khidr would be found at the junction of two seas",
". Upon inquiry, God informs Musa that Khidr would be found at the junction of two seas. God instructs Musa to take a live fish and at the location where it would escape, Khidr would be found. Afterwards, Musa departs and travels with a boy named Yusha (Yeshua bin Nun), until they stop near a rock where Musa rests. While Musa is asleep, the fish escapes from the basket. When Musa wakes up, they continue until they stop to eat",
". When Musa wakes up, they continue until they stop to eat. At that moment, Yusha remembers that the fish had slipped from the basket at the rock. He informs Musa about the fish, and Musa remembers God's statement, so they retrace their steps back to the rock. There they see Khidr. Musa approaches Khidr and greets him. Khidr instead asks Musa how people are greeted in their land. Musa introduces himself, and Khidr identifies him as the prophet of the Israelites",
". Musa introduces himself, and Khidr identifies him as the prophet of the Israelites. According to the Quran, Musa asks Khidr: \"Shall I closely follow you on condition that you teach me of what you have been taught?\" Khidr warns that he would not be able to remain patient and consents on the condition that Musa would not question his actions.",
"They walk on the seashore and pass by a ship. The crew of the ship recognize Khidr and offer them to board their ship free of charge. When they are on the boat, Khidr takes an adze and pulls up a plank. When Musa notices what Khidr is doing, he is astonished and stops him. Musa reminds Khidr that the crew has taken them aboard for free. Khidr admonishes Musa for forgetting his promise of not asking. Musa states that he has forgotten and asks to be forgiven",
". Musa states that he has forgotten and asks to be forgiven. When they leave the seashore, they pass by a boy playing with others. Khidr takes hold of the boy's head and kills him. Musa is again astonished by this action and questions Khidr regarding what he had done. Khidr admonishes Musa again for not keeping his promise, and Musa apologizes and asks Khidr to leave him if he again questions Khidr. Both of them travel on until they happened upon a village",
". Both of them travel on until they happened upon a village. They ask the villagers for food, but the inhabitants refuse to entertain them as guests. They see therein a wall which is about to collapse, and Khidr repairs the wall. Musa asks Khidr why he had repaired the wall when the inhabitants refuse to entertain them as guests and give them food. Musa states that Khidr could have taken wages for his work.",
"Khidr informs Musa that they are now to part ways as Musa has broken his promise. Khidr then explains each of his actions. He informs Musa that he had broken the ship with the adze because a ruler who reigns in those parts took all functional ships by force; Khidr has created a defect in order to prevent their ship from being taken by force",
". Khidr then explains that he has killed the child because he was mischievous and disobedient to his parents, and Khidr fears that the child would overburden them with his disobedience, and explained that God would replace him with a better one who is more obedient and has more affection. Khidr then explains that he has fixed the wall because it belongs to two helpless children whose father is pious. God wishes to reward them for their piety",
". God wishes to reward them for their piety. Khidr states that there is a treasure hidden underneath the wall, and by repairing the wall, the wall would break in the future, and when dealing with the broken wall, the orphans would find the treasure.",
"Other incidents",
"The sayings of Muhammad (hadith), Islamic literature and Quranic exegesis also narrate some incidents of the life of Musa. One story goes that he is bathing apart from the other Israelites who all bathe together. This leads the Bani Israel to say that Musa does so due to a scrotal hernia. One day, when Musa is bathing in seclusion, he puts his clothes on a stone, and the stone flees with his clothes",
". Musa rushes after the stone, and when the Bani Israel see him, they say, 'By God, Musa has got no defect in his body\". Musa then beats the stone with his clothes, and Abu Huraira states, \"By God! There are still six or seven marks present on the stone from that excessive beating\". In a hadith, Muhammad states that the stone still has three to five marks due to Musa hitting it.",
"Death",
"Harun dies shortly before Musa. It is reported in a Sunni hadith that when Azrael, the Angel of Death, comes to Musa, Musa slaps him in the eye. The angel returns to God and tells Him that Musa does not want to die. God tells the angel to return and tell Musa to put his hand on the back of an ox, and for every hair that comes under his hand, he would be granted a year of life. When Musa asks God what would happen after the granted time, God informs him that he would die after the period",
". Musa, therefore, requests God for death at his current age near the Promised Land \"at a distance of a stone's throw from it.\"",
"Burial place\n\nThe grave of Musa is located at Maqam El-Nabi Musa, which lies south of Jericho and east of Jerusalem in the Judean wilderness. A side road to the right of the main Jerusalem-Jericho road, about beyond the sign indicating sea level, leads to the site. The Fatimid, Taiyabi and Dawoodi Bohra sects also believe in the same.",
"The main body of the present shrine, mosque, minaret and some rooms were built during the reign of Baibars, a Mamluk Sultan, in 1270 AD. Over the years Nabi Musa was expanded, protected by walls, and includes 120 rooms in its two levels which hosted the visitors.",
"Martyrdom",
"Moreover, by indicating that Musa wants to be separated from Harun, his brother, many of the Israelites proclaim that Musa had killed Harun on the mountain to secure this so-called separation. However, according to the accounts of al-Tabari, Harun dies of natural causes: “When they [Musa and Harun] fell asleep, death took Harun.... When he was dead, the house was taken away, the tree disappeared, and the bed was raised to heaven”",
". When Musa returns to the Children of Israel, his followers, from the mountain without Harun, they are found saying that Musa killed Harun because he envied their love for Harun, for Harun was more forbearing and more lenient with them. This notion would strongly indicate that Musa could have indeed killed Harun to secure the separation for which he prayed to God. To redeem his faith to his followers though, al-Tabari quotes Musa by saying “He was my brother",
". To redeem his faith to his followers though, al-Tabari quotes Musa by saying “He was my brother. Do you think that I would kill him?” As stated in the Shorter Encyclopedia of Islam, it was recorded that Musa recited two rak’ahs to regain the faith of his followers. God answers Musa’ prayers by making the bed of Harun descend from heaven to earth so that the Children of Israel could witness the truth that Harun died of natural causes.",
"The unexpected death of Harun appears to make the argument that his death is merely an allusion to the mysterious and miraculous death of Musa. In the accounts of Musa’ death, al-Tabari reports, “[W]hile Musa was walking with his servant Joshua, a black wind suddenly approached. When Joshua saw it, he thought that the Hour—the hour of final judgement—was at hand. He clung to Musa…. But Musa withdrew himself gently from under his shirt, leaving it in Joshua’s hand”",
". But Musa withdrew himself gently from under his shirt, leaving it in Joshua’s hand”. This mysterious death of Musa is also asserted in Deuteronomy 34:5, “And Musa the servant of the LORD died there in Moab”. There is no explanation to why Musa may have died or why Musa may have been chosen to die: there is only this mysterious “disappearance”. According to Islamic tradition, Musa is buried at Maqam El-Nabi Musa, Jericho.",
"Although the death of Musa seems to be a topic of mysterious questioning, it is not the main focus of this information. However, according to Arabic translation of the word martyr, shahid—to see, to witness, to testify, to become a model and paradigm – is the person who sees and witnesses, and is therefore the witness, as if the martyr himself sees the truth physically and thus stands firmly on what he sees and hears. To further this argument, in the footnotes of the Quran translated by M.A.S",
". To further this argument, in the footnotes of the Quran translated by M.A.S. Abdel Haleem, “The noun shahid is much more complex than the term martyr….The root of shahid conveys ‘to witness, to be present, to attend, to testify, and/or to give evidence’”. Additionally, Haleem notes that the martyrs in the Quran are chosen by God to witness Him in Heaven",
". This act of witnessing is given to those who are “given the opportunity to give evidence of the depth of their faith by sacrificing their worldly lives, and will testify with the prophets on the Day of Judgment”. This is supported in 3:140: “…if you have suffered a blow, they too have the upper hand. We deal out such days among people in turn, for God to find out who truly believes, for Him to choose martyrs from among you…”",
"It is also stated in the Quran that the scriptures in which Musa brings forth from God to the Children of Israel are seen as the light and guidance of God himself (Quran 6:91). This strongly indicates that Musa dies as a martyr: Musa dies being a witness to God; Musa dies giving his sacrifice to the worldly views of God; and Musa dies in the act of conveying the message of God to the Children of Israel",
". Although his death remains a mystery and even though he did not act in a religious battle, he does in fact die for the causation of a Religious War, a war that showcases the messages of God through scripture.",
"In light of this observation, John Renard claims that Muslim tradition distinguishes three types of supernatural events: “the sign worked directly by God alone; the miracle worked through a prophet; and the marvel effected through a non-prophetic figure”. If these three types of supernatural events are put into retrospect with the understanding of martyrdom and Musa, the aspect of being a martyr plays out to resemble the overall understanding of what “Islam” translates to",
". The concept of martyrdom in Islam is linked with the entire religion of Islam. This whole process can be somehow understood if the term 'Islam' is appreciated. This is because being a derivate of the Arabic root salama, which means \"surrender\" and \"peace\", Islam is a wholesome and peaceful submission to the will of God",
". Just like Musa is an example of the surrender to God, the term \"martyr\" further reinforces the notion that through the signs, the miracle, and the marvel, the ones chosen by God are in direct correlation to the lives of the prophets.",
"In conclusion, although the death of Musa is a mysterious claim by God. The framework of Musa describes the spiritual quest and progress of the individual soul as it unfolds to reveal the relationship to God. Nevertheless, because of his actions, his ability to be a witness and his success at being a model for the Children of Israel his life were a buildup to the ideals of martyrdom",
". His death and his faithful obligations toward God have led his mysterious death to be an example of a true prophet and a true example of a martyrdom.",
"Isra and Mi'raj\nDuring his Night Journey (Isra), Muhammad is known to have led Musa along with Jesus, Abraham and all other prophets in prayer. Musa is mentioned to be among the prophets who Muhammad meets during his ascension to heaven (Mi'raj) alongside Gabriel.",
"Musa and Muhammad are reported to have exchanged greetings with each other, and Musa is reported to have cried due to the fact that the followers of Muhammad are going to enter Heaven in greater numbers than his followers. When God enjoins fifty prayers to the community to Muhammad and his followers, Muhammad once again encounters Musa, who asks what has been commanded by God. When Musa is told about the fifty prayers, he advises Muhammad to ask a reduction in prayers for his followers",
". When Muhammad returns to God and asks for a reduction, he is granted his request. Once again, he meets Musa, who again inquires about the command of God. Despite the reduction, Musa again urges Muhammad to ask for another reduction. Muhammad again returns and asks for a reduction. This continues until only five prayers are remaining. When Musa again tells Muhammad to ask for a reduction, Muhammad replies that he is shy of asking again",
". Therefore, the five prayers are finally enjoined upon the Muslim community.",
"In Islamic thought",
"Musa is revered as a prominent prophet and messenger in Islam, and his narrative is recounted the most among the prophets in the Quran. He is regarded by Muslims as one of the five most prominent prophets in Islam, along with Jesus (Isa), Abraham (Ibrahim), Noah (Nuh) and Muhammad. These five prophets are known as Ulu’l azm prophets, the prophets who are favored by God and are described in the Quran to be endowed with determination and perseverance",
". Islamic tradition describes Musa being granted many miracles, including a glowing hand and a staff that turns into a snake. The life of Musa is often described as a parallel to that of Muhammad. Both are regarded as being ethical and exemplary prophets. Both are regarded as lawgivers, ritual leaders, judges and the military leaders for their people. Islamic literature also identifies a parallel between their followers and the incidents of their history",
". The exodus of the Israelites is often viewed as a parallel to the migration of the followers of Muhammad. The drowning and destruction of the Pharaoh and his army is also described to be a parallel to the Battle of Badr. In Islamic tradition, Musa is especially favored by God and converses directly with Him, unlike other prophets who receives revelation by God through an intervening angel. Musa receives the Torah directly from God",
". Musa receives the Torah directly from God. Despite conversing with God, the Quran states that Musa is unable to see God. For these feats Musa is revered in Islam as Kalim Allah, meaning the one who talks with God.",
"Revealed scripture",
"In Islam, Musa is revered as the receiver of a scripture known as the Torah (Tawrat). The Quran describes the Torah as “guidance and a light\" for the Israelites and that it contains teachings about the Oneness of God (Tawhid), prophethood and the Day of Judgment. It is regarded as containing teachings and laws for the Israelites which are taught and practiced by Musa and Harun to them",
". Among the books of the complete Hebrew Bible (Genesis, Deuteronomy, Numbers, Leviticus and Exodus), only the Torah is considered to be divinely revealed instead of the whole Tanakh or the Old Testament. The Quran mentions that the Ten Commandments are given to the Israelites through Musa, and the Commandments contain guidance and understanding of all things. The Torah was the \"furqan\", meaning difference, a term which is regarded as having used for itself as well",
". Musa preaches the same message as Muhammad, and the Torah foretells the arrival of Muhammad. Modern Muslim scholars such as Mark N. Swanson and David Richard Thomas cite Deuteronomy 18:15–18 as foretelling the arrival of Muhammad.",
"Some Muslims believe that the Torah has been corrupted (tahrif). The exact nature of the corruption has been discussed among scholars. The majority of Muslim scholars, including Ibn Rabban and Ibn Qutayba, have stated that the Torah had been distorted in its interpretation rather than in its text. The scholar Tabari considered the corruption to be caused by distortion of the meaning and interpretation of the Torah",
". Tabari considered the learned rabbis of producing writings alongside the Torah, which were based on their own interpretations of the text. The rabbis then reportedly \"twisted their tongues\" and made them appear as though they were from the Torah. In doing so, Al-Tabari concluded that they added to the Torah what was not originally part of it, and these writings were used to denounce the prophet Muhammad and his followers",
". Tabari also states that these writings of the rabbis were mistaken by some Jews to be part of the Torah. A minority view held among scholars such as Al-Maqdisi is that the text of the Torah itself was corrupted. Maqdisi claimed that the Torah had been distorted in the time of Musa, by the seventy elders when they came down from Mount Sinai. Maqdisi states that the Torah was further corrupted in the time of Ezra, when his disciples made additions and subtractions in the text narrated by Ezra",
". Maqdisi also stated that discrepancies between the Jewish Torah, the Samaritan Torah and the Greek Septuagint point to the fact that the Torah was corrupted. Ibn Hazm viewed the Torah of his era as a forgery and considered various verses as contradicting other parts of the Torah and the Quran. Ibn Hazm considered Ezra as the forger of the Torah, who dictates the Torah from his memory and made significant changes to the text. Ibn Hazm accepted some verses which, he stated, foretold the arrival of Muhammad.",
"In religious sects",
"Sunni Muslims fast on the Ashura (the tenth day of Muharram, the first month in the Hijri calendar as similar to Yom Kippur which is on the tenth day of Tishrei, and the first month of the Hebrew civil year) to commemorate the liberation of the Israelites from the Pharaoh. Shia Muslims view Musa and his relation to Harun as a prefiguration of the relation between Muhammad and his son-in-law, Ali ibn Abi Talib",
". Ismaili Shias regard Musa as 4th in the line of the 7 'speaking prophets' (natiq), whose revealed law was for all believers to follow. In Sufism, Musa is regarded as having a special position, being described as a prophet as well as a spiritual wayfarer",
". The author Paul Nwyia notes that the Quranic accounts of Musa have inspired Sufi exegetes to \"meditate upon his experience as being the entry into a direct relationship with God, so that later the Sufis would come to regard him as the perfect mystic called to enter into the mystery of God\"",
". Muslim scholars such as Norman Solomon and Timothy Winter state without naming that some Sufi commentators excuse Musa from the consequence of his request to be granted a vision of God, as they consider that it is \"the ecstasy of hearing God which compelled him to seek completion of union through vision\". The Quranic account of the meeting of Musa and Khidr is also noted by Muslim writers as being of special importance in Sufi tradition. Some writers such as John Renard and Phyllis G",
". Some writers such as John Renard and Phyllis G. Jestice note that Sufi exegetes often explain the narrative by associating Musa for possessing exoteric knowledge while attributing esoteric knowledge to Khidr. The author John Renard states that Sufis consider this as a lesson, \"to endure his apparently draconian authority in view of higher meanings\".",
"In Islamic literature",
"Musa is also revered in Islamic literature, which narrates and explains different parts of the life of Musa. Persian Muslim scholar and mystic Rumi, who titles Musa as the \"spirit enkindler\", also includes a story of Musa and the shepherd in his book, the Masnavi. The story narrates the horror of Musa, when he encounters a shepherd who is engaged in anthropomorphic devotions to God",
". Musa accuses the shepherd of blasphemy; when the shepherd repents and leaves, Musa is rebuked by God for \"having parted one of His servants from Him\". Musa seeks out the shepherd and informs him that he was correct in his prayers. The authors Norman Solomon and Timothy Winter regard the story to be \"intended as criticism of and warning to those who in order to avoid anthropomorphism, negate the Divine attributes\"",
". Rumi mainly mentions the life of Musa by his encounter with the burning tree, his white hand, his struggle with the Pharaoh and his conversation with God on Mount Sinai. According to Rumi, when Musa came across the tree in the valley of Tuwa and perceived the tree consumed by fire, he in fact saw the light of a \"hundred dawns and sunrises\". Rumi considered the light a \"theater\" of God and the personification of the love of God",
". Rumi considered the light a \"theater\" of God and the personification of the love of God. Many versions of the conversation of Musa and God are presented by Rumi; in all versions Musa is commanded to remove his footwear, which is interpreted to mean his attention to the world. Rumi commented on Quran considering the speech of God to be in a form accessible only to prophets instead of verbal sounds",
". Rumi considers the miracles given to Musa as assurance to him of the success of his prophethood and as a means of persuasion to him to accept his mission. Rumi regarded Musa as the most important of the messenger-prophets before Muhammad.",
"The Shi'a Quranic exegesis scholar and thinker Muhammad Husayn Tabatabaei, in his commentary Balance of Judgment on the Exegesis of the Qur'an attempted to show the infallibility of Musa in regard to his request for a vision of God and his breaking of his promise to Khidr as a part of the Shi'a doctorine of prophetic infallibility (Ismah)",
". Tabatabaei attempted to solve the problem of vision by using various philosophical and theological arguments to state that the vision for God meant a necessary need for knowledge. According to Tabatabaei, Musa was not responsible for the promise broken to Khidr as he had added \"God willing\" after his promise. The Islamic reformist and activist Sayyid Qutb, also mentions Musa in his work, In the Shade of the Quran",
". Sayyid Qutb interpreted the narrative of Musa, keeping in view the sociological and political problems facing the Islamic world in his era; he considered the narrative of Musa to contain teachings and lessons for the problems which faced the Muslims of his era. According to Sayyid Qutb, when Musa was preaching to the Pharaoh, he was entering the \"battle between faith and oppression\"",
". Qutb believed that Musa was an important figure in Islamic teachings as his narrative symbolized the struggle to \"expel evil and establish righteousness in the world\" which included the struggle from oppessive tyrants, a struggle which Qutb considered was the core teaching of the Islamic faith.",
"The Sixth Imam, Ja'far al-Sadiq, regarded the journey of Musa to Midian and to the valley of Tuwa as a spiritual journey. The turning of the face of Musa towards Midian is stated to be the turning of his heart towards God. His prayer to God asking for help of is described to be his awareness of his need. The commentary alleged to the Sixth Imam then states the command to remove his shoes symbolized the command to remove everything from his heart except God",
". These attributes are stated to result in him being honoured by God's speech. The Andalusian Sufi mystic and philosopher, Ibn Arabi wrote about Musa in his book The Bezels of Wisdom dedicating a chapter discussing \"the Wisdom of Eminence in the word of Musa\". Ibn Arabi considered Musa to be a \"fusion\" of the infants murdered by the Pharaoh, stating that the spiritual reward which God had chosen for each of the infants manifested in the character of Musa",
". According to Ibn Arabi, Musa was from birth an \"amalgam\" of younger spirits acting on older ones. Ibn Arabi considered the ark to be the personification of his humanity while the water of the river Nile to signifiy his imagination, rational thought and sense perception.",
"During the 20th century the story of Musa's confrontation with Pharaoh has been invoked by Islamists to justify their opposition to “disbelieving” secular regimes and tyrannical rulers. Sayyid Qutb (d. 1966) and Jihad movements in Egypt condemned Jamal Abd al-Nasir (d. 1970) and Anwar al-Sadat (d. 1981), both presidents of Egypt, for being equivalents to the unbelieving Pharaoh who opposed Musa; members of the Jihad Group assassinated al-Sadat for being a disbeliever",
". During the Iranian revolution of 1978–79, government troops were cautioned not to \"Kill Musa [members of the Islamic opposition] for the sake of Pharaoh [the Shah’s regime].\"",
"Appearance \nIn Muhammad al-Bukhari's book Sahih al-Bukhari, in Chapter 55, Hadith 648, Musa is depicted by Muhammad after the Night of Ascension, narrarated by Ibn Umar:\n\nAccording to Ibn ‘Abbaas, Muhammad reported, \"On the night of my Ascent to Heaven, I saw Moosa (Moses), who was a tall, brown man...\" [Al-Bukhari and Muslim].",
"Quranic references\nMusa is referenced many times in the Quran:\nAppraisals of Musa: 2:136; 4:164; 6:84; 6:154; 7:134; 7:142; 19:51; 20:9; 20:13; 20:36; 20:41; 25:35; 26:1; 26:21; 27:8; 28:7; 28:14; 33:69; 37:114; 37:118; 44:17\nMusa' attributes: 7:150, 20:94, 28:15, 28:19, 28:26\nMusa' prophecy: 7:144, 20:10-24, 26:10, 26:21, 27:7-12, 28:2-35, 28:46, 79:15-19\nThe prophet whom God spoke to: Q2:253, 4:164, 7:143-144, 19:52, 11-24, 20:83-84, 26:10-16, 27:8-11, 28:30-35, 28:46, 79:16-19",
"The Torah: Q2:41-44; 2:53; 2:87; 3:3; 3:48; 3:50; 3:65; 3:93; 5:43-46; 5:66-68; 5:110; 6:91; 6:154-157; 7:145; 7:154-157; 9:111; 11:110; 17:2; 21:48; 23:49; 25:3; 28:43; 32:23; 37:117; 40:53; 41:45; 46:12; 48:29; 53:36; 61:6; 62:5; 87:19\nThe valley: Q20:12, Q20:20, Q28:30, Q79:16",
"The valley: Q20:12, Q20:20, Q28:30, Q79:16\nMusa' miracle: Q2:56, Q2:60, Q2:92, Q2:211, Q7:107-108, Q7:117-120, Q7:160, Q11:96, Q17:101, Q20:17-22, Q20:69, Q20:77, Q26:30-33, Q26:45, Q26:63, Q27:10-12, Q27:12, Q28:31-32, Q40:23, Q40:28, Q43:46, Q44:19, Q44:33, Q51:38, Q79:20\nMusa and the Pharaoh\nMusa' life inside the palace: 20:38-39, 26:18, 28:8-12\nReturned to his mother: Q20:4, Q28:12-13\nGod's revelation to Musa' mother: Q20:38-39, Q28:7-10",
"Returned to his mother: Q20:4, Q28:12-13\nGod's revelation to Musa' mother: Q20:38-39, Q28:7-10\nMusa' preaching: Q7:103-129, Q10:84, Q20:24, Q20:42-51, Q23:45, Q26:10-22, Q28:3, Q43:46, Q44:18, Q51:38, Q73:15-17\nMusa met the Pharaoh: Q20:58-59, Q20:64-66, Q26:38-44\nThe Pharaoh's magicians: Q7:111-116, Q10:79-80, Q20:60-64, Q26:37-44\nMusa vs. the magicians: Q7:115-122, Q10:80-81, Q20:61-70, Q26:43-48\nDispute among the magicians: Q20:62, Q26:44-47\nMusa warned the magicians: Q10:81, Q20:61",
"Dispute among the magicians: Q20:62, Q26:44-47\nMusa warned the magicians: Q10:81, Q20:61\nMusa and Harun were suspected to be magicians too: Q7:109, Q7:132, Q10:7-77, Q17:101, Q20:63, Q40:24, Q43:49\nBelief of the magicians: Q7:119-126, Q20:70-73, Q26:46\nThe belief of Asiya: Q66:11\nTrial to Pharaoh's family: Q7:130-135",
"The belief of Asiya: Q66:11\nTrial to Pharaoh's family: Q7:130-135\nPharaoh's weakness: Q7:103-126, Q10:75, Q11:97-98, Q17:102, Q20:51-71, Q23:46-47, Q25:36, Q26:11, Q26:23-49, Q28:36-39, Q29:39, Q38:12, Q40:24-37, Q43:51-54, Q44:17-22, Q50:13, Q51:39, Q54:41-42, Q69:9, Q73:16, Q79:21-24\nMusa and his followers went away: Q20:77, Q26:52-63, Q44:23-24\nMusa and his followers were safe: Q2:50, Q7:138, Q10:90, Q17:103, Q20:78-80, Q26:65, Q37:115-116, Q44:30-31\nPharaoh's belief was too late: Q10:90",
"Pharaoh's belief was too late: Q10:90\nPharaoh's and his army: Q2:50, Q3:11, Q7:136-137, Q8:52-54, Q10:88-92, Q17:103, Q20:78-79, Q23:48, Q25:36, Q26:64-66, Q28:40, Q29:40, Q40:45, Q43:55-56, Q44:24-29, Q51:40, Q54:42, Q69:10, Q73:16, Q79:25, Q85:17-18, Q89:13\nBeliever among Pharaoh's family: Q40:28-45\nThe Pharaoh punished the Israelites: Q2:49, Q7:124-141, Q10:83, Q14:6, Q20:71, Q26:22, Q26:49, Q28:4, Q40:25",
"The Pharaohs and Haman were among the rejected: Q10:83, Q11:97, Q28:4-8, Q28:32, Q28:42, Q29:39, Q40:36, Q44:31\nMusa killed an Egyptian: Q20:40, Q26:19-21, Q28:15-19, Q28:33\nMusa' journey to Median:\nMusa and Jethro: Q28:25-28\nMusa and two daughters of Shoaib.: Q28:23-27\nThe people who insulted Musa:Q33:69\nTravel to the Promised Land\nThe Israelites entered the Promised Land: Q2:58, Q5:21-23,\nMusa' dialogue with God: Q2:51, Q7:142-143, Q7:155, Q20:83-84",
"Musa' dialogue with God: Q2:51, Q7:142-143, Q7:155, Q20:83-84\nThe Israelites worshipped the calf: Q2:51-54, Q2:92-93, Q4:153, Q7:148-152, Q20:85-92\nSeven Israelites with Musa met God: Q7:155\nMusa and Samiri: Q20:95-97\nGod manifested himself to the mountain: Q7:143\nRefusal of the Israelites: Q2:246-249, Q3:111, Q5:22-24, Q59:14",
"Refusal of the Israelites: Q2:246-249, Q3:111, Q5:22-24, Q59:14\nAttributes of the Israelites: Q2:41-44; 2:55-59; 2:61-71; 2:74-76; 2:83; 2:93-6; 2:100-101; 2:104; 2:108; 2:140-142; 2:246-249; Q3:24; Q3:71; Q3:75; Q3:112; Q3:181; Q3:183; Q4:44; Q4:46-47; Q4:49; Q4:51; Q4:53-54; Q4:153; Q4:155-156; Q4:161; Q5:13; Q5:20; Q5:24; Q5:42-43; Q5:57-58; Q5:62-64; Q5:70; Q5:79-82; Q7:134; Q7:138-139; Q7:149; Q7:160; Q7:162-163; Q7:169; Q9:30; Q9:34; Q16:118; Q17:4; Q17:101; Q20:85-87; Q20:92; Q58:8; Q59:14",
"Musa and Khidir: Q18:60-82\nQarun: Q28:76-82, Q29:39-40",
"See also\n\n Aaron\n Amram\n Burning bush\n \n Jochebed\n Miriam\n Moses in Judeo-Hellenistic literature\n Moses in rabbinic literature\n Prophets and messengers in Islam\n Scrolls of Moses\n Ten Commandments\n Torah in Islam\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\nThe Quranic Verses About Musa\nDetailed Islamic Narrative of Musa by Ibn Kathir\nMuslim view of Musa\n\n \nHebrew Bible prophets of the Quran\nOne Thousand and One Nights characters"
] |
Las Meninas
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Las%20Meninas
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[
") is a 1656 painting in the Museo del Prado in Madrid, by Diego Velázquez, the leading artist of the Spanish Baroque. It has become one of the most widely analyzed works in Western painting due to the way its complex and enigmatic composition and how Velazquez “sought to build a bridge between art and reality”, between subjects and viewers as well as a declaration of painting as a liberal art.",
"The painting is believed by F. J. Sánchez Cantón to depict a room in the Royal Alcazar of Madrid during the reign of King Philip IV of Spain, and presents several figures, most identifiable from the Spanish court, captured in a particular moment as if in a snapshot. Some of the figures look out of the canvas towards the viewer, while others interact among themselves. The five-year-old Infanta Margaret Theresa is surrounded by her entourage of maids of honour, chaperone, bodyguard, two dwarfs and a dog",
". Just behind them, Velázquez portrays himself working at a large canvas. Velázquez looks outwards beyond the pictorial space to where a viewer of the painting would stand. In the background there is a mirror that reflects the upper bodies of the king and queen. They appear to be placed outside the picture space in a position similar to that of the viewer, although some scholars have speculated that their image is a reflection from the painting Velázquez is shown working on.",
"Las Meninas has long been recognised as one of the most important paintings in the history of Western art. The Baroque painter Luca Giordano said that it represents the \"theology of painting\", and in 1827 the president of the Royal Academy of Arts Sir Thomas Lawrence described the work in a letter to his successor David Wilkie as \"the true philosophy of the art\"",
". More recently, it has been described as \"Velázquez's supreme achievement, a highly self-conscious, calculated demonstration of what painting could achieve, and perhaps the most searching comment ever made on the possibilities of the easel painting\".",
"Background\n\nCourt of Philip IV",
"In 17th-century Spain, painters rarely enjoyed high social status. Painting was regarded as a craft, not an art such as poetry or music. Nonetheless, Velázquez worked his way up through the ranks of the court of Philip IV, and in February 1651 was appointed palace chamberlain (). The post brought him status and material reward, but its duties made heavy demands on his time. During the remaining eight years of his life, he painted only a few works, mostly portraits of the royal family",
". When he painted Las Meninas, he had been with the royal household for 33 years.",
"Philip IV's first wife, Elizabeth of France, died in 1644, and their only son, Balthasar Charles, died two years later. Lacking an heir, Philip married Mariana of Austria in 1649, and Margaret Theresa (1651–1673) was their first child, and their only one at the time of the painting. Subsequently, she had a short-lived brother Philip Prospero (1657–1661), and then Charles (1661–1700) arrived, who succeeded to the throne as Charles II at the age of three",
". Velázquez painted portraits of Mariana and her children, and although Philip himself resisted being portrayed in his old age he did allow Velázquez to include him in Las Meninas. In the early 1650s he gave Velázquez the Pieza Principal () of the late Balthasar Charles's living quarters, by then serving as the palace museum, to use as his studio, where Las Meninas is set. Philip had his own chair in the studio and would often sit and watch Velázquez at work",
". Philip had his own chair in the studio and would often sit and watch Velázquez at work. Although constrained by rigid etiquette, the art-loving king seems to have had a close relationship with the painter. After Velázquez's death, Philip wrote \"I am crushed\" in the margin of a memorandum on the choice of his successor.",
"During the 1640s and 1650s, Velázquez served as both court painter and curator of Philip IV's expanding collection of European art. He seems to have been given an unusual degree of freedom in the role. He supervised the decoration and interior design of the rooms holding the most valued paintings, adding mirrors, statues and tapestries. He was also responsible for the sourcing, attribution, hanging and inventory of many of the Spanish king's paintings",
". By the early 1650s, Velázquez was widely respected in Spain as a connoisseur. Much of the collection of the Prado today—including works by Titian, Raphael, and Rubens—were acquired and assembled under Velázquez's curatorship.",
"Provenance and condition",
"The painting was referred to in the earliest inventories as La Familia (\"The Family\"). A detailed description of Las Meninas, which provides the identification of several of the figures, was published by Antonio Palomino (\"the Giorgio Vasari of the Spanish Golden Age\") in 1724. Examination under infrared light reveals minor , that is, there are traces of earlier working that the artist himself later altered. For example, at first Velázquez's own head inclined to his right rather than his left.",
"The painting has been cut down on both the left and right sides. It was damaged in the 1734 fire that destroyed the Alcázar, and was restored by court painter Juan García de Miranda (1677–1749). The left cheek of the Infanta was almost completely repainted to compensate for a substantial loss of pigment",
". After its rescue from the fire, the painting was inventoried as part of the royal collection in 1747–48, and the Infanta was misidentified as Maria Theresa, Margaret Theresa's older half-sister, an error that was repeated when the painting was inventoried at the new Madrid Royal Palace in 1772. A 1794 inventory reverted to a version of the earlier title, The Family of Philip IV, which was repeated in the records of 1814. The painting entered the collection of the Museo del Prado on its foundation in 1819",
". The painting entered the collection of the Museo del Prado on its foundation in 1819. In 1843, the Prado catalogue listed the work for the first time as Las Meninas.",
"In recent years, the picture has suffered a loss of texture and hue. Due to exposure to pollution and crowds of visitors, the once-vivid contrasts between blue and white pigments in the costumes of the meninas have faded. It was last cleaned in 1984 under the supervision of the American conservator John Brealey, to remove a \"yellow veil\" of dust that had gathered since the previous restoration in the 19th century",
". The cleaning provoked, according to the art historian Federico Zeri, \"furious protests, not because the picture had been damaged in any way, but because it looked different\". However, in the opinion of López-Rey, the \"restoration was impeccable\". Due to its size, importance, and value, the painting is not lent out for exhibition.",
"Painting materials\nA thorough technical investigation including a pigment analysis of Las Meninas was conducted around 1981 in the Museo del Prado. The analysis revealed the usual pigments of the Baroque period frequently used by Velázquez in his other paintings. The main pigments used for this painting were lead white, azurite (for the skirt of the kneeling ), vermilion and red lake, ochres and carbon blacks.\n\nDescription\n\nSubject",
"Las Meninas is set in Velázquez's studio in Philip IV's palace in Madrid. The high-ceilinged room is presented, in the words of Silvio Gaggi, as \"a simple box that could be divided into a perspective grid with a single vanishing point\". In the centre of the foreground stands the Infanta Margaret Theresa (1). The five-year-old infanta, who later married Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I, was at this point Philip and Mariana's only surviving child",
". She is attended by two ladies-in-waiting, or : Doña (2), who is poised to curtsy to the princess, and Doña (3), who kneels before Margaret Theresa, offering her a drink from a red cup, or , that she holds on a golden tray. To the right of the Infanta are two dwarfs: the achondroplastic Austrian Mari Bárbola (4), and the Italian (5), who playfully tries to rouse a sleepy mastiff with his foot",
". The dog is thought to be descended from two mastiffs from Lyme Hall in Cheshire, given to Philip III in 1604 by James I of England. Doña (6), the princess's chaperone, stands behind them, dressed in mourning and talking to an unidentified bodyguard (or ) (7).",
"To the rear and at right stands Don José Nieto Velázquez (8)—the queen's chamberlain during the 1650s, and head of the royal tapestry works—who may have been a relative of the artist. Nieto is shown standing but in pause, with his right knee bent and his feet on different steps. As the art critic Harriet Stone observes, it is uncertain whether he is \"coming or going\". He is rendered in silhouette and appears to hold open a curtain on a short flight of stairs, with an unclear wall or space behind",
". Both this backlight and the open doorway reveal space behind: in the words of the art historian Analisa Leppanen, they lure \"our eyes inescapably into the depths\". The royal couple's reflection pushes in the opposite direction, forward into the picture space. The vanishing point of the perspective is in the doorway, as can be shown by extending the line of the meeting of wall and ceiling on the right",
". Nieto is seen only by the king and queen, who share the viewer's point of view, and not by the figures in the foreground. In the footnotes of Joel Snyder's article, the author recognizes that Nieto is the queen's attendant and was required to be at hand to open and close doors for her. Snyder suggests that Nieto appears in the doorway so that the king and queen might depart",
". Snyder suggests that Nieto appears in the doorway so that the king and queen might depart. In the context of the painting, Snyder argues that the scene is the end of the royal couple's sitting for Velázquez and they are preparing to exit, explaining that is \"why the to the right of the Infanta begins to curtsy\".",
"Velázquez himself (9) is pictured to the left of the scene, looking outward past a large canvas supported by an easel. On his chest is the red cross of the Order of Santiago, which he did not receive until 1659, three years after the painting was completed. According to Palomino, Philip ordered this to be added after Velázquez's death, \"and some say that his Majesty himself painted it\". From the painter's belt hang the symbolic keys of his court offices.",
"A mirror on the back wall reflects the upper bodies and heads of two figures identified from other paintings, and by Palomino, as King Philip IV (10) and Queen Mariana (11). The most common assumption is that the reflection shows the couple in the pose they are holding for Velázquez as he paints them, while their daughter watches; and that the painting therefore shows their view of the scene.",
"Of the nine figures depicted, five are looking directly out at the royal couple or the viewer. Their glances, along with the king and queen's reflection, affirm the royal couple's presence outside the painted space. Alternatively, art historians H. W. Janson and Joel Snyder suggest that the image of the king and queen is a reflection from Velázquez's canvas, the front of which is obscured from the viewer",
". Other writers say the canvas Velázquez is shown working on is unusually large for one of his portraits, and note that is about the same size as Las Meninas. The painting contains the only known double portrait of the royal couple painted by the artist.",
"The point of view of the picture is approximately that of the royal couple, though this has been widely debated. Many critics suppose that the scene is viewed by the king and queen as they pose for a double portrait, while the Infanta and her companions are present only to make the process more enjoyable. Ernst Gombrich suggested that the picture might have been the sitters' idea:",
"No single theory, however, has found universal agreement. Leo Steinberg suggests that the King and Queen are to the left of the viewer and the reflection in the mirror is that of the canvas, a portrait of the king and queen. \n\nClark suggests that the work comprises a scene where the ladies-in-waiting are attempting to cajole the Infanta Doña Margarita to pose with her mother and father. In his 1960 book \"Looking at Pictures\", Clark writes:",
"The back wall of the room, which is in shadow, is hung with rows of paintings, including one of a series of scenes from Ovid's Metamorphoses by Rubens, and copies, by Velázquez's son-in-law and principal assistant del Mazo, of works by Jacob Jordaens. The paintings are shown in the exact positions recorded in an inventory taken around this time. The wall to the right is hung with a grid of eight smaller paintings, visible mainly as frames owing to their angle from the viewer",
". They can be identified from the inventory as more Mazo copies of paintings from the Rubens Ovid series, though only two of the subjects can be seen.",
"The paintings on the back wall are recognized as representing Minerva Punishing Arachne and Apollo's Victory Over Marsyas. Both stories involve Minerva, the goddess of wisdom and patron of the arts. These two legends are both stories of mortals challenging gods and the dreadful consequences",
". These two legends are both stories of mortals challenging gods and the dreadful consequences. One scholar points out that the legend dealing with two women, Minerva and Arachne, is on the same side of the mirror as the queen's reflection while the male legend, involving the god Apollo and the satyr Marsyas, is on the side of the king.",
"Composition \nThe painted surface is divided into quarters horizontally and sevenths vertically; this grid is used to organise the elaborate grouping of characters, and was a common device at the time. Velázquez presents nine figures—eleven if the king and queen's reflected images are included—yet they occupy only the lower half of the canvas.",
"According to López-Rey, the painting has three focal points: the Infanta Margaret Theresa, the self-portrait and the half-length reflected images of King Philip IV and Queen Mariana. In 1960, Clark observed that the success of the composition is a result first and foremost of the accurate handling of light and shade:",
"However, the focal point of the painting is widely debated. Leo Steinberg argues that the orthogonals in the work are intentionally disguised so that the picture's focal center shifts. Similar to Lopez-Rey, he describes three foci. The man in the doorway, however, is the vanishing point. More specifically, the crook of his arm is where the orthogonals of the windows and lights of the ceiling meet.",
"Depth and dimension are rendered by the use of linear perspective, by the overlapping of the layers of shapes, and in particular, as stated by Clark, through the use of tone. This compositional element operates within the picture in a number of ways. First, there is the appearance of natural light within the painted room and beyond it",
". First, there is the appearance of natural light within the painted room and beyond it. The pictorial space in the midground and foreground is lit from two sources: by thin shafts of light from the open door, and by broad streams coming through the window to the right",
". The 20th-century French philosopher and cultural critic Michel Foucault observed that the light from the window illuminates both the studio foreground and the unrepresented area in front of it, in which the king, the queen, and the viewer are presumed to be situated. For José Ortega y Gasset, light divides the scene into three distinct parts, with foreground and background planes strongly illuminated, between which a darkened intermediate space includes silhouetted figures.",
"Velázquez uses this light not only to add volume and definition to each form but also to define the focal points of the painting. As the light streams in from the right it brightly glints on the braid and golden hair of the female dwarf, who is nearest the light source. But because her face is turned from the light, and in shadow, its tonality does not make it a point of particular interest. Similarly, the light glances obliquely on the cheek of the lady-in-waiting near her, but not on her facial features",
". Much of her lightly coloured dress is dimmed by shadow. The Infanta, however, stands in full illumination, and with her face turned towards the light source, even though her gaze is not. Her face is framed by the pale gossamer of her hair, setting her apart from everything else in the picture",
". The light models the volumetric geometry of her form, defining the conic nature of a small torso bound rigidly into a corset and stiffened bodice, and the panniered skirt extending around her like an oval candy-box, casting its own deep shadow which, by its sharp contrast with the bright brocade, both emphasises and locates the small figure as the main point of attention.",
"Velázquez further emphasises the Infanta by his positioning and lighting of her maids of honour, who are set opposite one another: before and behind the Infanta. The maid on the viewer's left is given a brightly lit profile, while her sleeve create a diagonal. Her opposite figure creates a broader but less defined reflection of her attention, making a diagonal space between them, in which their charge stands protected.",
"A further internal diagonal passes through the space occupied by the Infanta. There is a similar connection between the female dwarf and the figure of Velázquez himself, both of whom look towards the viewer from similar angles, creating a visual tension. The face of Velázquez is dimly lit by light that is reflected, rather than direct. For this reason his features, though not as sharply defined, are more visible than those of the dwarf who is much nearer the light source",
". This appearance of a total face, full-on to the viewer, draws the attention, and its importance is marked, tonally, by the contrasting frame of dark hair, the light on the hand and brush, and the skilfully placed triangle of light on the artist's sleeve, pointing directly to the face.",
"The mirror is a perfectly defined unbroken pale rectangle within a broad black rectangle. A clear geometric shape, like a lit face, draws the attention of the viewer more than a broken geometric shape such as the door, or a shadowed or oblique face such as that of the dwarf in the foreground or that of the man in the background. The viewer cannot distinguish the features of the king and queen, but in the opalescent sheen of the mirror's surface, the glowing ovals are plainly turned directly to the viewer",
". Jonathan Miller pointed out that apart from \"adding suggestive gleams at the bevelled edges, the most important way the mirror betrays its identity is by disclosing imagery whose brightness is so inconsistent with the dimness of the surrounding wall that it can only have been borrowed, by reflection, from the strongly illuminated figures of the King and Queen\".",
"As the maids of honour are reflected in each other, so too do the king and queen have their doubles within the painting, in the dimly lit forms of the chaperone and guard, the two who serve and care for their daughter. The positioning of these figures sets up a pattern, one man, a couple, one man, a couple, and while the outer figures are nearer the viewer than the others, they all occupy the same horizontal band on the picture's surface.",
"Adding to the inner complexities of the picture is the male dwarf in the foreground, whose raised hand echoes the gesture of the figure in the background, while his playful demeanour, and distraction from the central action, are in complete contrast with it. The informality of his pose, his shadowed profile, and his dark hair all serve to make him a mirror image to the kneeling attendant of the Infanta",
". However, the painter has set him forward of the light streaming through the window, and so minimised the contrast of tone on this foreground figure.",
"Despite certain spatial ambiguities this is the painter's most thoroughly rendered architectural space, and the only one in which a ceiling is shown. According to López-Rey, in no other composition did Velázquez so dramatically lead the eye to areas beyond the viewer's sight: both the canvas he is seen painting, and the space beyond the frame where the king and queen stand can only be imagined",
". The bareness of the dark ceiling, the back of Velázquez's canvas, and the strict geometry of framed paintings contrast with the animated, brilliantly lit and sumptuously painted foreground entourage. Stone writes:",
"According to Kahr, the composition could have been influenced by the traditional Dutch Gallery Pictures such as those by Frans Francken the Younger, Willem van Haecht, or David Teniers the Younger. Teniers' work was owned by Philip IV and would have been known by Velázquez",
". Teniers' work was owned by Philip IV and would have been known by Velázquez. Like Las Meninas, they often depict formal visits by important collectors or rulers, a common occurrence, and \"show a room with a series of windows dominating one side wall and paintings hung between the windows as well as on the other walls\". Gallery Portraits were also used to glorify the artist as well as royalty or members of the higher classes, as may have been Velázquez's intention with this work.",
"Mirror and reflection",
"The spatial structure and positioning of the mirror's reflection are such that Philip IV and Mariana appear to be standing on the viewer's side of the pictorial space, facing the Infanta and her entourage. According to Janson, not only is the gathering of figures in the foreground for Philip and Mariana's benefit, but the painter's attention is concentrated on the couple, as he appears to be working on their portrait",
". Although they can only be seen in the mirror reflection, their distant image occupies a central position in the canvas, in terms of social hierarchy as well as composition. As spectators, the viewer's position in relation to the painting is uncertain. It has been debated whether the ruling couple are standing beside the viewer or have replaced the viewer, who sees the scene through their eyes",
". Lending weight to the latter idea are the gazes of three of the figures—Velázquez, the Infanta, and Maribarbola—who appear to be looking directly at the viewer.",
"The mirror on the back wall indicates what is not there: the king and queen, and in the words of Harriet Stone, \"the generations of spectators who assume the couple's place before the painting\". Writing in 1980, the critics Snyder and Cohn observed:\n\nIn Las Meninas, the king and queen are supposedly \"outside\" the painting, yet their reflection in the back wall mirror also places them \"inside\" the pictorial space.",
"Snyder proposes it is \"a mirror of majesty\" or an allusion to the mirror for princes. While it is a literal reflection of the king and queen, Snyder writes \"it is the image of exemplary monarchs, a reflection of ideal character\". Later he focuses his attention on the princess, writing that Velázquez's portrait is \"the painted equivalent of a manual for the education of the princess—a mirror of the princess\".",
"The painting is likely to have been influenced by Jan van Eyck's Arnolfini Portrait, of 1434. At the time, van Eyck's painting hung in Philip's palace, and would have been familiar to Velázquez",
". The Arnolfini Portrait also has a mirror positioned at the back of the pictorial space, reflecting two figures who would have the same angle of vision as does the viewer of Velázquez's painting; they are too small to identify, but it has been speculated that one may be intended as the artist himself, though he is not shown in the act of painting. According to Lucien Dällenbach:",
"Jonathan Miller asks: \"What are we to make of the blurred features of the royal couple? It is unlikely that it has anything to do with the optical imperfection of the mirror, which would, in reality, have displayed a focused image of the King and Queen\". He notes that \"in addition to the represented mirror, he teasingly implies an unrepresented one, without which it is difficult to imagine how he could have shown himself painting the picture we now see\".",
"Interpretation \nThe elusiveness of Las Meninas, according to Dawson Carr, \"suggests that art, and life, are an illusion\". The relationship between illusion and reality were central concerns in Spanish culture during the 17th century, figuring largely in Don Quixote, the best-known work of Spanish Baroque literature. In this respect, Calderón de la Barca's play Life is a Dream is commonly seen as the literary equivalent of Velázquez's painting:",
"Jon Manchip White notes that the painting can be seen as a résumé of the whole of Velázquez's life and career, as well as a summary of his art to that point. He placed his only confirmed self-portrait in a room in the royal palace surrounded by an assembly of royalty, courtiers, and fine objects that represent his life at court",
". The art historian Svetlana Alpers suggests that, by portraying the artist at work in the company of royalty and nobility, Velázquez was claiming high status for both the artist and his art, and in particular to propose that painting is a liberal rather than a mechanical art. This distinction was a point of controversy at the time. It would have been significant to Velázquez, since the rules of the Order of Santiago excluded those whose occupations were mechanical",
". Kahr asserts that this was the best way for Velázquez to show that he was \"neither a craftsman or a tradesman, but an official of the court\". Furthermore, this was a way to prove himself worthy of acceptance by the royal family.",
"Michel Foucault devoted the opening chapter of The Order of Things (1966) to an analysis of Las Meninas. Foucault describes the painting in meticulous detail, but in a language that is \"neither prescribed by, nor filtered through the various texts of art-historical investigation\". Foucault viewed the painting without regard to the subject matter, nor to the artist's biography, technical ability, sources and influences, social context, or relationship with his patrons",
". Instead he analyzes its conscious artifice, highlighting the complex network of visual relationships between painter, subject-model, and viewer:",
"For Foucault, Las Meninas illustrates the first signs of a new episteme, or way of thinking. It represents a midpoint between what he sees as the two \"great discontinuities\" in European thought, the classical and the modern: \"Perhaps there exists, in this painting by Velázquez, the representation as it were of Classical representation, and the definition of the space it opens up to us ..",
"... representation, freed finally from the relation that was impeding it, can offer itself as representation in its pure form.\"",
"Las Meninas as culmination of themes in Velázquez",
"Many aspects of Las Meninas relate to earlier works by Velázquez in which he plays with conventions of representation. In the Rokeby Venus—his only surviving nude—the face of the subject is visible, blurred beyond any realism, in a mirror. The angle of the mirror is such that although \"often described as looking at herself, [she] is more disconcertingly looking at us\"",
". In the early Christ in the House of Martha and Mary of 1618, Christ and his companions are seen only through a serving hatch to a room behind, according to the National Gallery (London), who are clear that this is the intention, although before restoration many art historians regarded this scene as either a painting hanging on the wall in the main scene, or a reflection in a mirror, and the debate has continued",
". The dress worn in the two scenes also differs: the main scene is in contemporary dress, while the scene with Christ uses conventional iconographic biblical dress.",
"In Las Hilanderas, believed to have been painted the year after Las Meninas, two different scenes from Ovid are shown: one in contemporary dress in the foreground, and the other partly in antique dress, played before a tapestry on the back wall of a room behind the first. According to the critic Sira Dambe, \"aspects of representation and power are addressed in this painting in ways closely connected with their treatment in Las Meninas\"",
". In a series of portraits of the late 1630s and 1640s—all now in the Prado—Velázquez painted clowns and other members of the royal household posing as gods, heroes, and philosophers; the intention is certainly partly comic, at least for those in the know, but in a highly ambiguous way.",
"Velázquez's portraits of the royal family themselves had until then been straightforward, if often unflatteringly direct and highly complex in expression. On the other hand, his royal portraits, designed to be seen across vast palace rooms, feature more strongly than his other works the bravura handling for which he is famous: \"Velázquez's handling of paint is exceptionally free, and as one approaches Las Meninas there is a point at which the figures suddenly dissolve into smears and blobs of paint",
". The long-handled brushes he used enabled him to stand back and judge the total effect.\"",
"Influence",
"In 1692, the Neapolitan painter Luca Giordano became one of the few allowed to view paintings held in Philip IV's private apartments, and was greatly impressed by Las Meninas. Giordano described the work as the \"theology of painting\", and was inspired to paint A Homage to Velázquez (National Gallery, London). By the early 18th century his oeuvre was gaining international recognition, and later in the century British collectors ventured to Spain in search of acquisitions",
". Since the popularity of Italian art was then at its height among British connoisseurs, they concentrated on paintings that showed obvious Italian influence, largely ignoring others such as Las Meninas.",
"An almost immediate influence can be seen in the two portraits by Juan Bautista Martínez del Mazo of subjects depicted in Las Meninas, which in some ways reverse the motif of that painting. Ten years later, in 1666, Mazo painted Infanta Margaret Theresa, who was then 15 and just about to leave Madrid to marry the Holy Roman Emperor. In the background are figures in two further receding doorways, one of which was the new King Charles (Margaret Theresa's brother), and another the dwarf Maribarbola",
". A Mazo portrait of the widowed Queen Mariana again shows, through a doorway in the Alcázar, the young king with dwarfs, possibly including Maribarbola, and attendants who offer him a drink. Mazo's painting of The Family of the Artist also shows a composition similar to that of Las Meninas.",
"Francisco Goya etched a print of Las Meninas in 1778, and used Velázquez's painting as the model for his Charles IV of Spain and His Family. As in Las Meninas, the royal family in Goya's work is apparently visiting the artist's studio. In both paintings the artist is shown working on a canvas, of which only the rear is visible. Goya, however, replaces the atmospheric and warm perspective of Las Meninas with what Pierre Gassier calls a sense of \"imminent suffocation\"",
". Goya's royal family is presented on a \"stage facing the public, while in the shadow of the wings the painter, with a grim smile, points and says: 'Look at them and judge for yourself!' \"",
"The 19th-century British art collector William John Bankes travelled to Spain during the Peninsular War (1808–1814) and acquired a copy of Las Meninas painted by Mazo, which he believed to be an original preparatory oil sketch by Velázquez—although Velázquez did not usually paint studies. Bankes described his purchase as \"the glory of my collection\", noting that he had been \"a long while in treaty for it and was obliged to pay a high price\".",
"A new appreciation for Velázquez's less Italianate paintings developed after 1819, when Ferdinand VII opened the royal collection to the public. In 1879 John Singer Sargent painted a small-scale copy of Las Meninas, while his 1882 painting The Daughters of Edward Darley Boit is a homage to Velázquez's panel. The Irish artist Sir John Lavery chose Velázquez's masterpiece as the basis for his portrait The Royal Family at Buckingham Palace, 1913",
". George V visited Lavery's studio during the execution of the painting, and, perhaps remembering the legend that Philip IV had daubed the cross of the Knights of Santiago on the figure of Velázquez, asked Lavery if he could contribute to the portrait with his own hand. According to Lavery, \"Thinking that royal blue might be an appropriate colour, I mixed it on the palette, and taking a brush he [George V] applied it to the Garter ribbon.\"",
"Between August and December 1957, Pablo Picasso painted a series of 58 interpretations of Las Meninas, and figures from it, which currently fill the Las Meninas room of the Museu Picasso in Barcelona, Spain. Picasso did not vary the characters within the series, but largely retained the naturalness of the scene; according to the museum, his works constitute an \"exhaustive study of form, rhythm, colour and movement\"",
". A print of 1973 by Richard Hamilton called Picasso's Meninas draws on both Velázquez and Picasso. Photographer Joel-Peter Witkin was commissioned by the Spanish Ministry of Culture to create a work titled Las Meninas, New Mexico (1987) which references Velázquez's painting as well as other works by Spanish artists.",
"In 2004, the video artist Eve Sussman filmed 89 Seconds at Alcázar, a high-definition video tableau inspired by Las Meninas. The work is a recreation of the moments leading up to and directly following the approximately 89 seconds when the royal family and their courtiers would have come together in the exact configuration of Velázquez's painting. Sussman had assembled a team of 35, including an architect, a set designer, a choreographer, a costume designer, actors, and a film crew.",
"A 2008 exhibition at the Museu Picasso called \"Forgetting Velázquez: Las Meninas\" included art responding to Velázquez's painting by Fermín Aguayo, Avigdor Arikha, Claudio Bravo, Juan Carreño de Miranda, Michael Craig-Martin, Salvador Dalí, Juan Downey, Goya, Hamilton, Mazo, Vik Muniz, Jorge Oteiza, Picasso, Antonio Saura, Franz von Stuck, Sussman, Manolo Valdés, and Witkin, among others. In 2009 the Museo del Prado published online photographs of Las Meninas at a resolution of 14,000 megapixels",
". The Greek painter Kyriakos Katzourakis also refers to Las Meninas in his painting, Las Meninas (1976), which is on display in the National Gallery of Athens, Greece.",
"See also\n List of works by Diego Velázquez\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nSources\n\nFurther reading",
"Arasse, Daniel. \"The Eye of the Master: Las Meninas, Velázquez,\" in Take a Closer Look, translated from the French by Alyson Waters. Princeton, New Jersey, and Oxford, U.K.: Princeton University Press, 2013. .\n Brown, Jonathan. \"On the Meaning of Las Meninas,\" in Images and Ideas in Seventeenth-Century Spanish Painting. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1978. . \n Cumming, Laura. \"Velázquez,\" in A Face to the World: On Self-Portraits, London: HarperPress, 2009. .",
"Liess, Reinhard. Im Spiegel der Meninas. Velásquez über sich und Rubens. Goettingen: V&Runipress, 2003, \n Searle, John R. \"Las Meninas and the Paradoxes of Pictorial Representation\". Critical Inquiry 6 (Spring 1980).\n Stratton-Pruitt, Suzanne L., ed. Velázquez's 'Las Meninas'''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. .",
"External links \n\n Las Meninas at the Electronic Visualization Lab at the University of Illinois at Chicago \n Educational audio tour of Las Meninas\n Velázquez, exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art, which contains material on Las Meninas'' (see index)",
"1656 paintings\nDogs in art\nGroup portraits by Spanish artists\nMirrors in art\nPaintings about painting\nPaintings of children\nPortraits by Diego Velázquez in the Museo del Prado\nPortraits of Philip IV of Spain by Diego Velázquez\nSelf-portraits\nWorks about dwarfism"
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Parinacota (volcano)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parinacota%20%28volcano%29
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"Parinacota (in Hispanicized spelling), Parina Quta or Parinaquta is a dormant stratovolcano on the border of Bolivia and Chile. Together with Pomerape it forms the Nevados de Payachata volcanic chain. Part of the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes, its summit reaches an elevation of above sea level. The symmetrical cone is capped by a summit crater with widths of or . Farther down on the southern slopes lie three parasitic centres known as the Ajata cones. These cones have generated lava flows",
". These cones have generated lava flows. The volcano overlies a platform formed by lava domes and andesitic lava flows.",
"The volcano started growing during the Pleistocene and formed a large cone. At some point between the Pleistocene and the Holocene, the western flank of the volcano collapsed, generating a giant landslide that spread west and formed a large, hummocky landslide deposit. The avalanche crossed and dammed a previously existing drainage, impounding or enlarging Lake Chungará; numerous other lakes now forming the headwaters of the Rio Lauca sprang up within the deposit",
". Volcanic activity rebuilt the cone after the collapse, cancelling out the collapse scar.",
"Parinacota had numerous effusive and explosive eruptions during the Holocene, the latest about 200 years ago. While there are no recorded eruptions, legends of the local Aymara people imply that they may have witnessed one eruption. Renewed activity at Parinacota is possible in the future, although the relatively low population density in the region would limit the amount of damage that could occur",
". Some towns and a regional highway between Bolivia and Chile are potentially exposed to the effects of a new eruption.",
"Name \n\nThe name \"Parinacota\" is Aymara. Parina means flamingo and quta lake. Parinacota and its neighbour Pomerape are also known as the Nevados de Payachata, \"twins\". This refers to the fact that the volcanoes resemble each other.\n\nGeomorphology and geology",
"Parinacota lies on the western margin of the Altiplano in the Central Andes. The border between Bolivia and Chile bisects the volcano and runs along the rim of the crater, which lies in Bolivia. In Chile, where most of the edifice is located, Parinacota lies in the commune of Putre, Arica y Parinacota Region, and in Bolivia in the Oruro Department of the Sajama Province. The towns of Ajata and Parinacota lie southwest and west of the volcano, respectively",
". The towns of Ajata and Parinacota lie southwest and west of the volcano, respectively. The region lies at high altitude and access is difficult, hampering research on the volcanoes of the Central Andes.",
"Regional",
"The Nazca Plate and Antarctic Plate subduct beneath the South America Plate in the Peru-Chile Trench at a pace of and , respectively, resulting in volcanic activity in the Andes. Present-day volcanism occurs within four discrete belts: The Northern Volcanic Zone (NVZ), the Central Volcanic Zone (CVZ), the Southern Volcanic Zone (SVZ) and the Austral Volcanic Zone (AVZ). These extend between 2°N-5°S, 16°S-28°S, 33°S-46°S and 49°S-55°S, respectively",
". These extend between 2°N-5°S, 16°S-28°S, 33°S-46°S and 49°S-55°S, respectively. Between them they contain about 60 active volcanoes and 118 volcanoes which appear to have been active during the Holocene, not including potentially active very large silicic volcanic systems or very small monogenetic ones",
". These belts of active volcanism occur where the Nazca Plate subducts beneath the South America Plate at a steep angle, while in the volcanically inactive gaps between them the subduction is much shallower; thus there is no asthenosphere between the slab of the subducting plate and the overriding plate in the gaps.",
"Parinacota is part of the CVZ, which contains about 44 active volcanoes. Most volcanoes of the CVZ are relatively poorly researched and many exceed of elevation. Some of these edifices were active during historical time; these include El Misti, Lascar, San Pedro and Ubinas; the largest historical eruption of the CVZ occurred in 1600 at Huaynaputina. Other volcanoes in the CVZ that have been the subject of research are Galan and Purico complex",
". Other volcanoes in the CVZ that have been the subject of research are Galan and Purico complex. The CVZ has a characteristically thick crust () and the volcanic rocks have peculiar oxygen and strontium isotope ratios in comparison to the SVZ and NVZ. Parinacota lies in a segment of the CVZ where the Peru-Chile Trench undergoes a 45° curvature, and where the direction of subduction changes from diagonal to perpendicular",
". The crust is especially thick there, the reasons for this are not agreed upon yet and may vary between the western and eastern sides of the CVZ.",
"Subduction-related volcanism in the region has been ongoing since 200 million years ago, burying most of the Precambrian basement. Various units of sedimentary and volcanic origin form most of the outcropping basement in the region. A dramatic increment of volcanic activity occurred approximately 27 million years ago, when the Farallon Plate broke apart and subduction increased substantially",
". On the Bolivian side the oldest volcanites are the Oligocene Kollukollu formation 34 million years ago and the 23 million years old Rondal Lavas. Miocene volcanic activity generated the Berenguela, Carangas and Mauri formations, followed by the Perez formation during the Pliocene and Pleistocene. These formations were all affected by terrain uplift and folding, probably linked to changes in the subduction regime",
". Volcanism continued into the late Pleistocene and Holocene, and was accompanied by glacial activity during the Pleistocene. During this whole time period, volcanic activity progressively migrated westward; presently, it is located on the Bolivia-Chile border.",
"Local",
"Parinacota is a highly symmetric volcanic cone, having the classical \"regular cone\" shape of a stratovolcano. The volcano is high and features both blocky lava flows and scoria flows. Lava flows are fresh with levees, lobes and flow ridges, and reach lengths of on the slopes of the cone. The lava flows are between thick and can spread to widths of at the foot of the volcano",
". The lava flows are between thick and can spread to widths of at the foot of the volcano. Pyroclastic flows are also found, reaching lengths of and are usually poorly consolidated, containing breadcrust bombs and breccia.",
"The volcano is capped by a wide and deep summit crater, which has a pristine appearance. Other data imply a width of and a depth of . The crater is the source of pumice flows, which have well conserved surface features such as levees and lobes especially down on the eastern slope. These pumice flows extend as far as away from the crater. An ashfall deposit spreads east from Parinacota to a distance of in Bolivia. Ash and lapilli deposits have been found at the shores of Lake Chungará as well.",
"The cone sits atop a thick multilobed andesitic platform known as the \"Chungará Andesites\" which crop out on the north shore of Lake Chungará in the form of a shelf. Overlying this shelf is a system of lava domes, which reach thicknesses of . The lava domes are accompanied by block and ash flow deposits that reach lengths of . A steep descent leads to Lake Chungará",
". A steep descent leads to Lake Chungará.South of the main edifice lie the parasitic vents known as the Ajata cones, which formed along a fissure that emanates from the main cone and is aligned with the regional Condoriri-Parinacota lineament. The dimensions of the cones reach width and height. The High Ajata flow emanates from a single cone and spreads southwest as a lobated lava flow",
". The High Ajata flow emanates from a single cone and spreads southwest as a lobated lava flow. The middle Ajata flow is much smaller and is sourced to three different cones below the source of the High Ajata, each cone having its own small flow field. The upper and lower Ajata flows are only slightly smaller than the High Ajata flow and form superposed lava flows lower on the edifice. These lava flows are gray-black aa lava flows, commonly up to thick; the longest of these flows reaches a length of .",
"Older are the large dacitic lava flows known as the \"Border Dacites\" on the southeastern side of Parinacota, which are over horizontal distance. A similar but smaller lava flow lies west of the Border Dacites, entirely within Chile. These three lava flows have a total volume of about . Overall, Parinacota rises from a surface of ; the resulting edifice has a volume of .",
"On the northern side Parinacota partly overlaps with Pomerape. Parinacota, Pomerape, and volcanoes farther south like Quisiquisini, Guallatiri and Poquentica form the eastern margin of the Lauca basin. This is a relatively gentle plain drained by the Rio Lauca. A chain of dormant or extinct volcanoes farther west like Taapaca forms the western margin of the basin and separates the Altiplano from the steep dropoff to the Atacama west of the Lauca basin.\n\nGlaciers",
"The old cone was subject to glaciation, and traces of glacial erosion are preserved on its lava flows. A system of moraines can be seen at an elevation of on the southeastern foot of the volcano, where they partly cross the shores of Lake Chungará. Six such high moraines have been identified there, they were formed during the regional last glacial maximum (which did not coincide with the global last glacial maximum) although a pre-last glacial maximum origin has been proposed",
". Other, unspecified glacial deposits have also been observed in this area.",
"Presently, a or large ice cap covers the upper parts of the volcano and drops down to an elevation of about . There is also a large glacier on its southern flank. Some reports disagree with calling any part of Parinacota's ice cap a \"glacier\", however. Between 1987 and 2016, ice area at Parinacota and Pomerape declined by 1.94% every year. A retreat of was noted between 2002 and 2003, and most of the ice lies on the western slope of the mountain.\n\nSector collapse",
"Sector collapse \n\nParinacota shows evidence of a major sector collapse (a giant landslide), whose deposit was originally interpreted to be a lava flow. The collapse removed a volume of about from the cone, plunged over vertical distance and flowed west, covering a surface area of or with debris; the volume is not very well established.",
"As the volcano grew, it put more and more load on relatively weak sedimentary material that the volcano had developed on, deforming it, until these sedimentary rocks gave way. The western slope might have been weakened by glacial action, further facilitating the onset of the collapse. The collapse was probably sequential from the lower part of the edifice to the summit, and it formed an avalanche of rocks that flowed down the volcano",
". This flow was probably laminar and extremely fast ( ), judging from the morphologies of the avalanche deposit, and it incorporated substantial pre-collapse sediments from the Lauca basin. As the avalanche descended the slopes of the volcano, it picked up enough speed to run up on some topographical obstacles",
". Such collapses have occurred on other volcanoes in the CVZ such as Llullaillaco, Ollagüe, Socompa and Tata Sabaya; the most recent event occurred between 1787 and 1802 at Tutupaca in Peru and was much smaller than the Parinacota sector collapse.",
"The collapse event resembled the one that occurred on Mount St. Helens during the latter's eruption in 1980, although the Parinacota collapse was three times larger. A separate, minor sector collapse occurred on a lava dome on the southwestern foot of the volcano at an unknown time. Such sector collapses are a common phenomenon on volcanoes.",
"The avalanche eventually came to rest in a large \"L\" with the long side extending along the axis of the collapse and the short side closer to the edifice pointing north where its advance was limited by tomography, formed an exceptionally well preserved debris avalanche deposit. This deposit has a \"hummocky\" appearance typical for sector collapse deposits; individual hummocks can reach sizes of and heights of , with the size decreasing away from the volcano",
". The formation of these hummocks was probably influenced by the pre-existing structure of the edifice; much of the original stratigraphy of the pre-collapse edifice was preserved within the final collapse deposit. As the avalanche came to rest, compressional ridges formed with axes perpendicular to the movement of the avalanche. A few large Toreva blocks lie in the avalanche deposit just at the foot of Parinacota, they reach heights of and volumes of",
". Large blocks with sizes of up to are part of the deposit, and some of these blocks preserve details of the pre-collapse structure; the blocks reach sizes of even at large distances from Parinacota. These large blocks dominate the avalanche deposit; fine material is not present in the Parinacota collapse deposit, an unusual feature among debris avalanches. Some blocks slid away from the main avalanche deposit",
". Some blocks slid away from the main avalanche deposit. The avalanche deposit displays a noticeable split into two units; the upper one is andesitic and originated from the actual cone, the lower one is derived from the lava domes beneath the present-day edifice.",
"This collapse gave birth to Lake Chungará when the avalanche flowed across a westbound drainage between Choquelimpie and Parinacota, forming a high volcanic dam that retained about of water. The formation of lakes during sector collapses has been observed at other volcanoes, including the 1988 Mount St. Helens collapse. Prior to the collapse, alluvial and riverine deposits occupied the area. In 2015 it was proposed that a much smaller lake occupied part of the Lake Chungará basin before the collapse.",
"Within the hummock-like topography of the deposit, a number of other lakes and peat filled basins are found, formed by water percolating through the avalanche deposit. These lakes are known as the Lagunas Cotacotani lakes, and are an important bird refuge. At least some of these lakes may be kettle holes, formed when blocks of ice transported within the avalanche melted. With increasing distance from the main cone the size of the lakes decreases",
". With increasing distance from the main cone the size of the lakes decreases. Some of these lakes are connected with each other and others are isolated, and during periods of low lake stands some of the lakes can become disconnected from each other. Springs at the foot of Parinacota form the Rio Benedicto Morales which flows through some of the lakes and ends in the main Lake Cotacotani. Otherwise, these lakes receive water from Lake Chungará through seepage",
". Otherwise, these lakes receive water from Lake Chungará through seepage. The lakes ultimately form the headwaters of the Rio Lauca, whose course previously extended across the area covered by the avalanche. The river has not carved an outlet all the way to Lake Chungará, probably because the relatively coarse avalanche deposit allows large amounts of water to seep through without carving a new river channel",
". The rate at which waters seep through the avalanche deposit has been estimated at ; it has progressively decreased over time, probably as a consequence of increased siltation within the avalanche deposit. Thus the depth and surface area of Lake Chungará have increased since the formation of the lake, and so has evaporation, which currently removes almost 5/6 of the total inflow.",
"A pumice fall deposit of dacitic composition is associated with the sector collapse event, which together with lava bombs suggest that an eruption took place at the time of the collapse; this has been contested however. The sector collapse was probably not caused by an eruption, although the intrusion of a cryptodome may have helped",
". There is no evidence on the edifice for the existence of a collapse scar, indicating that post-collapse volcanic activity has completely filled up the space removed by the collapse. The volcanic edifice has reached a volume similar to its volume before the failure.",
"Surroundings",
"The terrain around Parinacota is mostly formed by Neogene volcanic rocks. These are for the most part over one million years old and include individual volcanic centres such as Caldera Ajoya, Caldera Lauca, Choquelimpie, Condoriri, Guane Guane, Larancagua and Quisiquisini, and the Miocene Lauca ignimbrite (2.7 ± 0.1 million years ago) that forms the basement. The activity of many of these centres occurred over 6.6 million years ago",
". The activity of many of these centres occurred over 6.6 million years ago. At slightly larger distances lie the volcanoes Guallatiri, Nevados de Quimsachata and Taapaca. Proterozoic and paleozoic basement rocks crop out as charnockite/granulite east and as amphibolite/gneiss west of the volcano, respectively. Other formations include the volcaniclastic Lupica Formation of Oligocene-Miocene age and the lacustrine Lauca formation.",
"A number of volcanoes have been active around Parinacota in the last one million years. Pomerape northeast of Parinacota is similar to Parinacota but the greater degrees of erosional decay suggest it is older than Parinacota; a subsidiary vent dated 205,000 years ago is found on its eastern slope. Pomerape is a comparatively simple volcanic cone whose foot is covered by glacial debris. One age obtained on the cone is 106,000 ± 7,000 years ago",
". One age obtained on the cone is 106,000 ± 7,000 years ago. The Caquena and Chucullo rhyolitic to andesitic lava domes are found northwest and southwest of Parinacota, respectively; they are associated with the oldest stages of activity at Parinacota.",
"Periglacial and erosional landforms",
"Periglacial landscapes are frequent in the area; they include rounded landforms, smooth surfaces, solifluction terrain and striated terrain. This extensiveness is the result of the relatively dry climate in the region, which limits the development of glaciers. On Parinacota, landforms of this type are found starting from elevation and become dominant above until the glacier line",
". The extent of their development is a function of the age of the underlying rocks as well; Holocene volcanic rocks have little periglacial alteration while older rock formations at times are heavily altered. Lahars also occurred during the history of Parinacota; thick layers of lahar deposits are found on the southern and eastern slopes and form a fan on the northwestern slope of Parinacota. At this fan, lahar deposits reach distances of away from the volcano.",
"Erosion has formed gullies on the upper sector of Parinacota. Otherwise, the volcanic rocks of Parinacota are well preserved owing to the arid climate and the youth of the volcano.\n\nPetrology",
"Volcanic rocks erupted by Parinacota range in composition from basaltic andesite to rhyolite. Andesites from the old cone are classified as hornblende and pyroxene andesites. Minerals found within the rocks include amphibole, apatite, biotite, clinopyroxene, iron oxide and titanium oxide, feldspar, olivine, orthopyroxene, pyroxene, sanidine and zircon. Not all of these minerals are found in rocks from all stages of Parinacota",
". Not all of these minerals are found in rocks from all stages of Parinacota. Some of these minerals, such as quartz and sanidine, were at least in part formed by the inclusion of foreign rocks into the magma. Gabbro and granite are found as xenoliths.",
"Overall, volcanic rocks at Parinacota belong to a potassium-rich calc-alkaline suite. The volcanites have characteristically high contents of barium and strontium, especially in the youngest Ajata rocks where their concentration is higher than in any other CVZ volcanic rock. A trend to a more tholeiitic composition in younger eruptions may reflect an increased magma flux and a decreased interaction with the upper crust.",
"The magmas that formed Parinacota and Pomerape are considered to be a group distinct from these that formed older volcanic centres in the region, but also distinct from the magmas that formed the subsidiary vent of Pomerape and the Ajata cones; these tend to be more mafic. In turn, the younger and older Ajata cone lavas have different compositions, one having a high quantity of strontium and the other a low one.",
"Magmas in the Parinacota region formed through distinct processes. One of these is fractional crystallization within closed magma chambers. Another is the mixing of different magmas, one of which in the case of Parinacota may be the Ajata magmas. More specifically, two different magmas with compositions akin to the Ajata magmas contributed the mafic element to the Parinacota magmas",
". Some differences in magma composition between various volcanoes and stages may reflect the occurrence of several different magma differentiation events.",
"Processes within magma chambers play an important role in the formation of the magmas erupted by volcanoes. The diversity of the petrographic patterns suggest that Parinacota did not have a single major magma chamber, but rather various magma reservoirs at various depths and with variable interconnection patterns. Some Ajata magmas bypassed the shallow reservoirs completely",
". Some Ajata magmas bypassed the shallow reservoirs completely. Starting about 28,000 years ago however several different magma systems consolidated into one, probably as a result of more frequent injections of new magma and/or the accumulation of cumulates that insulated the magmatic system. The transit of the magmas through the conduit system probably takes several ten thousand years, and the residence time within magma chambers could be on the order of 100,000 years.",
"In the case of Parinacota, there is a noticeable difference between the pre-sector collapse and post-sector collapse magmas, indicating that a large turnover of the magmatic system was triggered by the landslide. More specifically, after the collapse erupted rocks became more mafic and their composition more influenced by fractional crystallization, while the preceding magmas were more strongly affected by mixing processes",
". Also, magma output increased significantly, while the resting time in the magma chambers decreased. Modelling indicates that over the short term, a collapse would cause activity to stop at a volcano of Parinacota's size, and over the long term the plumbing system would change and become shallower",
". Also, the plumbing system of the volcano would become more permissive to denser mafic magmas after a sector collapse, perhaps explaining why the Ajata vents were active after the collapse but the magma erupted through them influenced petrogenesis of main cone magmas much earlier",
". The magnitude of such changes is considerably larger than at neighbouring volcano Taapaca, where a sector collapse was not accompanied by changes in activity; presumably Parinacota's shallower magma supply system made it more susceptible to the effects of unloading.",
"The source of the Parinacota magmas is ultimately the mantle wedge above the slab of the Nazca Plate. Fluids released from the slab flux the wedge and trigger the formation of melts, with the assistance of asthenospheric material that is hotter and gets transported into the wedge. These ascending magmas then interact with the crust, resulting in extensive changes to their composition",
". The area in the crust where such interaction takes place is known as \"MASH\" or \"Melting Assimilation Storage Homogenization\", and it is there that the base magmas are formed which then enter into shallow magmatic systems. Further, the relative thickness of the crust and narrowness of the mantle wedge mean that garnet is stable within the wedge, causing the magmas to be influenced by garnet-linked petrogenic processes",
". Shallower crustal components such as the locally extensive Lauca-Perez ignimbrite may have been assimilated by Parinacota as well. These crustal components contributed about 12% of the primitive magmas as erupted by the Ajata cones, while the mantle wedge contributed 83%. Fluids from the slab and sediments subducted in the Peru-Chile Trench added the remaining 3 and 2%.",
"Climate \n\nAverage temperatures at Parinacota are about , with the isotherm hovering between elevation. On neighbouring Sajama, on the summit temperatures range . The atmosphere becomes thinner and drier at higher altitudes, allowing both increased solar radiation to reach the surface during daytime and more thermal radiation from the ground to escape to the top of the atmosphere during night. This pattern determines a large diurnal temperature amplitude in the region, with variations on the scale of .",
"Average precipitation at Parinacota is about . Between about 12 and 26° degrees southern latitude, most of the moisture that arrives was absorbed by winds over the Amazon and transported to the Andes. Thus, humidity increases from west to east, with the Pacific coastline being particularly dry",
". Thus, humidity increases from west to east, with the Pacific coastline being particularly dry. Parinacota lies within the puna seca climate region, where precipitation occurs over 7 or 8 months of wet season and results in a total amount of , most of it falling during the summer months when the Altiplano warms up under the sun, generating a monsoon-like wind current. The summer precipitation is also known as the \"Bolivian winter\" or \"Altiplanic winter\"",
". The summer precipitation is also known as the \"Bolivian winter\" or \"Altiplanic winter\". This is an unusual precipitation pattern for Chile; most of the country has a mediterranean climate where most precipitation occurs during the winter months.",
"The arid climate is a consequence of the activity of the South Pacific High just off the coast, the rain shadow effect of the Andes and the cold Humboldt Current in the Pacific Ocean. The dry climate became apparent in the region 10–15 million years ago. The generally arid climate of the region means that volcanoes can remain topographically recognizable for a long time, being subject to only minimal erosion",
". Likewise, the groundwater pools in the region tend to be fairly old, going back to 13,000–12,000 years ago. The climate was not always so dry in the past; around 28,000 years ago and between 13,000 and 8,200 years ago a wet period was accompanied by advances of glaciers. The middle Holocene was dry, after 4,000 years before present climate became wetter again",
". The middle Holocene was dry, after 4,000 years before present climate became wetter again. Because of the aridity, relatively little sediment is flushed into the Peru-Chile Trench from land, which has effects on the tectonics of the region and the chemistry of the magmas erupted in the volcanoes.",
"Winds at Parinacota come generally from the west, except during the wet season when easterly winds are common. This wind pattern is controlled by the formation of a high-pressure area and a shift of the subtropical jet stream to the south.\n\nFlora and fauna",
"The Andes are a long mountain chain with different climates at various latitudes and elevations. Thus, vegetation differs from one location to the other. In the region of Parinacota, between altitude the vegetation is formed by shrub steppe such as Baccharis incarum, Baccharis tola, Fabiana densa; the dominant species are Deyuexia breviaristata, Festuca orthophylla, Parastrephia lucida and Parastrphia quadrangularis. During the wet season, this vegetation is augmented by herbaceous plants",
". During the wet season, this vegetation is augmented by herbaceous plants. Above a grass vegetation dominates, which on rocky ground occasionally gives way to cushion vegetation such as Azorella compacta, whose yellow colour is characteristic and can be seen from large distances. This type of xeric vegetation is also known as \"puna\". Polylepis tarapacana is the only true tree found at these altitudes and forms small woods, up to elevations of",
". Close to water, the bofedal marsh-like vegetation prevails, with Oxychloe andina being the dominant species. Some genera and species are endemic to the puna; they include Chilotrichiops, Lampaya, Parastrephia and Oreocerus.",
"Among the ecological factors that determine vegetation in the region are lack of water, saline soils, plentiful solar irradiation, herbivores, wind and cold nighttime temperatures. These plant species which release airborne pollen can often be identified in samples taken from Parinacota's icecap, where winds deposit the pollen grains.Animal species that live around Parinacota include flamingo, guanaco, huemul, rhea, vicuña and viscacha",
". Among predatory animals feature the Andean cat, the pampas cat and the puma. The most abundant animal species however are rodents, some of which can be found up to the highest treelines and which include the viscacha and the burrowing tuco-tuco. Also important are birds, such as the rhea, the tinamous, flamingos and various predatory and wetland birds, including the Andean condor.",
"Many mammal species in the area were decimated in the past, although some have displayed a recent recovery in numbers. Parinacota and surroundings in 1965 were made part of the Lauca National Park, which was further modified in 1970 and 1983. This natural preserve features a unique flora and fauna for Chile",
". This natural preserve features a unique flora and fauna for Chile. However, potential future water diversions from Lake Chungará, the hunting of indigenous animals, overharvesting of the vegetation, overgrazing and the existence of a major border-crossing highway close to Lake Chungará constitute ongoing threats to the environment around Parinacota.",
"Lake Chungará adds to the local flora and fauna. These include charophytes, diatoms and aquatic macrophyte plants. Animal taxa found in the lake include bivalves, gastropods and ostracods. About 19 species of Orestias fish are found in the lake, some of which are endemic",
". About 19 species of Orestias fish are found in the lake, some of which are endemic. The speciation of Orestias chungarensis, Orestias laucaensis and Orestias piacotensis was aided by the volcanic activity of Parinacota and its collapse, which separated the watersheds inhabited by their ancestor species and caused allopatric speciation.",
"Eruptive history",
"Parinacota underwent five separate stages of volcanic activity. A relatively young age of the last eruption is presumed considering the good preservation of volcanic landforms, such as lava flows and the summit crater; SERNAGEOMIN considers it the most active volcano of the Central Andes by magma output. The high magma output may be facilitated by the presence of faults that facilitate the rising of magma; the Condoriri lineament in the area could be the fault that channels magma to Parinacota",
". The injection of mafic magmas into magma chambers and the mixing between magmas of different composition has been held responsible for the onset of eruptions at many volcanoes including Parinacota.",
"Chungará Andesites and lava domes \n\nThe oldest volcanic structure of Parinacota are the \"Chungará Andesites\" and the overlying lava dome, which form the platform that crops out on the southern side of the Parinacota volcano, facing Lake Chungará. Erosion and glacial action has smoothed the surfaces of these rocks, leaving no primary textures.",
"This platform was erupted between 300,000 and 100,000 years ago. The finer subdivision defines the \"Chungará Andesites\" as having erupted 163,000–117,000 years ago and the \"Rhyolite domes\" being 52,000–42,000 years old. Other dates obtained on these stages are 110,000 ± 4,000 and 264,000 ± 30,000 years ago for the Chungará Andesites and over 112,000 ± 5,000 for the \"rhyolite domes\". These two units are also called \"Parinacota 1\"",
". These two units are also called \"Parinacota 1\". A hiatus of over 60,000 years occurred between the eruption of the \"Chungará Andesites\" and the formation of the lava dome plateau. Traces of explosive activity during the lava dome stage have been found.",
"The \"Chungará Andesites\" have a volume of over ; material from these stages was incorporated in the collapse deposit. Pomerape volcano developed during this time as well. This and the long delay between the eruption of the Chungará Andesites and the rest of the volcano's history may imply that the magmatic systems involved were different. Magma output during the early stage was low, with a magma output of with the dome growth contributing .\n\nOld Cone and sector collapse",
"At the same time as the lava domes were emplaced, the Old Cone started growing a short distance northwest of the domes. The temporal gap between this stage of Parinacota's activity and the previous one may be because the deposits from this time interval are only poorly preserved. The Old Cone developed over 85,000 years until the sector collapse, and is also known as Parinacota 2",
". Outcrops of this stage are found mostly low on the southeastern and north-northwestern slopes; individual dates obtained on rocks from this stage are 20,000 ± 4,000, 46,700 ± 1,600, and 53,000 ± 11,000 years ago. The \"Border Dacites\" also belong to this stage, being dated at 28,000 ± 1,000 years ago. Likewise, ash fall deposits found in the Cotacotani lakes have been dated to this period of volcanic history, indicating that the Old Cone occasionally featured explosive eruptions",
". This stage erupted andesite and dacite in the form of three distinct suites. Magma output during this time was about . This also was a time of glacier growth and development in the region, and consequently a glacier cap developed on the Old Cone during this time. By the time of the sector collapse, the glaciers were already retreating.",
"The date of the collapse is not known with certainty, because dates have been obtained on various materials with different stratigraphic interpretations. 18,000 years ago was considered the most likely estimate, but ages as young as 8,000 years ago were also proposed. Radiocarbon dates from peat within the collapse deposit indicated an age of 13,500 years ago, or 11,500–13,500 years ago",
". Many dates were obtained on material predating the collapse that was embedded within the collapse deposit, and thus the most likely time for the collapse was considered to be 8,000 years ago. Later research indicated an age between 13,000 and 20,000 years ago, the most recent proposal is 8,800 ± 500 years before present.",
"The postulated period coincides with a global clustering of volcano collapse events; perhaps global warming occurring during this time when the last glacial maximum approached its end predisposed volcanoes to collapse. On the other hand, the younger dates of around 8,000 years ago significantly post-date the end of glaciation, thus if the collapse occurred at that time it was probably unrelated to glacial fluctuations",
". This collapse and the collapse of Socompa farther south may have affected humans in the region.",
"Young cone and Ajata",
"After the collapse, the cone was relatively rapidly rebuilt during the Young Cone stage reaching a total volume of approximately . The units erupted during this time are also known as the \"healing flows\" or Parinacota 3. During this stage, volcanic activity was focused on the summit crater. This stage was relatively short and accompanied by an increase in the magma output of Parinacota to depending on how the duration of this stage is measured",
". The higher magma flux is comparable to peak output by other large stratovolcanoes. The maximum possible magma flux at Parinacota during this period is about .",
"Apart from lava flows, sub-Plinian eruptions generated pumice and scoria flows, with some individual explosive eruptions dated to 4,800 ± 800, 4,300 ± 2,600 and 3,600 ± 1,100 years ago. Based on the patterns of tephra deposition in Lake Chungará, it is inferred that the rate of explosive activity increased after the early Holocene until recent times; in addition, tephra falls contributed calcium to the lake waters and impacted its biological productivity",
". It has been proposed that dust particles found in ice cores at Nevado Sajama may actually be tephra from Parinacota.",
"Various Holocene dates have been obtained from rocks on the southern flank of the Young Cone; the youngest date for this stage was obtained by argon-argon dating: 500 ± 300 years ago. Further, an age of less than 200 BP has been determined by radiocarbon dating for a pyroclastic flow.",
"Other recent activity, originally considered to be the youngest, formed the Ajata cones. These cones are constructed by basaltic andesite with a volume of about . The Ajata cones form four groups of different ages: The lower Ajata flows were erupted 5,985 ± 640 and 6,560 ± 1,220 years ago, the upper Ajata flows 4,800 ± 4,000 years ago, the middle Ajata flows 9,900 ± 2,100 years ago, and the High Ajata flows 2,000 – 1,300 years ago. These groups also form compositionally distinct units",
". These groups also form compositionally distinct units. The youngest surface exposure date obtained is 1,385 ± 350 years ago.",
"According to SERNAGEOMIN, Aymara legends referencing volcanic activity imply a latest eruption date of 1800 AD. One history narrating of a bearded man, son of the Sun, that was mistreated by a local town head with the exception of a woman and her son. They were warned that a great disaster would happen, and as they fled from the town it was destroyed by fire",
". Details of the story imply that the story might reference a small explosive eruption that sent a pyroclastic flow into Lake Chungará after the time of the Spanish conquest; the theory that it references the sector collapse conversely appears to be unlikely.",
"Present-day activity and hazards",
"Presently, Parinacota is dormant, but future volcanic activity is possible. Explicit fumarolic activity has not been observed, but satellite imaging has shown the evidence of thermal anomalies on the scale of , and reports of sulfurous smells at the summit imply that a fumarole may exist in the summit area. The volcano is seismically active including one potential seismic swarm, but earthquake activity is less than at Guallatiri farther south",
". Based on Landsat Thematic Mapper images, it was considered a potentially active volcano in 1991.",
"The volcano is one among ten volcanoes in northern Chile monitored by SERNAGEOMIN and has a volcano hazard level published. The relatively low population density on the Bolivian side of the volcano means that renewed activity would not constitute a major threat there, although the town of Sajama may be affected. The Arica-La Paz highway runs close to the volcano and might be threatened by mud and debris flows, along with small communities in the area",
". Communities close to the volcano include Caquena, Chucullo and Parinacota. Potential hazards from future activity include the development of lahars from interactions between magma and the ice cap, as well as eruptions from the flank vents; ash fall from prolonged flank vent eruptions could disturb pastures in the region. The important natural preserve that is the Lauca National Park could suffer significant disruption from renewed eruptions of Parinacota.",
"Legends and archeology \n\nThe region around Parinacota has been inhabited for about 7,000–10,000 years. Politically, since 1,000 years ago first Tiwanaku and then the Inka ruled over the region. In contrast with many other local mountains, no archeological findings are reported from the summit of Parinacota.",
"Several legends concern Parinacota and its sister mountain Pomerape, which are often portrayed as unmarried sisters. Some involve a dispute with or between the mountains Tacora and Sajama, often resulting in Tacora being driven off.\n\nGallery\n\nSee also\n List of volcanoes in Bolivia\n List of volcanoes in Chile\n\nReferences\n\nSources\n\nExternal links\n\n Andeshandbook: A Complete Description, history, place names and routes of Parinacota\n Parinacota at SummitPost.org\n AVA images",
"Volcanoes of Arica y Parinacota Region\nVolcanoes of Oruro Department\nAndean Volcanic Belt\nStratovolcanoes of Chile\nSubduction volcanoes\nMountains of Chile\nPolygenetic volcanoes\nPotentially active volcanoes\nBolivia–Chile border\nInternational mountains of South America\nSix-thousanders of the Andes\nPleistocene stratovolcanoes\nHolocene stratovolcanoes"
] |
Maurya Empire
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurya%20Empire
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[
"The Maurya Empire was a geographically extensive Iron Age historical power in South Asia based in Magadha. Founded by Chandragupta Maurya in 322 BCE, it existed in loose-knit fashion until 185 BCE. The empire was centralized by the conquest of the Indo-Gangetic Plain; its capital city was located at Pataliputra (modern Patna). Outside this imperial centre, the empire's geographical extent was dependent on the loyalty of military commanders who controlled the armed cities scattered within it",
". During Ashoka's rule (ca. 268–232 BCE) the empire briefly controlled the major urban hubs and arteries of the Indian subcontinent excepting the deep south. It declined for about 50 years after Ashoka's rule, and dissolved in 185 BCE with the assassination of Brihadratha by Pushyamitra Shunga and foundation of the Shunga dynasty in Magadha.",
"Chandragupta Maurya raised an army, with the assistance of Chanakya, author of the Arthasastra, and overthrew the Nanda Empire in . Chandragupta rapidly expanded his power westwards across central and western India by conquering the satraps left by Alexander the Great, and by 317 BCE the empire had fully occupied northwestern India. The Mauryan Empire then defeated Seleucus I, a diadochus and founder of the Seleucid Empire, during the Seleucid–Mauryan war, thus acquiring territory west of the Indus River.",
"Under the Mauryas, internal and external trade, agriculture, and economic activities thrived and expanded across South Asia due to the creation of a single and efficient system of finance, administration, and security. The Maurya dynasty built a precursor of the Grand Trunk Road from Patliputra to Taxila. After the Kalinga War, the Empire experienced nearly half a century of centralized rule under Ashoka",
". Ashoka's embrace of Buddhism and sponsorship of Buddhist missionaries allowed for the expansion of that faith into Sri Lanka, northwest India, and Central Asia.",
"The population of South Asia during the Mauryan period has been estimated to be between 15 and 30 million. \nThe empire's period of dominion was marked by exceptional creativity in art, architecture, inscriptions and produced texts, but also by the consolidation of caste in the Gangetic plain, and the declining rights of women in the mainstream Indo-Aryan speaking regions of India.",
"Archaeologically, the period of Mauryan rule in South Asia falls into the era of Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). The Arthashastra and the Edicts of Ashoka are the primary sources of written records of Mauryan times. The Lion Capital of Ashoka at Sarnath is the national emblem of the Republic of India.",
"Etymology \n\nThe name \"Maurya\" does not occur in Ashoka's inscriptions, or the contemporary Greek accounts such as Megasthenes's Indica, but it is attested by the following sources:",
"The Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman (c. 150 CE) prefixes \"Maurya\" to the names Chandragupta and Ashoka.\n The Puranas (c. 4th century CE or earlier) use Maurya as a dynastic appellation.\n The Buddhist texts state that Chandragupta belonged to the \"Moriya\" clan of the Shakyas, the tribe to which Gautama Buddha belonged.\n The Jain texts state that Chandragupta was the son of a royal superintendent of peacocks (mayura-poshaka).",
"Tamil Sangam literature also designate them as '' and mention them after the Nandas\nKuntala inscription (from the town of Bandanikke, North Mysore) of 12th century AD chronologically mention Mauryya as one of the dynasties which ruled the region.",
"According to some scholars, Kharavela' Hathigumpha inscription (2nd-1st century BC) mentions era of Maurya Empire as Muriya Kala (Mauryan era), but this reading is disputed: other scholars—such as epigraphist D. C. Sircar—read the phrase as mukhiya-kala (\"the principal art\").",
"According to the Buddhist tradition, the ancestors of the Maurya kings had settled in a region where peacocks (mora in Pali) were abundant. Therefore, they came to be known as \"Moriyas\", literally meaning, \"belonging to the place of peacocks\". According to another Buddhist account, these ancestors built a city called Moriya-nagara (\"Moriya-city\"), which was so called, because it was built with the \"bricks coloured like peacocks' necks\".",
"The dynasty's connection to the peacocks, as mentioned in the Buddhist and Jain traditions, seems to be corroborated by archaeological evidence. For example, peacock figures are found on the Ashoka pillar at Nandangarh and several sculptures on the Great Stupa of Sanchi. Based on this evidence, modern scholars theorize that the peacock may have been the dynasty's emblem.",
"Some later authors, such as Dhundhi-raja (an 18th-century commentator on the Mudrarakshasa and an annotator of the Vishnu Purana), state that the word \"Maurya\" is derived from Mura and the mother of the first Maurya king. However, the Puranas themselves make no mention of Mura and do not talk of any relation between the Nanda and the Maurya dynasties",
". Dhundiraja's derivation of the word seems to be his own invention: according to the Sanskrit rules, the derivative of the feminine name Mura (IAST: Murā) would be \"Maureya\"; the term \"Maurya\" can only be derived from the masculine \"Mura\".",
"History\n\nFounding",
"Prior to the Maurya Empire, the Nanda Empire ruled over a broad swathe of the Indian subcontinent. The Nanda Empire was a large, militaristic, and economically powerful empire due to conquering the Mahajanapadas. According to several legends, Chanakya travelled to Pataliputra, Magadha, the capital of the Nanda Empire where Chanakya worked for the Nandas as a minister. However, Chanakya was insulted by the Emperor Dhana Nanda when he informed them of Alexander's invasion",
". Chanakya swore revenge and vowed to destroy the Nanda Empire. He had to flee in order to save his life and went to Taxila, a notable center of learning, to work as a teacher. On one of his travels, Chanakya witnessed some young men playing a rural game practicing a pitched battle. One of the boys was none other than Chandragupta. Chanakya was impressed by the young Chandragupta and saw royal qualities in him as someone fit to rule.",
"Meanwhile, Alexander the Great was leading his Indian campaigns and ventured into Punjab. His army mutinied at the Beas River and refused to advance farther eastward when confronted by another army. Alexander returned to Babylon and re-deployed most of his troops west of the Indus River. Soon after Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BCE, his empire fragmented into independent kingdoms led by his generals.",
"The Maurya Empire was established in the Magadha region under the leadership of Chandragupta Maurya and his mentor Chanakya. Chandragupta was taken to Taxila by Chanakya and was tutored about statecraft and governing. Requiring an army Chandragupta recruited and annexed local military republics such as the Yaudheyas that had resisted Alexander's Empire. The Mauryan army quickly rose to become the prominent regional power in the North West of the Indian subcontinent",
". The Mauryan army then conquered the satraps established by the Macedonians. Ancient Greek historians Nearchus, Onesictrius, and Aristobolus have provided lot of information about the Mauryan empire. The Greek generals Eudemus and Peithon ruled in the Indus Valley until around 317 BCE, when Chandragupta Maurya (with the help of Chanakya, who was now his advisor) fought and drove out the Greek governors, and subsequently brought the Indus Valley under the control of his new seat of power in Magadha.",
"Chandragupta Maurya's ancestry is shrouded in mystery and controversy. On one hand, a number of ancient Indian accounts, such as the drama Mudrarakshasa (Signet ring of Rakshasa – Rakshasa was the prime minister of Magadha) by Vishakhadatta, describe his royal ancestry and even link him with the Nanda family. A kshatriya clan known as the Mauryas are referred to in the earliest Buddhist texts, Mahaparinibbana Sutta. However, any conclusions are hard to make without further historical evidence",
". However, any conclusions are hard to make without further historical evidence. Chandragupta first emerges in Greek accounts as \"Sandrokottos\". As a young man he is said to have met Alexander. Chanakya is said to have met the Nanda king, angered him, and made a narrow escape.",
"Conquest of the Nanda Empire",
"Historically reliable details of Chandragupta's campaign against Nanda Empire are unavailable and legends written centuries later are inconsistent. Buddhist, Jain, and Hindu texts claim Magadha was ruled by the Nanda dynasty, which, with Chanakya's counsel, Chandragupta conquered Nanda Empire. The army of Chandragupta and Chanakya first conquered the Nanda outer territories, and finally besieged the Nanda capital Pataliputra",
". In contrast to the easy victory in Buddhist sources, the Hindu and Jain texts state that the campaign was bitterly fought because the Nanda dynasty had a powerful and well-trained army.",
"The Buddhist Mahavamsa Tika and Jain Parishishtaparvan records Chandragupta's army unsuccessfully attacking the Nanda capital. Chandragupta and Chanakya then began a campaign at the frontier of the Nanda empire, gradually conquering various territories on their way to the Nanda capital. He then refined his strategy by establishing garrisons in the conquered territories, and finally besieged the Nanda capital Pataliputra. There Dhana Nanda accepted defeat",
". There Dhana Nanda accepted defeat. The conquest was fictionalised in Mudrarakshasa play, it contains narratives not found in other versions of the Chanakya-Chandragupta legend. Because of this difference, Thomas Trautmann suggests that most of it is fictional or legendary, without any historical basis. Radha Kumud Mukherjee similarly considers Mudrakshasa play without historical basis.",
"These legends state that the Nanda king was defeated, deposed and exiled by some accounts, while Buddhist accounts claim he was killed. With the defeat of Dhana Nanda, Chandragupta Maurya founded the Maurya Empire.\n\nChandragupta Maurya",
"Chandragupta Maurya\n\nAfter the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE, Chandragupta led a series of campaigns in 305 BCE to take satrapies in the Indus Valley and northwest India. When Alexander's remaining forces were routed, returning westwards, Seleucus I Nicator fought to defend these territories. Not many details of the campaigns are known from ancient sources. Seleucus was defeated and retreated into the mountainous region of Afghanistan.",
"The two rulers concluded a peace treaty in 303 BCE, including a marital alliance. Under its terms, Chandragupta received the satrapies of Paropamisadae (Kamboja and Gandhara) and Arachosia (Kandhahar) and Gedrosia (Balochistan). Seleucus I received the 500 war elephants that were to have a decisive role in his victory against western Hellenistic kings at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BCE",
". Diplomatic relations were established and several Greeks, such as the historian Megasthenes, Deimakos and Dionysius resided at the Mauryan court.",
"Megasthenes in particular was a notable Greek ambassador in the court of Chandragupta Maurya. His book Indika is a major literary source for information about the Mauryan Empire. According to Arrian, ambassador Megasthenes (c. 350 – c. 290 BCE) lived in Arachosia and travelled to Pataliputra. Megasthenes' description of Mauryan society as freedom-loving gave Seleucus a means to avoid invasion, however, underlying Seleucus' decision was the improbability of success",
". In later years, Seleucus' successors maintained diplomatic relations with the Empire based on similar accounts from returning travellers.",
"Chandragupta established a strong centralised state with an administration at Pataliputra, which, according to Megasthenes, was \"surrounded by a wooden wall pierced by 64 gates and 570 towers\". Aelian, although not expressly quoting Megasthenes nor mentioning Pataliputra, described Indian palaces as superior in splendor to Persia's Susa or Ecbatana. The architecture of the city seems to have had many similarities with Persian cities of the period.",
"Chandragupta's son Bindusara extended the rule of the Mauryan empire towards southern India. The famous Tamil poet Mamulanar of the Sangam literature described how areas south of the Deccan Plateau which comprised Tamil country was invaded by the Maurya army using troops from Karnataka. Mamulanar states that Vadugar (people who resided in Andhra-Karnataka regions immediately to the north of Tamil Nadu) formed the vanguard of the Mauryan army. He also had a Greek ambassador at his court, named Deimachus",
". He also had a Greek ambassador at his court, named Deimachus. According to Plutarch, Chandragupta Maurya subdued all of India, and Justin also observed that Chandragupta Maurya was \"in possession of India\". These accounts are corroborated by Tamil sangam literature which mentions about Mauryan invasion with their south Indian allies and defeat of their rivals at Podiyil hill in Tirunelveli district in present-day Tamil Nadu.",
"Chandragupta renounced his throne and followed Jain teacher Bhadrabahu. He is said to have lived as an ascetic at Shravanabelagola for several years before fasting to death, as per the Jain practice of sallekhana.\n\nBindusara",
"Bindusara was born to Chandragupta, the founder of the Mauryan Empire. This is attested by several sources, including the various Puranas and the Mahavamsa. He is attested by the Buddhist texts such as Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa (\"Bindusaro\"); the Jain texts such as Parishishta-Parvan; as well as the Hindu texts such as Vishnu Purana (\"Vindusara\"). According to the 12th century Jain writer Hemachandra's Parishishta-Parvan, the name of Bindusara's mother was Durdhara",
". Some Greek sources also mention him by the name \"Amitrochates\" or its variations.",
"Historian Upinder Singh estimates that Bindusara ascended the throne around 297 BCE. Bindusara, just 22 years old, inherited a large empire that consisted of what is now, Northern, Central and Eastern parts of India along with parts of Afghanistan and Baluchistan. Bindusara extended this empire to the southern part of India, as far as what is now known as Karnataka",
". He brought sixteen states under the Mauryan Empire and thus conquered almost all of the Indian peninsula (he is said to have conquered the 'land between the two seas' – the peninsular region between the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea). Bindusara did not conquer the friendly Tamil kingdoms of the Cholas, ruled by King Ilamcetcenni, the Pandyas, and Cheras. Apart from these southern states, Kalinga (modern Odisha) was the only kingdom in India that did not form part of Bindusara's empire",
". It was later conquered by his son Ashoka, who served as the viceroy of Ujjaini during his father's reign, which highlights the importance of the town.",
"Bindusara's life has not been documented as well as that of his father Chandragupta or of his son Ashoka. Chanakya continued to serve as prime minister during his reign. According to the medieval Tibetan scholar Taranatha who visited India, Chanakya helped Bindusara \"to destroy the nobles and kings of the sixteen kingdoms and thus to become absolute master of the territory between the eastern and western oceans\". During his rule, the citizens of Taxila revolted twice",
". During his rule, the citizens of Taxila revolted twice. The reason for the first revolt was the maladministration of Susima, his eldest son. The reason for the second revolt is unknown, but Bindusara could not suppress it in his lifetime. It was crushed by Ashoka after Bindusara's death.",
"Bindusara maintained friendly diplomatic relations with the Hellenic world. Deimachus was the ambassador of Seleucid emperor Antiochus I at Bindusara's court. Diodorus states that the king of Palibothra (Pataliputra, the Mauryan capital) welcomed a Greek author, Iambulus. This king is usually identified as Bindusara. Pliny states that the Egyptian king Philadelphus sent an envoy named Dionysius to India. According to Sailendra Nath Sen, this appears to have happened during Bindusara's reign.",
"Unlike his father Chandragupta (who at a later stage converted to Jainism), Bindusara believed in the Ajivika sect. Bindusara's guru Pingalavatsa (Janasana) was a Brahmin of the Ajivika sect. Bindusara's wife, Queen Subhadrangi (Queen Dharma/ Aggamahesi) was a Brahmin also of the Ajivika sect from Champa (present Bhagalpur district). Bindusara is credited with giving several grants to Brahmin monasteries (Brahmana-bhatto).",
"Historical evidence suggests that Bindusara died in the 270s BCE. According to Upinder Singh, Bindusara died around 273 BCE. Alain Daniélou believes that he died around 274 BCE. Sailendra Nath Sen believes that he died around 273–272 BCE, and that his death was followed by a four-year struggle of succession, after which his son Ashoka became the emperor in 269–268 BCE. According to the Mahavamsa, Bindusara reigned for 28 years",
". According to the Mahavamsa, Bindusara reigned for 28 years. The Vayu Purana, which names Chandragupta's successor as \"Bhadrasara\", states that he ruled for 25 years.",
"Ashoka",
"As a young prince, Ashoka ( BCE) was a brilliant commander who crushed revolts in Ujjain and Taxila. As monarch he was ambitious and aggressive, re-asserting the Empire's superiority in southern and western India. But it was his conquest of Kalinga (262–261 BCE) which proved to be the pivotal event of his life. Ashoka used Kalinga to project power over a large region by building a fortification there and securing it as a possession",
". Although Ashoka's army succeeded in overwhelming Kalinga forces of royal soldiers and civilian units, an estimated 100,000 soldiers and civilians were killed in the furious warfare, including over 10,000 of Ashoka's own men. Hundreds of thousands of people were adversely affected by the destruction and fallout of war. When he personally witnessed the devastation, Ashoka began feeling remorse",
". When he personally witnessed the devastation, Ashoka began feeling remorse. Although the annexation of Kalinga was completed, Ashoka embraced the teachings of Buddhism, and renounced war and violence. He sent out missionaries to travel around Asia and spread Buddhism to other countries. He also propagated his own dhamma.",
"Ashoka implemented principles of ahimsa by banning hunting and violent sports activity and ending indentured and forced labor (many thousands of people in war-ravaged Kalinga had been forced into hard labour and servitude). While he maintained a large and powerful army, to keep the peace and maintain authority, Ashoka expanded friendly relations with states across Asia and Europe, and he sponsored Buddhist missions. He undertook a massive public works building campaign across the country",
". He undertook a massive public works building campaign across the country. Over 40 years of peace, harmony and prosperity made Ashoka one of the most successful and famous monarchs in Indian history. He remains an idealized figure of inspiration in modern India.",
"The Edicts of Ashoka, set in stone, are found throughout the Subcontinent. Ranging from as far west as Afghanistan and as far south as Andhra (Nellore District), Ashoka's edicts state his policies and accomplishments. Although predominantly written in Prakrit, two of them were written in Greek, and one in both Greek and Aramaic. Ashoka's edicts refer to the Greeks, Kambojas, and Gandharas as peoples forming a frontier region of his empire",
". They also attest to Ashoka's having sent envoys to the Greek rulers in the West as far as the Mediterranean. The edicts precisely name each of the rulers of the Hellenic world at the time such as Amtiyoko (Antiochus), Tulamaya (Ptolemy), Amtikini (Antigonos), Maka (Magas) and Alikasudaro (Alexander) as recipients of Ashoka's proselytism",
". The Edicts also accurately locate their territory \"600 yojanas away\" (a yojanas being about 7 miles), corresponding to the distance between the center of India and Greece (roughly 4,000 miles).",
"Decline\nAshoka was followed for 50 years by a succession of weaker kings. He was succeeded by Dasharatha Maurya, who was Ashoka's grandson. None of Ashoka's sons could ascend to the throne after him. Mahinda, his firstborn, became a Buddhist monk. Kunala Maurya was blind and hence couldn't ascend to the throne; and Tivala, son of Kaurwaki, died even earlier than Ashoka. Little is known about another son, Jalauka.",
"The empire lost many territories under Dasharatha, which were later reconquered by Samprati, Kunala's son. Post Samprati, the Mauryas slowly lost many territories. In 180 BCE, Brihadratha Maurya, was killed by his general Pushyamitra Shunga in a military parade without any heir. Hence, the great Maurya empire finally ended, giving rise to the Shunga Empire.",
"Reasons advanced for the decline include the succession of weak kings after Aśoka Maurya, the partition of the empire into two, the growing independence of some areas within the empire, such as that ruled by Sophagasenus, a top-heavy administration where authority was entirely in the hands of a few persons, an absence of any national consciousness, the pure scale of the empire making it unwieldy, and invasion by the Greco-Bactrian Empire.",
"Some historians, such as H. C. Raychaudhuri, have argued that Ashoka's pacifism undermined the \"military backbone\" of the Maurya empire. Others, such as Romila Thapar, have suggested that the extent and impact of his pacifism have been \"grossly exaggerated\".",
"Shunga coup (185 BCE)",
"Buddhist records such as the Ashokavadana write that the assassination of Brihadratha and the rise of the Shunga empire led to a wave of religious persecution for Buddhists, and a resurgence of Hinduism. According to Sir John Marshall, Pushyamitra may have been the main author of the persecutions, although later Shunga kings seem to have been more supportive of Buddhism",
". Other historians, such as Etienne Lamotte and Romila Thapar, among others, have argued that archaeological evidence in favour of the allegations of persecution of Buddhists are lacking, and that the extent and magnitude of the atrocities have been exaggerated.",
"Establishment of the Indo-Greek Kingdom (180 BCE)",
"The fall of the Mauryas left the Khyber Pass unguarded, and a wave of foreign invasion followed. The Greco-Bactrian king Demetrius capitalized on the breakup, and he conquered southern Afghanistan and parts of northwestern India around 180 BCE, forming the Indo-Greek Kingdom. The Indo-Greeks would maintain holdings on the trans-Indus region, and make forays into central India, for about a century",
". Under them, Buddhism flourished, and one of their kings, Menander, became a famous figure of Buddhism; he was to establish a new capital of Sagala, the modern city of Sialkot. However, the extent of their domains and the lengths of their rule are subject to much debate. Numismatic evidence indicates that they retained holdings in the subcontinent right up to the birth of Christ",
". Although the extent of their successes against indigenous powers such as the Shungas, Satavahanas, and Kalingas are unclear, what is clear is that Scythian tribes, renamed Indo-Scythians, brought about the demise of the Indo-Greeks from around 70 BCE and retained lands in the trans-Indus, the region of Mathura, and Gujarat.",
"Military \nMegasthenes mentions military command consisting of six boards of five members each, (i) Navy (ii) military transport (iii) Infantry (iv) Cavalry with Catapults (v) Chariot divisions and (vi) Elephants.\n\nAdministration",
"The Empire was divided into four provinces, with the imperial capital at Pataliputra. From Ashokan edicts, the names of the four provincial capitals are Tosali (in the east), Ujjain (in the west), Suvarnagiri (in the south), and Taxila (in the north). The head of the provincial administration was the Kumara (royal prince), who governed the provinces as king's representative. The kumara was assisted by Mahamatyas and council of ministers",
". The kumara was assisted by Mahamatyas and council of ministers. This organizational structure was reflected at the imperial level with the Emperor and his Mantriparishad (Council of Ministers).. The mauryans established a well developed coin minting system. Coins were mostly made of silver and copper. Certain gold coins were in circulation as well. The coins were widely used for trade and commerce",
"Historians theorise that the organisation of the Empire was in line with the extensive bureaucracy described by Chanakya in the Arthashastra: a sophisticated civil service governed everything from municipal hygiene to international trade. The expansion and defense of the empire was made possible by what appears to have been one of the largest armies in the world during the Iron Age",
". According to Megasthenes, the empire wielded a military of 600,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry, 8,000 chariots and 9,000 war elephants besides followers and attendants. A vast espionage system collected intelligence for both internal and external security purposes. Having renounced offensive warfare and expansionism, Ashoka nevertheless continued to maintain this large army, to protect the Empire and instil stability and peace across West and South Asia.",
"..Even though large parts were under the control of Mauryan empire the spread of information and imperial message was limited since many parts were inaccessible and were situated far away from capital of empire.",
"The economy of the empire has been described as, \"a socialized monarchy\", \"a sort of state socialism\", and the world's first welfare state. Under the Mauryan system there was no private ownership of land as all land was owned by the king to whom tribute was paid by the laboring class. In return the emperor supplied the laborers with agricultural products, animals, seeds, tools, public infrastructure, and stored food in reserve for times of crisis.",
"Local government",
"Arthashastra and Megasthenes accounts of Pataliputra describe the intricate municipal system formed by Maurya empire to govern its cities. A city counsel made up of thirty commissioners was divided into six committees or boards which governed the city",
". The first board fixed wages and looked after provided goods, second board made arrangement for foreign dignitaries, tourists and businessmen, third board made records and registrations, fourth looked after manufactured goods and sale of commodities, fifth board regulated trade, issued licenses and checked weights and measurements, sixth board collected sales taxes. Some cities such as Taxila had autonomy to issue their own coins",
". Some cities such as Taxila had autonomy to issue their own coins. The city counsel had officers who looked after public welfare such as maintenance of roads, public buildings, markets, hospitals, educational institutions etc. The official head of the village was Gramika (in towns Nagarika). The city counsel also had some magisterial powers. The taking of Census was regular process in the Mauryan administration",
". The taking of Census was regular process in the Mauryan administration. The village officials (Gramika) and municipal officials (Nagarika) were responsible enumerating different classes of people in the Mauryan empire such as traders, agriculturists, smiths, potters, carpenters etc. and also cattle, mostly for taxation purposes. These vocations consolidated as castes, a feature of Indian society that continues to influence the Indian politics till today.",
"Economy",
"For the first time in South Asia, political unity and military security allowed for a common economic system and enhanced trade and commerce, with increased agricultural productivity. The previous situation involving hundreds of kingdoms, many small armies, powerful regional chieftains, and internecine warfare, gave way to a disciplined central authority",
". Farmers were freed of tax and crop collection burdens from regional kings, paying instead to a nationally administered and strict-but-fair system of taxation as advised by the principles in the Arthashastra. Chandragupta Maurya established a single currency across India, and a network of regional governors and administrators and a civil service provided justice and security for merchants, farmers and traders",
". The Mauryan army wiped out many gangs of bandits, regional private armies, and powerful chieftains who sought to impose their own supremacy in small areas. Although regimental in revenue collection, Maurya also sponsored many public works and waterways to enhance productivity, while internal trade in India expanded greatly due to new-found political unity and internal peace.",
"Under the Indo-Greek friendship treaty, and during Ashoka's reign, an international network of trade expanded. The Khyber Pass, on the modern boundary of Pakistan and Afghanistan, became a strategically important port of trade and intercourse with the outside world. Greek states and Hellenic kingdoms in West Asia became important trade partners of India. Trade also extended through the Malay peninsula into Southeast Asia. India's exports included silk goods and textiles, spices and exotic foods",
". India's exports included silk goods and textiles, spices and exotic foods. The external world came across new scientific knowledge and technology with expanding trade with the Mauryan Empire. Ashoka also sponsored the construction of thousands of roads, waterways, canals, hospitals, rest-houses and other public works. The easing of many over-rigorous administrative practices, including those regarding taxation and crop collection, helped increase productivity and economic activity across the Empire.",
"In many ways, the economic situation in the Mauryan Empire is analogous to the Roman Empire of several centuries later. Both had extensive trade connections and both had organizations similar to corporations. While Rome had organizational entities which were largely used for public state-driven projects, Mauryan India had numerous private commercial entities. These existed purely for private commerce and developed before the Mauryan Empire itself.",
"Religion\nThroughout the period of empire, Brahmanism was an important religion. The Mauryans favored Brahmanism as well as Jainism and Buddhism. Minor religious sects such as Ajivikas also received patronage. A number of Hindu texts were written during the Mauryan period.",
"Chandragupta maurya was a follower of Vedic religion (brahmanism) . According to Greek traveller Megasthenes , the king regularly performed Brahmanical rituals and sacrifices",
". According to a Jain text from the 12th century, Chandragupta Maurya followed Jainism after retiring, when he renounced his throne and material possessions to join a wandering group of Jain monks and in his last days, he observed the rigorous but self-purifying Jain ritual of santhara (fast unto death), at Shravana Belgola in Karnataka. Nevertheless, some scholars like Radhakumud Mukherjee doesn't agrees with the Jaina tradition claiming this story. Samprati, the grandson of Ashoka, patronized Jainism",
". Samprati, the grandson of Ashoka, patronized Jainism. Samprati was influenced by the teachings of Jain monks like Suhastin and he is said to have built 125,000 derasars across India. Some of them are still found in the towns of Ahmedabad, Viramgam, Ujjain, and Palitana. It is also said that just like Ashoka, Samprati sent messengers and preachers to Greece, Persia and the Middle East for the spread of Jainism, but, to date, no evidence has been found to support this claim.",
"The Buddhist texts Samantapasadika and Mahavamsa suggest that Bindusara followed Hindu Brahmanism, calling him a \"Brahmana bhatto\" (\"monk of the Brahmanas\").",
"Magadha, the centre of the empire, was also the birthplace of Buddhism. Ashoka initially practised Brahmanism but later followed Buddhism; following the Kalinga War, he renounced expansionism and aggression, and the harsher injunctions of the Arthashastra on the use of force, intensive policing, and ruthless measures for tax collection and against rebels",
". Ashoka sent a mission led by his son Mahinda and daughter Sanghamitta to Sri Lanka, whose king Tissa was so charmed with Buddhist ideals that he adopted them himself and made Buddhism the state religion. Ashoka sent many Buddhist missions to West Asia, Greece and South East Asia, and commissioned the construction of monasteries and schools, as well as the publication of Buddhist literature across the empire",
". He is believed to have built as many as 84,000 stupas across India, such as Sanchi and Mahabodhi Temple, and he increased the popularity of Buddhism in Afghanistan and Thailand. Ashoka helped convene the Third Buddhist Council of India's and South Asia's Buddhist orders near his capital, a council that undertook much work of reform and expansion of the Buddhist religion. Indian merchants embraced Buddhism and played a large role in spreading the religion across the Mauryan Empire.",
"Society",
"The population of South Asia during the Mauryan period has been estimated to be between 15 and 30 million",
". According to Tim Dyson, the period of the Mauryan Empire saw the consolidation of caste among the Indo-Aryan people who had settled in the Gangetic plain, increasingly meeting tribal people who were incorporated into their evolving caste-system, and the declining rights of women in the Indo-Aryan speaking regions of India, though \"these developments did not affect people living in large parts of the subcontinent.\"",
"The Maurya Empire's society and economic system relied on the existence of Buddhism and loyalty to the state to propagate themselves.\n\nArchitectural remains",
"The greatest monument of this period, executed in the reign of Chandragupta Maurya, was the old palace at Paliputra, modern Kumhrar in Patna. Excavations have unearthed the remains of the palace, which is thought to have been a group of several buildings, the most important of which was an immense pillared hall supported on a high substratum of timbers. The pillars were set in regular rows, thus dividing the hall into a number of smaller square bays. The number of columns is 80, each about meters high",
". The number of columns is 80, each about meters high. According to the eyewitness account of Megasthenes, the palace was chiefly constructed of timber, and was considered to exceed in splendour and magnificence the palaces of Susa and Ecbatana, its gilded pillars being adorned with golden vines and silver birds. The buildings stood in an extensive park studded with fish ponds and furnished with a great variety of ornamental trees and shrubs",
". Kauṭilya's Arthashastra also gives the method of palace construction from this period. Later fragments of stone pillars, including one nearly complete, with their round tapering shafts and smooth polish, indicate that Ashoka was responsible for the construction of the stone columns which replaced the earlier wooden ones.",
"During the Ashokan period, stonework was of a highly diversified order and comprised lofty free-standing pillars, railings of stupas, lion thrones and other colossal figures. The use of stone had reached such great perfection during this time that even small fragments of stone art were given a high lustrous polish resembling fine enamel. This period marked the beginning of Buddhist architecture",
". This period marked the beginning of Buddhist architecture. Ashoka was responsible for the construction of several stupas, which were large domes and bearing symbols of Buddha. The most important ones are located at Sanchi, Bodhgaya, Bharhut, and possibly Amaravati Stupa. The most widespread examples of Mauryan architecture are the Ashoka pillars and carved edicts of Ashoka, often exquisitely decorated, with more than 40 spread throughout the Indian subcontinent.",
"The peacock was a dynastic symbol of Mauryans, as depicted by Ashoka's pillars at Nandangarh and Sanchi Stupa.\n\nNatural history\n\nThe protection of animals in India was advocated by the time of the Maurya dynasty; being the first empire to provide a unified political entity in India, the attitude of the Mauryas towards forests, their denizens, and fauna in general is of interest.",
"The Mauryas firstly looked at forests as resources. For them, the most important forest product was the elephant. Military might in those times depended not only upon horses and men but also battle-elephants; these played a role in the defeat of Seleucus, one of Alexander's former generals. The Mauryas sought to preserve supplies of elephants since it was cheaper and took less time to catch, tame and train wild elephants than to raise them",
". Kautilya's Arthashastra contains not only maxims on ancient statecraft, but also unambiguously specifies the responsibilities of officials such as the Protector of the Elephant Forests.",
"The Mauryas also designated separate forests to protect supplies of timber, as well as lions and tigers for skins. Elsewhere the Protector of Animals also worked to eliminate thieves, tigers and other predators to render the woods safe for grazing cattle.",
"The Mauryas valued certain forest tracts in strategic or economic terms and instituted curbs and control measures over them. They regarded all forest tribes with distrust and controlled them with bribery and political subjugation. They employed some of them, the food-gatherers or aranyaca to guard borders and trap animals. The sometimes tense and conflict-ridden relationship nevertheless enabled the Mauryas to guard their vast empire.",
"When Ashoka embraced Buddhism in the latter part of his reign, he brought about significant changes in his style of governance, which included providing protection to fauna, and even relinquished the royal hunt. He was the first ruler in history to advocate conservation measures for wildlife and even had rules inscribed in stone edicts. The edicts proclaim that many followed the king's example in giving up the slaughter of animals; one of them proudly states:",
"However, the edicts of Ashoka reflect more the desire of rulers than actual events; the mention of a 100 'panas' (coins) fine for poaching deer in royal hunting preserves shows that rule-breakers did exist. The legal restrictions conflicted with the practices freely exercised by the common people in hunting, felling, fishing and setting fires in forests.\n\nContacts with the Hellenistic world",
"Contacts with the Hellenistic world\n\nFoundation of the Empire\nRelations with the Hellenistic world may have started from the very beginning of the Maurya Empire. Plutarch reports that Chandragupta Maurya met with Alexander the Great, probably around Taxila in the northwest:",
"Reconquest of the Northwest (c. 317–316 BCE)\nChandragupta ultimately occupied Northwestern India, in the territories formerly ruled by the Greeks, where he fought the satraps (described as \"Prefects\" in Western sources) left in place after Alexander (Justin), among whom may have been Eudemus, ruler in the western Punjab until his departure in 317 BCE or Peithon, son of Agenor, ruler of the Greek colonies along the Indus until his departure for Babylon in 316 BCE.",
"Conflict and alliance with Seleucus (305 BCE)\n\nSeleucus I Nicator, the Macedonian satrap of the Asian portion of Alexander's former empire, conquered and put under his own authority eastern territories as far as Bactria and the Indus (Appian, History of Rome, The Syrian Wars 55), until in 305 BCE he entered into a confrontation with Emperor Chandragupta:",
"Though no accounts of the conflict remain, it is clear that Seleucus fared poorly against the Indian Emperor as he failed to conquer any territory, and in fact was forced to surrender much that was already his. Regardless, Seleucus and Chandragupta ultimately reached a settlement and through a treaty sealed in 305 BCE, Seleucus, according to Strabo, ceded a number of territories to Chandragupta, including eastern Afghanistan and Balochistan.\n\nMarriage alliance",
"Chandragupta and Seleucus concluded a peace treaty and a marriage alliance in 303 BCE. Chandragupta received vast territories and in a return gave Seleucus 500 war elephants, a military asset which would play a decisive role at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BCE. In addition to this treaty, Seleucus dispatched an ambassador, Megasthenes, to Chandragupta, and later Deimakos to his son Bindusara, at the Mauryan court at Pataliputra (modern Patna in Bihar)",
". Later, Ptolemy II Philadelphus, the ruler of Ptolemaic Egypt and contemporary of Ashoka, is also recorded by Pliny the Elder as having sent an ambassador named Dionysius to the Mauryan court.",
"Mainstream scholarship asserts that Chandragupta received vast territory west of the Indus, including the Hindu Kush, modern-day Afghanistan, and the Balochistan province of Pakistan. Archaeologically, concrete indications of Mauryan rule, such as the inscriptions of the Edicts of Ashoka, are known as far as Kandahar in southern Afghanistan.",
"The treaty on \"Epigamia\" implies lawful marriage between Greeks and Indians was recognized at the State level, although it is unclear whether it occurred among dynastic rulers or common people, or both.\n\nExchange of presents\nClassical sources have also recorded that following their treaty, Chandragupta and Seleucus exchanged presents, such as when Chandragupta sent various aphrodisiacs to Seleucus:",
"His son Bindusara 'Amitraghata' (Slayer of Enemies) also is recorded in Classical sources as having exchanged presents with Antiochus I:\n\nGreek population in India\n\nAn influential and large Greek population was present in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent under Ashoka's rule, possibly remnants of Alexander's conquests in the Indus Valley region. In the Rock Edicts of Ashoka, some of them inscribed in Greek, Ashoka states that the Greeks within his dominion were converted to Buddhism:",
"Fragments of Edict 13 have been found in Greek, and a full Edict, written in both Greek and Aramaic, has been discovered in Kandahar. It is said to be written in excellent Classical Greek, using sophisticated philosophical terms. In this Edict, Ashoka uses the word Eusebeia (\"Piety\") as the Greek translation for the ubiquitous \"Dharma\" of his other Edicts written in Prakrit:\n\nBuddhist missions to the West (c. 250 BCE)",
"Buddhist missions to the West (c. 250 BCE)\n\nAlso, in the Edicts of Ashoka, Ashoka mentions the Hellenistic kings of the period as recipients of his Buddhist proselytism, although no Western historical record of this event remains:\n\nAshoka also encouraged the development of herbal medicine, for men and animals, in their territories:",
"The Greeks in India even seem to have played an active role in the spread of Buddhism, as some of the emissaries of Ashoka, such as Dharmaraksita, are described in Pali sources as leading Greek (\"Yona\") Buddhist monks, active in Buddhist proselytism (the Mahavamsa, XII).\n\nSubhagasena and Antiochos III (206 BCE)",
"Sophagasenus was an Indian Mauryan ruler of the 3rd century BCE, described in ancient Greek sources, and named Subhagasena or Subhashasena in Prakrit. His name is mentioned in the list of Mauryan princes, and also in the list of the Yadava dynasty, as a descendant of Pradyumna. He may have been a grandson of Ashoka, or Kunala, the son of Ashoka. He ruled an area south of the Hindu Kush, possibly in Gandhara",
". He ruled an area south of the Hindu Kush, possibly in Gandhara. Antiochos III, the Seleucid king, after having made peace with Euthydemus in Bactria, went to India in 206 BCE and is said to have renewed his friendship with the Indian king there:",
"Timeline",
"322 BCE: Chandragupta Maurya conquers the Nanda Empire, founding Maurya dynasty.\n317–316 BCE: Chandragupta Maurya conquers the Northwest of the Indian subcontinent.\n305–303 BCE: Chandragupta Maurya gains territory by defeating the Seleucid Empire.\n298–269 BCE: Reign of Bindusara, Chandragupta's son. He conquers parts of Deccan, southern India.\n269–232 BCE: The Mauryan Empire reaches its height under Ashoka, Chandragupta's grandson.\n261 BCE: Ashoka conquers the kingdom of Kalinga.",
"261 BCE: Ashoka conquers the kingdom of Kalinga.\n250 BCE: Ashoka builds Buddhist stupas and erects pillars bearing inscriptions.\n184 BCE: The empire collapses when Brihadratha, the last emperor, is killed by Pushyamitra Shunga, a Mauryan general and the founder of the Shunga Empire.",
"In literature\nAccording to Vicarasreni of Merutunga, Mauryans rose to power in 312 BC.\n\nList of rulers \n\nRulers-\n\nFamily tree\n\nSee also\n Moriya Republic\n Magadha\nPradyota dynasty\nGupta Empire\nHistory of India\nList of Hindu empires and dynasties\n\nNotes\n\nSources",
"Notes\n\nSources\n\n \n \n Burton Stein (1998). A History of India (1st ed.), Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.\n \n \n \n \n \n J. E. Schwartzberg (1992). A Historical Atlas of South Asia. University of Oxford Press.\n John Keay (2000). India, a History. New York: HarperCollins Publishers.\n\nExternal links\n\nLivius.org: Maurya dynasty \nExtent of the Empire\nAshoka's Edicts",
"Ancient empires and kingdoms of India\nAncient Hindu kingdoms\nIron Age countries in Asia\nIron Age cultures of South Asia\nDynasties of Bengal\nFormer empires\nAncient history of Pakistan\nAncient history of Afghanistan\nJain empires and kingdoms\nBuddhist dynasties of India\nMagadha\nKingdoms of Bihar\n4th century BC in India\n3rd century BC in India\n2nd century BC in India\n320s BC establishments\nStates and territories established in the 4th century BC\nStates and territories disestablished in the 2nd century BC",
"States and territories disestablished in the 2nd century BC\n4th-century BC establishments in India\n2nd-century BC disestablishments\nFormer monarchies of South Asia\nHistory of Nepal\n4th-century BC establishments in Nepal\n2nd-century BC disestablishments in Nepal"
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Proposed states and union territories of India
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proposed%20states%20and%20union%20territories%20of%20India
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[
"This is a list of proposed states and union territories in India. The constitutional power to create new states and union territories in India is solely reserved with the Parliament of India. It can do so by announcing new states/union territories, separating territory from an existing state or merging two or more states/union territories or parts of them. In addition to the existing 28 states and 8 union territories, several new states and union territories have been proposed.",
"The Indian constitution (under Part I: The Union and its territory) allows certain provisions for the creation of new states and union territories:\n\n Name and territory of the union.\n Admission or establishment of new states.\n Formation of new States and alteration of areas, boundaries or names of other existing states.\n Laws made under articles 2 and 3 to provide for the amendment of the First and the Fourth Schedules and supplemental, incidental and consequential matters.",
"However, at the same time, demanding separate statehood within under the administration of Indian union from an existing state can lead to criminal charges under secession law in India.",
"Between late 1956 and early 2014, members and leaders of various respected ethnic/linguistic organizations, in various separate statehood movements like - 1) Telangana movement in Andhra Pradesh, 2) Barak, Bodoland and Karbiland movements in Assam, 3) Punjabi Suba movement in East Punjab, 4) Gorkhaland movement in West Bengal, et cetera, have been arrested",
", 4) Gorkhaland movement in West Bengal, et cetera, have been arrested, detained and \"encountered\" by police under IPC section 124A by the order of Government of India for demanding and asking for a separate state from the existing one",
". For instance:",
"During 1953 Separate Andhra movement, It's main leader Shri Potti Sreeramulu, has sacrificed his life by fasting for 56 days for the cause of Separate Andhra state. Many people at that time were killed and thousands were injured by Central Government authorities for asking for a Separate Telugu-speaking state from Madras Presidency.",
"In 1961, during Bengali Language Movement in Barak Valley, 11 ethnic Bengalis were have been killed by Assam Police for protesting against the imposition of Assamese Language, for demanding separate Barak state and recognition of Bengali Language as official in the Valley.\n During the Gorkhaland movement in the late 1986-88, around 1,200 people were killed/encountered by police and dozens were arrested.",
"Before 1963, Naga people of Undivided Assam's Naga hills were asking for a separate Nagaland state, resulting in clashes between Naga tribe and Indian Army, thus killing hundreds and injuring thousands.\n In 1966, Indira Gandhi's government bombed Mizoram's capital Aizawl, killing thousands, because they were asking for a separate Mizo state.\n The Punjabi Suba movement, which sought a separate Punjabi-speaking state, saw as many 200 deaths during 1955 Golden Temple raid and 57,129 arrests by police.",
"During the Bodoland Movement, around 5,000 people have been \"encountered\" by Assam police and 20,000 jailed since 1967.\n During separate Karbiland demand in Assam, many people have been \"encountered\" and jailed for asking for a separate state.",
"History",
"Before independence, India was divided into British-administered provinces and nominally autonomous princely states, which were governed by the British administration. After the partition of India, some of these administrative divisions became part of the Dominion of Pakistan, whilst the remaining states and provinces formed the Dominion of India",
". The colonial system of administration continued until 1956 when the States Reorganisation Act abolished the provinces and princely states in favour of new states which were based on language and ethnicity.",
"Several new states and union territories have been created out of the existing states since 1956. The Bombay Reorganisation Act split the Bombay State into the present-day states of Gujarat and Maharashtra on 1 May 1960 on a linguistic basis. The state of Nagaland was created on 1 December 1963",
". The state of Nagaland was created on 1 December 1963. The Punjab Reorganisation Act, 1966 carved out a new Hindi-speaking state of Haryana from the southern districts of Punjab state, transferred the northern districts to Himachal Pradesh and designated a union territory around Chandigarh, the shared capital of Punjab and Haryana.",
"Statehood was conferred upon Himachal Pradesh on 25 January 1971, and upon Manipur, Meghalaya and Tripura on 21 January 1972. The Kingdom of Sikkim joined the Indian Union as a state on 26 April 1975. In 1987, Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram became states on 20 February, followed by Goa on 30 May of the same year. Goa's northern exclaves of Daman and Diu became a separate union territory.",
"Three new states were created in November 2000: Chhattisgarh (1 November) was created out of eastern Madhya Pradesh; Uttaranchal (9 November), which was later renamed Uttarakhand, was created out of the mountainous districts of northwest Uttar Pradesh; and Jharkhand (15 November) was created out of the southern districts of Bihar.",
"On 2 June 2014, Telangana was separated from Andhra Pradesh as the 29th state of the union. On 31 October 2019, the state of Jammu and Kashmir was split into two new Union Territories: Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh. On 26 January 2020, the Union Territory of Daman and Diu and the Union Territory of Dadra and Nagar Haveli were merged into one Union Territory: the Union Territory of Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu.\n\nIndia may have 50 states in the near future if all statehood demands are conceded.",
"India may have 50 states in the near future if all statehood demands are conceded.\n\nTable of all proposed States\n\nAndhra Pradesh",
"Table of all proposed States\n\nAndhra Pradesh\n\nRayalaseema\nThis proposed state would consist of eight districts, namely Kurnool, Nandyal, Anantapur, Sri Sathya Sai, Kadapa, Annamayya, Tirupati, and Chittoor. Rayalaseema Parirakshana Samithi is a political party formed by Byreddy Rajasekhar Reddy in 2013 advocating for a separate Rayalaseema state. There have also been demands to include the two coastal districts of Prakasam and Nellore district to form Greater Rayalaseema.\n\nAssam",
"Assam\n\nAhomland\nUpper Assam's various Tai-Ahom organizations like \"Ahom Tai Mangoliya Rajya Parishad\" (ATMRP), has been demanding separate Ahomland state since 1967, comprising erstwhile Un-divided Sivasagar and Lakhimpur districts respectively. On 2023, \"TAI Ahom Yuba Parishad, Assam\" (TAYPA) have organized a protest at Chachal and have demanded Separate Ahomland state.\n\nBarak State",
"Barak State\n\nThe native Bengali people of Assam have demanded a separate state for themselves within the Barak Valley, particularly the Bengali-majority districts of Cachar, Hailakandi, and Karimganj. Some definitions also include Dima Hasao and Hojai. Silchar would be the capital of the proposed state.",
"Bodoland",
"The agitation for the creation of a separate Bodoland state resulted in an agreement between the Indian Government, the Assam state government, and the Bodo Liberation Tigers Force. According to the agreement made on 10 February 2003, the Bodoland Territorial Council, an entity subordinate to the government of Assam, was created to govern four districts covering 3,082 Bodo Kachari-majority villages in Assam",
". Elections to the council were held on 13 May 2003, and Hagrama Mohilary was sworn in as the chief of the 46-member council on 4 June.",
"Dimaraji\n\nThe Dimasa people of northeast India have been demanding a separate state called Dimaraji or \"Dimaland\" for several decades. It would comprise the Dimasa-Kachari inhabited areas in Assam, namely the Dima Hasao district, Cachar district, Karimganj district, Hailakandi district, Karbi Anglong district, and parts of Hojai district, together with part of the Dimapur district in Nagaland.\n\nKarbiland",
"Karbiland\n\nKarbi Anglong is one of the 35 districts of Assam. Several memoranda for a Karbi homeland have been submitted at multiple times by several organisations over the years. The demand for a separate state turned violent on 31 July 2013 when student demonstrators set government buildings on fire.\n\nBihar\nAt least three states have been proposed to be carved out of Bihar.",
"Bihar\nAt least three states have been proposed to be carved out of Bihar.\n\nBhojpur\nThere have been demands for a Bhojpur state, comprising the Bhojpuri-speaking districts of western Bihar and eastern Uttar Pradesh.\n\nMagadha Rajya \nThere have been demands for a Magadha Rajya, comprising the Magahi-speaking districts of southern Bihar and a blend of Magahi known as Khortha is spoken by non-tribal populace in North Chotanagpur division of northern Jharkhand. Patna could be the new capital of proposed state.",
"Mithila\n\nMithila is a proposed state which would cover the Maithili-speaking regions of Bihar and Jharkhand. There is no consensus on the capital, although Begusarai, Darbhanga, Muzaffarpur, and Purnia have all been suggested as candidate cities.\n\nChhattisgarh\n\nGondi State",
"Chhattisgarh\n\nGondi State\n\nGondi, a prominent language spoken in southern Chhattisgarh, India, holds profound cultural and historical significance among the Gondi people. The creation of the new state may have a potential impact on reducing the Naxalite-Maoist insurgency, as it could address some of the underlying grievances and socioeconomic challenges contributing to the conflict.\n\nThreats to Gondi Language and Culture\nDespite its significance, Gondi faces numerous challenges that threaten its survival:",
"a. Language Shift: The younger generation of Gondi speakers is increasingly shifting to dominant regional languages, such as Hindi, due to better economic opportunities and limited resources for Gondi language education.\n\nb. Lack of Government Support: Historically, Gondi has received limited recognition and support from government institutions. The absence of official status hampers efforts to promote and preserve the language.",
"c. Displacement and Modernization: Rapid urbanization and displacement of Gondi communities disrupt the traditional ways of life that fostered the language. Modernization often alienates younger Gondi speakers from their linguistic and cultural roots.",
"The Proposal for a Gondi State\nTo counteract these threats and ensure the survival of the Gondi language and culture, there is a growing movement among Gondi leaders and activists to propose the establishment of a separate Gondi state within the Indian federal system. This proposal seeks to achieve several key objectives:",
"a. Official Recognition: A Gondi state would provide official recognition to the language and its cultural significance. This would facilitate the development of educational materials, preservation initiatives, and government support for Gondi.\n\nb. Cultural Preservation: With its own state, Gondi communities would have greater autonomy in preserving their cultural practices, traditions, and heritage. This would enable the revitalization of Gondi language and cultural identity.",
"c. Socioeconomic Development: A Gondi state could focus on socio-economic development programs tailored to the needs of Gondi-speaking communities. This would create opportunities for locals and reduce the incentive for migration to urban areas.\n\nd. Linguistic Revival: The creation of a Gondi state would encourage language revival initiatives, including language immersion schools, cultural festivals, and media outlets, all contributing to the language's long-term sustainability.\n\nDelhi",
"Delhi\n\nThe political administration of Delhi more closely resembles that of a state than a union territory, with its own legislature, high court, and an executive council of ministers headed by a Chief Minister. New Delhi is jointly administered by the union government and the local government of Delhi. The previous National Democratic Alliance government introduced a bill in Parliament in 2003, to grant full statehood to Delhi, however the legislation was not passed.\n\nGujarat",
"Gujarat\n\nBhil Pradesh\nThe establishment of Bhil Pradesh has been a demand for over 30 years. The Daily News and Analysis reported in 2013 that the formation of the Telangana state has reignited hopes of statehood to this region, comprising the tribal-dominated parts of Gujarat and neighbouring states Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Maharashtra.\n\nIn 2023, Aam Aadmi Party (AAP) MLA leader Chaitar Vasava raised demand for separate state of Bhil Pradesh.",
"Kutch",
"Kutch State or Cutch State, covering the Kutch district of Gujarat, the Great Rann of Kutch, and the Little Rann of Kutch, is an aspirant, both as an independent state and as part of a combined Saurashtra, also known as Kathiawar. Both Saurashtra State and Kutch State existed as separate states from 1947 to 1956. They were Part-B and Part-C states of India respectively",
". They were Part-B and Part-C states of India respectively. They were merged with Bombay state following the States Re-organisation Act, and became part of Gujarat after the bifurcation of Bombay state on 1 May 1960 following the Mahagujarat Movement. Some people demand a return of statehood to Saurashtra and Kutch, citing slow development of the regions. Apart from these two separate statehood demands, there is a demand for a separate Bhilistan state.",
"At the time of the integration of the princely state of Kutch with India in 1947, the accession was done on the condition that Kutch would retain the status of a separate state. It enjoyed this status until 1960, when a separate state of Gujarat was carved out of Maharashtra and Kutch was merged with it. The main reason behind a separate state is cultural and geographical distance from Gandhinagar",
". The main reason behind a separate state is cultural and geographical distance from Gandhinagar. In 1960, Kutch was promised an autonomous development board under Article 371(2) of the Constitution, which never came into existence due to lack of political will.",
"Saurashtra",
"The movement for a separate Saurashtra state was initiated in 1972 by advocate Ratilal Tanna, who was a close aide of former Prime Minister Morarji Desai. As per the Saurashtra Sankalan Samiti, more than 300 organisations across the Saurashtra region support the demand of the separate State. The Samiti also claims that compared to other parts of Gujarat, Saurashtra is underdeveloped",
". The Samiti also claims that compared to other parts of Gujarat, Saurashtra is underdeveloped. Lack of better water supply to the region, lack of job opportunities, and subsequent youth migration have been cited as major reasons for the demand of statehood. Saurashtra is linguistically different from the rest of the state due to the prevalence of its Saurashtra dialect.",
"Jammu and Kashmir",
"Jammu state and Kashmir state",
"Ethnic Kashmiri leaders, including writer and opinion leader Ghulam Nabi Khayal, have called for the division of Jammu and Kashmir into separate states as a possible solution to the Kashmir conflict. The proposed state of Kashmir comprises the Kashmir Division, and the proposed state of Jammu comprises the Jammu Division. Demographically, the Jammu region is very different from the Kashmir valley. It is primarily inhabited by Dogras, Gujjars, and Sikhs who speak the Dogri, Gojri, Punjabi languages.",
"In late 2020, IkkJutt Jammu was launched as a party and demanded that the Jammu Division should be separated and given statehood. The party also supports splitting Kashmir Division into two union territories, with one for Kashmiri Hindus.",
"Panun Kashmir\nPanun Kashmir is a proposed union territory in the Kashmir Valley on religious lines which is advocated by the Kashmiri Pandit Network as a homeland for Kashmiri Hindus who have fled the Kashmir valley as a result of ongoing separatist movement and hope to return.\n\nKarnataka",
"Karnataka\n\nKaru Nadu or North Karnataka\nNorth Karnataka is a geographical region consisting of mostly semi-arid plateau from elevation that constitutes the northern part of the Karnataka state in India. It is drained by the Krishna River and its tributaries, the Bhima, Ghataprabha, Malaprabha, and Tungabhadra. North Karnataka lies within the Deccan thorn scrub forests ecoregion, which extends north into eastern Maharashtra.",
"The proposed state of North Karnataka includes the districts of Bagalkot, Belagavi, Bellary, Bidar, Dharwad, Gadag, Haveri, Kalaburagi, Koppal, Raichur, Vijayanagar, Vijayapura, and Yadgir.\n\nThere is a notable difference from the regions of Old Mysore, Coastal Karnataka, and Central Karnataka in terms of language, cuisine and culture. The region is well known for its contributions to the literature, arts, architecture, economy and politics of Karnataka.",
"Kodagu\nKodagu is a district of Karnataka that is predominantly inhabited by Kodava people. The Codava National Council (CNC) wishes for it to be an \"autonomous region\".",
"Konkan\nKonkan is a rugged section of the western coastline of India. It consists of the coastal districts of Maharashtra, Goa, and Karnataka. The ancient sapta-Konkan is a slightly larger region described in the Sahyadrikhanda, which refers to it as \"Parashuramakshetra\". The proposed Konkan state includes the districts of Ratnagiri and Sindhudurg from Maharashtra, the state of Goa, and Karwar up to Aghanashini in Karnataka.",
"Tulu Nadu",
"Tulu Nadu is a border region between the states of Karnataka and Kerala in southern India. The demand for a separate state is based on a distinct culture and language (Tulu, which does not have official status), and neglect of the region by the two state governments. To counter these complaints and accusations, the Karnataka and Kerala state governments created the Tulu Sahitya Academy to preserve and promote Tuluva culture",
". The proposed state would comprise the districts of Dakshina Kannada and Udupi from Karnataka, and the Kasaragod district from Kerala.",
"Bellary",
"As of September 2023 some of the Telugu people of Bellary City who are proper residents of the city have raised a issue that Bellary City should be a Union Territory and Telugu should also be the official language and have the equal status with Kannada in the City of Bellary",
", because they were verbally discriminated by some of the kannada people with regard to their language stating that their mother tongue is Telugu and it is the official language of Andhra Pradesh and they should not speak in Telugu in Bellary and speak only in Kannada or else they should go out of Bellary to Andhra Pradesh, from the time when Veteran Telugu actor and politician N",
".T. Rama Rao's statue was built at Kamma Bhavan of Bellary and was inagurated by Nara Chandrababu Naidu. But the issue raised by Telugus have not gained any popularity.",
"Ladakh \nAfter Revocation of the special status of Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh was made Union Territory without legislature like Andaman and Nicobar Islands.\n\nThereafter several demands has been raised from both Kargil and Leh district for statehood for Ladakh Union Territory.",
"Kargil Democratic Alliance and Leh Apex Body demanded statehood and rallied across areas of Leh and Kargil and also held rallies in Jammu and Delhi They threatened Central Government to intensify their protests before Ladakh local bodies elections and Next Lok Sabha Election.\n\nSonam Wangchuk a reformer from Ladakh demanded statehood and stood on 5 day hunger strike.",
"Sonam Wangchuk a reformer from Ladakh demanded statehood and stood on 5 day hunger strike.\n\nMadhya Pradesh\nMadhya Pradesh is the second largest Indian state by area, holding nearly 9.37% of the country's land area and approximately 6.03% of its population. The regions of Madhya Pradesh are very ethno-linguistically diverse and often hold no connection to each other. Naturally, this has led to several proposals to divide the state into smaller states, each with homogeneous populations.",
"Baghelkhand, Bundelkhand and Vindhya Pradesh",
"Vindhya Pradesh was a former state of India. It occupied an area of 23,603 sq. miles. It was created in 1948, shortly after the independence of India, from the territories of the princely states in the eastern portion of the former Central India Agency. It was named after the Vindhya Range, which runs straight through the center of the province. The capital of the state was originally Singrauli, then Rewa",
". The capital of the state was originally Singrauli, then Rewa. It lay between Uttar Pradesh to the north and Madhya Pradesh to the south, and the enclave of Datia, which lay a short distance to the west, was surrounded by the state of Madhya Bharat.",
"Vindhya Pradesh was merged into Madhya Pradesh in 1956, following the States Reorganisation Act. In 2000, Sriniwas Tiwari, ex-speaker of the Madhya Pradesh assembly, called for nine districts to be separated from Madhya Pradesh to create a new state of Vindhya Pradesh, although this was rejected by the Chief Minister of Madhya Pradesh",
". Separate states of Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand, instead of a single Vindhya Pradesh state, is advocated as well to accommodate for the districts claimed by these regions from the neighboring state of Uttar Pradesh.",
"Recently, the demand for a Bundelkhand state has been gaining popularity. Former Chief Minister of Madhya Pradesh Uma Bharti has assured people of the region to raise voice for a separate Bundelkhand state. Former Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh Mayawati has also expressed her support for the establishment of the Bundelkhand state",
". The Bundelkhand state would consist of more than 16 districts, including Jhansi, Lalitpur, Urai, Jalon, Banda, Chitrakoot, Hamirpur, Mauranipur, Mahoba in Uttar Pradesh and Sagar, Damoh, Panna, Chhatarpur, Tikamgarh, Shivpuri, Datia, and some parts of Gwalior in Madhya Pradesh. More recently, a voice for the Bundelkhand state has been raised by Bundelkhand Mukti Morcha, a political party headed by Raja Bundela of Lalitpur.",
"Mahakoshal and Gondwana\nMahakoshal is a region which lies in the upper or eastern reaches of the Narmada River valley in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh. The region includes the districts of Jabalpur, Chhindwara, Katni, Narsinghpur, Mandla, Dindori, and Seoni. The largest city and a possible capital is Jabalpur. Organisations such as Mahakaushal Mukti Morcha and Bharatiya Janashakti have demanded separate statehood for the region.",
"It is alleged that although the Mahakoshal region is rich in minerals, forests, water and land resources, related industries were set up in nearby states. The region has a distinct cultural identity owing to Jabalpur city, known as the Sanskardhani (cultural capital) of the State, one of the oldest towns of central India. Culturally and socially, the Mahakoshal region differs greatly from the neighbouring Vindhya Pradesh",
". One of the key reasons for this is said to be that large parts of Mahakoshal were under direct British rule from the nineteenth century onwards, turning it into a relatively progressive, modern and liberal area and infusing democratic values into its body politic. Casteism and feudalism are said to be not as deeply rooted in this region as they are in Vindhya Pradesh.",
"A parallel demand for a state of Gondwana from the same Mahakoshal region of Madhya Pradesh has arisen, owing to the fact that vast areas of Mahakoshal were ruled by Gondi kings and even today, Mandla, Chinndwara, Dindori, Seoni, and Balaghat have a predominantly Gondi tribal population. Tribes constitute 64% of the total population of the Dindori district and 57% of the Mandla district",
". The Gondwana Gantantra party (GGP) was established in 1991, with the objective to struggle for the creation of a separate Gondwana State comprising regions that were ruled by Gondis. The Gondwana Gantantra party (GGP) has since divided into numerous factions, such as the Rashtriya Gondwana party and Gondwana Mukti Dal.",
"Malwa\nThere have been demands for a separate Malwa state with the probable capital at Indore. The region includes the Madhya Pradesh districts of Agar Malwa, Dewas, Dhar, Indore, Jhabua, Mandsaur, Neemuch, Rajgarh, Ratlam, Shajapur, Ujjain, and parts of Guna and Sehore, and the Rajasthan districts of Jhalawar and parts of Banswara and Pratapgarh.",
"The main language of Malwa is Malvi, although Hindi is widely spoken in the cities. The language is sometimes referred to as Malavi or Ujjaini. Malvi is part of the Rajasthani branch of languages; Nimadi is spoken in the Nimar region of Madhya Pradesh and in Rajasthan. The dialects of Malvi are, in alphabetical order, Bachadi, Bhoyari, Dholewari, Hoshangabadi, Jamral, Katiyai, Malvi Proper, Patvi, Rangari, Rangri and Sondwari",
". A survey in 2001 found only four dialects: Ujjaini (in the districts of Ujjain, Indore, Dewas and Sehore), Rajawari (Ratlam, Mandsaur and Neemuch), Umadwari (Rajgarh) and Sondhwari (Jhalawar, in Rajasthan). About 55% of the population of Malwa can converse in and about 40% of the population is literate in Hindi, the official language of the Madhya Pradesh state.",
"Rewakhand\nAn initiative has been started by MP High Court Bar council with a demand of a new state of \"Rewakhand\" from the eastern half of the state combining all the regions of Vindhya Pradesh, Bundelkhand, Baghelkhand and Mahakoshal.\n\nMaharashtra",
"Konkan",
"The Konkan region is a section of land along the north-western coast of India and the north Western Ghats. Konkan lies in between the Deccan plateau and the Arabian Sea. It consists of the westernmost districts of Daman, Maharashtra, and Goa. The ancient sapta-Konkan is a slightly larger region described in the Sahyadrikhanda, which refers to it as \"Parashuramakshetra\"",
". The proposed Konkan state includes the historically Konkani-speaking districts of the Konkan division, the former untion territory of Goa, Daman and Diu, and a portion of the Carwar district.",
"Marathwada",
"Marathwada is one of the five divisions of Maharashtra. The region coincides with the Aurangabad Division of Maharashtra. Marathwada came under the rule of the Nizam of Hyderabad, which later became the princely state of Hyderabad, under the suzerainty of British India. Subsequently, through Operation Polo, a \"police action\" on 17 September 1948, the Indian army annexed Hyderabad to India and on 1 November 1956, Marathwada was formed by merging Hyderabad State and Bombay State",
". On 1 May 1960, Bombay State was divided into the states of Maharashtra and Gujarat, with Marathwada becoming a part of the former. There have been demands for a separate Marathwaada state.",
"Vidarbha",
"Vidarbha is a region that comprises the Amravati and Nagpur divisions of eastern Maharashtra. The State Reorganisation Act of 1956 placed Vidarbha in Bombay State. Shortly after this, the States Reorganisation Commission recommended the creation of Vidarbha state with Nagpur as the capital, but instead it was included in Maharashtra state, which was formed on 1 May 1960. Support for a separate Vidarbha state had been expressed by Loknayak Bapuji Aney and Brajlal Biyani",
". The demands for the creation of a separate state are based on allegations of neglect by the Maharashtra state government. Jambuwantrao Dhote led a popular struggle for Vidarbha statehood in the 1970s. Two politicians, N. K. P. Salve and Vasant Sathe, have led attempts to bring about statehood in recent times.",
"The BJP supported the Vidarbha statehood demand and it won 44 out of the 62 seats in Vidarbha region in the 2014 Maharashtra Legislative assembly election, receiving a majority in the Maharashtra Legislative assembly. However, BJP did not create a separate state after winning the election. In the following 2019 legislative assembly election, BJP was defeated, only winning 29 seats.\n\nManipur",
"Kukiland",
"Kukiland a proposed separate state for the Kuki people. The demand for a separate state or union territory began in the 1980s. After the 2023 Manipur violence the demand resurfaced. Kuki-Zomi people protested against the Meitei people. Ruling BJP government in the state rejected the demand. However, ten MLAs from the ruling party as well as from the opposition demanded Kukiland saying that Kuki people will not survive in Meitei-majority Manipur",
". The Kuki State Demand Committee an extremist group which supports a separate homeland for the Kuki-Zomi people in the state of Manipur and is also supported by the Kuki National Army. KSDC covers almost 60% of the area of Manipur, including Southern Manipur and surrounding areas of Sadar hills, Imphal.",
"Meghalaya\n\nGaroland\n\nGaro Hills Autonomous District Council (GHADC) is seated at Tura and is one of the three Autonomous District Councils within Meghalaya state, and one of fourteen autonomous regions of India. The region of Garoland covers the districts of East Garo Hills, West Garo Hills, South Garo Hills, North Garo Hills, and Southwest Garo Hills.",
"The Garo National Council is a political party in Meghalaya in northeastern India. Founded by Clifford R. Marak, the party fights for the creation of a Garo-majority state, to be carved from the districts of West Garo Hills, East Garo Hills, and South Garo Hills. The Garoland demand of GNC is different from that of the separatist guerrilla Achik National Volunteer Council, who also demands that parts of Assam ought to be part of Garoland.",
"GNC won one seat in the Garo Hills Autonomous District Council elections in 2002.\n\nIn the 2003 Meghalaya state assembly elections, GNC had put up seven candidates, who together received 8,483 votes.\nClifford Marak, the only GNC MLA in the state legislature, died on 1 March 2015 of liver and kidney disease.",
"Khasi-Jaintia Hills (Khasiland) state",
"HSPDP a regional political party which is also part of Conrad Sangma led MDA has demanded to bifurcate state into two states, Garo hills as Garoland and Khasi-Jaintia Hills as Khasiland. However the other ally of MDA, UDP has not supported the demand by saying that the bifurcation of state would create problems",
". The \"Hill State People's Democratic Party\" (HSPDP), the oldest regional political party of Meghalaya, for about 50 years has been demanding a separate Khasi-Jaintia state to be carved out from Meghalaya, by citing Article 371 of the Indian Constitution.",
"Mizoram\n\nChakmaland\n\nChakmaland is a proposed union territory for the predominantly Buddhist Chakma people in western Mizoram, which came under Indian territory from the Chittagong Hill Tracts after the Partition of India. Chakmas have been demanding to convert the existing Chakma Autonomous District Council and areas of Tlabung in Mizoram into a union territory. The Chakma people have faced discrimination by the predominantly Christian Mizo people.\n\nNagaland\n\nFrontier Nagaland",
"Nagaland\n\nFrontier Nagaland\n\nAn organisation named Eastern Nagaland People's Organization(ENPO) has called separate state for frontier districts (Longleng, Mon, Tuensang, Noklak, Shamtor and Kiphire) ahead of 2023 Nagaland Legislative Assembly election. They also called for boycott of upcoming state election. These region comprises 20 state assembly seats.\n\nThese region of Nagaland is inhibited by tribes of Konyak, Khiamniungan, Chang, Sangtam, Tikhir, Phom and Yimkhiung.",
"During British era, this region was under Tuensang Frontier earlier was part of North-East Frontier Agency(Later to Assam state until 1957).\n\nOdisha\n\nKosal \n\nThe Kosal state movement is an effort by people of the Western Odisha region to secede from the state of Odisha.[when?] [citation needed] Organizations like Western Odisha Yuva Manch (WOYM), Kosal Youth Coordination Committee (KYCC), Kosal State Coordination Committee (KSCC), KOSHAL SENA are mainly leading this.",
"The demand for secession from the state of Odisha arose mostly because of the prolonged underdevelopment and backwardness of this region. Pro-separatist groups have repeatedly claimed the state government is not doing enough for the development of undeveloped districts of western Odisha.",
"To develop the western Odisha region, the state government has established a Western Odisha Development Council (WODC). A significant budget is allotted to this council from the total budget of Odisha. However, the WODC headquarters is located in the state capital Bhubaneswar rather than in Western Odisha.\n\nPunjab\n\nGreater Punjab",
"There have been continuous demand raised by Punjab mainstream Akali Dal politicians to Central Government of India to merge the neighbouring Punjabi-speaking areas of Himachal Pradesh (most particularly Una, Kangra, Solan), Haryana's (Ambala, Kurukshetra, Karnal, Sirsa, Fatehabad), and Chandigarh city to current Punjab, India. Akali Dal leaders have further demanded the neighbouring Punjabi-speaking areas of Rajasthan as well (most particularly the Hanumangarh and Sri Ganganagar districts).\n\nRajasthan",
"Rajasthan\n\nMaru Pradesh \n\nMaru Pradesh\n (मरुप्रदेश) is a proposed desert state in North West India, to be carved out from the state of Rajasthan. The proposed state consists of the Barmer district, Jaisalmer district, Bikaner district, Churu district, Ganganagar district, Hanumangarh district, Jhunjhunu district, Jodhpur district, Nagaur district, Pali district, Jalore district, Sirohi district, and Sikar district.",
"When the then Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee created three new states in the year 2000, Bhairon Singh Shekhawat wrote a letter saying that for the development of the state of Rajasthan and the internal security of the country, two parts of the state were go done.\n\nTamil Nadu\n\nKongu Nadu",
"Tamil Nadu\n\nKongu Nadu\n\nThere have been demands for the formation of a Kongu Nadu state by bifurcating Tamil Nadu. In 2021 the Bharatiya Janata Party's (BJP) Coimbatore North district demanded separate statehood to Kongu Nadu. Kongunadu Munnetra Kazhagam party has supported the statehood demand. The DMK has opposed the move. Though it haven't got any momentum from general public of Kongu nadu region\n\nTripura\n\nTipraland",
"Tripura\n\nTipraland\n\nTipraland is the name of a proposed state in India. The formation of \"Tipraland\", a state within the TTAADC, under articles 2 and 3 of the Indian Constitution, is demanded by the Indigenous People's Front of Tripura (IPFT) as part of their political agenda. Another registered regional political party, Tipraland State Party (TSP) also demanded statehood for Tipraland.",
"The Kingdom of Tripura was a kingdom ruled by the Manikya Dynasty. Its first king was Maha Manikya, who ruled the kingdom in the early 15th century. The earlier kings are partly mythological and partly legendary or semi-legendary. The penultimate king was Maharaja Bir Bikram Kishore Debbarman Manikya Bahadur. After his death in 1947, the princely state of Tripura joined India as a Part C State on 15 October 1949 under the name Tripura, and later achieved statehood on 21 January 1972.",
"Historically, the rulers of Tripura's Manikya dynasty had always encouraged the immigration of and settlement of non-tribals to Tripura, especially Bengalis. Rajmala authenticates the fact that Ratna Manikya (1464-1468) was the first to \"settle 4,000 Bengalis in four places\" in Tripura. During the Noakhali riots in 1946, many Bengali Hindu survivors were sheltered in temporary relief camps in Comilla, Chandpur, Agartala (the present capital of Tripura), and other places",
". A large migration of Bengali Hindus and Muslims took place in Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, and other places during the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971. The indigenous Tipra people demanded an autonomous district, which they finally achieved on 23 March 1979 in the form of the Tripura Tribal Areas Autonomous District Council (TTAADC).",
"Uttar Pradesh\nAt least four states have been proposed to be carved out of Uttar Pradesh.\n\nAwadh Pradesh\nThe population of a proposed Awadh state, consisting of Awadhi-speaking districts of central Uttar Pradesh, would be approximately 50 million people with an area of approximately 75,000 km2 and Lucknow as the capital.",
"Braj Pradesh and Harit Pradesh/Pashchim Pradesh",
"Harit Pradesh is a proposed state with Meerut as proposed capital. Even B.R. Ambedkar proposed Uttar Pradesh to be split in 3 separate states, with Meerut as capital for western Uttar Pradesh. Ambedkar proposes that the state of U.P. must be divided into three states, with each region having the centrally located Meerut, Cawnpore (now Kanpur), and Allahabad in these regions as their respective capitals",
". The states would thereby have an estimated population of 2 crores each, facilitating smoother administration.",
"Harit Pradesh would comprise 22 districts of Western Uttar Pradesh, currently forming six divisions – Agra, Aligarh, Bareilly, Meerut, Moradabad, Saharanpur and some parts of the Kanpur Division, (Farrukhabad, Etawah and Auraiya districts). The most prominent advocate for the creation of the new state is Ajit Singh, the leader of the Rashtriya Lok Dal party and B.R Ambedkar",
".R Ambedkar. Mayawati also supported the formation of Harit Pradesh in December 2009, even Union Minister Sanjeev Balyan agreed with the new state and Sh. Jairam Ramesh of congress.",
"There is another demand within the same region – Braj Pradesh, consisting of the Agra division, Aligarh division and some districts of the Kanpur division (Farrukhabad, Etawah and Auraiya) from Uttar Pradesh, and the districts of Bharatpur, Dholpur and Gwalior from Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. So far, Braj has remained as a historical and cultural region, rather than a political entity. The language of Braj is Braj Bhasha.\n\nBundelkhand",
"Bundelkhand comprises parts of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. In 2011, the Bahujan Samaj Party government under Chief Minister Mayawati proposed the creation of Bundelkhand from seven districts of Uttar Pradesh, with Allahabad as the capital. Organisations such as Bundelkhand Mukti Morcha (BMM) also demanded its formulation, along with the inclusion of six other districts from Madhya Pradesh as well",
". Uma Bharati of the Bharatiya Janata Party promised a separate state of Bundelkhand within three years if her party was voted to power, during campaigning for the 2014 Loksabha Elections at Jhansi. A similar promise was made by Congress leader Pradeep Jain Aditya during these elections.",
"Since the early 1960s, there has been a movement for establishing a Bundelkhand state for promoting the development of the region. Bundelkhand is geographically in the central part of India, covering part of Madhya Pradesh and part of Uttar Pradesh. Despite being rich in minerals, the people of Bundelkhand are poor and the region is underdeveloped and underrepresented in state and central politics. Agrarian crisis and farmer's suicides are also cited as the reason for separate statehood.\n\nPurvanchal",
"Purvanchal is a geographic region of north-central India, which comprises the eastern end of Uttar Pradesh state. It is bounded by Nepal to the north, Bihar state to the east, Baghelkhand region of Madhya Pradesh state to the south, the Awadh region of Uttar Pradesh to the west. Purvanchal comprises three divisions – Awadhi region in the west, Bhojpuri region in the east, and the Baghelkhand region in the south. The most commonly spoken language in Purvanchal is Bhojpuri",
". The most commonly spoken language in Purvanchal is Bhojpuri. The area is represented by 23 Members of Parliament to the lower house of Indian Parliament, and 117 legislators in the 403 member Uttar Pradesh state assembly or Vidhan Sabha. The region includes the districts of Azamgarh, Ballia, Basti, Chandauli, Deoria, Ghazipur, Gorakhpur, Jaunpur, Kushinagar, Maharajganj, Mau, Mirzapur, Sant Kabir Nagar, Sant Ravidas Nagar, Siddharth Nagar, and Varanasi.",
"As a fallout of the movement for Telangana, then state chief minister Mayawati, proposed on 13 December 2009, to carve out a separate state of Purvanchal out of Uttar Pradesh, with Gorakhpur or Varanasi as its capital.\n\nWest Bengal\n\nGorkhaland",
"West Bengal\n\nGorkhaland\n\nGorkhaland is a proposed state covering areas inhabited by the ethnic Indian Gorkha people, namely the Darjeeling hills and the Dooars in the northern part of West Bengal. Nepali is spoken by 40% of the population of the Darjeeling district and 51% of the population of the Kalimpong district. The movement for Gorkhaland has gained momentum in the line of ethno-linguistic-cultural sentiment of the people who desire to identify themselves as Gorkha.",
"The demand for a separate administrative region has existed since 1907, when the Hillmen's Association of Darjeeling submitted a memorandum to the Morley-Minto reforms committee. After Indian independence, the Akhil Bharatiya Gorkha League (ABGL) was the first political party from the region to demand greater identity for the Gorkha ethnic group and economic freedom for the community",
". In 1980, the Pranta Parishad of Darjeeling wrote to the then Prime Minister of India, Indira Gandhi, with the need to form a state for the Gorkhas.",
"The movement for a separate state of Gorkhaland gained serious momentum during the 1980s, when a violent agitation was carried out by the Gorkha National Liberation Front (GNLF) led by Subhash Ghising. The agitation ultimately led to the establishment of a semiautonomous body in 1988 called the Darjeeling Gorkha Hill Council (DGHC) to govern certain areas of the Darjeeling district",
". However, in 2008, a new party called the Gorkha Janmukti Morcha (GJM) raised the demand for a separate state of Gorkhaland once again. In 2011, the GJM signed an agreement with the state and central governments for the formation of the Gorkhaland Territorial Administration, a semiautonomous body that replaced the DGHC in the Darjeeling hills. On 28 March 2022, Gorkha Janmukti Morcha permanently dropped its Gorkhaland statehood demand, instead seeking political solution within West Bengal.",
"Junglemahal State",
"In 2021, Saumitra Khan, Lok Sabha BJP MP advocated for the creation of a Junglemahal state by carving out Junglemahal area from West Bengal. He claimed that the Junglemahal area is underdeveloped and the demands of employment and development for locals could only be met if it gets statehood. The proposed Junglemahal state consists of Purulia, Jhargram, Bankura, parts of Birbhum, Purbo Medinipur, and Paschim Medinipur, along with some other areas",
". Currently 15 of the 40 MLAs from the Bankura, Purulia, West Midnapore and Jhargram are from BJP.",
"However, the West Bengal state BJP unit distanced itself from the demand and officially commented that they are against division. Following the Junglemahal statehood demand, a Trinamool congress leader filed Complaint against Saumitra Khan for demanding separate statehood.\n\nKamtapur",
"Kamtapur\n\nKamtapur lies in the northern parts of West Bengal. The proposed state consists of the districts of Cooch Behar, Goalpara, Dhubri, South Salmara, Bongaigaon, Kamrup, and the southern plains of the Darjeeling district, including Siliguri city as well as Jalpaiguri.\n\nNorth Bengal",
"North Bengal\n\nIn 2021, BJP MP John Barla demanded carving out a state or union territory comprising North Bengal districts out of the West Bengal state. The demand was supported by BJP MP Jayanta Roy, MLA Aanandamay Barman and MLA Sikha Chatterjee. The proposed Union Territory will comprise eight districts of North Bengal: Darjeeling, Kalimpong, Jalpaiguri, Alipurduar, Cooch Behar, Malda, Uttar Dinajpur, and Dakshin Dinajpur. Currently, 30 out of the 54 MLAs in the North Bengal are from the BJP.",
"The West Bengal state BJP unit distanced itself from the union territory/statehood demand. The West Bengal Congress president Adhir Ranjan Chowdhury said that this is a plot to carve out Muslim-dominated regions in the state and added that RSS is behind this move. A Trinamool congress leader filed a complaint against John Barla for demanding a separate state",
". A Trinamool congress leader filed a complaint against John Barla for demanding a separate state. However, North Bengal's different native linguistic ethnic groups like Bengalis, Gorkhalis, Adivasis, and Koch Rajbongshis have rejected the separate statehood demand and are against the division of West Bengal. A report was published where it has been found that most people in Cooch Behar are against the separation of North Bengal.",
"See also\n Autonomous administrative divisions of India\n Indian reunification\n Greater India\n Kashmir#Current status and political divisions\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n \n India likely to have 50 states if all demands of new states conceded\n\nIndia politics-related lists\n \nLists of proposals"
] |
Stephen Vogt
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen%20Vogt
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[
"Stephen Guy Vogt ( ; born November 1, 1984) is an American former professional baseball catcher. He played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the Tampa Bay Rays, Oakland Athletics, Milwaukee Brewers, San Francisco Giants, Arizona Diamondbacks, and Atlanta Braves. He was an MLB All-Star in 2015 and 2016. Vogt was selected by Tampa Bay in the 12th round of the 2007 MLB draft. He currently serves as the bullpen and quality control coach for the Seattle Mariners.",
"Vogt played college baseball at Azusa Pacific University, where he was a two-time All-American selection and set multiple school records. He spent six years in minor leagues in Tampa Bay and was named the franchise's Minor League Player of the Year in 2011, before debuting with the Rays in 2012 at age 27. He started his major league career with a streak of 32 consecutive at-bats without a hit, which set a Tampa Bay record and lasted into his debut with Oakland in 2013",
". That year, he started all three games of the 2013 American League Division Series, and hit a game-winning single in Game 2. Vogt led American League catchers in most offensive categories for the first half of his 2015 season, and his .277 batting average in 2016 was ranked in the top five among catchers heading into the All-Star break that year.",
"Vogt left Oakland in 2017 with a batting average of .255 with 49 home runs and 198 runs batted in over 458 games. Vogt joined the Brewers in 2017, playing one injury-shortened season with the team and finishing with a .254 batting average, his highest since 2015. After missing more than a year due to a 2018 shoulder injury, he joined the Giants, his childhood favorite team. He finished 2019 in San Francisco with some of the best offensive numbers of his career, including a",
".263 batting average, his highest since 2014. Vogt signed a one-year contract with the Arizona Diamondbacks in November 2019.",
"In 2014, Oakland fans coined for him the chant \"I believe in Stephen Vogt!\" Vogt won the Catfish Hunter Award for being the Athletics' most inspirational player for three consecutive years and the Dave Stewart Community Service Award for two straight years.",
"Early life",
"Stephen Vogt was born on November 1, 1984, in Visalia, California. He was one of two boys born to Randy and Toni Vogt, along with his older brother Danny. Randy Vogt was an accountant, and Toni Vogt was the owner and president of the PRISM Weight Loss Program. Stephen Vogt was born into a baseball family: his father had been a pitcher at Fresno State, and two of his uncles played at University of California, Davis, including Mike Vogt, a member of the UC Davis Aggies All-Time Century Team",
". Stephen began playing tee-ball at age four, and Randy coached both Stephen and Danny through Little League and Babe Ruth League. Randy said his son displayed an aptitude for athletics from an unusually early age: \"I don't know if it was a developmental aspect with him, but Stephen's been playing sports since he can walk",
".\" Vogt first became a catcher at age nine, when his coach told the kids to run to whichever position they wanted to play; he originally ran for middle infield, but switched to the catcher position after seeing that none of his teammates had taken it.",
"Vogt's father made his sons participate in at least two sports and two non-athletic activities in school. Vogt played baseball and basketball, joined Associated Student Body, sung in choir, played trumpet and baritone horn through his sophomore year of high school, and participated in plays and musicals all throughout high school. He also performed in church musicals since his youth, and dreamed of performing on Broadway if he could not have a career in baseball",
". Vogt grew up a fan of the San Francisco Giants, the favorite team of his father and grandfather; Vogt's favorite players as a child were Will Clark and Barry Bonds, and he also admired Marvin Benard and his underdog story. His family would drive to San Francisco several times a year for Giants games, and they attended the final game at Candlestick Park in 2000, the franchise's first game at Pacific Bell Park, and every game of the 2002 World Series at Pac Bell Park.",
"Vogt attended Central Valley Christian Schools (CVC), where his father Randy was the coach of the school's baseball team, the Cavaliers. Randy had been coach of the team since 1998, when Vogt was in seventh grade and was the team's batboy. When Vogt reached high school, he played for the team himself, and during his four years there set CIF Central Section records for career walks (79) and consecutive steals (65), and second-best career marks for hits (160) and runs (147)",
". In 2003 he was named the East Sierra League Most Valuable Player. Vogt graduated CVC in 2003, and as his senior year was concluding he received little interest from prospective college baseball teams, which he attributed in part to the small size of his school. He dreamed of playing baseball at Fresno State, where his father played, but the school did not recruit him. Vogt took part in showcases being put on by Baseball Factory, Inc",
". Vogt took part in showcases being put on by Baseball Factory, Inc., a specialist company in player development and college placement for baseball players, and during one of those showcases he was noticed by a recruiting coach from Azusa Pacific University, a small college in Azusa, California. The recruiting coach provided Azusa Pacific coach Paul Svagdis a tape of Vogt, and after watching Vogt take just three swings, Svagdis knew he wanted him on the team and contacted Vogt to recruit him.",
"Collegiate career",
"Vogt played as catcher for the Azusa Pacific Cougars baseball team for four years. During his time there, his brother Danny was playing baseball for Westmont College, which meant the two occasionally played against each other. In Vogt's freshman season, Vogt had a .431 batting average with six home runs, 20 doubles, 41 runs, and 49 runs batted in (RBIs), and had a 30-game hitting streak, which fell just two games short of the school record",
". Vogt was selected for an National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) All-American Honorable Mention for the season. In his sophomore year, through April 1, 2005, he was leading the Golden State Athletic Conference with a .422 batting average, and had a team-best 11 doubles, one home run, and 20 RBIs. In May 2005, Vogt was named the Golden State Athletic Conference Player of the Year, the first Cougar to receive the honor. He batted",
". He batted .453 on the season with 67 hits, and finished in the top five in the conference RBIs, doubles, triples, and total bases. He also had 46 walks against 15 strikeouts and an on-base percentage of .582, with a 84-game streak of reaching base safely. Vogt ranked third on the team with a .975 fielding percentage for the season, and threw out 14 of 39 base-stealers.",
"In his junior year, Vogt had a .404 batting average by April 14, 2006, that ranked fourth in the Golden State Athletic Conference. In his senior year, Vogt had 14 home runs, 70 RBIs, 108 hits, 26 doubles, and a .476 batting average, which was one point short of the school record set by Jim Phillips in 1962. Vogt's senior year performance helped the Cougars achieve a No. 2 national ranking in baseball and the No. 1 seed in the NAIA World Series. Vogt hit higher than",
". 2 national ranking in baseball and the No. 1 seed in the NAIA World Series. Vogt hit higher than .400 each of his four seasons at Azusa Pacific. and had an average batting record of .448 across all four seasons",
". and had an average batting record of .448 across all four seasons. By the end of his collegiate baseball career, Vogt had been a two-time NAIA All-American selection, and set 10 school records, including single-season school records for hits (108) and doubles (26), as well as career school records for hits (294), doubles (74), total bases (471), RBIs (199), walks (163), and batting average (.448).",
"Professional career",
"Draft and minor leagues",
"The Tampa Bay Rays selected Vogt in the 12th round of the 2007 Major League Baseball draft, with the 365th overall selection. He spent the first few years of his minor league career in the Class A divisions of the Rays organization, starting with the Hudson Valley Renegades of the short-season New York–Penn League. He recorded his first professional hit during his 14th at-bat for the team, playing against the Brooklyn Cyclones. Vogt initially struggled in his transition to the pros, hitting",
". Vogt initially struggled in his transition to the pros, hitting .173 through 17 games as of July 13, 2007, with one home run and a team second-best nine RBIs. However, by the end of the season, Vogt had a batting average higher than .300. In 2008, Vogt played for the Columbus Catfish of the South Atlantic League, where he hit .383 in 42 games from June 27 to August 22, with 31 RBIs and a .427 on-base percentage. By the end of the season, he had a .291 batting average, with 22 doubles and four home runs.",
"Vogt joined the Charlotte Stone Crabs of the Florida State League (FSL) in 2009 as a catcher and designated hitter, but appeared in only 10 games before seriously injuring his shoulder. While running to home plate during a game, he slid headfirst and tore the labrum in his left shoulder, which required season-ending surgery in May 2009. Vogt never played in the catcher position during the season, and was unable to throw or hit for eight months after the injury, which many feared could be a career-ender",
". Vogt requested to stay on with the team for the rest of the season, providing encouragement and support without playing as Charlotte advanced to the FSL championship series in September. As Vogt worked to rehabilitate his shoulder at his home near Seattle during his offseason, Vogt repeatedly questioned whether he should continue pursuing a baseball career, particularly when his recovery suffered a setback in January 2010",
". He considered retiring as a player and asking the Tampa Bay scouting director for a job in coaching, but on multiple occasions, his wife Alyssa encouraged him not to quit.",
"Vogt made it onto Charlotte's opening day roster in 2010, but the team staff did not believe he was fully ready to return, so he was assigned to be a third-string catcher. Despite getting limited playing time due to his spot on the depth chart, Vogt was named Player of the Month for the entire Rays organization after a May that included a .404 batting average and 10 RBIs",
".404 batting average and 10 RBIs. Vogt still recorded a 17-game hitting streak, which was a franchise high, and made the Class A Florida State League All-Star team, despite having only 80 at-bats. Vogt played in 106 games as a catcher, first baseman, and outfielder for Charlotte in 2010. He finished the season with a career-high .345 batting average, the third-highest all-time by a Rays minor league player. Vogt led the league with a .511 slugging percentage and",
". Vogt led the league with a .511 slugging percentage and .910 on-base plus slugging percentage (OPS), ranked second for on-base percentage (.399), and ranked sixth in doubles (31), and won the Florida State League batting title. He also won the Rays' 2010 Erik Walker Community Champion Award, which honors a minor league player who exemplifies teamwork, sportsmanship, and community involvement.",
"During the off-season, Vogt played winter baseball to help return to hitting form after his limited at-bats with Charlotte. He could not find a spot in one of the premier winter leagues, however, so he played in the Colombian Professional Baseball League, an unusual move for an American player. Vogt enjoyed the experience, but the league ran out of money and Vogt concluded the season a month earlier than expected",
". Heading into the 2011 minor league season, Baseball America ranked Vogt #30 on its list of the Rays top 30 prospects, prior to a trade that brought Chris Archer, Hak-Ju Lee, Brandon Guyer and Robinson Chirinos to the Rays; after that trade, Vogt dropped off Baseball Americas ranking altogether. Vogt was invited to take part in major league spring training for the Rays, marking his first major league invite to camp, at age 26",
". He was cut and sent down to the minor leagues in March, starting off with the Double-A Montgomery Biscuits of the Southern League, marking Vogt's first time playing above the Class A level. By May 19, Vogt was on an eight-game hitting streak and was batting .325, with seven homers and 33 RBIs, the third-best in the league. He also ranked second in the league in total bases, and third in slugging percentage. Vogt received midseason and postseason Southern League All-Star honors for his play in Montgomery.",
"On July 28, 2011, Vogt was called up to the Durham Bulls, a Triple-A team in the International League, after having recorded 85 RBIs in 97 games for Montgomery, the second-highest of any Southern League player. Vogt played in his first Triple-A game on July 29, batting 2 for 4 against the Gwinnett Braves, during which he was the only Durham player with more than one hit",
". On August 19, Vogt made his 15th RBI with Durham, which combined with his 85 from Montgomery to bring him to a 100-RBI season for the first time in his career. Vogt batted .301 at Montgomery in 2011, and .290 at Durham. In total between the two teams, Vogt finished the season with a .298 batting average, 35 doubles, 152 hits, seven triples, and 17 home runs, which was just one short of his total of 18 homers across Vogt's previous four seasons combined",
". He also had 105 RBIs, which led the Rays organization for the season, was the 11th highest total in the minor leagues, and ranked fourth all-time in Rays farm history. Vogt lacked a consistent position in 2011: in 128 total games, he was a catcher in 50, playing other games as a first baseman or outfielder. Vogt was named Tampa Bay's Minor League Player of the Year for 2011. Following the season, Vogt again played winter baseball, this time at the Venezuelan Professional Baseball League",
". During one game while playing left field, a large firecracker was thrown behind him and he was forced to flee. The resulting explosion blew a hole in the ground and singeing his neck, resulting in a suspended game as the police were called.",
"Tampa Bay Rays (2012)",
"During spring training for the Rays, Vogt was batting .323 through April 3, and was awarded the Al Lopez Award, given to the team's top rookie in spring training. Due to his lack of experience at the catcher position, Vogt was initially planned to be sent back to the minor leagues, but was a last-minute addition to Tampa Bay's opening day roster, in part due to injuries to Rays players B. J. Upton and Sam Fuld. Vogt was 27 when he was first called up to the major leagues",
". J. Upton and Sam Fuld. Vogt was 27 when he was first called up to the major leagues. He was the third catcher on the roster behind José Molina and José Lobatón, and the team planned to use Vogt as a pinch hitter and utility player, primarily in left field but also occasionally at first base and catcher. Vogt made his major league debut on April 6, 2012, against the New York Yankees, and struck out in his first at-bat against Yankees pitcher David Robertson",
". Vogt failed to record a hit in his first 13 at-bats, a franchise record for a Rays player at the start of his career; the previous record was 12, held by pitcher Jeff Niemann. Vogt was sent back down to the Durham Bulls on April 20, in part because Upton had returned from his injury. Vogt was briefly recalled on May 14 due to a knee injury to Desmond Jennings, and Vogt's major league hitless streak stretched to 17 total at-bats, extending the franchise record",
". He was sent down to Durham again on May 29 to make room on the Rays roster for Hideki Matsui.",
"Vogt initially struggled in his return to Durham, hitting .214 with one home run and 8 RBIs in 19 games through May 13. But his numbers soon improved, including a season-high hitting streak of eight games May 31 to June 7. Vogt recorded a .364 batting average for the month of June, and was named Tampa Bay's top minor league player of the month. Vogt also had a 27-game on-base streak from May 31 to June 30, and then another on-base streak of 12 games from July 13 to 25",
". Vogt also had doubles in four straight games from August 15 to 18, and collected his 300th career minor league RBI with a single on August 24 against the Norfolk Tides. Vogt finished the 2012 Durham Bulls season with a .272 batting average, 43 RBIs, and nine home runs. Vogt played 37 Durham games in 2012 as a catcher and 35 as an outfielder, as well as games at other positions like first base. By the end of 2012, his minor league career batting average was .299, in nearly 1,900 at-bats.",
"Vogt was called back up to the Tampa Bay Rays on September 5 after Durham's season ended. He played in his first major league game at the catcher position on September 23 against the Toronto Blue Jays. Vogt recorded zero hits in 25 total at-bats for the Rays in 2012, making him the first American League position player, and one of four players overall, to go hitless for the season with at least 25 at-bats",
". Across three separate stints with the Tampa Bay Rays in 2012, Vogt played in 18 games, as an outfielder, catcher, and first baseman. Rays scouts and coaching staff believed Vogt needed some work defensively, so he lifted weights and began practicing yoga to improve in this area.",
"Oakland Athletics (2013–2017)",
"2013",
"The Tampa Bay Rays designated Vogt for assignment on March 31, 2013; he and his family were driving to Durham in anticipation of Vogt playing for the Bulls when he was called with the news. On April 5, he was traded for cash to the Oakland Athletics, who bought his contract for $150,000. Oakland assigned Vogt to the Triple-A Sacramento River Cats of the Pacific Coast League, where Vogt debuted on April 7, going 3 for 4 in hits including a home run and two doubles",
". He embarked on a 13-game hit streak, which was a team-high, highlighted by an April 14 game against the Reno Aces in which Vogt hit 5 for 6 and recorded four runs, six RBIs, and two home runs, one of which was a grand slam. Through April 20, Vogt led the Pacific Coast League in hitting (.529), on-base percentage (.579) and slugging percentage (1.000), and he had multiple hits in 10 of his first 14 games with Sacramento. By April 28, Vogt had a league-leading batting average of",
". By April 28, Vogt had a league-leading batting average of .457, as well as five home runs and 18 RBIs. Unlike the previous season, Vogt was an everyday catcher for the River Cats, starting in the position six out of every seven games, and as of May 7, the team was 15–5 when Vogt played as catcher, and 2–9 when he did not.",
"Vogt was called up to the Oakland A's on June 25. The team was in need of backup because catcher John Jaso suffered an abrasion on his hand, and Derek Norris, also a catcher, was in a hitting slump. At the time of his recall, Vogt was hitting .324 in 58 games with the River Cats, with 13 home runs and 58 RBI, and having thrown out 19 of 47 (40.4%) base-stealers, the third-best ratio in the Pacific Coast League",
".4%) base-stealers, the third-best ratio in the Pacific Coast League. Having spent six years almost entirely in the minor leagues, Vogt was a rookie at age 28 for the Athletics. In his debut game with Oakland on June 25, Vogt failed to get a hit but did record his first major league RBI, when a fly ball was caught for an out was deep enough to score Josh Donaldson from third base. Vogt started off 0 for 7 in hits for the A's, extending his hitless streak to his first 32 at-bats",
". Vogt started off 0 for 7 in hits for the A's, extending his hitless streak to his first 32 at-bats. though he only struck out twice over that span. It marked the longest hitless streak to start a career by a non-pitcher since Chris Carter went 0 for 33 with the A's in 2010. Vogt got his first hit in the major leagues in his third game with Oakland, on June 28, a home run off a pitch from Joe Kelly of the St. Louis Cardinals, breaking Vogt's 0 for 32 hitless streak",
". Louis Cardinals, breaking Vogt's 0 for 32 hitless streak. Vogt was returned to Sacramento after about a week at Oakland in the catcher position, during which time the Athletics won all four games, and Vogt recorded 2 hits in 13 at-bats.",
"Through July 22, Vogt was batting .325 with 12 home runs and 57 RBI in Sacramento, having played a career-high 71 games as catcher. He was named the Pacific Coast League player of the week on July 23, which capped a week in which he had four home runs in six games. Vogt was called back up to Oakland again on July 25 after Juso was placed on the disabled list due to a concussion",
". Jaso did not return for the season, leaving Vogt the sole left-handed-hitting catcher on the roster, sharing playing time with right-handed Derek Norris and Kurt Suzuki. The A's won the next four games with Vogt catching, making a total of eight consecutive wins in the first games with Vogt as catcher. Vogt hit his first career major league triple on August 31 in a 2–1 win over his former team, the Tampa Bay Rays. In the month of August, Vogt batted .328 over 56 at-bats",
". In the month of August, Vogt batted .328 over 56 at-bats. He finished September hitting 4 for 26 in his final 10 regular season games in September. In total, Vogt had a .252 batting average with four home runs in the 2013 regular season, as well as 16 RBIs, having appeared in 45 regular season games, and 135 at-bats. The Athletics were 27–13 in games that Vogt started.",
"Vogt started in all five games of the 2013 American League Division Series, catching all but two postseason innings for the A's in their series with the Detroit Tigers. Although Vogt finished the regular season with a hitting slump, Oakland manager Bob Melvin started him in the ALDS because Vogt played well against Detroit during their series in August, when he played three of the four games and batted 4 for 11, with at least one hit in each game",
". Vogt led the Athletics to a win in Game 2 of the ALDS with a bases-loaded walk-off single in the ninth inning, off pitcher Rick Porcello.> It was Vogt's first career game-winning hit in the major leagues, and the first walk-off RBI in Major League Baseball postseason history by a rookie catcher. In Game 3 of the series, Vogt hit a triple off Aníbal Sánchez, and scored on Coco Crisp's sacrifice fly ball. Detroit ultimately won the series in five games.",
"2014",
"Vogt posted strong numbers during the 2014 spring training, with a .357 batting average through March 25, as well as three home runs and 12 RBIs, both of which were tied for the team lead. However, he did not make the opening day roster, as the presence of Jaso and Norris meant the team did not need another catcher. Melvin called one of the decision one of the hardest cuts he ever had to make. Vogt returned to the Sacramento River Cats, where he was considered a leader on the team",
". Vogt returned to the Sacramento River Cats, where he was considered a leader on the team. On April 8, Vogt suffered a strained oblique muscle and missed several weeks; he was re-activated on May 12, after missing 30 games. Vogt had a 10-game hitting streak through May 28, over which he had seven multi-hit games. Vogt was recalled to Oakland on June 1, after having hit .364 in Sacramento in 2014, with three home runs and 19 RBIs in 21 games.",
"Vogt hit his first home run of the season on June 11, a two-run homer against Jered Weaver of the Los Angeles Angels. On June 22, Vogt made his first career appearance at first base in the major leagues when he was moved to the position in the top of the ninth inning against the Boston Red Sox",
". Vogt started 13 games in right field in 2014, and fans in the stands near him during those games began a \"I believe in Stephen Vogt!\" chant, which was modeled after the United States men's national soccer team chant \"I believe that we will win!\". The chant became widespread, with the Athletics even selling T-shirts and merchandise with the catchphrase in team stores throughout O.co Coliseum",
".co Coliseum. After suffering a bad bone bruise on his right foot, Vogt was unable to play in the catcher position in any games after July 7. As of that date, Vogt had appeared in 31 games for the Athletics, with a hit in 24 of them. He had a career-best 12-game hitting streak from June 30 to July 12, which included six multi-hit games.",
"As of July 31, Vogt was batting .351, and had played nearly every day in June and July, appearing in a variety of positions including catcher, outfield, and first base. Vogt entered into a hitting slump, recording 0 hits on 23 at-bats from July 29 to August 6, but he ended the drought with a home run on August 7, after which he had five hits in four games",
". After already having played with a right foot injury for about two months, Vogt sprained his left ankle during a September 3 game when he slid into second base, breaking up a double play. Vogt was out from September 3 to 17, and was limited to first base upon his return. Vogt ultimately only caught 15 games in 2014. By September 20, Vogt was leading the team in batting average with .298.",
"By the end of the season, Vogt played in a career-high 84 games, marking the first time Vogt had played more than 47 games in a major league season. He ended the year with a .279 batting average, 35 RBIs, nine home runs, and 75 hits Vogt was the 2014 recipient of Oakland's annual Catfish Hunter Award, presented to the team's most inspirational player in recognition of contributions on and off the field. The award is voted on by A's players",
". The award is voted on by A's players. Vogt required foot surgery after the season concluded, to repair a ruptured plantar plate, which took about five months to heal.",
"2015",
"With Oakland trading John Jaso and Derek Norris during the offseason, Vogt became the starting catcher for the Athletics heading into 2015. The team traded for catcher Josh Phegley, and initially planned for Vogt and Phegley to be in a platoon together, but Vogt quickly earned the clear starting role, marking his first full-time opportunity at the catcher position",
". During the offseason, Vogt made an adjustment to his hitting approach at the direction of hitting coach Darren Bush, placing a greater emphasis on making low, hard contact; Vogt credited this with helping make him a better big-league player. Having recovered from offseason foot surgery, Vogt started on opening day with no restrictions. Vogt hit a three-run home run against the Texas Rangers during the Athletics' season opener on April 6",
". On April 17, Vogt hit two home runs against the Kansas City Royals, his first multi-homer game. In the first 20 games of the season through April 26, Vogt had started 15 games at catcher and was hitting .345 with a team-leading four home runs, 14 RBIs, and an on-base percentage of .426. Vogt was ranked in the top eight in the American League in batting average, RBIs, on-base percentage, and slugging percentage, and led all major league catchers in those categories as well as home runs.",
"Vogt hit the second multi-home run game of his career on May 3, with two home runs against the Rangers, as well as four RBIs. He hit his first career grand slam on May 4 against Minnesota Twins pitcher Phil Hughes, which also marked his third home run in three consecutive at-bats. Through May 13, Vogt was leading the American League in RBIs (30), was ranked second in OPS (1.098), and had nine home runs, which matched both his career-high and his season total from the previous year",
". He also had only 5 fewer RBIs than he had in 84 games in 2014. By May 16, he had the America League's ninth-highest batting average at .337, and his slugging percentage of .598 was the league's third-highest as of May 26. On May 31, Vogt reached a new career-high in RBIs, when he drove in all three runs in a 3–0 win against the New York Yankees, bringing his career total to 38. On June 15, Vogt hit his second career grand slam against San Diego Padres pitcher Cory Mazzoni.",
"Entering June 20, Vogt ranked among the American League leaders in several major categories, including RBIs (second) and on-base-plus-slugging percentage (seventh). Among A.L. catchers, Vogt ranked first in home runs (13), RBIs (50), walks (36) and OPS (.918). On July 7, Vogt finished third in American League All-Star voting results, behind Toronto's Russell Martin and Kansas City's Salvador Pérez. As of that date Vogt led American League catchers in most major offensive categories, including OPS (",
".882) and RBIs (53) and ranks second in WAR (2.6). On July 12, Vogt hit his 14th home run of the season, surpassing his major league career total in all previous seasons combined, and he finished the first half of the season with a 56 RBIs and a slash line of .287/.374/.498.",
"Vogt was selected for the 2015 Major League Baseball All-Star Game, marking his first All-Star appearance. He was the second former Azusa Pacific University student-athlete to earn All-Star accolades, after American football fullback Christian Okoye. Vogt and Oakland pitcher Sonny Gray were the only starting pitcher-catcher combination from one team to make the year's American-League All-Star squad. Vogt had one at-bat during the All-Star game, during which he struck out in the sixth inning",
". Vogt had one at-bat during the All-Star game, during which he struck out in the sixth inning. Vogt had his jersey from the game framed and gifted it to Azusa Pacific, where it was displayed in their locker room.",
"On July 18, Vogt hit a walk-off single against the Minnesota Twins, the second walk-off hit of his career, and his first in regular season play. Vogt recorded 0 hits on 28 at-bats between July 22 and August 3, the second-worst streak of his career, and the worst since his 0-for-32 skid when he debuted in the majors. In June and July combined, Vogt had a .216 batting average, with three home runs and 20 RBI, a drop in production compared to April and May",
". In July alone, he hit 13 for 80, for a batting average of .163. In August, Vogt was batting .284, with four home runs and nine RBIs, which continued a decline compared to the first half of the season, although he had a .344 on-base percentage for the month due to eight hits and a walk in his final 15 plate trips",
".344 on-base percentage for the month due to eight hits and a walk in his final 15 plate trips. On August 29, Vogt hit his 17th home run of the season against the Arizona Diamondbacks at Chase Field, with the ball landing in the swimming pool located in the park's right-center field, marking the 53rd homer to ever fall into the pool. He hit his final home run of the season and second consecutive three-hit game the next day, also against the Diamondbacks.",
"In a September 6 game against the Seattle Mariners, Vogt was injured after getting struck in the groin by a foul ball traveling 93 miles per hour, which was hit by Ketel Marte, resulting in Vogt missing 12 games before returning on September 20. For the second half of the season, Vogt has a slash line of .217/.280/.349. In total for 2015, Vogt played in 136 games, finishing with a",
".217/.280/.349. In total for 2015, Vogt played in 136 games, finishing with a .261 batting average, as well a career-high 18 home runs and 71 RBIs, which was more than twice the 35 RBIs he had the previous season. Vogt had the second-highest RBIs on the Oakland roster, behind outfielder Josh Reddicks 77. The Athletics finished with the season with the worst record in the American League at 68–94; Vogt said the team's struggles \"got to me mentally\" and that he had to improve his mental toughness",
". Vogt was honored with the organization's Dave Stewart Community Service Award, and for the second consecutive year received the Catfish Hunter Award. He also received the 2015 Athletics Good Guy Award from the local Bay Area chapter of the Baseball Writers' Association of America, was Oakland's nominee for the Roberto Clemente Award, and was nominated for the 2015 Hutch Award.",
"2016",
"Vogt earned a salary of $527,500 for 2016. He underwent arthroscopic surgery on his right elbow on January 29, to address lingering pain he had been experiencing since the winter. The surgery removed a bone chip and dead tissue from his elbow joint. He was gradually eased into action during spring training before starting the regular season on opening day. Vogt hit .273 in his first 10 games of the season through April 13",
". Vogt hit .273 in his first 10 games of the season through April 13. Vogt had 11 hits in 26-at bats through April 22, during which he had three hits in one game. Vogt had only 7 RBI on the season through May 21, but he had five FBI on May 22 and 23 alone, as well as a home run and a double in those two games. He also recorded at least one hit for 11 consecutive games from May 22 to June 5, with 17 total hits in that span, including three-hit games on May 31 and June 5",
". Vogt also reached base at least once in 12 games ranging from May 19 to 31, going 15 for 42 and batting .357 during that stretch, bringing his to get his batting average for the season up to .264. On July 9, Vogt hit the first opposite-field home run of his career, a two-run solo homer against the Houston Astros. He also finishing the day one triple shy of a hitting for the cycle, marking the third time in his career that had happened.",
"Through the first half of the season, Vogt had a slash line was .277/.320/.442 in 72 games, with seven home runs, and 27 RBIs. Though his offensive numbers were lower than his first-half numbers in the 2015 season, catchers' numbers in general were down across the league, and Vogt's batting average ranked in the top five among catchers. He also led all catchers with 18 doubles. Vogt was selected for the 2016 Major League Baseball All-Star Game, marking his second consecutive appearance",
". He was Oakland's sole All-Star representative for 2016, and he was the first Athletics non-pitcher named to consecutive All-Star teams since Jason Giambi in 2000 and 2001. Vogt did not get to play in the All-Star game itself, as Salvador Pérez and Matt Wieters were the only American League catchers who played.",
"On September 15, Vogt batted in five runs against the Kansas City Royals, matching his career-high single-game RBI. He hit his 14h home run of the season during his final at-bat of 2016 in October 2 game against the Seattle Mariners. Vogt finished the season with a .251 batting average, 14 home runs, and 56 RBIs, playing in a career-high 137 games, which was one more than the previous season",
". He also won the Catfish Hunter Award for a third consecutive year, and won the Dave Stewart Community Service Award for a second year in a row, making him the first two-time winner.",
"2017",
"Vogt signed a contract for $2,965,000 on January 13, 2017. With the addition of catcher Bruce Maxwell to the Oakland roster, Bob Melvin planned to reduce the number of games Vogt would play behind the plate, giving Vogt more time off and reducing the chance of injuries. Vogt hit a solo home run in the April 3 season opener against the Los Angeles Angels",
". Vogt hit a solo home run in the April 3 season opener against the Los Angeles Angels. On April 28, Vogt threw out Alex Bregman of the Houston Astros on a steal attempt, his first time successfully throwing out a runner in 14 consecutive opposing runs dating back to 2016. The game also marked the first two-error game of Vogt's career, with two interference calls against him.",
"In 54 games for Oakland in 2017, Vogt had a slash line of .217/.287/.357 batting line, in 157 at-bats. He also had four home runs, 20 RBIs, and a .644 on-base-plug-slugging percentage. His defensive performance had declined compared to previous years, throwing out only 15% of runners, which led to an increase in base-stealing while he was playing as catcher. On June 22, Oafkland designated Vogt for assignment. He was the second-longest-tenured Athletic at the time he was cut",
". He was the second-longest-tenured Athletic at the time he was cut. During his five seasons with the Oakland A's, Vogt had a slash line of .255/.316/.416, with 49 home runs, and 198 RBIs, in 458 games. In his combined time with Oakland and the Tampa Bay Rays over six seasons, had a career .251/.312/.409 slash line",
".251/.312/.409 slash line. There was a great deal of disappointment on the Oakland roster after Vogt was cut; pitcher Sean Doolittle called him \"the unquestioned captain of the team\", and Josh Reddick said it was \"hard to imagine a clubhouse without him\".",
"Milwaukee Brewers (2017)",
"2017",
"On June 25, 2017, Vogt was claimed off waivers by the Milwaukee Brewers, where he was planned to play in a timeshare with catcher Manny Piña. Through his first 12 games for Milwaukee, he was hitting .250 with four home runs and nine RBIs, which combined with his 2007 games in Oakland brought his numbers to a .222 batting average, eight home runs, and 29 RBIs. On July 17, Vogt was injured when Pittsburgh Pirates pitcher Chad Kuhl collided with him while running for home",
". Vogt's left leg bent backwards during the collision, and he suffered a sprained medial collateral ligament in his knee, forcing him to miss about a month. Vogt had a rehabilitation assignment with Milwaukee's Triple-A affiliate Colorado Springs Sky Sox in August before rejoining the Brewers. He returned to the team on August 18, where he played wearing a protective brace on his knee and doubled in his only at-bat.",
"By September 4, Vogt was batting .317 with five home runs and 11 RBI over 23 games, including a .412 average in the last week of that span. On September 29, Vogt had a home run and three RBIs in a 5–3 victory over the St. Louis Cardinals that helped keep Milwaukee's playoff hopes alive. Vogt's game on September 30 would be his last in the major leagues for more than a year. He finished 2017 with a .254 batting average for the Brewers, his highest since his 2015 All-Star season",
".254 batting average for the Brewers, his highest since his 2015 All-Star season. Vogt also had eight home runs, 20 RBIs, and a .508 slugging percentage, in 45 games for Milwaukee, over 129 at-bats. Including his time in both Oakland and Milwaukee, Vogt had a 2017 batting average of .233, with 12 home runs, 40 RBIs, and a .285 on-base percentage, his lowest since his major league debut season in 2012",
".285 on-base percentage, his lowest since his major league debut season in 2012. Vogt threw out just three of 66 runners in stolen base attempts in total during his time in Oakland and Milwaukee in 2017, including just one of 28 during his time with the Brewers.",
"2018",
"The Brewers re-signed Vogt in 2018, again planning for him to split time with Piña. Vogt agreed to a one-year non-guaranteed contract of $3,065,000, which he signed to avoid salary arbitration and a possible non-tender. During the offseason, Vogt worked on improving his throwing motion, adjusting his arm slot, and further strengthening his arm to improve his defense behind the plate. However, Vogt ended up playing in only three spring training games for the Brewers for the entire year",
". He hurt his right shoulder during a spring training workout, and when the discomfort lingered, it was later discovered to be a strained capsule. After being sidelined for several months, Vogt began a rehabilitation assignment with Milwaukee's Double-A affiliate Biloxi Shuckers on May 2, hitting a solo home run in his first game. On May 5,",
"when he was one day away from returning to the Brewers, Vogt reinjured the shoulder making a throw to third base, while trying to throw out Cade Gotta of the Jacksonville Jumbo Shrimp during a stolen base attempt. Vogt damaged his rotator cuff, labrum, and capsule, which required season-ending surgery. The surgery took place on May 17. and due in part to his age of 33 at the time of the surgery, doubts were raised as to whether he would ever play again",
". Though Vogt never played a major league game in 2018, he opted to travel with the Brewers, supporting the players and assisting the coaching staff, in what Vogt described his as a \"weird hybrid of player-coach\". On November 1, Vogt elected to enter free agency, and departed from the Brewers after clearing waivers.",
"San Francisco Giants (2019)",
"Vogt held a workout for interested teams on January 31, 2019, which was attended by five teams, including the San Francisco Giants. On February 10, Vogt agreed to a minor-league deal with the Giants, his favorite team during his childhood. Vogt said: \"It's been a lifelong dream of mine to play for the Giants. It's going to come true this year",
". It's going to come true this year.\" The Giants wanted Vogt to take pressure off catcher Buster Posey as he recovered from right hip surgery; the team also wanted Vogt to provide some competition for young Giants backup option Aramis Garcia. Vogt did not make the opening day roster, instead starting in the minor leagues to get more repetitions and help rebuild his arm strength",
". This marked Vogt's third tour with the Sacramento River Cats (which had been Oakland's Triple-A affiliate until 2015), and his first since 2014. In 72 at-bats for Sacramento in 2019, Vogt had a slash line of .241/.389/.500, with three doubles, four home runs, and seven RBI. as well as an .889 on-base plus slugging (OPS). Vogt was called up to San Francisco on May 1, making his return to the major leagues less than a year after his shoulder surgery",
". On May 3, Vogt appeared in his first major league game since the shoulder injury, in which he pinch hit against the Cincinnati Reds. He recorded three hits, two RBIs, and a game-tying home run, marking his first three-hit game since September 26, 2017, and his first major league home run since September 29, 2017.",
"Vogt batted .467 in his first six games with San Francisco from May 3 to 10. He hit two triples against the Brewers on June 15, his only triples of the season. He was the first Giants catcher to record two triples in one game since Steve Nicosia in 1984, and just the third catcher from any team to do so in the previous eight years; it also marked the first two-triple game from any Giants player in three years. By June 17, Vogt was hitting .264 with a",
". By June 17, Vogt was hitting .264 with a .783 OPS, which was among the best offense numbers for catchers on the season. Those numbers improved even further following the All-Star break, when Vogt was hitting .357 with a 1.223 OPS in 14 games between July 13 and 27. In his first 53 games of the season through July 22, Vogt had a .262 batting average, his highest since 2014, as well as career-highs in OPS (.844) and slugging percentage (.508)",
".844) and slugging percentage (.508). On August 9, Vogt hit a two-run home run 423 feet out of Oracle Park into McCovey Cove, the 79th \"splash hit\" by a Giant in the history of the park; he was the first Giant to hit one since Brandon Belt on May 15, 2018. Vogt hit a three-run home run in the eighth inning in a game against the Oakland A's on August 24, his first game played at Oakland Coliseum since leaving the team.",
"By the end of August, Vogt was considered a front-runner for the Willie Mac Award, which is presented annually to the most inspirational player on the Giants. Late in the season, with Posey still struggling, Vogt was called to play more often than originally planned, with his backup position turning into more of a timeshare. On September 17, Vogt caught all 294 pitches thrown in a 5-hour 54-minute game that lasted 15 innings against the Boston Red Sox, during which a franchise-record 13 pitchers were used.",
"Vogt finished the season with some of his best offensive numbers of his career, posting a .263/.314/.490 slash line, with 10 home runs and 40 RBI, across 99 games and 255 at-bats. Vogt's batting average was his highest since 2014, and he posted new career highs in slugging percentage (.490) and OPS (.804). However, he threw out only six of 35 base-stealers (17%) for the year, and had the slowest poptime (2",
".14) among the year's major league catchers, meaning the amount of time between when a pitch hits a catcher's glove to when it reaches the glove of the middle infielder at second base. During the off-season, Vogt said he wanted to play for a team that could compete for the World Series, which was interpreted as a sign he would not remain with the Giants. Vogt entered into free agency in November.",
"Arizona Diamondbacks (2020–2021)\nOn November 26, 2019, Vogt signed a one-year contract with the Arizona Diamondbacks. In 2020 for Arizona, Vogt batted .167/.247/.278 with 1 home run and 7 RBI in 72 at-bats. Vogt played in 52 games for the Diamondbacks in 2021, slashing .212/.307/.386 with 5 home runs and 17 RBI.\n\nAtlanta Braves (2021)",
"Atlanta Braves (2021)\n\nOn July 16, 2021, Vogt was traded to the Atlanta Braves in exchange for Mason Berne. On October 8, Vogt was designated for assignment by the Braves and outrighted to the Triple-A Gwinnett Stripers. Despite not being in the postseason roster, he received a World Series ring from the Braves.",
"Return to Oakland (2022)",
"On March 24, 2022, Vogt signed a one-year contract to return to the Oakland Athletics. He was placed on the injured list on April 21 after spraining his right knee. Vogt returned from the injured list on May 7. On September 22, 2022, Vogt announced he would retire at the end of the 2022 season",
". On September 22, 2022, Vogt announced he would retire at the end of the 2022 season. In the final plate appearance of his career, he hit a home run against the Angels, sending the ball almost exactly at the same spot in the stands of Oakland Coliseum where he hit his first home run, which was also his first hit of his career, nine years before.",
"Coaching career\nOn January 10, 2023, Vogt was hired by the Seattle Mariners to serve as the team's bullpen and quality control coach.",
"Personal life",
"Vogt is married to Alyssa Vogt (née Ferdaszewski). They met when both were attending Azusa Pacific University, where Alyssa was a standout on the college basketball team, playing in all five positions and scoring more than 1,000 points from 2004 to 2007. A 2003 graduate of Capital High School in Olympia, Washington, Alyssa has coached girls' basketball at Evergreen State College in Olympia, and the Tumwater High School in Tumwater, Washington",
". Stephen and Alyssa Vogt have three children: a daughter named Payton and two sons named Clark and Bennett. Payton was born in 2011, Clark in 2014, and Bennett in 2016. The family has previously lived in Olympia, Tumwater, and Oakland. Vogt's mother Toni died in July 2016.",
"Stephen and Alyssa Vogt support the School of Imagination in Dublin, California, which offers services and support systems to children, including those with special needs, disabilities, and developmental disorders like autism. The couple have made multiple visits to work with autistic and special needs children there",
". The couple have made multiple visits to work with autistic and special needs children there. In November 2016, Vogt received a 2016 Threads of Hope Award from Diablo Magazine for his work with the School of Imagination; the magazine described Vogt and the other winners as \"exceptional volunteers who give their time to charitable causes in the East Bay\".",
"Vogt has been considered a favorite among fans, who saw him as an underdog and everyman. He was also popular among teammates on each team with which he has played, and is well known for his sense of humor. He won the Tampa Bay Rays talent show in both 2009 and 2010, eventually becoming emcee of the shows, and in March 2019 he was voted one of the funniest teammates on the San Francisco Giants in a poll of players",
". He is well known for his impressions of various people, including baseball manager Joe Maddon, a basketball referee, and Matt Foley, the motivational speaker character portrayed by Chris Farley on the sketch comedy series Saturday Night Live. Farley was Vogt's favorite actor and the person who inspired him to start doing impressions, and Vogt delivered a speech to the Oakland players at the start of the 2015 season as Matt Foley",
". An interview Vogt delivered as Matt Foley in 2015 won him an Esurance MLB Award for Best Interview, and he also performed his basketball referee impression on the MLB Network talk show Intentional Talk, which generated a great deal of viral Internet attention, and led to the creation of a Vogt referee bobblehead with sound.",
"Vogt has aspirations to be a manager in major league baseball one day. He has a superstitious habit of getting dressed in a specific sequence each day, including how he pulls on his socks and in what order.\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links",
"1984 births\nLiving people\nBaseball players from Visalia, California\nBaseball coaches from California\nTampa Bay Rays players\nOakland Athletics players\nMilwaukee Brewers players\nSan Francisco Giants players\nArizona Diamondbacks players\nAtlanta Braves players\nSeattle Mariners coaches\nAzusa Pacific Cougars baseball players\nHudson Valley Renegades players\nColumbus Catfish players\nCharlotte Stone Crabs players\nMontgomery Biscuits players\nDurham Bulls players\nLeones del Caracas players",
"Montgomery Biscuits players\nDurham Bulls players\nLeones del Caracas players\nAmerican expatriate baseball players in Venezuela\nSacramento River Cats players\nMajor League Baseball catchers\nMajor League Baseball first basemen\nMajor League Baseball outfielders\nMajor League Baseball bullpen coaches\nAmerican League All-Stars\nAmerican expatriate baseball players in Colombia"
] |
BAC TSR-2
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BAC%20TSR-2
|
[
"The British Aircraft Corporation TSR-2 is a cancelled Cold War strike and reconnaissance aircraft developed by the British Aircraft Corporation (BAC), for the Royal Air Force (RAF) in the late 1950s and early 1960s. The TSR-2 was designed around both conventional and nuclear weapons delivery: it was to penetrate well-defended frontline areas at low altitudes and very high speeds, and then attack high-value targets in rear areas",
". Another intended combat role was to provide high-altitude, high-speed stand-off, side-looking radar and photographic imagery and signals intelligence, aerial reconnaissance. Only one airframe flew and test flights and weight-rise during design indicated that the aircraft would be unable to meet its original stringent design specifications. The design specifications were reduced as the result of flight testing.",
"The TSR-2 was the victim of ever-rising costs and inter-service squabbling over Britain's future defence needs, which together led to the controversial decision in 1965 to scrap the programme. It was decided to order an adapted version of the General Dynamics F-111 instead, but that decision was later rescinded as costs and development times increased",
". The replacements included the Blackburn Buccaneer and McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II, both of which had previously been considered and rejected early in the TSR-2 procurement process. Eventually, the smaller swing-wing Panavia Tornado was developed and adopted by a European consortium to fulfil broadly similar requirements to the TSR-2.",
"Development\n\nPrevious designs",
"The introduction of the first jet engines in the late-World War II period led to calls for new jet-powered versions of practically every aircraft then flying. Among these was the design of a replacement for the de Havilland Mosquito, at that time among the world's leading medium bombers. The Mosquito had been designed with the express intent of reducing the weight of the aircraft in order to improve its speed as much as possible",
". This process led to the removal of all defensive armament, improving performance to the point where it was unnecessary anyway. This high-speed approach was extremely successful, and a jet-powered version would be even more difficult to intercept.",
"This led to Air Ministry specification E.3/45. The winning design, the English Electric Canberra, also dispensed with defensive armament, producing a design with the speed and altitude that allowed it to fly past most defences. The design's large wings gave it the lift needed to operate at very high altitudes, placing it above the range where even jet powered fighters were able to intercept it",
". The Canberra could simply fly over its enemy with relative impunity, a quality that made it naturally suited to aerial reconnaissance missions. The design was so successful that it was licensed for production in the United States, one of very few such cases. The Martin RB-57D and RB-57F American-built reconnaissance subtypes further extended the wings up to a span for extremely high altitude capabilities.",
"Canberra replacement",
"It was realized that the Canberra's advantages would be eroded by improvements in enemy interceptor aircraft. As early as 22 February 1952, Air Vice Marshal Geoffrey Tuttle wrote that \"Frankly, I do not believe that we will get much operational value out of the Canberra from 1955 onwards... the aircraft is already out of date and I doubt its chances of survival in daylight against the present MiG-15 opposition",
".\" As the Canberra's performance appeared to be at its limit, this led to a March 1952 draft requirement for new light bomber to replace it, but this never went anywhere.",
"A second round of development began after a January 1953 memo noted that the \"thin wing\" version of the Gloster Javelin could be modified as a light bomber. The Javelin had an advanced (for the era) navigation system that would be useful in this role. This led to operational requirement OR.328, but this was ultimately rejected as the range was far too short when flown at low altitude",
".328, but this was ultimately rejected as the range was far too short when flown at low altitude. Shortly thereafter, English Electric began work on Royal Navy requirement for a low-altitude strike aircraft, which would ultimately be won by Blackburn with their Buccaneer. With minor changes, EE submitted their Navy entry to the RAF for the same role as OR.328. This was reviewed in October 1955, along with the winning Blackburn design, and rejected",
".328. This was reviewed in October 1955, along with the winning Blackburn design, and rejected. Matthew Slattery stated that further redesign was needed to make them useful by the time they might enter service around 1960, concluding \"it seems quite wrong to introduce in 1960 a subsonic aircraft that stands no hope of being supersonic.\"",
"Meanwhile, the Canberra was proving to remain useful in spite of new Soviet interceptors, and it was not until the widespread introduction of the first of the Soviet Union's surface-to-air missiles (SAMs) in the late 1950s that the first major threat appeared. SAMs had speed and altitude performance much greater than any contemporary aircraft. The Canberra, and other high-altitude aircraft like the British V bombers or United States' Boeing B-52 Stratofortress, were extremely vulnerable to these weapons",
". The first aircraft to fall victim to the Soviet S-75 Dvina (NATO name \"SA-2 Guideline\") SAM was a Taiwanese RB-57, a US reconnaissance version of the Canberra, shot down in 1959.",
"The solution was to fly lower: since radar operates in line-of-sight, the curvature of the Earth renders low-flying aircraft invisible beyond a certain range, the radar horizon. In practice, trees, hills, valleys and any other obstructions reduce this range even more, making a ground-based interception extremely difficult. The Canberra was designed for medium- to high-altitude flight and was not suitable for continuous terrain-hugging flight; this would require a completely different aircraft",
". Low-level strike aircraft, or \"interdictors\", grew into a new class of their own during the late 1950s. They generally featured high wing loading to reduce the effects of turbulence and cross-wind, some form of high-performance terrain-following radar to allow very low flight at high speeds, and large fuel loads to offset the higher fuel use at low altitudes.",
"GOR.339\n\nAware of the changing operational environment, the Ministry of Supply started work with English Electric in 1955, attempting to define a new light bomber to replace the Canberra. These early studies eventually settled on an aircraft with a ferry range, Mach 1.5 speed \"at altitude\" and low-level range. A crew of two was required, one being the operator of the advanced navigational and attack equipment. The bombload was to be four bombs.",
"The requirements were eventually made official in November 1956 with General Operational Requirement 339 (GOR.339), which was issued to various aircraft manufacturers in March 1957. This requirement was exceptionally ambitious for the technology of the day, requiring a supersonic all-weather aircraft that could deliver nuclear weapons over a long range, operate at high level at Mach 2+ or low level at Mach 1.2, with STOL or possible VTOL performance",
".2, with STOL or possible VTOL performance. The latter requirement was a side-effect of common battle plans from the 1950s, which suggested that nuclear strikes in the opening stages of war would damage most runways and airfields, meaning that aircraft would need to take off from \"rough fields\" such as disused Second World War airfields, or even sufficiently flat and open areas of land.",
"Specifically, the requirement included:\n Delivery of tactical nuclear weapons at low level in all weathers, by day and night\n Photo-reconnaissance at medium level (day) and low level (day and night)\n Electronic reconnaissance in all weathers\n Delivery of tactical nuclear weapons day and night at medium altitudes using blind bombing if necessary\n Delivery of conventional bombs and rockets",
"Low level was stated to be under with an expected attack speed at sea level of Mach 0.95. The operational range was to be operating off runways of no more than . The TSR-2 was to be able to operate at above the ground at speeds of Mach 1.1; its range would allow it to operate strategically in addition to tactical scenarios.\n\nPolitical changes",
"As this specification was being studied by various manufacturers, the first of the political storms that were to dog the project reared its head, when Defence Minister Duncan Sandys stated in the 1957 Defence White Paper that the era of manned combat was at an end and ballistic missiles were the weapons of the future. This viewpoint was vigorously debated by the aviation industry and within the Ministry of Defence for years",
". Senior RAF officers argued against the White Paper's premise, stating the importance of mobility, and that the TSR-2 could not only replace the Canberra, but potentially the entire V bomber force.",
"In addition to the argument over the need for manned aircraft, additional political machinations had the effect of complicating the project. In September 1957 the Ministry of Supply informed the heads of the aviation companies that the only acceptable proposals would be those issued from teams consisting of more than one company",
". There was a large number of competing aircraft manufacturing companies in the UK, while orders were decreasing; thus the government intended to foster cooperation between certain companies and encourage mergers.",
"Another political matter, that did not help, was the mutual distrust between the various services. At the time that GOR.339 was being defined, the Royal Navy was proceeding with Buccaneer. The savings involved in both forces using a common aircraft would be considerable, and Blackburn offered the RAF a version of the NA.39, B.103A, to fit some of the GOR.339 requirements",
".39, B.103A, to fit some of the GOR.339 requirements. The Chief of the Defence Staff, and former First Sea Lord, Lord Mountbatten was a loyal proponent of the Buccaneer, later claiming that five of the type could be purchased for the same price as one TSR-2. The RAF rebuffed the proposal, stating that it was unsuitable due to poor takeoff performance and the avionics not being capable of the desired role. As one RAF official put it, \"If we show the slightest interest in NA.39 we might not get the GOR",
". As one RAF official put it, \"If we show the slightest interest in NA.39 we might not get the GOR.339 aircraft.\"",
"Another political opponent of the TSR-2 project was Sir Solly Zuckerman, at the time the Chief Scientific Advisor to the Ministry of Defence. Zuckerman had a low opinion of British technological achievements and was in favour of procuring military hardware from the United States.\n\nSubmissions\n\nEnglish Electric and Hawker Aircraft had already received some signals from the Air Ministry that a formal process would be starting, but all of the major manufacturers were able to quickly put together submissions:",
"Blackburn entered B.103A, which was essentially a B.103/NA.39 (Buccaneer) with its naval equipment removed and new fuel tanks inserted.",
"de Havilland entered an upgraded version of the de Havilland Sea Vixen, the \"DH.110 Tactical Bomber', similarly modified to remove naval systems and increase fuel through a fuselage extension. It also added an upgraded version of the Rolls-Royce Avon engines, blown flaps, and an attachment point for an under-fuselage rocket engine JATO unit, all to improve takeoff performance. \n Vickers-Armstrongs/Supermarine offered Type 565, a similar conversion of the Supermarine Scimitar.",
"Vickers-Armstrongs/Supermarine offered Type 565, a similar conversion of the Supermarine Scimitar.\n Hawker entered the P.1121, a development of the Hawker Hunter relying on a number of drop tanks to meet the range requirements.",
"These early submissions were reviewed in May 1957. While all of these would be available before the desired 1964 service entry date, all of them had performance that was far short of the requirements. Only de Havilland's entry actually met the range requirement, the others were well short, notably P.1121. But more important was that the supersonic performance of all of these designs was very limited, and especially the range that the aircraft could fly whilst supersonic.",
"A further and more rigorous GOR.339 was released, and at a September 1957 meeting the Ministry called for a new round of submissions on 31 January 1958, and made the first formal statement that only those submissions from paired up companies would be considered. Eight companies were invited to enter, leading to thirteen submissions:",
"Avro's 739 looked considerably similar to the final TSR-2, although it used a mid-mounted swept wing instead of top-mounted delta. It is otherwise very similar to the EE submission, notably in details of the cockpit area.",
"Blackburn entered B.108, a further modification of B.103A with even more fuel. While the performance was limited compared to the other entries, Blackburn felt that meeting all of these features was not justified and their model would have a much lower per-unit cost. They also felt that, through experimental development of Buccaneer, they were the only company that really had experience with the low-level attack profile and its many problems in terms of turbulence and control.",
"Bristol's Type 204 was the most distinctive entry, using their \"gothic\" version of the delta wing planform, which they had developed during early studies on Bristol Type 223. It also featured a canard under the cockpit area, below the fuselage and mounted on a wing-like extension. The two engines were fed from an intake on the top of the wing.",
"de Havilland entered an entirely new design, unnamed, with swept wings and engines under the wings in pods. They offered a rocket-powered pad for VTOL use, and also offered modified versions for naval strike and long-range interceptors.",
"English Electric, given the head's up of the upcoming requirements, had time to study no less than 18 proposed layouts, P.1 through P.18, before selecting P.17A for submission. This was substantially similar to the winning design, differing primarily in the type of engine intakes used. EE teamed up with Short Brothers for the Shorts' P.17D, a vertical-lift platform that would give the P.17 a VTOL capability.",
"Fairey entered a design based on the Fairey Delta 2, essentially stretching the fuselage forward significantly and adding a large canard at the cockpit area. The two engines would be carried in underwing pods, which preceded underwing stores, but this was made up by a large bomb bay in the fuselage.\n Gloster entered two more versions of the thin-wing Javelin, either with in-fuselage engines like the Javelin, or with underwing pods which allowed for greater internal stores of fuel and weapons.",
"Hawker entered three closely related designs. P.1123, P.1125 and P.1129. The first two were related designs that shared as many components as possible to deliver a light bomber (1123) or air superiority fighter (1125). The P.1129 was similar but larger and more powerful, meeting all of the GOR requirements.",
"Vickers, having dropped the Supermarine name, entered Type 571. This looked somewhat similar to the winning submission, but featured a very thin and only slightly swept wing with large wingtip fuel tanks, and prominent swept-forward Ferri-style engine intakes.",
"Selection",
"By February, the Air Ministry had reduced the field to three designs, Hawker-Siddeley, Vickers and EE. The Ministry was highly impressed with the Vickers submission, which included not only the aircraft design, but a \"total systems concept\" outlining all the avionics, support facilities and logistics needed to maintain the aircraft in the field",
". EE, who had recently introduced the Lightning, was the only company with extensive experience with real-world supersonic aircraft, which they felt gave it a huge advantage in practical terms.",
"Hawker-Siddeley, parent of Hawker, Avro and Gloster, had entered five designs. This led to some confusion and internal dissent within the company. Avro, having lost the Avro 730 project, felt that a new bomber design was naturally theirs to lead. Gloster's design remained based on Javelin, and on 11 December 1957, the Hawker design team stated flatly there was no way it would ever win the contract. A 27 January 1958 meeting between Roy Dodson, Frank Spriggs and J.R",
". A 27 January 1958 meeting between Roy Dodson, Frank Spriggs and J.R. Ewins eventually decided to promote the P.1129 as their primary submission, using the P.1129 as the basis and adding in some features from the 739. Notably, the wing was made thinner and area rule was applied to optimize the design for flight at Mach 1.34.",
"In May, the Air Ministry issued OR.343, a refined version of GOR.339. Hawker submitted their updated \"P.1129 Development\", while minor variations of the other two designs were offered. Given the similarities between the Vickers and EE, there was some discussion of awarding another series of proposals, one from Vickers and EE and the other from Hawker-Siddeley, but it was noted this would delay the final contract by as much as a year.",
"It was later revealed that the decision to drop the Hawker effort had been taken as early as August, and that their later submissions were effectively a \"going through the motions\" effort. Official opinions of EE's management found it lacking in comparison to Vickers, but the combination of the two was felt by officialdom to be a useful marriage and accordingly the development contract was awarded to Vickers, with English Electric as sub-contractor",
". The ultimate design was essentially the wings and tail sections of the P.17, combined with the longer fuselage of the Type 571, with the design being built in two parts, Vickers the front and EE the rear, and the bolted together at a point just in front of the wing.",
"The existence of GOR.339 was revealed to the public in December 1958 in a statement to the House of Commons",
". Under pressure by the recommendations of the Committee on Estimates, the Air Ministry examined ways that the various project proposals could be combined, and on 1 January 1959, the Minister of Supply announced that the TSR-2 would be built by Vickers-Armstrongs working with English Electric; the initials coming from \"Tactical Strike and Reconnaissance, Mach 2\", the 'Strike' part of the designation specifically referring in RAF terminology to a nuclear weapons role.",
"On 1 January 1959, the project was given an official go-ahead; in February, it came under the new designation Operational Requirement 343. OR.343 was more specific and built upon work from the various submissions to GOR.339 specifically stating that the low-level operations would be at or less, and that Mach 2 should be attained at altitude.\n\nMission",
"The envisioned \"standard mission\" for the TSR-2 was to carry a weapon internally for a combat radius of . Of that mission was to be flown at higher altitudes at Mach 1.7 and the into and out of the target area was to be flown as low as 200 ft at a speed of Mach 0.95. The remainder of the mission was to be flown at Mach 0.92. If the entire mission were to be flown at the low 200 ft altitude, the mission radius was reduced to . Heavier weapons loads could be carried with further reductions in range",
". Heavier weapons loads could be carried with further reductions in range. Plans for increasing the TSR-2's range included fitting external tanks: one tank under each wing or one tank carried centrally below the fuselage. If no internal weapons were carried, a further could be carried in a tank in the weapons bay. Later variants would have been fitted with variable-geometry wings.",
"The TSR-2 was also to be equipped with a reconnaissance pack in the weapons bay which included an optical linescan unit built by EMI, three cameras and a sideways-looking radar (SLR) in order to carry out the majority of its reconnaissance tasks. Unlike modern linescan units that use infrared imaging, the TSR-2's linescan would use daylight imaging or an artificial light source to illuminate the ground for night reconnaissance.",
"Tactical nuclear weapons",
"Carriage of the existing Red Beard tactical nuclear bomb had been specified at the beginning of the TSR-2 project, but it was quickly realised that Red Beard was unsuited to external carriage at supersonic speeds, had safety and handling limitations, and its 15 kt yield was considered inadequate for the targets assigned. Instead, in 1959, a successor to Red Beard, an \"Improved Kiloton Bomb\" to a specification known as Operational Requirement 1177 (OR.1177), was specified for the TSR-2",
".1177), was specified for the TSR-2. In the tactical strike role, the TSR-2 was expected to attack targets beyond the forward edge of the battlefield assigned to the RAF by NATO, during day or night and in all weathers. These targets comprised missile sites, both hardened and soft, aircraft on airfields, runways, airfield buildings, airfield fuel installations and bomb stores, tank concentrations, ammunition and supply dumps, railways and railway tunnels, and bridges. OR",
". OR.1177 specified 50, 100, 200 and 300 kt yields, assuming a circular error probable of and a damage probability of 0.8, and laydown delivery capability, with burst heights for targets from 0 to above sea level. Other requirements were a weight of up to , a length of up to , and a diameter up to (the same as Red Beard).",
"However, a ministerial ruling on 9 July 1962 decreed that all future tactical nuclear weapons should be limited to a yield of 10 kt. The RAF issued a new version of the OR.1177 specification, accepting the lower yield, while making provision in the design for it to be capable of adaptation later for a higher yield, in the event of the political restriction being lifted",
". Meanwhile, the RAF explored ways of compensating for the lower yield by including, in the specifications for both the bomb and TSR-2, provision for releasing the smaller weapons in salvos, dropping sticks of four of the revised OR.1177, later named WE.177A, at intervals to prevent the detonation of the first weapon destroying the succeeding ones before they could, in turn, detonate. This led to the requirement that the TSR-2 must be able to carry four WE",
". This led to the requirement that the TSR-2 must be able to carry four WE.177As, two internally and two on external underwing stores pylons—the width of the TSR-2 bomb bay (originally designed to accommodate a single Red Beard weapon) necessitating the reduction in diameter of the WE.177A to , the bomb's width and fin span being constrained by the need to fit two WE.177 bombs side-by-side in the aircraft's bomb bay",
".177 bombs side-by-side in the aircraft's bomb bay. The requirement for stick bombing using nuclear weapons was soon dropped as larger yield bombs came back into favour.",
"A drawback of carrying WE.177 on external pylons was a limitation due to aerodynamic heating of the bomb's casing. WE.177A was limited to a maximum carriage time of five minutes at Mach 1.15 at low level on TSR-2, otherwise the bomb's temperature would rise above its permitted maximum. This would impose a severe operational restriction on TSR-2, as the aircraft was designed for Mach 1+ cruise at this height.",
"Nuclear stand-off missiles were also proposed for the TSR-2 early in development but not proceeded with. These included an air-launched development of the Blue Water missile, carried underwing, or semi-recessed in the bomb bay, and an air-launched ballistic missile, referred to as Grand Slam, with a warhead derived from that intended for the Skybolt missile, and a range of",
". Conventional missiles were catered for instead, with the design originally centring on use of the AGM-12 Bullpup, then moving on to favour the French AS-30 before settling on the new OR.1168 missile (which would become the TV-guided AJ-168 Martel).",
"After the cancellation of the TSR-2, the RAF eventually filled the tactical strike requirement using McDonnell F-4 Phantom IIs with US dual-key nuclear weapons, but continued their attempts to get the 10 kt limit lifted. Development of WE.177A was delayed by several years due to the Atomic Weapons Research Establishment (AWRE) at Aldermaston being inundated with work on other warhead developments. AWRE workload eased after completion of the Polaris missile warheads and work was able to resume on the WE",
".177A, deliveries to the RAF beginning in late 1971 for deployment on Buccaneers of RAF Germany, a year after WE.177A deliveries to the Royal Navy. Approval for high-yield tactical weapons was eventually gained in 1970 and, by 1975, the RAF had WE.177C, which at almost 200 kt was a weapon very similar to what they had planned for the TSR-2 in 1959.",
"Design",
"Throughout 1959, English Electric (EE) and Vickers worked on combining the best of both designs in order to put forward a joint design with a view to having an aircraft flying by 1963, while also working on merging the companies under the umbrella of the British Aircraft Corporation. EE had put forward a delta winged design and Vickers, a swept wing on a long fuselage. The EE wing, born of their greater supersonic experience, was judged superior to Vickers, while the Vickers fuselage was preferred",
". In effect, the aircraft would be built 50/50: Vickers the front half, EE the rear.",
"The TSR-2 was to be powered by two Bristol-Siddeley Olympus reheated turbojets, advanced variants of those used in the Avro Vulcan. The Olympus would be further developed and would power the supersonic Concorde. The design featured a small shoulder-mounted delta wing with down-turned tips, an all-moving swept tailplane and a large all-moving fin",
". Blown flaps were fitted across the entire trailing edge of the wing to achieve the short takeoff and landing requirement, something that later designs would achieve with the technically more complex swing-wing approach. No ailerons were fitted, control in roll instead being implemented by differential movement of the slab tailplanes",
". The wing loading was high for its time, enabling the aircraft to fly at very high speed and low level with great stability without being constantly upset by thermals and other ground-related weather phenomena. The EE Chief Test Pilot, Wing Commander Roland Beamont, favourably compared the TSR-2's supersonic flying characteristics to the Canberra's own subsonic flight characteristics, stating that the Canberra was more troublesome.",
"According to the Flight Envelope diagram, TSR2 was capable of sustained cruise at Mach 2.05 at altitudes between and and had a dash speed of Mach 2.35 (with a limiting leading edge temperature of 140 °C).",
"The aircraft featured some extremely sophisticated avionics for navigation and mission delivery, which would also prove to be one of the reasons for the spiralling costs of the project. Some features, such as forward looking radar (FLR) and side-looking radar for navigational fixing, only became commonplace on military aircraft years later",
". These features allowed for an innovative autopilot system which, in turn, enabled long distance terrain-following sorties as crew workload and pilot input had been greatly reduced.",
"There were considerable problems with realising the design. Some contributing manufacturers were employed directly by the Ministry rather than through BAC, leading to communication difficulties and further cost overruns. Equipment, an area in which BAC had autonomy, would be supplied by the Ministry from \"associate contractors\", although the equipment would be designed and provided by BAC, subject to ministry approval. The overall outlay of funds made it the largest aircraft project in Britain to date.",
"Unlike most previous projects, there were to be no prototypes. Under the \"development batch\" procedure pioneered by the Americans (and also used by English Electric for the Lightning), there would instead be a development batch of nine airframes, to be built using production jigs",
". The choice of proceeding to production tooling turned out to be another source of delay, with the first aircraft having to adhere to strict production standards or deal with the bureaucracy of attaining concessions to allow them to exhibit differences from later airframes. Four years into the project, the first few airframes had effectively become prototypes in all but name, exhibiting a succession of omissions from the specification and differences from the intended pre-production and production batches.",
"Operational history\n\nTesting",
"Despite the increasing costs the first two of the development batch aircraft were completed. Engine development and undercarriage problems led to delays for the first flight which meant that the TSR-2 missed the opportunity to be displayed to the public at 1964's Farnborough Airshow",
". In the days leading up to the testing, Denis Healey, the Opposition shadow secretary for defence, had criticised the aircraft saying that by the time it was introduced it would face \"new anti-aircraft\" missiles that would shoot it down making it prohibitively expensive at £16 million per aircraft (on the basis of only 30 ordered).",
"Test pilot Roland Beamont finally made the first flight from the Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment (A&AEE) at Boscombe Down, Wiltshire, on 27 September 1964. Initial flight tests were all performed with the undercarriage down and engine power strictly controlled—with limits of and on the first (15-minute) flight",
". Shortly after takeoff on XR219's second flight, vibration from a fuel pump at the resonant frequency of the human eyeball caused the pilot to throttle back one engine to avoid momentary loss of vision.",
"Only on the 10th test flight was the landing gear successfully retracted—problems preventing this on previous occasions, but serious vibration problems on landing persisted throughout the flight testing programme. The first supersonic test flight (Flight 14) was achieved on the transfer from A&AEE, Boscombe Down, to BAC Warton. During the flight, the aircraft achieved Mach 1 on dry power only (supercruise)",
". During the flight, the aircraft achieved Mach 1 on dry power only (supercruise). Following this, Beamont lit a single reheat unit as the other engine's reheat fuel pump was unserviceable, with the result that the aircraft accelerated away from the chase English Electric Lightning (a high speed interceptor) flown by Wing Commander James \"Jimmy\" Dell, who had to catch up using reheat on both engines. On flying the TSR-2 himself, Dell described the prototype as handling \"like a big Lightning\".",
"Over a period of six months, a total of 24 test flights were conducted. Most of the complex electronics were not fitted to the first aircraft, so these flights were all concerned with the basic flying qualities of the aircraft which, according to the test pilots involved, were outstanding. Speeds of Mach 1.12 and sustained low-level flights down to 200 ft were achieved above the Pennines",
".12 and sustained low-level flights down to 200 ft were achieved above the Pennines. Undercarriage vibration problems continued, however, and only in the final few flights, when XR219 was fitted with additional tie-struts on the already complex landing gear, was there a significant reduction in them. The last test flight took place on 31 March 1965.",
"Although the test flying programme was not completed and the TSR-2 was undergoing typical design and systems modifications reflective of its sophisticated configuration, \"[T]here was no doubt that the airframe would be capable of accomplishing the tasks set for it and that it represented a major advance on any other type.\"",
"Costs continued to rise, which led to concerns at both company and government upper management levels, and the aircraft was also falling short of many of the requirements laid out in OR.343, such as takeoff distance and combat radius. As a cost-saving measure, a reduced specification was agreed upon, notably reductions in combat radius to , the top speed to Mach 1.75 and takeoff run up increased from .\n\nProject cancellation",
"By the 1960s, the United States military was developing the swing-wing F-111 project as a follow-on to the Republic F-105 Thunderchief, a fast low-level fighter-bomber designed in the 1950s with an internal bay for a nuclear weapon. There had been some interest in the TSR-2 from Australia for the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF), but in 1963, the RAAF chose to buy the F-111 instead, having been offered a better price and delivery schedule by the American manufacturer",
". Nonetheless, the RAAF had to wait 10 years before the F-111 was ready to enter service, by which time the anticipated programme cost had tripled. The RAF was also asked to consider the F-111 as an alternative cost-saving measure. In response to suggestions of cancellation, BAC employees held a protest march, and the new Labour government, which had come to power in 1964, issued strong denials",
". However, at two Cabinet meetings held on 1 April 1965, it was decided to cancel the TSR-2 on the grounds of projected cost, and instead to obtain an option agreement to acquire up to 110 F-111 aircraft with no immediate commitment to buy. This decision was announced in the budget speech of 6 April 1965",
". This decision was announced in the budget speech of 6 April 1965. The maiden flight of the second development batch aircraft, XR220, was due on the day of the announcement, but following an accident in conveying the airframe to Boscombe Down, coupled with the announcement of the project cancellation, it never happened. Ultimately, only the first prototype, XR219, ever took to the air",
". Ultimately, only the first prototype, XR219, ever took to the air. A week later, the Chancellor defended the decision in a debate in the House of Commons, saying that the F-111 would prove cheaper.",
"All airframes were then ordered to be destroyed and burned.\n\nAeronautical engineer and designer of the Hawker Hurricane Sir Sydney Camm said of the TSR-2: \"All modern aircraft have four dimensions: span, length, height and politics. TSR-2 simply got the first three right.\"",
"TSR-2 replacements",
"To replace the TSR-2, the Air Ministry initially placed an option for the F-111K (a modified F-111A with F-111C enhancements) but also considered two other choices: a Rolls-Royce Spey (RB.168 Spey 25R) conversion of a Dassault Mirage IV (the Dassault/BAC Spey-Mirage IV) and an enhanced Blackburn Buccaneer S.2 with a new nav-attack system and reconnaissance capability, referred to as the \"Buccaneer 2-Double-Star\"",
". Neither proposal was pursued as a TSR-2 replacement although a final decision was reserved until the 1966 Defence Review. Defence Minister Healey's memo about the F-111 and the Cabinet minutes regarding the final cancellation of the TSR-2 indicate that the F-111 was preferred.",
"Following the 1966 Defence White Paper, the Air Ministry decided on two aircraft: the F-111K, with a longer-term replacement being a joint Anglo-French project for a variable geometry strike aircraft – the Anglo French Variable Geometry Aircraft (AFVG). A censure debate followed on 1 May 1967, in which Healey claimed the cost of the TSR-2 would have been £1,700 million over 15 years including running costs, compared with £1,000 million for the F-111K/AFVG combination",
". Although 10 F-111Ks were ordered in April 1966 with an additional order for 40 in April 1967, the F-111 programme suffered enormous cost escalation coupled with the devaluation of the pound, far exceeding that of the TSR-2 projection. Many technical problems were still unresolved before successful operational deployment and, faced with poorer-than-projected performance estimates, the order for 50 F-111Ks for the RAF was eventually cancelled in January 1968.",
"To provide a suitable alternative to the TSR-2, the RAF settled on a combination of the F-4 Phantom II and the Blackburn Buccaneer, some of which were transferred from the Royal Navy. These were the same aircraft that the RAF had derided in order to get the TSR-2 go-ahead, but the Buccaneer proved capable and remained in service until 1994. The RN and RAF versions of the Phantom II were given the designation F-4K and F-4M respectively, and entered service as the Phantom FG",
".1 (fighter/ground attack) and Phantom FGR.2 (fighter/ground attack/reconnaissance), remaining in service (in the air-to-air role) until 1992.",
"The RAF's Phantoms were replaced in the strike/reconnaissance role by the SEPECAT Jaguar in the mid-1970s. In the 1980s, both the Jaguar and Buccaneer were eventually replaced in this role by the variable-geometry Panavia Tornado, a much smaller design than either the F-111 or the TSR-2. Experience in the design and development of the avionics, particularly the terrain-following capabilities, were used on the later Tornado programme",
". In the late 1970s, as the Tornado was nearing full production, an aviation businessman, Christopher de Vere, initiated a highly speculative feasibility study into resurrecting and updating the TSR-2 project. However, despite persistent lobbying of the UK government of the time, his proposal was not taken seriously and came to nothing.",
"Survivors",
"The TSR-2 tooling, jigs and many of the part completed aircraft were all scrapped at Brooklands within six months of the cancellation. Two airframes eventually survived: the complete XR220 at the RAF Museum, Cosford, and the much less complete XR222 at the Imperial War Museum Duxford. The only airframe ever to fly, XR219, along with the completed XR221 and part completed XR223 were taken to Shoeburyness and used as targets to test the vulnerability of a modern airframe and systems to gunfire and shrapnel",
". Four additional completed airframes, XR224, XR225, XR226 and one incomplete airframe XR227 (X-06,07,08 and 09) were scrapped by R. J. Coley and Son, Hounslow Middlesex. Four further airframe serials XR228 to XR231 were allocated but these aircraft were allegedly not built. Construction of a further 10 aircraft (X-10 to 19) allocated serials XS660 to 669 was started but all partly built airframes were again scrapped by R. J. Coley",
". J. Coley. The last serial of that batch, XS670 is listed as \"cancelled\", as are those of another batch of 50 projected aircraft, XS944 to 995.",
"By coincidence, the projected batch of 46 General Dynamics F-111Ks (of which the first four were the trainer variant TF-111K) were allocated RAF serials XV884-887 and 902–947, but these again were cancelled when the first two were still incomplete.",
"The haste with which the project was scrapped has been the source of much argument and bitterness since and is comparable to the cancellation and destruction of the American Northrop Flying Wing bombers, and the Avro Canada CF-105 Arrow interceptor that was scrapped in Canada in 1959.",
"Surviving airframes\nXR220 (X-02) on display at RAF Museum Cosford\nXR222 (X-04) on display at Imperial War Museum Duxford\n Cockpit section on display at Brooklands Museum \n Bristol Siddeley Olympus 22R-320 – 2 engines on display at Gatwick Aviation Museum\n\nSpecifications\n\nSee also\n\nReferences\n\nNotes\n\nCitations",
"Bibliography\n Barnett-Jones, Frank. \"Oops!\" Aeroplane, Volume 28, No.2, Issue 322, February 2000.\n Boot, Roy. From Spitfire to Eurofighter: 45 Years of Combat Aircraft Design. Shrewsbury, Shropshire, UK: Airlife Publishing Ltd., 1990. .\n \"Boscombe Down, September 27, 1964: The TSR.2's First Flight (Pilot Roland Beamont; Navigator Donald Bowen).\" Flight, October 1964, pp. 637–640.\n Burke, Damien. TSR2: Britain's Lost Bomber. Ramsbury, Marlborough, Wiltshire, UK: The Crowood Press, 2010. .",
"Buttler, Tony. \"Strike Rivals: The ones that 'lost' when the T.S.R.2 'won'.\" Air Enthusiast, No. 59, September/October 1995.\n Buttler, Tony. X-Planes of Europe II: Military Prototype Aircraft from the Golden Age 1946–1974. Manchester, UK: Hikoki Publications, 2015. \n Campagna, Palmiro. Storms of Controversy: The Secret Avro Arrow Files Revealed. Toronto: Stoddart, Third paperback edition, 1998. .",
"Donald, David, ed. \"BAC TSR.2\". The Complete Encyclopedia of World Aircraft. New York: Barnes & Noble Books, 1997. .\n Donald, David. \"RAF Phantoms\". Wings of Fame. London: Aerospace. Volume 15, 1999. pp. 4–21. .\n Franklin, Roger. The Defender: The Story of General Dynamics. New York: Harper & Row, 1986. .",
"Hunter, Air Vice-Marshal A.F.C., CBE AFC DL, ed. \"TSR2 with Hindsight.\" London: RAF Historical Journal, Issue 17B, 1998. .\n Jefford, C. G. RAF Squadrons, a Comprehensive Record of the Movement and Equipment of all RAF Squadrons and their Antecedents since 1912. Shrewsbury, Shropshire, UK: Airlife Publishing, 2001. .\n Jenkins, Dennis R. B-1 Lancer: The Most Complicated Warplane Ever Developed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1999. .",
"Forbat, John. TSR2: Precision Attack to Tornado. Stroud, UK: Tempus Publishing Ltd., 2006. .\n Gardner, Charles. British Aircraft Corporation: A History by Charles Gardner. London: B.T. Batsford Limited, 1981. .\n Gardner, Richard E. The F-4 Phantom II. Edware, Middlesex, UK: Almarks Publishing Co., 1970. No ISBN.\n Gardner, Robert. From Bouncing Bombs to Concorde: The Authorised Biography of Aviation Pioneer Sir George Edwards OM. Stroud, Gloustershire, UK: Sutton Publishing, 2006. .",
"Garver, John W. Face Off: China, the United States and Taiwan's Democratization. Seattle, Washington: University of Washington Press, 1997. .\n Gunston, Bill. F-111 (Modern Combat Aircraft). New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1978. .\n Hamilton-Paterson, James. Empire of the Clouds: When Britain's Aircraft Ruled the World. London: Faber & Faber, 2010. .\n Hastings, Stephen. The Murder of TSR-2. London: Macdonald & Co., 1966.",
"Hastings, Stephen. The Murder of TSR-2. London: Macdonald & Co., 1966.\n Harver, John W. The Sino-American Alliance: Nationalist China and American Cold War Strategy in Asia. Armonk, New York: M.E. Sharpe, 1997. .\n Kaldor, Mary, Dan Smith and Steve Vines. Democratic Socialism and The Cost of Defence: The Report and Papers of The Labour Party Defence Study Group. London: Routledge, 1979. .",
"Law, John. Aircraft Stories: Decentering The Object in Technoscience. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press, 2002. .\n.\n Logan, Don. General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark. Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Military History, 1998. .\n Lucas, Paul. BAC TSR.2: Lost Tomorrows of an Eagle, The TSR.2 which Might Have Been 1960–1980. Bedford, UK: SAM Publications, 2009. .\n McLelland, Tim. TSR.2: Britain's Lost Cold War Strike Aircraft. Hinckley, Leicestershire, UK: Classic Publications, 2010. .",
"Segell, Glen. Royal Air Force Procurement: The TSR.2 to the Tornado. Staffordshire, UK: Glen Segell Publishers, 1998. .\n Segell, Glen. Wither or Dither: British Aerospace Collaborative Procurement with Europe. Staffordshire, UK: Glen Segell Publishers, 1997. .\n Smith, Dan. The Defence of The Realm in The 1980s. London: Taylor & Francis, 1980. .\n Sweetman, Bill. Phantom (Jane's Aircraft Spectacular Series). London: Jane's Information Group, 1984. .",
"Taylor, John W.R. \"The BAC TSR-2.\" Air Pictorial, Volume 25, No. 12, December 1963.\n Thornborough, Anthony. TSR2 (Aeroguide Special). Suffolk, UK: Ad Hoc Publications, 2005. .\n Winchester, Jim. \"BAC (English Electric) TSR.2\". X-Planes and Prototypes: From Nazi Secret Weapons to the Warplanes of the Future. London: Amber Books Ltd., 2005. .\n Winchester, Jim. \"BAC TSR.2.\" and \"Northrop XB-35/YB-49\". Concept Aircraft: Prototypes, X-Planes and Experimental Aircraft. Kent, UK: Grange Books plc., 2005. .",
"Wood, Derek. Project Cancelled: The Disaster of Britain's Abandoned Aircraft Projects. London: Jane's, 2nd edition, 1986, First edition 1975. .\n Wynn, Humphrey. The RAF Strategic Nuclear Deterrent Forces: Their Origins, Roles and Deployment, 1946–1969: A Documentary History. London: HMO, 1997.",
"External links\n\nTSR-2 page on Thunder and Lightnings site\nTSR-2 history with images of XR220 on Aviation Elettra site\n\nCancelled military aircraft projects of the United Kingdom\nTSR-2\n1960s British bomber aircraft\nTwinjets\nHistory of science and technology in the United Kingdom\nAircraft first flown in 1964"
] |
July 1913
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/July%201913
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[
"The following events occurred in July 1913:",
"July 1, 1913 (Tuesday)\n At a 50th anniversary reunion to commemorate the fiftieth anniversary of the Battle of Gettysburg, more than fifty thousand (53,407) surviving veterans of the Union and Confederate armies assembled at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania to set up tents. Eight of the aged veterans had died by the time President Wilson's speech to the gathering. The reunion ended on July 6.",
"Vilhjalmur Stefansson set off from Seattle for a three and a half year exploration of the area between Alaska and the North Pole.\n During the Labour Unity Conferences held in Wellington, the industrial and political wings of each movement were recommended to split into their own organizations. As a result New Zealand Socialist Party officially dissolved and reformed as the Social Democratic Party, a precursor to the New Zealand Labour Party formed three years later.",
"The Pretoria Regiment of the South African Army was established.\n Some 165 U.S custom districts were consolidated into 49, including the one for New Bedford, Massachusetts although it retain its status as a port of entry into the United States.\n A rail station opened in Newport, Isle of Wight, England to serve the Isle of Wight Central Railway. The rail station was active for only a decade and closed in 1923.\n A rail station opened in Dartford, Kent, England to serve the Gravesend West Line.",
"A rail station opened in Dartford, Kent, England to serve the Gravesend West Line.\n American jewelers began the use of the metric carat as the standard for weighing of gemstones and pearls, with a carat being equal to 200 milligrams. The unit was slightly less than the English carat of 205.3035 milligrams.\n L. Frank Baum published his seventh Land of Oz book titled The Patchwork Girl of Oz, which in a way restarted the entire series after The Emerald City of Oz.",
"Daily newspaper Tageblatt began publication in Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg, becoming the second most popular paper in the country behind the Luxemburger Wort.\n The city of Dipolog, Zamboanga del Norte, Philippines was established.\n The city of Millville, Florida was incorporated.\n The municipality of Malm was established in Norway. It dissolved in 1964.\n Born:",
"The municipality of Malm was established in Norway. It dissolved in 1964.\n Born: \nParamasiva Prabhakar Kumaramangalam, Indian army officer, Chief of the Indian Army Staff 1966 to 1969; in Kumaramangalam, Madras Province, British India (d. 2000)\nAndré Tollet, French resistance leader, central leader of the committee involved in the Liberation of Paris in 1944; in Paris (d. 2001)",
"July 2, 1913 (Wednesday)",
"Wall Street lobbyist David Lamar testified before a United States Senate subcommittee that he had frequently impersonated Congressmen during telephone conversations in order to gain an advantage. The United States Department of Justice reluctantly concluded that there was no federal law under which Lamar could be prosecuted",
". Although federal law made it a felony \"to impersonate an officer of the United States\", the Supreme Court of the United States had ruled that members of Congress were \"not officers of the United States, but of the particular States from which they come.",
"Upon recommendation of the city Board of Health, the city of Cincinnati seized control of eight ice plants whose workers had gone on strike during the hot summer. The strike settled four days later.\n The Crocker Land Expedition, on the ship Diana, departed from New York City toward the North Pole for a three-year exploration project.\n French aviator Marcel Brindejonc des Moulinais set a new distance record for an airplane, flying 3,100 miles from Paris to Saint Petersburg.",
"The Catholic League was established to reconcile Protestant and Catholic faiths in England.",
"July 3, 1913 (Thursday)\n The fiftieth anniversary of \"Pickett's Charge\", turning point in the Battle of Gettysburg in the American Civil War, was re-enacted by the survivors of the original battle.\n The Kingdom of Romania issued an order for mobilization of its armies in preparation of an invasion of Bulgaria.\nBorn: Dorothy Kilgallen, American journalist, columnist for the New York Journal-American and panelist on the television show What's My Line?; in Chicago (d. 1965)\n\nJuly 4, 1913 (Friday)",
"As the Second Balkan War continued, Greek and Serbian armies were successful in routing attacking Bulgarian troops, at Kilkis, Central Macedonia which would later become part of Greek territory. \n The Russian village of Astradamovka, located in the Alatyr oblast (later the Ulyanovsk Oblast), was destroyed by a fire which killed 154 peasants.\n Major General Erich von Falkenhayn was appointed as the new German Minister of War after General Josias von Heeringen resigned.",
"Anthony Wilding of England won his fourth consecutive Wimbledon championship, ending the hope of American Maurice McLoughlin to become the first foreigner to win the Wimbledon finals. Wilding overwhelmed McLoughlin in three straight sets, 8-6, 6-3 and 10-8.\n American race car driver Harry Knight was killed along with his mechanic Milton McAllis when their car blew a tire during a race in Columbus, Ohio and rolled over twice.",
"The opening of a new county courthouse in Ventura, California kicked off two days of Fourth of July celebrations that saw 20,000 people attend.\n Died: Alfred Lyttelton, 56, British politician and cricket player, wicket-keeper for the England cricket team from 1879 to 1898, Secretary of State for the Colonies 1903 to 1905 (b. 1857)",
"July 5, 1913 (Saturday)\n Three days of rioting by miners in the Rand District of South Africa halted after the government agreed to bring legislation for improvement of working conditions. The night before, Johannesburg police had fired their guns into a crowd of protesters who ignored orders to disperse, killing 40.",
"The Ottoman Empire announced that it would not intervene in the war against Bulgaria on the condition that Bulgaria relinquish its claims for indemnity from the empire from the First Balkan War. \n The United States Postal Service began the segregation of black postal clerks from white.\n Died: Prince Arisugawa Takehito, 51, Japanese Imperial Navy Admiral and head of the Shinnōke branch of the Imperial House of Japan (b. 1862)",
"July 6, 1913 (Sunday)\n English clergyman Henry Beeching delivered what would become a widely republished sermon at the Norwich Cathedral in the British city of Norwich, describing the faith of the late George Borrow.\n Born: Vance Trimble, American journalist, celebrated investigative reporter for the Howard-Scripps newspaper chain, recipient of the Pulitzer Prize for National Reporting in 1960; in Harrison, Arkansas (d. 2021)",
"Died: J. C. Williamson, 67, American-Australian actor and theatrical producer, founder of J. C. Williamson Ltd. (b. 1845)",
"July 7, 1913 (Monday)\n The Irish Home Rule bill passed on its third reading in the British House of Commons, 352-243. The measure was sent to the House of Lords, which rejected it on July 15.\n Mexican-American folk hero and outlaw Gregorio Cortez was freed from the Texas State Penitentiary in Huntsville, Texas, where he had served eight and one half years, following a pardon issued by Governor Oscar Branch Colquitt.",
"Born: Pinetop Perkins (stage name for Joseph William Perkins), American blues musician who played piano for Robert Nighthawk, Muddy Waters, and The Legendary Blues Band; in Belzoni, Mississippi (d. 2011)\n Died: E. Burd Grubb, 71, U.S. Army officer and regiment commander during the Battle of Chancellorsville and the Siege of Petersburg during the American Civil War, later the U.S. Ambassador to Spain (b. 1841)",
"July 8, 1913 (Tuesday)",
"Andrew Fisher retained his leadership of the Australian Labor Party during the party's leadership vote, defeating challengers William Higgs and Billy Hughes.\n Trainmen and conductors of most of the railroads in the eastern United States voted 72,473 to 4,210 in favor of going on strike for higher wages, tying up the nation's commerce and travel.\n The Welsh Disestablishment Bill passed its third reading in the House of Commons and was sent to the House of Lords for consideration.",
"British yacht Vivid ran aground and wrecked at the island of Colonsay off the coast of Scotland while en route from Glasgow to Stornoway on her maiden voyage as a civilian training ship.",
"Pearl Curran, a St. Louis housewife who was experimenting with an Ouija board, began reporting the communications of \"Patience Worth\", whom Curran said had been an Englishwoman who had lived in Dorset more than 200 years earlier, during the 17th century, and had been killed by Indians after crossing the ocean to America. For the next 24 years, until her death in 1937, Mrs. Curran would publish novels and poems attributed to her communications with Patience Worth.\n Born:",
"Born: \nWalter Kerr, American writer and theater critic, columnist for The New York Times; in Evanston, Illinois (d. 1996)\nBill Thompson, American actor, known for his voice work for the cartoon character Droopy for MGM and for the Walt Disney animated films; in Terre Haute, Indiana (d. 1971)",
"Died: Louis Hémon, 32, French novelist who moved to Canada, was killed after being struck by a train in Chapleau, Ontario. His novel Maria Chapdelaine was published after his death, and brought him posthumous fame. (b. 1880)",
"July 9, 1913 (Wednesday)\n China's National Assembly ratified a treaty with Russia, relinquishing its claims on Mongolia. \n Born: Ted Grant, South African-British activist, founder of Militant and Socialist Appeal in the United Kingdom; as Isaac Blank in Germiston, Transvaal (d. 2006)\n\nJuly 10, 1913 (Thursday)",
"Romania declares war on Bulgaria.\n This afternoon, the United States Weather Bureau recorded the highest ever ambient air temperature of 134 °F (56.7 °C) at Greenland Ranch (modern-day Furnace Creek) in Death Valley. The record's validity was later challenged, and in 2020 a temperature of was recorded at the same location, making it the world's highest verified air temperature, subject to confirmation.",
"Born: Salvador Espriu, Spanish poet, known for poetry collections including La pell de brau and D'una vella i encerclada terra; in Santa Coloma de Farners (d. 1985)\n Died: Hayashi Tadasu, 63, Foreign Minister of Japan from 1906 to 1912 (b. 1850)",
"July 11, 1913 (Friday)\n With the army of Bulgaria already engaged in a two-front fight with Greece and Serbia, troops from the Kingdom of Romania crossed the Danube river for its own invasion of Bulgaria.\n Born: Kofi Abrefa Busia, Prime Minister of Ghana 1969-1972; in Wenchi, the Gold Coast (now Ghana) (d. 1978)\n Died: Redmond Berry, 46, Irish judge, Lord Chancellor of Ireland from 1911 to 1913 (b. 1866)",
"July 12, 1913 (Saturday)\n The Jiangxi province declared its independence from China, and the provincial assembly authorized Li Lieh-chun to lead a fight against the national government.\n The day after Romania had invaded Bulgaria from the north, Turkey attacked from the south and moved into Thrace.\n German battlecruiser was launched by Blohm & Voss in Hamburg as part of the battlecruiser class used during World War I, including the Battle of Jutland.",
"Albert Einstein was invited to become a member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences with Max Planck and Walther Nernst traveling to Zürich to make the offer in person. With the invitation came a full professorship at the Friedrich Wilhelm University in Berlin, with a high salary \"without any teaching obligations\", and the position of Director of the new Institute of Theoretical Physics of the Kaiser Wilhelm Society.",
"The Pacific Highway opened in British Columbia as a gravel road, connecting Surrey, British Columbia to Blaine, Washington. The highway was paved in 1923.\n The Abattoirs railway station opened to serve the Northfield railway line north of Adelaide, Australia.\n The historic Grove Park Inn opened in Asheville, North Carolina.\n King Peter of Serbia established the Medal for Bravery to be awarded to officers and soldiers demonstrating courage of the battlefield.\n The city of Zapala, Argentina was established.",
"The city of Zapala, Argentina was established.\n Born: \nWillis Lamb, American physicist, 1955 Nobel Prize in Physics laureate for his work on quantum electrodynamics, in Los Angeles (d. 2008)\nMildred Cohn, American biochemist, recipient of the U.S. National Medal of Science for her research into enzyme catalysis; in New York City (d. 2009)\nSyarif Hamid, Indonesian noble, eighth monarch of the Pontianak Sultanate on the island of Borneo; in Pontianak, Dutch East Indies (d. 1978)",
"Manohar Malgonkar, Indian writer, author of A Bend in the Ganges and The Devil's Wind, in Jagalbet, Karwar, Princely State of Mysore, British India (d. 2010)",
"July 13, 1913 (Sunday)",
"The final report by Irish diplomat Roger Casement, on the atrocities of the Peruvian Amazon Company against the indigenous people in its employ, was published by the British House of Commons.\n French aviator Léon Letort set a new record for nonstop flight, exceeding 500 miles and finishing at 590 miles upon landing in Berlin after setting off from Paris nine hours earlier",
"Two weeks after the start of the Second Balkan War between Romania and Bulgaria, the first of more than 11,500 within the Romanian Army was diagnosed. The epidemic would kill more than 1,600 soldiers and officers, while relatively few Romanians would die in combat.\n Born: \nMærsk Mc-Kinney Møller, Danish industrialist, chairman of the Maersk shipping corporation 1940 to 2003; in Hellerup (d. 2012)",
"Bryan Hextall, Canadian hockey player, right winger for the New York Rangers from 1933 to 1948, in Grenfell, Saskatchewan (d. 1984)",
"July 14, 1913 (Monday)",
"A nationwide strike of railroad employees was averted by negotiations at the White House, which included U.S. President Woodrow Wilson, Congressional leaders and the Secretary of Labor, as well as representatives of the railroads and the workers' unions. Management and labor settled their differences in light of an understanding that United States Congress would approve an amendment of the Erdman Arbitration Act. Passage of the bill and its signing into law were accomplished the next day.",
"The British House of Commons passed a bill abolishing plural voting, on the third reading, by a margin of 293-222.\n Leslie Lynch King, Jr. was born at his parents' home at 3202 Woolworth Avenue in Omaha, Nebraska, at 12:43 am local time to Dorothy Gardner King and Leslie Lynch King Sr. After the Kings' divorce and the remarriage of Dorothy, Leslie, Jr., would be renamed Gerald Rudolph Ford, future 38th President of the United States.\n The historic Hotel Polonia Palace opened on Jerusalem Avenue in Warsaw.",
"The historic Hotel Polonia Palace opened on Jerusalem Avenue in Warsaw.\n The association football club Cruzeiro was established in Cachoeirinha, Brazil.\n Died: John Bannon, 83, Irish-born American priest and chaplain in the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War (b. 1829)",
"July 15, 1913 (Tuesday)",
"As expected, Great Britain's House of Lords voted against approval of the Irish Home Rule bill, for the second time, by a majority of 238. Prime Minister H. H. Asquith announced that his government would present a plan for abolition of the House of Lords at the next session of Parliament. The bill would finally become law on September 18, 1914, after passing under the terms of the Parliament Act on May 25 of that year. \n Stoyan Danev resigned as Prime Minister of Bulgaria.",
"Stoyan Danev resigned as Prime Minister of Bulgaria.\n Augustus Octavius Bacon was re-elected U.S. senator in the first election under the 17th Amendment but would pass away while serving his term in 1914.\n Born: \nLloyd \"Cowboy\" Copas, American country singer, known for country hits \"Signed Sealed and Delivered\" and \"Candy Kisses\"; in Blue Creek, Ohio (killed in plane crash with Patsy Cline, 1963)",
"Abraham Sutzkever, Russian Yiddish poet and Holocaust survivor, known for poetry collections including Lider (Songs) and Lider fun geto (Songs from the ghetto); in Smarhon’, Russian Empire (d. 2010)",
"July 16, 1913 (Wednesday)\n China's President Yuan Shikai asked Prime Minister Zhao Bingjun to resign, then appointed him to the Beijing police to guide a campaign against Yuan's opponents.\n Robert Bridges was appointed by Prime Minister H. H. Asquith as the new Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom, to succeed the late Alfred Austin.\n The Argentina city of Villa Carlos Paz was founded by Carlos Nicandro Paz.",
"The Argentina city of Villa Carlos Paz was founded by Carlos Nicandro Paz. \n Born: William L. Brown, American geneticist, known for his research into genetically modified organisms for agriculture; in Arbovale, West Virginia (d. 1991)",
"July 17, 1913 (Thursday)\n William Lea Chambers was nominated as the first U.S. Commissioner of Mediation and Conciliation.\n The all-female Frensham School was established in Mittagong, New South Wales, Australia.\n Born: Roger Garaudy, French author and Holocaust denier, author of The Founding Myths of Modern Israel; in Marseille (d. 2012)\n Died: Jassim bin Mohammed Al Thani, 88, Emir of Qatar since 1878 (b. 1825)",
"July 18, 1913 (Friday)\n A rebellion broke out in the Sichuan province of the Republic of China, with Tsen Chun-hsuan being declared President.\n As troops from Romania advanced to within thirty miles of Sofia, King Ferdinand sent an appeal to King Carol of Romania, asking for a ceasefire and discussion of terms of peace. \nBorn: \nRed Skelton (stage name for Richard Bernard Eheart), American comedian and television star known for The Red Skelton Show; in Vincennes, Indiana (d. 1997)",
"Eric Pohlmann, Austrian-born British actor, known for his character film and stage roles including Gentlemen Marry Brunettes and Lust for Life; in Vienna (d. 1979)\nKarl Rolvaag, U.S. politician, Governor of Minnesota 1963-1967, later Ambassador to Iceland 1967-1969; in Northfield, Minnesota (d. 1990)",
"July 19, 1913 (Saturday)\n The French Chamber of Deputies voted 358-204 to extend the required military service from two years to three years.\n The Mental Deficiency Act was passed by the British House of Commons, 180 to 3, providing for the removal of \"feeble-minded\" persons to special institutions. The only three MPs to vote against it were Josiah Wedgwood, Frederick Banbury and Handel Booth. The act would receive royal assent and take effect on April 1, 1914.",
"At Guangzhou (Canton), the Governor-General of the Kwangtung province proclaimed that land's independence from China.\n The Apostolic Prefecture of the Island of Formosa was established in Taiwan, later becoming the Roman Catholic Diocese of Kaohsiung in 1961.\n The Villa Marina on the Isle of Man was reopened as a theatrical venue by Lieutenant Governor George Somerset.\n The village of Kincaid, Saskatchewan was established.",
"The village of Kincaid, Saskatchewan was established.\n Died: Clímaco Calderón, 60, President of Colombia for a single day in 1882 (b. 1852)",
"July 20, 1913 (Sunday)\n United States Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan announced the terms of a proposed treaty with Nicaragua that would make the Central American nation a virtual U.S. protectorate relative to international affairs.\n The Fujian (Fukien) province, led by Xu Chongzhi, seceded from the Republic of China.\n Vasil Radoslavov formed a new cabinet as Prime Minister of Bulgaria.",
"Vasil Radoslavov formed a new cabinet as Prime Minister of Bulgaria.\n The New Town Hall, designed by architects Hermann Eggert and Gustav Halmhuber opened to the public in Hanover.",
"July 21, 1913 (Monday)\n Turkish forces for the Ottoman Empire, led by Enver Pasha, recaptured the city of Adrianople from Bulgaria, four months after the Bulgarians had successfully invaded the historic city on March 26, 1913. The city, which had been ceded to Bulgaria less than two months earlier by the Treaty of London, would formally be relinquished back to the Ottoman Empire by the Treaty of Constantinople on September 29.",
"China's President Yuan Shikai declared martial law nationwide as the southern provinces continued their rebellion. On the same day, former President Sun Yat-sen released a statement to the media, calling for Yuan's resignation. \n British suffragette Nellie Hall threw a brick through the window of the automobile of Prime Minister H. H. Asquith, while he was being chauffeured during a visit to Birmingham.",
"Born: Catherine Storr, British children's writer, author of Marianne Dreams; in Kensington, Middlesex (d. 2001)",
"July 22, 1913 (Tuesday)",
"Fifty people, mostly women and girls, were killed in a fire at the Binghamton Clothing Company factory in Binghamton, New York. Although an alarm system had been installed two months earlier by state law, it was believed that there had been so many fire drills that \"recent familiarity with fire drills had led the workers to become almost indifferent to alarms\", the girls were slow in evacuating the second and third floors, and were trapped by the swiftly moving fire",
". Firefighters were also led four blocks off course by a bystander who stood at the corner and rang an alarm.",
"The House of Lords rejected the Welsh Disestablishment Bill, voting 242-48 against giving the bill a second reading, after the measure had come from the House of Commons. The Welsh Church Act would pass the following year.\n McGraw Square was dedicated in Denny Triangle, Seattle. The square features a statue of John McGraw, second Governor of Washington.\n Born: Tex Thornton (Charles Bates Thornton), American entrepreneur, founder of Litton Industries; in Goree, Texas (d. 1981)",
"Died: Eduardo López Rivas, 62, Venezuelan journalist, founder of the newspaper Diario El Fonógrafo and the magazine El Zulia ilustrado (b. 1850)",
"July 23, 1913 (Wednesday)\n Copper miners in Michigan walked off of their jobs in a strike called by the Western Federation of Miners, with the goal of winning an eight-hour workday without a cut in pay. The strike would last for more than eight months, until April 12, 1914, without the miners receiving the shorter day. During that time, 73 people, consisting of striking miners and their families would die in the Italian Hall disaster on December 24, 1913.",
"George Washington Hays was elected as the 24th Governor of Arkansas in a special state election with 64% of the vote.\n William F. Cody, better known by his stage name Buffalo Bill, auctioned off the assets of the Buffalo Bill's Wild West show that he had operated since May 19, 1883. The public auction followed Cody's loss of nearly one million dollars in attempts to mine gold in Arizona.\n Born:",
"Born: \nMichael Foot, British politician, Leader of the Opposition from 1980 to 1983; in Plymouth, Devonshire (d. 2010)\nLicia Albanese, Italian-born American opera singer, known for her collaborations with Metropolitan Opera; in Bari (d. 2014)\nCoral Browne, Australian actress, known for film roles in An Englishman Abroad, The Killing of Sister George, and The Ruling Class; in Melbourne (d. 1991)",
"July 24, 1913 (Thursday)\n The House of Lords rejected the bill abolishing plural voting by a margin of 166 to 42.\n The United States Department of Justice filed an antitrust lawsuit for the first time against American Telephone and Telegraph (A T & T) for monopolistic practices in Oregon, Washington, Idaho and Montana. The suit would be dropped after A T & T agreed to divest itself of its ownership of Western Union stock.\n The Museu de Belles Arts de València was established in Valencia, Spain.",
"The Museu de Belles Arts de València was established in Valencia, Spain.\nBorn: Britton Chance, American biochemist who patented the stopped-flow technique to measure fast biochemical reactions, as well as being an Olympic gold medalist swimmer; in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania (d. 2010)",
"July 25, 1913 (Friday)\n Austria-Hungary warned Serbia and Greece not to humiliate Bulgaria in a peace settlement.",
"The Washington Senators and the St. Louis Browns (now the Minnesota Twins and Baltimore Orioles, respectively) played to an 8-8 tie after their game went 15 innings until ended because of darkness. Walter Johnson set a record for a relief pitcher, throwing 15 strikeouts. Carl Weilman of the Browns became the first player to strike out six times in one game, in every single one of his times at bat. Walter Johnson's record would be broken 88 years later, by Randy Johnson on July 19, 2001.",
"July 26, 1913 (Saturday)\n The Hunan province seceded from the Republic of China, even as Chinese troops retook the city of Zhenjiang (Chinkiang) in the Jiangsu province.\n Romania halted its armies to within ten miles of the Bulgarian capital of Sofia, at the request of Bulgaria's Foreign Minister and an assurance of a favorable settlement.\n British soldiers, who had been sent to monitor the Ulster Volunteers, fired into a crowd of Irish protesters in Dublin, killing three and wounding 38.",
"The Roman Catholic Diocese of Tacámbaro was established in Mexico.\n Born: Kan Yuet-keung, Chinese financial leader, chairman of the Bank of East Asia from 1963 to 1983; in Hong Kong (d. 2012)",
"July 27, 1913 (Sunday)",
"In an action that made headlines around the world, Dr. Rosalie M. Ladova, a prominent Chicago physician, made an unsuccessful attempt to challenge the American social mores of the time, when she discarded the \"bathing skirt\" that female swimmers were required to wear in addition to the bloomers that covered their legs. Police arrested Dr. Ladova at the beach at Jackson Park on Lake Michigan and charged her with obscenity. After seeing the newspaper photographs the next day of Dr",
". After seeing the newspaper photographs the next day of Dr. Cordova's blouse and bloomers swimwear, Chicago Mayor Carter Harrison Jr. declared that \"No woman should think of wearing that kind of costume\" at a beach, and directed the city police to \"gently but firmly insist upon the lady putting on proper costumes\". The \"skin-tight\" bathing suit had long been accepted in Britain for both men and women. After Dr",
". The \"skin-tight\" bathing suit had long been accepted in Britain for both men and women. After Dr. Ladova's daring experiment, almost eight years would pass before the taboo was discarded in the United States, with Mayor Robert Crissye of the city of Somers Point, New Jersey, inviting women \"to bathe on his city's beaches barelegged and in a one-piece suit\", in the style of Australian swimmer Annette Kellermann.",
"The association football club Chaco For Ever was established in Resistencia, Chaco, Argentina.\n The town of San Javier, Uruguay was established.",
"July 28, 1913 (Monday)\n Bulgaria and Romania signed a peace treaty in Bucharest, with Bulgaria ceding its territory in Southern Dobruja in return for Romania withdrawing its troops.\n The United States tennis team defeated Great Britain in the finals of the Davis Cup, held at Wimbledon, London.",
"The trial of Jewish factory manager Leo Frank, on charges of the murder of Mary Phagan, began in Atlanta. Because of the heat, the windows in the Fulton County courthouse were kept open, giving the opportunity for the mob outside to influence the trial's outcome, although the Supreme Court of the United States would later rule, in 1915, that Frank's due process rights had not been prejudiced by the circumstances. \nBorn:",
"Born: \nLaird Cregar, American actor, known for his film roles in I Wake Up Screaming and The Lodger; in Philadelphia (d. 1944)\nRosemary Murray, British chemist and educator, and the first woman to hold the position of Vice-Chancellor at the University of Cambridge; in Havant, Hampshire (d. 2004)",
"July 29, 1913 (Tuesday)",
"At a conference of the ambassadors to London of the six \"Great Powers\" (Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Italy, Russia, and the United Kingdom), it was agreed that an international commission would govern Albania until a monarch could be chosen, and boundaries were set for the new nation. The seven-member International Control Commission, composed of one representative each from each of the Great Powers, and Albania, was to govern the country for ten years",
". In March, Prince Wilhelm zu Wied would be selected as King of Albania under the ICC's authority, but the Commission dissolved after its members went to war against each other.",
"The Anglo-Ottoman Convention was signed between the British and Ottoman Empires, as the \"Convention relating to the Persian Gulf and surrounding territories\". However, the convention was never ratified and became a moot point in 1914 when World War I began.\n Under the stipulations of the Treaty of Bucharest, Bulgaria demobilized its army.\n Slovak clergy and politician Andrej Hlinka established the Hlinka Party, eventually evolving into the Slovak People's Party.",
"Sports club Vålerengens was established in Oslo, where it became known for its men's association football, women's association football, and ice hockey programs. \n Born: Erich Priebke, German Schutzstaffel (SS) officer who commanded the Ardeatine massacre of 335 civilians in 1944; in Hennigsdorf, Brandenburg province, Prussia (d. 2013)\n Died: Tobias Asser, 75, Dutch lawyer, recipient of the 1911 Nobel Peace Prize for helping to establish the Hague Conference on Private International Law (b. 1838)",
"July 30, 1913 (Wednesday)\n As a bloody battle between Bulgarian and Greek troops took place at Djuma, south of Sofia, representatives of Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece, Romania and Montenegro agreed to an armistice in a meeting at Bucharest. \n Seven spectators at a motorcycle race in Cincinnati were killed and 18 seriously injured, when racer Odin Johnson lost control of his cycle while competing at the Lagoon Motordrome and crashed into a light pole, showering 35 people with flaming gasoline.",
"Great Britain announced that it would not participate in the Panama–Pacific International Exposition at San Francisco in 1915, and was followed within the next two days by Germany and Russia, with news editorials saying \"it is regarded as Great Britain's way of intimating that she still resents the course of the United States in regard to the [Panama] canal tolls.\"",
"American singer Chauncey Olcott made the first recording of the classic Irish-American song \"Too Ra Loo Ra Loo Ral\", written by James Royce Shannon, as a way to promote the Tin Pan Alley musical Shameen Dhu.\nBorn: Lou Darvas, American cartoonist, best known for his cover art for Sporting News; in Cleveland (d. 1987)",
"July 31, 1913 (Thursday)\n In the largest demonstration for women's suffrage in the United States up to that time, a motorcade of sixty automobiles traveled from Hyattsville, Maryland to the United States Capitol to present the United States Senate with petitions bearing 200,000 signatures of persons favoring an amendment to the U.S. Constitution to allow women to vote. On May 9, 1915, petitions with 500,000 signatures would be presented, and on October 27, 1917, one million.",
"The Second Opium Conference was convened, at The Hague, in order to take up the matter of the remaining 12 of 46 nations that had not signed. The Conference would end after eight days.\n The Royal Meteorological Institute was established in Brussels.",
"References\n\n1913\n1913-07\n1913-07"
] |
1983 Birthday Honours
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1983%20Birthday%20Honours
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[
"Queen's Birthday Honours are announced on or around the date of the Queen's Official Birthday in Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the United Kingdom. The dates vary, both from year to year and from country to country. All are published in supplements to the London Gazette, and many are formally conferred by the monarch (or her representative) some time after the date of the announcement, particularly for those service people on active duty.",
"The 1983 Queen's Birthday honours lists were announced on 10 June 1983.\n\nAt this time honours for Australians were still being awarded in the UK honours on the advice of the premiers of Australian states, as well as in the Australian honours system which had been established in 1975.\n\nRecipients of honours are displayed here as they were styled before their new honours.\n\nUnited Kingdom\n\nLife peer",
"United Kingdom\n\nLife peer\n\nBaron\nThe Most Reverend and Right Honourable Stuart Yarworth Blanch. Archbishop of York.\nSir James Edward Hanson. Chairman, Hanson Trust.\nGeorge Anthony Geoffrey Howard, D.L. Chairman, British Broadcasting Corporation.\nSir John Leonard King. Chairman, Babcock International PLC.",
"Privy Counsellor\nPeter Allan Renshaw Blaker, Minister of State Foreign and Commonwealth Office, 1979–81. Minister of State for the Armed Forces, Ministry of Defence, 1981–83.\nSir Frank Cooper, G.C.B., C.M.G., Permanent Under-Secretary of State, Ministry of Defence, 1976–82.\nSir Arthur Michael Palliser, G.C.M.G., Head of the Diplomatic Service, 1975–82.\nPeter Wynford Innes Rees, Q.C., Minister of State, H.M. Treasury, 1979–81. Minister of State, Department of Trade, 1981–83.",
"Knight Bachelor\nMichael Francis Atiyah, Royal Society Research Professor, Mathematical Institute, University of Oxford.\nBasil Davenport Blackwell, Vice-Chairman and Chief Executive, Westland PLC.\nJohn Dennis Boles, , Director-General, The National Trust.\nRobert Lewis Fullarton Boyd, , Professor of Physics, University of London, and Director of the Mullard Space Science Laboratory.\nPhilip Antony Fyson Buck, . For Political and Public Service.\nTerence Burns, Chief Economic Adviser, H.M. Treasury.",
"Terence Burns, Chief Economic Adviser, H.M. Treasury.\nGeoffrey Chandler, , Director-General, National Economic Development Office.\nAnthony Wakefield Cox, , Architect.\nHugh Guy Cubitt, , Chairman, Housing Corporation.\nRustam Moolan-Feroze, President, Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists.\nCharles Keith Frossard, Bailiff of Guernsey.\nAbraham Goldberg, Regius Professor of the Practice of Medicine, University of Glasgow.\nJames Duncan Goold. For Public and Political services.",
"James Duncan Goold. For Public and Political services.\nHarold Edward Gurden. For Political and Public Service.\nMichael Aubrey Hamilton. For Political and Public Service.\nPhilip Welsby Holland. For Political and Public Service.\nIan Bruce Hope Hunter, . For services to the Arts.\nBrigadier Leonard Henry Lee, . For Political and Public Service.\nDuncan McDonald, , Chairman and Chief Executive, NEI Group PLC. For services to Export.\nAlexander McGregor Graham Macmillan. For Political Service.",
"Alexander McGregor Graham Macmillan. For Political Service.\nKenneth Macmillan, Principal Choreographer, The Royal Ballet.\nJames William Miskin, (His Honour Judge Miskin), Recorder of London.\nFrancis Patrick Neill, , Chairman, Press Council.\nJoseph Nickerson, Chairman, Nickerson Group.\nJohn Holbrook Osborn. For Political and Public Service.\nLeslie Porter, Chairman and Chief Executive, Tesco Stores (Holdings) PLC.\nAlfred Sherman. For Political Service.\nNorman Siddall, , Chairman, National Coal Board.",
"Alfred Sherman. For Political Service.\nNorman Siddall, , Chairman, National Coal Board.\nClive Marles Sinclair, Chairman, Sinclair Research Ltd.\nProfessor Stephen Harold Spender, , Poet and Critic.\nAlan Arthur Walters, Personal Economic Adviser to the Prime Minister.\nMalcolm George Wilcox, , lately Chairman, Export Guarantees Advisory Council.\nAlwyn Williams, Principal and Vice-Chancellor, University of Glasgow.\nWilliam Maxwell Harries Williams, President, The Law Society of England and Wales.",
"William Maxwell Harries Williams, President, The Law Society of England and Wales.\nWoodrow Lyle Wyatt, Chairman, Horserace Totalisator Board.\nRoger William Young. For educational and public services, particularly in Scotland.",
"Australian States\nState of Queensland\nFrancis Thomas Moore. For service to the tourist industry and the community.\nHenry Sydney Williams, . For services to the community.\n\nOrder of the Bath\n\nKnight Commander of the Order of the Bath (KCB)\nMilitary Division\nRoyal Navy\nVice Admiral Sir David John Hallifax, K.B.E.\nVice Admiral Peter Maxwell Stanford, M.V.O.\n\nArmy\nLieutenant General Martin Baker Farndale, C.B., Colonel Commandant Royal Regiment of Artillery, Colonel Commandant Army Air Corps.",
"Royal Air Force\nActing Air Marshal Michael John Armitage, C.B.E.\nActing Air Marshal Patrick Bardon Hine.\nActing Air Marshal Michael William Patrick Knight, C.B., A.F.C.\n\nCivil Division\nGeorge Lawrence Jose Engle, C.B., Q.C., First Parliamentary Counsel.\nMichael David Milroy Franklin, C.B., C.M.G., Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food.\nClive Anthony Whitmore, C.V.O., Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Defence.",
"Companion of the Order of the Bath (CB)\nMilitary Division\nRear Admiral Anthony Sanderson George.\nRear Admiral David Conrad Jenkin.\nRear Admiral John Keith Robertson.\nMajor General William Maurice Allen (408929), late Royal Corps of Transport.\nMajor General Eric Walter Barton, (393871), Colonel Commandant Corps of Royal Engineers.\nMajor General Derek Thomas Crabtree (427648), Colonel The Duke of Edinburgh's Royal Regiment (Berkshire and Wiltshire).",
"Major General Sir David Hughes-Morgan, Bt., (384230), Army Legal Corps.\nMajor General Michael Frank Reynolds (412046), late The Queen's Regiment.\nAir Vice-Marshal Herbert Brian Kelly, , Royal Air Force.\nAir Vice-Marshal Leslie William Phipps, , Royal Air Force.\nAir Vice-Marshal Robert George Price, Royal Air Force.",
"Civil Division\nJohn Anthony Christopher, Chief Valuer, Board of Inland Revenue.\nRoy Henry Francis Croft, Deputy Secretary, Department of Industry.\nIvor John Guest Davis, Comptroller-General, Patent Office, Department of Trade.\nProfessor George Alfred Hugh Elton, Chief Scientist, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food.\nKenneth Frederick John Ennals, Deputy Secretary, Department of the Environment.\nMiss Susan Winthrop Fogarty, Under Secretary, Department of Transport.",
"Miss Susan Winthrop Fogarty, Under Secretary, Department of Transport.\nStuart William Gilbert, Director, Department for National Savings.\nJames Dominic George Hammer, H.M. Chief Inspector of Factories, Department of Employment.\nLewis Dudley Hawken, Deputy Chairman, Board of Customs and Excise.\nThomas Henry Kerr, Director, Royal Aircraft Establishment, Farnborough, Ministry of Defence.\nRobert Gavin Loudon McCrone, Secretary, Scottish Economic Planning Department.",
"Robert Gavin Loudon McCrone, Secretary, Scottish Economic Planning Department.\nKenneth Carmichael Macdonald, Deputy Secretary, Ministry of Defence.\nWilliam Ernest Mason, Deputy Secretary, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food.\nMary Elizabeth, Mrs Hedley-Miller, Under Secretary, H.M. Treasury.\nDallas Alfred Mithen, Commissioner, Harvesting and Marketing, Forestry Commission.\nMichael John Anthony Partridge, Deputy Secretary, Department of Health and Social Security.",
"Michael John Anthony Partridge, Deputy Secretary, Department of Health and Social Security.\nPeter George Perry, Under Secretary, Department of Health and Social Security.\nClive Priestley, Under Secretary, Management and Personnel Office.\nPeter Damian Robinson, Deputy Secretary, Lord Chancellor's Department.\nWilliam Johnstone Sharp, Controller and Chief Executive, H.M. Stationery Office.\nRalph Frederick Dendy Shuffrey, , Deputy Secretary, Home Office.",
"Ralph Frederick Dendy Shuffrey, , Deputy Secretary, Home Office.\nColin Macdonald Stewart, Directing Actuary, Government Actuary's Department.",
"Australian States\nState of Tasmania\nIan Grahame Inglis, State Under Treasurer.\n\nOrder of St Michael and St George\n\nKnight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George (GCMG)\nSir Percy Cradock, K.C.M.G., H.M. Ambassador, Peking.",
"Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George (KCMG)\nColin Frederick Figures, C.M.G., O.B.E., Foreign and Commonwealth Office.\nOliver Grantham Forster, C.M.G., M.V.O., H.M. Ambassador, Islamabad.\nHugh Thomas Arnold Overton, C.M.G., lately Director, British Trade Development Office, New York.\nAnthony James Williams, C.M.G., Leader of the United Kingdom Delegation to the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe, Madrid.",
"Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George (CMG)\nClive Carruthers Clemens, M.C., British High Commissioner, Maseru.\nRobert Kerr Cunningham, Chief Natural Resources Adviser, Overseas Development Administration.\nPatrick Robin Fearn, Foreign and Commonwealth Office.\nJohn Calvert Griffiths, Attorney-General, Hong Kong.\nColin Henry Imray, British Deputy High Commissioner, Bombay.\nPeter Laurence O'Keeffe, C.V.O., H.M. Ambassador, Dakar.\nPhilip McKearney, H.M. Consul-General, Boston.",
"Philip McKearney, H.M. Consul-General, Boston.\nRobert Michael Purcell, H.M. Ambassador, Mogadishu.\nOswald James Horsley Robinson, O.B.E., Foreign and Commonwealth Office.\nDougal Gordon Reid, H.M. Ambassador, Monrovia.\nHarry Charles Salter, D.F.C., lately Director (Finance), Commission of the European Communities, Brussels.\nRichard Christopher Samuel, British Deputy High Commissioner, New Delhi.\nWilliam Kenneth Slatcher, C.V.O., British High Commissioner, Georgetown.",
"William Kenneth Slatcher, C.V.O., British High Commissioner, Georgetown.\nJohn Nicholas Teague Spreckley, H.M. Ambassador, Seoul.\nWilliam Kelvin Kennedy White, Foreign and Commonwealth Office.",
"Australian States\nState of Queensland\nDr Alphonso Jean Gardiner Nicholson. For service to medicine and the community.\n\nRoyal Victorian Order\n\nKnight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order (KCVO)\nCharles Matthew Farrer, C.V.O.\nJohn Michael Moore, C.B., D.S.C.",
"Commander of the Royal Victorian Order (CVO)\nHoward Montagu Colvin, C.B.E.\nThe Right Honourable Elizabeth, Lady Grimthorpe.\nColonel William Henry Gerard Leigh, C.B.E., M.V.O.\nGroup Captain Anthony Mumford, Royal Air Force.\nCommander Loftus Edward Peyton Jones, D.S.O., M.B.E., D.S.C., Royal Navy.\nGeorge Douglas Pinker.\nRichard Henry Egerton Russell.\nBernard Alfred Speight.\nThe Reverend Canon Cecil Edwyn Young.\n\nMember of the Royal Victorian Order (MVO)",
"Fourth Class \nMiss Daphne Russell Edmunds, M.B.E.\nCommander Richard Gregory Evans, Royal Navy.\nRobert Fellowes.\nAthole Stephen Hereford Kemp, O.B.E.\nThe Honourable Diana Mary Robina Makgill, M.V.O.\nGordon Reynolds.\nThe Honourable Jean Constance, Mrs Wills.\nFifth Class\nFrank Newsome Berry.\nMiss Angela Margaret Bowlby, M.B.E.\nEdna Rosina, Mrs Canty.\nMiss Susan Lillian Derry.\nLieutenant Commander Robert Montgomery Evans, Royal Navy.\nSuperintendent John Maclean, Metropolitan Police.",
"Royal Victorian Medal (Silver) (RVM)\nChief Technician Nicholas Anthony Copley, Royal Air Force.\nDivisional Sergeant Major James Green, M.B.E., The Queen's Bodyguard of the Yeomen of the Guard.\nChief Petty Officer (Seaman) Garry Greenwood.\nRonald Thomas Hankins.\nGeorge Leonard Hasthorpe.\nChief Petty Officer Cook Jeffrey Hughes.\nJohn Leishman.\nSergeant John Raymond Taylor, B.E.M., Royal Air Force.\nMaurice John Watts.\nCharles Alexander Wright.\n\nOrder of the British Empire",
"Order of the British Empire\n\nKnight Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire (GBE)\nAdmiral Sir William Thomas Pillar, K.C.B.\n\nDame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE)\nRosamund Mary, Lady Holland-Martin, O.B.E., Chairman, National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children.",
"Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE)\nVice-Admiral John Frederick Cadell.\nMajor General David Calthorp Thorne, O.B.E., Deputy Colonel The Royal Anglian Regiment (Norfolk, Suffolk and Cambridgeshire).\nActing Air Marshal Eric Clive Dunn, C.B., B.E.M., Royal Air Force.\nThe Right Honourable Patrick Edmund, Earl of Limerick, lately Chairman, British Overseas Trade Board. For Services to Export.\nJohn Henry Bremridge, O.B.E., Financial Secretary, Hong Kong.",
"Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE)\nMilitary Division\nRoyal Navy\nCaptain David Belfield Nolan, Royal Navy.\nThe Reverend Peter Owen Price, Q.H.C., Royal Navy.\nCaptain Philip William Seton Stearns, Royal Navy",
"Army\nBrigadier John Bryan Bettridge (419358), late Royal Regiment of Artillery.\nColonel Patrick Martin Blagden (443401), late Corps of Royal Engineers.\nColonel Derek Brownson (456607), late Corps of Royal Engineers.\nBrigadier Frederick Peter Crawley, A.D.C. (390412), late Royal Army Ordnance Corps.\nColonel Brian Charles Mellows Harding, M.C. (426898), late Royal Regiment of Artillery.\nColonel (now Acting Brigadier) Michael Everard Thorne, O.B.E. (429944), late The Royal Anglian Regiment.",
"Colonel Roger Neil Wheeler (475595), late The Royal Irish Rangers (27th (Inniskilling) 83rd and 87th).",
"Royal Air Force\nAir Commodore David Conway Grant Brook, Royal Air Force.\nAir Commodore Henton Silvester Carver, M.V.O., Royal Air Force.\nGroup Captain William Edward Bliss, Royal Air Force.\nGroup Captain John Edward Ffrancon Williams, Royal Air Force.",
"Civil Division\nRichard Henry Allen Amis, Chairman, Alfred Booth and Company PLC.\nPeter Henry Andrews, Headmaster, Henry Fanshawe School, Dronfield.\nDenis Midgley Arnold, Heather Professor of Music, University of Oxford.\nEric Albert Ash, Pender Professor of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, University College, University of London.\nLawrence Arthur Bains, D.L. For Political and Public Service.\nAnthony Baxter Baker, Regional Administrator, Northern Regional Health Authority.",
"Anthony Baxter Baker, Regional Administrator, Northern Regional Health Authority.\nThomas Baron, Chairman, Christian Salvesen (Properties) Limited.\nPeter Thomas Blake, Painter.\nEmily May, Mrs. Blatch. For Political and Public Service.\nDoreen Edna Joy, Mrs. Brooke, lately Deputy Director, Ministry of Defence.\nRaymond Frederick Burman, lately Chairman, West Indies Trade Advisory Group. For services to Export.\nRobert Duncan Catterall, Consultant Adviser in Genito-Urinary Medicine, Middlesex Hospital, London.",
"Robert Duncan Catterall, Consultant Adviser in Genito-Urinary Medicine, Middlesex Hospital, London.\nGeorge Clarke, Chief Officer, Hampshire Fire Brigade.\nPeter Clarke, Principal, Robert Gordon's Institute of Technology, Aberdeen.\nMiss Barbara Evelyn Clayton (Mrs. Klyne), Professor of Chemical Pathology and Human Metabolism, University of Southampton.\nMichael David Nevill Cobbold. For services to local government in Westminster.",
"Michael David Nevill Cobbold. For services to local government in Westminster.\nBasil Eugene Sinclair Collins, Deputy Chairman and Chief Executive, Cadbury Schweppes PLC. \nProfessor John Philip Cooper, Director, Welsh Plant Breeding Station, Aberystwyth.\nJohn Michael Terence Wellesley Denison, Actor.\nArthur Henry Alexander Dibbs, lately Deputy Chairman, National Westminster Bank PLC. \nHarry Ari Simon Djanogly, Chairman and Chief Executive, The Nottingham Manufacturing Company PLC.",
"Harry Ari Simon Djanogly, Chairman and Chief Executive, The Nottingham Manufacturing Company PLC.\nGordon Elliott Fogg, Professor of Marine Biology, University College of North Wales, Bangor.\nPeter Walter Foster, O.B.E., M.C., T.D., D.L., Chairman and Managing Director, William White and Company (Switchgear) Ltd.\nNorman Edward Frost, Chief Scientific Officer (B), Department of Industry.\nWilliam Nichol Garry, lately Assistant Secretary, H.M. Treasury.",
"William Nichol Garry, lately Assistant Secretary, H.M. Treasury.\nEric John Gibson, Deputy Chief Scientific Officer, Department of the Environment.\nDavid Alec Graham, Director General, Greater Manchester Passenger Transport Executive. \nAlbert Julian Granville, Chairman and Managing Director, Howard Doris Ltd.\nMiss Dulcie Winifred Catherine Gray (Mrs. Denison), Actress.\nStanley William Grundy, Chairman, Grundy (Teddington) Group Ltd.\nWilliam Jardine Harkness, lately President, Scottish Football Association.",
"William Jardine Harkness, lately President, Scottish Football Association.\nEric Hartwell, lately Vice Chairman, Trusthouse Forte PLC.\nJohn Dennis Miles Hearth, Chief Executive, Royal Agricultural Society of England.\nDavid Burton Hobman, Director, Age Concern (England).\nRobert Edgar Hodd, Chairman, Preston Health Authority.\nGyde Horrocks, For Political Service.\nRaymond Horrocks, Group Chief Executive, Cars, BL PLC.\nJames Douglas Howden Hume, Deputy Chairman and Managing Director, Howden Group PLC, Glasgow.",
"James Douglas Howden Hume, Deputy Chairman and Managing Director, Howden Group PLC, Glasgow.\nRobin Eliot Irvine, Consultant Physician, Department of Medicine for the Elderly, Hastings Health Authority.\nJohn Bryan Jefferson, Partner, Jefferson, Sheard and Partners.\nProfessor Huw Morris-Jones. For Public Service in Wales.\nMichael Kelly, Lord Provost of Glasgow.\nWilliam Leslie Kendall, lately Secretary General, Council of Civil Service Unions.",
"William Leslie Kendall, lately Secretary General, Council of Civil Service Unions.\nAlbert Laugharne, Q.P.M., Deputy Commissioner, Metropolitan Police.\nJohn Leather, Principal, Derby College of Further Education.\nRaymond John Leppard, Conductor, Harpsichordist and Composer. \nTrevor Oswin Lewis. For services to countryside conservation in Wales.\nJohn Luke Lowther, D.L. For Political and Public Service.\nProfessor Bryan Keith-Lucas. For Political and Public Service.",
"Professor Bryan Keith-Lucas. For Political and Public Service.\nThomas Russell McKnight, Assistant Secretary, Department of Economic Development, Northern Ireland.\nMatthew Macmillan, O.B.E., lately Controller, English Language and Literature Division, The British Council.\nJohn Hannah Forbes Macpherson. For public service in the West of Scotland, particularly to Glasgow Chamber of Commerce.\nProfessor William Norton Medlicott, Senior Editor, Documents on British Foreign Policy.",
"Professor William Norton Medlicott, Senior Editor, Documents on British Foreign Policy. \nPeter Colin Michael, Chairman, Micro-Consultants Group Ltd.\nJohn Alfred Mills, Managing Director, Molins PLC. For services to Export.\nDavid William Mitchell. For Political and Public Service.\nJohn Royston Moore, Member, West Yorkshire Metropolitan County Council.\nGeorge Henry Moores, Chairman, South Yorkshire Police Authority.\nAlistair Fleming Neilson, Solicitor and Chief Legal Adviser, Scottish Health Service.",
"Alistair Fleming Neilson, Solicitor and Chief Legal Adviser, Scottish Health Service.\nEric Hamilton Nicoll, Deputy Chief Engineer, Scottish Development Department.\nRichard Edward Norman, Chairman and Managing Director, Thorn EMI Ferguson.\nLeonard Sidney Payne, Director of Distribution, J. Sainsbury PLC.\nPeter Charles Peddie, Partner, Freshfields and Company.\nJames George Christopher Pilditch, Chairman, Aidcom International PLC.",
"James George Christopher Pilditch, Chairman, Aidcom International PLC.\nJohn Henry McKnight Pinkerton, Professor of Midwifery and Gynaecology, Queen's University of Belfast.\nMichael Vivian Posner, Chairman, Social Science Research Council.\nLeslie John Pym. For Political and Public Service. \nJohn Michael Raisman, Chairman, Shell UK Ltd. \nJames Rankin, Principal Inspector of Taxes, Board of Inland Revenue.\nBryan Colman Read, Chairman, R. J. Read (Holdings) Ltd.\nCyril Norman Read, Business Consultant.",
"Bryan Colman Read, Chairman, R. J. Read (Holdings) Ltd.\nCyril Norman Read, Business Consultant.\nDerek Harry Roberts, Director of Research, The General Electric Company PLC.\nMargaret Helen, Mrs. Rule, Archaeologist. For Services to the raising of the Mary Rose.\nPaul Johannes Rutteman, Partner, Arthur Young McClelland Moores and Company. \nDesmond Eric Renforth Scarr, Assistant Secretary, Department of Energy.\nArthur Seldon, Economist.\nProfessor John Cyril Smith, Member, Criminal Law Revision Committee.",
"Arthur Seldon, Economist.\nProfessor John Cyril Smith, Member, Criminal Law Revision Committee.\nKenneth Henry Stevens, Chief Executive Commissioner, The Scout Association.\nMaurice Frank Stonefrost, Comptroller of Finance, Greater London Council.\nColonel Patrick Malcolm Brogden Sutcliffe, M.B.E., T.D., D.L., Chairman, Eastern Wessex, Territorial, Auxiliary and Volunteer Reserve Association.\nAnthony David Bernard Sylvester, Writer on Art.\nJohn Tavare, Chairman and Managing Director, Whitecroft PLC.",
"John Tavare, Chairman and Managing Director, Whitecroft PLC.\nMichael Goodiff Taylor. For Political and Public Service.\nColin Edward Thompson, Director, National Galleries of Scotland.\nRobert Howard Garry Thomson, Scientific Adviser to the Trustees, National Gallery.\nClive Edward Ian Thornton, Chief General Manager, Abbey National Building Society.\nJohn Race Godfrey Tomlinson, Director of Education, Cheshire.\nBrian Cecil Tooke. For Political and Public Service.",
"Brian Cecil Tooke. For Political and Public Service.\nProfessor Owen Lyndon Wade, Dean of the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Birmingham.\nArnold Geoffrey Ward. For Political and Public Service.\nGilbert Frank Wheelock, Executive Vice Chairman, Martini and Rossi Ltd.\nRodney Wilkins, Principal Medical Officer, Department of Health and Social Security.\nGeorge Williams, O.B.E., Director General, UK Offshore Operators' Association.\nRoy Joseph Withers, Deputy Chairman, Davy McKee Corporation PLC.",
"Roy Joseph Withers, Deputy Chairman, Davy McKee Corporation PLC.\nLeonard Wolstenholme, B.E.M. For Political Service.\nGilbert David Marson Wood. For services to Journalism.\nJohn Woodcock, Q.P.M., Chief Constable, South Wales Constabulary.\nAlfred Stanley Worrall, O.B.E. For public services in Northern Ireland.\nMiss Mary Rose Worster, Regional Nursing Officer, Mersey Regional Health Authority.\nAlfred Yates, lately Director, National Foundation for Educational Research in England and Wales.",
"Alfred Yates, lately Director, National Foundation for Educational Research in England and Wales.\nDiplomatic Service and Overseas List\nFrederick John Barritt, Speaker of the House of Assembly, Bermuda.\nMiss Lydia Dunn, O.B.E. For public services in Hong Kong.\nColvyn Hugh Haye, Director of Education, Hong Kong.\nRobert Thomas Mitchell Henry, M.V.O., O.B.E., Q.P.M., C.P.M., Commissioner of Police, Hong Kong.\nDavid Joy, Head of British Interests Section, Swiss Embassy, Buenos Aires.",
"David Joy, Head of British Interests Section, Swiss Embassy, Buenos Aires.\nGeorge Ranson Lee, C.V .O., Counsellor, H.M. Embassy, Berne.\nThe Right Reverend Douglas Milmine, Anglican Bishop of Paraguay.\nHugh Edward Richardson, O.B.E., President of the Senate, Bermuda.\nJohn Wilkes Tanner, lately Director of UNRWA, Jordan.\nThe Most Reverend Robert Selby Taylor, Anglican Bishop of Central Zambia.\nLeslie Ernest Sidney Tuck. For services to British aviation interests in the U.S.A.",
"Australian States\nState of Queensland\nDaniel Whitehead. For service as General Manager, XII Commonwealth Games Australia (1982) Foundation Limited.",
"Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE)\nMilitary Division\nRoyal Navy\nCommander David Leonard Deakin, M.V.O. Royal Navy.\nCommander Eric Michael England, Royal Navy.\nChief Officer (Acting Superintendent) Lois Francis, Women's Royal Naval Service. \nCommander William John Gibson, R.D.,* Royal Naval Reserve.\nCommander David Harold Lines, Royal Navy. \nThe Reverend John Andrew George Oliver, Royal Navy.\nCommander Kenneth Macrae Steven, Royal Navy.\nCommander Stanley James Watson, Royal Navy.",
"Commander Kenneth Macrae Steven, Royal Navy.\nCommander Stanley James Watson, Royal Navy.\nCommander Arthur James White, Royal Navy. \nCommander Reginald Brook Wrenn, Royal Navy.",
"Army\nLieutenant Colonel Derek Baughan (453440), Royal Army Ordnance Corps.\nLieutenant Colonel John Muir Clavering, M.C. (465919), Scots Guards.\nLieutenant Colonel Peter Arthur Drewett (460506), Army Catering Corps.\nLieutenant Colonel (now Colonel) Andrew Tobin Warwick Duncan M.V.O. (437051), Grenadier Guards.\nLieutenant Colonel Robert Ewen, T.D. (478916), Corps of Royal Engineers, Territorial Army.\nLieutenant Colonel (now Acting Colonel) Kenelm John Hathaway (463351), Army Air Corps.",
"Lieutenant Colonel (now Acting Colonel) Kenelm John Hathaway (463351), Army Air Corps. \nLieutenant Colonel Roger Willis Hurles (463048), Royal Army Ordnance Corps.\nLieutenant Colonel (Quartermaster) George Johnston (478412), Army Legal Corps, (now retired). \nLieutenant Colonel Harold Hamilton Kerr (471293), Corps of Royal Engineers.\nLieutenant Colonel Martin Thomas Owen Lloyd (443335), The Royal Regiment of Wales (24th/ 41st Foot).",
"Lieutenant Colonel David Gordon Martin (412006), Royal Regiment of Artillery.\nLieutenant Colonel Patrick David Mesquita (437118), The Royal Hussars (Prince of Wales's Own).\nLieutenant Colonel James Alan Orr (443526), The Parachute Regiment.\nLieutenant Colonel Adrian Gilbert Clement Weston Peck, M.B.E. (403723), The Queen's Own Hussars.\nLieutenant Colonel Nicholas John Ridley, M.B.E. (471334), Queen's Own Highlanders (Sea- forth and Camerons).",
"The Reverend Graham Henry Roblin, Chaplain to the Forces 2nd Class (452800), Royal Army Chaplains' Department.\nLieutenant Colonel Roger David Kyffin Thompson (461510), Royal Corps of Signals.\nActing Colonel Roger Charles Tomkins, T.D. (432942), Army Cadet Force attached from The Royal Anglian Regiment, Territorial Army (RARO Class 2).\nLieutenant Colonel David Bryan Wynn Webb-Carter, M.C. (467644), Irish Guards.\nLieutenant Colonel Malcolm George Halliday Wise (427035), Royal Corps of Signals.",
"Royal Air Force\nWing Commander Richard Anthony King Crabtree (608035), Royal Air Force. \nWing Commander John Herbert William Davis (4230154), Royal Air Force.\nWing Commander Robert Ernest Holliday (4183431), Royal Air Force.\nWing Commander Peter Anthony Kelly (609080), Royal Air Force.\nThe Reverend Charles Cecil Macneill (507195), Royal Air Force.\nWing Commander William David Pittham (3137385), Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve (Training).\nWing Commander John Victor Radice (3507289), Royal Air Force.",
"Wing Commander John Victor Radice (3507289), Royal Air Force.\nWing Commander Frederick Arthur Trowern, A.F.C. (4058982), Royal Air Force.\nSquadron Leader Michael Edwin Cole (2592998), Royal Air Force.",
"Civil Division\nWilliam Barrie Abbott, Director, Society of Master Printers of Scotland.\nProfessor Robert James Adam. For Political and Public Service.\nKenneth John Alford, Member, English Industrial Estates Corporation.\nRichard Steene Allcock, Consultant, Endeavour Training.\nWilliam Taylor Allen, M.B.E., Managing Director and Register of Dover Harbour Board.\nDerek John Allison, Managing Director, Purfleet Deep Wharf and Storage Company Ltd. Deputy Chairman, London Dock Labour Board.",
"Douglas Kinloch Anderson, Chairman and Managing Director, Kinloch Anderson Ltd., Edinburgh.\nWilliam Beveridge Anderson, Rector, Inverness High School.\nStanley Andrew, Commercial Manager, Motor Industry Research Association.\nVictor Norman Hale Balme, Principal Collector, Board of Inland Revenue.\nPeter Geoffrey Bennett, T.D., Executive Director, International Operations, Lucas East West Ltd. For services to Export.\nKeith Howard Best, Partner, Messrs. Bullen and Partners.",
"Keith Howard Best, Partner, Messrs. Bullen and Partners.\nPaul Joseph Black, Professor of Education and Director, Centre for Science Education, Chelsea College, London.\nDavid Cyril Blackburn. For Political Service. \nDonald Webster Bradley. For Political and Public Service.\nJohn Byrom Bramwell, Commissioner, Warwickshire, St. John Ambulance Brigade.\nRonald Frederick Broome, Deputy Chief Constable, West Midlands Police.",
"Ronald Frederick Broome, Deputy Chief Constable, West Midlands Police.\nAlexander Livingston Brown, Area Manager, Mid-Lancashire Area, North Western Electricity Board.\nGeorge Percival Brown, Charman, George P. Brown (Holdings) Ltd.\nMichael Hugh Bryant, Chairman, West Midlands Export Club. For services to Export.\nEdwin Henry Buckland, T.D., Headmaster, Shiremoor Middle School, North Tyneside.\nJean, Mrs. Burnham, Principal, Ministry of Defence.",
"Jean, Mrs. Burnham, Principal, Ministry of Defence.\nAlbert Edward Cammidge. For services to local government in Doncaster and to the administra- tion of Doncaster Race Course.\nLeonard Carr, lately General Secretary, Amalgamated Society of Wire Drawers and Kindred Workers.\nWalter Carruthers, Manager, Ford Motor Company Ltd., Belfast.\nFrederick Michael Casson, Potter.\nDonald Montagu Gerard Chidson, M.C., Director General, The Caravan Club.",
"Donald Montagu Gerard Chidson, M.C., Director General, The Caravan Club.\nThomas Dalgleish Clarke, Regional Pharmaceutical Officer, Yorkshire Regional Health Authority.\nKaines Adlard Coles. For services to Ocean Racing and Yachting.\nEdward Geoffrey Lissant Collins. For services to the community in Rochdale.\nHenry Coote, Principal, Department of Finance and Personnel, Northern Ireland.\nJames Vincent Corcoran, Superintending Civil Engineer, Department of the Environment",
"James Vincent Corcoran, Superintending Civil Engineer, Department of the Environment\nJohn Bowes Corrin. For Political and Public Service.\nRobert Rainey Craik, T.D. For Political Service.\nMiss Joan Crofts. For Political Service. \nWilliam Joseph Crowther, Superintending Engineer, Department of the Environment, Northern Ireland.\nArthur Stuart Michael Cummings, Cartoonist, Daily Express and Sunday Express Newspapers. \nEric John Michael Davies, Conservator of Forests for South Scotland, Forestry Commission.",
"Eric John Michael Davies, Conservator of Forests for South Scotland, Forestry Commission.\nMiss Margaret Adelaide Day, Chief Nursing Officer, Tower Hamlets Health Authority.\nProfessor Denis Henry Desty, Scientific Consultant, BP Research Centre, Sunbury-on-Thames.\nJames Daniel Devlin, Registrar, General Optical Council.\nRoy Trevor Donaldson, Member, Somerset County Council and Sedgemoor District Council. \nJames George Dunkley, Chairman, Management Committee, School for Dental Therapists.",
"James George Dunkley, Chairman, Management Committee, School for Dental Therapists. \nWilliam Michael Eaton, Director, North Yorkshire Area, National Coal Board.\nWilliam Grist Eborn, Chairman, The Cottage Homes.\nEric Ray Ellen, lately Chief Secretary, London Transport Executive.\nCaptain Richard Kenneth Nicholson Emden, D.S.C., R.N. (Retd.), Regional Controller, Dover Region, H.M. Coastguard, Department of Trade. \nHugh Devereux Evans, Chief Regional Scientific Adviser for Home Defence, London Region.",
"Hugh Devereux Evans, Chief Regional Scientific Adviser for Home Defence, London Region. \nThomas William Farthing, Managing Director, IMI (Titanium) Ltd.\nChristopher George Begbie Farwell, Headmaster, County Secondary School, Eastham, Wirral.\nJoyce Edith, Mrs. Foster. For Political and Public Service.\nJohn William Frazer, V.R.D., Chairman, Frazer and Haughton Ltd.\nJohn Lowry Dunseath Gailey, Managing Director, Giddings and Lewis-Fraser Ltd., Abroath.",
"John Lowry Dunseath Gailey, Managing Director, Giddings and Lewis-Fraser Ltd., Abroath.\nMiss Mary Geraldine Edith Giles, Principal Department of Education and Science.\nJohn McCune Gilmour, D.F.M., lately Senior Principal, Department of Health and Social Security.\nRoy Goulding, Chairman, Scientific Sub-Committee of the Advisory Committee on Pesticides. \nJames Cuthbertson Gray, Treasurer, Highland Health Board.\nCharles Wilson Green. For services to Golf.",
"Charles Wilson Green. For services to Golf. \nThomas Greenwell, Chief Leader Writer, Yorkshire Post.\nHarold Norman Greenwood, Chief Executive, National Seed Development Organisation Ltd. \nJanusz Kazimierz Grodecki, Professor of Law, University of Leicester.\nMary Elizabeth, Mrs. Haggart, lately Chief Area Nursing Officer, Tayside Health Board. \nThomas Edward Hall, Member, Bradford City Council.\nBryan Hanson, Leader, Hartlepool District Council.",
"Bryan Hanson, Leader, Hartlepool District Council.\nMajor James Richard Edwards Harden, D.S.O.,M.C., D.L. For services to land drainage in Wales.\nFrancis William Hawkins, H.M. Inspector of Schools, Department of Education and Science.\nColin Vernon Hewett, Q.P.M., Deputy Assistant Commissioner, Metropolitan Police.\nPeter Leslie Victor Hickman, Managing Director, Space and Communications Division, British Aerospace PLC.\nHarold Higgins, Inspector, Board of Inland Revenue.",
"Harold Higgins, Inspector, Board of Inland Revenue.\nRachel Mary, Lady Higgs, Area Organiser, West Midlands Counties, Women's Royal Voluntary Service.\nNorman Chipchase Hilditch, Regional Secretary, East Midlands Region, British Gas Corporation.\nMiss Thora Hird (Mrs. Scott), Actress.\nFrancis Ronald Hirst, lately Principal Scientific Officer, Ministry of Defence.\nGeorge Walter Hodgson. For services to the Keswick Branch, Royal Air Forces' Association.",
"George Walter Hodgson. For services to the Keswick Branch, Royal Air Forces' Association. \nKim Guy Felix Britton Howe, Leader, Hammersmith and Fulham London Borough Council. \nHugh Raymond Howse, General Manager, External Business and Development, British Broadcasting Corporation.\nSquadron Leader Ronald Alfred Hudson, R.A.F. (Retd.). For Political and Public Service.\nJohn McFarlane Hughes, Chairman, Glasgow Area Manpower Board.\nMichael Carney Gray Hunter, Chairman/Managing Director, Hunter-Print Group PLC.",
"Michael Carney Gray Hunter, Chairman/Managing Director, Hunter-Print Group PLC.\nIan Somerville Hutchison. For services to local government in Scotland.\nMiss Phyllis Dorothy James (Mrs. White), Novelist.\nGilbert Jenkins, M.C. For services to the Sea Cadet Association.\nGladys Mildred, Mrs. Jones, Chairman, Northern Ireland Home Safety Council. Vice Chairman, National Home Safety Committee, Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents.",
"Silvain Edouard Josse, General Medical Practitioner, New Southgate, Haringey.\nJames Kennedy, Songwriter.\nJohn Christopher Durham Kenyon, Director, J. H. Kenyon Ltd.\nMiss Marian Murray Kershaw, Director, North Western Museum and Art Gallery Service.\nAlan Ramon Keys, D.F.C., Divisional Director of Marketing and Product Support, Warton Division, Aircraft Group, British Aerospace PLC. For services to Export.\nGeorge Hubert Lee. For Political and Public Service.",
"George Hubert Lee. For Political and Public Service.\nRobert Martin Lee, Chief Probation Officer, Lancashire Probation Service.\nSalmond Solomon Levin. For services to the Jewish Community in Britain.\nHenry Ross Lewis, Manager, Home Procurement and Exports, The Fyffes Group Ltd.\nLady Mary Rosemary Marie-Gabrielle Mansel-Lewis, President, Dyfed Branch, British Red Cross Society.\nAndrew Noel Lightbody, Q.F.S.M., Chief Fire Officer, Cheshire Fire Brigade.",
"Andrew Noel Lightbody, Q.F.S.M., Chief Fire Officer, Cheshire Fire Brigade.\nJames William Lightbown, Head, Division of Antibiotics, National Institute for Biological Standards and Control.\nAlbert Little, Leader, Bury Metropolitan Borough Council.\nWalter Francis Long, Commercial General Manager, Vosper Thornycroft (U.K.), Ltd. For services to Export.\nJames Love. For services to the Young Men’s Christian Association Movement.\nBernard Lubert, Company Chief Engineer, Marks and Spencer PLC.",
"Bernard Lubert, Company Chief Engineer, Marks and Spencer PLC.\nJohn Menhinick Lukies, D.L. For services to the community in Essex.\nrancis Geoffrey Hugh Lupton, Deputy Director, Plant Breeding Institute, Cambridge.\nTom McDonald, Chairman, Armitage and Norton PLC.\nAlexander Paul Charrier McKee, Naval Historian. For services to the location of the Mary Rose. \nPeter John McLachlan, Secretary, Belfast Voluntary Welfare Society.\nJames Lloyd McQuitty, Q.C., Chairman of Trustees, Ulster Folk and Transport Museum.",
"James Lloyd McQuitty, Q.C., Chairman of Trustees, Ulster Folk and Transport Museum.\nRobert Alfred Maguire, Partner, Maguire and Murray. Head of the Department of Architecture, Oxford Polytechnic.\nWing Commander John Douglas Mallinson, A.F.C., R.A.F. (Retd.), Special Project Adviser, Lansings Ltd.\nRobert Desmond Meikle, lately Principal Scientific Officer, Herbarium, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.\nJack Elius Miller, General Medical Practitioner, Glasgow.",
"Jack Elius Miller, General Medical Practitioner, Glasgow.\nJames Ewen Milne, Senior Principal, Scottish Economic Planning Department.\nMoyra, Mrs. Mitchell, Member, Northern Ireland Housing Executive Board. Director, Fold Housing Association.\nMonty Modlyn (Montague Modlyn). For charitable services.\nMajor James Robert More-Molynesux, D.L. For services to the community in Surrey.\nJack Morhan, Assistant Managing Director, Navy, Army and Air Force Institutes.\nRobin Hugh Morland. For Political and Public Service.",
"Robin Hugh Morland. For Political and Public Service.\nJohn Arthur Elwell Morley, M.B.E., Chairman, Plunkett Foundation for Co-operative Studies.\nWyndham Peter Mullen, Director-General, National Kidney Research Fund.\nNan Esther, Mrs. Myer, M.B.E. For Political and Public Service.\nYfrah Neaman, Head of Advanced Solo Studies, Guildhall School of Music and Drama.\nBertram William George Old. For services to the Magistracy in Dorset.",
"Bertram William George Old. For services to the Magistracy in Dorset.\nCatherine Mair, Mrs. Owen, lately Nurse Adviser (Child Health), South West Surrey District Health Authority.\nReginald Ernest Parker, Member, Northern Ireland Nature Reserves Committee. Senior Lecturer in Botany, Queen's University of Belfast. \nWilliam Raymond Parkes, Senior Medical Officer, Department of Health and Social Security.\nNelia, Mrs. Penman. For Political Service.",
"Nelia, Mrs. Penman. For Political Service. \nStanley William Percival, Principal, Charlotte Mason College of Education, Cumbria.\nPeter John Phillips, Director, Western Area, Blue Circle Cement, Blue Circle Industries PLC.\nCharles Richard Poor, Director of Social Work, Lanark Division, Strathclyde Region.\nMichael Robert Porter, Superintending Landscape Architect, Department of Transport. \nWinford Hugh Protheroe Price, Treasurer, Association of District Councils for Wales.",
"Winford Hugh Protheroe Price, Treasurer, Association of District Councils for Wales. \nAnthony David Pugh, Senior Principal, Department of Employment.\nEric Edgar Quinney, Director of Computing Services (Assistant Secretary), Metropolitan Police. \nEdwin Douglas Rainbow, Chief Executive, London and Hull Maritime Insurance Company Ltd.\nPhilip Rees, Chief Civil Engineer, Western Region, British Rail.\nWilliam Ralph Riddington, Farmer and Chairman, East of England Agricultural Society.",
"William Ralph Riddington, Farmer and Chairman, East of England Agricultural Society.\nGavin John Ring. For Political and Public Service.\nStanley Eric Roberts. For Political and Public Service.\nGeorge Robertson, Chairman, Management Committee, State Hospital, Carstairs.\nGeorge Ernest Robertson, Managing Director, Landis and Gyr Company Ltd. For services to Export.\nPeter Neville Robson, Professor of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, University of Sheffield.",
"Peter Neville Robson, Professor of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, University of Sheffield.\nStanley James Rogers, lately Principal Scientific Officer, Ministry of Defence.\nHarold David Rosenthal, Editor \"Opera\" Magazine.\nRonald Alexander Rush, Director, British Food Export Council.'\nRoy Sanderson, Member, Electronic Consumer Goods Sector Working Party.\nPeter James Saunders, Deputy Chief Inspector, Home Office.\nStuart Henry Seaton, Managing Editor, Farmers Guardian.",
"Stuart Henry Seaton, Managing Editor, Farmers Guardian.\nMiss Helen Seed, lately Director of Social Services, West Sussex County Council.\nFernando Riccardo Alberto Semprini, Pianist. \nDennis Irving Signy, Editor, Hendon Times Group of Newspapers.\nJames Alexander Sloggie, lately H.M. Inspector of Schools (Higher Grade), Scottish Education Department.\nDonald Smith, Q.P.M., Deputy Chief Constable, Avon and Somerset Constabulary.\nJames Scott Smith. For Political and Public Service.",
"James Scott Smith. For Political and Public Service.\nJames William Ford-Smith. For services to the disabled in Northern Ireland.\nKingsley Smith. For public services in Truro. \nCynthia Barbara, Mrs. Stewart, lately Senior Principal, Ministry of Defence.\nJames Stobo, President Board of Directors, Animal Diseases Research Association.\nAdrian Victor Stokes, Vice-President, Disabled Drivers' Motor Club. Governor, Motability.",
"Adrian Victor Stokes, Vice-President, Disabled Drivers' Motor Club. Governor, Motability. \nThomas John Tait, Chairman and Managing Director, Thomas Tait and Sons Ltd., Inverurie. \nMiss Ann Pamela Thomas. For Political and Public Service.\nCedric Marshall Thomas, lately Chairman, Wolverhampton Area Manpower Board.\nMiss Dora Elizabeth Thomas, Head of Films, Shell International Petroleum Company Ltd. \nHowell Glyndwr Thomas, Public Affairs Executive, The Rank Organisation.",
"Howell Glyndwr Thomas, Public Affairs Executive, The Rank Organisation.\nTydfil Davies, Mrs. Thomas, Headmistress, Aberdare Girls' Comprehensive School.\nMiss Ethel Dorothy Barbara Thompson, Member, Scientific Staff, Medical Research Council, Medical Sociology Unit, Aberdeen.\nMichael Toll, Music Adviser, London Borough of Newham.\nPeter Henry Tombleson. For services to Angling.\nNigel Godwin Tranter, Writer.\nPamela Kingsbury, Mrs. Tredinnick, Founder, Farrell Charitable Trust, (Cheshire Foundation).",
"Pamela Kingsbury, Mrs. Tredinnick, Founder, Farrell Charitable Trust, (Cheshire Foundation). \nKennard William Tyson, Executive Director, Production, Short Bros. Ltd. For services to Export. \nWilliam Uden, lately Headmaster, St. Thomas the Apostle Roman Catholic Secondary School, Southwark.\nErnest Felix Velden. For services to the frozen food industry.\nFrank Richard Vickers, Financial Controller, Lloyds Register of Shipping.",
"Frank Richard Vickers, Financial Controller, Lloyds Register of Shipping.\nLionel George Stuart-Menteth Wadeson, Assistant Secretary-General, General Synod of the Church of England.\nDavid Brownfield Wain, Chairman, Inland Waterways Amenity Advisory Council.\nEdward George Wakeham, Housing Director, F. Rendell & Sons Ltd.\nSolomon Wand, lately General Medical Practitioner, Birmingham.\nDesmond Geoffrey Ward, Director, Redundant Churches Fund.",
"Desmond Geoffrey Ward, Director, Redundant Churches Fund.\nWilfred Ward, Chairman, Ward Brothers (Sherburn) Ltd. For services to Export.\nJames Warwick. For services to the Arts in Northern Ireland.\nEric Watson, lately Technical Director, Washington Development Corporation.\nWilliam George Wells, Senior Principal, Department of Industry.\nGerald Arthur Whately, Chairman, The Royal United Kingdom Beneficent Association.",
"Gerald Arthur Whately, Chairman, The Royal United Kingdom Beneficent Association.\nNorman Keith Whetstone, V.R.D., Director, The Birmingham Post and Mail Ltd. Editor-in-Chief, Birmingham Evening Mail Series.\nEustace Lovett Williams, County Surveyor, Suffolk County Council.\nDennis Grosvenor Wilson, Deputy Chairman, South Western Region, British Gas Corporation. \nGeoffrey Hawkins Wilson, Chief Inspector of Schools, Directorate of Educational Services, Kirklees Metropolitan Council.",
"James Henry Wilson, Chairman, Staff Side, Optical Whitley Council.\nRobert William Wilson, General Manager, Fane Valley Co-operative Agricultural and Dairy Society Ltd.\nBerthold Ludwig Wolpe, Graphic Designer. \nDonald Woodhouse, Assistant Chief Secretary, Church Army.\nGeorge Henry Woods, M.B.E., Director Field Services, National Association of Boys' Clubs. \nGordon Wragg. For services to the community in Sheffield.\nGeoffrey Tyndale Young. For services to Peptide Chemistry.",
"Diplomatic Service and Overseas List\nJohn Stewart Acton, Regional Director, British Council, São Paulo.\nDr. Vere Anthony Atkinson, British Council Representative, Sri Lanka.\nMichael James Bamber. For services to British commercial interests in Belgium.\nIeuan Cedric Batten, lately Deputy Secretary, Presidents Office Kiribati.\nEric Bolton. For services to electrical engineering training in Zambia.\nDr. Chin Kwan-how, Consultant Physician, Government Medical Service, Hong Kong.",
"Dr. Chin Kwan-how, Consultant Physician, Government Medical Service, Hong Kong.\nClarence Matthias Christian. For public and community services in the British Virgin Islands. \nMichael Brendan Collins, M.B.E., H.M. Consul, British Consulate, Halifax, Nova Scotia.\nFranklin Benjamin Connor, J.P ., Permanent Secretary (Finance), Anguilla.\nNeville Frederick Date, First Secretary (Commercial), H.M. Embassy, Washington.\nJeffery Howard Eastwood. For services to the British community in Warsaw.",
"Jeffery Howard Eastwood. For services to the British community in Warsaw.\nGeorge Howell Fisher, Cultural Attaché (British Council) H.M. Embassy, Budapest.\nPatrick David Furlong. For services to the British community in Bombay.\nJoseph Francis Gahan, First Secretary and Consul, H.M. Embassy, Paris.\nDennis Rupert Gallwey, First Secretary, H.M. Embassy, Islamabad.\nRobert Anthony Eagleson Gordon, lately First Secretary and Head of Chancery, H.M. Embassy, Santiago.",
"Keith Rutherford Gosling, lately First Secretary U.K. Mission to the I.A.E.A., Vienna.\nDr. Robert John Gourlay, Chief Medical Officer, Bermuda.\nEvelyn Mary, Mrs. Harding. For services to nursing training in The Gambia.\nDerrick Newstead Hester. For services to British commercial and community interests in Tanzania. \nBryan Eric Isaacs. For services to British commercial interests in Los Angeles.\nHugh Brian Jackson. For services to agricultural development in Cyprus.",
"Hugh Brian Jackson. For services to agricultural development in Cyprus.\nBrian Dennis Keep, Director of Civil Aviation, Hong Kong.\nClifford Maurice King. For services to British commercial and community interests in Chile. \nDonald Ian Kinloch, T.D. For services to British ex-servicemen in Paris.\nMichael Hanby Lander. For services to British commercial interests in New Zealand.\nAlastair Malcolm Langlands, M.B.E. For services to agricultural development in Nepal.",
"Alastair Malcolm Langlands, M.B.E. For services to agricultural development in Nepal.\nLeo Lee Tung-Hai, M.B.E. For community services in Hong Kong.\nLewis Arthur Radbourne. For services to British commercial and community interests in Tokyo.\nDacre Francis Alexander Raikes. For services to British cultural interests in Thailand.\nBernard Randell. For services to the British community in Mexico City.\nDr. Philip Howell Rees. For services to medical training in Kenya.",
"Dr. Philip Howell Rees. For services to medical training in Kenya.\nMalcolm Hill Reid. For services to British commercial interests in Kenya.\nRobin Allan Noele Reid. For services to British commercial and community interests in Oporto. \nFrank Edmond Short, Principal Government Engineer, Hong Kong.\nJack Charles Ceilings Sloman, M.B.E., Deputy Consul-General, British Consulate-General, Los Angeles.\nJohn Louis Soong. For public services in Hong Kong.",
"John Louis Soong. For public services in Hong Kong.\nPatrick Joseph Sullivan, British Deputy High Commissioner, Lilongwe.\nMichael Charles Thompson. For services to British commercial and community interests in Lagos.\nGordon Anthony Tindale, British Council Representative, Zambia.\nMiss Yvonne Jeanne Eva Veale, First Secretary and Consul, H.M. Embassy, Rome.\nWilliam Alfonso Wilkinson. For services to fisheries development in Tanzania.",
"Australian States\nState of Queensland\nDonald Robert Eather. For service to agriculture,\nHoward Jones. For service to the coal industry. \nWilliam Silvester Norton. For services to the meat and livestock industries.\nSister Eileen Stephanie Purtill. For services to the community.\nMiss Norma Muriel West. For services to nursing.\n\nState of Tasmania\nGeoffrey Lambert Hudson, J.P . For service to the community.",
"Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE)\nMilitary Division\nRoyal Navy\nLieutenant (CS) Leonard Beech, Royal Navy. \nLieutenant Norman Jeffrey Binns, Royal Navy. \nFleet Chief Petty Officer Steward CHAN Yui Kwan, 0.2939.\nWarrant Officer First Class Andrew Charles Crofts, Royal Marines, PO17185L.\nLieutenant Commander (SCC) Alistair Mackenzie Cross, Royal Naval Reserve.\nLieutenant Commander Anthony Gascoigne Dyer, Royal Navy.\nSurgeon Lieutenant Commander Charles Dalby Fisher, R.D., Royal Naval Reserve.",
"Surgeon Lieutenant Commander Charles Dalby Fisher, R.D., Royal Naval Reserve.\nLieutenant Commander David John Baden Forsey, Royal Navy.\nFleet Chief Air Engineering Artificer Edward Goodwill, F668389N.\nCaptain (Acting Major) Andrew John Wentworth Higginson, Royal Marines.\nLieutenant Commander Alan Russell Jackson, Royal Navy.\nLieutenant Commander Andrew Philip Johnson, Royal Navy.\nLieutenant Commander Alfred George Kennedy, Royal Navy.\nFirst Officer Elizabeth Anne Roscoe, Women's Royal Naval Service.",
"First Officer Elizabeth Anne Roscoe, Women's Royal Naval Service.\nLieutenant Commander Melvyn Sutcliffe, Royal Navy.\nLieutenant Commander Jack Stanley Woolnough, Royal Navy.",
"Army\nMajor Alan Behagg (485672), The Royal Anglian Regiment.\n24075436 Warrant Officer Class 2 Peter Burles Biggs, Intelligence Corps.\nMajor John Michael Bowles (490332), Royal Corps of Transport.\nMajor William Guy Colin Bowles (473888), 14th/ 20th King's Hussars.\nCaptain Jonathan Charles Brannam (493688), Corps of Royal Engineers (now RARO).\n22207419 Warrant Officer Class 2 Reginald Robert Brotherwood, B.E.M., Royal Pioneer Corps (now discharged),",
"Major Noel Hazeldine Carding (484287), Royal Army Veterinary Corps.\nMajor Keith Maxwell Cook (479195), The Royal Regiment of Fusiliers.\nMajor James Conyngham Peters Cross (445830), The King's Regiment.\nActing Major George Strang Dinnie (497034), Army Cadet Force, Territorial Army.\nMajor Michael Charles Dorward (492695), Corps of Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers.\n23716713 Warrant Officer Class 2 David Duncan, 51st Highland Volunteers, Territorial Army.",
"23716713 Warrant Officer Class 2 David Duncan, 51st Highland Volunteers, Territorial Army.\nCaptain (Technical Officer Telecommunications) Alan Frederick Dyer (502835), Royal Corps of Signals.\nCaptain (Assistant Paymaster) Howard James Esgate (502308), Royal Army Pay Corps,\n22589264 Warrant Officer Class 2 Thomas Duffy Forbes, Royal Regiment of Artillery, Territorial Army.\nMajor Malcolm Macpherson Fordyce, T.D. (460746), Royal Regiment of Artillery, Territorial Army.",
"Major Malcolm Macpherson Fordyce, T.D. (460746), Royal Regiment of Artillery, Territorial Army.\nMajor (Quartermaster) George Wilfred Gay (498547), Corps of Royal Engineers, Territorial Army.\nMajor Adrian Anthony Gilbert (484618), The Light Infantry.\n23705810 Warrant Officer Class 2 (now Acting Warrant Officer Class 1) Barry Denham Gisborne, Royal Army Medical Corps.\nMajor Anthony Arthur Edward Glenton, T.D. (470789), Royal Regiment of Artillery Territorial Army.",
"Major Anthony Arthur Edward Glenton, T.D. (470789), Royal Regiment of Artillery Territorial Army.\nActing Major George Grant, M.M. (490323), Army Cadet Force, Territorial Army.\nMajor Jeremy Rigg Harrison (485740), Corps of Royal Engineers.\nMajor (Quartermaster) David Martin Holloway (498301), Corps of Royal Engineers.\nMajor Robin Arthur Gerald Lee (490316), Royal Army Ordnance Corps.\nMajor Robert Adrian Leitch (495635), Royal Army Medical Corps.",
"Major Robert Adrian Leitch (495635), Royal Army Medical Corps.\n23514406 Warrant Officer Class 2 Alexander Livingstone, Royal Regiment of Artillery. \nCaptain Brian Lloyd (510724), Corps of Royal Engineers.\nCaptain (Traffic Officer), William Andrew Locke (515538), Royal Corps of Signals.\n23865641 Warrant Officer Class 1 Samuel Lewis Loughlin, Royal Army Pay Corps.\nCaptain (Acting Major) Kevin Mallett (504793), The Parachute Regiment.",
"Captain (Acting Major) Kevin Mallett (504793), The Parachute Regiment.\n23851524 Warrant Officer Class 2 Romanu Naceva, Royal Regiment of Artillery.\nMajor Gerard O'Hara (492909), The Parachute Regiment.\nMajor Gerald Francis Oliver, T.D. (482444), The Parachute Regiment, Territorial Army.\n23857351 Warrant Officer Class 1 Brian Hedley Pask, Corps of Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers (now discharged). \nMajor John Michael Patrick Regiment of Artillery.",
"Major John Michael Patrick Regiment of Artillery.\nCaptain (Quartermaster) Frederick John Perry (502299), The Royal Anglian Regiment.\nCaptain (Gurkha Commissioned Officer) (Quartermaster) Rambahadur Gurung, B.E.M. (486459), 7th Duke of Edinburgh's Own Gurkha Rifles.\nMajor John Robb (494793), Royal Pioneer Corps. \n23489550 Warrant Officer Class 1 Norman Mollart Rogerson, The Black Watch (Royal Highland Regiment).\nMajor (Quartermaster) Herbert Michael Tarbuck (498469), The Cheshire Regiment.",
"Major (Quartermaster) Herbert Michael Tarbuck (498469), The Cheshire Regiment.\n23830409 Warrant Officer Class 1 Ronald Thomas, Royal Regiment of Artillery. \n24059945 Warrant Officer Class 2 Philip Thompson, Small Arms School Corps.\nMajor King-Cheung Ng, Royal Hong Kong Regiment (The Volunteers).",
"Royal Air Force\nSquadron Leader Howard James Boardman (8020966), Royal Air Force.\nSquadron Leader John Leslie Davison (608970), Royal Air Force.\nSquadron Leader Christopher James Hockley (608900), Royal Air Force.\nSquadron Leader Peter David Michael John (686980), Royal Air Force.\nSquadron Leader Ian. Peter George Loughborough (4335290), Royal Air Force Regiment.\nSquadron Leader Ida McKeown (2828819), Women's Royal Air Force.\nSquadron Leader John Allan McLoughlin 5200850), Royal Air Force.",
"Squadron Leader John Allan McLoughlin 5200850), Royal Air Force.\nSquadron Leader Alastair Campbell Montgomery (2619737), Royal Air Force.\nSquadron Leader Reginald Nicholson (207520), Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve (Training).\nSquadron Leader Lionel William Risdale Parkin (585654), Royal Air Force.\nSquadron Leader Victor Albert Pheasant (4220107), Royal Air Force.\nSquadron Leader Thomas Andrew Salter (507823), Royal Air Force.\nSquadron Leader Aidan Scotland (4184894), Royal Air Force.",
"Squadron Leader Aidan Scotland (4184894), Royal Air Force.\nSquadron Leader Alan Scott (181949), Royal Air Force (Retired).\nSquadron Leader Farquharson Urquhart (55872), Royal Air Force (Retired).\nSquadron Leader Anthony David Waddell (4335679), Royal Air Force.\nFlight Lieutenant Robin Barry Aherne (587399), Royal Air Force.\nFlight Lieutenant Ronald Boxell, B.E.M. (4014207), Royal Air Force.\nFlight Lieutenant Alan Jones (8023232), Royal Air Force.",
"Flight Lieutenant Alan Jones (8023232), Royal Air Force.\nFlight Lieutenant Harry Knight (138913), Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve (Training).\nWarrant Officer Alfred John Pagden (K0587490), Royal Air Force.\nWarrant Officer Gordon Robertson (BO582969), Royal Air Force.\nWarrant Officer Trevor Joseph Teale (Q4132459), Royal Air Force.",
"Civil Division\nMiss Elizabeth Adshead, Co-Ordinator, Trafford District, Greater Manchester Branch, British Red Cross Society.\nMiss Sadie Ross Aitken. For services to the Theatre in Scotland.\nJames Alan Andrew, Yard Manager, Falmouth Shiprepair Ltd.\nWinsome Joyce de Preaux, Mrs. Applegate, T.D. For services to the community in Wiltshire. \nRobert Armstrong, Divisional Manager, Worcestershire Division, Midlands Electricity Board. \nCecil Charles Atkinson. For services to Paraplegic Sport.",
"Cecil Charles Atkinson. For services to Paraplegic Sport.\nRichard Frank John Avery, Inspector (Higher Grade), Board of Inland Revenue.\nAlexander Davidson Baird, Chairman, Scottish Pelagic Fishermen's Association Ltd.\nWilliam Francis Ball, Higher Executive Officer, Department of Industry.\nDerek Barker, Superintendent, South Yorkshire Police.\nLionel James Baston, Manager, Small Firms Information Centre, Scottish Development Agency. \nGilbert James Bates, First Aid Training Officer, Ministry of Defence.",
"Gilbert James Bates, First Aid Training Officer, Ministry of Defence.\nRobert Charles Baxter, Assistant Chief Production Engineer, Baker Perkins Ltd.\nPeter Maxwell Bedford, lately Director of Tourism and Leisure, Eastbourne Borough Council. \nMiss Eunice Anne Bent, lately Director of Education,.Royal College of Midwives.\nMario Bernardi, Member, Inverness District Council.\nWilliam James Best, Member, Oswestry Borough Council.\nElsie, Mrs. Bibby. For Political and Public Service.",
"Elsie, Mrs. Bibby. For Political and Public Service.\nFrancis Jessop Bingley, lately Warden and Director of Studies, Flatford Mill Field Centre.\nRobert Blackburn, Group Controller, Carlisle Group, United Kingdom Warning and Monitoring Organisation.\nCommander Joe Reginald Blake, R.N. (Retd). For services to the SS Great Britain Project.\nJames Nigel Boal, Senior Vice-President and Treasurer, The Boys' Brigade, Northern Ireland. \nMiss Margaret Main Bochel. For services to the community in Nairn, Scotland.",
"Miss Margaret Main Bochel. For services to the community in Nairn, Scotland.\nLieutenant Colonel Derek John Bottomley (Retd.), Retired Officer II, Ministry of Defence. \nGeorge Edward Bramley, Managing Director, Radial Remoulds (Corby) Ltd.\nMiss Mildred Edith Elizabeth Brett, lately Senior State Enrolled Nurse, Wallingford Community Hospital, Oxfordshire Health Authority.\nArthur Henry Broadhurst, Chairman, South Staffordshire Committee for the Employment of Disabled People.",
"Miss Marie-Cecile Mauricienne Brochon, District Nurse/Midwife, Ottery St. Mary Hospital, Exeter Health Authority.\nAlbert John Bromfield. For services to the Officers' Association, Royal British Legion. \nEdward Thomas Brown, Parks Manager, Castlereagh Borough Council.\nThomas Musselbrook Bruce, Chief Ambulance Officer, Fife, Lothian and Borders Area.\nAlbert Clifford Bryer. For services to the community in Llandeilo and district.",
"Albert Clifford Bryer. For services to the community in Llandeilo and district.\nMajor Michael Lawrence Joseph Burke (Retd.), Secretary, Canada, Gurkha Welfare Appeal. \nDoris, Mrs. Burton. For services to the community in Middleton, Manchester.\nPeter Wightwick Burton, M.C., Industrial Development Officer, Calderdale Metropolitan Borough Council.\nGeorge Calvert, lately Administrative Officer, West Yorkshire Metropolitan County Council.",
"George Calvert, lately Administrative Officer, West Yorkshire Metropolitan County Council. \nMargaret Jean, Mrs. Carey, lately Headmistress, Woodlands School, Chelmsford.\nGeorge Herbert Carnall. For services to the community in Trafford, Manchester.\nMiss Patricia Eileen Carroll, Senior Personnel Officer (Medical Manpower), North West Thames Regional Health Authority.\nLeonard Benjamin Carter. For services to the Royal British Legion in Cambridgeshire.",
"Leonard Benjamin Carter. For services to the Royal British Legion in Cambridgeshire.\nMiss Norah Cash, lately Secretary, London Philharmonic Choir.\nJames George Chalk, Executive Engineer, Inland Division, London Region, British Telecom.\nSidney Frank Clapham, General Secretary, National Union of Footwear, Leather and Allied Trades.\nMiss Joyce Clarke, lately Senior Administrative Officer, Education Welfare Service, Inner Lon- don Education Authority.",
"Prudence Elaine, Mrs. Clench, lately Chairman, Dorothy House Foundation, Bath.\nJames Edward Coffee, Warden, Woodrow High House Conference Centre, London Federation of Boys' Clubs.\nMiss Audrey Lilian Coleman, General Administrative Officer, General Nursing Council of England and Wales.\nMiss Amelia Winifred Collins. For services to the Girl Guide Association.\nWilliam Patrick Collins, Executive Officer, Department of Health and Social Security.",
"William Patrick Collins, Executive Officer, Department of Health and Social Security.\nJames Henry Conroy, Higher Executive Officer, Department of Employment.\nRonald Frederick Cook, Environmental Manager, United Glass Containers PLC.\nMiss Grace Mildred Cooper, Station Secretary, Norfolk Agricultural Station.\nJoan Mary, Mrs. Cossins, Executive Officer, Lord Chancellor's Department.\nPeter Campbell Crook, Surveyor, Board of Customs and Excise.",
"Peter Campbell Crook, Surveyor, Board of Customs and Excise.\nRussell Hugh Crowle, County Secretary, Devon, National Farmers' Union.\nWilliam Dale, Higher Executive Officer, Department of Employment.\nGeorge Thomas Davies, Executive Officer, Department of Transport.\nLawrence Charles Deane, Chief Welfare Officer, South East Postal Region, The Post Office.\nPeter Deans, Development Executive Engineer (First), Borders District, South of Scotland Electricity Board.",
"George Edwin Dennerly, lately Scientific Officer, Ministry of Defence.\nPeter Devlin, Assistant Officer, Board of Customs and Excise.\nMiss Delphine Mary Dickson, Chairman, East Anglian Area, National Association of Citizens' Advice Bureaux.\nJohn George Dony. For services to natural his- tory and to conservation in Luton and district. \nBrenda, Mrs. Douglas. For Political and Public Service.\nStanley Alfred Douglas, Executive Officer, Paymaster General's Office.",
"Stanley Alfred Douglas, Executive Officer, Paymaster General's Office.\nThomas Draper, Senior Divisional Officer, Lincolnshire Fire Brigade.\nFrederick William Duxberry, Senior Executive Officer, Board of Inland Revenue.\nStanley Senior Dyson, Clerical Officer, Department of Health and Social Security.\nJames Graham Eakin, lately Safety Officer, Northern Ireland Railways Ltd.\nMiss Joan Trueman Eastman, Volunteers' Organiser, Bristol Stroke Support Group, Avon.",
"Miss Joan Trueman Eastman, Volunteers' Organiser, Bristol Stroke Support Group, Avon.\nDiana Cook, Mrs. Edwardes, Head of English Department, Tunbridge Wells Grammar School for Girls.\nEdwin Roy Latham Edwards, Senior Executive, Brick Development Association.\nVerona Mardlin, Mrs. Elder. For services to Athletics.\nCharles Standish Elliott. For services to Cricket.\nChristine, Mrs. Ellis, Area Organiser, London South East Area, Bromley, Women's Royal Voluntary Service.",
"Tom Ralph Ellson, lately Assistant Director of Operations (Services), Southern Water Authority.\nAlfred Entwistle, Superintendent, Royal Ulster Constabulary.\nDavid Hamilton Evans. For services to local government in Dinefwr. \nKenneth Gronw Evans, Chief Superintendent, Metropolitan Police.\nMarian Davies, Mrs. Evans, Teacher, St. Dials Infants School, Cwmbran.\nCecile Ada Anne, Mrs. Everard, County Nursing Officer, St. John Ambulance Brigade, Jersey.",
"Cecile Ada Anne, Mrs. Everard, County Nursing Officer, St. John Ambulance Brigade, Jersey.\nKeith Roland Farlow, Chief Superintendent, Royal Ulster Constabulary.\nJean Margaret, Mrs. Fernandez. For Political and Public Service.\nAnnie, Mrs. Finch. For services to the community in Cleveland.\nJoan, Mrs. Maule-Ffinch, Organiser, Lichfield Citizens' Advice Bureau.\nGeorge Bernard Fisher. For services to Mountain Rescue in Cumbria.",
"George Bernard Fisher. For services to Mountain Rescue in Cumbria.\nHildred Fisher, Treasurer, No. 148 Squadron Civilian Committee, Barnsley, Air Training Corps.\nAlexander Munroe Fleming. For services to the Boys' Brigade in Scotland.\nThe Reverend Brother Peter Matthew Fogarty, Teacher, St. Aidan's Roman Catholic School, Sunderland.\nMiss Elizabeth Wilson Fordyce. For Political Service.\nLauretta, Mrs. Forsythe, Staff Officer, Department of the Environment, Northern Ireland.",
"Lauretta, Mrs. Forsythe, Staff Officer, Department of the Environment, Northern Ireland. \nVincent Foulkes, lately Executive Officer, Department of Health and Social Security.\nNeil Fox. For services to Rugby League Football.\nRichard Hartas Foxton, General Medical Practitioner and Police Surgeon, Scunthorpe.\nMiss Dora Irene Frost, District Personnel Nurse, Bath Health Authority.\nAlexander David Liddell Gardiner, Observer Lieutenant Commander, Deputy Group Commandant, Inverness Group, Royal Observer Corps.",
"Ronald Gibbs, Assistant Secretary, Wessex Water Authority.\nMiss Audrey Gill. For Political Service.\nKenneth Gill, District Commissioner, Isle of Wight Branch, Pony Club.\nWilliam Gladwin, Commercial Executive, Hatfield Division, Dynamics Group, British Aerospace PLC. For services to Export.\nMiss Evelyn Laura Glendenning, Executive Officer, Department of Transport.\nThe Honourable Pamela Muriel Dorine, Mrs. Goodale. For Political and Public Service.",
"The Honourable Pamela Muriel Dorine, Mrs. Goodale. For Political and Public Service.\nRonald James Goodchild, Senior Assistant Engineer, Reading Borough Transport.\nEddie Gray. For services to Association Football.\nGeorge Brenthal Greaves, Principal Community Relations Officer, Lambeth.\nDonald Henry Gresswell, Vice-President, Conservation Group, The Chiltern Society.\nJames Grieve, Member, Annandale and Eskdale District Council.",
"James Grieve, Member, Annandale and Eskdale District Council.\nEdward Roy Griffiths, Managing Director, Lapointe Broach Company. For services to Ex- port.\nRonald Malcolm Griffiths, General Medical Practitioner, London E.6.\nMiss Betty Mary Haines, Head, Biology and Protein Sciences, British Leather Manufacturers Research Association.\nGordon Hall, Chief Safety Officer, Rolls-Royce Ltd. For services to health and safety.\nMiss Pauline Hall, Financial Accounts Controller, Precision Rubbers Division, Dunlop Ltd.",
"Miss Pauline Hall, Financial Accounts Controller, Precision Rubbers Division, Dunlop Ltd.\nSheher Bano, Mrs. Hamid, Head Teacher, Glasgow Language Centre.\nAlbert Charles Hampshire, Senior Liaison Probation Officer, Snaresbrook Crown Court.\nMiss Patricia Margaret Hanning, lately Senior Personal Secretary, Royal Greenwich Observatory. \nHarry Harding. For services to the community in Lancashire.\nBeatrice Eugene, Mrs. Harthan, Secretary and Almoner, Sheriffs' and Recorders' Fund, Central Criminal Court.",
"Mollie, Mrs. Hayes, School Administrative Officer, Feltham School, London Borough of Hounslow. \nEdward Henry, Chief Superintendent, Royal Ulster Constabulary.\nMiss Mary Elizabeth Wharton Hewison, lately Administrator, Chest Clinic, London Chest Hospital.\nHelen Doris Bessie, Mrs. Platt-Higgins, Deputy Area Organiser, Home Counties, Women's Royal Voluntary Service.\nJoseph William Hoccom, Regional General Manager, Trustee Savings Bank, Birmingham' and the Midlands.",
"Henry Graham Hodge, Export Director, Simpson Ready Foods Ltd.\nAlbert Hodges, Nursing Officer, St. Lawrence's Hospital, Caterham.\nCharles Frederick Hodges, Teacher of Typing, Worcester College for the Blind.\nJoan Mary, Mrs. Crossley-Holland, Managing Director, Oxford Gallery.\nJohn Wentworth Holmes. For Political Service. \nBrian Hulme, Inspector, Lancashire Constabulary. \nPauline Ruth, Mrs. Humphrey, Senior Information Officer, Central Office of Information.",
"Pauline Ruth, Mrs. Humphrey, Senior Information Officer, Central Office of Information.\nMiss Mary Elizabeth Irwin. For public services in Northern Ireland.\nMiss Angela Mary Jackson, lately Foreign and Commonwealth Office.\nSidney Joseph James, Chairman, Wolverhampton and Walsall Committee for the Employment of Disabled People.\nWilliam Thomas Myrddin John. For services to Weightlifting.\nMiss Freda Downing Johns, Personal Assistant, Isle of Wight County Council.",
"Miss Freda Downing Johns, Personal Assistant, Isle of Wight County Council.\nMiss Irene Mary West Johnson. For Political and Public Service.\nMuriel, Mrs. Johnston, Farmer and Livestock Breeder, Crocketford, Dumfries.\nDouglas Johnstone, General Secretary, North East Children's Society.\nCharles Jones, lately Senior Probation Officer, Greater Manchester Probation Office.\nHazel Mary, Mrs. Jones. For Political and Public Service.\nPeter Vaughan Jones, Lecturer in Classics, University of Newcastle.",
"Peter Vaughan Jones, Lecturer in Classics, University of Newcastle.\nWalter Jowett, Maintenance Superintendent, Coryton Refinery, Mobil Oil Company Ltd.\nPhyllis Rose, Mrs. Kavanagh, Organiser, Voluntary Communications Service, Brighton.\nRobert Theodore Kemp, Member, Kennet District Council.\nEdith, Mrs. Kennedy, Shorthand Typist, Department of Health and Social Security.\nGeorge Frederick Key, Export Manager, Industrial Products, Berger Paints Division, Berger Jenson and Nicholson Ltd. For services to Export.",
"Gordon Brian Killerby, Headmaster, Buttershaw Middle School, Bradford.\nMiss Jane Elisabeth Wentzel Killick, Head, Export Promotion Department, Confederation of British Industry.\nDiana Barbara Vivienne, Mrs. King. For Political and Public Service.\nJohn Cecil King, Higher Executive Officer, Department of Health and Social Security.\nBarbara Ann, Mrs. Kirkham, Matron, Brudenell County Secondary School, Amersham.\nMaurice Rickards Knight. For services to Journalism in Faversham.",
"Maurice Rickards Knight. For services to Journalism in Faversham.\nDavid Kennedy Lamb, M.C., lately Non-Tech A, Springfields Nuclear Power Development Laboratories.\nJohn Langhorn, lately Senior Welfare Officer. Ministry of Defence.\nKenneth Leach, Deputy Clerk to the Justices, Newbury Magistrates' Court.\nJames Greenwood Leadley, Chairman, National Federation of Fishermen's Organisations.\nAnthony Lee, Higher Executive Officer, Department of Health and Social Security.",
"Anthony Lee, Higher Executive Officer, Department of Health and Social Security.\nDonald Oswald Lionel Leveridge, Works Officer, Commonwealth War Graves Commission.\nWalter Henry Lewis, B.E.M., Marketing Director, South Wales Area, National Coal Board.\nWilliam Walker Leyland, Regional Secretary, London Metropolitan Region of Young Men's Christian Associations.\nAlfred Emrys Lloyd, Buildings Officer, Thames Valley Police.\nWilliam John Hannah Love, Higher Executive Officer, Department of Employment.",
"William John Hannah Love, Higher Executive Officer, Department of Employment.\nDonald Lovell, Wine Consultant, IDV (Home Trade) PLC.\nMiss Edna Ruth Lovell. For services to Music in Edinburgh.\nMiss Jean Margaret McClay, Nursing Officer, Health Visiting, Magherafelt and Cookstown District, Northern Health and Social Services Board.\nGeorgina Macleod Kennedy, Mrs. Macdonald. For services to the community in Stornoway.\nDoreen, Mrs. McFarlane, Matron, Clippens School, Linwood, Renfrewshire.",
"Doreen, Mrs. McFarlane, Matron, Clippens School, Linwood, Renfrewshire.\nMiss Joan Bernadette McGlennon, Principal Administrative Assistant (Planning), Wandsworth Health Authority.\nGeorge Patrick McGuigan, Member, Northern Health and Social Services Board.\nMiss Helen Todd McIntosh, Area Nursing Officer (Child Health), Greater Glasgow Health Board. \nDonald Colin Mackay, Head Teacher, Craigmuir Primary School, Edinburgh.",
"Donald Colin Mackay, Head Teacher, Craigmuir Primary School, Edinburgh.\nDouglas Alistair Mackay, lately Professional and Technology Officer Grade II, Scottish Home and Health Department.\nDonald Edward McKewan, Senior Executive Officer, Board of Inland Revenue.\nIan Alistair Macpherson, Controller of Works, East Kilbride Development Corporation.\nMarie Isobel, Mrs. Mair, lately Senior Clinical Medical Officer, Argyll and Clyde Health Board.",
"Marie Isobel, Mrs. Mair, lately Senior Clinical Medical Officer, Argyll and Clyde Health Board.\nAlastair George Gunn Manson, Chairman and Member, BSI Committees. Standards Liaison Executive, Plessey Assessment Service, The Plessey Company PLC.\nValerie Palmer, Mrs. Marett, Principal Lecturer in Multiracial Studies, School of Education, Leicester Polytechnic.\nMiss Euphemia Mathers, lately Matron/Housekeeper, Guide Dog Training Centre, Forfar, Angus. \nMiss Daisie Lily Kathleen Matthews. For Political Service.",
"Miss Daisie Lily Kathleen Matthews. For Political Service.\nJohn Matthews, Head, Boot and Shoe Making Department, Derwen Training College.\nMiss Betty Meakin, Personal Secretary to Chief Constable, Derbyshire Constabulary.\nJohn Richard Grainger Meikle, Leader, Taunton Deane Borough Council.\nKenneth Melling, Director, HAT Group Ltd, Barley Wood.\nMiss Anne Marie Meyer, Secretary and Registrar, The Warburg Institute.\nJohn Henry Millard, General Manager, Victoria Coach Station PLC.",
"John Henry Millard, General Manager, Victoria Coach Station PLC.\nLeonard Mills, Secretary, British Amateur Boxing Association.\nRena, Mrs. Mohon. For services to the community in Co Durham.\nTerence Frank Money, Technical Manager, Optical Division, Avimo Ltd. For Services to Export. \nDavid Robert Moorcroft. For services to Athletics.\nJack Moore, Commercial Director, Ruston Diesels Ltd.\nBarbara Jean, Mrs, Morgan, Sister, Mid Wales Hospital, Talgarth.\nJoan, Mrs. Stokes-Morris, Member Melton Borough Council.",
"Joan, Mrs. Stokes-Morris, Member Melton Borough Council.\nKatherine, Mrs. Morris, Personal Secretary, Home Office. \nMichael Leon Mullender, Senior Scientific Officer, Ministry of Defence.\nVera Elizabeth, Mrs. Mulligan, Director, Josephine MacAllister-Brew Development Training. \nDuncan Munro, Farmer, Crossbills, Alness, Ross-shire.\nMiss Pearl Brown Murray, Executive Officer, Board of Inland Revenue.",
"Miss Pearl Brown Murray, Executive Officer, Board of Inland Revenue.\nGeorge Robert Mustoe, Senior Principal Assistant, Comptroller and City Solicitor's Department, Corporation of London.\nAnn, Mrs. Nash. For Political Service.\nWilliam Simpson Newton, Member, Darlington Borough Council.\nMajor Robert Andrew Nichol (Retd.), Secretary, Cornwall Industrial Development Association.\nMiss Cecilia O'Boyle, District Manager, Londonderry No. 1 District, Northern Ireland Housing Executive.",
"Miss Alice Helena Walker Orr, Superintendent Physiotherapist, Ards Hospital, Newtownards.\nEdward Gwynfor Owen, Higher Executive Officer, Forestry Commission.\nJohn Owen, Chairman and Managing Director, Newelco (Uskside).\nMiss Kathleen Ann Parken. For services to the community in Wiltshire.\nDennis Ernest Parker. For Political Service. \nConstance May, Mrs. Parry, Senior Nursing Officer, York Health Authority.\nJames Paterson, Chairman, Policy and Resources Committee, Cumnock and Doon Valley District Council.",
"James Paterson, Chairman, Policy and Resources Committee, Cumnock and Doon Valley District Council.\nEdward Payne, Personnel and Training Manager, Linotype and Machinery Ltd., Altrincham. \nGeoffrey Pearson, General Dental Practitioner, Warsop.\nBetty May, Mrs. Penny. For services to charities. \nMary Doreen, Mrs. Penycate, Member, South Eastern Gas Consumers' Council.\nMiss Muriel Joyce Phillips, Production Director, Wallers Ltd. Health and Social Services Board.",
"Miss Muriel Joyce Phillips, Production Director, Wallers Ltd. Health and Social Services Board.\nWilliam Powers. For services to the community in Luton\nThomas John Edward Price. For services to the Road Transport Industry.\nIdris John William Pugh, lately Chief Administrative Officer, Buckinghamshire Fire Brigade. \nCyril Broome Purvis, Field Manager, North Construction Industry Training Board.\nJohn William Ralph, Deputy Principal, Department of Agriculture, Northern Ireland.",
"John William Ralph, Deputy Principal, Department of Agriculture, Northern Ireland.\nMiss Thelma Barbara Ratcliff, Senior Executive Officer, Ministry of Defence.\nPhilip Menzel Ray, Director, Sheffield Council for Voluntary Service.\nHerbert Walter Alfred Riggs, Voluntary Worker, National Cycling Proficiency Scheme in Poole. \nArchibald McDonald Ringland, Higher Executive Officer, Department of Energy.\nSheila Elizabeth, Mrs. Rinning, Training Organiser, Motorcycle Training Scheme, Edinburgh.",
"Sheila Elizabeth, Mrs. Rinning, Training Organiser, Motorcycle Training Scheme, Edinburgh. \nRichard Alfred Roberts, Chief Inspector, Rotating Machines Division, Quality Assurance, Mather and Platt PLC.\nGeorge Edward Robinson, Head, Department of Mathematics and Computer Studies, Belfast College of Technology.\nWinifred, Mrs. Robinson, Regional Secretary, North West, Abbeyfield Society.\nHorace Eric Root, lately Clerk to the Lord Chief Justice.",
"Horace Eric Root, lately Clerk to the Lord Chief Justice.\nLeslie Rowland, lately Director of Housing Services, Telford Development Corporation.\nVictor Murray Royal, Chief Superintendent/ Senior Police Liaison Officer, Directorate of Telecommunications.\nHarold Anthony Rudgard, Chairman, Central London Energy Manager Group.\nMiss Nina Maud Ruffell, Registrar, Association of Certified Accountants.\nJohn Ainslie Rush, Superintendent, Lothian and Borders Police.",
"John Ainslie Rush, Superintendent, Lothian and Borders Police.\nJames Graham Russell. For Political and Public service.\nBrenda Jeanette, Mrs. Salt, Secretary, Bath Division, Soldiers', Sailors' and Airmen's Families Association.\nWilliam Arthur Joseph Saunders, Development Manager, Harvey Hubbell Ltd.\nMiss Irene Ethel Francis Scawn. For Political and Public Service.\nMae, Mrs. Seddon. For services to Parish Councils in Lancashire and Merseyside.\nNadine, Mrs. Senior, Senior Mistress, Harehills Middle School.",
"Nadine, Mrs. Senior, Senior Mistress, Harehills Middle School.\nPeter Henry Shaw, Senior Executive Officer, Board of Customs and Excise.\nEdward John Sheldon. For Political and Public Service.\nMiss Rosaleen Bernadette Sherry, Inspector(s), Board of Inland Revenue.\nMargaret Agnes, Mrs. Shields. For services to the Talbot Association in Glasgow.\nDorothy Lilian, Mrs. Shipcott, Superintendent of Specialist Teleprinter Operators, Department of the Environment",
"Anthony Allen Short, lately General Manager, Welcome Hotel, Stratford-Upon-Avon, British Transport Hotels.\nRobert Short, Pipe Major, Hawick Pipe Band. For services to Export.\nAndrew Deveney Sim, Chairman and Managing Director, John J. Lees PLC, Coatbridge.\nArthur John Simpson, Deputy Managing Director, Travellers Fare, British Rail.\nWilliam Adamson Simpson, Sessional Medical Officer, Royal Ordnance Factory, Chorley.\nHarry Ernest Skelson, Secretary, Leicestershire Yeomanry Comrades Association.",
"Harry Ernest Skelson, Secretary, Leicestershire Yeomanry Comrades Association.\nDorothy Christian, Mrs. Slater. For Political and Public Service.\nWendy Mary Francis, Mrs. Leslie-Smith, Vice- Chairman, Glamorgan Association of Local Councils.\nGeorge Smyth, Training Manager, Construction Industry Training Board.\nMajor John Montagu Smyth. For services to the community in Hereford and Worcester.\nPeter David Spawforth, Chief Planning Officer, Wakefield City Council-",
"Peter David Spawforth, Chief Planning Officer, Wakefield City Council-\nEdna May, Mrs. Speed, Head Teacher, Hilary Howorth Nursery School, Chester.\nSylvia Mary, Mrs. Spencer. For Political Service.\nMiss Muriel Stammers, Senior Executive Officer, Department of the Environment.\nWalter Richard Start, Forestry Manager, Forestry Commission.\nMiss Freda Muriel Stephenson, Executive Officer, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food.\nMargaret Enid Crichton, Mrs. Stewart. For services to Archaeology in Scotland-",
"Margaret Enid Crichton, Mrs. Stewart. For services to Archaeology in Scotland-\nRobert Angus Stewart, Member, Borders Health Board.\nWilliam John Stripp, lately Superintendent Radiographer, Royal National Orthopaedic Hospital, London.\nRobert James Sullivan, Group Safety Co-ordinator, Taylor Woodrow Construction.\nCaptain Victor Alison Sutton, General Manager and Harbour Master, Harwich Harbour Conservancy Board.\nMaurice Anthony Tayler, Executive Officer, Ministry of Defence.",
"Maurice Anthony Tayler, Executive Officer, Ministry of Defence.\nStanley Taylor, Process and General Supervisory Grade \" A \", Ministry of Defence.\nReginald Jack Terry, Development Manager, FPT Industries Ltd. For services to Export.\nRichard Page Thompson, Chairman, Liverpool and Wirral War Pensions Committee.\nDelwin Harold Till, Principal Lecturer, Faculty of Engineering and Science, City of Birmingham Polytechnic-\nJane, Mrs. Timmins, Chairman, Rights of Way Committee, Midland Area, Ramblers' Association.",
"Jane, Mrs. Timmins, Chairman, Rights of Way Committee, Midland Area, Ramblers' Association.\nHenry Edward Tompkins, Departmental Superintendent, Department of Biochemistry, University College, London.\nNancy, Mrs. Tovey. For Political Service. \nFlorence, Mrs. Treen. For services to the community, particularly in Gwynedd.\nPeter Clemens Turner, Education Officer, H.M. Prison, Exeter.\nKenneth James Twaits, Inspector (Engineering), Board of Inland Revenue.",
"Kenneth James Twaits, Inspector (Engineering), Board of Inland Revenue.\nCyril Arthur Unwin, Regional Secretary (Midlands and East Coast Region), General, Municipal, Boilermakers and Allied Trade Union.\nGeorge Wagstaff, Director, Wagstaff and Appleton Ltd.\nPercy Walker, lately Higher Executive Officer, Department of Employment.\nIvor George Walters, Deputy-Chairman, I. G. Lintels Ltd.\nRoyston Clarence Warne, Photoprinter Services Manager (C3), Department of Trade.",
"Royston Clarence Warne, Photoprinter Services Manager (C3), Department of Trade.\nRowena, Mrs. Washbourne, lately Divisional Nursing Officer, Mid Glamorgan Health Authority.\nJohn Marshall Watson. For services to Motor Racing.\nDavid Watts, Chief Designer, Jaeger Holdings Ltd. For services to Export.\nJean Sophia Sutherland, Mrs. Weir, Regional Organiser, Highland Region North, Women's Royal Voluntary Service.\nPeter Michael Wells, lately Higher Executive Officer, Department of Health and Social Security.",
"Peter Michael Wells, lately Higher Executive Officer, Department of Health and Social Security. \nMiss Joan Florence West, Secretary to Deputy Chairman, British Aerospace PLC.\nJohn Hyde West, T.D., Chairman, Grimsby National Insurance Local Appeal Tribunal.\nPhyllis Dorothy, Mrs. White, Director of Nursing Services (Psychiatry), Wirral Health Authority.\nGordon Barford Whiting. For Political Service. \nReginald David Wilderspin. For services to the community in East Surrey.",
"Reginald David Wilderspin. For services to the community in East Surrey.\nHerbert Cecil Wilkinson, Assistant Director, The British Carbonisation Research Association. \nCharles Williams (William Charles Williams), Actor.\nFrank Josiah Williams, District Works Officer, Coventry Health Authority.\nJohn Williams, Assistant Chief Designer, Lucas Aerospace Ltd.\nLeslie George Williams, Senior Executive Officer, Department of Employment.",
"Leslie George Williams, Senior Executive Officer, Department of Employment.\nThomas Edwin Williams, Director, The Gauge and Tool Makers' Association. For services to Export.\nMiss Elizabeth Margaret Wills, lately Chief Home Service Adviser, Wales Region, British Gas Corporation.\nLeonard James Wilmott, Inspector, Board of Inland Revenue.\nNicholas George Winton. For services to the community in Maidenhead, Berkshire.\nJoseph Francis Witherspoon, Deputy Principal Careers Officer, Leicestershire.",
"Joseph Francis Witherspoon, Deputy Principal Careers Officer, Leicestershire.\nJohn Wrench. For services to agriculture.\nSydney Edward Yates. For services to the community in Shropshire.\nWilliam Yates, D.F.M., lately Higher Executive Officer, Department of Health and Social Security.\nFrank Milne Young, Chief Superintendent, Tayside Police.\nMiss Christine Helen Zochonis, Secretary to the Dean of Westminster.\nDiplomatic Service and Overseas List",
"Alexander Allen, Head of Registry, U.K. Mission to the U.N., Geneva.\n Edward John Blackmore. For welfare services to children in Zambia.\n Olive Hilda, Mrs. Bloomer. For welfare services to servicemen's families in Malta.\n Peter Henry Bolton, Superintendent, Royal Hong Kong Police Force.\n Miss Evelyn Louise Campbell, lately Personal Secretary, H.M. Embassy, Khartoum.\n William John Carroll. For services to the British community in Oslo.\n David Cassidy. For services to water supply development in Uganda.",
"David Cassidy. For services to water supply development in Uganda.\n Daphne Carol, Mrs. Chotteau. For services to the British community in Brussels.\n Dr. Angela Rosamund Cooke. For medical and welfare services to the community in Ibadan, Nigeria.\n Richard Arthur Cowley. For services to the British community in Montevideo.\n Wilfred George Creber, Head of Registry, British High Commission, Lagos.\n Richard Joseph Caistor Dobson. For services to British maritime interests in Poland.",
"Richard Joseph Caistor Dobson. For services to British maritime interests in Poland.\n George Edward Eyles, lately Chief Technical Officer, Hong Kong.\n John Benson Ferguson. For public services in Bermuda.\n Captain Jack Harry Foster, Vice-Consul, British Vice-Consulate, Venice.\n Ivor George Heygate Goddard. For services to agricultural development in Jordan.\n The Reverend Edward Celestine Gordon, Prison Chaplain, Gibraltar.\n George Bernard Gordon, Training Officer, Ministry of Development, Tanzania.",
"George Bernard Gordon, Training Officer, Ministry of Development, Tanzania.\n John Keith Haden. For services to British commercial interests in Angola.\n George Hill. For services to agricultural development in the Yemen Arab Republic.\n Jenny Chai-nee, Mrs. Ho Lam, Chief Court Reporter, Judiciary Department, Hong Kong.\n Miss Jean Wilson Cunningham Jack. For services to nursing training in The Yemen Democratic Republic.\n Antony Cory James, lately International Staff, NATO, Brussels.",
"Antony Cory James, lately International Staff, NATO, Brussels.\n Lam Chik-suen. For community services in Hong Kong.\n Lau Chi-yuen. For public services in Hong Kong.\n Christopher Lee, Superintendent of Works, Public Works Department, Montserrat. Mohammad Sadiq Lodhi, Information Officer, H.M. Embassy, Islamabad.\n Kathleen Moyra, Mrs. MacDonald, English Language Officer, British Council, Austria.\n Miss Susan Laing MacKay, lately Vice-Consul, British Vice-Consulate, Ibiza.",
"Miss Susan Laing MacKay, lately Vice-Consul, British Vice-Consulate, Ibiza.\n Pauline, Mrs. Mackay, Personal Secretary, British Interests Section, Swiss Embassy, Buenos Aires.\n Timothy Emmanuel McField. For services to education in the Cayman Islands.\n Miss Winifred Mary McLaren, Second Secretary (Consular), British High Commission, New Delhi.\n Olga Aline, Mrs. McCluskey. For services to the British community in New York.\n Henry Collin Miller. For services to the community in Madras.",
"Henry Collin Miller. For services to the community in Madras.\n Margarett Patricia, Mrs. Mirza. For services to education hi Karachi.\n Elizabeth Morrison, Mrs. Mitchell. For services to the British community in Oregon.\n Captain John Mungo Park. For services to exservicemen in Dublin.\n Alfred Francis Raymond Patron, Vice-Consul, British Consulate-General, Barcelona.\n Miss Janet Brodie Peacock. For services to nursing training in Nigeria.",
"Miss Janet Brodie Peacock. For services to nursing training in Nigeria.\n William Victor Plumbridge, Commercial Officer, H.M. Embassy, Stockholm.\n Peter Poon Wing-cheung. For public services in Hong Kong.\n Ayoub Mohamed Qasim, Pro-Consul, H.M. Embassy, Jedda.\n William Phillip Ryan, Agricultural Officer, Montserrat.\n Arthur Roy Saunders, lately Head of Invoicing Section, Regional Accounting Centre, H.M. Embassy, Washington.\n Winifred Lucille, Mrs. Schouten. For community services in St. Kitts-Nevis.",
"Winifred Lucille, Mrs. Schouten. For community services in St. Kitts-Nevis.\n Miss Monica Rowland Smith, Director, British Council, Kumasi, Ghana.\n Paul David Spivey. For welfare services to the community in Kathmandu.\n Miss Pamela Elizabeth Stretch. For nursing and welfare services to children in Bombay.\n Miss Lilian Dorothy Turnbull. For services to education in the British Virgin Islands.\n Diana Theresa Muriel, Mrs. Webster. For services to English language teaching in Finland.",
"Diana Theresa Muriel, Mrs. Webster. For services to English language teaching in Finland.\n Mary Lydia, Mrs. Wijkstrom. For services to the British community in Stockholm.\n Cecilia Gertrude, Mrs. Wimbourne. For services to education in Antigua and Barbuda.\n Wong Kan-ho. For public services in Hong Kong.",
"Order of the Companions of Honour (CH)\nThe Right Honourable Peter Alexander Rupert, Baron Carrington, K.C.M.G., M.C., Secretary of State for Defence, 1970–74. Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs 1979–82.\nLucian Freud, Painter.\n\nNew Zealand\n\nCook Islands\n\nOrder of the British Empire\n\nMember of the Order of the British Empire (MBE)\nCivil Division\n Dr Taupuruariki Cowan. For services to medicine and the people of the Cook Islands.",
"British Empire Medal (BEM)\nCivil Division\n William Robert Hosking . For services to agriculture in the Cook Islands.\n\nReferences\n\nBirthday Honours\n1983 awards in the United Kingdom\nJune 1983 events in the United Kingdom\nElizabeth II"
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V. A. Urechia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V.%20A.%20Urechia
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[
"V. A. Urechia (most common version of Vasile Alexandrescu Urechia, ; born Vasile Alexandrescu and also known as Urechiă, Urechea, Ureche, Popovici-Ureche or Vasile Urechea-Alexandrescu; 15 February 1834 – 21 November 1901) was a Moldavian, later Romanian historian, Romantic author of historical fiction and plays, academic and politician",
". The author of Romanian history syntheses, a noted bibliographer, heraldist, ethnographer and folklorist, he founded and managed a private school, later holding teaching positions at the University of Iași and University of Bucharest. Urechia was also one of the founding members of the Romanian Academy and, as frequent traveler to Spain and fluent speaker of Spanish, a corresponding member of the Royal Spanish Academy. He was the father of satirist Alceu Urechia.",
"As an ideologue, Urechia developed \"Romanianism\", which offered a template for cultural and political cooperation among Romanians from several historical regions, and formed part of a Pan-Latinist campaign. An activist in favor of the Moldavia's union to Wallachia and a representative of the liberal wing, he was briefly Moldavian Minister of Religious Affairs, and later a prominent member of the National Liberal Party",
". For more than three decades, Urechia represented Covurlui County in the Romanian Kingdom's Chamber of Deputies and Senate. He was Education Minister under two successive National Liberal administrations, and, during the 1890s, he founded the Cultural League for the Unity of All Romanians, which focused on encouraging the aspirations of Romanians living in Austria-Hungary.",
"Urechia was involved in a decade-long controversy with Junimea, a conservative literary society which advocated professionalization. Among those involved on the Junimist side were literary critic Titu Maiorescu and poet Mihai Eminescu. Like other contributors to the liberal magazine Revista Contimporană, Urechia was a notorious target of Maiorescu's campaign against \"inebriation with words\", and ultimately sided with the anti-Junimist author Alexandru Macedonski, becoming a contributor to magazine",
". The polemics touched on his private life, after claims surfaced that he was secretly leading a polygynous lifestyle.",
"Name\nV. A. Urechia was known to his contemporaries by several name variants: his rival Eminescu once described him as having \"seven names\". Urechia, which the writer added in adult life, is a variant of urechea (Romanian for \"the ear\"), often transcribed as ureche (\"ear\"). An occasional rendition of the name, reflecting antiquated versions of the Romanian alphabet, is Urechiă.",
"The writer was initially known as Vasile Alexandrescu, the latter being his patronymic, of which his family name, Popovici, was an alternative. Spanish sources occasionally rendered Urechia's first name as Basilio, and his full name was at times Francized as Basil Alexandresco.\n\nBiography",
"Early life",
"Born in Piatra Neamț, Urechia was the son of Alexandru Popovici, a member of the boyar class in Moldavia and a titular culcer; his mother, Eufrosina (or Euphrosina) née Manoliu. Both had been widowed or divorced from previous marriages, and Vasile had stepsiblings from each parent. After the culcers death, he and three other of Eufrosina's youngest children, all of them below legal age, moved in with their mother, who remarried serdar Fotino",
". In spring 1848, he was in Iași, where he witnessed the failed rebellion provoked by the Romantic nationalist and liberal current with which he would later affiliate. He debuted in journalism upon the end of the 1840s, when he wrote pieces condemning Transylvanian-born educators for promoting a version of Romanian which overemphasized the language's connection with Latin.",
"During most of the 1850s, the young Vasile Alexandrescu was in France, spending most of his time in Paris, where he received his Baccalauréat (1856), and trained for a Licence ès Lettres degree. Urechia frequented exiles from both Danubian Principalities (Moldavia and Wallachia), growing close to the Wallachian politico C. A. Rosetti",
". A. Rosetti. Having written his debut literary works, some grouped in 1854 under the title Mozaic de novele, cugetări, piese și poezii (\"A Mosaic of Novellas, Musings, Plays and Poetry\"), he also completed a debut novel, Coliba Măriucăi (\"Măriuca's Cabin\", in 1855). The plot was loosely based on Uncle Tom's Cabin, by the American abolitionist writer Harriet Beecher Stowe, and was adapted to the realities of Romani slavery in Moldavia",
". He was at the time collaborating on Steaua Dunării, a unionist magazine co-edited by the Moldavian intellectuals Mihail Kogălniceanu and Vasile Alecsandri, where he published a Romanian-language translation of Canción a las ruinas de Itálica (\"Song to the Ruins of Italica\"), a Spanish Renaissance poem written by Rodrigo Caro, but attributed by scholars of the day to Fernando de Rioja.",
"A believer in Pan-Latinism, he popularized the cause of Romanians through articles published in the Romance-speaking press of France and Spain, and founded Opiniunea, a magazine for Moldo-Wallachian exiles in Paris. During 1856, as the Crimean War brought an end to Imperial Russian administration in the two countries and its Regulamentul Organic regime, the exiles saw an opportunity for action in favor of the union",
". During the Peace Treaty Conference of that year, Urechia was secretary of a Romanian Bureau which popularized the unionist cause among the participants, and proposed a Romanian state under a foreign ruler, whom Urechia wanted to be of \"Latin\" origin.",
"Late 1850s and first ministerial appointment",
"In August 1857, he married the upper-class Spanish woman Francisca Dominica de Plano, whose father had been the personal physician of Queen regent Isabella II. The wedding at the Romanian Orthodox Chapel in Paris. He was in Spain from 1857 to 1858 and again in 1862, researching local archives and Spanish education",
". Francisca introduced her husband to several figures in Spain's cultural and political life: poets Ramón de Campoamor y Campoosorio and Gaspar Núñez de Arce, the future leaders of the First Republic Emilio Castelar y Ripoll and Francisco Pi y Margall, as well as dramatist Manuel Tamayo y Baus. During the following decade, Urechia also traveled to Greece, Switzerland, Italy and the German Empire.",
"Upon his 1858 return to Moldavia, Urechia was appointed court inspector in Iași County and Romanian language teacher at a gymnasium level. After 1860, he held a Romanian-language and Classical Literature chair at the newly founded University of Iași. His wife Francisca died a young woman, most likely before 1860, and Urechia remarried, to the German amateur musician Luiza \"Zettina\" Wirth. In 1859–1860, as the political union was being effected under the rule of Alexander John Cuza as Domnitor, V. A",
". A. Urechia briefly served as Moldavia's Minister of Religious Affairs in the Kogălniceanu administration. During his term in office, he awarded scholarships to local undergraduates, sending them to complete their education in the universities of France, Spain, Portugal and the Kingdom of Sardinia",
". Also then, he published the literary criticism volumes Schițări de literatură română (\"Sketches of Romanian Literature\", 1859) and O vorbă despre literatura desfrînată ce se încearcă a se introduce în societatea română (\"A Word on the Profligate Literature that Threatens to Introduce Itself into Romanian Society\", 1863).",
"He was still involved in building connections with France while pursuing his interest in ethnography, and joined the Paris-based Société d'Ethnographie, collaborating closely with its chairman . He also became an active member of the Institut d'Ethnographie and the Heraldry Society of France. Beginning in 1861, he was publishing the Iași-based magazine Atheneul Român. A pro-liberal venue, it was noted for reacting against Urechia's former associate Alecsandri over the latter's conservative views",
". The Atheneul Român society was the nucleus of a country-wide cultural movement, which Urechia claimed was instrumental in establishing both the Romanian Academy (founded 1866) and the Romanian Athenaeum (founded 1888). Urechia's initiative was inspired by his admiration for the Spanish institution Ateneo de Madrid.",
"Relocation to Bucharest",
"In November 1864, Urechia moved to unified Romania's capital, Bucharest, having been granted a seat at the local university's Faculty of Letters, but continued to manage a \"V. A. Urechia Institute\", his private school. He was also employed as Head of Department in the Education Ministry, in which position he helped his future rival, Titu Maiorescu, who was at the time facing allegations of misconduct and pressured to resign from his teaching position",
". Also then, as a bibliographer and avid book collector, he was among those tasked by Cuza with drafting the common statute of public libraries throughout the country. He was one of the Romanian Academy's original members upon its 1866 foundation as the Academic Society, and subsequently participated in setting up its Library. Urechia served as vice-chairman and general secretary of the Academy for several terms, was president of its Historical Section, and supervised a number of its cultural programs",
". Dissolved in Iași due to lack of members, the Atheneul Român club was reestablished in the capital during 1865. That year, he published two books: Femeia română, dupre istorie și poesie (\"The Romanian Woman in History and Poetry\") and Balul mortului (\"The Dead Man's Ball\").",
"After Cuza's replacement with Carol I, Urechia successfully ran in the November 1866 election for a Chamber seat in Covurlui County. He was a member of Parliament for the next 34 years, moving from Chamber to the Senate, and pushing legislation to modernize the education system.",
"Also in 1866, Urechia published an essay of fables, which centered on the work of (or Chichindeal), an early 19th-century poet from Banat. In 1867, he completed work on his best-known literary contribution to local theater, a three-act drama or melodrama inspired by the 17th-century life of Costea Bucioc. The same year and the next, he published Despre elocința română (\"On Romanian Eloquence\"), Poezia în fața politicei (\"Poetry vs. Politics\") and Patria română (\"The Romanian Motherland\")",
". Politics\") and Patria română (\"The Romanian Motherland\"). He was in Spain from spring 1867 to autumn 1868, perfecting his knowledge of Castilian and carrying out an extended research into local archives, being received as corresponding member of the Royal Spanish Academy (2 April 1868). Together with fellow intellectual and amateur archaeologist Alexandru Odobescu, Urechia represented Romania at the 1869 World Archaeological Congress in Paris. He and Luiza Wirth divorced at some point after 1868.",
"In parallel, Urechia published several new works of historical fiction, including, in 1872, the drama Episod de sub Alecsandru cel Bun (\"An Episode from the Rule of Alexander the Good\"). In 1872, he also premiered the one-act comedy Odă la Elisa (\"An Ode to Elisa\"), which he had written during 1869.",
"Conflict with Junimea",
"A major event in V. A. Urechia's career occurred in 1869, when Maiorescu and his like-minded friends established Junimea society in Iași. At the time, Urechia was editing the journal Adunarea Națională, which initially regarded the Junimists with sympathy, despite the fact that Maiorescu was already making his anti-liberal agenda public",
". By the early 1870s however, Urechia had become engaged in a major cultural polemic with the Junimists, which reflected the liberal-conservative and Romantic-Neoclassical splits within Romanian society. Although usually adverse to other liberal factions, including the group formed around historian Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu and Nicolae Ionescu's Fracțiunea liberă și independentă, he united with them in condemning Junimeas views and cultural guidelines",
". Also during that decade, he openly sided with the radicals around C. A. Rosetti, who would, in 1875, contribute to the creation of the National Liberal Party.",
"Urechia collaborated with and Ștefan Michăilescu on the anti-Junimist, Romantic and pro-liberal tribune Revista Contimporană after 1873. Critic and historian Tudor Vianu saw Urechia as the group's , while literary historian George Călinescu wrote: \"[the journal] had prestige and, intimately, the Junimists grew worried",
".\" In its first issue, it hosted Urechia's study on 17th century Moldavian chronicler Miron Costin and his writings, as well as historical pieces by Gheorghe Sion and Pantazi Ghica, all of which were soon after criticized by Maiorescu in his essay Beția de cuvinte (\"Inebriation with Words\"). In parallel, Urechia had a conflict with the Jewish writer and pedagogue Ronetti Roman, whom he had employed teacher at his Institute. In his pamphlet Domnul Kanitferstan (Mr",
". In his pamphlet Domnul Kanitferstan (Mr. Kanitferstan\"), Ronetti Roman reported having been shocked to discover that Urechia was an antisemite.",
"After the Russo-Turkish War which granted Romania its independence, Urechia represented the country to the International Congress of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences, and presided over one of its sessions. Later in the year, he was invited to participate in the Congress on literature in London, England",
". Later in the year, he was invited to participate in the Congress on literature in London, England. In 1879, he was elected member of an Aromanian cultural league, the Macedo-Romanian Cultural Society, becoming its president the following year and editing its historiographic textbook, Albumul macedo-român (\"The Macedo-Romanian Album\"). He was presented with a bronze medal by the Société d'Ethnographie in 1880, and, the following year, received its medal of honor",
". The same body created the Urechia Prize for Ethnographic Research, first awarded in 1882, and awarded him lifetime membership of the Institut d'Ethnographie. Between 1878 and 1889, he grouped his earlier writings under the title Opere complete (\"Complete Works\").",
"Political preeminence and Literatorul years",
"In 1881–1882, Urechia was Romania's Education Minister under National Liberal Premiers Dimitrie Brătianu and Ion Brătianu, in the newly proclaimed Kingdom of Romania. According to Călinescu, his appointment had been prepared since 1880. Călinescu cites Urechia's intense correspondence with Alexandru Odobescu, who was then living in Paris",
". Odobescu had initially asked Urechia to manage his chair at the University, and, Călinescu argues, his tone became \"fawning\" as Urechia received confirmation for his political ambitions. As Minister, Urechia tasked Odobescu with approaching Hermiona, the widow of French historian Edgar Quinet and daughter of Romanian intellectual Gheorghe Asachi, and recovering some of Quinet's notes for publishing in Albumul macedo-român",
". While reviewing and reshuffling the Ministry, Urechia dismissed the socialist and atheist activist from his position as teacher, and played a part in the decision to curb the spread of socialism among the faculty of Iași University. However, he cast aside political preferences to assign Junimist author Ion Luca Caragiale the position of inspector in the counties of Suceava and Neamț",
". Urechia had prepared a program for administrative reform at several levels, but the brevity of his term prevented him from putting it into practice.",
"By then, Urechia had also begun collaborating with the younger anti-Junimist and later Symbolist poet Alexandru Macedonski. In 1881, Minister Urechia granted Macedonski the Bene-Merenti medal 1st class, even though, Călinescu argues, the poet had been a civil servant for no more than 18 months. A year later, he appointed Macedonski to the post of Historical Monuments Inspector. Also in 1882, he accepted Macedonski's offer to become president of a society formed around the magazine",
". In 1883, following Macedonski's attacks on Junimist author Mihai Eminescu, later recognized as national poet, the irreverent exposure of Eminescu's mental illness and the widespread condemnation which ensued, Literatorul went out of print. It resurfaced sporadically after that date, notably in 1885, as Revista Literară, and continued to receive contributions from Urechia, Anghel Demetriescu, and Bonifaciu Florescu, but was eventually turned by Macedonski into a voice for the local Symbolist movement.",
"Urechia grew disillusioned with National Liberal politics, and voted against his party when he felt that their politics no longer coincided with his own views. By 1885, he also made his peace with Junimea, which was generally offering its support to the newly founded Conservative Party, and became a collaborator of its mouthpiece Convorbiri Literare, contributing essays and stories until 1892. Also in 1885, he published his novella Logof",
". Also in 1885, he published his novella Logof. Baptiste Veleli (\"The Logofăt Baptiste Veleli\"), set in the 17th century. His varied scientific interests led him to correspond with Iuliu Popper, the Romanian-born explorer of Patagonia, who notably described to Urechia the lawlessness of Punta Arenas, Chile.",
"Late in his life, V. A. Urechia concentrated on historical research. This led him to write and publish Istoria românilor (\"The History of Romanians\", 14 vols., 1891–1903) and Istoria școalelor (\"The History of Schools\", 4 vols., 1892–1901). After 1889, he also resumed activities in the area of bibliography, turning his own collection into a public library to benefit Galați city",
". He also edited and collected the work of Miron Costin, producing and editing an eponymous 1890 monograph, together with a similar work dedicated to 19th century Moldavian intellectual Gheorghe Asachi. In 1891, his scattered essays, novellas, memoirs and stories based on Romanian folklore themes were collectively published by as Legende române (\"Romanian Legends\")",
". That year, he left for London, where he attended the International Congress of Orientalists and received the honorary diploma for supporting the Congress' activities at an international level.",
"During the final part of the 1880s, V. A. Urechia partook in a scandal involving Lazăr Șăineanu, a foreign-educated Jewish-Romanian linguist, during which time he made a series of antisemitic statements. Șăineanu, who, like most other members of the Jewish community, was not legally emancipated, had been assigned to a Faculty of Letters position by Titu Maiorescu, at the time Education Minister in a Conservative Party cabinet",
". Urechia and his partisans reacted strongly against this measure, arguing that Șăineanu was made unqualified by his ethnicity, until Șăineanu presented his resignation to Maiorescu.",
"In 1889, when Șăineanu requested naturalization, Urechia intervened with the National Liberal politician Dimitrie Sturdza, head of a committee charged with enforcing nationality law, asking him to deny the request. A deadlock ensued and, in both 1889 and 1895, the matter came to be deliberated by the Senate. Although it won support from both Conservative Premier Petre P",
". Although it won support from both Conservative Premier Petre P. Carp and the Chamber, Urechia again spoke out against enfranchise in the Senate, and, largely as a result of this appeal, a majority of his colleagues voted with him on both occasions.",
"Cultural League establishment and final years",
"The early 1890s saw Urechia's involvement in the cause of Romanians living outside the confines of the Old Kingdom. Like other liberal activists, he hoped to see Romania united with Transylvania and the Banat, regions then included in Austria-Hungary and administered by the Kingdom of Hungary. Urechia viewed with sympathy the formation of a National Party in that region, and supported it throughout the Transylvanian Memorandum movement of 1892, when many of its leaders were jailed by Hungarian authorities",
". He appealed for support throughout Europe, and, in 1893, collected the interventions of his foreign peers in a single volume, known in Romanian as Voci latine. De la frați la frați (\"Latin Voices. From Brothers to Brothers\"). As leader of the newly founded Cultural League for the Unity of All Romanians, he campaigned in the international press, resulting in some 500 newspaper articles on the Memorandum trial. These actions made partisans of Austria-Hungary regard him as an agent of dissent",
". These actions made partisans of Austria-Hungary regard him as an agent of dissent. In 1894, he was engaged in a heated polemic over these issues with the Hungarian officer István Türr, who had published articles condemning the Memorandum participants and their Bucharest-based partisans. It involved other politicians in 1895, when Urechia attended the Interparliamentary Union's Conference in Brussels, Belgium, and debated the matter with members of the Hungarian legislature.",
"Urechia was vice-president of the Senate in 1896–1897. During those years, he became Chevalier of the Légion d'honneur, honorary member and later honorary president of the Conseil Héraldique de France, foreign member of the French Archaeological Society, and associate member of the , and Ecuador's consul general to Romania",
". Attending the October 1899 International Congress of Orientalists in Rome, he organized a Pan-Latinist festivity centered on Trajan's Column, with the participation of Luigi Pelloux cabinet ministers and the Transylvanian peasant activist Badea Cârțan. Although the ceremony enjoyed popularity and coverage in the press, Urechia and his Cultural League were frustrated by lack of funds in their attempt to organize a living exhibit of Romanian customs",
". He attended the 1900 congress of the Union of Latin Students, meeting in the French town of Alès, and delivered an opening speech in which the main theme was Pan-Latinism. The same year, he published a series of memoirs and travel writing pieces, under the title Din tainele vieții (\"Some of Life's Secrets\").",
"Urechia died in Bucharest at age 67. His funeral oration was delivered by archaeologist Grigore Tocilescu, while the Academy's commemorative session was presided over by his former rival Hasdeu.\n\nIdeology, literary contributions and cultural debates",
"Tenets\nV. A. Urechia was a prolific author, whose bibliography reportedly exceeds 600 individual titles, covering both fiction and scientific works. Reflecting on the period, modern-day historian Lucian Boia argues that, while Urechia stood above all his pro-liberal academic colleagues in respect to his \"industriousness\", they all lacked scientific competence. Boia, who notes that Urechia's works are generally compilations, concludes that their author was motivated by \"fervent but naïve patriotism\".",
"Urechia's main contribution was as an ideologue of the liberal current, and relates to his version of patriotism, called românism (\"Romanianism\"). Seen by him as distinct from nationalism, it involved the ongoing promotion of a common spiritual identity among Romanians, a focus on popularizing local folklore, and a cultural version of Pan-Latinism. From early on, Urechia argued in favor of a federal Latin bloc to counter the threats of Pan-Slavism and Pan-Germanism",
". In 1859, a letter he sent to Sardinian Premier Camillo Benso di Cavour, in which he introduced the Moldavian scholarship recipients to the University of Turin, made reference to Pan-Latin sentiments and the Romanian origins: \"Turn our young Romanians into something better than savants; make them Latins, proud descendants of Rome, the mother of their nation",
".\" Part of his subsequent studies dealt with the comparative linguistics of Romance: like many of his fellow intellectuals, Urechia was determined to find the exact position of Romanian in relation to the Latin language, Standard Italian or Italian dialects (see History of the Romanian language). Thus, in an 1868 essay, Urechia theorized a \"parallelism\" between Romanian and Friulian, his conclusion being similar to one earlier voiced (and eventually discarded) by Graziadio Isaia Ascoli.",
"Urechia saw in the application of Romanianism a cultural battle for improvement, writing: \"A nation incapable of developing is incapable of defending its existence. This is why all nations, recognizing in culture the primordial condition of their existence and grandeur, have struggled to make use of all their forces in order to advance culturally. [...] For today culture is the strongest and non-invincible weapon",
". [...] For today culture is the strongest and non-invincible weapon.\" His writings frequently made the controversial claim that Romanians had perfected various elements of human civilization before all other peoples (see protochronism). Based on his theories about social cohesion, Urechia also expressed his distaste for political factionalism",
". An article of his in Adunarea Națională reacted against the split between the National Liberal group (the \"Reds\") and the Conservative Party (the \"Whites\"): \"Victory will only be possible when Romanianism is neither red nor white\".",
"Late in his life, the writer coined another term, daco-românism (\"Daco-Romanianism\"), which referenced the ancient territory of Dacia and, through it, to the ideal of grouping together all territories inhabited by Romanians outside the Old Kingdom's borders. This allusion to Transylvania contributed to his polemic with Austro-Hungarian authorities, who came to regard the term with suspicion",
". At the same time, Urechia sought to build contacts with representatives of other Romance-speaking communities in the Balkans, Aromanians as well as Megleno-Romanians and Istro-Romanians, as well as with Romanian leaders from Bukovina and Bessarabia. After the Russo-Turkish War, when Romanian rule was extended to formerly Ottoman Northern Dobruja, he called for the region's Romanianization through colonization and changes in toponymy.",
"Urechia's had conflicting attitudes on the cohabitation of Romanians and ethnic minorities. His Coliba Măriucăi, one of the first novels in Romanian literature to explore social problems from a critical perspective, and written just as slavery was being outlawed in Moldavia, he expresses sympathy for the persecuted Romani community",
". In contrast with this approach, the statements made by Urechia in his conflict with Lazăr Șăineanu show an antisemitic side to his Romanianism, which academic Michael Shafir rates as \"cultural\" and \"economic\" rather than \"racial\". While debating Șăineanu's status in academia, Urechia claimed: \"A person foreign to our nation's fiber could never awaken in the mind and heart of the young generation the image of our past [...]",
"...]. How will that person recognize those pulsations in the historical life of Romanians, when he has nothing in common with [the people's] aspirations?\" Urechia was especially adverse to Șăineanu's study on the traditional references to Jews as \"Tatars\" and Uriași, as a reference to an Early Medieval presence of Khazars in present-day Romanian territories. He therefore publicly accused Șăineanu of making it seem that the Jews had a historical precedent over Romanians",
". Literary critic Laszlo Alexandru writes that Urechia's reading of the text was \"in bad faith\", and his conclusions \"slanderous\". In 1895, during the final Senate vote on Șăineanu's naturalization, Urechia gave an applauded speech in which he likened the linguist with the Trojan Horse, urging his fellow parliamentarians not to allow \"a foreigner into the Romanian citadel\".",
"Beția de cuvinte",
"As part of their Romantic reaction against the Junimist call for professionalization, controlled modernization and Westernization, the Revista Contimporană group sought to portray the liberal approach as motivated by historical precedence. George Călinescu writes: \"By studying, as superficially and bombastically as they did, a [medieval] chronicler [...], the group sought to inculcate the idea of tradition",
"...], the group sought to inculcate the idea of tradition.\" Titu Maiorescu had by then reacted against this approach, accusing his adversaries of enforcing \"forms without substance\" (that is, ill-adapted to the Romanian realities which they claimed to address), and directed his accusations specifically against the University of Bucharest faculty, exposing the heads of department for lacking training in their fields of choice.",
"Maiorescu replied to his adversaries in Beția de cuvinte, where he emphasized his group's overall rejection and occasional derision of traditional Romanian literature, and commented that both the model and its defenders had produced a characteristically prolix style. The Junimist figure also focused on discussing errors in Urechia's works, particularly when it came to his pronouncements on the philosophy of history",
". According to Maiorescu, the context had conflated two separate topics into one phrase, and unwittingly made it seem that the 18th-century philosophe Voltaire was active in the 17th century. Călinescu used this point to illustrate Maiorescu's polemic technique, which involved presenting his adversaries with \"propositions cruelly selected from the textbook on logic\". The text referenced other false claims made by Urechia, questioning his competence",
". The text referenced other false claims made by Urechia, questioning his competence. It cited him arguing that the 4th-century Imperial Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus was a source on the 5th-century rule of Attila the Hun, that philosophers Gottfried Leibniz and René Descartes were historians, and that painter Cimabue was an architect",
". In what Lucian Boia deems \"perhaps [his] most successful page\", Maiorescu ridiculed Urechia's claim that 18th-century Wallachian poet Ienăchiță Văcărescu was superior to Germany's Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.",
"Urechia, Laurian, Ghica and decided to issue a common reply to Maiorescu's accusations, using Rosetti's newspaper Românul as their venue. One of Urechia's texts in the series accused Maiorescu of \"mocking for the urge of mocking\", and called Beția de cuvinte \"an unqualifiable diatribe\"",
". He defended his group as the true representatives of a cultural line leading back to the Wallachian uprising of 1821, and rhetorically asked Maiorescu: \"could it be true that in these 50 years all that was planted in the national soil are feather grass and creeping thistle?\" Tudor Vianu, who believes Urechia had \"too much knowledge of things\", cautions that \"[his] pen would slide too fast over paper\". He defines Urechia's reply as \"gauche and prolix\"",
". He defines Urechia's reply as \"gauche and prolix\". While he criticizes Urechia's views on history, literary historian Zigu Ornea believes that he was justified in opposing Junimist \"exclusivism\", especially when rejecting Maiorescu's theory that the state needed to redesign its educational system by closing down universities and building more primary schools.",
"Maiorescu himself answered to his critics in another article, detailing their rebuttals and arguing that they were proof of ignoratio elenchi. Elsewhere, the same critic stated his amusement at reading in Adunarea Națională that the 1859 union had spurred on the Risorgimento and German unification, and that the 1784 Transylvanian rebellion had made possible the French Revolution",
". An unsigned article published the conservative newspaper Timpul in 1877, believed by Ornea to be the work of Maiorescu, accuses V. A. Urechia, Xenofon Gheorghiu, Nicolae Ionescu, Ștefan Șendrea, and others of being inactive academics and corrupt public figures. Such criticism was being repeated in later years: writing some twenty years later, Urechia expressed his disappointment that a Bucharest journal had more recently mocked his activist stance and had referred to him as a \"road junction orator\".",
"Personal life",
"Urechia's marriage to Luiza produced three children: sons Nestor and Alceu and daughter Corina. The Urechias' relationship, likened by Călinescu to a \"Greek tragedy\", was the topic of innuendo and scandal. Painter Nicolae Grigorescu was allegedly in love with Luiza Wirth, and painted several portraits of her, including one in the nude. The latter painting was described by Călinescu as \"indiscreet [and] voluptuous\". Their marriage was allegedly a ménage à trois, involving Luiza's sister Ana",
". Their marriage was allegedly a ménage à trois, involving Luiza's sister Ana. Rumors also had it that the two other Wirth sisters, Carlotta, who was Queen Elisabeth's music tutor, and Emilia, wife of Romanian Army General Staff Chief , were also V. A. Urechia's lovers. Such claims of sororal polygyny were notably popularized by Eminescu, who once described Urechia as a \"poor fellow who has two keep two sisters as his wives.\"",
"Story has it that Dona's son, officer Alexandru Guriță, was Urechia's illegitimate son. Oblivious to this, Guriță had fallen in love with Corina and was planning to marry her, before Urechia stepped in and revealed that they would be committing incest. The two lovers committed suicide. After her divorce from Urechia, Luiza lived with I. G. Cantacuzino; their son was Gheorghe Cantacuzino-Grănicerul, future general and provisional leader of the fascist Iron Guard",
". In early 1882, after she remarried a man named Hristu Cuțiana, but died in August of the same year.",
"Legacy",
"Junimist sentiments regarding Urechia were backed by several authoritative critics in later periods. Thus, Călinescu dismissed the author's overall contribution to literature as \"mawkish\", and referred to Legende române as \"almost trivial in style.\" In contrast, Vianu believes the latter to be \"entertainingly told\"",
".\" In contrast, Vianu believes the latter to be \"entertainingly told\". According to the 1995 Cambridge Guide to Theatre, Urechia was \"most successful as an author of historical melodramas\", but, like his contemporaries George Bengescu-Dabija, Haralamb Lecca, Ronetti Roman and , is \"no longer in fashion.\"",
"From early on, Urechia was defended against criticism by people who shared his views. In his speech to commemorate the writer's death, Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu claimed: \"As an agitator for the benefit and growth of the Romanian nation, Urechia was sublime; no one shall replace him, nothing shall be able to shadow him when it comes to our national history, in which he will endure as an archangel of enthusiasm in the memory of all Romanians\"",
". According to cultural historian Ovidiu Pecican, Hasdeu, with political support from National Liberal leader Ion Brătianu, managed to impose a nationalist cultural model to compete with Junimea, thus ensuring that both Urechia and his rival Șăineanu, alongside George Dem. Teodorescu, Grigore Tocilescu, , Alexandru Vlahuță and other Bucharest-based figures, addressed an alternative and autonomous milieu",
". Partly building on the observations made by literary critic , Ornea notes that, for all his \"real inadequacies\", Urechia \"was but moreover became incontestably superior to many members of [Junimea] who were much amused when reading Maiorescu's admirable lampoon.\" Ornea also concluded that, with his final historical works, particularly Istoria școalelor, Urechia contributed texts \"relevant to this day\"",
". Although Maiorescu's early treatment of Urechia's work left an enduring impact on his public image, the author came to be viewed with more sympathy during the 20th century. Among the influential monographs which reclaimed part of his writings was one published by Alexandru George in 1976. According to Ornea, it and other such works \"reclaim a fairer and more lenient posterity",
". According to Ornea, it and other such works \"reclaim a fairer and more lenient posterity.\" Urechia's work as a teacher and cultural promoter also reflected on intellectual life: dramatist Alexandru Davila was one of the V. A",
". A. Urechia Institute graduates, and, according to Tudor Vianu, Urechia's post-1870s support for Macedonski, together with similar efforts by Ionescu-Gion, Tocilescu, Anghel Demetriescu, Bonifaciu Florescu, , was largely responsible for passing down \"a better and truer image of the abused poet.\"",
"After World War I, Alceu Urechia issued protests against the intellectual establishment, who, he argued, had obscured his father's contribution to the historical process whereby Greater Romania had been created. Historian Nicolae Iorga, who took over chairmanship of the Cultural League in 1932, paid tribute to his predecessor, referring to his \"unbound wish to be of service in every area and his great talent to win over by means of an appealing form of vanity\".",
"Although their author was the recipient of much criticism over his inconsistencies, V. A. Urechia's books enjoyed a steady popularity. This was in particular the case with Legende române, parts of which were translated into Italian. Unlike his other texts, Legende was prevented by Hungarian censors from circulating within Transylvania, and had to make its way in only through the Cisleithanian part of the monarchy. It was republished in a 1904 definitive edition by Editura Socec",
". It was republished in a 1904 definitive edition by Editura Socec. His Albumul macedo-român and Voci latine were placed by art historian Gheorghe Oprescu among \"the most beautiful and elegant turn-of-the-century Romanian books.\" In 1878, to mark his presence at the International Congress of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences, the Société d'Ethnographie presented Urechia with a bust in his likeness, sculpted by",
". Thirty-three years later, his Transylvanian collaborators dedicated him an album, which included a poem written especially for him by George Coșbuc. Urechia's book collection, which he had turned into a public library, is managed by the city of Galați.",
"In addition to the writings of his adversaries Maiorescu and Eminescu, Urechia was the subject of satirical pieces written by various other authors. They include his employee Ronetti Roman and the Junimist figure Iacob Negruzzi. Grigorescu's portraits of Luiza Urechia, including the nude (which is said to be worth 100,000 euros), found their way into the art collection of General Dona's son, physician Iosif Dona, and were later inherited by the National Museum of Art",
". The museum lost ownership of the entire Dona collection in 2007, after its property rights were successfully disputed in court by rival claimants.",
"Notes\n\nReferences",
"19th-century memoirists\nRomanian biographers\nMale biographers\nRomanian book publishers (people)\nRomanian classical scholars\nRomanian ethnographers\n19th-century Romanian dramatists and playwrights\nMale dramatists and playwrights\nMale essayists\nRomanian essayists\nRomanian folklorists\n19th-century Romanian historians\nRomanian humorists\nRomanian librarians\nLinguists from Romania\nRomanian literary critics\nRomanian magazine founders\nRomanian memoirists\n19th-century Romanian novelists\nRomanian male novelists",
"Romanian memoirists\n19th-century Romanian novelists\nRomanian male novelists\nRomanian historical novelists\n19th-century short story writers\nRomanian male short story writers\nRomanian short story writers\nRomanian travel writers\nRomanian writers in French\nRomanian book and manuscript collectors\nRomanian civil servants\nRomanian schoolteachers\nRomanian bibliographers\nHeraldists\nRomanticism\nAcademic staff of Alexandru Ioan Cuza University\nAcademic staff of the University of Bucharest",
"Academic staff of Alexandru Ioan Cuza University\nAcademic staff of the University of Bucharest\nFounding members of the Romanian Academy\nNational Liberal Party (Romania) politicians\nMembers of the Chamber of Deputies (Romania)\nMoldavian abolitionists\nRomanian independence activists\nRomanian Ministers of Culture\nRomanian Ministers of Education\nMembers of the Senate of Romania\nPeople from Piatra Neamț\nMembers of the Romanian Orthodox Church\nMembers of the Macedo-Romanian Cultural Society",
"Members of the Romanian Orthodox Church\nMembers of the Macedo-Romanian Cultural Society\nKnights of the Legion of Honour\n1834 births\n1901 deaths"
] |
Social justice
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social%20justice
|
[
"Social justice is justice in relation to a fair balance in the distribution of wealth, opportunities, and privileges within a society where individuals's rights are recognized and protected. In Western and Asian cultures, the concept of social justice has often referred to the process of ensuring that individuals fulfill their societal roles and receive their due from society",
". In the current movements for social justice, the emphasis has been on the breaking of barriers for social mobility, the creation of safety nets, and economic justice. Social justice assigns rights and duties in the institutions of society, which enables people to receive the basic benefits and burdens of cooperation",
". The relevant institutions often include taxation, social insurance, public health, public school, public services, labor law and regulation of markets, to ensure distribution of wealth, and equal opportunity.",
"Interpretations that relate justice to a reciprocal relationship to society are mediated by differences in cultural traditions, some of which emphasize the individual responsibility toward society and others the equilibrium between access to power and its responsible use",
". Hence, social justice is invoked today while reinterpreting historical figures such as Bartolomé de las Casas, in philosophical debates about differences among human beings, in efforts for gender, ethnic, and social equality, for advocating justice for migrants, prisoners, the environment, and the physically and developmentally disabled.",
"While concepts of social justice can be found in classical and Christian philosophical sources, from Plato and Aristotle to Augustine of Hippo and Thomas Aquinas, the term social justice finds its earliest uses in the late 18th century, albeit with unclear theoretical or practical meanings. The use of the term was early on subject to accusations of redundancy and of rhetorical flourish, perhaps but not necessarily related to amplifying one view of distributive justice",
". In the coining and definition of the term in the natural law social scientific treatise of Luigi Taparelli, in the early 1840s, Taparelli established the natural law principle that corresponded to the evangelical principle of brotherly love—i.e. social justice reflects the duty one has to one's other self in the interdependent abstract unity of the human person in society. After the Revolutions of 1848, the term was popularized generically through the writings of Antonio Rosmini-Serbati.",
"In the late industrial revolution, Progressive Era American legal scholars began to use the term more, particularly Louis Brandeis and Roscoe Pound. From the early 20th century it was also embedded in international law and institutions; the preamble to establish the International Labour Organization recalled that \"universal and lasting peace can be established only if it is based upon social justice",
".\" In the later 20th century, social justice was made central to the philosophy of the social contract, primarily by John Rawls in A Theory of Justice (1971). In 1993, the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action treats social justice as a purpose of human rights education.",
"History \n\nThe different concepts of justice, as discussed in ancient Western philosophy, were typically centered upon the community.",
"Plato wrote in The Republic that it would be an ideal state that \"every member of the community must be assigned to the class for which he finds himself best fitted.\" In an article for J.N.V University, author D.R. Bhandari says, \"Justice is, for Plato, at once a part of human virtue and the bond, which joins man together in society. It is the identical quality that makes good and social. Justice is an order and duty of the parts of the soul, it is to the soul as health is to the body",
". Justice is an order and duty of the parts of the soul, it is to the soul as health is to the body. Plato says that justice is not mere strength, but it is a harmonious strength. Justice is not the right of the stronger but the effective harmony of the whole. All moral conceptions revolve about the good of the whole-individual as well as social\".",
"Plato believed rights existed only between free people, and the law should take \"account in the first instance of relations of inequality in which individuals are treated in proportion to their worth and only secondarily of relations of equality.\" Reflecting this time when slavery and subjugation of women was typical, ancient views of justice tended to reflect the rigid class systems that still prevailed. On the other hand, for the privileged groups, strong concepts of fairness and the community existed",
". Distributive justice was said by Aristotle to require that people were distributed goods and assets according to their merit.",
"Socrates (through Plato's dialogue Crito) is credited with developing the idea of a social contract, whereby people ought to follow the rules of a society, and accept its burdens because they have accepted its benefits. During the Middle Ages, religious scholars particularly, such as Thomas Aquinas continued discussion of justice in various ways, but ultimately connected being a good citizen to the purpose of serving God. The Waldensians were a medieval sect that advocated for social justice.",
"After the Renaissance and Reformation, the modern concept of social justice, as developing human potential, began to emerge through the work of a series of authors. Baruch Spinoza in On the Improvement of the Understanding (1677) contended that the one true aim of life should be to acquire \"a human character much more stable than [one's] own\", and to achieve this \"pitch of perfection..",
"... The chief good is that he should arrive, together with other individuals if possible, at the possession of the aforesaid character.\" During the enlightenment and responding to the French and American Revolutions, Thomas Paine similarly wrote in The Rights of Man (1792) society should give \"genius a fair and universal chance\" and so \"the construction of government ought to be such as to bring forward... all that extent of capacity which never fails to appear in revolutions.\"",
"Although there is no certainty about the first use of the term \"social justice\", early sources can be found in Europe in the 18th century. Some references to the use of the expression are in articles of journals aligned with the spirit of the Enlightenment, in which social justice is described as an obligation of the monarch; also the term is present in books written by Catholic Italian theologians, notably members of the Society of Jesus",
". Thus, according to this sources and the context, social justice was another term for \"the justice of society\", the justice that rules the relations among individuals in society, without any mention to socio-economic equity or human dignity.",
"The usage of the term started to become more frequent by Catholic thinkers from the 1840s, beginning with the Jesuit Luigi Taparelli in Civiltà Cattolica, and based on the work of St. Thomas Aquinas. Taparelli argued that rival capitalist and socialist theories, based on subjective Cartesian thinking, undermined the unity of society present in Thomistic metaphysics as neither were sufficiently concerned with ethics",
". Writing in 1861, the influential British philosopher and economist, John Stuart Mill stated in Utilitarianism his view that \"Society should treat all equally well who have deserved equally well of it, that is, who have deserved equally well absolutely. This is the highest abstract standard of social and distributive justice; towards which all institutions, and the efforts of all virtuous citizens, should be made in the utmost degree to converge.\"",
"In the later 19th and early 20th century, social justice became an important theme in American political and legal philosophy, particularly in the work of John Dewey, Roscoe Pound and Louis Brandeis. One of the prime concerns was the Lochner era decisions of the US Supreme Court to strike down legislation passed by state governments and the Federal government for social and economic improvement, such as the eight-hour day or the right to join a trade union",
". After the First World War, the founding document of the International Labour Organization took up the same terminology in its preamble, stating that \"peace can be established only if it is based on social justice\". From this point, the discussion of social justice entered into mainstream legal and academic discourse.",
"In 1931, the Pope Pius XI explicitly referred to the expression, along with the concept of subsidiarity, for the first time in Catholic social teaching in the encyclical Quadragesimo anno. Then again in Divini Redemptoris, the church pointed out that the realization of social justice relied on the promotion of the dignity of human person. During the 1930s, the term was widely associated with pro-Nazi and antisemitic groups, such as the Christian Front",
". Social Justice was the slogan of Charles Coughlin, and the name of his newspaper. Because of the documented influence of Divini Redemptoris in its drafters, the Constitution of Ireland was the first one to establish the term as a principle of the economy in the State, and then other countries around the world did the same throughout the 20th century, even in socialist regimes such as the Cuban Constitution in 1976.",
"In the late 20th century, several liberal and conservative thinkers, notably Friedrich Hayek rejected the concept by stating that it did not mean anything, or meant too many things. However the concept remained highly influential, particularly with its promotion by philosophers such as John Rawls",
". Even though the meaning of social justice varies, at least three common elements can be identified in the contemporary theories about it: a duty of the State to distribute certain vital means (such as economic, social, and cultural rights), the protection of human dignity, and affirmative actions to promote equal opportunities for everybody.",
"Contemporary theory\n\nPhilosophical perspectives\n\nCosmic values",
"Hunter Lewis' work promoting natural healthcare and sustainable economies advocates for conservation as a key premise in social justice. His manifesto on sustainability ties the continued thriving of human life to real conditions, the environment supporting that life, and associates injustice with the detrimental effects of unintended consequences of human actions",
". Quoting classical Greek thinkers like Epicurus on the good of pursuing happiness, Hunter also cites ornithologist, naturalist, and philosopher Alexander Skutch in his book Moral Foundations:",
"Pope Benedict XVI cites Teilhard de Chardin in a vision of the cosmos as a 'living host' embracing an understanding of ecology that includes humanity's relationship to others, that pollution affects not just the natural world but interpersonal relations as well. Cosmic harmony, justice and peace are closely interrelated:",
"In The Quest for Cosmic Justice, Thomas Sowell writes that seeking utopia, while admirable, may have disastrous effects if done without strong consideration of the economic underpinnings that support contemporary society.\n\nJohn Rawls",
"Political philosopher John Rawls draws on the utilitarian insights of Bentham and Mill, the social contract ideas of John Locke, and the categorical imperative ideas of Kant. His first statement of principle was made in A Theory of Justice where he proposed that, \"Each person possesses an inviolability founded on justice that even the welfare of society as a whole cannot override. For this reason justice denies that the loss of freedom for some is made right by a greater good shared by others",
".\" A deontological proposition that echoes Kant in framing the moral good of justice in absolutist terms. His views are definitively restated in Political Liberalism where society is seen \"as a fair system of co-operation over time, from one generation to the next\".",
"All societies have a basic structure of social, economic, and political institutions, both formal and informal. In testing how well these elements fit and work together, Rawls based a key test of legitimacy on the theories of social contract",
". To determine whether any particular system of collectively enforced social arrangements is legitimate, he argued that one must look for agreement by the people who are subject to it, but not necessarily to an objective notion of justice based on coherent ideological grounding. Obviously, not every citizen can be asked to participate in a poll to determine his or her consent to every proposal in which some degree of coercion is involved, so one has to assume that all citizens are reasonable",
". Rawls constructed an argument for a two-stage process to determine a citizen's hypothetical agreement:",
"The citizen agrees to be represented by X for certain purposes, and, to that extent, X holds these powers as a trustee for the citizen.\n X agrees that enforcement in a particular social context is legitimate. The citizen, therefore, is bound by this decision because it is the function of the trustee to represent the citizen in this way.",
"This applies to one person who represents a small group (e.g., the organiser of a social event setting a dress code) just as it does to national governments, which are ultimate trustees, holding representative powers for the benefit of all citizens within their territorial boundaries. Governments that fail to provide for welfare of their citizens according to the principles of justice are not legitimate",
". To emphasise the general principle that justice should rise from the people and not be dictated by the law-making powers of governments, Rawls asserted that, \"There is ... a general presumption against imposing legal and other restrictions on conduct without sufficient reason. But this presumption creates no special priority for any particular liberty",
". But this presumption creates no special priority for any particular liberty.\" This is support for an unranked set of liberties that reasonable citizens in all states should respect and uphold — to some extent, the list proposed by Rawls matches the normative human rights that have international recognition and direct enforcement in some nation states where the citizens need encouragement to act in a way that fixes a greater degree of equality of outcome",
". According to Rawls, the basic liberties that every good society should guarantee are:",
"Freedom of thought;\n Liberty of conscience as it affects social relationships on the grounds of religion, philosophy, and morality;\n Political liberties (e.g., representative democratic institutions, freedom of speech and the press, and freedom of assembly);\n Freedom of association;\n Freedoms necessary for the liberty and integrity of the person (namely: freedom from slavery, freedom of movement and a reasonable degree of freedom to choose one's occupation); and",
"Rights and liberties covered by the rule of law.",
"Thomas Pogge \n\nThomas Pogge's arguments pertain to a standard of social justice that creates human rights deficits. He assigns responsibility to those who actively cooperate in designing or imposing the social institution, that the order is foreseeable as harming the global poor and is reasonably avoidable. Pogge argues that social institutions have a negative duty to not harm the poor.",
"Pogge speaks of \"institutional cosmopolitanism\" and assigns responsibility to institutional schemes for deficits of human rights. An example given is slavery and third parties. A third party should not recognize or enforce slavery. The institutional order should be held responsible only for deprivations of human rights that it establishes or authorizes",
". The current institutional design, he says, systematically harms developing economies by enabling corporate tax evasion, illicit financial flows, corruption, trafficking of people and weapons. Joshua Cohen disputes his claims based on the fact that some poor countries have done well with the current institutional design. Elizabeth Kahn argues that some of these responsibilities should apply globally.",
"United Nations \n\nThe United Nations calls social justice \"an underlying principle for peaceful and prosperous coexistence within and among nations.\n\nThe United Nations' 2006 document Social Justice in an Open World: The Role of the United Nations, states that \"Social justice may be broadly understood as the fair and compassionate distribution of the fruits of economic growth...\"",
"The term \"social justice\" was seen by the U.N. \"as a substitute for the protection of human rights [and] first appeared in United Nations texts during the second half of the 1960s. At the initiative of the Soviet Union, and with the support of developing countries, the term was used in the Declaration on Social Progress and Development, adopted in 1969.\"",
"The same document reports, \"From the comprehensive global perspective shaped by the United Nations Charter and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, neglect of the pursuit of social justice in all its dimensions translates into de facto acceptance of a future marred by violence, repression and chaos.\" The report concludes, \"Social justice is not possible without strong and coherent redistributive policies conceived and implemented by public agencies.\"",
"The same UN document offers a concise history: \"[T]he notion of social justice is relatively new. None of history's great philosophers—not Plato or Aristotle, or Confucius or Averroes, or even Rousseau or Kant—saw the need to consider justice or the redress of injustices from a social perspective. The concept first surfaced in Western thought and political language in the wake of the industrial revolution and the parallel development of the socialist doctrine",
". It emerged as an expression of protest against what was perceived as the capitalist exploitation of labor and as a focal point for the development of measures to improve the human condition. It was born as a revolutionary slogan embodying the ideals of progress and fraternity. Following the revolutions that shook Europe in the mid-1800s, social justice became a rallying cry for progressive thinkers and political activists...",
".... By the mid-twentieth century, the concept of social justice had become central to the ideologies and programs of virtually all the leftist and centrist political parties around the world...\"",
"Another key area of human rights and social justice is the United Nations's defense of children's rights worldwide. In 1989, the Convention on the Rights of the Child was adopted and available for signature, ratification and accession by General Assembly resolution 44/25. According to OHCHR, this convention entered into force on 2 September 1990",
". According to OHCHR, this convention entered into force on 2 September 1990. This convention upholds that all states have the obligation to \"protect the child from all forms of physical or mental violence, injury or abuse, neglect or negligent treatment, maltreatment or exploitation, including sexual abuse.\"",
"Religious perspectives\n\nAbrahamic religions\n\nChristianity\n\nEvangelicalism \nTime magazine noted that younger Evangelicals also increasingly engage in social justice. John Stott traced the call for social justice back to the cross, \"The cross is a revelation of God's justice as well as of his love. That is why the community of the cross should concern itself with social justice as well as with loving philanthropy.\"",
"Methodism \nFrom its founding, Methodism was a Christian social justice movement. Under John Wesley's direction, Methodists became leaders in many social justice issues of the day, including the prison reform and abolition movements. Wesley himself was among the first to preach for slaves rights, attracting significant opposition.",
"Today, social justice plays a major role in the United Methodist Church and the Free Methodist Church",
". The Book of Discipline of the United Methodist Church says, \"We hold governments responsible for the protection of the rights of the people to free and fair elections and to the freedoms of speech, religion, assembly, communications media, and petition for redress of grievances without fear of reprisal; to the right to privacy; and to the guarantee of the rights to adequate food, clothing, shelter, education, and health care",
".\" The United Methodist Church also teaches population control as part of its doctrine.",
"Catholicism",
"Catholic social teaching consists of those aspects of Roman Catholic doctrine which relate to matters dealing with the respect of the individual human life. A distinctive feature of Catholic social doctrine is its concern for the poorest and most vulnerable members of society. Two of the seven key areas of \"Catholic social teaching\" are pertinent to social justice:",
"Life and dignity of the human person: The foundational principle of all Catholic social teaching is the sanctity of all human life and the inherent dignity of every human person, from conception to natural death. Human life must be valued above all material possessions.",
"Preferential option for the poor and vulnerable: Catholics believe Jesus taught that on the Day of Judgement God will ask what each person did to help the poor and needy: \"Amen, I say to you, whatever you did for one of these least brothers of mine, you did for me.\" The Catholic Church believes that through words, prayers and deeds one must show solidarity with, and compassion for, the poor. The moral test of any society is \"how it treats its most vulnerable members",
". The moral test of any society is \"how it treats its most vulnerable members. The poor have the most urgent moral claim on the conscience of the nation. People are called to look at public policy decisions in terms of how they affect the poor.\"",
"Modern Catholic social teaching is often thought to have begun with the encyclicals of Pope Leo XIII.",
"Pope Leo XIII, who studied under Taparelli, published in 1891 the encyclical Rerum novarum (On the Condition of the Working Classes; lit. \"On new things\"), rejecting both socialism and capitalism, while defending labor unions and private property. He stated that society should be based on cooperation and not class conflict and competition",
". He stated that society should be based on cooperation and not class conflict and competition. In this document, Leo set out the Catholic Church's response to the social instability and labor conflict that had arisen in the wake of industrialization and had led to the rise of socialism. The Pope advocated that the role of the state was to promote social justice through the protection of rights, while the church must speak out on social issues to teach correct social principles and ensure class harmony.",
"The encyclical Quadragesimo anno (On Reconstruction of the Social Order, literally \"in the fortieth year\") of 1931 by Pope Pius XI, encourages a living wage, subsidiarity, and advocates that social justice is a personal virtue as well as an attribute of the social order, saying that society can be just only if individuals and institutions are just.",
"Pope John Paul II added much to the corpus of the Catholic social teaching, penning three encyclicals which focus on issues such as economics, politics, geo-political situations, ownership of the means of production, private property and the \"social mortgage\", and private property. The encyclicals Laborem exercens, Sollicitudo rei socialis, and Centesimus annus are just a small portion of his overall contribution to Catholic social justice",
". Pope John Paul II was a strong advocate of justice and human rights, and spoke forcefully for the poor. He addresses issues such as the problems that technology can present should it be misused, and admits a fear that the \"progress\" of the world is not true progress at all, if it should denigrate the value of the human person",
". He argued in Centesimus annus that private property, markets, and honest labor were the keys to alleviating the miseries of the poor and to enabling a life that can express the fullness of the human person.",
"Pope Benedict XVI's encyclical Deus caritas est (\"God is Love\") of 2006 claims that justice is the defining concern of the state and the central concern of politics, and not of the church, which has charity as its central social concern",
". It said that the laity has the specific responsibility of pursuing social justice in civil society and that the church's active role in social justice should be to inform the debate, using reason and natural law, and also by providing moral and spiritual formation for those involved in politics.",
"The official Catholic doctrine on social justice can be found in the book Compendium of the Social Doctrine of the Church, published in 2004 and updated in 2006, by the Pontifical Council Iustitia et Pax.",
"The Catechism of the Catholic Church (§§ 1928–1948) contains more detail of the church's view of social justice.\n\nIslam \n\nIn Muslim history, Islamic governance has often been associated with social justice. Establishment of social justice was one of the motivating factors of the Abbasid revolt against the Umayyads. The Shi'a believe that the return of the Mahdi will herald in \"the messianic age of justice\" and the Mahdi along with the Isa (Jesus) will end plunder, torture, oppression and discrimination.",
"For the Muslim Brotherhood the implementation of social justice would require the rejection of consumerism and communism. The Brotherhood strongly affirmed the right to private property as well as differences in personal wealth due to factors such as hard work. However, the Brotherhood held Muslims had an obligation to assist those Muslims in need. It held that zakat (alms-giving) was not voluntary charity, but rather the poor had the right to assistance from the more fortunate",
". Most Islamic governments therefore enforce the zakat through taxes.",
"Judaism \n\nIn To Heal a Fractured World: The Ethics of Responsibility, Rabbi Jonathan Sacks states that social justice has a central place in Judaism. One of Judaism's most distinctive and challenging ideas is its ethics of responsibility reflected in the concepts of simcha (\"gladness\" or \"joy\"), tzedakah (\"the religious obligation to perform charity and philanthropic acts\"), chesed (\"deeds of kindness\"), and tikkun olam (\"repairing the world\").\n\nEastern religions\n\nHinduism",
"Eastern religions\n\nHinduism \n\nThe present-day Jāti hierarchy is undergoing changes for a variety of reasons including 'social justice', which is a politically popular stance in democratic India. Institutionalized affirmative action has promoted this. The disparity and wide inequalities in social behaviour of the jātis – exclusive, endogamous communities centred on traditional occupations – has led to various reform movements in Hinduism. While legally outlawed, the caste system remains strong in practice.",
"Traditional Chinese religion \n\nThe Chinese concept of Tian Ming has occasionally been perceived as an expression of social justice. Through it, the deposition of unfair rulers is justified in that civic dissatisfaction and economical disasters is perceived as Heaven withdrawing its favor from the Emperor. A successful rebellion is considered definite proof that the Emperor is unfit to rule.\n\nSocial justice movements",
"Social justice movements \n\nSocial justice is also a concept that is used to describe the movement towards a socially just world, e.g., the Global Justice Movement. In this context, social justice is based on the concepts of human rights and equality, and can be defined as \"the way in which human rights are manifested in the everyday lives of people at every level of society\".",
"Several movements are working to achieve social justice in society. These movements are working toward the realization of a world where all members of a society, regardless of background or procedural justice, have basic human rights and equal access to the benefits of their society.\n\nLiberation theology",
"Liberation theology \n\nLiberation theology is a movement in Christian theology which conveys the teachings of Jesus Christ in terms of a liberation from unjust economic, political, or social conditions. It has been described by proponents as \"an interpretation of Christian faith through the poor's suffering, their struggle and hope, and a critique of society and the Catholic faith and Christianity through the eyes of the poor\", and by detractors as Christianity perverted by Marxism and Communism.",
"Although liberation theology has grown into an international and inter-denominational movement, it began as a movement within the Catholic Church in Latin America in the 1950s–1960s. It arose principally as a moral reaction to the poverty caused by social injustice in that region. It achieved prominence in the 1970s and 1980s. The term was coined by the Peruvian priest Gustavo Gutiérrez, who wrote one of the movement's most famous books, A Theology of Liberation (1971)",
". According to Sarah Kleeb, \"Marx would surely take issue,\" she writes, \"with the appropriation of his works in a religious context...there is no way to reconcile Marx's views of religion with those of Gutierrez, they are simply incompatible",
". Despite this, in terms of their understanding of the necessity of a just and righteous world, and the nearly inevitable obstructions along such a path, the two have much in common; and, particularly in the first edition of [A Theology of Liberation], the use of Marxian theory is quite evident.\"",
"Other noted exponents are Leonardo Boff of Brazil, Carlos Mugica of Argentina, Jon Sobrino of El Salvador, and Juan Luis Segundo of Uruguay.\n\nHealth care",
"Social justice has more recently made its way into the field of bioethics. Discussion involves topics such as affordable access to health care, especially for low-income households and families. The discussion also raises questions such as whether society should bear healthcare costs for low-income families, and whether the global marketplace is the best way to distribute healthcare",
". Ruth Faden of the Johns Hopkins Berman Institute of Bioethics and Madison Powers of Georgetown University focus their analysis of social justice on which inequalities matter the most. They develop a social justice theory that answers some of these questions in concrete settings.",
"Social injustices occur when there is a preventable difference in health states among a population of people. These social injustices take the form of health inequities when negative health states such as malnourishment, and infectious diseases are more prevalent in impoverished nations",
". These negative health states can often be prevented by providing social and economic structures such as primary healthcare which ensures the general population has equal access to health care services regardless of income level, gender, education or any other stratifying factors. Integrating social justice with health inherently reflects the social determinants of health model without discounting the role of the bio-medical model.",
"Health inequalities \nThe sources of health inequalities are rooted in injustices associated with racism, sex discrimination, and social class. Richard Hofrichter and his colleagues examine the political implications of various perspectives used to explain health inequities and explore alternative strategies for eliminating them.\n\nHuman rights education",
"Human rights education \n\nThe Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action affirm that \"Human rights education should include peace, democracy, development and social justice, as set forth in international and regional human rights instruments, to achieve common understanding and awareness to strengthen universal commitment to human rights.\"\n\nEcology and environment",
"Social justice principles are embedded in the larger environmental movement",
". The third principle of the Earth Charter is social and economic justice, which is described as seeking to eradicate poverty as an ethical, social, and environmental imperative, ensure that economic activities and institutions at all levels promote human development in an equitable and sustainable manner, affirm gender equality and equity as prerequisites to sustainable development and ensure universal access to education, health care, and economic opportunity, and uphold the right of all",
", health care, and economic opportunity, and uphold the right of all, without discrimination, to a natural and social environment supportive of human dignity, bodily health, and spiritual well-being, with special attention to the rights of indigenous peoples and minorities",
".",
"The climate justice and environmental justice movements also incorporate social justice principles, ideas, and practices. Climate justice and environmental justice, as movements within the larger ecological and environmental movement, each incorporate social justice in a particular way. Climate justice includes concern for social justice pertaining to greenhouse gas emissions, climate-induced environmental displacement, as well as climate change mitigation and adaptation",
". Environmental justice includes concern for social justice pertaining to either environmental benefits or environmental pollution based on their equitable distribution across communities of color, communities of various socio and economic stratification, or any other barriers to justice.",
"Criticism \n\nMichael Novak argues that social justice has seldom been adequately defined, arguing:\n\nFriedrich Hayek of the Austrian School of economics rejected the very idea of social justice as meaningless, self-contradictory, and ideological, believing that to realize any degree of social justice is unfeasible, and that the attempt to do so must destroy all liberty:",
"Hayek argued that proponents of social justice often present it as a moral virtue but most of their descriptions pertain to impersonal states of affairs (e.g. income inequality, poverty), which are cited as \"social injustice.\" Hayek argued that social justice is either a virtue or it is not. If it is, it can only be ascribed to the actions of individuals",
". If it is, it can only be ascribed to the actions of individuals. However, most who use the term ascribe it to social systems, so \"social justice\" in fact describes a regulative principle of order; they are interested not in virtue but power. For Hayek, this notion of social justices presupposes that people are guided by specific external directions rather than internal, personal rules of just conduct",
". It further presupposes that one can never be held accountable for ones own behaviour, as this would be \"blaming the victim.\" According to Hayek, the function of social justice is to blame someone else, often attributed to \"the system\" or those who are supposed, mythically, to control it. Thus it is based on the appealing idea of \"you suffer; your suffering is caused by powerful others; these oppressors must be destroyed.\"",
"Ben O'Neill of the University of New South Wales and the Mises Institute argues:\nPsychologist Steven Pinker argues that social justice \"sees society as a struggle for power, also zero-sum, among different sexes, sexual orientations, and races [and] also has a contempt for science\".",
"Media commentator Jordan Peterson argues that social justice promotes collectivism and sees individuals as \"essentially a member of a group\" and \"not essentially an individual\". He also argues that social justice \"view[s] the world\" as \"a battleground between groups of different power.\"",
"Counter-criticism \nNathan J. Robinson, editor of left-wing magazine Current Affairs, argues that critics of social justice \"want to tear it apart rather than to generously understand it. They like to go on about just how absurd it is, how the people who advocate it are such fools who are ignorant of data. But they don't ever try to listen.\"\n\nSee also",
"Activism\n \"Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence\", one of many pro–social justice speeches delivered by Martin Luther King Jr.\n Choosing the Common Good\n Counterculture of the 1960s\n Economic justice\n Education for Justice\n Environmental racism\n Essentially contested concept\n Global justice\n Labour law and labour rights\n Left-wing politics\n Resource justice\n Right to education\n Right to health\n Right to housing\n Right to social security\n Social conscience\n Social justice art\n Social justice warrior",
"Right to social security\n Social conscience\n Social justice art\n Social justice warrior\n Social law\n Social work\n Solidarity\n National Union for Social Justice (organization)\n World Day of Social Justice",
"References\n\nFurther reading",
"Articles \n C Pérez-Garzón, 'What is social justice? A new history of its meaning in the transnational legal discourse' (2019) 43 Revista Derecho del Estado 67-106, originally in Spanish: '¿Qué es justicia social? Una nueva historia de su significado en el discurso jurídico transnacional'\n LD Brandeis, 'The Living Law' (1915–1916) 10 Illinois Law Review 461",
"LD Brandeis, 'The Living Law' (1915–1916) 10 Illinois Law Review 461\n A Etzioni, 'The Fair Society, Uniting America: Restoring the Vital Center to American Democracy ' in N Garfinkle and D Yankelovich (eds) (Yale University Press 2005) pp. 211–223\n Otto von Gierke, The Social Role of Private Law (2016) translated and introduced by E McGaughey, originally in German Die soziale Aufgabe des Privatrechts\n M Novak, 'Defining Social Justice' (2000) First Things",
"M Novak, 'Defining Social Justice' (2000) First Things\n B O'Neill, 'The Injustice of Social Justice' (Mises Institute)\n R Pound, 'Social Justice and Legal Justice' (1912) 75 Central Law Journal 455\n M Powers and R Faden, 'Inequalities in health, inequalities in health care: four generations of discussion about justice and cost-effectiveness analysis' (2000) 10(2) Kennedy Inst Ethics Journal 109–127",
"M Powers and R Faden, 'Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Care: An Ethical Analysis of When and How They Matter,' in Unequal Treatment: Confronting Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Care (National Academy of Sciences, Institute of Medicine, 2002) 722–38\n United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 'Social Justice in an Open World: The Role of the United Nations' (2006) ST/ESA/305",
"Books \n AB Atkinson, Social Justice and Public Policy (1982) previews\n Gad Barzilai, Communities and Law: Politics and Cultures of Legal Identities (University of Michigan Press) analysis of justice for non-ruling communities\n TN Carver, Essays in Social Justice (1915) Chapter links.\n C Quigley The Evolution of Civilizations: An Introduction to Historical Analysis (1961) 2nd edition 1979\n P Corning, The Fair Society: The Science of Human Nature and the Pursuit of Social Justice (Chicago UP 2011)",
"WL Droel What is Social Justice (ACTA Publications 2011)\n R Faden and M Powers, Social Justice: The Moral Foundations of Public Health and Health Policy OUP 2006 \n J Franklin (ed), Life to the Full: Rights and Social Justice in Australia (Connor Court 2007)\n LC Frederking (2013) Reconstructing Social Justice (Routledge) \n FA Hayek, Law, Legislation and Liberty (1973) vol II, ch 3\n G Kitching, Seeking Social Justice through Globalization: Escaping a Nationalist Perspective (2003)",
"JS Mill, Utilitarianism (1863)\n T Massaro, S.J. Living Justice: Catholic Social Teaching in Action (Rowman & Littlefield 2012)\n John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Harvard University Press 1971)\n John Rawls, Political Liberalism (Columbia University Press 1993)\n C Philomena, B Hoose and G Mannion (eds), Social Justice: Theological and Practical Explorations (2007)\n A Swift, Political Philosophy (3rd edn 2013) ch 1",
"A Swift, Political Philosophy (3rd edn 2013) ch 1\n Michael J. Thompson, The Limits of Liberalism: A Republican Theory of Social Justice (International Journal of Ethics: vol. 7, no. 3 (2011)",
"Justice\nSocial inequality\nSocial work\nLiberalism\nLeft-wing politics \nProgressivism\nConcepts in political philosophy"
] |
A Clockwork Orange (film)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%20Clockwork%20Orange%20%28film%29
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[
"A Clockwork Orange is a 1971 dystopian crime film adapted, produced, and directed by Stanley Kubrick, based on Anthony Burgess's 1962 novel of the same name. It employs disturbing, violent images to comment on psychiatry, juvenile delinquency, youth gangs, and other social, political, and economic subjects in a dystopian near-future Britain.",
"Alex (Malcolm McDowell), the central character, is a charismatic, anti-social delinquent whose interests include classical music (especially Beethoven), committing rape, theft, and ultra-violence. He leads a small gang of thugs, Pete (Michael Tarn), Georgie (James Marcus), and Dim (Warren Clarke), whom he calls his droogs (from the Russian word друг, which is \"friend\", \"buddy\")",
". The film chronicles the horrific crime spree of his gang, his capture, and attempted rehabilitation via an experimental psychological conditioning technique (the \"Ludovico Technique\") promoted by the Minister of the Interior (Anthony Sharp). Alex narrates most of the film in Nadsat, a fractured adolescent slang composed of Slavic languages (especially Russian), English, and Cockney rhyming slang.",
"The film premiered in New York City on 19 December 1971 and was released in the United Kingdom on 13 January 1972. The film was met with polarised reviews from critics and was controversial due to its depictions of graphic violence. After it was cited as having inspired copycat acts of violence, the film was withdrawn from British cinemas at Kubrick's behest, and it was also banned in several other countries. In the years following, the film underwent a critical re-evaluation and gained a cult following",
". In the years following, the film underwent a critical re-evaluation and gained a cult following. It received several awards and nominations, including four nominations at the 44th Academy Awards, including Best Picture.",
"In the British Film Institute's 2012 Sight & Sound polls of the world's greatest films, A Clockwork Orange was ranked 75th in the directors' poll and 235th in the critics' poll. In 2020, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\".\n\nPlot",
"In a futuristic Britain, Alex DeLarge is the leader of a gang of \"droogs\": Georgie, Dim and Pete. One night, after getting intoxicated on drug-laden \"milk-plus\", they engage in an evening of \"ultra-violence\", which includes a fight with a rival gang. They drive to the country home of writer Frank Alexander and trick his wife into letting them inside. They beat Alexander to the point of crippling him, and Alex violently rapes Alexander's wife while singing \"Singin' in the Rain\"",
". The next day, while truant from school, Alex is approached by his probation officer, PR Deltoid, who is aware of Alex's activities and cautions him.",
"Alex's droogs express discontent with petty crime and want more equality and high-yield thefts, but Alex asserts his authority by attacking them. Later, Alex invades the home of a wealthy \"cat-lady\" and bludgeons her with a phallic sculpture while his droogs remain outside. On hearing sirens, Alex tries to flee, but Dim smashes a bottle in his face, stunning Alex and leaving him to be arrested",
". Deltoid brings word that the woman has died of her injuries, and Alex is convicted of murder and sentenced to 14 years in prison.",
"Two years into the sentence, Alex eagerly takes up an offer to be a test subject for the Minister of the Interior's new Ludovico technique, an experimental aversion therapy for rehabilitating criminals within two weeks. Alex is strapped to a chair, his eyes are clamped open, and he is injected with drugs. He is then forced to watch films of sex and violence, some of which are accompanied by the music of his favourite composer, Ludwig van Beethoven",
". Alex becomes nauseated by the films and, fearing the technique will make him sick upon hearing Beethoven, begs for an end to the treatment.",
"Two weeks later, the Minister demonstrates Alex's rehabilitation to a gathering of officials. Alex is unable to fight back against an actor who taunts and attacks him and becomes ill upon seeing a topless woman. The prison chaplain complains that Alex has been robbed of his free will; the Minister asserts that the Ludovico technique will cut crime and alleviate crowding in prisons.",
"Alex is released from prison, only to find that the police have sold his possessions to provide compensation to his victims and his parents have let out his room. Alex encounters an elderly vagrant whom he attacked years earlier, and the vagrant and his friends attack him. Alex is saved by two policemen but is shocked to find they are his former droogs Dim and Georgie. They drive him to the countryside, beat him, and nearly drown him before abandoning him",
". They drive him to the countryside, beat him, and nearly drown him before abandoning him. Alex barely makes it to the doorstep of a nearby home before collapsing.",
"Alex wakes up to find himself in the home of Mr Alexander, who is now using a wheelchair. Alexander does not recognise Alex from the previous attack, but knows of him and the Ludovico technique from the newspapers. He sees Alex as a political weapon and prepares to present him to his colleagues. While bathing, Alex breaks into \"Singin' in the Rain\", causing Alexander to realise that Alex was the person who assaulted his wife and him",
". With help from his colleagues, Alexander drugs Alex and locks him in an upstairs bedroom. He then plays Beethoven's Ninth Symphony loudly from the floor below. Unable to withstand the sickening pain, Alex attempts suicide by jumping out of the window.",
"Alex survives the attempt and wakes up in hospital with multiple injuries. While being given a series of psychological tests, he finds that he no longer has aversions to violence and sex. The Minister arrives and apologises to Alex. He informs Alex that the government has had Mr Alexander institutionalised. He offers to take care of Alex and get him a job in return for his co-operation with his election campaign and public relations counter-offensive",
". As a sign of goodwill, the Minister brings in a stereo system playing Beethoven's Ninth. Alex then contemplates violence and has vivid thoughts of having sex with a woman in front of an approving crowd, thinking to himself, \"I was cured, all right!\"",
"Cast\n\nThe film provided early roles for Steven Berkoff, David Prowse, and Carol Drinkwater, who appeared as a police officer, Mr Alexander's attendant Julian, and a nurse, respectively.\n\nThemes",
"Morality",
"The film's central moral question is the definition of \"goodness\" and whether it makes sense to use aversion therapy to stop immoral behaviour. Stanley Kubrick, writing in Saturday Review, described the film: \"A social satire dealing with the question of whether behavioural psychology and psychological conditioning are dangerous new weapons for a totalitarian government to use to impose vast controls on its citizens and turn them into little more than robots",
".\" Similarly, on the production's call sheet, Kubrick wrote: \"It is a story of the dubious redemption of a teenage delinquent by condition-reflex therapy. It is, at the same time, a running lecture on free-will.\"",
"After aversion therapy, Alex behaves like a good member of society, though not through choice. His goodness is involuntary; he has become the titular clockwork orange—organic on the outside, mechanical on the inside. After Alex has undergone the Ludovico technique, the chaplain criticises his new attitude as false, arguing that true goodness must come from within",
". This leads to the theme of abusing liberties—personal, governmental, civil—by Alex, with two conflicting political forces, the Government and the Dissidents, both manipulating Alex purely for their own political ends. The story portrays the \"conservative\" and \"leftist\" parties as equally worthy of criticism. The writer Frank Alexander, a victim of Alex and his gang, wants revenge against Alex and sees him as a means of definitively turning the populace against the incumbent government and its new regime",
". He fears the new government and, in a telephone conversation, he says: \"Recruiting brutal young roughs into the police; proposing debilitating and will-sapping techniques of conditioning. Oh, we've seen it all before in other countries; the thin end of the wedge! Before we know where we are, we shall have the full apparatus of totalitarianism.\"",
"On the other side, the Minister of the Interior (the Government) jails Mr Alexander (the Dissident Intellectual) on the excuse of his endangering Alex (the People), rather than the government's totalitarian regime (described by Mr Alexander). It is unclear whether he has been harmed; however, the Minister tells Alex that the writer has been denied the ability to write and produce \"subversive\" material that is critical of the incumbent government and meant to provoke political unrest.\n\nPsychology",
"The film critiques the behaviourism or \"behavioural psychology\" propounded by psychologists John B. Watson and B. F. Skinner. Burgess disapproved of behaviourism, calling Skinner's book Beyond Freedom and Dignity (1971) \"one of the most dangerous books ever written\"",
". Although behaviourism's limitations were conceded by its principal founder, Watson, Skinner argued that behaviour modification—specifically, operant conditioning (learned behaviours via systematic reward-and-punishment techniques) rather than the \"classical\" Watsonian conditioning—is the key to an ideal society. The film's Ludovico technique is widely perceived as a parody of aversion therapy, which is a form of classical conditioning.",
"Author Paul Duncan said: \"Alex is the narrator so we see everything from his point of view, including his mental images. The implication is that all of the images, both real and imagined, are part of Alex's fantasies.\"",
"Psychiatrist Aaron Stern, the former head of the MPAA rating board, believed that Alex represents man in his natural state, the unconscious mind. Alex becomes \"civilised\" after receiving his Ludovico \"cure\" and the sickness in the aftermath Stern considered to be the \"neurosis imposed by society\".",
"Kubrick told film critics Philip Strick and Penelope Houston: \"Alex makes no attempt to deceive himself or the audience as to his total corruption or wickedness. He is the very personification of evil. On the other hand, he has winning qualities: his total candour, his wit, his intelligence, and his energy; these are attractive qualities and ones, I might add, which he shares with Richard III.\"",
"Society",
"The society depicted in the film was perceived by some as Communist (as Michel Ciment pointed out in an interview with Kubrick) due to its slight ties to Russian culture. The teenage slang has a heavily Russian influence, as in the novel; Burgess explains the slang as being, in part, intended to draw a reader into the world of the book's characters and to prevent the book from becoming outdated",
". There is some evidence to suggest that the society is a socialist one, or perhaps a society evolving from a failed socialism into an authoritarian society. In the novel, streets have paintings of working men in the style of Russian socialist art, and the film shows a mural of socialist artwork with obscenities drawn on it",
". As Malcolm McDowell points out on the DVD commentary, Alex's residence was shot on failed municipal architecture and the name \"Municipal Flat Block 18A, Linear North\" alludes to socialist-style housing.",
"When the new right-wing government takes power, the atmosphere is certainly more authoritarian than the anarchist air of the beginning. Kubrick's response to Ciment's question remained ambiguous as to what kind of society it is. Kubrick asserted that the film held comparisons between both ends of the political spectrum and that there is little difference between the two. Kubrick stated: \"The Minister, played by Anthony Sharp, is clearly a figure of the Right",
". Kubrick stated: \"The Minister, played by Anthony Sharp, is clearly a figure of the Right. The writer, Patrick Magee, is a lunatic of the Left... They differ only in their dogma. Their means and ends are hardly distinguishable.\"",
"Production\nAnthony Burgess sold the film rights of his novel for , shortly after its publication in 1962. Originally, the film was projected to star the rock band The Rolling Stones, with the band's lead singer Mick Jagger expressing interest in playing the lead role of Alex, and British filmmaker Ken Russell attached to direct. However, this never came to fruition due to problems with the British Board of Film Classification (BBFC), and the rights ultimately fell to Kubrick.",
"McDowell was chosen for the role of Alex after Kubrick saw him in the film if.... (1968). When asking why he was picked for the role, Kubrick told him: \"You can exude intelligence on the screen.\" He also helped Kubrick on the uniform of Alex's gang, when he showed Kubrick the cricket whites he had. Kubrick asked him to put the box (jockstrap) not under but on top of the costume.",
"During the filming of the Ludovico technique scene, McDowell scratched a cornea and was temporarily blinded. The doctor standing next to him in the scene, dropping saline solution into Alex's forced-open eyes, was a real physician present to prevent the actor's eyes from drying. McDowell also cracked some ribs filming the humiliation stage show",
". McDowell also cracked some ribs filming the humiliation stage show. A unique special effect technique was used when Alex jumps out of the window in a suicide attempt, showing the camera approaching the ground from Alex's point of view. This effect was achieved by dropping a Newman-Sinclair clockwork camera in a box, lens-first, from the third storey of the Corus Hotel. To Kubrick's surprise, the camera survived six takes.",
"Adaptation",
"The cinematic adaptation of A Clockwork Orange (1962) was not initially planned. Screenplay writer Terry Southern gave Kubrick a copy of the novel, but, as he was developing a Napoleon Bonaparte-related project, Kubrick put it aside. Kubrick's wife, in an interview, said she had given Kubrick the novel after having read it. Kubrick said: \"I was excited by everything about it: the plot, the ideas, the characters, and, of course, the language",
". The story functions, of course, on several levels: political, sociological, philosophical, and, what's most important, on a dreamlike psychological-symbolic level.\" Kubrick wrote a screenplay faithful to the novel, saying: \"I think whatever Burgess had to say about the story was said in the book, but I did invent a few useful narrative ideas and reshape some of the scenes.\" Kubrick based the script on the shortened US edition of the book, which omitted the final chapter.",
"Direction",
"Kubrick was a perfectionist who researched meticulously, with thousands of photographs taken of potential locations, and many scene takes. He was so meticulous that McDowell stated: \"If Kubrick hadn't been a film director he'd have been a General Chief of Staff of the US Forces. No matter what it is—even if it's a question of buying a shampoo it goes through him. He just likes total control.\" Filming took place between September 1970 and April 1971",
". He just likes total control.\" Filming took place between September 1970 and April 1971. Technically, to achieve and convey the fantastic, dream-like quality of the story, he filmed with extreme wide-angle lenses such as the Kinoptik Tegea 9.8 mm for 35 mm Arriflex cameras.",
"Music\n\nThe main theme is an electronic arrangement of a short excerpt from Henry Purcell's Music for the Funeral of Queen Mary, and the soundtrack has two of Edward Elgar's Pomp and Circumstance Marches.",
"Alex is fanatical about Ludwig van Beethoven in general and his Ninth Symphony in particular, and the soundtrack includes an electronic version specially arranged by Wendy Carlos of the Scherzo and other parts of the Symphony. The soundtrack contains more music by Rossini than by Beethoven",
". The soundtrack contains more music by Rossini than by Beethoven. The fast-motion sex scene with the two girls, the slow-motion fight between Alex and his Droogs, the fight with Billy Boy's gang, the drive to the writer's home (\"playing 'hogs of the road'\"), the invasion of the Cat Lady's home, and the scene in which Alex looks into the river and contemplates suicide before being approached by the beggar are all accompanied by Rossini's William Tell Overture or The Thieving Magpie Overture.",
"Reception",
"Critical reception",
"On release, A Clockwork Orange was met with mixed reviews. Vincent Canby of The New York Times praised the film: \"McDowell is splendid as tomorrow's child, but it is always Mr. Kubrick's picture, which is even technically more interesting than 2001. Among other devices, Mr. Kubrick constantly uses what I assume to be a wide-angle lens to distort space relationships within scenes, so that the disconnection between lives, and between people and environment, becomes an actual, literal fact",
".\" The following year, after the film won the New York Film Critics Award, he called it \"a brilliant and dangerous work, but it is dangerous in a way that brilliant things sometimes are\". The film also had notable detractors. Film critic Stanley Kauffmann commented, \"Inexplicably, the script leaves out Burgess' reference to the title\". Roger Ebert gave A Clockwork Orange two stars out of four, calling it an \"ideological mess\"",
". Roger Ebert gave A Clockwork Orange two stars out of four, calling it an \"ideological mess\". In her New Yorker review titled \"Stanley Strangelove\", Pauline Kael called it pornographic because of how it dehumanised Alex's victims while highlighting the sufferings of the protagonist. Kael noted the Billyboy's gang extended stripping of the woman they intended to rape, claiming it was offered for titillation.",
"In a retrospective review, Leslie Halliwell described it as\n“A repulsive film in which intellectuals have found acres of social and political meaning; the average judgement is likely to remain that it is pretentious and nasty rubbish for sick minds who do not mind jazzed-up images and incoherent sound.”",
"John Simon noted that the novel's most ambitious effects were based on language and the alienating effect of the narrator's Nadsat slang, making it a poor choice for a film. Concurring with some of Kael's criticisms about the depiction of Alex's victims, Simon noted that the character of Mr Alexander, who was young and likeable in the novel, was played by Patrick Magee, \"a very quirky and middle-aged actor who specialises in being repellent\"",
". Simon comments further that \"Kubrick over-directs the basically excessive Magee until his eyes erupt like missiles from their silos and his face turns every shade of a Technicolor sunset\".",
"Over the years, A Clockwork Orange gained a status as a cult classic. For The Guardian, Philip French stated that the film's controversial reputation likely stemmed from the fact that it was released during a time when fear of teenage delinquency was high. Adam Nayman of The Ringer wrote that the film's themes of delinquency, corrupt power structures and dehumanisation are relevant in today's society",
". Simon Braund of Empire praised the \"dazzling visual style\" and McDowell's \"simply astonishing\" portrayal of Alex. Roger Ebert softened on the film years after first viewing it, declaring on his talk show that while he still thought the film had \"all head and no heart\", he felt Kubrick's detachments from the violence more so than he did in the first viewing.",
"On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 88% based on 80 reviews, with an average rating of 8.8/10. The website's critical consensus reads: \"Disturbing and thought-provoking, A Clockwork Orange is a cold, dystopian nightmare with a very dark sense of humor\". Metacritic gives the film a score of 77 out of 100, based on reviews by 21 critics, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\".",
"Box office\nThe film was a box-office success, grossing $41 million in the United States and about $73 million overseas for a worldwide total of $114 million on a budget of $1.3 million.\n\nThe film was also successful in the United Kingdom, playing for over a year at the Warner West End in London. After two years of release, the film had earned Warner Bros. rentals of $2.5 million in the United Kingdom and was the number three film for 1973 behind Live and Let Die and The Godfather.",
"The film was the most popular film of 1972 in France with 7,611,745 admissions.\n\nThe film was re-released in North America in 1973 and earned $1.5 million in rentals.\n\nControversies\n\nAmerican version\nIn the United States, A Clockwork Orange was given an X rating in its original release in 1972. Later, Kubrick replaced approximately 30 seconds of sexually explicit footage from two scenes with less explicit action to obtain an R rating re-release later in 1972.",
"Because of the explicit sex and violence, The National Catholic Office for Motion Pictures rated it C (\"condemned\"), a rating which recommended against Roman Catholics seeing the film. In 1982, the office abolished the \"condemned\" rating. Subsequently, films deemed to have unacceptable levels of sex and violence by the Conference of Bishops are rated O, \"morally offensive\".",
"British withdrawal",
"Although it was passed uncut for UK cinemas in December 1971, British authorities considered the sexual violence in the film to be extreme. In March 1972, during the trial of a 14-year-old boy accused of the manslaughter of a classmate, the prosecutor referred to A Clockwork Orange, suggesting that the film had a macabre relevance to the case",
". The film was linked to the murder of an elderly vagrant by a 16-year-old boy in Bletchley, Buckinghamshire, who pleaded guilty after telling police that friends had told him of the film \"and the beating up of an old boy like this one\". Roger Gray, for the defence, told the court that \"the link between this crime and sensational literature, particularly A Clockwork Orange, is established beyond reasonable doubt\"",
". The press also blamed the film for a rape in which the attackers sang \"Singin' in the Rain\" as \"Singin' in the Rape\". Christiane Kubrick, the director's wife, has said that the family received threats and had protesters outside their home.",
"The film was withdrawn from British release in 1973 by Warner Bros at the request of Kubrick. In response to allegations that the film was responsible for copycat violence Kubrick stated:",
"The Scala Cinema Club went into receivership in 1993 after losing a legal battle following an unauthorised screening of the film. In the same year, Channel 4 broadcast Forbidden Fruit, a 27-minute documentary about the withdrawal of the film in Britain. It contains footage from A Clockwork Orange. It was difficult to see A Clockwork Orange in the United Kingdom for 27 years. It was only after Kubrick died in 1999 that the film was re-released theatrically, on VHS, and on DVD",
". On 4 July 2001, the uncut version premiered on Sky TV's Sky Box Office, where it ran until mid-September.",
"Censorship in other countries",
"In Ireland, the film was banned on 10 April 1973. Warner Bros. decided against appealing the decision. Eventually, the film was passed uncut for cinema on 13 December 1999 and released on 17 March 2000. The re-release poster, a replica of the original British version, was rejected due to the words \"ultra-violence\" and \"rape\" in the tagline",
". Head censor Sheamus Smith explained his rejection to The Irish Times: \"I believe that the use of those words in the context of advertising would be offensive and inappropriate.\"",
"In Singapore, the film was banned for over 30 years, before an attempt at release was made in 2006. However, the submission for an M18 rating was rejected, and the ban was not lifted. The ban was later lifted and the film was shown uncut (with an R21 rating) on 28 October 2011, as part of the Perspectives Film Festival.",
"In South Africa, it was banned under the apartheid regime for 13 years, then in 1984 was released with one cut and only made available to people over the age of 21. It was banned in South Korea and in the Canadian provinces of Alberta and Nova Scotia. The Maritime Film Classification Board also reversed the ban eventually. Both jurisdictions now grant an R rating to the film.",
"In Brazil, the film was banned under the military dictatorship until 1978, when the film was released in a version with black dots covering the genitals and breasts of the actors in the nude scenes.",
"In Spain, the film debuted at the 1975 Valladolid International Film Festival under the dictatorship of Francisco Franco. It was expected to be screened in the University of Valladolid but, due to student protests, the university had been closed for two months. The final screenings were in the commercial festival venues, with long queues of expectant students. After the festival, the film went into the arthouse circuit and later in commercial cinemas successfully.",
"In Malta, a ban on the film was lifted in 2000, when it was shown in local cinemas for the first time. The film was brought up during the compilation of evidence on the rape and murder of Paulina Dembska, which took place on 2 January 2022 in Sliema, for the accused attacker compared himself to Alex during police interrogation.",
"Novelist's response",
"Burgess had mixed reception about the film adaptation of his novel, publicly saying he loved Malcolm McDowell and Michael Bates, and the use of music. He praised it as so \"brilliant\" that it might be dangerous. He was concerned that it lacked the novel's redemptive final chapter, an absence he blamed upon his American publisher and not Kubrick. All US editions of the novel prior to 1986 omit the final chapter",
". All US editions of the novel prior to 1986 omit the final chapter. Kubrick called the missing chapter \"an extra chapter\" and claimed that he had not read the original version until he had virtually finished the screenplay, and that he had never seriously considered using it. In Kubrick's opinion – as in the opinion of other readers, including the original American editor – the final chapter was unconvincing and inconsistent with the book.",
"Burgess reports in his autobiography You've Had Your Time (1990) that he and Kubrick at first enjoyed a good relationship, each holding similar philosophical and political views and each very interested in literature, cinema, music, and Napoleon Bonaparte. Burgess's novel Napoleon Symphony (1974) was dedicated to Kubrick. Their relationship soured when Kubrick left Burgess to defend the film from accusations of glorifying violence",
". A lapsed Catholic, Burgess tried many times to explain the Christian moral points of the story to outraged Christian organisations and to defend it against newspaper accusations that it supported fascist dogma. He also went to receive awards given to Kubrick on his behalf. He was in no way involved in the production of the film. The only profit he made directly from the film was the initial $500 that had been given to him for the rights to the adaptation.",
"Burgess's own stage adaptation of the novel, A Clockwork Orange: A Play with Music (1984), contains a direct reference to Kubrick. In the final moment of the play Alex joins in a song with the other characters. In the script's stage directions it states that while this happens: \"A man bearded like Stanley Kubrick comes on playing, in exquisite counterpoint, 'Singin’ in the Rain' on the trumpet. He is kicked off the stage.\"\n\nAccolades",
"Comparison of film and novel",
"Kubrick's film is relatively faithful to the Burgess novel, omitting only the final, positive chapter, in which Alex matures and outgrows sociopathy. While the film ends with Alex being offered an open-ended government job, implying he remains a sociopath at heart, the novel ends with Alex's positive change in character. This plot discrepancy occurred because Kubrick based his screenplay on the novel's American edition, in which the final chapter had been deleted on the insistence of its American publisher",
". He claimed not to have read the complete, original version of the novel until he had almost finished writing the screenplay, and that he never considered using it. The introduction to the 1996 edition of A Clockwork Orange says that Kubrick found the end of the original edition too blandly optimistic and unrealistic.",
"Critic Randy Rasmussen has argued that the government in the film is in a shambolic state of desperation, whereas the government in the novel is quite strong and self-confident. The former reflects Kubrick's preoccupation with the theme of acts of self-interest masked as simply following procedure.One example of this would be differences in the portrayal of P. R. Deltoid, Alex's \"post-corrective advisor\". In the novel, P. R",
". R. Deltoid, Alex's \"post-corrective advisor\". In the novel, P. R. Deltoid appears to have some moral authority (although not enough to prevent Alex from lying to him or engaging in crime, despite his protests). In the film, Deltoid is slightly sadistic and seems to have a sexual interest in Alex, interviewing him in his parents' bedroom and smacking him in the crotch.",
"In the film, Alex has a pet snake. There is no mention of this in the novel.\n In the film Alex's prison number is 655321, in the book his prisoner number is 6655321.",
"In the novel, F. Alexander recognises Alex through several careless references to the previous attack (such as his wife then claiming they did not have a telephone). In the film, Alex is recognised when singing the song 'Singing in the Rain' in the bath, which he had hauntingly done while attacking F. Alexander's wife. The song does not appear at all in the book, as it was an improvisation by actor Malcolm McDowell when Kubrick complained that the rape scene was too \"stiff\".",
"Home media\nIn the US, the film has been widely available on home video since 1980 and was re-released several times on VHS. It was first released on DVD in the US on 29 June 1999.",
"In the UK, the film was eventually released by Warner Home Video on 13 November 2000 (on both VHS and DVD), individually and as part of The Stanley Kubrick Collection DVD set. Due to negative comments from fans, Warner Bros re-released the film, its image digitally restored and its soundtrack remastered. A limited-edition collector's set with a soundtrack disc, film poster, booklet, and filmstrip followed, and was discontinued",
". In 2005, a British re-release, packaged as an \"Iconic Film\" in a limited-edition slipcase was published, identical to the remastered DVD set, except for different package cover art. In 2006, Warner Bros announced the September publication of a two-disc special edition featuring a Malcolm McDowell commentary, and the releases of other two-disc sets of Stanley Kubrick films. Several British retailers had set the release date as 6 November 2006",
". Several British retailers had set the release date as 6 November 2006. The release was delayed and re-announced for the 2007 Holiday Season.",
"An HD DVD, Blu-ray, and DVD version was re-released on 23 October 2007, alongside four other Kubrick classics, with 1080p video transfers and remixed Dolby TrueHD 5.1 (for HD DVD) and uncompressed 5.1 PCM (for Blu-ray) audio tracks. Unlike the previous version, the DVD re-release edition is anamorphically enhanced",
". Unlike the previous version, the DVD re-release edition is anamorphically enhanced. The Blu-ray was reissued for the 40th anniversary of the film's release, identical to the previously released Blu-ray, plus a Digibook and the Stanley Kubrick: A Life in Pictures documentary as a bonus feature.",
"In 2021, a 4K restoration was completed with Kubrick's former assistant Leon Vitali working closely with Warner Bros. It was released in the US on 21 September 2021 and 4 October 2021 in the UK.\n\nLegacy and influence\nAlong with Bonnie and Clyde (1967), Night of the Living Dead (1968), The Wild Bunch (1969), Soldier Blue (1970), Dirty Harry (1971), and Straw Dogs (1971), the film is considered a landmark in the relaxation of control on violence in cinema.",
"A Clockwork Orange remains an influential work in cinema and other media. The film is frequently referenced in popular culture, which Adam Chandler of The Atlantic attributes to Kubrick's \"genre-less\" directing techniques that brought novel innovation in filming, music, and production that had not been seen at the time of the film's original release.",
"The Village Voice ranked A Clockwork Orange at number 112 in its Top 250 \"Best Films of the Century\" list in 1999, based on a poll of critics. The film appears several times on the American Film Institute's (AFI) top movie lists. The film was listed at No. 46 in the 1998 AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movies, at No. 70 in the 2007 second listing. \"Alex DeLarge\" is listed 12th in the villains section of the AFI's 100 Years... 100 Heroes and Villains",
"... 100 Heroes and Villains. In 2008, the AFI's 10 Top 10 rated A Clockwork Orange as the 4th greatest science-fiction movie to date. The film was also placed 21st in the AFI's 100 Years... 100 Thrills",
"In the British Film Institute's 2012 Sight & Sound polls of the world's greatest films, A Clockwork Orange was ranked 75th in the directors' poll and 235th in the critics' poll. In 2010, Time magazine placed it 9th on their list of the Top 10 Ridiculously Violent Movies. In 2008, Empire ranked it 37th on their list of \"The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time\", and in 2013, Empire ranked it 11th on their list of \"The 100 Best British Films Ever\"",
". In 2010, The Guardian ranked the film 6th in its list of 25 greatest arthouse films. The Spanish director Luis Buñuel praised the film highly. He once said: \"A Clockwork Orange is my current favourite. I was predisposed against the film. After seeing it, I realised it is only a movie about what the modern world really means\".",
"A Clockwork Orange was added to the United States' National Film Registry in 2020 as a work considered to be \"culturally, historically or aesthetically\" significant.\n\nSee also\n Violence in art\n List of cultural references to A Clockwork Orange\n List of films featuring home invasions\n BFI Top 100 British films\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nBibliography\n\nFurther reading\n \n \n \n A Clockwork Orange has been cited in a murder case. It is not the first time - Times of Malta 21 January 2022\n\nExternal links",
"External links\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \"One on One with Malcolm McDowell\" from HoboTrashcan.com (2008)",
"Film\n1971 films\n1970s dystopian films\n1970s crime comedy films\n1970s science fiction comedy films\n1971 crime drama films\n1970s prison drama films\nBritish prison drama films\nBritish crime comedy-drama films\nBritish science fiction films\n1970s English-language films\nFictional-language films\nFilms directed by Stanley Kubrick\nBritish films about revenge\nFilms based on British novels\nFilms based on science fiction novels\nFilms set in London\nFilms set in the future\nFilms shot in Berkshire",
"Films set in London\nFilms set in the future\nFilms shot in Berkshire\nFilms shot in Buckinghamshire\nFilms shot in Hertfordshire\nFilms shot in London\nFilms shot in Oxfordshire\nFilms shot at Pinewood Studios\nWarner Bros. films\nFilms with screenplays by Stanley Kubrick\nHugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation winning works\nFilm controversies in the United States\nFilm controversies in the United Kingdom\nRating controversies in film\nObscenity controversies in film\nSexual-related controversies in film",
"Rating controversies in film\nObscenity controversies in film\nSexual-related controversies in film\nFilm censorship in the United Kingdom\nCensored films\nSelf-censorship\nFilms produced by Stanley Kubrick\nFilms scored by Wendy Carlos\nHome invasions in film\nUnited States National Film Registry films\nFilms about mind control\nGang rape in films\n1970s British films\nCatholic Legion of Decency condemned film"
] |
Outline of science
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline%20of%20science
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[
"The following outline is provided as a topical overview of science; the discipline of science is defined as both the systematic effort of acquiring knowledge through observation, experimentation and reasoning, and the body of knowledge thus acquired, the word \"science\" derives from the Latin word scientia meaning knowledge. A practitioner of science is called a \"scientist\"",
". A practitioner of science is called a \"scientist\". Modern science respects objective logical reasoning, and follows a set of core procedures or rules to determine the nature and underlying natural laws of all things, with a scope encompassing the entire universe. These procedures, or rules, are known as the scientific method.",
"Essence of science \n Research – systematic investigation into existing or new knowledge.\n Scientific discovery – observation of new phenomena, new actions, or new events and providing new reasoning to explain the knowledge gathered through such observations with previously acquired knowledge from abstract thought and everyday experiences.\n Laboratory – facility that provides controlled conditions in which scientific research, experiments, and measurement may be performed.",
"Objectivity – the idea that scientists, in attempting to uncover truths about the natural world, must aspire to eliminate personal or cognitive biases, a priori commitments, emotional involvement, etc.\n Inquiry – any process that has the aim of augmenting knowledge, resolving doubt, or solving a problem.",
"Scientific method \nScientific method (outline) – body of techniques for investigating phenomena and acquiring new knowledge, as well as for correcting and integrating previous knowledge. It is based on observable, empirical, measurable evidence, and subject to laws of reasoning, both deductive and inductive.\n Empirical method –\n Experimental method – The steps involved to produce a reliable and logical conclusion include:\n Conducting initial research and asking a question about a natural phenomenon",
"Conducting initial research and asking a question about a natural phenomenon\n Making observations of the phenomenon and/or collecting data about it\n Forming a hypothesis – proposed explanation for a phenomenon. For a hypothesis to be a scientific hypothesis, the scientific method requires that one can test it. Scientists generally base scientific hypotheses on previous observations that cannot satisfactorily be explained with the available scientific theories.",
"Predicting a logical consequence of the hypothesis\n Testing the hypothesis through an experiment – methodical procedure carried out with the goal of verifying, falsifying, or establishing the validity of a hypothesis. The 3 types of scientific experiments are:",
"Controlled experiment – experiment that compares the results obtained from an experimental sample against a control sample, which is practically identical to the experimental sample except for the one aspect the effect of which is being tested (the independent variable).",
"Natural experiment – empirical study in which the experimental conditions (i.e., which units receive which treatment) are determined by nature or by other factors out of the control of the experimenters and yet the treatment assignment process is arguably exogenous. Thus, natural experiments are observational studies and are not controlled in the traditional sense of a randomized experiment.",
"Observational study – draws inferences about the possible effect of a treatment on subjects, where the assignment of subjects into a treated group versus a control group is outside the control of the investigator.\n Field experiment – applies the scientific method to experimentally examine an intervention in the real world (or as many experimentalists like to say, naturally occurring environments) rather than in the laboratory. See also field research.",
"Gather and analyze data from experiments or observations, including indicators of uncertainty.\n Draw conclusions by comparing data with predictions. Possible outcomes:\n Conclusive:\n The hypothesis is falsified by the data. \n Data are consistent with the hypothesis.\n Data are consistent with alternative hypotheses. \n Inconclusive:\n Data are not relevant to the hypothesis, or data and predictions are incommensurate.\n There is too much uncertainty in the data to draw any conclusion.",
"There is too much uncertainty in the data to draw any conclusion.\n Further steps include peer review and enabling others to reproduce or falsify the observations and/or conclusions\n Deductive-nomological model\n Scientific modelling –\n Models of scientific method",
"Deductive-nomological model\n Scientific modelling –\n Models of scientific method\n Hypothetico-deductive model – proposed description of scientific method. According to it, scientific inquiry proceeds by formulating a hypothesis in a form that could conceivably be falsified by a test on observable data. A test that could and does run contrary to predictions of the hypothesis is taken as a falsification of the hypothesis. A test that could but does not run contrary to the hypothesis corroborates the theory.",
"Branches of science \n\nBranches of science – divisions within science with respect to the entity or system concerned, which typically embodies its own terminology and nomenclature. The most traditional data structure used for organizing the subfields of science is the \"tree of knowledge\", hence the idea of different scientific \"branches\". But over time, several other taxonomic systems have also been proposed for that purpose (such as networks, tables or circular schemes).",
"Formal science \nFormal science – branches of knowledge that are concerned with formal systems, such as those under the branches of: logic, mathematics, computer science, statistics, and some aspects of linguistics. Unlike other sciences, the formal sciences are not concerned with the validity of theories based on observations in the real world, but instead with the properties of formal systems based on definitions and rules.\n Branches of formal science (also known as the formal sciences)",
"Natural science",
"Natural science (outline) – a major branch of science that tries to explain and predict nature's phenomena, based on empirical evidence. In natural science, hypotheses must be verified scientifically to be regarded as scientific theory. Validity, accuracy, and social mechanisms ensuring quality control, such as peer review and repeatability of findings, are among the criteria and methods used for this purpose. Natural science can be broken into two main branches: biology and physical science",
". Natural science can be broken into two main branches: biology and physical science. Each of these branches, and all of their sub-branches, are referred to as natural sciences.",
"Branches of natural science (also known as the natural sciences)",
"Social science",
"Social science – study of the social world constructed between humans. The social sciences usually limit themselves to an anthropomorphically centric view of these interactions with minimal emphasis on the inadvertent impact of social human behavior on the external environment (physical, biological, ecological, etc.). 'Social' is the concept of exchange/influence of ideas, thoughts, and relationship interactions (resulting in harmony, peace, self enrichment, favoritism, maliciousness, justice seeking, etc",
".) between humans. The scientific method is used in many social sciences, albeit adapted to the needs of the social construct being studied.",
"Branches of social science (also known as the social sciences)",
"Applied science \nApplied science – branch of science that applies existing scientific knowledge to develop more practical applications, including inventions and other technological advancements.\n Branches of applied science (also known as the applied sciences)\n\nPhilosophy \n\nEpistemology\nFormal system\nFormal epistemology\nKnowledge\nLogic\nMetaepistemology\nMetaphilosophy\nMetaphysics\nOntology\nPhilosophy\nReason",
"Types of scientific fields \n Exact science – any field of science capable of accurate quantitative expression or precise predictions and rigorous methods of testing hypotheses, especially reproducible experiments involving quantifiable predictions and measurements.\n Fundamental science – science that describes the most basic objects, forces, relations between them and laws governing them, such that all other phenomena may be in principle derived from them following the logic of scientific reductionism.",
"Hard and soft science – colloquial terms often used when comparing scientific fields of academic research or scholarship, with hard meaning perceived as being more scientific, rigorous, or accurate.",
"Politics of science \n Disruptive technology – innovation that helps create a new market and value network, and eventually goes on to disrupt an existing market and value network (over a few years or decades), displacing an earlier technology.",
"Kansas evolution hearings – series of hearings held in Topeka, Kansas, United States 5 to 12 May 2005 by the Kansas State Board of Education and its State Board Science Hearing Committee to change how evolution and the origin of life would be taught in the state's public high school science classes.\n List of books about the politics of science – list of books about the politics of science.\n Politicization of science – politicization of science is the manipulation of science for political gain.",
"Science by press release – refers to scientists who put an unusual focus on publicizing results of research in the media.",
"History of science",
"History of science – history of science in general\n History of scientific method – history of scientific method is a history of the methodology of scientific inquiry, as differentiated from a history of science in general.",
"Theories/sociology of science – sociology and philosophy of science, as well as the entire field of science studies, have in the 20th century been occupied with the question of large-scale patterns and trends in the development of science, and asking questions about how science \"works\" both in a philosophical and practical sense.",
"Historiography – study of the history and methodology of the sub-discipline of history, known as the history of science, including its disciplinary aspects and practices (methods, theories, schools) and to the study of its own historical development (\"History of History of Science\", i.e., the history of the discipline called History of Science).",
"History of pseudoscience – history of pseudoscience is the study of pseudoscientific theories over time. A pseudoscience is a set of ideas that presents itself as science, while it does not meet the criteria to properly be called such.\n Timeline of scientific discoveries – shows the date of publication of major scientific theories and discoveries, along with the discoverer. In many cases, the discoveries spanned several years.",
"Timeline of scientific thought – lists the major landmarks across all scientific philosophy and methodological sciences.",
"By period \n History of science in early cultures – history of science in early cultures refers to the study of protoscience in ancient history, prior to the development of science in the Middle Ages.",
"History of science in Classical Antiquity – history of science in classical antiquity encompasses both those inquiries into the workings of the universe aimed at such practical goals as establishing a reliable calendar or determining how to cure a variety of illnesses and those abstract investigations known as natural philosophy.",
"History of science in the Middle Ages – Science in the Middle Ages comprised the study of nature, including practical disciplines, the mathematics and natural philosophy in medieval Europe.\n History of science in the Renaissance – During the Renaissance, great advances occurred in geography, astronomy, chemistry, physics, mathematics, manufacturing, and engineering.",
"Science and inventions of Leonardo da Vinci – Italian polymath, regarded as the epitome of the \"Renaissance Man\", displaying skills in numerous diverse areas of study.\n Scientific revolution – scientific revolution is an era associated primarily with the 16th and 17th centuries during which new ideas and knowledge in physics, astronomy, biology, medicine and chemistry transformed medieval and ancient views of nature and laid the foundations for modern science.",
"Governmental impact on science during WWII – Governmental impact on science during World War II represents the effect of public administration on technological development that provided many advantages to the armed forces, economies and societies in their strategies during the war.",
"By date",
"List of years in science – events related to science or technology which occurred in the listed year (current year in the box on the right).\n Timeline of scientific discoveries – shows the date of publication of major scientific theories and discoveries, along with the discoverer. In many cases, the discoveries spanned several years.\n Timeline of scientific experiments – shows the date of publication of major scientific experiments.",
"Timeline of the history of the scientific method – shows an overview of the cultural inventions that have contributed to the development of the scientific method.\n List of science timelines – more timeline articles",
"By field",
"History of natural science – study of nature and the physical universe that was dominant before the development of modern science.\n Natural philosophy – study of nature and the physical universe that was dominant before the development of modern science.\n Natural history – scientific research of plants or animals, leaning more towards observational rather than experimental methods of study, and encompasses more research published in magazines than in academic journals.",
"History of biology – traces the study of the living world from ancient to modern times.\n History of ecology – history of the science of ecology.\n History of molecular biology – begins in the 1930s with the convergence of various, previously distinct biological disciplines: biochemistry, genetics, microbiology, and virology.\n History of astronomy – Timeline\n History of chemistry – By 1000 BC, ancient civilizations used technologies that would eventually form the basis of the various branches of chemistry.",
"History of geography\n History of geology – Timeline\n History of meteorology – Timeline\n History of physics – As forms of science historically developed out of philosophy, physics was originally referred to as natural philosophy, a field of study concerned with \"the workings of nature.\"\n History of science and technology",
"History of science and technology\n History of the social sciences – has origin in the common stock of Western philosophy and shares various precursors, but began most intentionally in the early 19th century with the positivist philosophy of science.\n History of archaeology – Timeline\n History of cognitive science",
"History of archaeology – Timeline\n History of cognitive science\n History of criminal justice – Throughout the history of criminal justice, evolving forms of punishment, added rights for offenders and victims, and policing reforms have reflected changing customs, political ideals, and economic conditions.\n History of economics – study of different thinkers and theories in the subject that became political economy and economics from the ancient world to the present day.",
"History of education – development of systematic methods of teaching and learning.\n History of law – study of how law has evolved and why it changed.\n History of linguistics – endeavors to describe and explain the human faculty of language.\n History of marketing – recognized discipline, along with concomitant changes in marketing theory and practice.\n History of parapsychology\n History of political science – social science discipline concerned with the study of the state, government, and politics.",
"History of psychology – Timeline\n History of sociology – Timeline",
"By region\n\nHistory of science in present states, by continent \nSee – :Category:Science and technology by continent\n\nHistory of science in historic states \n Science and technology of the Han dynasty\n Science and technology in the Ottoman Empire\n Science and technology of the Song dynasty\n Science and technology in the Soviet Union\n Science and technology of the Tang dynasty\n\nPhilosophy of science",
"Philosophy of science \n\n Philosophy of science – questions the assumptions, foundations, methods and implications of science.\n Models of scientific inquiry\n\nAdoption, use, results and coordination of science \n\n Science and technology studies\n Scientometrics\n Altmetrics\n Article-level metrics\n Expert elicitation\n Lists of science and technology awards\n Research and development\n Innovation\n Science policy\n Knowledge#Science\n Funding of science",
"Technology and mechanisms of science \n Timeline of temperature and pressure measurement technology\n Laboratory automation\n History of communication\n Internet research\n Scientific journal\n Peer review\n Metascience\n\nScientific community \n Scientific community – group of all interacting scientists.\n\nScientific organizations \n Academy of Sciences – national academy or another learned society dedicated to sciences.",
"Scientists \n Scientist – practitioner of science; an individual who uses scientific method to objectively inquire into the nature of reality—be it the fundamental laws of physics or how people behave. There are many names for scientists, often named in relation to the job that they do. One example of this is a biologist, a scientist who studies biology (the study of living organisms and their environments).\n\nTypes of scientist",
"Types of scientist\n\nBy field \nThe scientific fields mentioned below are generally described by the science they study.",
"Agricultural scientist – broad multidisciplinary field that encompasses the parts of exact, natural, economic and social sciences that are used in the practice and understanding of agriculture.\n Archaeologist – study of human activity, primarily through the recovery and analysis of the material culture and environmental data that they have left behind, which includes artifacts, architecture, biofacts and cultural landscapes (the archaeological record).",
"Astronomer – astronomer is a scientist who studies celestial bodies such as planets, stars and galaxies.\n Astrophysicist – branch of astronomy that deals with the physics of the universe, including the physical properties of celestial objects, as well as their interactions and behavior.\n Biologist – scientist devoted to the study of living organisms and their relationship to their environment.\n Astrobiologist – study of the origin, evolution, distribution, and future of extraterrestrial life.",
"Biophysicist – interdisciplinary science that uses the methods of physical science to study biological systems.\n Biotechnologist – field of applied biology that involves the use of living organisms and bioprocesses in engineering, technology, medicine and other fields requiring bioproducts.\n Botanist – discipline of biology, is the science of plant life.\n Cognitive scientists – scientific study of the mind and its processes.",
"Cognitive scientists – scientific study of the mind and its processes.\n Ecologist – scientific study of the relations that living organisms have with respect to each other and their natural environment.\n Entomologist – scientific study of insects, a branch of arthropodology.\n Evolutionary biologist – sub-field of biology concerned with the study of the evolutionary processes that have given rise to the diversity of life on Earth.",
"Geneticist – biologist who studies genetics, the science of genes, heredity, and variation of organisms.\n Herpetologist – branch of zoology concerned with the study of amphibians (including frogs, toads, salamanders, newts, and gymnophiona) and reptiles (including snakes, lizards, amphibians, turtles, terrapins, tortoises, crocodiles, and the tarantulas).\n Immunologist – branch of biomedical science that covers the study of all aspects of the immune system in all organisms.\n Ichthyologist – study of fish.",
"Ichthyologist – study of fish.\n Lepidopterist – person who specializes in the study of Lepidoptera, members of an order encompassing moths and the three superfamilies of butterflies, skipper butterflies, and moth-butterflies.\n Marine biologist – scientific study of organisms in the ocean or other marine or brackish bodies of water.\n Medical scientist – basic research, applied research, or translational research conducted to aid and support the body of knowledge in the field of medicine.",
"Microbiologist – study of microscopic organisms.\n Mycologist – branch of biology concerned with the study of fungi, including their genetic and biochemical properties, their taxonomy and their use to humans as a source for tinder, medicinals (e.g., penicillin), food (e.g., beer, wine, cheese, edible mushrooms) and entheogens, as well as their dangers, such as poisoning or infection.\n Neuroscientist – individual who studies the scientific field of neuroscience or any of its related sub-fields.",
"Ornithologist – branch of zoology that concerns the study of birds.\n Paleontologist – study of prehistoric life.\n Pathologist – precise study and diagnosis of disease.\n Pharmacologist – branch of medicine and biology concerned with the study of drug action.\n Physiologist – science of the function of living systems.",
"Physiologist – science of the function of living systems.\n Zoologist – branch of biology that relates to the animal kingdom, including the structure, embryology, evolution, classification, habits, and distribution of all animals, both living and extinct.\n Chemist – scientist trained in the study of chemistry.\n Analytical chemist – study of the separation, identification, and quantification of the chemical components of natural and artificial materials.",
"Biochemist – study of chemical processes in living organisms, including, but not limited to, living matter.\n Inorganic chemist – branch of chemistry concerned with the properties and behavior of inorganic compounds.\n Organic chemist – subdiscipline within chemistry involving the scientific study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and preparation (by synthesis or by other means) of carbon-based compounds, hydrocarbons, and their derivatives.",
"Physical chemist – study of macroscopic, atomic, subatomic, and particulate phenomena in chemical systems in terms of physical laws and concepts.\n Earth scientist – all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth.\n Geologist – scientist who studies the solid and liquid matter that constitutes the Earth as well as the processes and history that has shaped it.\n Glaciologist – study of glaciers, or more generally ice and natural phenomena that involve ice.",
"Glaciologist – study of glaciers, or more generally ice and natural phenomena that involve ice.\n Hydrologist – study of the movement, distribution, and quality of water on Earth and other planets, including the hydrologic cycle, water resources and environmental watershed sustainability.\n Limnologist – study of inland waters\n Meteorologist – study of weather\n Mineralogist – study of chemistry, crystal structure, and physical (including optical) properties of minerals.",
"Oceanographer – branch of Earth science that studies the ocean\n Paleontologist – study of prehistoric life\n Seismologist – scientific study of earthquakes and the propagation of elastic waves through the Earth or through other planet-like bodies.\n Volcanologist – study of volcanoes, lava, magma, and related geological, geophysical and geochemical phenomena.\n Informatician – science of information, the practice of information processing, and the engineering of information systems.",
"Computer scientist – scientist who has acquired knowledge of computer science, the study of the theoretical foundations of information and computation\n Library scientist – interdisciplinary or multidisciplinary field that applies the practices, perspectives, and tools of management, information technology, education, and other areas to libraries; the collection, organization, preservation, and dissemination of information resources; and the political economy of information.",
"Management scientist – study of advanced analytical methods to help make better decisions.\n Mathematician– person with an extensive knowledge of mathematics, a field that has been informally defined as being concerned with numbers, data, collection, quantity, structure, space, and change.\n Statistician – someone who works with theoretical or applied statistics.",
"Statistician – someone who works with theoretical or applied statistics.\n Military scientist – process of translating national defense policy to produce military capability by employing military scientists, including theorists, researchers, experimental scientists, applied scientists, designers, engineers, test technicians, and military personnel responsible for prototyping.\n Physicist – scientist who does research in physics",
"Physicist – scientist who does research in physics\n Psychologist – professional or academic title used by individuals who practice psychology\n Abnormal psychologist – branch of psychology that studies unusual patterns of behavior, emotion and thought, which may or may not be understood as precipitating a mental disorder.",
"Educational psychologist – psychologist whose differentiating functions may include diagnostic and psycho-educational assessment, psychological counseling in educational communities (students, teachers, parents and academic authorities), community-type psycho-educational intervention, and mediation, coordination, and referral to other professionals, at all levels of the educational system.",
"Biopsychologist – application of the principles of biology (in particular neurobiology), to the study of physiological, genetic, and developmental mechanisms of behavior in human and non-human animals.\n Clinical psychologist – integration of science, theory and clinical knowledge for the purpose of understanding, preventing, and relieving psychologically based distress or dysfunction and to promote subjective well-being and personal development.",
"Comparative psychologist – scientific study of the behavior and mental processes of non-human animals, especially as these relate to the phylogenetic history, adaptive significance, and development of behavior.\n Cognitive psychologist – subdiscipline of psychology exploring internal mental processes. It is the study of how people perceive, remember, think, speak, and solve problems.",
"Developmental psychologist – scientific study of systematic psychological changes, emotional changes, and perception changes that occur in human beings over the course of their life span.\n Evolutionary psychologist – approach in the social and natural sciences that examines psychological traits such as memory, perception, and language from a modern evolutionary perspective.\n Experimental psychologist – study of behavior and the processes that underlie it, by means of experiment",
"Neuropsychologist – studies the structure and function of the brain as they relate to specific psychological processes and behaviors.\n Social psychologist – scientific study of how people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others.\n Social scientist – field of study concerned with society and human behaviors.\n Anthropologist – study of humanity.",
"Anthropologist – study of humanity.\n Ethnologist – branch of anthropology that compares and analyzes the origins, distribution, technology, religion, language, and social structure of the ethnic, racial, and/or national divisions of humanity.\n Communication scientist – academic field that deals with processes of human communication, commonly defined as the sharing of symbols to create meaning.\n Criminologist – study of criminal behavior\n Demographer – statistical study of populations",
"Criminologist – study of criminal behavior\n Demographer – statistical study of populations\n Economist – professional in the social science discipline of economics.\n Geographer – geographer is a scholar whose area of study is geography, the study of Earth's natural environment and human society.",
"Political economist – study of production, buying, and selling, and their relations with law, custom, and government, as well as with the distribution of national income and wealth, including through the budget process.\n Political scientist – social science discipline concerned with the study of the state, government, and politics.\n Sociologist –\n Technologist\n Architectural technologist – specialist in the technology of building design and construction",
"Architectural technologist – specialist in the technology of building design and construction\n Educational technologist – specialist in tools to enhance learning\n Engineering technologist – specialist who implements technology within a field of engineering\n Industrial technologist – specialist in the management, operation, and maintenance of complex operation systems\n Medical Technologist – healthcare professional who performs diagnostic analysis on a variety of body fluids",
"Radiologic technologist – medical professional who applies doses of radiation for imaging and treatment\n Surgical technologist – health specialist who facilitates the conduct of invasive surgical procedures",
"By employment status \n Academic – community of students and scholars engaged in higher education and research.\n Corporate Scientist – someone who is employed by a business to do research and development for the benefit of that business\n Layperson – someone who is not an expert or someone who has not had professional training\n Gentleman scientist – financially independent scientist who pursues scientific study as a hobby.\n Government scientist – scientist employed by a country's government",
"Famous scientists",
"Aristotle – Greek philosopher and polymath, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great\n Archimedes – Greek mathematician, physicist, engineer, inventor, and astronomer\n Andreas Vesalius – Flemish anatomist, physician, and author of one of the most influential books on human anatomy, De humani corporis fabrica (On the Structure of the Human Body)",
"Nicolaus Copernicus – Renaissance astronomer and the first person to formulate a comprehensive heliocentric cosmology which displaced the Earth from the center of the universe\n Galileo Galilei – Italian physicist, mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher who played a major role in the Scientific Revolution",
"Johannes Kepler – German mathematician, astronomer and astrologer. A key figure in the 17th century scientific revolution, he is best known for his eponymous laws of planetary motion, codified by later astronomers, based on his works Astronomia nova, Harmonices Mundi, and Epitome of Copernican Astronomy\n René Descartes – French philosopher, mathematician, and writer who spent most of his adult life in the Dutch Republic",
"Isaac Newton – English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher, alchemist, and theologian, who has been \"considered by many to be the greatest and most influential scientist who ever lived\"\n Leonhard Euler – pioneering Swiss mathematician and physicist\n Pierre-Simon Laplace – French mathematician and astronomer whose work was pivotal to the development of mathematical astronomy and statistics",
"Alexander von Humboldt – German geographer, naturalist and explorer, and the younger brother of the Prussian minister, philosopher and linguist Wilhelm von Humboldt\n Charles Darwin – English naturalist, he established that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestors, and proposed the scientific theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process that he called natural selection\n James Clerk Maxwell – Scottish physicist and mathematician",
"James Clerk Maxwell – Scottish physicist and mathematician\n Marie Curie – Polish physicist and chemist famous for her pioneering research on radioactivity\n Albert Einstein – German-born theoretical physicist who developed the theory of general relativity, effecting a revolution in physics\n Linus Pauling – American chemist, biochemist, peace activist, author, and educator. He was one of the most influential chemists in history and ranks among the most important scientists of the 20th century",
"John Bardeen – American physicist and electrical engineer, the only person to have won the Nobel Prize in Physics twice\n Frederick Sanger – English biochemist and a two-time Nobel laureate in chemistry, the only person to have been so\n Stephen Hawking – British theoretical physicist, cosmologist, and author",
"Science education \nScience education\n Scientific literacy – encompasses written, numerical, and digital literacy as they pertain to understanding science, its methodology, observations, and theories.\n\nPseudo-scholarship – is a work (e.g., publication, lecture) or body of work that is presented as, but is not, the product of rigorous and objective study or research; the act of producing such work; or the pretended learning upon which it is based.\n Science communication\n\nSee also",
"See also \n\n Outline of academic disciplines\n Sci-Mate – open collaboration of scientists using Web 2.0 software to address well known challenges in academic publishing and technology transfer\n Science Daily – news website for topical science articles\n Phys.org – news website for topical science articles with some public metrics\n Science.tv – virtual community for people interested in science\n \n Science studies\n\nReferences \n\nScience\nScience"
] |
Mount St Mary Campus of the Australian Catholic University
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount%20St%20Mary%20Campus%20of%20the%20Australian%20Catholic%20University
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[
"Mount St Mary Campus of the Australian Catholic University is a major campus of the Australian Catholic University, located in Strathfield, Municipality of Strathfield, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.",
"The main building of the campus, formerly the Mount Royal villa and now called the Edmund Rice Building and Barron Chapel, is a heritage-listed former mansion, and was later used as a college and primary school. Located at 25A Barker Road in Strathfield, it was designed by H.C. Kent, Sheerin & Hennessy and Hennessy Hennessy & Co and built in 1887 (with renovations in 1962 to adapt it to university use). It was added to the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 15 April 2016.",
"The campus is owned by the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Sydney.\n\nHistory\n\nIndigenous history \nThe traditional Indigenous custodians of the area are the Wangal people of the Darug people. There is evidence that the Darug have lived in the Sydney area for over 10,000 years.",
"The British colonisation of Australia commenced just to the east of Strathfield at Sydney Cove in 1788. By 1793 land grants were being made to Europeans in the Strathfield area. Land clearing removed the habitats of native animals and thus would have eliminated food sources for the Wangal people as well as desecrating sacred sites",
". There is historical evidence of hostility between the early settlers and the Aboriginal people here, but by 1804, Governor King was reporting to the British Government that \"the natives in the settlements (between Parramatta and Sydney) had been very quiet and in a great measure domesticated\". Although Wangal people were separated from their traditional relationship with the land, many Aboriginal people continue to live in the Strathfield locality",
". There are few known remnants of traditional occupation such as campsites, axe grinding grooves and scarred trees in the Strathfield district.",
"Perhaps the most famous Wangal man was Bennelong, who became friendly with Governor Phillip. Phillip built a brick hut for him on the present site of the Sydney Opera House and that peninsular is named after him (Bennelong Point). Bennelong became one of the first Aboriginal people to visit Europe when he travelled to England with Phillip in 1792.",
"Colonial history",
"The first grants in the present day Strathfield Municipality were made in 1793 under the hand of Lieutenant-Governor Grose. The Mount St Mary ACU campus lies on part of a grant made to the Chaplain of St. James Church in 1823; however that grant soon reverted to the Crown. In 1841, the campus was part of a grant made to Joseph Hyde Potts (1793-1865), then the Secretary of the Bank of New South Wales. The grant remained in the hands of his descendants until it was subdivided in the early 1880s.",
"Before the 1860s, settlement in the Strathfield area was clustered around inns and other service industries scattered along Parramatta Road and Liverpool Road and near the Homebush Racecourse. The 1866 subdivision of James Wilshire's estate in Strathfield known as Redmire was marketed towards well-to-do families seeking a suburban \"villa\" lifestyle and attracted many prominent families in Sydney society including members of parliament, senior public servants, surgeons, solicitors and businessmen",
". After 1877 when Redmyre railway station opened (it was renamed Strathfield railway station in 1900), the distance between Strathfield and the city was reduced to an easy 28 minutes journey although the relative expense of the service at this time helped maintain the social exclusiveness of the area. Albert Road was first listed in John Sands' Sydney and Suburban Directories in 1886",
". Albert Road was first listed in John Sands' Sydney and Suburban Directories in 1886. The road was one of the most fashionable streets in Strathfield and the address of numerous grand villa estates including Mount Royal.",
"Mount Royal",
"In 1883 were sold for £4500 to William Von der Heyde and George Todman, tobacco merchants. Heyde was Mayor of Strathfield 1887–9. In 1885 they sold a lot of land comprising to A. Thomson, F.L. Barker and John Hinchcliff, wool broker, who erected a large country mansion or \"villa\" on this property. This residence, called Mount Royal, was designed by architect Harry Chambers Kent for John Hinchcliff using finance provided by Hinchcliff's wife, Laura Ann. Hinchcliff was another mayor of Strathfield 1890–92",
". Hinchcliff was another mayor of Strathfield 1890–92. Tenders for the erection of a \"first class residence and stables\" were advertised in The Sydney Morning Herald on 20 November 1886. According to a former archivist of the Christian Brothers who researched the history of Mount Royal, the ballroom and billiard room were added to the original building in 1888.",
"Little is known about John Hinchcliff although his firm was described in 1890 as \"one of the oldest firms connected with the wool trade in NSW\". He appears to have been among those city wool merchants who experienced financial difficulties as a result of the severe financial depression of the 1890s. When he died at Mount Royal in 1895, he was heavily in debt. Several photographs of the interior of Mount Royal survive from the period of Hinchcliff family ownership",
". The original lettering \"Hinchcliff\" is still marked on the building and it is believed that a face pictured in one of the stained glass windows there is a portrait of John Hinchcliff.",
"Following Hinchcliff's death, Mount Royal was leased to schoolmaster, W. Stewart Page, who temporarily opened a college on the site in 1896, one of a number of private colleges in the area. Page placed an advertisement in The Sydney Morning Herald in January 1896 for his \"high class boarding and day school. . . quite in the country, having open fields on three sides and at the same time is only a short distance from Strathfield Station.\". The school grounds included tennis courts and cricket grounds",
".\". The school grounds included tennis courts and cricket grounds. Page's school was not a success, and by 1899, the property was again vacant.",
"The most notable tenant in ensuing years was Sir George Reid, Premier of New South Wales from 1894 to 1899. In 1901, Reid became a member of the Federal Parliament. Reid's occupation of Mount Royal was brief, lasting only from March 1903 until August 1904 when he became Prime Minister and moved to Melbourne.",
"The Christian Brothers and Mount St Mary \nMount Royal was sold to the Christian Brothers on 20 December 1907 for £7,428. The Brothers purchased the property with the intention of opening a training college for teachers. The Brothers renamed it Mount St Mary, placing it under the patronage of Mary, Mother of Jesus. Mount St Mary would become the centre of the Christian Brothers congregation for the whole of Australia and New Zealand.",
"When the Christian Brothers purchased Mount Royal, the order was 105 years old. The Christian Brothers were founded in Waterford, Ireland by Edmund Ignatius Rice in 1802 and became closely tied to education as expressed by their motto: Facere et docere ('To Do and To Teach'). An early attempt to establish the order in Australia in the 1840s failed",
". An early attempt to establish the order in Australia in the 1840s failed. The Brothers returned to Australia in 1868 and eventually Sydney where they established community houses and schools at Balmain (1887), Lewisham (1891) and Rozelle (1892). The order was one of many invited by Archbishop Moran into New South Wales at this time, primarily to support the Catholic education system after the withdrawal of state funding.",
"The Christian Brothers' Provincial, Brother Jerome Barron (1858-1949), had hesitated about purchasing a mansion as grand as Mount Royal, but was impressed by the size of the estate and its reasonable price compared with similar inner city properties. The Christian Brothers were not alone in acquiring such an estate at this time",
". The Christian Brothers were not alone in acquiring such an estate at this time. The purchase of Mount Royal was part of a wider pattern that saw numerous large Victorian period mansions bought by religious orders or charities following the economic depression of the 1890s. Contemporary examples in Strathfield include the purchases of Shubra Hall by the Presbyterian Ladies' College in 1889 and Brundah by the Methodist Church in 1915, both to establish educational institutions.",
"Cardinal Moran blessed the Mount St Mary Training College and Novitiate on 1 December 1908 in the presence of a large gathering. At the opening, Brother Barron noted that the order in Australia had grown to 45 educational establishments and their teaching force had grown from three brothers to over 200 brothers. Training at Mount St Mary began in December 1908 when the novices and scholastics (brothers undergoing teacher training) were transferred from Lewisham. The Brothers acquired an additional from Mr",
". The Brothers acquired an additional from Mr. J.H. Potts of Hyde Brae.",
"The Brothers carried out alterations and addition to the original Mount Royal villa. In 1908–9, architects Sheerin & Hennessey designed a new two storey wing to provide additional accommodation. This wing was constructed across the northern end of the building and involved the removal of the conservatory. Sheerin & Hennessey also designed a chapel in the Federation Gothic style that was constructed at the northern end of the new wing. Further additions were made in 1913",
". Further additions were made in 1913. These works involved the raising of the ballroom roof to provide a first floor dormitory and a first floor extension to the billiard room on the western side of the villa. Sometime during the 1930s an additional wing was constructed on the western side of Mount Royal, at its southernmost end. Elsewhere on campus, following the tradition of the Irish monastic orders, three handball courts and a pavilion were constructed",
". At an unknown date, an elaborate grotto was constructed. The pavilion and grotto are long gone.",
"Ovalau and Ardross \nIn 1917 and 1918 respectively, the Christian Brothers purchased adjoining villa estates to the northeast of Mount Royal, known as Ovalau (for £3,250) and Ardross (for £2,000), thereby expanding the boundaries of the site to .",
"Ovalau was a grand Victorian Italianate Style mansion that had been built for Robert Phillips, a South Sea planter, in 1888. The villa was initially used to accommodate teacher trainees and the Brothers who taught at the Burwood parish school. In 1922, Ovalau, since renamed St. Enda's, became a High School known as the Juniorate, providing for boys who had a possible interest in joining the Order. The mansion was demolished in the early 1960s to make way for St. Edmund's Building",
". The mansion was demolished in the early 1960s to make way for St. Edmund's Building. Ardross had been built for the Morgan family in 1885. The mansion was purchased to provide a possible retirement place for old Brothers and renamed St. Joseph's. Growth within the college, however, meant that the mansion soon became the home of the Scholastics. It was later used as a second home for the Juniorate boys",
". It was later used as a second home for the Juniorate boys. After a period of vacancy, the building was partially destroyed by fire in 1961 and soon after demolished.",
"In 1925, an agreement was reached with Strathfield Municipal Council to incorporate a section of Albert Road into the college campus in exchange for land that enabled Council to connect Albert and Barker Roads. Mount Royal's gates were moved to their current location around this time. This new section of Albert Road would later be closed to create Mount Royal Reserve.",
"Baron Chapel and Mullens Building",
"With the opening of the Juniorate in the 1920s, the small Federation Gothic style chapel proved too small and in 1924 planning began for a new chapel that could accommodate 250 students and staff. The £12,400 required to construct the new chapel was raised by donation throughout Australia and New Zealand. The chapel was designed by Hennessy & Hennessey, constructed by Kell & Rigby and dedicated on 8 September 1925. The building was named the Barron Chapel in honour of Brother Jerome Barron's Golden Jubilee",
". The building was named the Barron Chapel in honour of Brother Jerome Barron's Golden Jubilee. The design of the chapel won the Master Architect's gold medal in the Turin Exhibition of 1923.",
"When a new classroom and dormitory building was required to house the growing Juniorate, Hennessey & Hennessy were commissioned to designed a building to complement their design for the Barron Chapel. This building, now known as the Mullens Building, but originally known simply as the Juniorate, initially provided four classrooms on the ground floor, a dormitory, bathroom, Director's Office and several bedrooms on the first floor",
". The work was carried out by builder James Redmond at a cost of £8,000 and completed in 1931. Two storey brick arcades were constructed to link the Juniorate, Barron Chapel and the villa soon after.",
"In 1928 the St. Patrick's College Practice School opened on grounds adjoining the college to the north. This provided the student teachers with a practise school. In 1933 the Christian Brothers of Gibraltar sent to Mount St Mary's a replica of the venerated crucifix in the town of Limpias, Spain to mark the 1,900th anniversary of Christ's crucifixion. This life-size crucifix, known as the Limpias Crucifix, still stands in its concrete shrine near the Barron Chapel.",
"In 1959 a new residential block called the Scholasticate or Seniorate was designed by Hennessy Hennessy & Co to provide accommodation for 50 scholastics as well as space for an additional lecture room and library. This building, together with a substantial brick extension constructed in 1994, is now known as the Brother Stewart Library",
". Also during the 1950s a substantial addition to the original Mount Royal stable building was constructed, which continued to be an important service building carrying out ancillary functions.",
"From 1961 the Hennessy Hennessy & Co designed St Edmunds Building was constructed on the site of the demolished Ovalau villa to provide for a new hall, science rooms, library, common room and oratory. The building was used by the Juniorate who were renamed the Juvenate at this time.",
"In 1974, the first lay students were enrolled in the college. The initial intake of eight students later expanded to an intake of around 50 students. The introduction of lay students - who were not in training for the priesthood - into the previously exclusive domain of the Brothers had come about for a number of reasons including a decline in vocations leading to a need for lay teachers to staff Catholic schools",
". There was also an increasing recognition of the role of the laity in the mission of the Church.",
"The establishment of the Higher Education Board of New South Wales and changes to funding structures presented new challenges to the college. Ultimately, the college amalgamated with the Polding College, itself an amalgamation of several teaching colleges, to form the Catholic College of Education, Sydney, in 1982. The Christian Brothers offered Mount Saint Mary under licence and without charge to the newly formed College. By 1985, there were 375 full-time students on the campus and 520 evening students",
". By 1985, there were 375 full-time students on the campus and 520 evening students. As a result of increased enrolments and the transfer of staff to the campus, the residential function was slowly reduced until by 1990 there were no more boarding students. The three-year diploma courses offered by the teaching colleges became a Bachelor of Education of four years, with further studies leading to a master's degree",
". Mount Saint Mary offered specialisations in curriculum studies, pastoral guidance and educational leadership.",
"In the mid-1980s, women students were accepted into undergraduate courses. These developments required changes to buildings. In 1989, for example, Geoffrey Twibill & Associates designed alterations to the Scolasticate, and the building was renamed the Brother Stewart Building.",
"As the colleges of advanced education expanded and offered more senior study programmes, the boundaries between the State's universities and colleges blurred. The Minister for Education proposed that colleges that met certain criteria apply for university status. Other colleges would be required to form an association with existing universities, in effect ceasing to operate as separate entities",
". In 1988, the Principal together with the Council of the Catholic College of Education decided to develop Mount St Mary College to meet the requirements for consideration as a university. The main obstacle was the insufficient number of enrolments. It was finally resolved that the Catholic colleges should combine to seek university status as a single entity, a process that would require the resolution of long-standing local interests and interstate rivalries.",
"Three years later, in January 1991, the Australian Catholic University opened following the amalgamation of four Catholic tertiary institutions: the Catholic College of Education Sydney in New South Wales, the Institute of Catholic Education in Victoria, McAuley College of Queensland, and Signadou College of Education in the Australian Capital Territory",
". Each of these institutions has their own histories of education and associations with a variety of religious orders including the Christian Brothers, the Dominican Sisters, the Sisters of Charity, the De La Salle Brothers, the Marist Brothers and the Sisters of St Joseph. Histories of amalgamations, relocations and transfers etc. mean that more than twenty entities contributed to the creation of the Australian Catholic University.",
"In 1992, after occupying the site for 84 years, the Christian Brothers vacated Mount St Mary. A Feast Day in honour of the Blessed Virgin was held in the Barron Chapel on 15 August 1992. On 3 September, a final mass was celebrated in the Gothic chapel and on 14 September, the last Brothers left Mount St Mary",
". In July 1993 the Provincial of the Christian Brothers commented on Mount St Mary as an:\"institution that has shaped and set some 3,000 of us on the road to a life of education of and service to the youth of this country. Mount St Mary has become a symbol of nurture and support, of stability and fidelity for Christian Brothers and their associates who accepted the challenge of considerable involvements in Catholic Education - in this country over the last 150 years.\"D.M",
".\"D.M. Stewart wrote:\"The Brothers' community and administrative offices had indeed been transferred elsewhere but there remained on site many memorials to the Christian Brothers' presence and labours. The fine Romanesque chapel is known as the Barron Chapel after the great Jerome Barron while the altar commemorates Brother Ambrose Treacy, the founder of the Australasian province",
". Then there are buildings or lecture rooms named after others such as the Murray Hall, the Mullen Building, the Marwell Building, the McGlade, Duffy and Hanrahan lecture rooms, while Davy is associated with the Dan Stewart Library. .",
". . . Brothers and former students still like to return to Mount Saint Mary, to enjoy its beauty, its peace and to savour again something of the spirit that hopefully inspires the staff and students to whom has been entrusted a rich tradition that is now part of the Australian Catholic University.\"",
"Australian Catholic University \nOn 7 January 1993 responsibility for the operation of Mount St Mary's campus was officially transferred from the Christian Brothers to the Diocese of Sydney, who hold the property in trust on behalf of the Australian Catholic University. The Mount Royal/ Mount St Mary villa was refurbished and reopened in July 1993 as the Edmund Rice Building.",
"The Australian Catholic University has six campuses Australia wide. The university continues to upgrade their Strathfield campus. Major works undertaken since 1993 include: a substantial addition to the Seniorate, now the Brother Stewart Library (architect: Twibill Quinn O'Hanlon, 1994); a substantial addition to the Mullens Building, comprising the Gleeson Auditorium and Lecture Rooms; and the construction of the Biomechanics Building",
". Minor works include the conversion of the former stables into an Arts Centre in 1997, the conversion of the original handball courts into storage (1997), new car parking and the creation of what is now the main entrance off Barker Road.",
"In 2014 the Mount St Mary ACU Campus hosted around 3,600 students, including more than 100 international students, and offered the following programmes:\n\nUndergraduate: Arts; Exercise Science; Marketing; Social Work; Teaching; Theology and Philosophy; Visual Arts.\nPostgraduate: Arts; Education; Educational Leadership; Religious Education; Research Degrees; Social Work; Teaching.",
"The architects",
"H.C. Kent (1852-1938), designer of Mount Royal in 1887, was born in Devonshire, England and migrated to Australia with his family as an infant. After studying at Camden College, where his father was headmaster, he undertook a Master of Arts degree at the University of Sydney in 1874. He took private drawing lessons with Thomas Sapsford, who became the Architect and Building Surveyor of the Sydney City in the 1880s. He was articled to James Barnet, the Colonial Architect, and later to John Horbury Hunt",
". He was articled to James Barnet, the Colonial Architect, and later to John Horbury Hunt. In 1882, Kent entered private practice. He formed a partnership with Henry Budden in 1889 and in 1912, architect Carlyle Greenwell joined the partnership. Many future prominent architects were articled to Kent including William Hardy Wilson, S. A. Neave and H. H. Massie in 1911. Massie became his partner in the firm in 1919. Kent retired from active involvement in 1930",
". Massie became his partner in the firm in 1919. Kent retired from active involvement in 1930. Kent's work includes hospitals private residences, commercial offices and banks, schools, extensions to Randwick Racecourse, churches and woolstores. In Strathfield, his work included Mount Royal (1887), the Dill Dill McKay Institute for Blind Women in (1891), Strathfield Town Hall (1923) and alterations (1913 and 1921–23)",
". Kent also designed Inglenook at 17 Margaret Street for merchant George Bird in 1893 and Swanton in Victoria Street for grazier Stanley Vickery. Kent served as president of the Institute of Architects in 1906–7. He was a member and organist of the Strathfield-Homebush Congregational Church. Harry Kent served as an alderman on Strathfield Council from 1903 until 1905.",
"John Hennessy was a prominent architect who designed the Frazer fountain in Hyde Park (1881), the Centennial Hall extensions to the Sydney Town Hall (1883), the Hordern Brothers' Drapery Store (1886) and City Tatterstall's Club in Pitt Street (1892). However, Hennessy's most enduring works are the many Catholic buildings he designed with partnership with Joseph Sheerin (1884-1912) and with his son at Hennessy Hennessy & Co (1912–23). Hennessy was a devout Catholic and close friend of Cardinal Moran",
". Hennessy was a devout Catholic and close friend of Cardinal Moran. Apart from his work for the Christian Brothers on this campus, he designed the 1894 Santa Sabina building at Strathfield, St Patrick's College at Manly, St Joseph's College at Hunter's Hill and St Vincent's College at Potts Point (1886). Hennessy himself lived nearby in the suburb of Burwood for forty years, serving as an alderman (1890-1895) and mayor of Burwood (1892–93). He also designed the Burwood Council Chambers (1887)",
". The Mount St Mary ACU campus provides a rare showcase of the development of practice and changing architectural styles by a single architectural firm between 1908 and the 1960s: the substantial additions to Mount Royal (now the Edmund Rice Building), the Barron Memorial Chapel (which is listed in the Australian Institute of Architects Twentieth Century Register of Significance), the Mullens Building, the brick arcades and the Scholasticate (now part of the Brother Stewart Library).",
"Comparisons",
"The Australian Catholic University Strathfield Campus is comparable with the main campus of the University of Sydney for the effect of its grand nineteenth century building interspersed with substantial twentieth century buildings framed by high quality landscaping. Both campuses have been progressively modified to meet changing requirements but collectively provide a gracious educational environment",
". The University of Sydney differs because it is much larger, it was purpose-built as an educational institution, it dates from an earlier period (1850s), and it was always a secular educational establishment, albeit associated with religious colleges adjacent to the campus such as St Johns and St Pauls.",
"A long association of a place with the Catholic Church is not uncommon in New South Wales. Catholic Orders did sometimes purchase large, formerly private mansion estates often in the late nineteenth century as these buildings became less desirable as private residences. An example of a site nearby is the Santa Sabina Convent located nearby on The Boulevard, which has been occupied by the Dominican Sisters since 1894. Sheerin & Hennessy also designed the main buildings there.",
"Australian Catholic University Strathfield Campus contains two especially fine and substantially intact examples of the Interwar Romanesque Style in the Barron Chapel and the Mullens Building. Comparable examples of the Interwar Romanesque style include: St Joseph's church in Junee attributed to Albert Edmund Bates, 1929, and St Raphael's Catholic church, Parkside, Adelaide, 1916.",
"Australian Catholic University Strathfield Campus demonstrates the progression of the work of one architectural practice, Sheerin & Hennessy, later Hennessey & Henessey, from the Federation period through to the mid-1960s. Comparable sites that showcase the design work of one architectural firm over a long period include the Maitland Showground, in which a numerous buildings were designed by successive generations of the Pender architectural firm.",
"Description",
"The Mount St Mary Australian Catholic University (ACU) Strathfield campus is located in the inner western suburbs of Sydney, 14 km from the city centre, within the Municipality of Strathfield Council. The campus is located over at least three former Victorian estates, Mount Royal, Ovalau and Ardross. Of the three villas that once stood within the existing site boundary, only Mount Royal remains. This villa now forms part of the Edmund Rice Building, which is the focal point of the campus",
". This villa now forms part of the Edmund Rice Building, which is the focal point of the campus. It is complemented by a variety of twentieth century buildings in a carefully landscaped setting around a main axis and includes several courtyards, playing fields, roads and parking areas. There are historic landscape features and religious statutory",
". There are historic landscape features and religious statutory. The heritage listing is focused on the historic core of buildings and spaces, about one third of the main lot on which most of the campus is located (Part Lot 11 DP 869042, 179 Albert Road). The heritage-listed area is approximately in area, as drawn on Heritage Council Plan No. 2691.",
"Significant buildings",
"Edmund Rice Building (incorporating the villa known as \"Mount Royal\") (1887, 1908-13)",
"Now used for administration, catering and functions, the original part of this building at the southern end is the mansion designed by Harry Chambers Kent for wool merchant John Hinchcliff in 1887. Originally known as \"Mount Royal\" this was a fine two storey, face-brick \"villa\" in the \"Victorian Italianate\" style",
". Characteristics of this style apparent in the building include: asymmetrical massing, prominent tower employing classical motifs, bracketed eaves, rounded arches, faceted bay, polychromatic brickwork and stucco wall finishes. The villa has also been described as \"early, influential, example of the Queen Anne Style . . . It is regarded by some as the first example of the style to be wholly designed by an Australian born architect.\".",
"In 1908-12 after the villa was acquired by the Christian Brothers and with substantial alterations and additions to the north designed by Sheerin & Hennessy, including a fine Gothic chapel, the building became known as Mount St Mary. Significant internal spaces within the original villa include the tiled entrance hall, the original drawing room and ballroom",
". It is described in the LEP listing as 'probably the finest of Strathfield's Victorian mansions to survive to the present day' (LEP listing for ACU, 2005, 'Description'). It is possible to stand in front of the southern elevation and see Kent's villa in its original form. The main rooms of the original villa generally demonstrate a high degree of integrity with regard to plan and finishes, especially the entrance hall and stair",
". Original finishes here include the encaustic tiled floor, cedar joinery, stained glass, wall mounted gas fittings and the lantern light. The original drawing room on the eastern side of the ground floor retains the original white marble columns visible in early photographs. While of only modest integrity, the eastern elevation makes an important aesthetic contribution to the main courtyard that it helps define.",
"Gothic chapel (1908-9)",
"The chapel at the northern end of the Edmund Rice building is an elegant structure in the \"Federation Gothic\" style designed by Sheerin & Hennessy. It has a steeply pitched gabled roof of slate with a semi-circular apse at the western end. The side walls are divided into four bays with buttresses and each bay has a pointed arched leadlight window. There is a belltower on the eastern end (LEP listing for ACU, 2005, 'Description')",
". There is a belltower on the eastern end (LEP listing for ACU, 2005, 'Description'). It is closely enclosed by more recent buildings which may be considered intrusive.",
"The Barron Memorial Chapel (1925)",
"Also known as the \" Mount St Mary College Chapel\", this is an imposing \"Interwar Romanesque\" styled building designed by Hennessy Hennessy & Co. It is constructed of two-tone face brick with steeply pitched, slate clad roofs and stone-coloured terracotta detailing. It is entered on the south side, through a large sandstone framed arch. The top of the arch is filled with a mosaic design, above this is a row of small arches and then a large rose window",
". On the southeast corner of the chapel is a four-storey tower with arched openings of different sizes marking the floors. The chapel is divided by buttresses into seven bays, each with a pair of tall arched windows. An apse is at the north end and a vestry is on the east side of the apse. Ten years after completion, the interior was painted with the golden insigna of Mary on a blue background. This work was painted over in the 1970s but has since been restored",
". This work was painted over in the 1970s but has since been restored. In 1970, internal alterations were made to provide for changes in liturgy, including alterations to the marble altar and the construction of a new tabernacle stand. The Barron Memorial Chapel is considered to have a high level of integrity and is still in its original function as a place of worship.",
"The Mullens building (1931) (formerly the Junoriate)",
"Designed by Hennessy Hennessy & Co this \"Interwar Romanesque\" style building complements the Barron Chapel beside it. It is also a two-story building in two-tone face brick with steeply pitched, slate clad roofs and stone-coloured terracotta detailing. It was originally called the Juniorate and designed to provide residential and educational accommodation for priests in training. It has long since been adapted to entirely classroom and educational uses",
". It has long since been adapted to entirely classroom and educational uses. The original entrance is behind a large arch on the south facade. The side walls are divided into eight bays which feature multi- pane double hung windows (LEP listing for ACU, 2005, 'Description'). The interiors have undergone many changes although they retain some original details.",
"Arcades in Main Central Courtyard ()",
"One curving two-storey arcade connects the Barron Chapel to the Edmund Rice Building, 1925. A second straight two-storey arcade runs between the Barron Memorial Chapel and the Mullen Wing, . Both brick arcades appear designed to match the Romanesque style of the Barron Chapel and the Mullens Building and are constructed of two-tone face brickwork. The ground floors of both arcades feature arches set within shallow engaged piers and tiled flooring. The undersides of the roof on both floors are timber lined",
". The undersides of the roof on both floors are timber lined. The arcades provide a sense of cloistering reminiscent of occupation by the religious order.",
"The St Edmunds Building (1962)",
"The St Edmunds Building (formerly called the New Junoriate, built on the site of the Victorian villa Ovalau, later known as St Endra's which was demolished ): This Modern Movement brick building with multiple wings was designed by Sheerin & Hennessy in several stages",
". It was originally opened on 22 July 1962 as the New Juniorate and designed to provide a new hall, science rooms, library, common room and oratory for up to 98 boys in training after the Mullens Building was considered too small for this purpose. Like the Mullens Building it has since been adapted to a variety of classroom and educational uses",
". Like the Mullens Building it has since been adapted to a variety of classroom and educational uses. The west wing is included in the heritage precinct and has three storeys with a rendered arcade at the ground floor and brick walls with square window openings above. At the south end is a flat roofed section with plain brick walls providing a backdrop to a large crucifix. The south and east wings of this building are two storeys (the south and east wings are largely excluded from the heritage listing)",
". It is good quality, carefully detailed modernist building with low-pitched roofs and aluminum framed window. Its sympathetic proportions and finishes provide a satisfying completion to the main courtyard of the university.",
"Creative Arts Building",
"The Creative Arts Building was constructed in the late nineteenth century as the original stable block of Mount Royal. It is a two-storey U-shaped building (with the U now infilled) with walls of painted brick and a steeply pitched corrugated iron roof. There is a continuous rendered band around the building, denoting the level of the loft. The original section of the building has been divided into rooms of varying sizes that do not reflect the layout of the original stables",
". It has a substantial twentieth century brick addition to the north which is not included in the SHR curtilage. The form and detailing of the original component of the building is representative of a small late nineteenth century stable.",
"Significant landscape features",
"Main central courtyard (southern facing)",
"This south facing courtyard is the hub of the university. It is formed between the Edmund Rice Building, Barron Chapel and the St Edmunds Building and brick arcades linking these. The area comprises lawns with intersecting brick paths and randomly spaced, mature Canary Island Date Palms, some set in raised circular brick walled garden beds. There are three garden beds lying parallel to the front of the villa. Two ghost gums stand at the southern end of the courtyard.",
"North Facing Courtyards \nOne north-facing grassed courtyard is formed between the Barron Chapel and the Mullens Building with the straight the brick arcade at the south and the Limpias Crucifix at the north, beneath a large fig tree. A second north-facing grassed courtyard is formed between the Barron Chapel and the Brother Stewart Library, with the rear of the Edmund Rice Building to the south. The courtyard includes a large, non-significant tent-like shade structure.",
"Gates of Mount Royal (c.1887) \nThe gates are symmetrical, comprising a central set of two wrought iron carriage gates and matching pedestrian gates on either side, all hung from rendered masonry piers. The gates are furthermore flanked by palisade fencing. The gates were relocated after the Christian Brothers purchased neighbouring properties of Ovalau and Andross and expanded the college grounds.",
"View corridor \nThe most significant view corridor is along the axis of the roadway flanked by trees leading from Albert Road towards the Edmund Rice Building. The brick edging on this driveway is likely contemporary with the original building of Mount Royal in the 1880s.",
"Plantings \nThe roadway from Albert Road is lined with Canary Island date palms (Phoenix canariensis) planted by the Christian Brothers. The avenue of palms is terminated by two lemon scented gums (Corymbia citriodora). Other groupings of trees on the campus provide amenity but are not of heritage significance.",
"Two distinct - and surviving - plantings can be readily associated with the Christian Brothers period of occupation: the cypress pines planted along the Barker Road boundary and the Canary Island date palms found around the site.",
"The fig tree (Ficus sp.) at the northern end of the courtyard between Barron Memorial Chapel and the Mullen Building is a visually significant planting within the courtyard. Its root system, however, is damaging the Limpias Crucifix and may cause future damage to nearby buildings.\n\nThe Bunya pines (Araucaria bidwillii) near ALbert Road should be retained.",
"The Bunya pines (Araucaria bidwillii) near ALbert Road should be retained.\n\nLimpias Crucifix (1933) \nThe Limpias Crucifix is a masonry, life-size crucifix set within a concrete shelter. The walls are cast and painted to resemble stone. The crucifix is a copy of a venerated statue in the Spanish town of Limpias which was sent to Mount St Mary's by the Christian Brothers of Gibraltar in 1933 to mark the 1,900th anniversary of Christ's crucifixion.",
"Statues \nThree white painted masonry statues of Edmund Rice, St Joseph, Mary and Jesus are located in the main courtyard.\n\nUrns \nA number of decorative masonry urns located near the Edmund Rice building may be contemporary to the villa Mount Royal.\n\nCondition \n\nAs at 23 April 2015, the buildings and landscaping both generally well maintained.\n\nThe campus, as it presents today is the product of three distinct phases:",
"The campus, as it presents today is the product of three distinct phases:\n\n the Victorian gentlemen's villa estates\n the Christian Brother's Mount Saint Mary\n the Australian Catholic University.\n\nAll three phases are represented in historic records and, to varying degrees, in fabric. The integrity of each major phase of development and structure is outlined briefly below:",
"Edmund Rice: mixed integrity\n Baron Chapel: high integrity\n Mullens Building: mixed integrity\n Brick Arcades: high integrity\n St Edmund Building: mixed integrity\n Creative Arts Building: mixed integrit\n\nModifications and dates \nThis is a complex site that was pieced together through a number of different land purchases over many years. The buildings range in date from c.1887 to the present day. Most have undergone alteration and addition over time.",
"Heritage listing \nAs at 20 August 2015, the Australian Catholic University Strathfield Campus is of state significance for its historical, associational, social, research and rarity values as part of a state-wide pattern of Catholic education since the early twentieth century.\n\nMount St Mary Campus of the Australian Catholic University was listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 15 April 2016 having satisfied the following criteria.",
"The place is important in demonstrating the course, or pattern, of cultural or natural history in New South Wales.",
"The Australian Catholic University Strathfield Campus is of state historical significance as part of a state-wide pattern of Catholic education since the early twentieth century - first for Christian Brothers, later for lay teachers within the Catholic education system and more recently as a campus for the Australian Catholic University. It is also historically significant as the headquarters for Christian Brothers in Australia and New Zealand throughout most of the twentieth century",
". Many of the major elements have significance for their ability to demonstrate some continuity of use by the Christian Brothers and/or the Catholic Church.",
"The site also has historic significance as part of the pattern of Victorian villa estates that characterised this part of suburban Sydney in the late nineteenth century. The surviving fabric of the villa Mount Royal within the Edmund Rice Building represents a distinct period when such owners and occupiers were prominent in municipal affairs",
". Mount Royal, although altered, is among the finest of the Victorian period mansions to survive in the Strathfield area and one of few still associated with its original outbuildings, landscaped gardens and gates. The place retains many original historic alignments, brick guttering, paths of significance and landscaping elements that complement the original \"Mount Royal\" section of the Edmund Rice building.",
"The place has a strong or special association with a person, or group of persons, of importance of cultural or natural history of New South Wales's history.",
"The Australian Catholic University Strathfield Campus has state level significance for its associations with the Christian Brothers which lasted from 1907 to 1992. During this period, the site was the headquarters for the order in Australia and New Zealand (until 1953), and represents a range of the brothers' activities, most significantly the training of teachers and of boys with an interest in joining the order",
". The Brothers' association is manifest in the historical record, in whole or parts of buildings and in individual pieces of fabric, for example, the windows of the Barron Memorial Chapel. The numerous Canary Date Palms are reminiscent of the occupation by the Brothers. The statues commemorate benefactors and associations that make reference to the order and their worldwide activities",
". Some buildings have been named to commemorate particular Brothers, for example, the Barron Chapel named after Brother Jerome Barron, Provincial of the Christian Brothers in 1907.",
"The Australian Catholic University Strathfield Campus has state significant associations with the architect Harry Chamber Kent (who designed Mount Royal in the 188s) and John Hennessy's architectural offices, which produced numerous design for the Christian Brothers here over many decades",
". The campus is also of state significance because the Mount Royal villa was briefly (1903-4) the home of Sir George Reid, Premier of NSW 1894-1899 and Prime Minister of Australia in 1904, however his occupation is not demonstrated by any remaining physical fabric. The campus also has local associational significance with the owners of the Victorian estates upon which it is built, especially John Hinchcliff (the original client for Mount Royal, wool-broker and mayor).",
"The place is important in demonstrating aesthetic characteristics and/or a high degree of creative or technical achievement in New South Wales.",
"The Australian Catholic University Strathfield Campus is of state aesthetic significance for the high quality architectural design of its key elements and for its landscaping and vistas including the avenue of Canary Island Date Palm trees. The Mount Royal element of the Edmund Rice building is a fine example of the \"Victorian Italianate\" style designed by Harry C. Kent and considered to be one of his best residential works",
". Kent and considered to be one of his best residential works. The fine finishes of the villa, such as the cast iron lace, encaustic tiling and stained glass, exemplify Victorian industry and the aspirations and way of life of the wealthy at that time. The Barron Memorial Chapel and the Mullens Building and their associated arcades are excellent examples of the Interwar Romanesque Style",
". The place has aesthetic significance for its collection of architectural designs by a single architectural firm over more than half a century, Sheerin & Hennessy (later Hennessy, Hennessy & Co). Three courtyards have aesthetic significance, being formed between key architectural elements of the campus. There is a high degree of consistency, integrity and quality in both the architecture and landscape design across most of the site",
". The palm trees, planted by the Christian Brothers, make a significant contribution to the setting. Religious statutory serve as reminders of the Brother's occupation over many years. The original gates to Mount Royal continue to address Albert Road. Principal view corridors are as approached up Albert Road, along Barker Street from the east and from directly outside the main entrance on Barker Road",
". \"Visitors to Mount Saint Mary remark on its beauty, its peaceful atmosphere and its fine array of buildings with their varied styles of architecture\".",
"The place has a strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group in New South Wales for social, cultural or spiritual reasons.",
"The Australian Catholic University Strathfield Campus is of state social significance to those thousands of people who have lived and/ or learned here, a crucial site within a state-wide pattern of Catholic education - first for the Christian Brothers, later for lay teachers within the Catholic education system and most recently as a campus for the Australian Catholic University.",
"The site also has local significance under this criterion for people in the Strathfield locality such as members of the Strathfield Historical Society who have long maintained an interest in the place and included it in a variety of publications and guides. Mount Royal appears in a wide variety of published histories and architectural studies.",
"The place has potential to yield information that will contribute to an understanding of the cultural or natural history of New South Wales.",
"The Australian Catholic University Strathfield Campus is of state research significance because the place provides insights into the activities of the Christian Brothers there including evidence of changes in function (residential to training college to university) and liturgical practice between 1907 and 1993. It is strongly illustrative of the Brothers' central mission of education.",
"The campus also has research potential for studying stylistic change in the design output of a single architectural firm between 1908 and the 1960s. There are also potential archaeological remains associated with the demolished Victorian-era villas. While there are few remains of the villa Ovalau under the St Edmunds building, the site of Ardross near Barker Road may have archaeological potential. A number of other sites of possible, but minor archaeological potential, have also been identified.",
"The place possesses uncommon, rare or endangered aspects of the cultural or natural history of New South Wales.",
"The Australian Catholic University Strathfield Campus is of state significance for its rarity as the previous headquarters and training ground for the Catholic order the Christian Brothers, and for retaining evidence of their activities and interests including buildings, plantings, recreational facilities, chapels and statuary",
". The place is also rare because it demonstrates the evolving high quality design work from a single architectural practice over many decades during the mid twentieth century, Sheerin & Hennessy / Hennessy, Hennessy & Co.",
"The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a class of cultural or natural places/environments in New South Wales.",
"The Australian Catholic University Strathfield Campus is representative of many institutional sites across New South Wales which demonstrates long associations with the Catholic Church. Many structures from the Christian Brothers' period survive with sufficient integrity that they are capable of demonstrating much of the Brothers' way of life and philosophy",
". The campus is also of state representative significance as an exemplar of a widespread adaptive re-use pattern where a privately owned, late-nineteenth century 'gentleman's villa' within landscaped grounds becomes the core element of an educational institution.",
"See also\n\nReferences\n\nBibliography\n\nAttribution \n\nNew South Wales State Heritage Register\nStrathfield, New South Wales\nPrimary schools in New South Wales\nUniversities in New South Wales\nHouses in New South Wales\nAustralian tertiary institutions\nArticles incorporating text from the New South Wales State Heritage Register"
] |
The X Factor (British series 10)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20X%20Factor%20%28British%20series%2010%29
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[
"The X Factor is a British television music competition to find new singing talent. The tenth series began airing on ITV on 31 August, and finished on 15 December 2013. Dermot O'Leary returned to present the main show on ITV and Caroline Flack was back to present spin-off show The Xtra Factor on ITV2, along with comedian Matt Richardson, who replaced Olly Murs. Flack also presented backstage segments during the live shows",
". Flack also presented backstage segments during the live shows. Louis Walsh, Gary Barlow and Nicole Scherzinger returned as judges for their respective tenth, third and second series, with Sharon Osbourne returning to replace Tulisa after five series away. This was Barlow's final series as a judge. Osbourne and Scherzinger also departed the series, but reprised their roles as judges with Walsh again in series 13 and series 14.",
"Auditions for the series started in March 2013 with mobile auditions taking place in 23 towns and cities. After this, open auditions in front of producers took place in April and May in London, Birmingham, Cardiff, Manchester and Glasgow",
". Auditions in front of the judges occurred in June and July in the same five cities, with two types of audition: auditionees who were successful in a first audition in an audition room, used for the first time since series 5, went on to attend an audition in an arena, which replaced the rooms in series 6. After bootcamp and judges' houses, the live shows began on 12 October 2013, and ran until the final on 15 December 2013, which was won by over 25s contestant Sam Bailey",
". This marked the first time someone from the over 25s category had won the show since Steve Brookstein won series 1 in 2004. It also marked the first time that Osbourne had been the winning mentor, having failed during her first stint on the show. As the winner, Bailey received a £1 million recording contract with Syco Music, and also supported Beyoncé at one of her shows during the UK leg of her The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour in 2014.",
"This was the final series of the three-year deal signed by Simon Cowell in 2010, before it was announced by ITV on 15 November that the show's contract was extended by a further three years, keeping it on air until 2016.\n\nJudges, presenters and other personnel",
"It was reported on 22 February 2013 that Tulisa would not return for series 10, after being a judge for two series. She initially denied this and said she wanted to return, However, Tulisa confirmed on 21 May after months of speculation that she would be departing the show",
". The following day, it was confirmed that original judge Sharon Osbourne, who had been on the panel from series 1 to series 4 would join the remaining three judges from series 9, Louis Walsh, Gary Barlow and Nicole Scherzinger, ending rumours that Scherzinger may leave to focus on her second studio album and be replaced by series 9 guest judge Mel B, which happened in series 11.",
"Osbourne stated in July that she was back for just one series, \"to go out on a high\", and during the first live show, Barlow revealed that this would be his last series on the show. Walsh, who had appeared on the show since its inception, announced he would be leaving the show after this series, although he later said he \"might come back\" if Simon Cowell returned, and later still he said he would most likely continue, claiming \"I'm having so much fun this year, I might stay\"",
". Walsh eventually confirmed his return for series 11, following the returns of both Cowell and Cheryl Cole.",
"Dermot O'Leary returned to present the main show on ITV for his seventh series, whilst Caroline Flack came back to present spin-off show The Xtra Factor on ITV2. Olly Murs, Flack's co-presenter for series 8 and 9, wanted to focus on his music career and therefore did not come back. On 29 May, it was announced that comedian Matt Richardson would co-present The Xtra Factor with Flack, after reports that Nick Grimshaw, Dave Berry or Rylan Clark may replace Murs",
". Flack also presented backstage on the main X Factor programme, during the live shows on Saturdays. Yvie Burnett returned as vocal coach. Brian Burke left as creative director and was replaced by Jerry Reeve and Mark \"Swany\" Hart.",
"Selection process\n\nAuditions",
"Auditions\n\nMobile auditions\nBetween 25 March and 1 April 2013, mobile auditions took place in Inverness, Great Yarmouth, Warrington, Aberdeen, Colchester, Hull, Dumfries, Grimsby, Romford, Belfast, Newport on the Isle of Wight, Sunderland, Wakefield, Bangor, Middlesbrough, Yeovil, Aberystwyth, Blackburn, Dublin, Blackpool, Cork, Merthyr Tydfil and Newport in Wales. It was reported that around 20 people attended Colchester auditions on 26 March and producers tried to convince passers-by to audition.",
"Open auditions",
"For the first time since series 6, auditions took place in five cities instead of six. Open auditions in front of the show's producers began in London (ExCeL London) on 6 April and continued in Birmingham (International Convention Centre) on 13 April, Cardiff (Millennium Stadium) on 20 April, and Manchester (Old Trafford) on 27 April, before concluding in Glasgow (SECC) on 1 May. Auditions were not held in Liverpool this year, after it was one of the locations in the past two series",
". Producers said that they were \"mixing it up\", although reports claim that they were unimpressed with talent in Liverpool, despite four finalists— Ray Quinn (series 3), Rebecca Ferguson (series 7), Marcus Collins (series 8) and Christopher Maloney (series 9)—coming from Liverpool. Additionally, auditions returned to Birmingham after being replaced by Newcastle in series 9",
". Additionally, auditions returned to Birmingham after being replaced by Newcastle in series 9. Producers previously held auditions in Newcastle instead of Birmingham because they thought that Birmingham provided \"no memorable talent\", but reportedly decided to return there after \"disappointing\" results in Newcastle. Almost 8,000 auditionees attended in London, whilst Cardiff attracted at least 3,000, Birmingham produced around 5,000, over 4,000 auditioned in Manchester and over 2,000 in Glasgow.",
"Judges' auditions",
"This series saw the return of the original auditions format last used in series 5, where auditionees performed in a room in front of the judges. Those who were successful in the room auditions then faced a second audition in an arena—the format used since series 6—to prove they can impress an audience. If they were successful in this audition, they entered the bootcamp stage of the competition. Cowell hoped the \"intimate\" room auditions would increase ratings",
". Cowell hoped the \"intimate\" room auditions would increase ratings. The room auditions in front of the judges began in Glasgow on 4 June at the Hilton Glasgow Grosvenor Hotel and continued in Birmingham on 10 June at the International Convention Centre. Manchester auditions took place over three days from 13 to 15 June at Old Trafford, followed by London auditions which also took place over three days, from 19 to 21 June at ExCeL London",
". Due to a lack of successful groups, extra auditions specifically for groups took place on 1 July at Price Studios in Battersea, London. Auditions then concluded in Cardiff on 3 July at the Motorpoint Arena. The arena auditions took place at a single venue, Wembley Arena, over four days, from 15 to 18 July. The broadcast of auditions started on 31 August 2013, with room auditions being shown on Saturday nights and arena auditions on Sundays.",
"The first room audition episode aired on 31 August, and featured auditions from Cardiff, Manchester, London and Birmingham. The second room audition episode featured auditions from Manchester, Cardiff and Glasgow. The third room audition episode showcased auditions from London, Manchester, Birmingham and Glasgow.",
"Numerous contestants from previous series returned to audition again for this series, including: Amy Mottram, who was Tulisa's wildcard contestant in series 9 and failed to be chosen ahead of Maloney as the 13th contestant; Terry Winstanley, who made it to judges' houses in series 8; Johnny Rocco, whose audition in series 4 ended with him \"cursing\" Walsh after getting a \"no\" from all four judges; John Adams, who reached bootcamp in series 8; Curtis Golden, Joseph Whelan and Gathan Cheema",
", who reached bootcamp in series 8; Curtis Golden, Joseph Whelan and Gathan Cheema, all of whom got to bootcamp in series 9; Stephanie Woods, who got to judges' houses in series 4; Jade Richards, who got to judges' houses in series 8 and bootcamp in series 9; and Melanie McCabe, who got to bootcamp in series 5 and 9 and to judges' houses in series 8",
". Also auditioning again were groups Rough Copy, who were initially to through to judges' houses in series 9 but had to back out due to visa problems, The Dolly Rockers, who made it to judges' houses in series 3 and James Bellamy and Duane Lamonte from Brick City who both made it to judges' houses in series 2 and series 6 respectively. Another notable group to audition were 1990s pop rock band Next of Kin, who were once labelled \"the British Hanson\".",
"Bootcamp/Six Chair Challenge",
"On 17 April 2013, it was reported that this series' bootcamp could be changed and be conducted abroad like judges' houses, however, it was later confirmed that bootcamp would take place at Wembley Arena over four days, across three sessions between 9 and 12 August",
". It was reported that Cowell was planning to give advice on which acts should progress through this stage, meeting with the judges on his yacht to give opinions on the acts, but further reports claimed that due to a pregnancy scandal, Cowell would instead speak to the judges by telephone, as he did in series 9. However, this did not happen.",
"In a change to the usual format, the judges were allocated their categories before bootcamp, via a phonecall from executive producer Richard Holloway. Walsh has the Boys, Scherzinger had the Girls, Osbourne has the Over 25s and Barlow has the Groups. On the first day of bootcamp, soloists were put into groups of three within their category, and groups were put into pairs. They had to perform within that pair or group, and the category judge would then decide who would continue",
". There was then a change in the format, that saw the judges choose the acts to advance to judges' houses immediately after their bootcamp performance, instead of waiting until everyone had performed. Each judge had six places to their judges house, and they granted a 'seat' to the performers they wanted to advance in their category",
". However, if a judge already chose six acts for their category, they could replace them if they preferred a later performer, therefore causing bootcamp to be branded the 'ultimate game of musical chairs' or even Six Chair Challenge was introduced. Bootcamp was broadcast over two episodes, each of 90 minutes, on 28 and 29 September.",
"Judges' houses",
"Judges' houses took place in September. Each judge took the remaining members of their category to an overseas location, and had guests to assist them in their decisions. Walsh was assisted by Nicole Appleton and Shane Filan along with the returning Sinitta (who's Walsh's assists for the Second Time and Ninth Overall Appearances in the Judges' Houses) when he mentored the Boys in Saint-Tropez, France, in a property worth £10",
".5 million, next door to a property owned by Nicolas Sarkozy, whose gardeners interrupted filming. Osbourne took the Over 25s to her own home in Beverly Hills, California, assisted by Robbie Williams; Barlow was assisted by series 6 runner-up and former The Xtra Factor co-presenter Olly Murs to mentor the Groups in New York City; and Scherzinger took the Girls to Antigua with Mary J. Blige, staying at the St James Club resort",
". Blige, staying at the St James Club resort. Groups Code 4 and Rough Copy were forced to lose a member each during judges' houses because of visa problems. At judges' houses, Each act performed two songs for their mentor and his/her guest judge, although only one song was mentioned and shown on the main show, with the other song shown on The Xtra Factor instead (although only the acts who made it to the live shows had their second songs shown)",
". Judges' houses was broadcast over two programmes, on 5 and 6 October.",
"Judges Houses Performances\n\nBoys:\n Nicholas: \"If You're Not The One\"\n Sam C: \"We Are Young\"\n Luke: \"Cannonball\"\n Giles: \"You're Beautiful\" \n Paul: \"Last Request\"\n Ryan: \"Just Give Me a Reason\"\n\nGroups:\n Kingsland Road: \"Dance with Me Tonight\"\n Brick City: \"All Around the World\"\n Rough Copy: \"Boyfriend\"\n Xyra: \"In the Air Tonight\"\n Code 4: \"Superstition\"\n Miss Dynamix: \"Pure Shores\"",
"Over 25s:\n Sam B: \"I Have Nothing\"\n Shelley: \"Girl on Fire\"\n Lorna: \"If I Were a Boy\"\n Andrea: \"High and Dry\" \n Joseph: \"I’ll Stand by You\"\n Zoe: \"Fix You\"\n\nGirls:\n Tamera: \"Fallin'\"\n Jade: \"Hurt\"\n Abi: \"Only You\"\n Relley C: \"Many Rivers to Cross\" \n Melanie: \"Run\"\n Hannah: \"A Change Is Gonna Come\"\n\nActs \n\nKey:\n – Winner\n – Runner-Up",
"Live shows",
"The live shows started on 12 October. As in previous series, each week's song choices followed a particular theme. Each contestant performed on Saturday, while eliminations and guest performances took place on Sunday. For the first three weeks, a new \"flash vote\" took place at the end of each Saturday night show, where the voting lines opened for about eight minutes, and the act with the fewest votes faced the \"sing-off\" (formerly called the \"final showdown\") on Sunday",
". Voting lines for the remaining contestants then reopened, and stayed open until the Sunday shows, where the second contestant to face the \"sing-off\" was revealed. \"Deadlock\", where the act with the fewest public votes is eliminated after the judges' votes are tied, was eliminated while there was a flash vote, and instead, in the event that judges' votes were tied, the contestant that lost the flash vote was eliminated",
". However, in week 4 the flash vote was rested because of Nile Rodgers and Chic's performance, meaning there was not enough time at the end of the show for the flash vote, and \"deadlock\" would have returned if the judges' votes had been tied, and the flash vote did not return after this. Deadlock was used in weeks 8 and 9 due to tie votes from the judges.",
"The final took place at the normal venue, Wembley Arena on 14 and 15 December 2013.\n\nMusical guests",
"Each results show featured musical performances from at least two artists, while occasionally, artists performed on the main performances show. Ellie Goulding and Cher performed on the first results show, Robin Thicke and Katy Perry performed on the second, and The Wanted and Lady Gaga performed on the third. Nile Rodgers and Chic performed a medley of three songs on the fourth live show, in what was billed as a \"special edition\" of The X Factor",
". Little Mix performed on the fourth live results show, followed by Taylor Swift with Gary Lightbody. Robbie Williams and Celine Dion appeared on the fifth results show, though Dion's performance was pre-recorded. The sixth live results show featured performances from judge Gary Barlow, who was relaunching his solo career, and Miley Cyrus. Olly Murs performed on the seventh live show, then JLS, Mary J. Blige with Jessie J, and One Direction performed on the seventh live results show",
". Blige with Jessie J, and One Direction performed on the seventh live results show. Rebecca Ferguson and James Arthur performed on the eighth results show, Leona Lewis and Michael Bublé performed on the semi-final live results show, Tom Odell and The Killers performed in the first show of the final, and One Direction, Perry, Elton John and Barlow performed in the second show of the final.",
"Results summary\nColour key\n Act in team Nicole\n\n Act in team Gary\n\n Act in team Sharon\n\n Act in team Louis",
"Owing to the freezing of votes, the voting percentages in Weeks 1, 2 and 3, as well as the Final for all the Sunday Votes do not add up to 100%. Shelley Smith received 0.5% of the Sunday Vote in Week 1, Kingsland Road received 1.1% of the Sunday Vote in Week 2, Miss Dynamix received 0.5% of the Sunday Vote in Week 3 and Luke Friend received 10.3% of the Sunday Vote in the Final.",
"Miss Dynamix were given a bye in Week 2 as band member SeSe Foster was too ill to perform. Miss Dynamix automatically advanced to Week 3.\n Walsh did not need to vote as Scherzinger and Osbourne had already voted to eliminate Miss Dynamix; having lost the flash vote, they would have been eliminated regardless of Walsh's decision. Walsh said he would have voted to eliminate Miss Dynamix.\n Walsh did not need to vote as there was already a majority. He said he would have voted to eliminate Abi Alton.",
"Osbourne did not need to vote as there was already a majority. She said she would have voted to eliminate Sam Callahan.",
"Live show details\n\nWeek 1 (12/13 October)\nTheme: Songs from the 1980s\nGroup performance: \"Get Lucky\"\nMusical guests: Ellie Goulding (\"Burn\") and Cher (\"I Hope You Find It\")",
"Judges' votes to eliminate\n Osbourne abstained from voting as both acts were in her category.\n Walsh: Lorna Simpson – gave no reason.\n Barlow: Shelley Smith – said that Smith was only in the bottom two through a poor song choice, but felt that Simpson would go further in the competition.\n Scherzinger: Lorna Simpson – thought that there was \"more to see from\" Smith.\n\nHowever, if the result was tied, Simpson would have been saved.",
"However, if the result was tied, Simpson would have been saved.\n\nWeek 2 (19/20 October)\nTheme: Love and heartbreak\nGroup performance: \"Wake Me Up\"\nMusical guests: Robin Thicke (\"Blurred Lines\") and Katy Perry (\"Roar\")\n\n Due to band member SeSe Foster being in the hospital, Miss Dynamix did not perform and were given a bye week which automatically advanced them to the following week. They would have performed \"Dreams\", but actually performed the song the following week.",
"Judges' votes to eliminate\nBarlow: Shelley Smith – gave no reason but effectively backed his own act, Kingsland Road.\nOsbourne: Kingsland Road – backed her own act, Shelley Smith.\nScherzinger: Shelley Smith – based on the fact that she saved Smith the previous week.\nWalsh: Shelley Smith – felt Kingsland Road had more potential.\n\nHowever, if Walsh tied the result, Kingsland Road would have been eliminated.",
"However, if Walsh tied the result, Kingsland Road would have been eliminated.\n\nWeek 3 (26/27 October)\nTheme: Songs from films (\"Movie week\")\nGroup performance: \"Locked Out of Heaven\"\nMusical guests: The Wanted (\"Show Me Love (America)\") and Lady Gaga (\"Venus\"/\"Do What U Want\")",
"Judges' votes to eliminate\n Scherzinger: Miss Dynamix – backed her own act, Hannah Barrett.\n Barlow: Hannah Barrett – backed his own act, Miss Dynamix, but was surprised Barrett was in the sing off due to her performance from the previous night being one of his favourites.\n Osbourne: Miss Dynamix – gave no reason.\n Walsh was not required to vote, but stated he would have eliminated Miss Dynamix.",
"Week 4 (2/3 November)\nTheme: Disco\nGroup performance: \"A Night to Remember\"\nMusical guests:\nSaturday: Nile Rodgers and Chic (\"Le Freak\"/\"He's the Greatest Dancer\"/\"Good Times\")\nSunday: Little Mix (\"Move\") and Taylor Swift featuring Gary Lightbody (\"The Last Time\")\n\nThe flash vote was cancelled this week because of lack of time, due to Rodgers and Chic's performance, and the two acts receiving the fewest votes were announced during Sunday's results show.",
"Judges' votes to eliminate\n Scherzinger: Kingsland Road – backed her own act, Tamera Foster.\n Barlow: Tamera Foster – backed his own act, Kingsland Road.\n Osbourne: Kingsland Road – gave no comment; she later said on The Xtra Factor that she could not think of a reason to send them home nor to justify keeping them in the competition despite her own fondness for them.\n Walsh: Kingsland Road – said that Foster \"sang her heart out\" in her sing-off performance and had \"star quality\".",
"However, voting statistics revealed that Kingsland Road received more votes than Foster which meant that if Walsh sent the result to deadlock, Kingsland Road would have been saved.\n\nWeek 5 (9/10 November)\nTheme: Big band\nGroup performance: \"Love Me Again\"\nMusical guests: Celine Dion (\"Loved Me Back to Life\") and Robbie Williams (\"Go Gentle\")",
"The acts performed with a 36-piece live band, instead of a backing track. The flash vote did not return this week, and a show source said there were no plans for it to return. Cowell made an appearance during rehearsals via VT this week and told the final 8 they would be taking part in the 2014 live tour.",
"Judges' votes to eliminate\nScherzinger abstained from voting as both acts were in her category.\nBarlow: Abi Alton – based on the sing-off performances.\nOsbourne: Abi Alton – gave no reason.\nWalsh was not required to vote but stated he would have eliminated Alton.\n\nWeek 6 (16/17 November)\nTheme: \"The Great British Songbook\"\nGroup performance: \"Never Forget\"\nMusical guests: Miley Cyrus (\"Wrecking Ball\") and Gary Barlow (\"Let Me Go\")",
"A minimum of 15p from every contestant vote cast, plus a minimum of 50p from every track downloaded from this weekend's live performances, will be donated to the Disasters Emergency Committee's relief efforts following Typhoon Haiyan.",
"Judges' votes to eliminate\nWalsh abstained from voting as both acts were in his category.\nScherzinger: Sam Callahan – said Friend was the better singer.\nBarlow: Sam Callahan – gave no reason.\nOsbourne was not required to vote, but stated she would have eliminated Callahan.",
"Week 7 (23/24 November)\nTheme: \"The Best of The X Factor\" (songs recorded or performed by previous finalists)\nGuest mentors: Joe McElderry, Alexandra Burke, Shayne Ward, Little Mix, Olly Murs and Leona Lewis\nGroup performance: \"Everybody in Love\" (with JLS)\nMusical guests: \nSaturday: Olly Murs (\"Hand on Heart\")\nSunday: JLS (\"Everybody in Love\", with finalists), Mary J. Blige featuring Jessie J (\"Do You Hear What I Hear?\") and One Direction (\"Story of My Life\")",
"Judges' votes to eliminate\nScherzinger: Rough Copy – backed her own act, Hannah Barrett.\nBarlow: Hannah Barrett – gave no reason, but effectively backed his own act, Rough Copy.\nOsbourne: Hannah Barrett – because it was Barrett's third time in the bottom two.\nWalsh: Hannah Barrett – gave no reason, but on The Xtra Factor he said that it was because Barrett had been in the sing-off three times and Rough Copy had more to give.",
"However, voting statistics revealed that Barrett received more votes than Rough Copy which meant that if Walsh sent the result to deadlock, Barrett would have advanced to the quarter-final and Rough Copy would have been eliminated.\n\nWeek 8: Quarter-Final (30 November/1 December)\nTheme: Contestant's musical heroes; viewers' choice (billed as \"Jukebox week\")\nGroup performance: \"Burn\"\nMusical guests: Rebecca Ferguson (\"I Hope\") and James Arthur (\"Recovery\")",
"For the first time this series, the acts performed two songs each. One song was chosen by a public vote via the official The X Factor app. On 24 November, the song choices for the public were revealed.",
"Judges' votes to eliminate\nScherzinger: Luke Friend – backed her own act, Tamera Foster, but said that Friend had a gift that no one could take away from him.\nWalsh: Tamera Foster – backed his own act, Luke Friend, who he said was better in the sing-off.\nOsbourne: Tamera Foster – said that Friend delivered \"an organic natural performance\" in the sing-off.",
"Barlow: Luke Friend – could not decide and sent the result to deadlock; he further explained his statement by saying that Friend had one of his \"best nights\" but thought Foster had \"come back strong\" in the quarter-final and that she was going to be \"one of the biggest stars after the series\".",
"With the acts in the bottom two receiving two votes each, the result went to deadlock and reverted to the earlier public vote. Foster was eliminated as the act with the fewest public votes.\n\nWeek 9: Semi-Final (7/8 December)\nThemes: Songs by Beyoncé; songs by Elton John (billed as \"Elton John vs. Beyoncé\")\nGroup performance: \"Signed, Sealed, Delivered I'm Yours\"\nMusical guests: Leona Lewis (\"One More Sleep\") and Michael Bublé (\"You Make Me Feel So Young\")",
"Judges' votes to send through to the final\nBarlow: Rough Copy – gave no reason but essentially backed his own act, Rough Copy.\nWalsh: Luke Friend – gave no reason but essentially backed his own act, Luke Friend.\nScherzinger: Rough Copy – gave no reason.\nOsbourne: Luke Friend – could not decide so chose to sent the result to deadlock.",
"With the acts in the bottom two receiving two votes each, the result went to deadlock and reverted to the earlier public vote. Friend advanced to the final as the act with the most public votes.",
"Week 10: Final (14/15 December)\n14 December\nThemes: No theme (new song); celebrity duets\nGroup performance: \"Lifted\"\nMusical guests: Tom Odell (\"Another Love\"); Kitty Brucknell, 2 Shoes, John & Edward, Wagner, Johnny Robinson, Diva Fever and Rylan Clark (\"Live and Let Die\" / \"Under Pressure (Ice Ice Baby)\" / \"Love Shack\" / \"Spice Up Your Life\"); The Killers (\"Human\", \"Mr. Brightside\")\n\nLuke Friend received the fewest public votes and was automatically eliminated.",
"Luke Friend received the fewest public votes and was automatically eliminated.\n\n15 December\nThemes: Favourite performance (\"song of the series\"); winner's single\nGroup performance: \"Roar\" (all contestants except Lorna Simpson)\nMusical guests: One Direction (\"Midnight Memories\"), Katy Perry (\"Unconditionally\") and Gary Barlow featuring Elton John (\"Face to Face\")",
"Prize",
"As the winner, Sam Bailey received a £1 million recording contract with Syco Music, she went on to join Beyoncé Knowles for one night in Birmingham, on the UK leg of her The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour in 2014. Bailey's winner's single \"Skyscraper\" was released on 16 December, the day after she won, and sold over 100,000 copies to become the Christmas number one on 22 December",
". This made Bailey the first X Factor winner since Matt Cardle in 2010 to gain the Christmas number one (series 8 winners Little Mix and series 9 winner James Arthur both released their winners' singles two weeks before the Christmas chart, thus avoiding the Christmas number-one battle, although they both charted in the top three of the Christmas chart regardless)",
". On 24 November, it was revealed that the winner's single, like Arthur's, would be a charity release to raise money for Together for Short Lives, and also the Great Ormond Street Hospital. If Nicholas McDonald had won, he would have released \"Superman (It's Not Easy)\" as his winner's single.",
"Reception\n\nRatings",
"The series launch on 31 August 2013 received average overnight ratings of 8.78 million, a 40% share of the viewing audience at that time, and peaked at 9.08 million. The average rating was 680,000 more viewers than the series 9 launch, but still 2.5 million fewer than the series 8 launch. The first Sunday show the following night attracted average overnight ratings of 9.21 million, a 36.2% audience share. This was officially the highest rated episode of the series",
".21 million, a 36.2% audience share. This was officially the highest rated episode of the series. The following Saturday, on 7 September, the ratings dropped to 840,000 fewer than the launch, an overnight rating of 7.94 million. The second Sunday show saw viewers fall by 300,000 viewers compared to the previous Sunday, but it was up by more than 1 million on the fourth auditions episode of series 9",
". The ratings for the third Saturday show were up on the second by 710,000, with an average overnight rating of 8.65 million. The next day, the average overnight ratings reached 9.08 million and peaked at 10.7 million. The final weekend of auditions saw viewers decrease by around 200,000 on the Saturday, though the next day saw the show reach a new peak audience of 9.42 million, according to overnight figures.",
"Includes advert breaks\n The ITV+1 figure for this episode is unavailable as it was outside the top 10 programmes of the week on BARB.\n The rank for the ITV broadcast, compared with all channels for that week, from Monday to Sunday.\n The average figure for ITV+1 includes only the episodes with figures available.\n\nControversy and criticism",
"Trailer",
"The mash-up video trailer promoting the tenth series was published as a \"mash up of all the best a decade of X Factor has to offer\" on 25 July 2013. The trailer consists of various music videos from 13 past contestants: winners Shayne Ward, Leona Lewis, Alexandra Burke, Joe McElderry, Little Mix and James Arthur, and finalists One Direction, JLS, Olly Murs, Union J, Amelia Lily, Cher Lloyd and Misha B",
". However, fans questioned the absence of successful contestants Diana Vickers and Rebecca Ferguson, and winners Steve Brookstein, Leon Jackson and Matt Cardle were also not included. Cardle's manager Will Talbot said that he believed the show was \"attempting to erase Matt from the history books. [...] In truth, it pretty much sums up Syco's attitude to him during the months after he inconveniently (for them) won the show",
". Unfortunately there is a misconception that Matt has slagged off the show and fallen out with Sony but this is not true.\" Cardle later described being omitted from the advert as \"disappointing\", especially for fans who would have liked to have seen him in it. Melanie C, who has collaborated with Cardle, was more critical, saying: \"I think it's really f****** rude the way they have left him out.\"",
"Format changes",
"The change to the format of the auditions was criticised by Alex Fletcher from entertainment news website Digital Spy, who said he could not see the logic in having auditions broadcast on both Saturdays and Sundays, as complaints from series 9 were not about needing extra auditions, but about \"dour judges\" and \"underwhelming finalists\"",
". He praised the return of the audition room but felt that \"the producers and [Simon] Cowell evidently weren't confident in the format change and have kept the arena auditions as an extra second round,\" stating that the Bootcamp stage of the competition could have been used to show \"how the acts cope under pressure with a live audience,\" adding that \"the Sunday show feels like a bit of a formality\" and \"generally the singers who stun us on Saturday will impress again on Sunday",
".\" He said that \"the extra Sunday helping of The X Factor will still rate much higher than anything else that was going to air in that slot for ITV. So for the bean counters and X Factor PR machine it will probably be labelled a hit. In the long-term, however, I fear this 'Supersized X Factor may lead some viewers to reach for their remotes suffering from reality TV fatigue.\"",
"Additionally, Fletcher was critical of the format change to bootcamp, saying \"The show can be cruel for those taking part, brutal for those who don't make the grade, and its fickleness is nothing compared to the harsh realities of the music industry. However, the argument that 'the music industry is meaner' fell apart this week. [..",
". However, the argument that 'the music industry is meaner' fell apart this week. [...] I refuse to believe that anyone in the music industry has even been given a contract, told they're brilliant and then forced to watch 15 other people sing and have that contract ripped up in front of their faces. And even if they have, I bet they didn't have an audience of 4,000 people chanting at them to be on their way. This was reality TV at its most cruel",
". This was reality TV at its most cruel.\" He wondered if the change was a \"desperate attempt to create interest in a series that has performed solidly in the ratings, but without creating any real talking points or memorable moments\", and said that \"watching Karen Harding, Lydia Lucy and Sheena McHugh get put into the Top 6 and then have the dream of a spot at Judges' Houses snatched away from them felt needlessly mean. Whether the trio deserved to make Judges' Houses or not felt irrelevant",
". Whether the trio deserved to make Judges' Houses or not felt irrelevant. The audience finger-pointing and the chanting of 'Swap! Swap! Swap!' made the whole process terribly ugly.\" He questioned the show's producers' \"need to make it even more vicious\", opined that the new twist \"definitely undermines the credibility of the show's judges\", and said, \"The whole twist felt contrived and unpleasant, and I hope it won't be returning in 2014.\"",
"Fans and viewers of the show also criticised the bootcamp format, with some viewers said to be fearing for the contestants' wellbeing, with one calling it \"blood sport\". Singer Lily Allen, who watched the show, said, \"When did become alright to f*** with people's minds. X Factor has got fully mean.\" Contestant Lydia Lucy, who was initially chosen to be in Scherzinger's final six but was replaced by Abi Alton, said, \"It still hasn't sunk in. I've been absolutely devastated. [..",
". I've been absolutely devastated. [...] If Simon Cowell was in front of me now I'd tell him to change the format back to how it was. This way is like dangling a carrot in front of someone and then taking it away.\"",
"The new \"flash vote\" twist during the live shows was met negatively by Lorna Simpson, who was the first contestant to be eliminated. Simpson said it was unfair that she had far less time to prepare than fellow sing-off contestant Shelley Smith, claiming \"They set me up to go out in the first week\". It was reported that Cowell was planning to axe the flash vote after The X Factor was heavily beaten by Strictly Come Dancing in the ratings for the second live show",
". The flash vote was not used in week 4 due to a performance at the start of the show by Nile Rodgers and Chic, and was not used again in week 5. A source from the show said, \"at the moment it is not scheduled to return\". The flash vote was not used again after week 3.",
"Contestants",
"Before judges' houses, urban act Code 4 had to drop one of their members, Mark Wyman, after it emerged that he had a criminal record, and a spokesman for The X Factor said, \"Unfortunately due to problems in getting a visa Mark was unable to travel to Judges' Houses in America, meaning that he ended up having to leave the band to carry on in the competition as a three piece.\" Code 4 did not make it to the live shows",
".\" Code 4 did not make it to the live shows. Three-piece band Rough Copy also had to lose member Kazeem \"Kaz\" Ajobe before the six-chair challenge due to visa problems. The same had happened to the group in series 9, but this year the other two members, Sterling Ramsay and Joey James, continued without Ajobe and advanced to judges' houses as a duo",
". Fans questioned the events, and the extent to which ITV wanted to resolve them, saying they had a year to get a visa, and Barlow could have stayed in the United Kingdom, the latter sentiment to which Barlow admitted to Ajobe he should have done during the judges' houses episodes. Barlow put Rough Copy through to the live shows and Ajobe was allowed to rejoin the band. Furthermore, just after Ajobe was reinstated, controversy was caused when his criminal past was publicised",
". Ajobe responded by stating: \"I've done things I am not proud of. I haven't been an angel but I am a changed man now.\"",
"There was criticism over SeSe Foster of Miss Dynamix being allowed to compete in the show, because she was five months pregnant when the live shows began. Some viewers also thought it was unfair that Miss Dynamix got an automatic bye to the next week when Foster collapsed before the second live show. Foster dismissed this, saying that she \"deserve[s] a shot at a better life\" and insisted her collapse was not related to her pregnancy",
". The following week, Miss Dynamix were eliminated after losing the flash-vote and the sing-off to Hannah Barrett. Following this, Barlow stated that he felt that all public hopes of the group continuing in the competition had ended with their absence in week 2, despite him previously hoping that Foster's collapse would have gained more sympathy for them from the public.",
"Judges' comments",
"Some viewers were shocked by a comment made by Osbourne following 16-year-old Nicholas McDonald's performance of \"She's the One\" during the second live show. As McDonald got to the end of the song, a female backing dancer walked towards him and he kissed her cheek after the song finished",
". Despite the minimum age of sexual consent in the United Kingdom and the Crown Dependencies standing at 16, Osbourne then said to McDonald, who was 16 and therefore legal, \"Who on earth was that piece of whatever next to you? That paedophile. You're only 16. You can't be doing that. That's a disgrace ITV.\" She was later spoken to by producers, but Walsh defended her, saying \"She meant nothing wrong by it. We all say things we shouldn't and X Factor is not scripted",
". We all say things we shouldn't and X Factor is not scripted.\" The dancer declined to comment, but a source close to her said that she was embarrassed by Osbourne's comment.",
"Guest performances",
"Ofcom received around 200 complaints about Lady Gaga's performance, including her costume and lyrics, during the third results show on 27 October 2013. ITV received 60 complaints directly. Lady Gaga wore nude-coloured underwear and her lyrics included \"do what you want with my body\"",
". Lady Gaga wore nude-coloured underwear and her lyrics included \"do what you want with my body\". A spokeswoman for ITV said, \"We do not believe Lady Gaga's performance was inappropriate for the family audience of The X Factor results show, which has an established tradition of featuring performances from the biggest music stars. Lady Gaga is well known for her highly individual performance style.\" Ofcom said, \"We will assess all the complaints received on this issue before deciding whether to investigate.\"",
"Robin Thicke's performance, which featured a large number of scantily-clad female dancers, also received a total of 317 complaints. On 16 December, both Gaga and Thicke were cleared of any wrongdoing, with an Ofcom spokesman stating, \"We assessed the complaints and concluded there were no grounds to investigate.\"",
"Final\nThere were technical problems during Sam Bailey's duet performance with Scherzinger, when Jedward's voices could be heard as they completed a microphone test. The duet was panned by viewers who accused Scherzinger of being \"selfish\" by singing the \"best\" lines and notes of the song.\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n The X Factor\n\n2013 in British music\n2013 British television seasons\n 10\nUnited Kingdom 10"
] |
The Man of Steel (comics)
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Man%20of%20Steel%20%28comics%29
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[
"The Man of Steel is a 1986 comic book limited series featuring the DC Comics character Superman. Written and drawn by John Byrne, the series was presented in six issues which were inked by Dick Giordano. The series told the story of Superman's modern origin, which had been rebooted following the 1985–1986 series Crisis on Infinite Earths.",
"DC editors wanted to make changes to the character of Superman, including making him the sole survivor of his home planet Krypton, and Byrne's story was written to show these changes and to present Superman's origin",
". The series includes the embryonic Kal-El rocketing away from the destruction of Krypton and his birth upon landing in Kansas when he emerged from the artificial womb, Clark Kent as a teenager in Smallville learning that he was found in a crashed space ship, him being hired at the Daily Planet in Metropolis, the creation of his secret identity of Superman, his first meeting with fellow hero Batman, and how he finally learned of his birth parents and from where he came",
". The series also included the reintroduction of a number of supporting characters, including fellow reporter and love interest Lois Lane and archenemy Lex Luthor, who was re-branded from a mad scientist to a powerful businessman and a white-collar criminal.",
"The series's legacy persisted, as it set the new status quo for all of the ongoing Superman comic series for many years after it was published. The story stayed in DC Comics continuity as the origin of Superman until it was expanded upon in the 2003 limited series Superman: Birthright, which stayed canon until 2009. The title is a reference to one of Superman's nicknames which touted his invulnerability as making him the \"Man of Steel\"",
". It was later used as the title of an ongoing comic series and in a film reboot in 2013.",
"Background",
"The character of Superman was created by Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster. They originally intended for the character to star in a daily newspaper comic strip. He first appeared in the comic book, Action Comics #1, published in April 1938 by National Allied Publications (later renamed DC Comics). This book gave his origin, however it was cut down to one page",
". This book gave his origin, however it was cut down to one page. Soon after his introduction, the character became very popular, and by summer of 1939 he was starring in not only Action Comics, but also his own self-titled comic Superman, becoming the first character successful enough to support two comic titles.",
"In the next few decades, Superman's story was expanded to include new characters and storylines. After Siegel and Shuster left, new writers and artists added their own ideas to the Superman mythos. In 1945, Superman's adventures as a boy in Smallville were introduced in More Fun Comics #101 with the concept of Superboy, while his status as the only survivor of Krypton's destruction changed in 1959 with the introduction of his cousin, Supergirl in Action Comics #252",
". Eventually, these new details began to conflict with earlier stories, especially with the transition of comics from the Golden Age of Comic Books to the Silver Age of Comic Books. New heroes were introduced and Superman joined with them as a full member of the Justice League of America, however his work with the previous generation of heroes in the Justice Society of America gave conflicting details of his story. These conflicts were resolved in an issue of The Flash #123, Flash of Two Worlds",
". These conflicts were resolved in an issue of The Flash #123, Flash of Two Worlds. The story introduced the idea of the DC Multiverse, which presented the idea that these original heroes from the Golden Age were from Earth-2, while the current generation of heroes were from Earth-1. This created an infinite number of worlds on which any number of conflicting stories could occur, which resolved many of these conflicts in the Superman mythos.",
"The multiverse, however, turned out to be too complicated for casual readers of comic books. DC Comics wanted more readers for their comics and decided that they would ease the confusion of new readers by getting rid of the multiverse. They would accomplish this in the 1985 limited series, Crisis on Infinite Earths. DC decided that with the series they could reboot the history of many of its characters, including Superman, leading to The Man of Steel.",
"Production",
"In the years before Crisis on Infinite Earths led to the reboot of the DC Universe, DC editors and Marv Wolfman had been wanting to do a revision for Superman. Nothing was ever developed until then-publisher and president Jenette Kahn asked for revision proposals from various writers. While regular Superman writer Cary Bates wanted the revision to still keep the then-ongoing continuity as it was, Wolfman, and other writers such as Frank Miller and Steve Gerber wanted to restart the continuity from scratch",
". Wolfman, Miller, and Gerber all wanted to do the same thing: get rid of Clark Kent's career as Superboy, cut down Superman's powers, make changes in Lex Luthor's character, and make Superman the only survivor of Krypton, avoiding the other Kryptonian characters if necessary. However, regardless of wanting the same things, how each writer wanted to approach the revision was different.",
"After time had passed with no revision being granted the green light, Executive Editor Dick Giordano found out John Byrne was no longer under contract with Marvel Comics in May 1985. He and Byrne began talking about what Byrne would do with Superman if offered the job. With DC agreeing with 99% of the revision, Byrne was given the go-ahead for what became The Man of Steel",
". Byrne's original pitch was to mold Superman through a story arc over six or eight issues which would bring Superman to the point where he wanted him to be. But because DC insisted on a reboot, Byrne used that approach instead.",
"The mini-series was designed to reboot the Superman mythos using the history-altering effects of Crisis on Infinite Earths as an explanation. Thus, for modern comics, The Man of Steel is the dividing point between the previous canon of the Silver Age, and the Modern Age. The two different versions are referred to in stories soon after and by fans as \"pre-Crisis\" and \"post-Crisis,\" per Crisis on Infinite Earths being the major dividing line across the DC Universe as a whole",
". The pre-Crisis stories were drawn to a close in Alan Moore's Superman: Whatever Happened to the Man of Tomorrow?.",
"In the first issue, during Superman's public debut, he was originally going to save a landing space shuttle. After the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster, the Constitution was changed to \"an experimental space-plane\".",
"Story\nThe story was published in six issues from July to September 1986. Each issue focuses on a different time in the early years of Superman's career. In telling the story, Byrne drew from available media depictions of Superman for inspiration, including the Fleischer Studios cartoons and George Reeves' portrayal in the 1950s television series, Adventures of Superman.",
"Issue One\nThe first issue chronicles the origin of Superman, beginning with his flight from Krypton to his arrival on Earth where he is discovered by his adoptive parents, Jonathan and Martha Kent.",
"As a teenager, Clark Kent wins a high school football game almost by himself. He has developed many of his powers: Stamina, great strength, X-ray vision, and flight. Jonathan reveals to him that he is not Jonathan and Martha's biological son; they found him in a crashed spaceship. Jonathan explains that Clark needs to use his powers more responsibly, not for his own benefit",
". Jonathan explains that Clark needs to use his powers more responsibly, not for his own benefit. Clark decides to anonymously help others, and for the next few years, while studying in university, he secretly saves lives and averts disasters. While in Metropolis, however, he openly prevents the crash of an experimental space plane, revealing his existence to the public. He meets Lois Lane and the two start to connect when a grateful mob of people surrounds them",
". He meets Lois Lane and the two start to connect when a grateful mob of people surrounds them. Clark, unable to deal with the sudden attention, flies away to consult his parents. In order to preserve Clark's privacy, Jonathan suggests that Clark adopt a secret identity. Martha makes a costume for him, and he decides to use the name he was given by Lois, \"Superman\".",
"Clark's abilities are shown to have developed gradually in the yellow sun environment of Earth, starting with resistance to injury, with his flying ability emerging last. His powers do not reach their peak until his late teen years; thus, Clark only adopts the Superman identity in adulthood and never was Superboy.",
"In some pre-Crisis depictions, the Kents surrendered baby Kal-El to an orphanage before having a change of heart and legally adopting him as their own. Here, the Kents secretly adopt Clark and pass him off as their biological son. Prior to finding Clark, Martha Kent had a history of failed pregnancies. Friends and relatives assumed that they kept Martha's \"pregnancy\" a secret over fear of losing another child. A blizzard that closed off Smallville for weeks also helped in the Kents’ alibi.",
"While the pre-Crisis Superman's costume was indestructible, being made from the blankets in the rocket that brought him to Earth, the post-Crisis Superman costume is made of form-fitting ordinary spandex. It was later explained that the post-Crisis Superman's body generated an invisible \"aura\" that surrounded him and contributed to his bodily invulnerability",
". Objects held close to him, such as his costume (which attached to his skin), were protected from harm; his cape, meanwhile, could easily sustain damage in battle. The cape is also larger and longer. While keeping every classic element to the costume, Byrne made adjustments to the Superman S-shield. The emblem is an original design by Clark and Jonathan, and Byrne significantly increased its size so that it almost entirely covers Superman's chest.",
"Issue Two",
"The next issue is set shortly after the first, where the costumed Superman debuts in Metropolis. Daily Planet managing editor Perry White assigns Lois Lane to get the full story on the new hero. In the meantime, Superman is all over Metropolis helping others, from stopping muggings to foiling bank robberies. After a series of failed attempts to even encounter him again, Lois decides to take a gamble and plunges her car into the harbor to lure Superman into the open",
". Her plan works, as Superman arrives and takes her back to her apartment. The pair have a quiet talk in which Superman vaguely reveals some details about himself, including confirming the name \"Superman\" that Lois gave him in her first article about him. Superman then departs, but not before asking Lois if she always carries an aqua-lung in her car",
". Superman then departs, but not before asking Lois if she always carries an aqua-lung in her car. Lois finally has her scoop – the first sit-down interview with Superman – only to find out she's been beaten to the headline by the Daily Planet'''s newest reporter: Clark Kent.",
"In this series, Lois Lane was written as an aggressive reporter and personality from the start, and she never expressed a desire to find out Superman's identity or that he might have an alter-ego. Lois was given reddish-brown hair. Although she is clearly attracted to Superman, Lois is depicted as a driven career woman, with no thoughts of matrimony",
". She was also responsible for coming up with the name \"Superman\", as in other media iterations of the character (such as the film Superman and animated television series Superman: The Animated Series).",
"Issue Three",
"Superman and Batman encounter each other for the first time after Superman has heard of a vigilante operating in Gotham City. Batman is on the trail of a criminal called Magpie when he is interrupted by Superman, who regards him as an outlaw. Rather than risk capture, Batman informs Superman that should the latter make any attempt to touch him, a signal will be activated triggering a hidden bomb that will kill an innocent person somewhere in the city",
". After Batman explains his motivations and outlook to Superman, the two then work together and eventually capture Magpie. Afterwards, they come to a mutual understanding of one another, then Batman reveals that the endangered person was Batman all along, which was the only way (at the time) that Batman had of keeping Superman at bay. Superman departs, cautioning Batman against crossing any further lines",
". Superman departs, cautioning Batman against crossing any further lines. Batman regards Superman privately as \"a remarkable man, all things considered\" and wonders if, in a different reality, they could have been friends.",
"Superman's relationship with Batman, which was friendly throughout most of the pre-Crisis period, became much more strained in later years, as each began disagreeing with the other's attitudes. This shift is reflected in Man of Steel, as it starts off with Batman and Superman initially at odds over their respective ideologies and approaches before just begin showing signs of developing a partnership, if not friendship. Batman's musing at the story's end is an allusion to their pre-Crisis friendship",
". Batman's musing at the story's end is an allusion to their pre-Crisis friendship. Batman mentions that he had read Superman's debut in the Daily Planet news reports eight months ago.",
"Issue Four",
"Lois and Clark are guests at a party being held on Lex Luthor's luxury oceanliner. Upon arriving, they are entertained by Luthor in his private chamber on the ship. When Luthor privately insinuates his desire for Lois to her, the latter is offended (having some knowledge of Luthor's past) and angrily decides to leave the ship, taking Clark with her. She and Clark are then confronted by South American terrorists, who promptly throw Clark overboard when he intervenes to protect Lois",
". As the terrorists cordon off the hostages, Clark changes to Superman and lifts the ship, which surprises everyone on board. Lois seizes the opportunity, fighting back and capturing the terrorists with a last-minute assist from Superman. Luthor then tries to put Superman on his personal retainer, which Superman declines. Luthor then reveals that he allowed the terrorists to attack just to see Superman in action for himself, to the outrage of everyone present",
". Superman is then deputized by the mayor of Metropolis to arrest Luthor for reckless endangerment, who is released hours later thanks to his legal team. A few days later, Luthor confronts Superman and warns him of a reckoning.",
"Superman's nemesis Lex Luthor was now no longer a mad scientist or a costumed supervillain with questionable motives. Instead, he is the new evil of the 1980s: a power-hungry businessman, \"the most powerful man in Metropolis,\" who resents Superman's overshadowing presence. Instead of battling Superman directly, Luthor would now use hired minions, employ staff on his payroll, or manipulate others to destroy Superman, while ensuring that no incidents could be conclusively linked to him",
". Clark mentions that it has been almost eighteen months since he beat Lois to the scoop on Superman.",
"Issue Five",
"The story begins with Superman confronting Luthor after foiling another of the latter's revenge schemes. However, Luthor is able to elude arrest when Superman is unable to tie the villain to his criminal act. Superman leaves but not before his body is scanned by Dr. Teng's cloning machine. Due to Superman's alien heritage, the machine is unable to duplicate his DNA as it can only recognize known life-forms",
". At first the clone appears to be a perfect duplicate of Superman until it keels over unconscious and its body starts to crystallize. Frustrated, Luthor orders the body to be disposed of. Days later, the duplicate resurfaces thinking it is Superman and helping Metropolitans. The people, upon seeing it, flee in fear. It later meets a blind Lucy Lane, Lois's sister, who attempted to commit suicide by jumping off a building. Superman encounters the creature and engages it in battle",
". Superman encounters the creature and engages it in battle. The fight ends in a final blow, shattering the imperfect duplicate into a dust cloud which absurdly restores Lucy's sight.",
"On the opening page of this issue, Superman is seemingly capturing Luthor, who is wearing his pre-Crisis power suit. However, the next page reveals that it is one of Luthor's pawns in the suit. Luthor claims that the suit had been stolen and that he had no knowledge of the plot to attack Superman. Unfortunately, the suit's systems have left the man inside a vegetable, unable to tell the truth of Luthor's involvement",
". The reader later learns that Luthor was responsible for all of the above, which Superman suspects. Additionally, through Dr. Teng's examination, Luthor is among the first to discover that Superman is not human, but an alien. Superman is still, at this point, unaware of his extraterrestrial origins, much as his Golden Age version did not learn the truth about his past until well into his adulthood.",
"The villain Bizarro was established as an imperfect clone of Superman, created from the superhero's DNA, rather than as a duplicate resulting from an imperfect duplicating ray. Furthermore, Bizarro is no longer an \"imperfect opposite\" of Superman and as such, has identical rather than opposite powers",
". Though the duplicate is referred to as \"bizarre\" in-story, it is never explicitly named \"Bizarro\"; that name will not be established post-Crisis until years later, when another imperfect duplicate created by the same process runs rampant in Metropolis. Lois mentions that she has been dreaming of kissing Superman for five years now, indicating that he has been active in Metropolis at least that long at this point",
". The restoration of Lucy's sight is an element borrowed from Bizarro's original debut in Superboy (vol. 1) #68, right down to the dust cloud. It is implied that the duplicate deliberately sacrifices itself after hearing that Lucy's sight began to improve after contact with the creature.",
"Issue Six",
"Clark returns to Smallville after a long time away. His adoptive parents pick him up. Jonathan Kent is about to tell him something but Martha shushes him. Later that night, Clark is unable to sleep as he wonders what his Pa Kent was about to tell him. When he goes for a midnight snack, a \"ghost\" of Jor-El appears and touches him. Superman discovers himself to be on an alien planet where he encounters his biological mother, Lara",
". As the hallucination wears off, he is face to face with his old flame, Lana Lang. In a flashback, it turns out that on the night that Clark learned his heritage he went to Lana and revealed the truth of his powers to her. She confesses her feelings to him. She realizes that Clark can no longer belong to her, that he belongs to the world and this fact had hurt her. She had gone through a period of depression and finally accepts the fact",
". She had gone through a period of depression and finally accepts the fact. The next day, Superman thinks about what she said and starts wondering about where he truly came from. He goes to the location where Jonathan hid the rocket ship he was found in only to find that the ship is gone. The hologram of Jor-El reappears and tells him to be silent and to learn. It appears that Superman is under some kind of psionic attack but the Kents arrive in time and break it off",
". Superman flies away, realizing that it was not a mental attack but a download of knowledge of everything about Krypton into his brain. He finally knows his biological parents and where he came from and though he appreciates the knowledge he has been given, in the end, he embraces his humanity ever more.",
"As opposed to the earlier version, where others such as Supergirl and Krypto also survived, Superman is portrayed as the sole survivor of Krypton's destruction. He has no memory of his existence on Krypton, and instead identifies as a citizen of Earth. Pre-Crisis, Pete Ross knows of Clark's abilities since they are teenagers, while Lana Lang suspects Clark of being Superboy. Post-Crisis, Pete learns this information much later",
". Post-Crisis, Pete learns this information much later. Instead, Clark reveals his abilities to Lana just before leaving Smallville, and, while she retains feelings for him, has come to terms with the fact that they will merely be friends, and no longer pursues him as she did pre-Crisis. Clark's adoptive parents are alive and well into his adulthood, and Clark visits them periodically. Pre-Crisis, they had died shortly after Clark's high school graduation",
". Pre-Crisis, they had died shortly after Clark's high school graduation. Clark is twenty-eight years old by the time the story ends, indicating that the six issues had taken place over ten years.",
"Collected editions and adaptations",
"The story has been reprinted in trade paperback form in several editions. With the release of Action Comics #584, Adventures of Superman #424, and Superman #1 in January 1987 there was a card in each copy that readers could fill out and mail to DC for a chance to win a rare copy of a collected trade paperback. This version was unique in that it was actually all six issues of the Man of Steel mini-series with the spines trimmed and rebound with a new cover with a photocopied note that read:",
"In 1987 it was first released as a trade paperback in deluxe paper for the mass market with new cover art by John Byrne, with a cover price $12.95 US/$17.50 Canada. In 1993, it was widely released using newsprint-type paper with a cheaper cover price of $7.50 US/$9.95 Canada. It was again released in 2003, cover price of $14.99 US with a new cover by Jerry Ordway and the title of Superman: The Man of Steel Vol",
".99 US with a new cover by Jerry Ordway and the title of Superman: The Man of Steel Vol. 1, which would be the first in a series of trade paperbacks to collect some of the early post-Crisis adventures of Superman.Superman: The Man of Steel (Trade Paperback, 152 pages, 1993, DC Comics, )Superman: The Man of Steel Vol. 1 (Trade Paperback 132 pages, October 2003, DC Comics, )",
"The story has also been adapted in other countries. In 1995, Battleaxe Press comics in South Africa released the series under the name Superman as an introduction to the character before publishing newly released comics from DC.",
"In 1990, the series was adapted into a radio play in England simply entitled The Adventures of Superman by Dirk Maggs for BBC Radio 4",
". It featured Stuart Milligan as Clark Kent / Superman, William Hootkins as Lex Luthor, Lorelei King as Lois Lane, Vincent Marzello as Jimmy Olsen, Garrick Hagon as Perry White, Shelley Thompson as Lana Lang, Dick Vosburgh as Jor-El, Barbara Barnes as Lucy Lane, David Graham as Fisher, Simon Treves as Metallo, Elizabeth Mansfield as Amanda McCoy, Burt Kwouk as Doctor Teng, and Jon Pertwee as Schwarz.",
"Impact",
"From 1986 until 2003, The Man of Steel was the official Superman origin story. The 1998 limited series, Superman for All Seasons added to the story, but did not remove it from continuity. Byrne followed the story with three four-issue mini-series that retold and explored the new world of Superman: The World of Krypton (December 1987 – March 1988), The World of Smallville (April – July 1988), and The World of Metropolis (August – November 1988)",
". In addition to these stories, three on-going monthly comics featuring the new Superman's adventures were published by DC Comics. Byrne continued his stories in the brand new Superman #1, and continued with Action Comics #584, while Marv Wolfman wrote Adventures of Superman which had been retitled from the original Superman book and began with #424.",
"Byrne and Wolfman continued the changes presented in The Man of Steel in these on-going stories. Although most of Superman's powers remained unchanged, they did become limited to make him more believable. Additionally, he could no longer survive in space indefinitely without an air supply. These changes eliminated intergalactic and time travel stories. They also wanted to establish Clark Kent as the real person, with Superman being the disguise",
". They also wanted to establish Clark Kent as the real person, with Superman being the disguise. Clark was no longer \"mild-mannered,\" but became more assertive. He worked out to explain his muscular build and had written a \"best-selling\" novel before becoming a Daily Planet reporter. Additionally, most stories of other characters trying to find out Superman's secret identity were eliminated, as it was not believed that he had an alter-ego",
". Byrne also decided to keep Jonathan and Martha alive and well into Clark's adulthood to be important support characters for years. He also limited the use of Superman's weakness, Kryptonite. He removed all other forms besides the green variety, and made it an extremely rare element that came to Earth in one large rock with Superman's rocket. Lex Luthor believed early on that the radiation emanating from Kryptonite was within safe limits for humans, but was proved wrong in later stories.",
"Two of the biggest changes to Superman was reestablishing him as the sole survivor of the planet Krypton and the removal of his career as Superboy. These alterations in continuity would have a serious effect on the Legion of Super-Heroes. The Legion was formed based on the legends of Superman's adventures as a boy, and since they were still in continuity this was a problem. Additionally, Supergirl visited and worked with the Legion in many of their stories",
". Additionally, Supergirl visited and worked with the Legion in many of their stories. Since Supergirl did not exist either, Byrne had to correct this incongruity. He created a storyline in his two books where the Legion travels back in time to confront the post-Crisis Superman to find an explanation on Superboy's apparent disappearance. It was revealed that the Legion's enemy, the Time Trapper had created a \"pocket universe\" where Superboy existed",
". Whenever that Superboy would travel to the future or the Legion would travel to the past, the Time Trapper shifted them in and out of the pocket universe. This would also be used to explain the existence of Supergirl in the Legion stories.",
"One change of the Superman mythos introduced by Byrne was that Kal-El was not an infant sent from Krypton to Earth, rather, his fetus was placed in a \"birthing matrix\" equipped with a rocket engine and Jor-El's experimental warp drive, with Kal-El gestating during the trip to Earth. Once the rocket landed, Kal-El was fully \"born\" on Earth",
". Once the rocket landed, Kal-El was fully \"born\" on Earth. This made him \"born\" an American, a plot point that would be used in Armageddon 2001, a DC Comics storyline which explored possible futures, one of which featured Superman becoming President of the United States.",
"The planet Krypton in this series as cold and emotionally sterile, an idea Byrne borrowed from the 1978 film Superman and later carried on by other writers.The Man of Steel was highly regarded as an origin story for Superman. The first issue sold 200,000 copies. The cover to that issue was named one of the \"75 Most Iconic DC Covers of All-Time\" by Comic Book Resources, while users on that site voted it (along with the rest of Byrne's Superman run) as one of the \"Top 100 Comic Book Runs\" in 2012",
". Issue 3, where Superman met Batman, was named by IGN as one of \"The Greatest Superman/Batman Stories.\" The website io9 called the mini-series \"Must Read,\" while others gave many examples of why it is loved.",
"Although many people praised the story, it did have some detractors. Some claimed the series discarded the true Superman, while others claimed that DC and Byrne did not understand the character of Superman. Others have given examples of why the new Superman was overthought and did not work as a character.",
"Legacy",
"In 2003, the story was finally replaced by the 12-issue limited series, Superman: Birthright, which added on elements to the origin story of Superman. DC stated that Birthright and Man of Steel formed the full \"official\" origin for Superman. Birthright made use of many elements of Man of Steel that tied into the other series, but also introduced new aspects ignored by Byrne and thus brought back various pre-Crisis elements (such as Lex and Clark as childhood friends in Smallville)",
". The Kara Zor-El version of Supergirl was also reintroduced. In 2005, the DC Universe spanning story, Infinite Crisis made further changes to Superman, which left questions once again about Superman's origin. It was not until then-monthly Superman writer Kurt Busiek stated that the post-Infinite Crisis Superman origin had yet to be established",
". After the conclusion of Infinite Crisis, this origin was finally explained in the 2009 mini-series Superman: Secret Origin ending 20 years of The Man of Steel being the official origin. Eventually, only the first post-Crisis encounter between Superman and Batman remained canonical.",
"Many of the elements of the story were used in various other stories about the character. Other comic book series referred to it, such as the adaptation Superman: Earth One, which includes Clark Kent getting a job with the Daily Planet by providing an exclusive interview with Superman and the Elseworlds story Superman: Last Son of Earth which heavily refers to it and includes some frames and quotes copied directly from it.",
"Other elements were not seen in the story, but were adapted when Superman's origin was tackled by other media besides comics. In some pre-Crisis re-tellings of Superman's origin, Jor-El wanted to save both Lara and Kal-El by sending them away in the same rocket. Lara refused saying that the rocket was too small and might not make it to Earth because of her added weight, and she wanted to stay with her husband, an idea that was briefly touched on in Superman: The Animated Series",
". Byrne's original idea was to show a pregnant Lara leaving Krypton. After landing near Smallville, Lara would immediately succumb to a small chunk of kryptonite that was embedded in the ship's hull, introducing the dangers of the rocks. Lara would then have been found by the Kents while she was in labor. Before dying, Lara would have told them to look after her son. They would then take young Kal-El, an alien born on Earth, and raise him as their own just as they promised his mother",
". This was also Byrne's way to emphasize the Kents being chosen caretakers rather than them being a random couple who finds a baby in a rocket. The idea was not used because DC wanted Kal-El to be sent to Earth alone, but the idea of them being chosen was explored later in the television series, Smallville and in the novel Superman: Last Son of Krypton",
". The only detail from the idea that remained in the finished comic is the kryptonite fragment embedded in the ship's hull, which weakens Clark just as Jonathan finishes his story.",
"According to Byrne, it was initially agreed upon that he could depict Superman \"learning the ropes\" as a young hero early in his career. This was part of the reason why Byrne eliminated Superboy from the mythos, as he felt Superboy would be an unnecessary character under those circumstances. Once Byrne officially signed on to write the story, however, he was informed that his Superman would need to be \"up to speed\" and an established hero by the time the relaunch of the monthly titles took place",
". Later, Byrne stated that he wished he had kept Superboy to fill the role of Superman still \"figuring it out.\" However this idea was used extensively in the Smallville television series.",
"An unused Marv Wolfman idea was to show Lois Lane and Lex Luthor being romantically involved and living together in Luthor's estate in the mountains until Superman came to Metropolis. Lois would then leave Luthor to go after Superman, another reason for Luthor to hate Superman. This idea was scrapped because Byrne did not want Lois as someone who was drawn to power (and he didn't want any mountains shown alongside the city either)",
". Therefore, The Man of Steel depicts Lois and Luthor as having only casually dated. This idea was explored during the first season of the television series, Lois and Clark: The New Adventures of Superman, and was a backstory in Superman: The Animated Series.",
"The title of the series was used once again in 1991 when DC gave Superman a fourth on-going monthly comic book, Superman: The Man of Steel. It was also used for the rebooted film franchise of Superman in the 2013 origin story film, Man of Steel. The dystopian view of Krypton in the film is also heavily influenced by John Byrne's mini series in which they ruined their ecology and they don't have natural child birth",
".The Man of Steel'' was later the name of a 2018 miniseries written by Brian Michael Bendis, Bendis' first major work for DC Comics.",
"References\n\n1986 comics debuts\n1986 comics endings\nComics by John Byrne (comics)"
] |
Olympique de Marseille
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympique%20de%20Marseille
|
[
"Olympique de Marseille (, ; , ), also known simply as Marseille or by the abbreviation OM (, ), is a French professional football club based in Marseille that competes in Ligue 1, the top flight of French football. Founded in 1899, the club has won nine league titles, ten Coupe de France titles, three Coupe de la Ligue titles, three Trophée des Champions titles, a national record of one UEFA Champions League and a joint national record of one UEFA Intertoto Cup",
". Additionally, Marseille has played in three UEFA Europa League finals. In 1993, coach Raymond Goethals led the team to become the first and only French club to win the UEFA Champions League, defeating Milan 1–0 in the final, the first under the UEFA Champions League branding of the tournament. In 2010, Marseille won its first Ligue 1 title in 18 years under the management of former club captain Didier Deschamps.",
"Marseille's home ground is the 67,394-capacity Stade Vélodrome in the southern part of the city, where they have played since 1937. The club has a large fan-base, having regularly averaged the highest attendance in French football. Marseille's average home gate for the 2018–19 season was 50,361, the highest in Ligue 1. The stadium underwent renovation from 2011 to 2014, increasing its capacity to 67,000 ahead of France's hosting of UEFA Euro 2016.",
"In 1997, Marseille was purchased by Franco-Swiss businessman Robert Louis-Dreyfus. Following his death in 2009, his widow Margarita became the club's majority shareholder in 2010. American businessman Frank McCourt bought 95% of the club's stake in 2016, and appointed businessman Jacques-Henri Eyraud as the club president, later replaced by Pablo Longoria in 2021.",
"Marseille was placed twenty-eighth in the global ranking drawn up by the British consultancy organisation Brand Finance in terms of brand power, where it was rated with a credit rating AA (\"very strong\") with a score of 71.3 out of 100, as well as twenty-eighth in terms of brand value (€173 million) and twenty-eighth by enterprise value (€458 million as of 2023).\n\nHistory",
"History\n\nOlympique de Marseille was founded as an omnisport club in 1892 by René Dufaure de Montmirail, a French sports official. Known as Sporting Club, US Phocéenne and Football Club de Marseille in the first seven years after its foundation, the club adopted the name Olympique de Marseille in 1899 in honour of the anniversary of Marseille's founding by Greeks from Phocaea some 25 centuries earlier, with the name Olympique, coming from ancient Olympic Games.",
"At first, rugby union was the most important team sport of the club, the motto Droit au but coming from rugby. Affiliated with the Union des Sociétés Françaises de Sports Athlétiques (USFSA) since 1898, it was only in 1902, thanks to English and German people (according to André Gascard), that football began to be played by Olympique de Marseille",
". Richer and better organised than other football teams of Marseille (Sporting, Stade, Phocéenne), Olympique de Marseille, then playing at the Stade de l'Huveaune, took the leadership in the city. In 1904, Olympique de Marseille won the first Championnat du Littoral, involving opposing teams from Marseille and its suburbs, and took part in the final rounds of the 11th French championship",
". At that time, the word \"football\" applied to rugby, and people used the word \"Association\" (which would be soccer in North America) for football.",
"During the 1920s, Olympique de Marseille became an important team in France, winning the Coupe de France in 1924, 1926 and 1927. The team won the French championship in 1929, defeating Club français. The Coupe de France in 1924 was the club's first major title, won against FC Sète, a side that dominated French football at the time. In the '20s, numerous French internationals, such as Jules Dewaquez, Jean Boyer or Joseph Alcazar, played for Marseille",
". In 1930, Marseille lost against Sète, which would be the winner, in the semi-final round. In 1931, the team became champion of the South-East, with victories against rivals such as Sète. In the Coupe de France, l'OM lost in five matches to Club français, winning the second match that was cancelled due to the disqualification of Marseille striker Vernicke",
". Even though the 1931–32 season was less successful, Marseille easily entered the professional ranks, becoming a member of the union of professional clubs in 1932. On 13 January 1932 at 9:15 pm, at the Brasserie des Sports, Mr. Dard, Mr. Bison, Dr. Rollenstein, Mr. Etchepare, Mr. Leblanc, Mr. Mille, Mr. Anfosso, Mr. Sabatier, Mr. Seze, Mr. Bazat, Mr. Molteroj and Mr. Pollack elected the following committee:",
"Honorary presidents: Paul Le Cesne et Fernand Bouisson\nPresident: M. Dard\nVice-Presidents: Mr. Leblanc, Mr. Bison, Mr. Etchepare, Dr. Rollenstein et Mr. Anfosso\ngeneral secretary: Mr. Possel-Daydier\nTreasurer: Mr Bison (assisted by Mr Ribel).",
"For the first championship, Division 1 was divided into two pools. Marseille finished second in the first, behind Lille. For its first match of the championship, Marseille defeated the future champion, Lille. In 1937, Marseille won its first professional French championship thanks to goal difference (+30 for Marseille, +17 for Sochaux). The arrival of Vasconcellos made the defence stronger, whereas former goalkeeper Laurent Di Lorto shone with Sochaux and France",
". In the meantime, Marseille won the Coupe de France in 1935 and 1938 but failed a double success in 1934, due to FC Sète. In 1938, Larbi Benbarek signed with Marseille and became \"the black pearl\" for the team. World War II would cut his career short. The 1942–43 season was full of records: 100 goals in 30 matches, including 20 in one match (20–2 against Avignon), in which Aznar scored nine goals, including the first eight (Marseille was leading 8–0), playing only 70 minutes",
". Aznar scored 45 goals in 30 matches, plus 11 in cup games, for a record of 56 goals in 38 matches. With the minots (young players) of the moment (Scotti, Robin, Dard, Pironti), Marseille won the cup in two matches against Bordeaux (4–0). In 1948, thanks to a draw against Sochaux, Marseille became the champions of France. The two last victories at the Stade Vélodrome against Roubaix (6–0) and Metz (6–3) were important, as Aznar and Robin's returned in spring.",
"In 1952, Marseille were about to be relegated, but Gunnar Andersson saved his team, finishing as top scorer with 31 goals. The team won (5–3) on aggregate against Valenciennes. The same year, Marseille lost at the Stade Vélodrome against Saint-Étienne 10–3, but Liberati was injured. In 1953, Gunnar Andersson would take the record of goals scored in one season with 35. Marseille was runner-up in the Coupe de France (Nice won 2–1) in 1954 and the Coupe Drago in 1957 to (Lens which won 3–1)",
". Marseille were struggling at the time and were relegated for the first time in 1959. From 1959 to 1965, the team played in the second division, except during the 1962–63 season, finishing 20th out of 20 in the first division. In 1965, Marcel Leclerc became president.",
"1965–1986: Leclerc era and crisis",
"The first period of Olympique de Marseille's domination of the French League started in the early 1970s under Marcel Leclerc's presidency (1965–1972). His ambition allowed Marseille to return to the First division in 1965–66. They went on to win the Coupe de France in 1969 as well as the First division in 1971 with a record of 44 goals by Josip Skoblar, helped by Roger Magnusson",
". The arrival of Georges Carnus and Bernard Bosquier from Saint-Étienne helped them to win the Ligue 1 and the Coupe de France in 1972. Marseille played in the European Cup in 1971–72 and 1972–73, but were knocked-out by Ajax of Johan Cruyff and Juventus, respectively. However, success was not to last. Marcel Leclerc was forced to leave the club on 19 July 1972",
". However, success was not to last. Marcel Leclerc was forced to leave the club on 19 July 1972. The President was a stubborn man, and he threatened the league to withdraw his professional team from Ligue 1 because the federation refused to accept three foreign players per team (Leclerc wanted to acquire the Hungarian star Zoltán Varga but he had already the maximum number of two foreigners in his team). Marseille decided, instead of following Leclerc against the league, to fire him",
". Marseille decided, instead of following Leclerc against the league, to fire him. Then followed an era of crisis, with Marseille only winning a Coupe de France in 1976 and being relegated to the second division, where they played with a bunch of young local players: the Minots who allowed the team to return to First division in 1984. Éric Di Meco was one of them.",
"1986–1996: Tapie era, bribery scandal, and decline",
"On 12 April 1986, Bernard Tapie became president, thanks to Marseille mayor Gaston Defferre, and promptly built the greatest team seen in France up to that point. His first signings were Karl-Heinz Forster and Alain Giresse, who were bought after the 1986 FIFA World Cup",
". Tapie signed a large number of highly regarded players over the next six years in his pursuit of the European Cup, such as Jean-Pierre Papin, Abedi Pele, Klaus Allofs, Eric Cantona, Chris Waddle, Enzo Francescoli, Manuel Amoros, Carlos Mozer, Jean Tigana, Didier Deschamps, Dragan Stojković, Basile Boli, Marcel Desailly, Rudi Völler, and Alen Bokšić as well as appointing high-profile coaches like Franz Beckenbauer, Gérard Gili and Raymond Goethals",
". Between 1989 and 1992, Olympique de Marseille won four league titles in a row and the French Cup. The team also reached the Champions Cup final for the first time in 1991, losing on penalties to Red Star Belgrade. The highlight of the club's history is winning the new format Champions League in 1993. Basile Boli scored the only goal against Italy's Milan in the final held in Munich's Olympic Stadium",
". That triumph was the first time ever for a French club and it made Didier Deschamps and Fabien Barthez the youngest captain and goalkeeper, respectively, to capture the title.",
"This triumph, however, was followed by a decade of decline. In 1994, due to financial irregularities and a match-fixing scandal involving then-president Bernard Tapie, they suffered enforced relegation to the second division, where Marseille stayed for two years before returning to the First division. Moreover, they lost their 1992–93 Division 1 title and the right to play in the 1993–94 UEFA Champions League, the 1993 European Super Cup and the 1993 Intercontinental Cup",
". This scandal, called l'affaire VA-OM (VA for Union Sportive Valenciennes-Anzin and OM for Olympique de Marseille), was exposed by Valenciennes, whose players Jacques Glassmann, Jorge Burruchaga and Christophe Robert were contacted by Marseille player Jean-Jacques Eydelie to let OM win and, more importantly, not to injure any OM player ahead of the UEFA Champions League final.",
"1996–2009: Return to success",
"Marseille returned to the top flight in 1996 with backing from Adidas's CEO Robert Louis-Dreyfus. He chose Rolland Courbis as coach, signed Fabrizio Ravanelli, Laurent Blanc, and Andreas Köpke, and Marseille finished 11th for his return",
". For the 1998–99 season, the team celebrated their centenary and built a team of stars: Robert Pires, Florian Maurice, and Christophe Dugarry, culminating in a second-place finish in the French championship, behind Bordeaux and an appearance in the UEFA Cup Final in 1999, losing to Parma. Courbis left the team in November 1999 after a poor start to the season.",
"The closest Marseille got to another trophy was when they reached the UEFA Cup Final in 2004, impressively beating Dnipro, Internazionale, Liverpool, and Newcastle United along the way. But they were beaten in the final by newly crowned Spanish champions Valencia and once again fans were forced to continue waiting for the next trophy to come along",
". In 2005, Marseille succeeded in winning the Intertoto Cup, beating the likes of Lazio and Deportivo de La Coruña in doing so, and earning another shot at the UEFA Cup.",
"In January 2007, there was negotiation between Louis-Dreyfus and Jack Kachkar, a Canadian doctor and businessman (CEO of pharmaceutical company Inyx), about selling the club. As Jack Kachkar took too much time to buy the team, Louis-Dreyfus decided on 22 March 2007 not to sell to the Canadian businessman. Another close call to glory was in the Coupe de France final against Sochaux in May 2007",
". Another close call to glory was in the Coupe de France final against Sochaux in May 2007. However, they lost on penalties after a 2–2 draw after extra time, to the disappointment of everyone linked with the club, but they soon wiped all that disappointment away by qualifying for the 2007–08 UEFA Champions League group stage after securing second place with one game to spare.",
"In the Champions League, Marseille became the first French team to win at Anfield when they beat 2007 runners-up Liverpool 1–0, and the team took six out of six points from their opening two games. They only drew one more match, and in a winner-takes-all final group game they lost 4–0 to Liverpool, who became the first English team to win at the Stade Vélodrome. Marseille, coming third in the Champions League Group A, then joined the UEFA Cup.",
"Marseille finished the 2008–09 season with a second-place finish in Ligue 1, following a tight race with Bordeaux for the title. This earned them direct entry into the group stages of the UEFA Champions League, their third consecutive season in the competition. Marseille won the 2010 Coupe de la Ligue Final beating Bordeaux 3–1 at the Stade de France in March 2010. This was their first major title since their Champions League triumph 17 years earlier",
". This was their first major title since their Champions League triumph 17 years earlier. Two months later, Marseille won their first league championship for 18 years with two games to spare after beating Rennes 3–1. Marseille defeated rivals Paris Saint-Germain (PSG) on penalties to win the 2010 Trophée des Champions at Stade 7 Novembre in Rades, Tunisia, before the season began",
". Marseille then became the first team to win back-to-back Coupe de la Ligue successes when they won the 2011 edition by beating Montpellier 1–0 on 23 April. Before that, they qualified for the last 16 of the UEFA Champions League for the first time since their historic success, but lost 2–1 at Old Trafford to Manchester United and also set a Champions League record by thrashing Žilina 7–0 in what was the biggest away win in the competition's history",
". In 2011, Marseille lost the Ligue 1 championship title but qualified for the UEFA Champions League for the fifth time in a row, a club record. On 27 July 2011, Marseille won the 2011 Trophée des Champions title by beating Lille 5–4 at Stade de Tanger in Morocco. The result was significant as OM were 3–1 down with five minutes to go, only to embark on a remarkable comeback which saw 5 goals scored in the last five minutes with André Ayew scoring a hat-trick.",
"2009–2014: Deschamps, Baup, Anigo\nThe club struggled in the 2011–12 season, going to the bottom of the Ligue 1 table after six matches. Nevertheless, Marseille rebounded, winning 3–0 against Borussia Dortmund in the Champions League, as well as a 3–0 success over rivals PSG in November of that year. Marseille ended 2011 with a good sequence, also qualifying for the knockout stages of the Champions League for the second season running.",
"In February 2012, Marseille embarked on 13 games without victory, but rallied to qualify for the quarter-finals of the Champions League for the first time since winning the competition in 1993. Despite an indifferent club form, OM lost to eventual finalists Bayern Munich, and slumped to an overall tenth-place finish in Ligue 1. However, the club retained the Coupe de la Ligue for the third year running, beating Lyon 1–0 in the Final.",
"In the summer of 2012, Deschamps resigned, and later took on the France job. Elie Baup took over, leading the club to a surprising second-place finish in the 2012–13 season despite selling multiple key players, including Loïc Rémy, César Azpilicueta and Stéphane Mbia. Marseille returned to the Champions League, spending close to €40 million on the likes of Dimitri Payet, Florian Thauvin and Giannelli Imbula",
". The club were top of the table at the end of August 2013, but OM proceeded to lose all six games in Europe, suffering the ignominy of becoming the first French team, and the biggest European team to date, to have picked up zero points in a Champions League group stage.",
"Baup was sacked on 7 December 2013, following the 1–0 defeat to Nantes at Stade Velodrome. He was replaced on an interim basis by José Anigo. In Anigo's brief tenure, OM went out of the two cups, and struggled, leading to continued protests and jeers by fans. The club finished sixth in the 2014 season, missing out on an important European competition place for the first time in ten years",
". Anigo left the club soon after, taking on an ambassadorial/scouting role in North Africa, his first post outside of the city for more than four decades.",
"2014–2015: Bielsa era and stagnation",
"Marseille announced on 2 May 2014 an agreement with Marcelo Bielsa, who took the managerial hotseat. Bielsa was the club's first Argentine coach and the first coach to lead the team into the renovated Velodrome, which opened in August with a fixture against Montpellier. In Bielsa's first season in charge, the club led the league table for seven months but finished fourth and thus qualified for the UEFA Europa League",
". June 2015 saw three key players leave the club—André-Pierre Gignac and André Ayew left the club for Tigres UANL and Swansea City, respectively, after their contracts expired, while Dimitri Payet left to join West Ham United for a €15 million transfer fee.",
"After a solid pre-season, which included a 2–0 win over Juventus in the Robert Louis-Dreyfus Trophy and the signature of nine players, Bielsa resigned from his post, just minutes after the first Ligue 1 game of the 2015–16 season against Caen. Marseille lost the game 1–0, and Bielsa shocked the footballing world with his unexpected decision, citing a lack of trust with the club's management, who he said had reneged on a previously agreed contract extension",
". Bielsa's departure reportedly left his players in a state of shock, many of whom learnt the news via social media in the dressing room.",
"On 19 August 2015, Míchel was announced as Marseille's new coach. He endured a frustrating season, with OM failing to win a home game in Ligue 1 for more than six months. Following a number of poor performances, Míchel was sacked in April by club owner Margarita Louis Dreyfus, citing poor conduct as the team's coach. The sacking came on the eve of the club's Coupe de France semi-final fixture. As in 2015, Passi was installed as the caretaker coach",
". As in 2015, Passi was installed as the caretaker coach. Under his direction, Marseille reached the Coupe de France final for the first time in nine years, losing out 4–2 to rivals Paris Saint-Germain. OM would finish the league season in 13th, the club's worst league finish in 15 years.",
"In the summer of 2016, Marseille once more sold off a number of key players to meet financial obligations and to clear its wage bill ahead of an impending takeover. Steve Mandanda, the club's long-serving captain ended eight years at the club and moved to Crystal Palace, Nicolas N'Koulou moved to Lyon, while striker Michy Batshuayi was sold to Chelsea for a club record €40 million.",
"2016–present: New ownership and revival",
"Marseille began the 2016–17 Ligue 1 season with interim manager Franck Passi at the helm. On 29 August 2016, it was announced that American businessman Frank McCourt had agreed to buy the club from Margarita Louis-Dreyfus. The purchase deal was completed for a reported price tag of €45 million on 17 October 2016. Within the next few days, McCourt appointed Jacques-Henri Eyraud as the club's president, Rudi Garcia as the manager of the club's first team and Andoni Zubizarreta as director of sport.",
"On 3 May 2018, Marseille reached the final of the 2017–18 UEFA Europa League after eliminating Red Bull Salzburg in the semi-finals 3–2 on aggregate, 14 years after its last final in a European competition in 2004 against Valencia. However, they lost the final to Atlético Madrid.",
"In the 2019–20 Ligue 1 season, Andre Villas-Boas became head coach. Marseille finished second after the season was ended early due to the coronavirus pandemic, thus qualifying for the 2020–21 UEFA Champions League for the first time since 2013–14.",
"In February 2021, after this string of losses, conflict with players, and lack of support from sporting director Pablo Longoria and President Jacques-Henri Eyraud, head coach Andre Villas-Boas offered to resign, three days after a violent riot by protesting Marseille fans at the team training grounds had forced postponement of a league match with Rennes. Marseille sacked Villas-Boas, and replaced the coach with Argentine Jorge Sampaoli",
". Marseille sacked Villas-Boas, and replaced the coach with Argentine Jorge Sampaoli. The club also appointed Pablo Longoria to be the team's new president, replacing Jacques-Henri Eyraud, as Eyraud had also been a target of the ire of Marseille fans.",
"In January 2022, Marseille player Pape Gueye was banned from playing for 4 months by FIFA, while Marseille were given a ban on making transfers in both the summer 2022 and January 2023 transfer windows, and forced to pay €2.5 million to Watford",
".5 million to Watford. This came after the English club brought litigation against Marseille over the transfer of Gueye, who had originally signed a contract with Watford, but after finding out his agent had lied to him about the salary on offer, broke the contract and signed with Marseille. Marseille appealed FIFA's decision. In the 2021–22 Ligue 1 season, Marseille finished in second place, securing Champions League football for the first time since 2020",
". In the final matchday, they were helped by Lens's equalizing goal in the final moments of a 2–2 draw with Monaco.",
"Le Classique",
"Le Classique is a football match that is contested between Paris Saint-Germain and Olympique de Marseille. The term Classique is modelled on El Clásico, contested between Barcelona and Real Madrid. Like all the game's major rivalries, the antipathy between PSG and Marseille extends outside the pitch",
". The French clásico has a historical, cultural and social importance that makes it more than just a football game, pitching capital against province, and the traditional wealth and high culture of Paris against the industrial and cosmopolitan traditions of Marseille",
". However, this rivalry appears only in the 1990s, where it is promoted by the respective owners of PSG - Canal+, the TV channel which broadcast the Ligue 1 football matches - and Olympique de Marseile - Bernard Tapie, also owner of the sports company Adidas -, for obvious marketing reasons. It is sometimes seen as 'the favourite son' of French football against its enfants terribles",
". It is sometimes seen as 'the favourite son' of French football against its enfants terribles. With PSG being located in the north in the French capital and Marseille located along the Mediterranean coast, the rivalry is often referred to as \"the North versus the South",
".\" PSG and Marseille are two of just three French clubs to have won major European trophies, PSG having won the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup in 1996 and Marseille won the UEFA Champions League in 1993, and they were the two dominant forces before the emergence of Lyon at the beginning of the 21st century. However, despite their recent ups and downs, PSG and Marseille remain fierce rivals, giving this match a special atmosphere. \"Le Classique\" is also known as \"Le Classico\".",
"Stadium",
"From 1904 to 1937, Marseille played at the Stade de l'Huveaune, a stadium owned by the club, in contrast to its current stadium. L'Huveaune, once named Stade Fernand Buisson in honour of a former rugby player of the club who became a member of the French National Assembly, was renovated at the beginning of the twenties, thanks to supporter's financial help. It had a capacity of . In 1937, l'OM moved into the much larger Stade Vélodrome after compelling the city of Marseille to lower its rent",
". The club made use of the Stade de l'Huveaune again during the renovation of the Vélodrome for Euro 1984, during the 1982/83 season. The Vélodrome again underwent redevelopment in time for the 1998 World Cup and was transformed into an immense ground composed of two Curva ends (Virage Nord and Virage Sud – North Curve and South Curve) which house the supporters groups as well as the main stand, Jean Bouin, and the imposing Ganay stand",
". In a third renovation, in preparation for Euro 2016, the municipality covered the stands with a roof, and increased its capacity to 67,000 to host the Euro 2016 games.",
"Before the start of each home game the song \"Jump\" by Van Halen is heard.\nWhen a goal is scored by Marseille in their home matches the song \"Come with Me\" by Puff Daddy is played.\n\nKits and crest \n\nMarseille's traditional kit colours were white shirts and shorts with blue socks until 1986. Since 1986, Marseille have played with white shirts, white shorts and white socks, and the blue color became lighter due to Adidas marketing but in 2012–2013, the club returned to its original kit, wearing blue socks.",
"Club founder René Dufaure de Montmirail drew inspiration from his personal seal, which featured interlaced letters \"D\" and \"M\", to create the club's first badge. The club's motto, \"Droit au but\", dates from the days when the club's main sport was rugby, under the name \"Football Club de Marseille\". The original badge featured an ornate letter \"M\" superimposed over an \"O\", with the club motto draped across the glyph",
". The logo persisted for three decades, until 1935, when an art deco shield was adopted, with a simple \"M\" encased within the \"O\". In 1972, OM redesigned its logo, this time preferring a complex \"M\" letterform. In 1986, the club re-adopted its first badge; the logo evolved slightly over the next few decades, gaining a star in 1993 to commemorate the club's UEFA Champions League trophy",
". To commemorate the club's 100th anniversary in 1999, a variant featuring a golden \"O\" and a turquoise \"M\" was used; a similar 110th anniversary logo was used during the 2009–10 season. The most recent form was revealed on 17 February 2004; the \"O\" and \"M\" are rendered as a single unit in turquoise without shading or borders, and the logo is capped by the golden star representing the victory in the Champions League and sits above",
". The club's motto Droit Au But (French for \"Straight to the Goal\") also rendered in gold appears under the badge.",
"Kit suppliers and shirt sponsors\n\nSupporters",
"Virage Nord De Peretti",
"The atmosphere in the Stade Vélodrome is created by the dominance of OM's own supporters who are located in the Curva style ends behind both goals. The North Curve is home to the Marseille Trop Puissant, Fanatics, and Dodger's supporters associations who buy up the tickets at the start of each season and sell them on to their members. The Virage Nord is next to the away enclosure, which is protected by high fences",
". The Virage Nord is next to the away enclosure, which is protected by high fences. In 2002, the Virage Nord was officially given the name of Patrice de Peretti (1972–2000), the late founder and leader of the supporters group Marseille Trop Puissant (MTP). In 2010, the third kit of OM was a tribute to MTP, with the red, yellow and green colours of Africa, symbols of this left-wing curva",
". In 2018, owner Frank McCourt and president Jacques-Henri Eyraud decided to exclude the Yankee Nord due to a number of delictuous activities, especially concerning tickets ; they therefore forbid them to sell the said tickets, and the association is no longer officially recognized by the club.",
"Virage Sud Chevalier Roze\nThe virage is named after Nicolas Roze, a noble who distinguished himself in particular by creating a hospital in Marseille during the Great Plague of Marseille in 1720. As with the Virage Nord, the South Curve is controlled by supporter's associations with the Commando Ultra '84, the first group of ultra supporters in France created in August 1984, and the South Winners dominating the central section and Club Central des Supporters filling the remaining sections of the stand.",
"The 2007/08 third shirt of OM was a tribute to South Winners fans whose colours are orange, as they are traditionally left wing fans.",
"AEK Athens, AS Livorno and Sampdoria\n\nThere is a strong relationship between AEK Athens, AS Livorno, UC Sampdoria and Marseille. Marseille fans often lift banners and create choreography in support of the fellow teams.\nAt the opposite, also because of different political opinions they use to argue with many SS Lazio fans.\n\nPlayers\n\nFirst-team squad\n\nOut on loan\n\nPlayer of the season\n\nClub officials\n\nBoard of directors\n\n Last updated: 30 August 2023\n Source:\n\nCurrent technical staff",
"Board of directors\n\n Last updated: 30 August 2023\n Source:\n\nCurrent technical staff\n\n Last updated: 20 September 2023\n Source:",
"Honours",
"Marseille have won the French national championship nine times; with nine Ligue 1 titles they are behind only Saint-Étienne, who have ten, and Paris Saint-Germain, who have eleven. However, the first championship won by Marseille was in 1929, before the professional era of French football. Marseille also have the second best record in the Coupe de France, with ten titles. Marseille have achieved two championship and cup \"Doubles\", in 1972 and 1989",
". Marseille have achieved two championship and cup \"Doubles\", in 1972 and 1989. They are the only French club to win the UEFA Champions League, doing so in 1993.",
"Domestic competitions",
"Ligue 1\nWinners (9): 1936–37, 1947–48, 1970–71, 1971–72, 1988–89, 1989–90, 1990–91, 1991–92, 2009–10\nRunners-up (13): 1937–38, 1938–39, 1969–70, 1974–75, 1986–87, 1993–94, 1998–99, 2006–07, 2008–09, 2010–11, 2012–13, 2019–20, 2021–22\n Ligue 2\n Winners (1): 1994–95\n Runners-up (2): 1965–66, 1995–96\n Coupe de France\n Winners (10): 1923–24, 1925–26, 1926–27, 1934–35, 1937–38, 1942–43, 1968–69, 1971–72, 1975–76, 1988–89",
"Runners-up (9): 1933–34, 1939–40, 1953–54, 1985–86, 1986–87, 1990–91, 2005–06, 2006–07, 2015–16\n Coupe de la Ligue\n Winners (3): 2009–10, 2010–11, 2011–12\nTrophée des Champions\n Winners (3): 1971, 2010, 2011\nRunners-up (3): 1969, 1972, 2020\nCoupe Charles Drago\n Winners (1): 1957",
"International competitions \n\n European Cup / UEFA Champions League\n Winners (1): 1992–93\n Runners-up (1): 1990–91\n UEFA Cup / UEFA Europa League\n Runners-up (3): 1998–99, 2003–04, 2017–18\n UEFA Intertoto Cup\n Winners (1): 2005\n\nBallon d'Or\nThe following players received the Ballon d'Or award whilst playing for Olympique de Marseille:\n Jean-Pierre Papin – 1991",
"Two other former Ballon d'Or winners were hired by Olympique de Marseille: George Weah played for Marseille in 2000–01 after winning the Ballon d'Or in 1995 and Franz Beckenbauer coached the team for six months in 1990.\n\nEuropean Golden Shoe\nThe following players have won the European Golden Shoe whilst playing for Olympique de Marseille:\n Josip Skoblar (44 goals) – 1971",
"UNFP Player of the Year\nThe following players have won the UNFP Player of the Year whilst playing for Olympique de Marseille:\n Didier Drogba – 2004\n\nUNFP Young Player of the Year \nThe following players have won the UNFP Young Player of the Year whilst playing for Olympique de Marseille:\n Franck Ribéry – 2006\n Samir Nasri – 2007\n William Saliba – 2022\n\nFootnotes\n\nReferences \n Citations\n\n Bibliography\n\nExternal links \n\n \n Olympique de Marseille at Ligue 1\n Olympique de Marseille at UEFA",
"External links \n\n \n Olympique de Marseille at Ligue 1\n Olympique de Marseille at UEFA\n\nOlympique de Marseille\nAssociation football clubs established in 1899\nG-14 clubs\nFootball clubs in Marseille\n1899 establishments in France\nUEFA Champions League winning clubs\nM\nLigue 1 clubs"
] |
List of Empire ships (M)
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Empire%20ships%20%28M%29
|
[
"Suffix beginning with M",
"Empire MacAlpine",
"Empire MacAlpine was a 7,954 GRT Merchant Aircraft Carrier (MAC) cargo ship which was built by Burntisland Shipbuilding Company Ltd, Fife. Launched on 23 December 1942 and completed in April 1943. On 1 July 1943, Empire MacAlpine was in collision with Empire Ibex in the north Atlantic () and her bow was badly damaged. Empire Ibex was abandoned on 2 July and sank. Sold in 1947 to McCowan & Gross Ltd, London and renamed Derrynane. Sold in 1951 to Power Steamship Co Ltd and renamed Huntsbrook",
". Sold in 1951 to Power Steamship Co Ltd and renamed Huntsbrook. Operated under the management of O Gross & Sons Ltd, London. Sold in 1959 to South Breeze Navigation Co Ltd and renamed Suva Breeze. Operated under the management of J Manners & Co Ltd, Hong Kong. Sold in 1965 to San Fernando Steamship Co, Hong Kong and renamed Djatingaleh, remaining under Manners' management and renamed San Ernesto in 1966",
". Renamed Pacific Endeavour and placed under the management of Jaguar Shipping Corp Ltd, Hong Kong in 1968. Sold in 1969 to Compagnia Nueve del Oriente SA, Panama, remaining under Jaguar's management. Arrived on 21 February in Hong Kong for scrapping.",
"Empire MacAndrew",
"Empire MacAndrew was a 7,952 GRT MAC cargo ship which was built by William Denny & Bros Ltd, Dumbarton. Launched on 3 May 1943 and completed in July 1943. Sold in 1947 to McCowan & Gross Ltd, London and renamed Derryheen. Sold in 1951 to Cape of Good Hope Motor Ship Co Ltd and renamed Cape Grafton. Operated under the management of Lyle Shipping Co Ltd, Glasgow. Sold in 1963 to Patricia Compagnia Navigazione SA, Liberia and renamed Patricia",
". Sold in 1963 to Patricia Compagnia Navigazione SA, Liberia and renamed Patricia. Sold in 1968 to Pomos Shipping Co Ltd, Cyprus, operated under the management of Chios Navigation Co Ltd, London. Scrapped in October 1970 at Hsingkiang, China.",
"Empire MacCabe\nEmpire MacCabe was a 9,249 GRT MAC tanker which was built by Swan, Hunter & Wigham Richardson Ltd, Newcastle upon Tyne. Launched on 18 May 1943 and completed in November 1943. Sold in 1946 to British Tanker Co Ltd and renamed British Escort. Sold in 1960 to River Line Ltd, Bermuda and renamed Easthill Escort. Operated under the management of Mollers Ltd, Hong Kong. Scrapped in 1962 in Hong Kong.",
"Empire MacCallum",
"Empire MacCallum was an 8,252 GRT MAC cargo ship which was built by Lithgows Ltd, Port Glasgow. Launched on 12 October 1943 and completed in December 1943. Sold in 1947 to Doris Steamship Co Ltd and renamed Doris Clunies. Operated under the management of Olsen, Johnston & Co Ltd, Glasgow. Renamed Sunrover in 1951, placed under the management of Dracoulis Ltd, London in 1953. Renamed Eudoxia in 1957. Sold in 1959 to Phorkyss Shipping Corporation, Panama and renamed Phorkyss",
". Sold in 1959 to Phorkyss Shipping Corporation, Panama and renamed Phorkyss. Operated under the management of H C Dracoulis, Greece. Scrapped in November 1960 in Osaka, Japan.",
"Empire MacColl\n Empire MacColl was a 9,133 GRT MAC tanker which was built by Cammell Laird & Co Ltd, Birkenhead. Launched on 21 July 1943 and completed in November 1943. Sold in 1946 to British Tanker Co Ltd and renamed British Pilot. Arrived on 21 August 1962 at Faslane for scrapping.",
"Empire MacDermott",
"Empire MacDermott was a 7,952 GRT MAC cargo ship which was built by William Denny & Bros Ltd, Dumbarton. Launched on 24 January 1944 and completed in March 1944. Sold in 1948 to Buries, Markes Ltd, London and renamed La Cumbre. Sold in 1959 to Canero Compagnia Navigazione SA, Panama and renamed Parnon. Operated under the management of Lyras Bros Ltd, London. Sold in 1969 to Southern Shipping & Enterprises Co Ltd and renamed Starlight",
". Sold in 1969 to Southern Shipping & Enterprises Co Ltd and renamed Starlight. Operated under the management of Yick Fung Shipping & Enterprises, Hong Kong. Sold in 1976 to the Government of the People's Republic of China.",
"Empire Mace\n Empire Mace was a 7,177 GRT (11,650 tons displacement) cargo ship which was built by Consolidated Steel Corporation, Wilmington, California. Laid down as Cape St Roque and completed in December 1943 as Empire Mace for MoWT. Transferred to the Royal Navy in 1944 as HMS Galtee More. Sold in 1957 to Société Misr de Navigation Maritime, Egypt and renamed Misr. To the Egyptian Government in 1959.",
"Empire MacKay\nEmpire MacKay was an 8,908 GRT MAC tanker which was built by Harland & Wolff Ltd, Govan. Laid down as British Wisdom and launched on 17 June 1943 as Empire Mackay. Completed in October 1943. Sold in 1946 to British Tanker Co Ltd and renamed British Swordfish. Arrived on 21 May 1959 at Rotterdam, Netherlands for scrapping.",
"Empire MacKendrick",
"Empire MacKendrick was a 7,933 GRT MAC cargo ship which was built by Burntisland Shipbuilding Co Ltd, Burntisland. Launched on 29 September 1943 and completed in December 1943. Sold in 1947 to Mediterranean & Atlantic Lines Ltd and renamed Granpond. Operated under the management of Goulandris Bros Ltd, London. Sold in 1951 to Compagnia Maritima de Este SA, Panama and renamed Condor. Operated under the management of Goulandris Bros Ltd, Greece",
". Operated under the management of Goulandris Bros Ltd, Greece. Sold in 1955 to Turnbull, Scott Shipping Co Ltd, London and renamed Saltersgate. Sold in 1957 to Navigation Bulgare Maritime and renamed Vassil Levsky. On 6 June 1967 she was detained in the Great Bitter Lake due to the Arab–Israeli conflict. Released on 5 June 1975 when the Suez Canal was reopened to traffic. Arrived under tow on 22 July 1975 at Split, Yugoslavia for scrapping.",
"Empire MacKenzie\nEmpire Mackenzie was to have been a MAC ship, but the contract for building her was cancelled after the name had been allocated.\n\nEmpire MacMahon\nEmpire MacMahon was an 8,856 GRT MAC tanker which was built by Swan, Hunter & Wigham Richardson Ltd, Wallsend. Launched on 2 July 1943 and completed in December 1943. Sold in 1946 to Anglo-Saxon Petroleum Co Ltd and renamed Naninia. Arrived on 17 March 1960 at Hong Kong for scrapping.",
"Empire MacRae",
"Empire MacRae was an 8,252 GRT MAC cargo ship which was built by Lithgows Ltd, Port Glasgow. Launched on 21 June 1943 and completed in September 1943. Sold in 1947 to Alpha South African Steamship Co and renamed Alpha Zambesi. Operated under the management of Mollers Ltd, London. Sold in 1949 to Motor Lines Ltd, operated under the management of Olsen, Johnston & Co Ltd, Glasgow. Sold in 1954 to V Torkildsen, Norway and renamed Tobon. Sold in 1964 to W Kubon, Norway",
". Sold in 1954 to V Torkildsen, Norway and renamed Tobon. Sold in 1964 to W Kubon, Norway. Sold in 1967 to Aghia Paraskevi Corporation, Greece and renamed Despina. Operated under the management of Pontikos Shipping Agencies Ltd, London. Scrapped in April 1971 at Kaohsiung, Taiwan.",
"Empire MacSorley\nEmpire MacSorely was to have been a MAC ship, but the contract for building her was cancelled after the name had been allocated.\n\nEmpire Madge\nEmpire Madge was a 258 GRT tug which was built by Scott & Sons, Bowling, West Dunbartonshire. Launched on 30 April 1945 and completed in June 1945. To the Admiralty in 1947 and renamed Weasel. Scrapped in November 1968 at Singapore.",
"Empire Magpie\nEmpire Magpie was a 6,211 GRT cargo ship which was built by Federal Shipbuilding and Drydock Company, Kearny, New Jersey. Completed as Bellemina for the United States Shipping Board (USSB). To MoWT in 1941 and renamed Empire Madge. Sold in 1946 to Williamson & Co, Hong Kong. Sold in 1948 to Yui Kong, China and renamed Jui Hsin. Sold in 1950 to Pacific Union Marine, Panama and renamed Atlantic Unity. Scrapped in April 1959 at Hirao, Japan.",
"Empire Mahseer\nEmpire Mahseer was a 5,107 GRT (7,500 DWT) cargo ship which was built by American International Shipbuilding Co, Hog Island, Pennsylvania. Completed in 1920 as Liberty Bell for the USSB. To Pioneer Steamship Corp, New York in 1920, returned to USSB in 1921. To Lykes Brothers-Ripley Steamship Co Inc in 1933 then to MoWT in 1940 and renamed Empire Mahseer. Torpedoed on 4 March 1943 and sunk by at .",
"Empire Maiden",
"Empire Maiden was an 813 GRT coaster which was built by A & J Inglis Ltd, Glasgow. Launched on 20 December 1941 and completed in March 1942. Bombed on 14 June 1943 and sunk at Pantelleria, Italy. The wreck was sold in 1947 to Italian buyers, raised and towed to Messina, arriving on 5 July 1948. Repaired, with a new steam engine being fitted. Sold to G Dagnino, Italy. Sold in 1953 to Astrolea Società Anonima, Italy and renamed Asteria. Sold in 1958 to Lugari & Filippi, Italy and renamed Sanjacopo",
". Sold in 1958 to Lugari & Filippi, Italy and renamed Sanjacopo. New diesel engine fitted in 1962. Sold in 1968 to Società Anonima di Navigazione, Italy. Sold in 1972 to Lidia Melodia Ved. Lugari, Italy. Scrapped in July 1974 at Spezia, Italy.",
"Empire Maisie\nEmpire Maisie was a 244 GRT tug which was built by Henry Scarr Ltd, Hessle. Launched on 23 May 1943 and completed in July 1943. Sold in 1947 to Clyde Shipping Co Ltd and renamed Flying Typhoon. Sold in 1961 to Newport Screw Towing Co Ltd and renamed Dunhawk. Scrapped in 1969 at Newport Monmouthshire.",
"Empire Malacca",
"Empire Malacca was a 7,071 GRT cargo ship which was built by William Gray & Co Ltd, West Hartlepool. Launched on 10 June 1944 and completed in August 1944. Sold in 1946 to T & J Brocklebank Ltd and renamed Mandasor. Sold in 1962 to Tsavliris Shipping Ltd, London and renamed Fotini Tsavliris. Sold in 1963 to Kantara Shipping Ltd, Cyprus. Operated under the management of Tsavliris Shipping Ltd, London. Sold in 1969 to Free Trader Shipping Ltd, Cyprus. Remained under Tsavliris's management",
". Sold in 1969 to Free Trader Shipping Ltd, Cyprus. Remained under Tsavliris's management. Ran aground on 16 September 1970 off Terschelling lighthouse (). Refloated on 18 September and towed to Amsterdam. Departed Amsterdam on 29 September 1970 in tow of tug Nisos Zakynthos bound for Piraeus, Greece. Laid up on arrival. Arrived on 1 May 1972 at Derince, Turkey for scrapping.",
"Empire Maldon\nEmpire Maldon was a 3,750 GRT tanker which was built by Sir J Laing & Sons Ltd, Sunderland. Launched on 19 November 1945 and completed in April 1946. Sold in 1946 to Imperial Oil Co Ltd, Canada and renamed Imperial Halifax. Sold in 1970 to Johnston Shipping Ltd, Canada and renamed Congar. Scrapped in November 1977 at Hamilton, Ontario.",
"Empire Mallard\nEmpire Mallard was a 4,957 GRT (7,500 DWT) cargo ship which was built by Todd Drydock and Construction Company, Tacoma, Washington. Ordered as War Comrade for the British Shipping Controller, London and completed as Anacortes for the USSB. To French American Lin in 1920, returning to USSB later that year. To MoWT in 1941 and renamed Empire Mallard. Collided on 26 September 1941 with Empire Moon and sank near Point Armour, Strait of Belle Isle.",
"Empire Mallory",
"Empire Mallore was a 6,327 GRT cargo ship which was built by C Connell & Co Ltd, Glasgow. Launched on 9 July 1941 and completed in August 1941. Sold in 1946 to C Cravos & Co, Cardiff and renamed Ampleforth. On 23 January 1947 she dragged her anchors and ran aground at Tel Aviv, Palestine. Refloated on 3 March and arrived under tow on 10 March at Alexandria, Egypt. Declared a constructive total loss and sold. Towed to Genoa then Palermo, where she arrived on 6 November 1947",
". Towed to Genoa then Palermo, where she arrived on 6 November 1947. Repaired and sold in 1948 to Irish Bay Lines Ltd and renamed Bangor Bay. Operated under the management of H P Lenaghan & Sons Ltd, Belfast. Sold in 1954 to Great Eastern Shipping Co Ltd, Bombay and renamed Jag Shanti. Arrived on 9 September 1961 at Bombay for scrapping.",
"Empire Malta",
"Empire Malta was a 3,539 GRT (4,310 DWT) cargo ship which was built by William Gray & Co Ltd, West Hartlepool. Launched on 24 March 1944 and completed in May 1944. Sold in 1946 to Williamson & Co, Hong Kong, then later that year to Indo-China Steam Navigation Co Ltd, London and renamed Hangsang. Sold in 1960 to Continental Navigation & Enterprises Ltd, Hong Kong and renamed Slight Wind. Sold in 1964 to Sunbeam Navigation Co Ltd, Panama and renamed Sunbeam",
". Sold in 1964 to Sunbeam Navigation Co Ltd, Panama and renamed Sunbeam. Operated under the management of Patt, Mansfield & Co Ltd, Hong Kong. On 23 July 1969 she suffered a major engine breakdown in the South China Sea and was towed to Kaohsiung, Taiwan. Scrapped in November 1970 at Kaohsiung.",
"Empire Mammoth",
"Empire Mammoth was a 938 GRT bucket dredger which was built by Fleming & Ferguson Ltd, Paisley. Launched on 6 July 1945 and completed in November 1945. To the Admiralty in 1946 and renamed st Ives. To Ministry of Public Buildings and Works in 1963 and renamed Bucket Dredger W 2. Sold c1970 to H G Pounds, Portsmouth. Renamed St Ives, sold in 1972 to an Italian buyer. On 27 December 1972, St Ives capsized in bad weather north-west of Ferrol, Spain while under tow by tug Smit Pioneer and sank at .",
"Empire Mandalay\nEmpire Mandalay was a 7,086 GRT cargo ship which was built by Shipbuilding Corporation Ltd, Sunderland. Launched on 29 October 1944 and completed in December 1944. Sold in 1946 to T & J Harrison and renamed Tribesman. Sold in 1961 to Margalante Compagnia Navigazione, Panama and renamed Delta. Sold later that year to Sigma Shipping Co Ltd. Scrapped in December 1961 in Hong Kong.",
"Empire Mandarin",
"Empire Mandarin was a 7,078 GRT cargo ship which was built by Shipbuilding Corporation Ltd, Newcastle upon Tyne. Launched on 9 March 1944 and completed in May 1944. Sold in 1947 to Dorset Steamship Co Ltd and renamed Lulworth Hill. Operated under the management of Counties Ship Management Ltd. Renamed Castle Hill in 1949. Sold in 1950 to London & Overseas Freighters Ltd and renamed London Builder. Sold later that year to Societa Armadora Insular Sa, Panama and renamed Silver Wake",
". Sold later that year to Societa Armadora Insular Sa, Panama and renamed Silver Wake. Sold in 1954 to Eastern Seas Steamship Co Ltd and renamed Navarino. Sold in 1955 to Stanthorpe Steamship Co Ltd and renamed Stanthorpe. Operated under the management of J A Billmeir & Co Ltd. Sold in 1961 to Mullion & Co Ltd, Hong Kong and renamed Ardbrae. Arrived on 1 March 1966 at Onomichi, Japan for scrapping.",
"Empire Manor",
"Empire Manor was a 7,036 GRT cargo ship which was built by Short Brothers Ltd, Sunderland. Launched on 8 April 1943 and completed in July 1943. Hit amidships on 27 January 1944 with Liberty ship and holed. Taken in tow but the following day a fire developed when chemical cargo reacted with seawater. Empire Manor was abandoned and she broke in two the following day, with the stern section sinking. Bow section sunk by depth charges from HMCS Kenogami",
". Bow section sunk by depth charges from HMCS Kenogami. After she had been sunk, a coded message was passed that Empire Manor was carrying gold bullion. Wreck located in 1953 at by salvage vessel Twyford of Risdon Beazley Marine Salvage Co Ltd, Southampton. In September 1973, the bullion was salvaged by salvage vessel Droxford. It was landed at Town Quay, Southampton in November 1973 and taken under escort to the Bank of England, London.",
"Empire Maple\nEmpire Maple was a 129 GRT tug which was built by R Dunston Ltd, Thorne. Launched on 20 May 1941 and completed in September 1941. Allocated in 1947 to the Government of Poland and renamed Tarpan. Deleted from shipping registers in 1962, allocated to port work only but possibly scrapped about this time.",
"Empire March\nEmpire March was a 7,090 GRT cargo ship which was built by Vickers-Armstrongs Ltd, Barrow in Furness. Launched on 20 February 1942 and completed in April 1942. Attacked on 1 January 1943 and sunk by torpedoes and gunfire from the german raider Michel in the South Atlantic.",
"Empire Margaret\nEmpire Margaret was a 235 GRT tug which was built by A Hall & Co Ltd, Aberdeen. Laid down as Empire Margaret and launched on 16 June 1946 as Sun XVII. Completed in November 1946 for W H J Alexander Ltd. Sold in 1968 to Società Rim. Napoletani, Italy and renamed Rania G. Scrapped in June 1983 in Palermo, Italy.",
"Empire Mariner",
"Empire Mariner was a 4,957 GRT cargo ship which was built by Deutsche Werft, Hamburg. Launched in 1922 as Schwarzwald. Sold in 1935 to H Vogemann, Hamburg and renamed Rheingold. Sailed in October 1939 from Bahia, Brazil in an attempt to return to Germany but was captured on 25 October by and escorted to Kirkwall then Glasgow. To MoWT and renamed Empire Mariner. On 26 July 1943 she put into the Clyde with engine damage",
". To MoWT and renamed Empire Mariner. On 26 July 1943 she put into the Clyde with engine damage. A new steam engine and boilers were fitted before she was sold in 1946 to the South American Saint Line Ltd and renamed St Ina. Sold in 1948 to Bristol City Line of Steamships Ltd and renamed Wells City. Sold in 1951 to East and West Steamship Co, Karachi and renamed Fausta. Scrapped in October 1963 in Karachi.",
"Empire Mariott\nEmpire Mariott was a 5,970 GRT cargo ship which was built by William Pickersgill & Sons Ltd, Sunderland. Launched on 25 August 1941 and completed in October 1941. Sold in 1946 to I Williams & Co Ltd, Cardiff and renamed Graigdale. Sold in 1962 to New Dholera Steamships Ltd, India and renamed Jayshoor. Scrapped in September 1969 in Bombay.",
"Empire Marksman",
"Empire Marksman was a 965 GRT (1,100 DWT) coaster which was built by Scott & Sons, Bowling, West Dunbartonshire. Launched on 26 January 1944 and completed in March 1944. Sold in 1948 to Afon Lliedi Steamship Co and renamed Afon Morlais. Operated under the management of William Coombs & Sons, Llanelli. Sold in 1956 to John S Monks Ltd, Liverpool and renamed Cliffville. On 12 May 1958, she developed a leak, heeled over and sank at Meadowside Granary Wharf, Glasgow",
". On 12 May 1958, she developed a leak, heeled over and sank at Meadowside Granary Wharf, Glasgow. Refloated on 14 July 1958 and sent to drydock where she was declared a constructive total loss. Scrapped in Dublin.",
"Empire Marlowe\nEmpire Marlowe was a 6,768 GRT cargo ship which was built by William Gray & Co Ltd, West Hartlepool. Launched on 6 October 1941 and completed in December 1941. Sold in 1946 to Sun Shipping Co Ltd and renamed Cape St David. Operated under the management of Mitchell, Cotts & Co Ltd. Sold in 1960 to Escort Shipping Co Ltd and renamed Happy Seafarer. Operated under the management of Mariner Shipping Co Ltd, Hong Kong. Scrapped in July 1966 at Hirao, Japan.\n\nEmpire Mars",
"Empire Mars\n\nEmpire Mars was an 8,199 GRT tanker which was built by Sir J Laing & Sons Ltd, Sunderland. To the Royal Fleet Auxiliary in 1946 and renamed RFA Wave Duke. Arrived in tow on 25 December 1969 at Bilbao, Spain for scrapping.",
"Empire Marshal",
"Empire Marshal was a 7,836 GRT heavy lift ship which was built by Greenock Dockyard Co Ltd, Greenock. Launched on 14 May 1945 and completed in November 1945. On her maiden voyage her cargoes consisted of nine TID tugs, ten lighters and a long oil separator, all bound for Hong Kong. Sold in 1947 to Pandelis Shipping Co Ltd, London. On 14 July 1952 she suffered an explosion in her engine room while at Pusan, South Korea",
". On 14 July 1952 she suffered an explosion in her engine room while at Pusan, South Korea. In August 1952 she was towed to Nagasaki, Japan and laid up as a constructive total loss. She was sold in 1954 and departed Nagasaki on 20 December 1954 under tow bound for Hong Kong. She was refitted by Taikoo Dockyard & Engineering Co, with a diesel engine from the MV Elax fitted. This engine had been fitted to the 1927 built Elax in 1946, Elax was then scrapped",
". This engine had been fitted to the 1927 built Elax in 1946, Elax was then scrapped. Sold in 1955 to Trader Line Ltd, Bermuda and renamed Bermuda Trader. Operated under the management of Moller Line Ltd, Hong Kong. Ran aground on 9 March 1965 near Sakata, Japan. Broke in two on 14 March, a constructive total loss. One part was refloated in October 1965 and the other in September 1966; both were scrapped by Japanese shipbreakers.",
"Empire Marshland\n\nEmpire Marshland was a 683 GRT dredger which was built by William Simons & Co Ltd, Renfrew. Launched on 21 February 1946 and completed later that year. To the Admiralty and renamed W 30. Transferred in 1963 to the Ministry of Public Buildings & Works. Offered for sale in 1973 at Rosyth by the Board of Trade.",
"Empire Marston\nEmpire Marston was an 8,175 GRT tanker which was built by Furness Shipbuilding Co Ltd, Haverton Hill-on-Tees. Launched on 27 June 1946 as Empire Marston and completed in December 1946 as RFA Wave Pioneer. Arrived on 11 June 1960 at Inverkeithing, Fife for scrapping.",
"Empire Martaban\nEmpire Martaban was a 7,542 GRT cargo ship which was built by Burntisland Shipbuilding Co Ltd, Burntisland. Launched on 15 September 1944 and completed in November 1944. Sold in 1951 to Aviation & Shipping Co Ltd and renamed Avistone. Operated under the management of Purvis Shipping Co Ltd. Sold in 1960 to Faik Zeren, Turkey and renamed Turkiye. Scrapped in February 1972 at Istanbul.",
"Empire Martha\nEmpire Martha was a 292 GRT tug which was built by Cochrane & Sons Ltd, Selby. Launched on 28 April 1945 and completed in October 1945. Sold in 1947 to James Contracting & Shipping Co Ltd and renamed Foremost 106. Sold in 1949 to Union de Rem. et Sauv., Antwerp and renamed Georges Letzer. Fitted with a new diesel engine in 1964.",
"Empire Marvell",
"Empire Marvell was a 9,821 GRT tanker which was built by Sir J Laing & Sons Ltd, Sunderland. Launched on 17 January 1942 and completed in April 1942. Sold in 1946 to Northern Petroleum Tank Steamship Co Ltd and renamed Bloomfield. Operated under the management of Hunting & Son Ltd. Sold in 1955 to D B & E A Montanari, Italy and converted to a bulk carrier. Sold in 1959 to Pacific Ruler Corporation, Liberia and renamed Panaghia T. Operated under the management of Tsakalatos Navigation Corporation, New York",
". Operated under the management of Tsakalatos Navigation Corporation, New York. On 8 August 1960 she ran aground south of Tamandaré, Brazil after a fire broke out in her engine room. She was refloated on 5 September and towed to Recife. She left Recife under tow on 31 August 1961 and arrived at Ymuiden, Netherlands on 7 October. Arrived on 19 December 1961 at Vigo, Spain for scrapping.",
"Empire Mary",
"Empire Mary was a 487 GRT tug which was built by Clelands (Successors) Ltd, Willington Quay-on-Tyne. Launched on 17 October 1944 as Empire Jean and completed in January 1945 as Empire Mary. Sold in 1946 to Overseas Towage & Salvage Co Ltd and renamed Marinia. Sold in 1950 to Union des Remorquage de Dakar and renamed W Ponty. Renamed Ponty in 1954. Sold in 1961 to Société Belge Remorquage Oceanique, Ostend, Belgium and renamed Ocean Bull",
". Sold in 1961 to Société Belge Remorquage Oceanique, Ostend, Belgium and renamed Ocean Bull. Sold in 1965 to SA Italiene Lavore e Maritimi, Italy and renamed Nettuno. Renamed Nettuno Sailem in 1984 and scrapped in May 1985 in Palermo, Italy.",
"Empire Mascot\nEmpire Mascot was a 244 GRT tug which was built by Henry Scarr Ltd, Hessle. Launched on 8 March 1943 and completed in May 1943. Sold in 1947 to Metal Industries Ltd and renamed Metinda IV. Sold in 1948 to Alexandra Towing Co Ltd and renamed Flying Kestrel. Scrapped in March 1969 at Passage West, Co Cork.",
"Empire Masefield",
"Empire Masefield was a 7,023 GRT cargo ship which was built by Swan, Hunter & Wigham Richardson Ltd, Newcastle upon Tyne. Launched on 26 August 1941 and completed in October 1941. Allocated to the Belgian Government in 1942 and renamed Belgian Seaman. Damaged on 13 January 1942 by enemy bombing off Yorkshire (), later repaired. Sold in 1946 to Armement Deppe SA, Belgium and renamed Anvers. Sold in 1952 to Compagnie Belge d'Expansion Maritimes and renamed Clervaux",
". Sold in 1952 to Compagnie Belge d'Expansion Maritimes and renamed Clervaux. Sold in 1960 to M Angelos Ltd, London and renamed Mihalis Angelos. Sold in 1963 to Maradelanto Compagnia Navigazione, operated under the management of M Angelos Ltd. sold in 1965 to Celestial Shipping Corporation SA, Panama and renamed Gloria. Operated under the management of Gloria Shipping Ltd, Hong Kong. Arrived on 6 December 1967 at Kaohsiung, Taiwan for scrapping.",
"Empire Mauritius",
"Empire Mauritius was a 7,320 GRT cargo ship which was built by Bartram & Sons Ltd, Sunderland. Launched on 30 October 1944 and completed in February 1945. Sold in 1947 to Bury Hill Shipping Co Ltd and renamed Markab. Sold in 1956 to Motor Shipping Corporation of Seven Seas, Panama and renamed Matador. Sold in 1958 to J Manners Ltd, Hong Kong and renamed Yangtse Breeze. Sold in 1959 to the Chinese Government and renamed Hoping Wu Shi San. Renamed Ho Ping 53 c1979 and renamed Zhan Dou 53 c1985.",
"Empire Mavis\nEmpire Mavis was a 5,704 GRT (8,800 DWT) cargo ship which was built by Northwest Steel Co, Portland, Oregon. Completed in December 1918 as West Raritans for the USSB. To MoWT in 1941 and renamed Empire Mavis. Allocated to the Dutch Government in 1942 and renamed Jan van Goyen. Sold in 1946 to Halcyon Lijn NV, Netherlands and renamed Stad Maastricht. Sold in 1955 to Compagnia La Plana, Panama and renamed Amaver. Scrapped in January 1959 at Avilés, Spain.",
"Empire Maya\nEmpire Maya was a 394 coaster which was built by S P Austin & Sons Ltd, Sunderland. Launched on 27 March 1945 and completed in July 1945. Sold in 1947 to Straits Steamship Co Ltd and renamed Merliman. Sold in 1957 to A Gill & Co (Private) Ltd, India and renamed Margaret Rose was On 9 June 1959 she was hit by a tsunami off Okha Port and later capsized and sank off Dwarka.",
"Empire Maybury\nEmpire Maybury was a 394 GRT coaster which was built by Cook, Welton & Gemmell Ltd, Beverley. Launched on 10 July 1945 and completed in October 1945. Sold in 1948 to Ho Hong Steamship Co (1932) Ltd, Singapore and renamed Hong Ann. Sold in 1954 to Pacific Shipowners Ltd and renamed Ai Sokula. Operated under the management of W R Carpenter & Co Ltd, Australia. Sold in 1963 to Milne Bros, Marshall Islands and renamed Nei Raete II.",
"Empire Maydream",
"Empire Maydream was a 413 GRT coaster which was built by A Hall & Co Ltd, Aberdeen. Launched on 4 April 1946 as Empire Maydream and completed later that year as Maydream for Ta Hing (H K) Ltd, Hong Kong. Operated under the management of Mollers Ltd, Hong Kong. Renamed Wing Hing in 1947, now 563 GRT. sold in 1948 to Wallem & Co, Hong Kong. on 12 February 1950, she caught fire and was beached at Chilang Point, as a total loss. The wreck was reported as having been sold to a Chinese company on 9 June 1950.",
"Empire Mayflower\nEmpire Mayflower was a 394 GRT coaster which was built by Bartram & Sons Ltd, Sunderland. Launched on 16 May 1945 and completed in September 1945. Sold in 1946 to Straits Steamship Co Ltd, Hong Kong. Renamed Malim in 1947. sold in 1956 to Eastern Starlines Ltd, Ceylon. Renamed Starline Merchant in 1957. Scrapped in January 1962 in Bombay, India.",
"Empire Mayland\nEmpire Mayland was a 394 GRT coaster which was built by Charles Hill & Sons Ltd, Bristol. Launched in August 1945 and completed in February 1946. Sold in 1948 to Ho Hong Steamship Co (1932) Ltd, Singapore and renamed Hong Soon. Sold in 1952 to the Government of Portuguese Timor and renamed D Aleixo. Sold in 1965 to Tat Pin Shipping & Trading Co, Singapore. Removed from shipping registers in 1966.",
"Empire Maymead",
"Empire Maymead was a 394 GRT coaster which was built by Henry Scarr Ltd, Hessle. Launched in May 1945 and completed in November 1945. Sold in 1948 to Ho Hong Steamship Co (1932) Ltd, Singapore and renamed Hong Tat. Placed under the Chinese flag in 1955. Sold in 1957 to Hua Siang Steamship Co and renamed Hua Mui. Operated under the management of Chan Cheng Kum, Singapore. Sold in 1962 to Malayan Navigation Co Ltd, Singapore and renamed Hong Tat. Sold in 1965 to Madam Poonsri Sutharom, Thailand.",
"Empire Maymorn\nEmpire Maymorn was a 394 GRT coaster which was built by Charles Hill & Sons Ltd, Bristol. Launched on 31 December 1945 and completed in February 1946. Sold in 1947 to the Government of British Guiana and renamed Mazaruni. Transferred to the Government of Guyana when Guyana gained independence in 1966.",
"Empire Maymount\nEmpire Maymount was a 394 GRT coaster which was built by S P Austin & Sons Ltd, Sunderland. Launched on 12 April 1945 and completed in August 1945. Sold in 1947 to Straits Steamship Co Ltd and renamed Meluan. Sold in 1955 to A Gill & Sons (Private) Ltd, India and renamed Vir Pandian. On 28 July 1955, she ran aground at Gopinath, India. Declared a constructive total loss, sold and scrapped in situ.",
"Empire Mayport",
"Empire Mayport was a 394 GRT coaster which was built by Cook, Welton & Gemmell Ltd, Beverley. Launched in May 1945 and completed in September 1945. Sold in 1946 to Straits Steamship Co Ltd. Renamed Mentakab in 1947. Sold in 1953 to Cheong Steam Navigation Co and renamed Debora. Operated under the management of K S Pang, King Kong. Sold in 1954 to G Grimble & Co Ltd, Hong Kong and sold again later that year to Société Franco-Chinoise de Transports Maritime et Fluviaux, France. Now 554 GRT",
". Now 554 GRT. Sold in 1960 to Malayan Navigation Co Ltd, Malaya. Sold in 1965 to Progress Shipping Co, Panama and renamed Bright Star. On 20 January 1966 she ran aground on a reef in the South China Sea south-east of Da Nang, South Vietnam, () and wrecked.",
"Empire Mayring",
"Empire Mayring was a 394 GRT coaster which was built by Cochrane & Sons Ltd, Selby. Launched in August 1945 and completed in January 1946. Sold in 1947 to Ta Hing (H K) Ltd, Hong Kong and renamed Sing Hing. Now 565 GRT. Operated under the management of Mollers Ltd, Hong Kong. Sold in 1949 to Wallem & Co, Hong Kong. Sold in 1951 to Pakistan Steam Navigation Co Ltd, Pakistan and renamed Islamabad. Operated under the management of A K Khan & Co, Chittagong",
". Operated under the management of A K Khan & Co, Chittagong. To Bangladesh Steam Navigation Co Ltd, Bangladesh in 1972, remaining under Khan's management.",
"Empire Mayrose",
"Empire Mayrose was a 394 GRT coaster which was built by Bartram & Sons Ltd, Sunderland. Launched on 16 May 1945 and completed in August 1945. Sold in 1947 to Straits Steamship Co Ltd, Hong Kong and renamed Mawai. Sold in 1954 to Pacific Shipowners Ltd and renamed Meklong. Operated under the management of W R Carpenter & Co Ltd, Australia. Sold in 1957 to Lanena Shipping Co Ltd, Hong Kong. Operated under the management of T Engan, Philippines. Sold in 1960 to Tonglik Shipping Co Ltd and renamed Karang Djawa",
". Sold in 1960 to Tonglik Shipping Co Ltd and renamed Karang Djawa. Operated under the management of P T Garina Line, Indonesia.",
"Empire Mayrover",
"Empire Mayrover was a 394 GRT coaster which was built by Cochrane & Sons Ltd, Selby. Launched on 8 September 1945 and completed in May 1946. Sold in 1947 to Ta Hing (H K) Ltd, Hong Kong and renamed Wa Hing, now 558 GRT. Operated under the management of Mollers Ltd, Hong Kong. Sold in 1949 to Indian General Navigation & Railway Co Ltd, Calcutta and renamed Mumtaz. Sold in 1961 to Pakistan River Steamers Ltd, Pakistan. transferred in 1972 to Bangladesh River Steamers Ltd, Bangladesh",
". transferred in 1972 to Bangladesh River Steamers Ltd, Bangladesh. To the Bangladeshi Government in 1972 and renamed C5-203.",
"Empire Maysong\nEmpire Maysong was a 394 GRT coaster which was built by Scott & Sons Ltd, Bowling, West Dunbartonshire. Launched on 20 December 1945 as Empire Maysong and completed in December 1948 as Lochbroom for David MacBrayne Ltd, Glasgow. Now fitted with a diesel engine and 325 GRT. Sold in 1972 to Focomar Shipping Co Ltd, Cyprus and renamed Focomar. Operated under the management of S C Vazeos, Greece. On 19 September 1974, she ran aground at Andros Island, Greece and sank in deep water.",
"Empire Maytime\nEmpire Maytime was a 394 GRT coaster which was built by Ailsa Shipbuilding Co Ltd, Troon. Launched on 25 April 1945 and completed in July 1945. Sold in 1947 to Straits Steamship Co Ltd, Hong Kong and renamed Membau. Sold in 1953 to Shun Cheong Steam Navigation Co and renamed Adelina. Operated under the management of K S Pang, Hong Kong. Sold in 1955 to Hong Phat Hang, South Vietnam, and renamed Nam Sanh. On 30 October 1971 she was stranded and wrecked in a typhoon at Chu Lai, South Vietnam.",
"Empire Maytown\nEmpire Maytown was a 394 GRT coaster which was built by Henry Scarr Ltd, Hessle. Launched in August 1945 and completed in February 1946. Sold in 1947 to the Government of British Guiana and renamed Lady Berbice. Transferred to the Government of Guyana in 1966.",
"Empire Maytree",
"Empire Maytree was a 394 GRT coaster which was built by Ailsa Shipbuilding Ltd, Troon. Launched on 31 May 1945 and completed in August 1945. Sold in 1957 to Straits Steamship Co Ltd, Hong Kong and renamed Mantin. Sold in 1953 to Shun Cheong Steam Navigation Co and renamed Lorinda, now 554 GRT. Operated under the management of K S Pang, Hong Kong. Sold in 1954 to G Grimble & Co Ltd, Hong Kong, then sold in 1955 to Société Franco-Chinoise de Transport Maritime et Fluviaux, France",
". Sold in 1957 to the Indonesian Government and renamed Luen Hwa.",
"Empire Mead\nEmpire Mead was a 254 GRT tug which was built by Ferguson Bros, Port Glasgow. Launched on 6 April 1942 and completed in June 1942. Sold in 1948 to Nederland-Indonesia Steenkolen Handel Maatschappij and renamed Bodeker. Sold in 1959 to the Indonesian Government. Sold in 1961 to Tanjung Priok Port Authority and renamed Laut Belawan.",
"Empire Meadow\nEmpire Meadow was a 242 GRT tug which was built by J S Watson Ltd, Gainsborough. Launched on 4 June 1942 and completed in August 1942. Sold in 1946 to J Cooper, Belfast and renamed Meadow. Fitted with a new diesel engine in 1963. Sold in 1969 to R & J H Rea Ltd, then sold in 1970 to Cory Ship Towage Ltd. Sold in 1973 to Maritime Commercial Enterprises, Greece and renamed Hector. Sold in 1978 to H N Spiliopoulos, Greece. Scrapped in December 1978 at Perama, Greece.",
"Empire Medway (I)",
"Empire Medway was a 10,926 GRT cargo liner which was built by Napier and Miller Ltd, Glasgow. Launched in 1929 as Eastern Prince for Furness, Withy & Co Ltd. Requisitioned in November 1940 and converted to a troopship. Used as a floating hotel for British and American delegates to the Yalta Conference. To MoWT in 1946, but not renamed until 1950 when Furness, Withy wished to use her name for a new ship. In collision with HMT Empire Ken in Valletta Harbour, Malta in 1951. Scrapped in 1953 at Faslane.",
"Empire Medway (II)\nEmpire Medway was a 2,391 GRT cargo ship which was built by Moss Værft & Dokk, Moss, Norway. in 1938 as Wandsbeck for Knohr & Burchard, Hamburg. Bombed and sunk on 21 July 1941 at Narvik. Salvaged on 21 March 1943 and repaired. Seized as a prize in May 1945. To MoWT and renamed Empire Medway. Allocated to USSR in 1946, renamed Aleksandr Pushkin. No trace after 1955.",
"Empire Melody",
"Empire Melody was a 2,887 GRT cargo ship which was built by Grangemouth Dockyard Co Ltd, Grangemouth. Launched on 27 August 1942 and completed in November 1942. Sold in 1946 to Fairplay Towage & Shipping Co Ltd, Avonmouth and renamed Lucy Borchard. Sold in 1950 to Constants (South Wales) Ltd, Cardiff and renamed Nordeflinge. Sold in 1955 to Socoa Shipping co Ltd and renamed Ines. Operated under the management of R de la Sota, France. Sold in 1962 to Zanlouk Compagnia Maritime SA, Panama and renamed Popi K",
". Sold in 1962 to Zanlouk Compagnia Maritime SA, Panama and renamed Popi K. Sold in 1968 to Astrovlanis Compagnia Navigatione, Panama and renamed Gold Sky. Operated under the management of G Vlanis Shipping Ltd, Greece.",
"Sprang a leak on 19 December 1968 and sank off Gibraltar (). Survivors rescued by MV Otto Leonhardt. Three crew remained on board and refused assistance from salvage tug Hercules, only leaving the ship when it was just about to sink. The ship was highly insured, but the insurers refused to pay out claiming she had been deliberately scuttled. In 1972, the ship's owners sued the insurers in the British Courts, and after a case that lasted 60 days, the Court found in the favour of the insurers.",
"Empire Merchant\nEmpire Merchant was a 3,457 GRT cargo ship which was built by Deutsche Werft, Hamburg. Completed in 1938 as Pomona for F Laeisz & Co, Hamburg. Seized as a war prize on 3 September 1939 at South West India Dock, London. To Ministry of War Transport and renamed Empire Merchant. Torpedoed on 16 August 1940 and sunk by at .\n\nEmpire Mercia",
"Empire Mercia\n\nEmpire Mercia was an 11,085 GRT refrigerated cargo ship which was built by Harland & Wolff Ltd, Belfast. Launched on 4 March 1946 as Empire Mercia and completed in December 1946 as Empire Star for Blue Star Line. Sold in 1950 to Lamport & Holt Line Ltd. Arrived on 16 October 1971 at Kaohsiung, Taiwan for scrapping.",
"Empire Merganser",
"Empire Merganser was a 6,220 GRT (9,400 DWT) refrigerated cargo ship which was built by Moore Shipbuilding Co, Oakland, California. Completed in January 1919 as Guimba for the USSB. Damaged by a mine in October 1919 off the mouth of the River Elbe. Repaired, but laid up in 1921. To MoWT in 1941 and renamed Empire Merganser. Sold in 1947 to United Whalers Ltd, London and renamed Ketos. Sold in 1949 to Hector Whaling Co Ltd, London. On 2 April 1951, an engine room explosion blew a hole in the hull",
". On 2 April 1951, an engine room explosion blew a hole in the hull. She sank on 3 April 1951 at .",
"Empire Merlin\nEmpire Merlin was a 5,680 GRT (8,800 DWT) cargo ship which was built by the Ames Shipbuilding and Drydock Company, Seattle. Completed in 1919 as West Isleta for the USSB. To American South African Line in 1926. To MoWT in 1940 and renamed Empire Merlin. Torpedoed on 25 August 1940 by and sunk at while a member of Convoy HX 65.",
"Empire Mermaid\nEmpire Mermaid was a 6,319 GRT cargo ship which was built by Skinner & Eddy, Seattle. Completed as Endicott for the USSB. To MoWT in 1940 and renamed Empire Mermaid. Bombed on 26 March 1941 west of the Hebrides and was abandoned. Sank on 28 March at .",
"Empire Mersey\nEmpire Mersey was a 5,791 GRT cargo ship which was built by R Duncan & Co Ltd, Port Glasgow. Completed in 1920 as Ramon de Larrinaga for Larrinaga Steamship Co Ltd, London. On 8 February 1941 she sprang a leak off the New Jersey coast. Beached on 9 February at Lewes, Delaware but capsized and sank the following day. Refloated on 26 June 1941 and towed to Philadelphia where she was declared a constructive total loss. Sold and repaired, to MoWT in 1942 and renamed Empire Mersey.",
"She was then fitted out for demonstration of the Cierva C.40 autogyro to the USN. On learning of US development of the helicopter was used with the Sikorsky R-4 helicopter.\n\nTorpedoed on 14 October 1942 by and sunk at while a member of Convoy SC 104.\n\nEmpire Metal (I)",
"Torpedoed on 14 October 1942 by and sunk at while a member of Convoy SC 104.\n\nEmpire Metal (I)\n\n was an 8,032 GRT tanker which was built by Furness Shipbuilding Co Ltd, Haverton Hill-on-Tees. Launched on 18 November 1941 as Empire Metal and completed in January 1942 as RFA Eaglesdale. Arrived on 29 November 1959 at Hamburg for scrapping.",
"Empire Metal (II)\n was an 8,201 GRT tanker which was built by Harland & Wolff Ltd, Govan. Launched on 30 June 1942 and completed in September 1942. Bombed on 2 January 1943 and sunk at Bône Harbour, Algeria. In August 1949 she was raised but broke in two. The stern section was beached at Grenouillère in May 1950 and scrapped in situ. The bow section was towed to Savona, Italy for scrapping. Machinery was salvaged and shipped to Canada. It was installed in SS Captain C D Secord in 1954.",
"Empire Meteor",
"Empire Meteor was a 7,457 GRT cargo ship which was built by J L Thompson & Sons Ltd, Sunderland. Launched on 3 September 1940 and completed in December 1940. Bombed on 29 June 1941 and damaged in the North Sea (). Towed to the Humber Estuary and then repaired at Hull. Sold in 1946 to United British Steamship Co Ltd and renamed Dorington Court. Operated under the management of Haldin & Co Ltd. Sold in 1956 to Insa Società di Navigazione, Genoa and renamed Giada",
". Sold in 1956 to Insa Società di Navigazione, Genoa and renamed Giada. Sold in 1960 to P Kyprianou & Partners and renamed Sheikh. Operated under the management of P J Angouras, Greece. Came ashore on 2 October 1961 in a typhoon at Kita Daito Jima, Japan and broke in two. Sold locally for scrapping.",
"Empire Mica\nEmpire Mica was an 8,032 GRT tanker which was built by Furness Shipbuilding Co Ltd, Haverton Hill-on-Tees. Launched on 10 April 1941 and completed in July 1941. Torpedoed on 29 June 1942 by and sunk at near Apalachicola, FL.",
"Empire Might (I)",
"Empire Might was a 9,909 GRT cargo ship which was built by William Denny & Bros Ltd, Dumbarton. Launched on 26 May 1941 as Clan Buchanan. Requisitioned by the Admiralty for proposed conversion to an armed boarding vessel, name Empire Might allocated. A later proposal was to use her as an auxiliary seaplane carrier but she was completed in November 1941 as merchant aircraft ferry ship Engadine. Sold in May 1946 to Clan Line Steamers Ltd and renamed Clan Buchanan",
". Sold in May 1946 to Clan Line Steamers Ltd and renamed Clan Buchanan. Arrived on 14 November 1962 at Cartagena, Spain for scrapping.",
"Empire Might (II)",
"was a 9,208 GRT cargo liner which was built by Greenock Dockyard Co Ltd, Greenock. Launched on 17 April 1942 and completed in August 1942. Managed by Blue Star Line for the MoWT. Sold in 1946 to Clan Line Steamers Ltd and renamed Clan Macrae. Sold in 1959 to Bullard, King & Co Ltd and renamed Umgeni. Sold in 1960 to Springbok Shipping Co Ltd and renamed Gemsbok. Sold in 1961 to South African Marine Corp Ltd and renamed South African Financier",
". Sold in 1961 to South African Marine Corp Ltd and renamed South African Financier. Sold in 1962 to NV Redwijs, Baarn, Netherlands and renamed Santa Maria de Ordaz. Scrapped in March 1962 at Valencia, Spain.",
"Empire Milner\nEmpire Milner was an 8,135 GRT tanker which was built by Furness Shipbuilding Co Ltd, Haverton Hill-on-Tees. Launched on 9 February 1944 and completed in June 1944. Transferred to Royal Fleet Auxiliary in December 1946 and renamed RFA Wave Liberator. Arrived on 4 May 1959 at Hong Kong for scrapping.",
"Empire Miniver\nEmpire Miniver was a 6,055 GRT (8,800 DWT) cargo ship which was built by Columbia River Shipbuilding Corp, Portland, Oregon. Completed in December 1918 as West Cobalt for USSB. to Lykes Brothers-Ripley Steamship Co Inc in 1933. To MoWT in 1940 and renamed Empire Miniver. Torpedoed on 18 October 1940 and sunk by northwest of Ireland, some off Rathlin Head while a member of Convoy SC 7.",
"Empire Minnow\nEmpire Minnow was a 258 GRT tug which was built by Scott & Sons, Bowling, West Dunbartonshire. Launched on 24 September 1942 and completed in April 1943. Sold in 1948 to British India Steam Navigation Co Ltd and renamed Thika. Sold in 1951 to Britannia Steam Towing Co Ltd and renamed Clyneforth. Sold in 1962 to Alexandra Towing Co Ltd. Sold in 1966 to J S Latsis, Greece and renamed Ena. Scrapped in September 1969 at Piraeus, Greece.",
"Empire Minotaur\nEmpire Minotaur was a 235 GRT tug which was built by A Hall & Co Ltd, Aberdeen. Launched on 16 April 1942 and completed in July 1942. Sold in 1949 to Townsville Harbour Board, Australia and renamed Lalor. Scuttled in 1969 off Townsville, Queensland.",
"Empire Miranda\nEmpire Miranda was a 7,054 GRT cargo ship which was built by Lithgows Ltd, Port Glasgow. Launched on 18 March 1943 and completed in April 1943. Sold in 1947 to T & J Harrison Ltd and renamed Merchant. Sold in 1961 to Compagnia Navigazione Margalante, Panama and renamed Trito. Arrived on 26 May 1961 at Hong Kong for scrapping.",
"Empire Mist\nEmpire Mist was a 7,241 GRT cargo ship which was built by William Doxford & Sons Ltd, Sunderland. Launched on 29 October 1940 and completed in March 1941. Sold in 1945 to King Line Ltd and renamed King David. Sold in 1963 to Wallem & Co Ltd, Hong Kong and renamed Hong Kong Venture. Operated under the management of T Y Chao, Hong Kong. Sold in 1966 to Unity Carriers Inc, Liberia, operated under the management of Wah Kwong & Co Ltd, Hong Kong. Arrived on 19 April 1969 in Hong Kong for scrapping.",
"Empire Moat\nEmpire Moat was a 2,922 GRT ore carrier which was built by Lithgows Ltd, Port Glasgow. Launched on 28 April 1941 and completed in July 1941. Torpedoed on 20 September 1941 by west of Ushant, France () while a member of Convoy OG 74. Ship was abandoned but remained afloat although salvage was impracticable. Presumed to have sunk.",
"Empire Mole",
"Empire Mole was a 4,876 GRT cargo ship which was built by Deutsche Werft, Hamburg. Completed in 1939 as Panther for Laeisz Line. Towed to Copenhagen for completion by Burmeister & Wain. Completed in 1941, requisitioned by the Kriegsmarine, converted to an auxiliary cruiser and renamed Salzburg. Seized in May 1945 in the Kiel Canal, to MoWT and renamed Empire Mole. Sold in 1947 to Elders & Fyffes Ltd and renamed Reventazon. Sold in 1963 to Jade Co Inc, Panama and renamed Kimolos",
". Sold in 1963 to Jade Co Inc, Panama and renamed Kimolos. Sold in 1972 to G J Krargeorgis Shipping Ltd, Greece and renamed Vassilia K. Scrapped in December 1973 at Kaohsiung, Taiwan.",
"Empire Mombasa\nEmpire Mombasa was a 7,319 GRT cargo ship which was built by Shipbuilding Corporation Ltd, Sunderland. Launched on 28 May 1945 and completed in February 1946. Sold in 1946 to India Steamship Co Ltd, Calcutta and renamed Indian Enterprise. On 19 June 1950 she suffered an onboard explosion and sank south of Suez () while carrying a cargo that included explosives.",
"Empire Moon",
"Empire Moon was a 7,472 GRT CAM ship which was built by J L Thompson & Sons Ltd, Sunderland. Launched on 15 December 1940 and completed in May 1941. Collided on 26 September 1941 with Empire Mallard near Point Armour, Strait of Belle Isle. Empire Mallard sank, Empire Moon only slightly damaged. Torpedoed on 22 July 1943 by and damaged off Sicily (). Towed to Syracuse and beached. Refloated in June 1945 and towed to Palermo where she was repaired",
". Towed to Syracuse and beached. Refloated in June 1945 and towed to Palermo where she was repaired. Sold in 1949 to Mediterranean Steamship Co Ltd, London and renamed Ionian Moon. Sold in 1953 to Sterling Shipping Co Ltd, Bahamas and renamed Sterling Victory. Operated under the management of A Vergottis Ltd, London. Sold in 1957 to Compagnia Navigazione Campos, Panama and renamed Alma, flying the Liberian flag. Sold in 1968 to Compagnia Navigazione Campos, Panama and renamed Campos",
". Sold in 1968 to Compagnia Navigazione Campos, Panama and renamed Campos. Operated under the management of Michalinos Maritime & Commercial Co Ltd, Greece. Scrapped in March 1970 at Shanghai.",
"Empire Moonbeam\nEmpire Moonbeam was a 6,849 GRT cargo ship which was built by Hong Kong & Whampoa Dock Co Ltd, Hong Kong. Launched on 31 March 1941 and completed in June 1941. Torpedoed on 12 September 1942 and damaged by then torpedoed by and sunk at while a member of Convoy ON 127.",
"Empire Moonrise",
"Empire Moonrise was a 6,854 GRT cargo ship which was built by Hong Kong & Whampoa Dock Co Ltd, Hong Kong. Launched on 14 June 1941 and competed in August 1941. Damaged on 9 April 1942 by enemy bombing at Colombo, Ceylon. Sold in 1945 to Gowan Steamship Co Ltd and renamed Hartland Point. Operated under the management of D J McLaren & Co Ltd, London. Sold in 1947 to James Burness & Sons Ltd, London and renamed Burmount. Sold in 1954 to Maritima Mensabe SA and renamed Marilena",
". Sold in 1954 to Maritima Mensabe SA and renamed Marilena. Operated under the management of J P Hadoulis Ltd, London. Sold in 1957 to Compagnia y de Comercio Athamas Ltda, Costa Rica and renamed Athamas. Sold in 1966 to Agenor Shipping Ltd, Cyprus. Arrived on 27 September 1966 at Whampoa, Hong Kong for scrapping.",
"Empire Moorhen\nEmpire Moorhen was a 5,628 GRT (8,800 DWT) cargo ship which was built by Columbia River Shipbuilding, Portland, Oregon. Completed in December 1918 as West Totant for the USSB. To MoWT in 1941 and renamed Empire Moorhen. Sunk on 9 June 1944 as part of Gooseberry 4, Juno Beach, Courseulles-sur-Mer, Calvados. Raised in 1947 and scrapped at Troon, Ayrshire.",
"Empire Moorland\nEmpire Moorland was a 683 GRT dredger which was built by William Simons & Co Ltd, Renfrew. Launched on 21 December 1945 and completed in 1946. To the Admiralty in 1946 and renamed W 98. Renamed W 29 in 1948. To Ministry of Public Buildings & Works in 1963. Offered for sale at Portsmouth by the Board of Trade in 1972.",
"Empire Moose\nEmpire Moose was a 6,103 GRT cargo ship which was built by Virginia Shipbuilding Corp, Alexandria, Virginia. Completed in 1920 as Colin H Livingstone for the United States Transportation Co. To USSB in 1923 and renamed Oakwood. To Lykes Brothers-Ripley Steamship Co Inc. To MoWT in 1940 and renamed Empire Moose. Torpedoed on 29 August 1940 by and sunk at when a straggler from Convoy OA 204.",
"Empire Mordred\nEmpire Mordred was a 7,030 GRT cargo ship which was built by C Connell & Co Ltd, Glasgow. Launched on 15 June 1942 and completed in August 1942. Hit a mine on 7 February 1943 at and broke in two. The bow section sank, and the stern section initially remained afloat but sank before a tug arrived to tow it to port.",
"Empire Morley",
"Empire Morley was a 7,068 GRT cargo ship which was built by Shipbuilding Corporation Ltd, Newcastle upon Tyne. Launched on 28 November 1944 and completed in February 1945. Sold in 1947 to Tower Steamship Co Ltd and renamed Tower Grange. Operated under the management of Counties Ship Management Co Ltd. Sold in 1950 to London & Overseas Freighters Ltd and renamed London Trader, then sold later that year to Compagnia Maritime Azores, Liberia and renamed Nico. Scrapped in June 1969 at Etajima, Japan.",
"Empire Morn",
"Empire Morn was a 7,092 GRT CAM ship which was built by Vickers-Armstrongs Ltd, Barrow in Furness. Launched on 1 July 1941 and completed in September 1941. Damaged on 26 April 1943 by a mine off Rabat, Morocco at beached and initially expected to be declared a total constructive loss. Refloated and towed to Gibraltar, arriving on 1 September 1943. Used as a storage hulk. Sold in 1947 to F M Pereda, Spain and renamed San Antonio. Towed to Cadiz, arriving on 12 March 1947 and renamed Rio Pas",
". Towed to Cadiz, arriving on 12 March 1947 and renamed Rio Pas. Repaired, with a new stern section. Sold in 1962 to Maritima Colonial y de Comercio SA, Spain. Scrapped in 1973 in Santander, Spain.",
"Empire Mortimer",
"Empire Mortimer was a 7,051 GRT cargo ship which was built by William Gray & Co Ltd, West Hartlepool. Launched on 23 December 1943 and completed in March 1943. Sold in 1947 to Norwood Steamship Co Ltd and renamed Lord Gladstone. Operated under the management of Ships Finance & Management Ltd, London. sold in 1958 to Compagnia de Navigazione San Antonio Ltd, Costa Rica and renamed Olga Minacoulis. Sold in 1964 to San Antonio Shipping Ltd, Malta and renamed St Antonio",
". Sold in 1964 to San Antonio Shipping Ltd, Malta and renamed St Antonio. Sold in 1966 to Danish shipbreakers, resold and arrived under tow on 3 February 1966 at Santander, Spain for scrapping.",
"Empire Mouflon",
"Empire Mouflon was a 3,329 GRT (5,530 DWT) cargo ship which was built by Hanlon Dry Dock and Shipbuilding, Oakland, California. Completed in 1921 as Memnon for the USSB. To Columbia River Packers Association in 1925. To MoWT in 1940 and renamed Empire Mouflon. New boilers fitted in 1943 after continuing problems with old boilers. Sold in 1946 to Sir R Ropner & Co Ltd and renamed Preston. Sold in 1951 to Compagnia Maritime Avance SA, Panama and renamed Avance",
". Sold in 1951 to Compagnia Maritime Avance SA, Panama and renamed Avance. Sold in 1957 to Avlis Shipping Co SA and renamed Avlis. Operated under the management of G Dracopoulos, Greece. Scrapped in June 1962 at Piraeus, Greece.",
"Empire Moulmein",
"Empire Moulmein was a 7,047 GRT cargo ship which was built by John Readhead & Sons Ltd, South Shields. Launched on 8 June 1944 and completed in August 1944. Allocated to the French Government in 1945 and renamed Colonel Vieljeux. Sold in 1948 to Nouvelle Compagnie Havraise Peninsulaire de Navigation, Paris and renamed Ville de Diego Suarez. Sold in 1961 to Société Anonyme Monegasque d'Armement et de Navigation, Monaco and renamed Vimy",
". Sold in 1961 to Société Anonyme Monegasque d'Armement et de Navigation, Monaco and renamed Vimy. Sold in 1962 to Sadikolgu, riza ve Aslan, ve Ortagi Adi Komandit Sirketi, Turkey and renamed Demirhan. Sold in 1966 to Manizade Vapuru Donmata Istiraki and renamed Manizade. Scrapped in March 1976 at Aliaga, Turkey.",
"Empire Mountain",
"Empire Mountain was a 2,906 GRT cargo ship which was built by William Gray & Co Ltd, West Hartlepool. Launched on 3 April 1943 and completed in June 1943. Sold in 1951 to Moller Line Ltd and renamed Hannah Moller. Operated under the management of Mollers Ltd, Hong Kong. Sold in 1951 to Mount Line Ltd and renamed Mount Parker, remaining under Mollers' management. Sold in 1952 to the Australian Shipping Board and renamed Carcoola. Sold in 1952 to Cambay Prince Steamship Co Ltd and renamed Tees Breeze",
". Sold in 1952 to Cambay Prince Steamship Co Ltd and renamed Tees Breeze. Operated under the management of J Manners & Co Ltd, Hong Kong. Sold in 1964 to Oriental Trader Navigation Co SA, Panama and renamed Victoria Trader. Operated under the management of China Pacific Navigation Co Ltd, Hong Kong. Scrapped in July 1967 at Kaohsiung, Taiwan.",
"Empire Mowddach\nEmpire Mowddach was a 3,410 GRT cargo ship which was built by Bremer Vulkan Schiff- und Maschinenbau, Vegesack. Completed in 1935 as Pontos for F Laeisz, Hamburg. Requisitioned by the Kriegsmarine in 1940. Seized at Flensburg in May 1945. To MoWT and renamed Empire Mowddach. Sold in 1947 to Elders & Fyffes Ltd and renamed Nicoya. Scrapped in 1959 at Briton Ferry, West Glamorgan.",
"Empire Mull",
"Empire Mull was a 797 GRT coastal tanker, built by Grangemouth Dockyard Co Ltd, Grangemouth. Launched on 22 May 1944 and completed in August 1944. Allocated in 1946 to the French Government and renamed Medea. Sold in 1950 to Compagnie Franco-Africaine de Navigation, France. Sold in 1951 to Société Navale d L'Ouest, France, then sold again later that year to G S Stein KG, Germany and renamed Christine. Sold in 1956 to Bulk Oil Steamship Co Ltd and renamed Pass of Kintail",
". Sold in 1956 to Bulk Oil Steamship Co Ltd and renamed Pass of Kintail. Sold in 1963 to Navalpetroli Società di Navigazione, Italy and renamed Passamare. Sold in 1965 to Seka SA and renamed Kali Limenes. Operated under the management of N Vardinoyannis, Greece. On shipping registers until 1986.",
"Empire Mustang\nEmpire Mustang was a 242 GRT tug which was built by J S Watson Ltd, Gainsborough. Launched on 2 June 1943 and completed in August 1943. Sold in 1947 to Tees Towing Co Ltd and renamed Dundas Cross. Sold in 1958 to Newport Screw Towing Co Ltd and renamed Duneagle. Sold in 1965 to Tsavliris Ltd, Greece and renamed Nisos Syros. Sold in 1975 to Maritime Commercial Enterprises, Greece. Scrapped in 1976 in Greece.",
"See also\nThe above entries give a precis of each ship's history. For a fuller account see the linked articles.\n\nSources\n\nReferences\n\nM"
] |
Water supply and sanitation in South Africa
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water%20supply%20and%20sanitation%20in%20South%20Africa
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[
"Water supply and sanitation in South Africa is characterised by both achievements and challenges. After the end of Apartheid South Africa's newly elected government struggled with the then growing service and backlogs with respect to access to water supply and sanitation developed. The government thus made a strong commitment to high service standards and to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve those standards",
". Since then, the country has made some progress with regard to improving access to water supply: It reached universal access to an improved water source in urban areas, and in rural areas the share of those with access increased from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.",
"South Africa also has a strong water industry with a track record in innovation. However, much less progress has been achieved on sanitation: Access increased only from 71% to 79% during the same period. Significant problems remain concerning the financial sustainability of service providers, leading to a lack of attention to maintenance. The uncertainty about the government's ability to sustain funding levels in the sector is also a concern",
". Two distinctive features of the South African water sector are the policy of free basic water and the existence of water boards, which are bulk water supply agencies that operate pipelines and sell water from reservoirs to municipalities.",
"In May 2014 it was announced that Durban's Water and Sanitation Department won the Stockholm Industry Water Award \"for its transformative and inclusive approach\", calling it \"one of the most progressive utilities in the world\". The city has connected 1.3 million additional people to piped water and provided 700,000 people with access to toilets in 14 years. It also was South Africa's first municipality to put free basic water for the poor into practice",
". It also was South Africa's first municipality to put free basic water for the poor into practice. Furthermore, it has promoted rainwater harvesting, mini hydropower and urine-diverting dry toilets.",
"On 13 February 2018, the country declared a national disaster in Cape Town as the city's water supply was predicted to run dry before the end of June. With its dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures were in effect that required each citizen to use less than 50 litres a day. All nine of the country's provinces were effected by what the government characterized as the \"magnitude and severity\" of a three-year drought",
". According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town is one of eleven major world cities that are expected to run out of water. In 2018, Cape Town rejected an offer from Israel to help it build desalination plants.",
"Water resources and water use \n\nWater availability in South Africa varies greatly in space and time. While the West is dry with rainfall only during the summer and as low as 100 mm, the East and Southeast receive rainfall throughout the year with an average of up to 1,000 mm. Total annual surface runoff is estimated at 43 to 48 km3, depending on the source.",
"Much of the runoff is lost through flood spillage, so that the available surface water resources are estimated at 14 km3/year only. Although groundwater is limited due to geologic conditions, it is extensively utilised in the rural and more arid areas. Available groundwater is estimated at 1 km3/year",
". Available groundwater is estimated at 1 km3/year. The main rivers of South Africa are fairly small compared to the large rivers of the world: For example, the discharge of the Nile River alone is about six times higher than the available surface water resources from all South African rivers together.",
"The main rivers are the Orange River draining to the Atlantic Ocean, the Limpopo River, the Incomati River, the Maputo River, the Tugela River, the Olifants River (Limpopo), and the Breede River. The uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela and Limpopo all drain to the Indian Ocean. South Africa's most important rivers are transboundary: The Orange River is shared with Botswana, Namibia and Lesotho, the \"water tower\" of Southern Africa",
". The Limpopo-Olifants river basin is shared with Botswana, Zimbabwe and Mozambique, which lies the furthest downstream. International commissions of all riparian countries have been set up to manage these transboundary water resources. Potential future water resources are seawater desalination or the transfer of water from the Zambezi River.",
"Total annual water withdrawal was estimated at 12.5 km3 in 2000, of which about 17% was for municipal water use. In the northern parts of the country, both surface water and groundwater resources are nearly fully developed and utilised. In the well-watered southeastern regions of the country significant undeveloped and used resources exist",
". The Gauteng area around Johannesburg, which is very water scarce, receives water from various dams in the area such as the Vaal Dam and imports water from the Orange River system through the Lesotho Highlands Water Project, in particular from the Katse Dam. Cape Town receives its drinking water from an extensive system of rivers and dams, including the Berg River Dam.",
"Cape Town has 26 treatment plants, some of which are ineffective and date back to the 1950s, making clean water access and wastewater management major difficulties.",
"Cape Town will receive a €80 million loan from KfW to assist the city in improving and expanding different municipal wastewater treatment plants, a €1.2 million grant for training and a €4.5 million grant for city-supporting measures. The upgrades will allow the city to use recycled water for agricultural or industrial purposes and assist in dealing with droughts.\n\nWastewater reuse",
"In South Africa, the main driver for wastewater reuse is drought conditions. For example, in Beaufort West, South Africa's a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) for the production of drinking water was constructed in the end of 2010, as a result of acute water scarcity (production of 2,300 m3 per day). The process configuration based on multi-barrier concept and includes the following treatment processes: sand filtration, UF, two-stage RO, and permeate disinfected by ultraviolet light (UV).",
"The town George faced water shortages and had decided on an IPR strategy (2009/2010), where final effluents from its Outeniqua WWTP are treated to a very high quality through UF and disinfection prior to being returned to the main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. This initiative augments the existing supply by 10,000 m3 per day, approximately one third of the drinking water demand",
". The process configuration includes the following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, and chlorine disinfection. Provision has been made for powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if required as an additional operational barrier.",
"Another example of DPR is the reuse plant constructed and operated in the town Hermanus (Overberg) in South Africa, where now 2,500 m3 per day of effluent reused, with a future plan to increase the capacity to 5,000 m3 per day. The treatment processes applied include UF pre-treatment, RO desalination, as well as advanced oxidation and carbon filtration. The product from the reuse plant is fed directly into the drinking water reticulation system.",
"Access to water by SA citizens\n \nSouth Africa is one of the few countries in the world that enshrines the basic right to sufficient water in its Constitution, stating that \"Everyone has the right to have access to [...] sufficient food and water.\" However, much remains to be done to fulfill that right.\n\nAfter the end of Apartheid South Africa's newly elected government inherited highly functional services with respect to access to water supply and sanitation.",
"However, as of 2017, owing to a lack of maintenance resulting from corruption, provision of water and sanitation has largely collapsed. In 2015, the Department of Water and Sanitation said it would require R293-billion to fix and upgrade all water and sewage infrastructure in the country.\n\nWhile there has been a growth in the overall number of water-supplied dwellings, the percentage of houses with running water has decreased since 1994.",
"Water \nIn 2015, the total number of people in South Africa lacking access to an \"improved\" water supply was 3.64 million. 93% of the population had access to an improved water source in that year.",
"In his State of the Union address in May 2004 President Thabo Mbeki had promised \"all households will have running water within five years\". Despite substantial progress, this goal was not fully achieved. In some rural areas, women spend up to one-third of their time fetching water from streams and wells. They are also responsible for using it to cook meals, wash laundry and bathe children.",
"Sanitation \nWith respect to sanitation, progress has been slower. The total number of people in South Africa lacking access to \"improved\" sanitation was 18 million in 2015. This means that only 66% of the total population had access to improved sanitation in that year.",
"According to estimates by the WHO/UNICEF global Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation based on survey and census data, the share of South Africans with access to improved sanitation increased slowly from 71% in 1990 to 75% in 2000 and 79% in 2010. In 2010, an estimated 11 million South Africans still did not have access to improved sanitation: They and used shared facilities (4 million), bucket toilets (3 million) or practiced open defecation (4 million).",
"According to Statistics South Africa, access is higher, partially because it includes shared facilities in its definition of sanitation. According to the 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increased from 83% in 2001 to 91% in 2011, including shared and individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets. The share of households with access to flush toilets increased from 53% in 2001 to 60% in 2011. The health impacts of inadequate sanitation can be serious, as evidenced by the estimated 1",
". The health impacts of inadequate sanitation can be serious, as evidenced by the estimated 1.5 million cases of diarrhoea in children under five and the 2001 outbreak of cholera. While most coliforms are harmless to human health, the presence of E. coli, which covers approximately 97% of coliform bacteria found in the intestines of animals and in faeces, underlines the presence of more harmful pathogens in the water system (DWAF 1996b).",
"South Africa's sewage system has largely collapsed. Globally, on average, annual maintenance to plants amounts to 15% of the plant's value but in South Africa only 1% of the plant's value is spent on annual maintenance. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage flows into rivers throughout the country.\n\nService quality",
"Water quality and continuity of supply",
"Service quality is highly variable and data is sketchy. In 2003, 63% of municipalities were not able to say if they met drinking water quality standards or not. Water supply to 37% of households was interrupted for at least one day in 2003. Customers did not and often still do not trust that drinking water quality is adequate. This is why the Department of Water Affairs introduced in 2008 a so-called \"blue drop\" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy",
". Under the strategy municipal service providers are certified with a \"blue drop\" if they fulfill certain requirements. These include not only compliance with water quality standards, but also the existence of a water safety plan, process controlling and the credibility of sample results, among others.",
"The system is regarded internationally as unique in the drinking water regulatory domain and has been well received by the World Health Organization. However, observers from the private sector say that a \"strong spin element\" surrounds the programme and that water quality is actually deteriorating nationally, \"while the government attempts to discredit commentators who persist in their view that there is a problem\". In 2009, 23 water supply systems obtained the Blue Drop certification",
". In 2009, 23 water supply systems obtained the Blue Drop certification. In 2010, 9 lost it and 24 gained it for the first time, bringing the total to 38 (less than 5 percent) out of 787 systems that were assessed. The three top performers were Johannesburg, Cape Town and the small town of Bitou.",
"Water supply is increasingly under pressure. Eutrophication is a growing concern, with about one third of the total volume of water held in strategic storage approaching the point where it is no longer fit for purpose without significant and costly management intervention. Return flows out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, are rapidly deteriorating, with highly acidic water starting to decant from abandoned and derelict mines.",
"Wastewater treatment",
"55% of wastewater treatment plants, especially smaller ones, do not meet effluent standards and some do not even measure effluent quality. In analogy to the blue drop certification system for drinking water, the government has launched a green drop certification for municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, 7 out of 159 water supply authorities were certified with the green drop, and 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants",
". In 2009, when 449 wastewater treatment plants were assessed, according to official government data 7% were classified as excellently managed, 38% \"performed within acceptable standards\" and 55% did not perform within acceptable standards.",
"According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm specialised in wastewater treatment, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants in South Africa – not all of which were included in the Green Drop assessment – at least 60% are not meeting regulatory compliance requirements",
". According to a study by the South African Water Research Commission in partnership with the South African Local Government Association published in June 2013, 44% of wastewater treatment plants included in a representative sample used inappropriate and unnecessarily expensive technologies",
". There is a lack of funding for maintenance because of low tariffs, insufficient collection and the absence of ring-fencing of revenues for the purpose of maintaining assets, so that municipalities \"run assets to failure\".",
"Stakeholders\nThe public water and sanitation sector in South Africa is organised in three different tiers:\n\n The national government, represented by the Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS), as a policy setter.\n Water Boards, which provide primarily bulk water, but also some retail services and operate some wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role in water resources management;\n Municipalities, which provide most retail services and also own some of the bulk supply infrastructure.",
"Banks, the professional association WISA, the Water Research Commission and civil society also are important stakeholders in the sector.",
"Policy and regulation",
"The Department of Water Affairs (DWA) in the Ministry of Water and Environmental Affairs is primarily responsible for the formulation and implementation of policy governing water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, \"there is a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government\", according to an independent report",
"...] at all levels of government\", according to an independent report. Around 2010 the sanitation function has been moved from DWA to the Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although some regulatory functions apparently remain with DWA, \"causing institutional confusion over roles and responsibilities\".",
"Service provision \nResponsibility for service provision is shared among various entities: The country's 231 municipalities are in charge of water distribution and sanitation either directly or indirectly through municipally owned enterprises or private companies; government-owned water boards are in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure and some wastewater systems; and the Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances and develops dams and bulk water supply infrastructure.",
"Municipalities. According to the Constitution, the Municipal Structures Act and the Water Services Act of 1997 responsibility for the provision of water and sanitation services lies with water services authorities, which the Water Services Act defines as the municipalities. There are 52 district municipalities and 231 local municipalities in South Africa (see Municipalities of South Africa).",
"In many cases, the district municipalities are the water services authorities. However, the national government can assign responsibility for service provision to local municipalities. Overall, there are 169 water services authorities in South Africa, including water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities and municipal companies. Usually municipalities provide water and sanitation services directly through a municipal unit or department",
". For example, eThekwini (Durban) provides these services through the eThekwini Water and Sanitation Unit.",
"However, they can delegate this responsibility to a water services provider for a defined period. For example, in 2001 the city of Johannesburg created Johannesburg Water, a legally and financially independent company wholly owned by the municipality. This was done as part of a \"Transformation Plan\" embarked upon by the Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority at the time",
". Johannesburg Water has committed itself to comply with the provisions of the King Report on Corporate Governance, including affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management and sustainability reporting.",
"The 1996 constitution strengthened the autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, the responsibility for rural water supply and sanitation has been transferred from the national government, represented by DWAF, to municipalities.\n \n\nPrivate sector participation. Since 1994 some municipalities have involved the private sector in service provision in various forms, including contracts for specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts and long-term concessions.",
"Water Boards. The 13 government-owned Water Boards play a key role in the South African water sector. They operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, some retail infrastructure and some wastewater systems. Some also provide technical assistance to municipalities.",
"Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority. The Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) is a state-owned entity with the mission to finance and implement bulk raw water infrastructure. It was created in 1986 to develop the Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho and South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA has developed or is developing six other dam and bulk water supply projects throughout the country, including the Berg River Dam",
". TCTA sells bulk water to the government, represented by the Department of Water as the owner of the Water Boards that treat the water and sell it on to municipalities and mines. TCTA uses these revenues mainly to repay the debt it has raised to finance its infrastructure, its operating costs and to pay royalties to the government of Lesotho.",
"Others",
"Research, training and knowledge. South Africa has a fairly strong research and training infrastructure in the water sector. The Water Research Commission (WRC) supports water research and development as well as the building of a sustainable water research capacity in South Africa",
". It serves as the country's water-centred knowledge 'hub' leading the creation, dissemination and application of water-centred knowledge, focusing on water resource management, water-linked ecosystems, water use and waste management and water utilisation in agriculture.",
"The Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, keeps its members abreast of the latest developments in water technology and research through its national and international liaison, links and affiliations.",
"Financiers and promoters. The Development Bank of Southern Africa (DBSA) is an important player in the water and sanitation sector, both as a financier and as an advisor and project promoter. In 2005–2006 about 29% of its approved projects were for water supply (1,881 million Rand) and sanitation (165 million Rand). Other financing institutions in the sector include the Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, which claims to be the only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund in the world.",
"Civil society. South Africa has a vibrant civil society, comprising a large number of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) with very diverse goals, membership and methods. On the one hand, civil society includes militant so-called \"new social movements\" that sprang up after the end of Apartheid, such as the Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign formed in 2000 and the shack dweller organisation Abahlali baseMjondolo formed in 2005",
". They fight water cut-offs for non-payment and are engaged in \"mass popular appropriation\" of water services. These groups claim to represent the poorest and most oppressed people in South Africa.",
"On the other hand, civil society in South Africa includes the Mvula trust which has disbursed over R300 million to water services programmes and projects and has provided services to over a million South Africans who previously did not have access to either water or sanitation services",
". It is specialised in implementing and supporting the delivery of water services in rural and peri-urban areas through community management, the establishment of community based water services providers and supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment for sustainability.",
"Human resources \nSouth Africa experiences a brain drain that also affects the availability of qualified engineers in water and sanitation utilities. The number of civil engineers in municipalities has declined from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants in 1994 to 2.8 in 2009.",
"One reason is the official policy of cadre deployment, whereby persons loyal to the ruling party, the African National Congress, are given jobs in different branches of government. This intransparent process puts party loyalty ahead of competence and demoralises public service employees, according to a 2012 study by the Human Sciences Research Council. Skilled staff are concentrated at the national and provincial levels, but there is a skills deficit at the municipal level",
". South Africa does not have a unified civil service, so that there are no uniform standards for hiring and promotion at the municipal level. According to the study, there is also a high level of turnover of middle and senior managers in the civil service, due to stressful working conditions and opportunities for qualified professionals in the private sector.",
"History and recent developments \n\nDuring Apartheid, the national government had no role in providing public water or sanitation services.\n\nThe history of the water supply and sanitation sector since the end of Apartheid has been characterised by a strong government commitment to increase access to services and a gradual reduction of the role of Water Boards and the national government in service provision.",
"There has been tension between the goal of increased cost recovery enshrined in the Water Services Act on the one hand, and the constitutional rights introduced in 1996 and the policy of free basic water introduced in 2001 on the other hand",
". There have been a number of controversies on policies in the sectors, including about private sector participation, which was introduced in the mid-1990s, the practice of cutting off water or installing flow restrictors for those who do not pay their bills, and the installation of pre-paid meters.",
"Transition \nIn 1994, the first post-Apartheid government assigned the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry the task of ensuring that all South Africans would have \"equitable access to water supply and sanitation\". To that end, the Community Water Supply and Sanitation Program was created to target key areas for instituting water and sanitation systems, and the National Sanitation Program was established to increase the rate of distribution of water and sanitation services.",
"The passing of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa in 1996 created a new, constitutional dispensation with a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among those rights are the section 24(a) right to an environment that is not harmful to health or well-being, and the section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.",
"The government also created new policies such as the Water Services Act, the National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, and the National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water and sanitation problems.\n\nWater Services Act of 1997\nIn 1994 the government published its first White Paper on Water and Sanitation Policy, which led to the Water Services Act of 1997.",
"The Act calls for higher cost recovery, which proved a challenge due to widespread poverty and a culture of non-payment for water in many Townships, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher water tariffs and rigorous cut-offs for non-payment, or flow reductions through the installation of \"tricklers\" that allow only a very limited flow of water, imposed hardships on the poorest.",
"The Act also modified the role of Water Boards, providing a clear legal definition of the functions of Water Boards and municipalities. Water Boards have historically been the only bulk water providers. Municipalities were obliged to buy water through them. The Act allowed municipalities to develop their own bulk water supply infrastructure or to buy bulk water from providers other than Water Boards. Conversely it also allowed Water Boards to provide retail water services at the request of municipalities",
". Since the Act has been passed the capacity of both Water Boards and many water service providers has increased significantly.",
"Municipal Systems Act of 2000 \nThe Municipal Systems Act (MSA) placed the responsibility for water services on local governments. It thus became each city's responsibility to provide basic water and sanitation services for all residents. The funding for improvements to water and sanitation systems would come from the national government via the Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG or Equitable Shares, or via local revenue collection.",
"Free Basic Water Policy",
"Durban was the first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water in 1998. After Thabo Mbeki became President of South Africa in 1999 and a cholera outbreak occurred in 2000, the African National Congress promised free basic water during a municipal election campaign in December 2000",
". In July 2001 free basic water became a national policy through a revised tariff structure that included at least 6 \"kilolitres\" (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day for a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day for a family of eight). The policy was being implemented gradually within the means of each municipality.",
"Management contract for Johannesburg and pre-paid meters",
"Johannesburg management contract. Building on earlier experiences with private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract for water services in Johannesburg, South Africa's largest city and the country's economic and financial hub, was awarded in 2000 to the Joint Venture Water and Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). The Johannesburg management contract was not renewed when it expired in 2005",
". The Johannesburg management contract was not renewed when it expired in 2005. However, private operators continue to provide services in many other South African cities.",
"Prepaid meters. 170,000 prepaid meters were installed in poor townships of Johannesburg, including in Soweto. Prepaid meters were also installed in other cities as part of management contracts with private operators. These meters, which cut off water supply above the 6 cubic meter monthly limit if no payment is made, sparked substantial protests in poor neighbourhoods",
". Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood in Soweto, sued against prepaid meters with the support of South African and international anti-privatisation activists in what has been called the Mazibuko case, named after the first plaintiff.",
"In April 2008 the South African High Court found the practice of prepaid meters in Soweto unconstitutional, and wrote that denying the poor access to adequate water \"is to deny them the rights to health and to lead a dignified lifestyle",
".\" Further, the judge stated that \"25 liters per person per day is insufficient for the residents of Phiri\", and ordered the city to provide free basic water in the amount of 50 liters per person per day with the option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) for more use. The Court apparently assumed a household size of eight.",
"In October 2009 the Constitutional Court overturned the case and declared prepaid meters to be lawful. The court case led to the development of a more social practice concerning prepaid meters. For example, the minimum amount can be increased from 6 m3 per month to 10 or even 15 m3 per month depending on the level of poverty and size of a household. Also, new prepaid meters still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after service is cut off",
". Furthermore, 1000 liter of \"emergency water\" can be used four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if bills should not have been paid. 2000 liter of additional water can be granted by local authorities on demand for special needs. However, not all residents are aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.",
"Basic Sanitation White Paper",
"In response to the fact that access to sanitation lags significantly behind access to water, the government published its White Paper on Basic Household Sanitation in 2001. It called for universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, with priority accorded to communities with the greatest needs. The policy outlines the roles of the various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – and establishes coordination and monitoring mechanisms.",
"It also calls for Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments in sanitation. The paper notes that it is the government's policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but does not spell out how this policy will be implemented in the case of basic sanitation.",
"Decentralisation\nFollowing a second White Paper on water supply and sanitation policy published in 2002 (after the first White Paper in 1994) a national policy was established to further decentralise the sector, phasing out the national government's involvement in service provision, limiting DWAF's role to policy and regulation.",
"In rural areas this policy of decentralisation has been supported by the Masibambane program, a sector-wide approach linked to budget-based donor support for rural water supply and sanitation. The initial investment was ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) with a focus on the three poorest provinces and a target to reach about 2.5 million people. A 2004 evaluation by the Water and Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa showed that the program performed well financially. The program is now in its third phase.",
"National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme and Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy",
"In February 2005 the government launched a programme to eradicate the use of bucket toilets. Bucket toilets consist of a bucket placed under a toilet seat; in formally established settlements the buckets are emptied on a daily basis by the municipality and the content is brought to a sewage treatment plant. However, buckets are also used in newly established informal settlements. There were 250,000 bucket toilets in formally established settlements as of 2005",
". There were 250,000 bucket toilets in formally established settlements as of 2005. There was a strong political will to carry out the program. As of March 2008, 91% of the bucket toilets were replaced by flush toilets or Ventilated Improved Pit Latrines where water was not readily available.",
"However, communities resisted the construction of latrines, forcing construction to a standstill and asked for flush toilets. There had been no community participation in the choice of technologies. The programme was very much focused on the provision of infrastructure, with little emphasis on sustainability and hygiene promotion, so that the health impact was limited. The deadline to complete the program was moved from 2007 to 2010.",
"In August 2005 a National Sanitation Strategy was published. It covers, among other things, \"the roles and responsibilities in sanitation delivery, planning for sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating the sanitation sector, and monitoring and evaluation\". It was followed by a Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy in March 2009, with the aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014",
". According to one observer, the strategy was \"deliberately vague\" because the issue of free provision of sanitation services is so controversial. There is no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. The implementation strategy includes eight different options to channel subsidies. The policy was piloted in 17 municipalities in 2010, and in a further 23 municipalities in 2011, although it is unclear which subsidy mechanism is being used.",
"List of ministers in charge of water \nMinisters of Water Affairs and Forestry\n Dr. Kader Asmal (1994–1999)\n Ronnie Kasrils (1999–2004)\n Buyelwa Sonjica (2004–2006)\n Lindiwe Hendricks (2006–2009)\n\nMinisters of Water and Environmental Affairs:\n Buyelwa Sonjica (2009–2010)\n Edna Molewa (2010-2014)\n\nMinisters of Water and Sanitation:\n Nomvula Mokonyane (2014-2018)\n Gugile Nkwinti (2018-2019)\n\nMinisters of Human Settlements, Water and Sanitation\n Lindiwe Sisulu (since 2019)",
"Efficiency",
"One indicator to measure the technical efficiency of water utilities is the level of non-revenue water. In a well-managed utility that level should be below about 25%. In Johannesburg, the estimated level declined from 44% in 2003 to 31% in 2006. In Durban it stood at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 and 2006. In Cape Town the estimates fluctuated significantly between 10% and 37%, suggesting that the estimates may not be reliable",
". The average level of non-revenue water for South African utilities participating in the International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities in the 2002–2006 period was 31%.",
"Financial aspects\n\nTariff level\nTariffs include bulk water tariffs charged by water boards to municipalities and retail water tariffs charged by municipalities to users.",
"Bulk water tariffs vary greatly. In 2011 the largest water board, Rand Water, charged Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. The highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 or US$1.10 per cubic meter) was charged by the financially crippled Namakwa Water Board, while the lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 or US$0.28) was charged by the Pelladrift Water Board.",
"Retail water tariffs vary between municipalities and between user categories, with non-residential users being charged higher tariffs than residential users. Typically water tariffs also vary with consumption, with higher tariffs applied to higher consumption. The average retail water tariff in 2006 for a sample of cities and across all consumption levels was estimated to be the equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter.",
"In 2010 Johannesburg water provided between 6 and 15 cubic meters of water per month for free, depending on the poverty level of residents. For those considered not poor, the tariff for the tranche between 6 and 10 cubic meters was R4.93 (US$0.73), for the tranche up to 15 cubic meters it was R7.31 (US$1.08) and so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) for a consumption exceeding 40 cubic meters per month. The bill for 10 cubic meters per month thus is R20",
". The bill for 10 cubic meters per month thus is R20. Poor households have to register themselves as \"indigent\" (poor), which – according to critics – leads to a situation where only a fraction of the poor receive the higher free basic water allocation to which they are eligible.",
"In Cape Town water tariffs for the first block beyond free basic water are slightly lower than in Johannesburg at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, and the next tranche at R9.7 is broader than in Johannesburg covering until 20 cubic meters per month, with R23,42 charged beyond 50 cubic meters, resulting in a steeper tariff structure. The water bill for 10 cubic meters per month is R18. The sewer charge is 70% of the water charge.",
"Durban distinguishes between a lower tariff for semi-pressure service for houses in low-income settlements with roof tanks and a higher full pressure service for \"formal\" housing areas. Semi-pressure service is free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service costs R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, and R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. The bill for 10 cubic meters per month is R7 for semi-pressure service and R97 for full-pressure service",
". There is also a free low-pressure service for ground tanks in informal and rural areas, under which water is pumped once a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.",
"Free basic water",
"South Africa has introduced a policy of free basic services, including water, electricity and solid waste collection. As part of that policy, every household is to receive the first 6 cubic meters per month for free. The policy was introduced gradually since 2000 within the means of each municipality. Each municipality decides if free basic water is made available to everyone or only to the poor. Most municipalities provide free basic water to all or almost all their residents",
". Most municipalities provide free basic water to all or almost all their residents. In 2012 the program reached 86% of all households.",
"Based on an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household and month, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, and an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, the annual cost of the policy can be estimated at 2bn Rand (US$280m). This corresponds to about 0.1% of GDP in 2011, or about 0.25% of government expenditures. Another estimate puts the cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, which corresponds to 2.2bn Rand per year.",
"Out of the 32 million people that received free basic water in 2005, almost half, or 15 million, were not poor. Furthermore, many poor in rural areas, who receive limited amounts of water for free through standpipes, do not benefit fully. Those without access to publicly provided water do not benefit at all from the program. The policy is more successful in wealthier municipalities, which have the ability to cross-subsidise water provision for the poor, than in poorer, often rural municipalities",
". This is one of the reasons why in 2009 the government announced it would review its implementation strategy for free basic water, possibly through registers of poor users.",
"As part of this review process, Durban has now changed its implementation of the free basic water policy: Households living in properties that are valued above a certain threshold now must prove that their income is below the poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. The reason for the change was that most of those benefiting from free basic water were not poor",
". The reason for the change was that most of those benefiting from free basic water were not poor. They used less than amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month in the case of Durban – for the simple reason that there were two or less residents in the household.",
"Affordability",
"There is little information available on their affordability, i.e. the share of water bills in household income. If a household consumes less than the free basic water limit, the share is obviously zero. For a household in Cape Town that has no sewer connection and consumes 10 cubic meters of water, the monthly water bill is almost R20 or US$2.40",
".40. With the poverty line at R500 per capita and month, the monthly income of a four-person household at the poverty line would be R2000, and the water bill would be 1 percent of income. However, according to another source the poverty level in South Africa was only R1000 per household, in which case the share of the water bill would be 2 percent of income, and higher for those living below the poverty line.",
"Cost recovery",
"In 2010, eleven of the 13 water boards were financially viable. The exceptions were Namakwa and Bushbuckridge water boards. Municipalities owed the water boards more than Rand 1.3bn (about US$200 million). There is little information available on cost recovery at the municipal level, partly because revenues and costs associated with water supply and sanitation are not necessarily accounted for separately in municipal budgets",
". If Water Services Authorities prepare water and sanitation budgets, asset replacement costs (depreciation) are often not included in budgets. Furthermore, the policy of free basic water leads to deficits in the supply of these services. Municipalities cover these deficits in large part through the \"equitable share\" transfers from national government.",
"Investment \nAccording to the 2008 Infrastructure Barometer published by DBSA and based on figures provided by the National Treasury, total municipal investments in water supply and sanitation in 2007 were 13.4 billion Rand (US$1.9 billion at the 2007 exchange rate), broken down as follows:",
"5.6 billion Rand for water supply by municipalities\n 4.7 billion Rand for sanitation by municipalities\n 1.0 billion Rand for water resources development by Water Boards\n 1.0 billion Rand for water resources development by DWAF\n 1.1 billion Rand for water resources development by the Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA)\n\nMunicipal investments in the sector increased substantially from 2001 when they were about four times less than in 2007 at 2.8 billion Rand.",
"In 2010/11 total spending by the Department of Water Affairs was 8.2 billion Rand, including compensation for employees (1.2 bn), consultants for the design and supervision of civil works (0.6 bn) and investments. Investments include direct expenditures for TCTA and indirect expenditures in the form of transfers to Water Boards and Water Service Authorities (municipalities), mostly for dams, bulk water transfers and water treatment plants",
". The largest project under construction is the De Hoop Dam which is part of the Olifants River Water Resources Development Programme that provides water for mining and municipal uses.",
"Financing \nMunicipal water and sanitation investments were financed from the following sources in 2003–06:\n\n 51% through inter-governmental grants;\n 19% through borrowing; and\n 30% through internal cash generation.\n\nThe larger municipalities rely more on loans and on internal cash generation, while the smaller ones depend more on grants and other sources of funding. Wealthier municipalities partially finance free basic water through cross-subsidies from non-residential users and local tax revenue.",
"All municipalities receive a constitutionally mandated share of national tax revenues as an unconditional recurrent grant, called \"equitable share\". One of its objectives is to offset the cost of free basic water and free basic electricity. The formula provides higher grants to those municipalities that have a high number of poor among those that receive water services. If a municipality increases access to water, its share in the transfers thus also increases",
". If a municipality increases access to water, its share in the transfers thus also increases. The number of poor is determined through census data, which – according to some municipalities – underestimates the actual extent of poverty.",
"In the 2012/13 budget the total equitable share was Rand 37.8 billion (US$4.6bn). In addition there is a Municipal Infrastructure Grant (MIG). The MIG programme is aimed at providing all South Africans with at least a basic level of service by the year 2013 through the provision of grant finance to cover the capital cost of basic infrastructure for the poor. In the 2012/13 budget the allocation for MIGs was Rand 13.8 billion (US$1.7 billion). In addition, there is a Capacity Building Grant",
".8 billion (US$1.7 billion). In addition, there is a Capacity Building Grant. All these grants are administered by the Department of Cooperative Governance and Traditional Affairs (formerly the Department of Provincial and Local Government).",
"See also\n List of water supply and sanitation by country\nSanitation worker\n Water supply and sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa\n Water pollution in Southern Africa\n Western Cape Water Supply System\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links \n\nWater sector national information system (WSNIS)\nDevelopment Bank of Southern Africa:Infrastructure Barometer 2008\nMvula Trust\nThe Water Dialogues – South Africa \n\n \n\nEnvironment of South Africa"
] |
NFL on Fox
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NFL%20on%20Fox
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[
"The NFL on Fox (also known as Fox NFL) is the branding used for broadcasts of National Football League (NFL) games produced by Fox Sports and televised on the Fox broadcast network. Game coverage is usually preceded by Fox NFL Kickoff and Fox NFL Sunday and is followed on weeks when the network airs a Doubleheader by The OT. The latter two shows feature the same studio hosts and analysts for both programs, who also contribute to the former",
". In weeks when Fox airs a doubleheader, the late broadcast (which airs nationwide in nearly all markets, there typically being only one to three games taking place at the time) airs under the brand America's Game of the Week.",
"The network aired its inaugural NFL game telecast on August 12, 1994, with a preseason game between the Denver Broncos and the San Francisco 49ers at Candlestick Park in San Francisco. Coverage formally began the following month on September 4, with the premiere of Fox NFL Sunday, followed by a slate of six regionally televised regular season games on the first Sunday of the 1994 season.",
"History\nThough Fox was growing rapidly as a network, and had established itself as a presence, it was still not considered a major competitor to the more-established \"Big Three\" broadcast networks (ABC, CBS and NBC). Fox management, having seen the critical role that soccer programming had played in the growth of British satellite service BSkyB, believed that sports, and specifically professional football, would be the engine that would turn Fox into a major network the quickest.",
"Early bids",
"To this end, Fox had bid aggressively for football broadcast rights almost from the start. It notably passed on the original United States Football League (USFL), which had hoped to move to the fall in 1986, the same time Fox was to debut, and was seeking a broadcast contract; the USFL would shut down instead",
". In 1987, Fox's first full year on the air, ABC initially hedged on renewing its contract to carry Monday Night Football – then the league's crown-jewel program – and was in the middle of negotiations to reach a new contract, due to an increased expense of the rights. Fox made an offer to the NFL to acquire the Monday Night Football contract for the same amount ABC that had been paying to carry the package, about US$1.3 billion at the time",
".3 billion at the time. However, the NFL, in part because Fox had not yet established itself as a major network, chose to renew its contract with ABC.",
"Meanwhile, after the Fox Broadcasting Company was launched, David Dixon, founder of the above-mentioned USFL, proposed the creation of the \"American Football Federation\", a spring league that would be made up of ten teams and draft high school graduates who were declared academically ineligible to play College Football by the NCAA. The proposed league never came to fruition.",
"Despite having a few successful shows in its slate, the network did not have a significant market share until the early 1990s when Fox parent News Corporation (which became 21st Century Fox through the July 2013 spin-off of its publishing unit, now the current News Corp",
".) began to upgrade some of its local affiliates – and eventually purchased additional stations from other television station groups, such as New World Communications and Chris-Craft Industries' BHC Communications and United Television, making it the largest owner of television stations in the United States",
". The time now filled by NFL on Fox on Sunday afternoons during the fall and winter months was formerly in the control of the stations themselves (and still is to some extent outside of the NFL season, particularly during weeks when no sports programming is scheduled at all by the network, as well as on non-doubleheader weeks during the season), which usually filled the timeslots with either syndicated television series (both first-run and off-network) and/or movie blocks",
". The Sunday afternoon timeslot in the spring is filled by NASCAR on Fox coverage of the NASCAR Cup Series.",
"Fox outbids CBS for the NFC package\nSix years after its first attempt, the league's television contracts for both conferences and for the Sunday and Monday prime time football packages came up for renewal again in 1993.",
"Many expected that the NFL would receive less money than the $3.6 billion for four years that ABC, CBS, NBC, TNT, and ESPN had paid in 1990. Fox wanted the NFL to build credibility for itself; even those working in television thought of it as \"the one that has that cartoon show\" (The Simpsons). More than 85% of affiliates were UHF stations. Knowing that it would likely need to bid considerably more than the incumbent networks, Fox bid $1",
". Knowing that it would likely need to bid considerably more than the incumbent networks, Fox bid $1.58 billion to obtain a four-year contract for the broadcast rights to the National Football Conference (NFC), exceeding CBS's bid by more than $100 million per year. The NFC was considered the more desirable conference than the American Football Conference (AFC), whose television package was being carried at the time by NBC, due to the NFC's presence in most of the largest U.S",
".S. markets, such as New York City, Chicago, Philadelphia, and Dallas, the last of which was gaining a national following in the 1990s.",
"Despite so much skepticism that the network had to assure the NFL and media that Bart Simpson would not be an announcer, to the surprise of many in the sports and media industries, on December 17, 1993, the NFL selected the bid offered by Fox, stripping CBS of football for the first time since 1956. Fox's coverage, in addition to being able to televise NFC regular season and playoff games, also included the exclusive U.S",
".S. television rights to Super Bowl XXXI (held in 1997) under the initial contract, which took effect with the 1994 season.",
"The unexpectedly high bids from Fox and other networks increased the NFL salary cap, new in 1994, to $34 million from the predicted $32 million. CBS's Laurence Tisch had apparently underestimated the value of its NFL rights with respect to its advertising revenues and to its promotional opportunities for other programming on the network",
". Indeed, Fox was still an upstart player in 1993, not yet considered on par with CBS, NBC and ABC, the three longer established major networks (Fox, by comparison, had debuted in October 1986 as the only venture at a fourth television network since the 1956 demise of the DuMont Television Network to truly compete with the \"Big Three\"). The network already had offbeat hits such as The Simpsons, Married... with Children, and Beverly Hills, 90210 on its schedule",
"... with Children, and Beverly Hills, 90210 on its schedule. However, Fox did not have a sports division up to that point, and its news division was a few years away from fruition (most Fox stations outside of a few owned by the network did not even produce their own news programming), and most Fox affiliates were often either full-power UHF stations or low-powered stations",
". In addition, there were some smaller markets that were not yet served by a local Fox affiliate; back in 1991, the Foxnet cable channel began operations to provide the network's programming to those areas until a new over-the-air affiliate was made available.",
"CBS personalities move to Fox and major affiliation switches",
"John Madden joked when he joined the network that it should be called Fox Sport, \"because the only sport we had at Fox was football, NFL football\", but Rupert Murdoch's vast resources allowed the network to grow quickly, primarily to the detriment of CBS. After bringing in David Hill from Murdoch's U.K.-based Sky Sports to head-up the new Fox Sports division, Fox began luring over members of the CBS Sports staff, hiring longtime producer Ed Goren as Hill's second-in-command",
". Fox was also able to procure Pat Summerall and Madden to be its lead broadcast team, a capacity they had been serving for CBS. Terry Bradshaw, who was previously co-host of The NFL Today, was added to serve as the pregame show's lead analyst. Dick Stockton and Matt Millen also came over from CBS and became the network's #2 broadcast team, while James Brown, who had called play-by-play for CBS' game telecasts, was hired to be the studio host.",
"Fox also hired a set of the next generation of young, up-and-coming play-by-play announcers for its lower-level broadcast crews: 26-year-old Kenny Albert, son of legendary sports announcer Marv Albert; 30-year-old Thom Brennaman, son of longtime Cincinnati Reds announcer Marty Brennaman; 25-year-old Joe Buck, son of legendary sports announcer Jack Buck; and 34-year-old Kevin Harlan, son of Green Bay Packers executive Bob Harlan.",
"Fox sought to raise its station profile as the start of its NFL contract came closer by approaching other broadcasters about switching their VHF stations (channels 2 to 13) to the network from one of the other established networks. On May 23, 1994, News Corporation struck an alliance with New World Communications, a television and film production company that by now was a key station group with several VHF CBS affiliates in NFC markets in its portfolio, and wary of a CBS without football",
". Through the deal, in which also Fox purchased a 20% interest in the company",
", in which also Fox purchased a 20% interest in the company, nearly all of New World's stations (including several that the company was in the process of acquiring from Citicasters and Argyle Communications at the time the deal was struck) switched en masse to Fox beginning that September and continuing through September 1996 as existing affiliation contracts with their previous network partners came to an end (network subsidiary Fox Television Stations bought New World Communications outright in July 1996)",
".",
"In the summer of 1994, SF Broadcasting (a recently formed joint venture between Fox and Savoy Pictures) purchased four stations from Burnham Broadcasting, which also became Fox affiliates between September 1995 and January 1996. In the NFC markets affected by the deals, Fox gained VHF affiliates in eight primary markets (Atlanta, Dallas, Detroit, Green Bay, New Orleans, Phoenix, St",
". Louis and Tampa) and three satellite markets (Austin, Greensboro and Milwaukee), adding to the four that the network had before the deal. The new affiliates in St. Louis and Greensboro switched shortly before the Rams relocated from Los Angeles and the Carolina Panthers began play with the 1995 preseason. Besides giving the network leverage in attracting new affiliates, the rights gave Fox many new viewers and a platform for advertising its other shows.",
"Fox's acquisition of the National Football Conference contract severely affected CBS, beyond losing a marquee sporting event and some of its key talent and production staff. Not only was it largely relegated to former Fox affiliates and lesser known independent stations in the markets affected by Fox's affiliation agreement with New World, but CBS' older-skewing programming slate caused it to struggle further in the ratings, pushing it to third place, ahead of fourth-place Fox",
". CBS had hoped to replace the NFL with National Hockey League (NHL) rights, but Fox then promptly outbid CBS for those as well; in addition, Fox took over the rights to Major League Baseball (MLB) in 1996, after the cancellation of The Baseball Network, which was a joint venture between NBC and ABC at the time and had replaced CBS two years prior. CBS began rebuilding itself after the network took the AFC television contract from NBC in 1998.",
"A brand new era",
"Fox's acquisition of National Football League television rights was a watershed event not only for the network, but for the NFL as well. Not only was it the event that placed Fox on a par with the \"Big Three\" broadcast networks, but it also ushered in an era of growth for the NFL, which continues on largely to this day",
". While the heavy concentration of major cities in NFC markets – as opposed to the smaller markets generally served by the AFC – virtually guaranteed a substantial audience, its instant success has nonetheless been remarkable given the differences between Fox's coverage and the coverage provided by ABC, CBS, ESPN, TNT and NBC up to that time.",
"\"Same Game, New Attitude\"\nFox used the slogan \"Same Game, New Attitude\" to promote its new NFL package (it did the same for its new Major League Baseball coverage in 1996). The network's pre-game show, Fox NFL Sunday focused more on entertainment and less on in-depth discussion of game strategy.",
"Hill, who later said \"Most of my concepts about the way sport should be produced, I’ve stolen from video games\", suggested to Madden that broadcasts resemble Madden NFL. Fox's NFL coverage introduced bolder and innovative graphics, for instance, the FoxBox, a continuous on-screen time-and-score graphic that Hill had originally used on Sky Sports's coverage of the Premier League",
". It also used parabolic microphones to include the sounds of the stands and of the on-field action (including conversations and strategy outlines between coaches and players). These innovations were adopted by rival networks and helped to drive the development of further innovations such as the on-air display of virtual first-down and scrimmage lines.",
"1990s",
"In , John Madden, then of CBS awarded the first \"Turkey Leg Award\", for the Thanksgiving Day game's most valuable player. Pursuant to its name, it was an actual cooked turkey leg, and players typically took a celebratory bite out of the leg for the cameras during post-game interviews. The gesture was seen mostly as a humorous gimmick relating to Madden's famous multi-legged turkey, Madden brought the award to Fox in , and it continued through 2001",
". Because of the loose and informal nature of the award, at times it has been awarded to multiple players. On one occasion in 1994, it was given to players of both teams.",
"The Week 15, 1995 match-up between the Arizona Cardinals and the San Diego Chargers was part of an experiment by Fox where Terry Bradshaw and Jimmy Johnson provided analysis throughout the game with no play-by-play.",
"At the end of the 1996 season, Fox broadcast its first ever Super Bowl. Super Bowl XXXI would be the first of three Super Bowls to be called by Pat Summerall and John Madden while with Fox (Super Bowls XXXIII and XXXVI being the others). The telecast ended up being the highest-rated program in the history of the then ten-year-old Fox network, and it currently ties Super Bowl XLII for the highest-rated program in the entire history of the network",
". Fox's broadcast was also the first Super Bowl to have a constant, live-updating graphic for the score, time and down, and distance. The FoxBox was used also in Super Bowl XXXIII, and the graphic positioned over live action has become the norm in virtually all sports broadcasts at the national and regional production levels.",
"Following the 1997 season, Joe Buck did not call another NFL game on Fox until 2001. For Fox's first two years of NFL coverage, Buck was paired with Tim Green on the fourth-tier team. And in 1997, Buck was teamed with Bill Maas on the fourth-tier team. Between the 1998-2000 seasons, Buck would often be assigned to working at Fox NFL Sunday studio for halftime coverage whenever the main pregame crew was on the road. Kevin Harlan left Fox after this season to join the NFL on CBS",
". Kevin Harlan left Fox after this season to join the NFL on CBS. Harlan and Bill Maas anchored Fox's halftime coverage for Week 6, as the Fox NFL Sunday crew did the pregame show from Green Bay's Lambeau Field.",
"In 1998, Fox had a broadcast of the Washington Redskins/Tampa Bay Buccaneers game scheduled for Week 16. On the day the game was supposed to be broadcast, President Bill Clinton was impeached by Congress and Fox broke into local programming to cover the events. The football game (called by Sam Rosen and Jerry Glanville) began as scheduled and was shown in split screen. Jerry Glanville left Fox after this season to join The NFL Today on CBS.",
"For Fox's coverage of Super Bowl XXXIII at the end of the 1998 season, the starting lineups were shown using a virtual TV. To TV viewers, it appeared as if the end zone opened up and a giant TV came up out of the ground. The virtual TV displayed video announcing the starting lineups. The virtual TV effect was provided by PVI Virtual Media Services using their L-VIS virtual graphics system.",
"2000s\n2001 was the final year of commentating NFL games full-time for Pat Summerall, as his retirement was announced earlier that year. 2001 was also John Madden's last year of commentating on Fox, as he moved to ABC to commentate on Monday Night Football alongside Al Michaels. Madden would soon become the first person to announce Super Bowls on different networks in consecutive years when he called Super Bowl XXXVII on ABC with Michaels.",
"Fox's telecast of Super Bowl XXXVI was presented in a 480p enhanced-definition widescreen format marketed as \"Fox Widescreen\". While promoted as having better quality than standard-definition, and being the first U.S. sporting event produced in a widescreen format with the same production as the main feed for standard-definition viewers (rather than using a separate production for the widescreen feed), it was not true high definition, but still matched the aspect ratio of HDTV sets",
". As previously alluded to, this was Summerall's 26th and final Super Bowl broadcast on television or radio. It was also the eighth and final Super Bowl telecast (and final NFL telecast of any kind) for the Summerall and Madden announcing team. The two had become the NFL's most famous broadcast duo since they were paired together in 1981 on CBS.",
"Joe Buck, Troy Aikman, and Cris Collinsworth replaced Pat Summerall and John Madden as the number 1 announcing team. Summerall, however, would continue to work for Fox in 2002, calling almost all Dallas Cowboys games alongside Brian Baldinger. One notable exception was in Week 8, when Summerall called the Cowboys-Seattle Seahawks game alongside Daryl Johnston and Baldinger worked the Arizona Cardinals-San Francisco 49ers game alongside Kenny Albert",
". At this point, it would become common practice for Joe Buck to take time off from calling NFL games in order to cover postseason baseball for Fox.",
"When John Madden left Fox after 2001, the network introduced a new award for their Thanksgiving Day telecast starting in 2002, named the \"Galloping Gobbler.\" It was represented by a small figurine of a cartoonish, silver turkey wearing a football helmet striking a Heisman-like pose. Much like Cleatus and Digger, the original Galloping Gobbler trophy reflected Fox's irreverent mascots, and went through several iterations",
". Unimpressed by its tackiness after having won four Turkey Legs in the 1990s, the inaugural winner, Emmitt Smith, famously threw the 2002 award into a trash can.",
"Following the 2004 season, Cris Collinsworth left Fox Sports. After sitting out the 2005 season, he returned to NBC Sports for the 2006 season. For the 2006 season (the first after James Brown left to return to CBS as host of The NFL Today), Fox experimented with a traveling pre-game show, hosted by Joe Buck from the site of the game to which he was assigned. The halftime and postgame shows were hosted by Curt Menefee",
". The halftime and postgame shows were hosted by Curt Menefee. During Week 14 of the regular season, Thom Brennaman, Charles Davis and Barry Alvarez took over the #4 team for Sam Rosen and Tim Ryan.",
"During Weeks 6–8 of the 2006 regular season, Dick Stockton filled in for Joe Buck, during the MLB playoffs, and Kenny Albert filled in for Stockton, who was filling in for Buck. During Weeks 6–8 of the 2007 regular season, Kenny Albert filled in for Buck, during the MLB playoffs. During Week 6 and 7 of the 2007 regular season, Matt Vasgersian filled in for Albert, who was filling in for Buck. During Week 7 of the 2007 regular season, Matt Devlin filled in for Vasgersian, who was filling in Albert",
". And during Week 8 of the 2007 regular season, Thom Brennaman filled in for Albert, who was filling in for Buck.",
"November 8, 2009 (Week 9) featured a special two-hour pregame show originating in Afghanistan. The regular Fox NFL Sunday crew hosted the pregame show; Chris Rose served as studio host and anchored in-game highlights. John Lynch and Trent Green served as studio analysts for the halftime and postgame reports.",
"2010s",
"2010 was Chris Rose's final season calling NFL games for Fox until he departed for MLB Network. Rose was a part of the eighth-tier team with Ross Tucker. During Week 5 of the regular season, Chris Myers filled in for Dick Stockton, who was calling MLB playoffs for TBS. Myers also filled in for in for Rose during Weeks 11 and 13 of the regular season. At this point, Joe Buck, Troy Aikman, and Pam Oliver became Fox's longest-tenured broadcast team, surpassing the team of Pat Summerall and John Madden",
". During Weeks 6-8 of the regular season, Thom Brennaman filled in for Buck during the MLB playoffs. During Weeks 15-17 of the regular season Charles Davis filled in for Jim Mora, who accepted the head coaching job at UCLA Bruins in 2012.",
"During Week 6 of the 2012 regular season, Thom Brennaman was set to call the New York Giants vs. San Francisco 49ers football game instead of Joe Buck, who was scheduled to call the National League Championship Series. Sam Rosen was scheduled to fill in for Thom Brennaman while Brennaman filled in for Buck. However, Fox Sports president Eric Shanks brought up the idea of a two sport, same-day doubleheader if both the San Francisco Giants and St. Louis Cardinals won their divisional series. When St",
". Louis Cardinals won their divisional series. When St. Louis beat the Washington Nationals on Friday night, Buck went to San Francisco instead of Washington, D.C. and called both the 49ers football game and the Giants baseball game.",
"Fox did not send its #2 team of Kenny Albert, Daryl Johnston, and Tony Siragusa to cover the playoffs in 2012, marking the first time since Fox acquired NFL rights that they did this. Instead the #3 team of Thom Brennaman and Brian Billick were in the booth for the Divisional Playoffs, as they called the Seattle Seahawks at Atlanta Falcons match-up. Chris Myers joined the Brennaman/Billick/Laura Okmin crew during the NFC Playoffs.",
"After the 2012 season, Ron Pitts left Fox Sports after being part of the NFL broadcast team for 18 years and joined OK!TV. Kevin Burkhardt replaced him. The following year, Burkhardt, John Lynch, and Pam Oliver and Chris Myers called the Divisional Playoff game between the New Orleans Saints and the Seattle Seahawks. Erin Andrews joined Pam Oliver as sideline reporter for Wild Card weekend, NFC Championship, Thanksgiving, and Super Bowl XLVIII.",
"Meanwhile, Brian Billick was not offered a contract extension with the NFL on Fox after his contract expired after the 2013 season. Tim Ryan left Fox after 2013 when he accepted the job as the San Francisco 49ers radio color commentator. And Tom McCarthy left Fox after 2013 and joined rival CBS. David Diehl replaced Billick as Thom Brennaman's analyst, while Ronde Barber replaced Ryan as Chris Myers' analyst",
". For Week 7, Tim Brando replaced Mike Goldberg after Goldberg performed poorly during a Week 6 game and cursed out his critics on Twitter.",
"During Weeks 6–8 of the 2013 season, Thom Brennaman filled in for Joe Buck, Sam Rosen filled in for Kevin Burkhardt, and Charissa Thompson filled in for Erin Andrews; Joe Buck, Kevin Burkhardt, and Erin Andrews were all on Major League Baseball on Fox playoff duty. Meanwhile, Justin Kutcher filled in for Thom Brennaman. During Week 13 of the 2013 season, Dick Stockton, Brady Quinn, and Kristina Pink were assigned college football responsibilities, leading to a makeshift #6 team",
". As the rotational broadcaster Brennaman was moved down to fill in for Stockton. He was joined by Donovan McNabb and Charissa Thompson. Kutcher once again filled in for Brennaman. In Week 15, Kutcher again filled in for Brennaman because this time, Brennaman had voice problems.",
"In 2015, Charles Davis replaces David Diehl as Thom Brennaman's analyst. Meanwhile, Sam Rosen replaced Mike Goldberg and Tim Brando on the #7 team. Kirk Morrison moved down to the #7 team and was joined by Chris Cooley and Matt Millen as rotating analysts. Laura Okmin and Tony Siragusa swapped broadcast teams as sideline reporters/analysts, joining the #3 and #4 teams, respectively. Holly Sonders joined the #3 and #5 team as a rotating sideline reporter",
". Holly Sonders joined the #3 and #5 team as a rotating sideline reporter. Danielle Trotta joined Peter Schrager as a rotating reporter for the #7 broadcast team. Brady Quinn moved down to the #8 team, where he was joined by his CFB broadcast partner Joe Davis. On September 27, 2015, Richard Deitsch of SI",
". On September 27, 2015, Richard Deitsch of SI.com reported that, \"in an effort to get Holly Sonders reps as an NFL sideline reporter\", Fox Sports management pulled various assignments they had originally given Laura Okmin and Jennifer Hale on the #3 and #5 teams, respectively, and reassigned them to Sonders. The 2015 season marked Tony Siragusa's final season with Fox.",
"During Weeks 5–8 of the 2015 season, Sam Rosen filled in for Kevin Burkhardt while Burkhardt worked the studio shows for Fox's MLB Playoff coverage. During Week 5, Justin Kutcher filled in for Kenny Albert while Albert worked the American League Division Series between the Texas Rangers and Toronto Blue Jays. During Weeks 6 and 8 Thom Brennaman filled in for Joe Buck, Kutcher filled in for Thom Brennaman, and Peter Schrager filled in for Erin Andrews during the MLB Playoffs.",
"During Week 5 of the 2016 season, Kenny Albert had been scheduled to work the Los Angeles Dodgers-Washington Nationals National League Division Series series and the Washington Redskins-Baltimore Ravens game. Both events occurred 40 miles apart from Friday to Sunday. Rain postponed the Game 2 of the NLDS to Sunday and Fox kept Albert on baseball coverage, with Sam Rosen taking his place alongside Daryl Johnston",
". Sam Rosen remained with Daryl Johnston in Weeks 6–8, while Kenny Albert was elevated to the #2 team with John Lynch. The 2016 season was John Lynch's last with Fox as he leave to become the general manager of the San Francisco 49ers. During Week 8, Matt Smith filled in for Sam Rosen on #7 broadcast team during the MLB Playoffs. Rosen was with the #2 team in London, filling in for Kevin Burkhardt. During Weeks 6–8, Thom Brennaman filled in for Joe Buck while the latter called the NLCS and World Series",
". Justin Kutcher took Brennaman's place on the #4 announcing crew.",
"During Weeks 5–8 of the 2017 season, Kenny Albert filled in for Kevin Burkhardt while Burkhardt worked the studio shows for Fox's MLB Playoff coverage. During Weeks 5–8, Sam Rosen filled in for Kenny Albert while he was with the #2 team. During Weeks 6–8, Thom Brennaman, for the 9th straight year, filled in for Joe Buck while the latter called the ALCS and World Series. Either Dan Hellie or Justin Kutcher took Thom Brennaman's place on the #4 announcing crew",
". Either Dan Hellie or Justin Kutcher took Thom Brennaman's place on the #4 announcing crew. Originally, Jay Cutler was slated to join Kevin Burkhardt and Charles Davis. Cutler ended up coming out of retirement for 2017, signing with the Miami Dolphins due to the injury of Ryan Tannehill.",
"Also in 2017, Ronde Barber and Daryl Johnston switched broadcast teams; Barber joined Kenny Albert and Johnston joined Chris Myers. Chris Spielman became Thom Brennaman's permanent broadcast partner. However, he became Dan Hellie's temporary partner for Weeks 6 and 7 and Justin Kutcher's temporary partner for Week 8. David Diehl became Sam Rosen's permanent partner except for Week 14 when Brady Quinn joined Rosen and for Week 17 when Matt Millen joined him",
". Greg Jennings became Tim Brando's temporary partner for the Tampa Bay Buccaneers-Green Bay Packers game on Week 13. Meanwhile, Mark Schlereth joined Fox Sports this year and became Dick Stockton's broadcast partner.",
"Mike Pereira, who previously served as offsite rules analyst, moved to an on-site role with the lead broadcast team for select games. Dean Blandino, who recently resigned from his title as VP of Officiating earlier in the year, replaced Pereira as rules analyst when Pereira was on those select games.",
"During Week 8 of the 2018 season, for the first time, Thom Brennaman filled in for Kenny Albert as the number 3 team while Joe Buck did the World Series from Dodger Stadium, 5 miles away. Buck remained on Thursday Night Football, going to Houston on the World Series' travel day from Boston to Los Angeles, but he waived the opportunity for a same-day, two-sport doubleheader on Sunday over concerns about getting from one venue to the other in Los Angeles traffic",
". With Kristina Pink moving to a co-sideline reporter for Thursday Night Football, the #3 team of Kenny Albert/Ronde Barber had rotating sideline reporters throughout the season.",
"2020s",
"Weeks before the 2020 season, Fox dropped Thom Brennaman following the controversy surrounding his use of a homophobic slur while working as the television voice of the Cincinnati Reds. Kevin Kugler took over Brennaman's slot on the #6 team with Chris Spielman. With Charles Davis departing for CBS, his position at the #2 team with Kevin Burkhardt was filled by Daryl Johnston, who in turn was replaced by Brock Huard and Greg Jennings on the #5 team with Chris Myers",
". Adam Amin replaced Dick Stockton on the now-promoted #3 pairing with Mark Schlereth, though Stockton would continue to call select games when necessary. Jonathan Vilma replaced Ronde Barber on the #4 team with Kenny Albert.",
"Spielman left Fox after Week 14 to join the Detroit Lions front office. Huard took over Spielman's place with Kugler. Stockton retired following the season.",
"The 2021 season saw a few changes on the broadcast team. The #1 team with Buck, Aikman and Andrews added Tom Rinaldi as a second sideline reporter, while the #2 team led by Burkhardt now featured Greg Olsen as its analyst. Johnston was reunited with Myers, while Mark Sanchez was hired and paired alongside Kugler. Gus Johnson and Aqib Talib rounded out the team, and would call a select number of games.",
"In 2022, Buck and Aikman left Fox to join Monday Night Football. Burkhardt and Olsen were promoted to replace Buck and Aikman on the #1 team. It was announced, however, on May 10, 2022 that Tom Brady would join the #1 team upon his retirement from playing. Meanwhile, Joe Davis, who had replaced Buck as the lead voice of Fox's MLB broadcasts, moved to the #2 team after serving as a fill-in announcer for a number of seasons. Davis was joined by Daryl Johnston and Pam Oliver",
". Davis was joined by Daryl Johnston and Pam Oliver. Sideline reporter Kristina Pink then joined the #3 team with Adam Amin and Mark Schlereth after serving the same role on Thursday Night Football. Elsewhere, Johnston's spot with Myers on the #5 team was filled in by Robert Smith, and Shannon Spake replaced Lindsay Czarniak on the #4 team with Kenny Albert and Jonathan Vilma",
". During Week 6, Fox College Football play-by-play voice Noah Eagle filled in for Amin on the #3 team while the latter worked the 2022 National League Division Series, while Brandon Gaudin filled Davis' role. In Weeks 7, 8 and 9, Amin temporarily replaced Davis on the #2 team while Myers moved to the #3 team and Gaudin took his place on the #5 team. During this period, Burkhardt continued to call NFL games, but Matt Vasgersian filled in for him in the studio during MLB postseason coverage",
". In Week 17, Jason Benetti made his NFL on Fox debut calling the Arizona Cardinals–Atlanta Falcons game with Brady Quinn.",
"Post-game show: The OT",
"Beginning in 2005, Fox's post-game show was expanded to an hour-long slot (regularly scheduled at 7:30 p.m. Eastern Time) and branded as The OT, competing against NBC's primetime pregame Football Night in America. The program, in addition to providing analysis of the day's NFL games, sends viewers to the remaining ongoing regional games after their main game ends (or meets the NFL's rules regarding a switch to a more compelling matchup, outside of home markets) until the end of the last game.",
"Fox had previously scheduled first-run sitcoms, the comedic video series The World's Funniest!, and animated series in the 7:00 p.m",
". hour during the NFL season, but these were often subjected to pre-emption (resulting in episodes being delayed by one week or more) due to overruns of late afternoon games into the hour, which impacted their ratings performance; as a result of the postgame show's expansion, the network generally delayed carriage of first-run programming during the first hour of Sunday prime time to midseason (one exception was the freshman sitcom Mulaney in 2014",
", which was pushed to the hour that November due to struggling ratings in its original 9:30 Eastern slot), primarily limited to burn-offs of already failed series",
".",
"Changes for 2006",
"After the 2005 season, James Brown left Fox to return to CBS Sports, where he would become the host of the CBS network's NFL pregame show The NFL Today. On August 16, 2006, after weeks of speculation, the network officially announced that Joe Buck would take over the role as host vacated by Brown",
". The move also resulted in the show switching from being broadcast from a permanent Los Angeles studio to a portable studio configuration, similar to the pregame show for NASCAR on Fox, in which analysts Terry Bradshaw, Howie Long and Jimmy Johnson joined Buck at the stadium site to which Buck is assigned as play-by-play announcer for one of that week's telecasts",
". Curt Menefee worked all halftime shows and all postgame shows on Sundays when no doubleheader was scheduled, also from the same game site with the same analysts. Menefee hosted Fox NFL Sunday during the several weeks in October when Buck was not available; during that time, Buck called Major League Baseball postseason games, including the World Series. The pregame shows on October 15, 22 and 29 were broadcast from the Los Angeles studios; the show returned to the road on November 5.",
"It was also announced that weather reporter Jillian Barberie (now Jillian Reynolds) would not return for the coming season, as Barberie wished to stay at home in Los Angeles with her family. Barberie did participate in at least one of the studio shows. During the 2006 season, Chris Rose provided narrated updates highlighting other NFL games during the Fox broadcasts from the Los Angeles studio.",
"After the 2006 NFL season, Fox NFL Sunday returned to the Los Angeles studio throughout the entire 2007 regular season and for the two weeks of that year's postseason. Curt Menefee became the full-time host of the pregame show, while Joe Buck reverted to strictly handling play-by-play duties.",
"2010 Monday night special",
"Fox presented a limited Monday night game between the New York Giants and Minnesota Vikings on December 13, 2010. The game had been originally scheduled to be played on the afternoon on December 12, but due to the collapse of the roof of the Metrodome early that morning due to weight from heavy snowpack, the game was moved on short notice to Ford Field in Detroit as that facility already had their full television setup still in place after a Packers–Lions game",
". Fox Sports had kept their cameras on in the Metrodome overnight the night before the originally scheduled game day and captured the stadium roof collapse in full detail; the video of the early morning collapse, captured at multiple angles, aired on that day's edition of Fox NFL Sunday and quickly went viral.",
"The game was only made available on the main Fox stations in the New York and Twin Cities media markets; owned-and-operated station WNYW and affiliate WXXA-TV aired the game in the New York City and Albany television markets, while Minneapolis–St. Paul owned-and-operated station KMSP-TV, and affiliates KXLT-TV in Rochester and KQDS-TV in Duluth, Minnesota carried the game for the Vikings' markets. The game was also carried on satellite provider DirecTV through its NFL Sunday Ticket package.",
"Coincidentally, this was the first game since 1992 that Brett Favre did not start an NFL game, as he was placed on the inactive list due to a shoulder injury, ending his streak of 297 consecutive regular season games; Tarvaris Jackson started in his place and subsequently Joe Webb had his first ever down in an NFL game. In addition, it was the first ever regular-season Monday night game in Ford Field.",
"This was the first time that either CBS or Fox produced a Monday night game that would only be broadcast in the markets of the competing teams; a similar situation would later happen on November 24, 2014, when CBS televised a Monday night game between the New York Jets and the Buffalo Bills that was relocated from Ralph Wilson Stadium to Ford Field due to a major lake-effect snowstorm that affected Western New York.",
"Long term contract extension, Thursday Night Football (2018–2022)",
"On December 14, 2011, the NFL, along with Fox, NBC and CBS announced that the league had extended rights deal with all three networks through the 2022 season. The three-network rights deal includes the continued yearly rotation of the Super Bowl between Fox, NBC and CBS, meaning that Fox would air Super Bowls XLVIII (2014), LI (2017), LIV (2020), and LVII (2023)",
". The contract included a new \"cross-flexing\" policy introduced in 2014, under which a limited number of all-NFC games normally assigned to Fox may now be moved to CBS Sports, and vice versa with AFC games.",
"On January 31, 2018, the NFL announced that Fox had acquired the broadcast television rights to the Thursday Night Football package from 2018 through 2022. Fox would air eleven games per season in simulcast with NFL Network, replacing CBS and NBC. Fox would reportedly pay an average of $660 million per season for this package.",
"Renewal of rights, departure of Buck and Aikman, and arrival of Tom Brady (2023–2033)",
"On March 18, 2021, the NFL, along with Fox, NBC, CBS, and ABC/ESPN announced a new rights deal with all four networks through the 2033 season. Fox will maintain its NFC package of Sunday afternoon games but will no longer broadcast Thursday Night Football. The four-network rights deal also includes yearly rotation of the Super Bowl between CBS, Fox, NBC, and ABC meaning that Fox will air Super Bowls LIX (2025), LXIII (2029), and LXVII (2033)",
". The contract continues the \"cross-flexing\" policy introduced in 2014. Fox will also have exclusive rights to Christmas Day games, when the schedule allows.",
"The 2022 offseason saw a major departure from Fox Sports, with Joe Buck and Troy Aikman both leaving for ESPN to become the new broadcast team for Monday Night Football. At the time of Buck and Aikman’s departure, Fox had not yet announced who would replace them as their main broadcast team, but it was suggested that their #2 play-by-play commentator Kevin Burkhardt may be promoted to replace Buck, with his current partner Greg Olsen possibly joining him",
". Eventually, on May 10, Fox announced that they had signed 7-time Super Bowl champion Tom Brady to become their lead color commentator, when he retires from playing. Brady would become the highest paid analyst in history, passing Aikman and CBS’s Tony Romo, signing a massive 10-year, $375 million contract. Later, it was officially announced that Burkhardt and Olsen would replace Buck and Aikman as Fox’s #1 team, with Olsen staying until Brady retires. Tom Brady will join Fox Sports in the fall of 2024.",
"Commentators\n\nIn-studio personalities\n\nIn-game commentators (past and present)",
"Theme music",
"The iconic NFL on Fox theme music was composed by Scott Schreer; at the time of its introduction, Schreer considered the theme to be a contrast to other television sports themes, as it carried a dark, orchestral, and cinematic sound",
". The music was partially inspired by the opening theme of Tim Burton's 1989 Batman film; Fox Sports president David Hill had heard the theme while waiting in line for a Batman ride at an amusement park in California, and suggested to creative director George Greenberg (who had recently defected to Fox from ABC Sports) in a phone call that the overlying theme for Fox's NFL theme music should be \"Batman plays football\"",
". Greenberg enlisted Schreer to compose the theme, describing Hill's request as sounding like \"Batman on steroids\". Schreer and his team pitched three separate songs to Greenberg and Hill, who then spliced them together into one for the final version.",
"Beginning at the 2010 National League Championship Series, the NFL on Fox theme became the official theme music for all Fox Sports broadcasts, regardless of sport. In particular, current Fox Sports president Eric Shanks believed that the special theme music it had previously used for post-season baseball was not upbeat enough, and that the change would \"[give] all of our sports sort of that marquee feel and it gives us a more upbeat way to come on the air",
".\" The change also resulted in the removal of the long-time Major League Baseball on Fox theme also composed by Schreer. However, the network later began to backpedal from this standardization (including commissioning new theme music for USGA golf tournaments, licensing the former NBA on NBC theme for college basketball broadcasts on Fox), and discontinued the use of the NFL theme music on non-football broadcasts entirely in 2020.",
"In-game music",
"In December 2010, Fox experimented with using an in-game soundtrack during a regional game between the Arizona Cardinals and Carolina Panthers. The following week on December 16, Fox publicly announced that it would also feature it during a game on December 20 between the San Francisco 49ers and Seattle Seahawks",
". Fox Sports president Eric Shanks revealed that CSI: Miami composer Jeff Cardoni had contributed music for the experiment, and saw potential in the concept, explaining that \"just like music in movies, you have to use it at the right times. And imagine trying to score a movie the first time you're seeing it.\" The concept was met with mixed reaction; sports blogger Michael David Smith believed that the music was \"goofy\", distracting and added nothing to the game.",
"Digital on-screen graphics\n\nWhen its NFL telecasts debuted in the 1994 season, Fox's coverage featured the first \"scoring bug.\" Originally appearing as a transparent white half-capsule-shaped graphic in the upper left corner of the screen, it displayed the score and game clock throughout the entire telecast, a first for an NFL television broadcast.\n\n1996–2000",
"By 1996, the graphic changed to a full-statistics panel, where down and distance, penalty, and key in-game statistics would pop in and out when necessary. The basic design of the scoring bug, which was named the \"FoxBox\", mimicked the version used on Fox's MLB coverage. For Fox's coverage of Super Bowl XXXIII at the end of the 1998 season, the starting lineups were shown using a virtual television",
". To television viewers, the effect appeared as if the end zone opened up and a giant television screen rose from the ground. The virtual television display showed video announcing the starting lineups. The virtual television effect was provided by PVI Virtual Media Services using its L-VIS virtual graphics system.",
"2001–2002",
"For the 2001 and 2002 seasons, NFL telecasts used the same graphics that were previously introduced on Fox's NASCAR and Major League Baseball coverage. The graphics package was an updated version of the 1998 design, but the FoxBox changed from a compact bug to a banner spanning the top of the screen, and included a scrolling graphic displaying real-time scores of other games in progress",
". A simple black rectangle with a shaded translucent area spanned the top of the screen from left to right, displaying the abbreviations of both teams in white. The scores were shown in white boxes next to the team. The center showed the game clock in white, to its right was the quarter (\"1st QTR\", \"2nd QTR\", etc.), and to the right of the quarter was the play clock; the NFL on Fox logo was on the far right",
".), and to the right of the quarter was the play clock; the NFL on Fox logo was on the far right. Starting in Super Bowl XXXVI and used full-time for the 2002 season, the white scoring boxes were re-colored to yellow",
". This was also the last year that the score graphic used an effect in which a team's initials flashed in its two primary when a team scored (for example, when the Green Bay Packers scored a touchdown during a Fox telecast, the \"GB\" initials and box would flash in green and gold for a few seconds as the six points for the TD were added, then again with the extra point)",
". A laser sound also accompanied the effect for the guest and home teams in 2001, but was replaced with percussive sound beats in 2002 for the home team only.",
"2003–2005\n\nFor the 2003 season, Fox's NFL coverage debuted a new graphics package.",
"Instead of being a large black rectangle consistently, the score banner alternated between a large black rectangle and several small, black parallelograms, and the shaded area above it was removed. Team logos were now used, in place of their abbreviations, and scores were shown in white text in black parallelograms. During the 2003 NFL playoffs, however, the logos were removed and the team abbreviations were rendered again in white lettering in the background of the team's main color.",
"The graphics package itself was eventually rolled out to Fox Sports' other properties in subsequent months, including NASCAR; however, Major League Baseball broadcasts continued to use the 2001 scoring banners and graphics in 2004, but then began using this on-screen appearance during the MLB playoffs that year.",
"The banner returned to a large black rectangle at the start of the 2004 season. The team logos returned, this time looking more \"three-dimensional\" in appearance and with their respective abbreviations beside the logos. Electronic eggcrate in the team's primary color was used whenever that certain team calls timeout, scores a touchdown, or a field goal. It would be shown in red whenever the team challenges a play",
". It would be shown in red whenever the team challenges a play. In addition during a touchdown or field goal, the right side of the banner would have a split flashing \"light\", then the words \"TOUCHDOWN or FIELD GOAL (team)\" in the same electronic lettering scrolling left.",
"During Week 11 of the 2004 season, the team logos were once again replaced with the abbreviations. First seen on the network's Major League Baseball postseason broadcasts that year, this time, they were rendered in electronic eggcrate lettering in the team's main color. When team-specific information was displayed in the banner, such as the hang time of a punt or a touchdown, the abbreviation would revert to the team's logo",
". During the 2005 holiday season, for the Week 15 Saturday game (between the Tampa Bay Buccaneers and New England Patriots), a new white banner, resembling a chrome finish (first introduced at the start of Fox's coverage of the 2005 World Series) debuted, with animated snow accumulating on top with an animated snowplow periodically clearing the snow from the screen. The following week, the new banner was adopted for all games, but without the snow animation",
". The following week, the new banner was adopted for all games, but without the snow animation. The team abbreviations became white letters against the team's main color.",
"2006–2009",
"Fox Sports again unveiled a new graphics package for its NFL coverage at the start of the 2006 season. The score banner began featuring the real-time scores as a permanent fixture on the extreme right side, while the coloring of the banner changes to the colors of the team currently possessing the ball",
". During playoff games and games featured on days other than the network's traditional game broadcast days or holidays (such as the Thanksgiving Day AFC/NFC game), the scoring bar instead shows either the NFL Thanksgiving logo, the NFL Divisional Playoffs/NFC Championship logo Super Bowl XLII, or a special banner with a message from Fox Sports observing whichever holiday falls during that week (for instance, confetti and a party horn with a traditional Happy New Year message).",
"At the beginning of the 2006 season, the virtual on-field graphic showing an arrow pointing towards the direction of advancement and the down/yardage information, which had begun use in 2004 on 3rd downs and had been expanded to most plays in 2005, began to be used on all plays from all games. This feature was later added by CBS, NBC, ESPN, and the NFL Network over the course of the next few years until all networks used it by the 2008 season",
". At the same time, the down/yardage information is also displayed on the scoring banner, resulting in duplicate presentation of the same information. The bar was also enhanced for high definition and is thinner than previous versions, with little translucency. The NFL on Fox logo was also repositioned to the far left instead of the far right. During high definition broadcasts, the area above the banner features a translucent slanting pattern going from left-to-right across the screen",
". During the 2006 preseason telecasts, the quarter was indicated by four illuminating buttons (the number of buttons that were lit indicated the quarter being played), but due to difficulties in visibility, the quarter returned to being numerically represented for the regular season",
". On the rare occasion during a game in which the field lines are not visible (such as those dealing with snow or rain), a small bug pops up on the bottom left side of the screen with the logo of the team that is currently in possession as well as text indicating where the ball is (e.g., Arizona-Own 41 Yard Line).",
"This graphics package was once again expanded to most of Fox Sports other properties in the following months; including College Football; NASCAR; and in April 2008, MLB. Fox's MLB coverage continued using the late-2005 graphics in 2007; and then in 2009, baseball broadcasts dropped this on-screen look entirely in favor of the graphics package used on FSN at the time.",
"Beginning on November 15, 2009 (Week 10 of the 2009 season), scores from other ongoing NFL games that appear on the right side of the banner would have an arrow indicating which team was in possession of the ball; a red arrow indicated that the team is at the red zone. Fox's NFL telecasts were the only major telecasts of the league's games to not feature timeout indicators until the 2010 season, save for the number of timeouts that each team has on the right side of the banner.",
"December 31, 2006 San Francisco/Denver game",
"There was one exception to this package for the 2006 season, as Fox had to revert to the then-current scoring banner and graphics package used by Fox Sports Net (and formerly the main one used by Fox Sports) for its final regular season game of the year, the San Francisco 49ers vs. the Denver Broncos on December 31, 2006, due to a blizzard (the second to occur in the span of a week) hitting Denver, preventing the usual amount of equipment for Fox's NFL coverage to arrive before the game",
". FSN Rocky Mountain (the FSN network that served the Denver market at the time, since replaced by AT&T SportsNet Rocky Mountain) assisted in the production of the game on short notice by providing the graphical production and other production services. In addition, the \"1st & Ten\" graphic lines denoting the line of scrimmage and first down line were unavailable for this broadcast. This graphic was also used in Week 5 of the 2007 season in a game between the Arizona Cardinals and St. Louis Rams.",
"2010–2013",
"A new graphics package for Fox's NFL telecasts debuted during an August 19, 2010 pre-season game, as the network began to broadcast its sports programming with graphics optimized for 16:9 displays rather than the 4:3 safe area, resulting in the network asking cable and satellite providers to comply and use the #10 Active Format Description code to send out over Fox programming, which displays 16:9 content in a letterboxed format on 4:3 screens (largely on the analog affiliate feed carried by the provider)",
", in concert with Fox News Channel and its related news productions for the Fox network also switching to full widescreen presentation",
". This was promoted during that first game by the Fox broadcast team as giving a \"widescreen viewing experience\" to standard definition viewers, using the usual examples of more video information on the screen to demonstrate the new presentation (such as two cheerleaders off to the side displayed in a widescreen shot, but cut out of a 4:3 shot).",
"The graphics package is an upgraded version of the 2006 design with a \"much more colorful 3D look\", implemented using a new infrastructure using products developed by Vizrt, which was also rolled out to other Fox Sports networks in subsequent months – NASCAR in February 2011 and then Major League Baseball in April 2011 on both the Fox network and FSN affiliates",
". The score banner previously used was replaced by an unconventional FoxBox-styled layout, positioned in the top left corner of the screen, with team logos and scores on either side, lights indicating timeouts on the side rims, with the play clock and quarter positioned in the center. Initially, the play clock also appeared within the center area with 10 seconds remaining, sliding the time remaining in the quarter upward",
". However, the play clock indicator was soon moved to the bar sliding out of the bottom to show downage.",
"Due to issues with some cable providers and Fox affiliates (particularly those carried by digital subchannels or low-power analog television stations) in implementing the AFD #10 widescreen mode, or for other broadcasters that still broadcast with content framed for 4:3 displays instead of defaulting to 16:9 like Fox (such as CBS and NBC, along with ESPN and NFL Network until they also switched to 16:9 with letterboxed SD feeds)",
", along with ESPN and NFL Network until they also switched to 16:9 with letterboxed SD feeds), feeds of Fox's NFL games have been offered with graphics positioned for 4:3 displays instead of 16:9, and in most cases, only one game per week was broadcast with 16:9 graphics",
".",
"Small tweaks were made for the 2011 season, including the timeout indicators counting upward instead of downward, and the possession indicator now appearing alongside the team that currently is in possession of the ball. Additionally, the scoreboard next to the Fox Sports bug for other ongoing NFL games was replaced by a traditional ticker; the bug was made slightly smaller and rounder as well",
". Special holiday animations also appeared with the banner package; digitally animated leaves fell on top of the FoxBox on Thanksgiving, while falling snow piles on top during the last two weeks of December in observance of the Christmas and holiday season, with the timeout indicators being changed in the latter instance to resemble strings of Christmas lights.",
"After two years of using the unconventional layout, for 2012, a more traditional FoxBox was introduced; team abbreviations (in the team's primary color) are stacked on the left side of the box, with timeout lights positioned underneath each team abbreviation, and a possession indicator to the left of it. The clock/quarter indicator is on the right side",
". The clock/quarter indicator is on the right side. Down and distance pops out of the bottom, while the timeout/penalty/touchdown animation is the same as in the unconventional design of the previous two seasons. Also for the 2012 season, Fox began providing play-by-play commentary of all games in Spanish on its second audio program channel. In 2013, in observance of the holiday season, Christmas lights returned to the FoxBox along the sides of the graphic, but they no longer correspond to timeouts",
". When a team scores, calls a timeout or gets called on a penalty, the lights change from red, green and blue to the corresponding team's color for the duration of the graphic, before returning to the normal colors.",
"During the 2013 NFC Championship Game, \"Crank It Up\" from NASCAR on Fox was used for Seattle Seahawks crowd noise.",
"2014–2016",
"For the 2014 season, the graphics were changed to match those that had previously been introduced on Fox Sports's Major League Baseball and NASCAR coverage. The graphics package itself is similar to the previous look, but with a more boxy appearance, and the fonts used are rounder and have less of an athletic appearance than previous packages used by Fox",
". The layout of the score box is essentially a mirror image of the already-introduced MLB graphic, except that the NFL version is on the top-left of the screen, while the baseball version was originally on the bottom-left (it was moved to the bottom-right beginning in 2016). Like the MLB graphic, the box has two components: a main box and a dynamic strip. The main box contains the team abbreviations, stacked on top of the team scores",
". The main box contains the team abbreviations, stacked on top of the team scores. The possession indicator is a line above the team holding the ball; timeout indicators, which are counting downward, are stacked next to the scores. This unconventional layout of displaying the scores (also used in 2010 and 2011) is only used for NFL coverage; college football and MLB coverage use the traditional layout with the team abbreviations to the left of the scores.",
"The dynamic strip normally shows the next down that will occur, such as \"3rd Down\". It changes to show down and distance and the play clock, and turns yellow if a flag is thrown. When a score occurs, the dynamic strip disappears and the main box changes to show the logo of the team scoring, along with the type of score (\"TOUCHDOWN\", \"FIELD GOAL\", \"SAFETY\"). For a penalty, the main box shows the logo of the offending team, while the dynamic strip turns yellow and displays the type of penalty",
". When a timeout is called, the dynamic strip turns to the color of the team taking the timeout and displays \"Timeout\", while the main box displays the team's logo over a neutral gray background. After a few seconds, the main box returns to the scores and a small gray box with the team logo appears next to the word \"Timeout\" in the dynamic strip.",
"For a review or a challenge, the dynamic strip moves from the bottom to the right side of the main box and turns red, displaying whether it is a challenge, an official review, or a scoring review. When the decision is announced, the strip expands to show the result of the review on a yellow background. After a few seconds, the strip shifts back to the bottom of the main box and if a timeout is charged on a lost challenge, the strip shows the team charged with the timeout.",
"For regular season games only, beginning with Week 3 of 2016, the record for each team was added to the box, making the team abbreviations of each team smaller.",
"Fox gradually worked elements of a new square-edged graphics package with thinner fonts into secondary situations during the 2016 season. This package (in white instead of black) was used for Fox's Super Bowl LI pregame, halftime, and post game shows, but the game broadcast itself continued to use the 2014 package. However, the translucent shading around the scoreboard was removed for the Super Bowl.",
"2017–2019",
"Starting on August 27, 2017, after three years of using the unconventional layout from the previous graphics package, a new, traditional score bar was introduced. The score bug was moved from the top left to across the bottom of the screen and is now horizontal. Additionally, team names are displayed instead of their abbreviations and the clock is located towards the right of the bug and the down and distance is displayed on the far right",
". Also, timeout indicators are shown below the team names and the possession indicator, which was originally shown below the team's score (through Week 4 of the 2017 NFL season), is now shown above the team's score. When showing stats or player info, the score bug briefly moves to the bottom left of the screen then returns to its previous position",
". With this, all five of the NFL's broadcast partners (CBS, ESPN, Fox, NBC and NFL Network) now have score bars across the bottom of the screen, with Fox being the last of the five to make the switch.",
"As for the graphics package itself, it is an upgraded version of the 2014 design and eventually, it has rolled out on almost all of Fox Sports' properties, including Fox's college football and basketball coverage on Fox and FS1, the 2017 MLB postseason and in February 2018, NASCAR on Fox.",
"For NFL playoff games (from 2017–present) and Thursday Night Football, which Fox picked up from 2018-2021 , the yellow-and-black \"NFL on Fox\" logo on-screen and on graphics and transitions is replaced by a blue-and-white \"Fox (playoff round) then the NFL logo\" or \"Fox|NFL Network\" logo respectively. In some transitions, it is instead replaced by the full \"TNF presented by Bud Light\" logo",
". In some transitions, it is instead replaced by the full \"TNF presented by Bud Light\" logo. Fox also produces NFL Network exclusives on non-Fox/NBC Thursdays until 2021, on some Sunday mornings, and on late-season Saturdays; these games replace the \"NFL on Fox\" logo with an NFL Network logo on a black square, the size of the \"NFL on Fox\" logo.",
"2020–2022",
"During Super Bowl LIV, Fox introduced a new on-air appearance specific to its football broadcasts, replacing the previous rectangular appearance with a slanted motif. The scoreboard was also changed to a pod-like appearance in the bottom-center, showing only team logos, and with both teams positioned in opposing directions. Translucent strips are used to show quarterback statistics following each play",
". Translucent strips are used to show quarterback statistics following each play. Selected players are depicted in graphics using stylized \"comic book\" illustrations rather than traditional photos, and during the Super Bowl, lower thirds featured typefaces based on the Kansas City Chiefs' and San Francisco 49ers' wordmarks. These graphics took effect full-time for football telecasts on Fox after the Super Bowl, including the XFL, and the subsequent NFL and college football seasons.",
"Fox has sometimes lowered its scoreboard to a lower position on selected games in what was believed to be an attempt to frustrate the NFL RedZone channel, causing the game clock and quarter number to be obscured by the channel's own ticker. This forced the channel to overlay its own scoreboard or hide its ticker when simulcasting Fox games where this is in effect.",
"2023–present\nFox introduced a new NFL graphics package in 2023 during Super Bowl LVII. Described as a \"modernized\" evolution of the prior 2020 graphics by Fox's executive producer Brad Zager, it maintains aspects of the prior package such as the pod-like scoreboard (which has increased in size) and illustrated player photos. Unlike the previous graphics, this package was not adopted by Fox's college football coverage, which adopted its own specific graphics.\n\nNielsen ratings",
"Nielsen ratings\n\nFox NFL Sunday had been the ratings leader among network pregame coverage from its debut in 1994 (as it was the only network pregame show at the time to air for one hour prior to kickoff). However, in 2006, NFL Sunday was overtaken in the ratings by CBS' The NFL Today. The swing in ratings dominance was said to be correlated with the move of original Fox NFL Sunday host James Brown back to CBS, where he had been serving as a play-by-play broadcaster before his jump to Fox in 1994.",
"The network's NFL game telecasts have generally posted strong viewership and continuously led Fox network's most watched programs in terms of viewership. For the 2009 season, in particular, the network's NFL games scored an average rating of 16.827 million viewers. The Dallas Cowboys' Thanksgiving game against the New York Giants in 2022 was Fox's most-watched regular-season game ever, with 42 million viewers",
". This also overtook the ABC Monday Night Football game between the New York Giants and the San Francisco 49ers for the most watched NFL regular season game in U.S. television history.",
"With an average U.S. audience of 115.1 million viewers, Fox's February 12, 2023 telecast of Super Bowl LVII became the most watched Super Bowl and overall broadcast in U.S. television history, beating the previous record of 114.4 million viewers set eight years prior for Super Bowl XLIX. It drew a rating of 40.0 and a 77 share nationally, a 52.0 rating/87 share in Kansas City (on WDAF-TV), and a 46.3 rating/77 share in Philadelphia (on Fox owned-and-operated WTXF-TV)",
".3 rating/77 share in Philadelphia (on Fox owned-and-operated WTXF-TV). In the host market of Phoenix (on Fox O&O KSAZ-TV), the game drew a 39.5 rating/76 share. Meanwhile, Fox's February 5, 2017 telecast of Super Bowl LI, the first Super Bowl ever to be decided in overtime, currently holds the record for the largest total audience for any broadcast in U.S. television history, reaching 172 million viewers (more than 50% of the entire U.S. population that year) during peak conclusion.",
"Criticism and controversies\n\n2006 playoffs controversies \n\nThe Fox Broadcasting Company came under fire by the Parents Television Council for showing a New Orleans Saints fan wearing a shirt which read \"FUCK DA EAGLES\" in Saints colors. Three days after the broadcast, the network apologized for the incident. The Saints fan, Heather Rothstein, was contacted by Maxim and was given a photo shoot that appeared in the men's magazine.",
"During the 2006 NFC Championship between the Chicago Bears and the New Orleans Saints at Soldier Field, in a shot taken from the overhead camera angle of the crowd, three Bears fans were seen giving an obscene gesture towards the field.",
"Mike Goldberg suspension",
"On October 14, 2014, Mike Goldberg (who mainly served as an announcer for the network's Ultimate Fighting Championship coverage at that time) voluntarily pulled himself from commentating duties for the October 19, Minnesota Vikings–Buffalo Bills game telecast, after engaging in a series of arguments, some laced with profanities, with various Twitter users",
". The impetus of Goldberg's response was the heavy criticism that he received on social media for committing verbal gaffes and other issues – including misidentifying and mispronouncing names of players and coaches from both teams – after commentating the October 12 game between the Vikings and Detroit Lions, which was the first time that Goldberg had called an NFL game for Fox.",
"A spokesperson for Fox Sports said that Goldberg \"was quick to apologize for this unfortunate and regrettable situation and understands he made a mistake\" and would not call any NFL games for the network for the remainder of the 2014 season, as he was originally scheduled to conduct only those two games (Tim Brando crossed over from Fox College Football to fill in for Goldberg on the Vikings-Bills broadcast)",
". Goldberg tweeted that the decision was mutually agreed upon between him and Fox Sports management, stating that he did not want to be \"a distraction on the upcoming broadcast\".",
"See also\n NFL on CBS\n NBC Sunday Night Football\n ESPN Monday Night Football\n Fox NFL Sunday\n Fox NFL Kickoff\n Thursday Night Football\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n\nExternal links\n \n \n\n1994 American television series debuts\nFox Broadcasting Company original programming\nFox\nFox Sports original programming\n1990s American television series\n2000s American television series\n2010s American television series\n2020s American television series"
] |
Largest prehistoric animals
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Largest%20prehistoric%20animals
|
[
"The largest prehistoric animals include both vertebrate and invertebrate species. Many of them are described below, along with their typical range of size (for the general dates of extinction, see the link to each). Many species mentioned might not actually be the largest representative of their clade due to the incompleteness of the fossil record and many of the sizes given are merely estimates since no complete specimen have been found",
". Their body mass, especially, is largely conjecture because soft tissue was rarely fossilized. Generally the size of extinct species was subject to energetic and biomechanical constraints.",
"Non-mammalian synapsids (Synapsida)\n\nCaseasaurs (Caseasauria) \nThe herbivorous Alierasaurus was the largest caseid and the largest amniote to have lived at the time, with an estimated length around . Cotylorhynchus hancocki is also large, with an estimated length and weight of at least and more than .\n\nEdaphosaurids (Edaphosauridae) \n\nThe largest edaphosaurids were Lupeosaurus at long and Edaphosaurus, which could reach even more than in length.",
"Sphenacodontids (Sphenacodontidae) \nThe biggest carnivorous synapsid of Early Permian was Dimetrodon, which could reach and . The largest members of the genus Dimetrodon were also the world's first fully terrestrial apex predators.\n\nTappenosauridae \nThe Middle Permian Tappenosaurus was estimated at in length, nearly as large as the largest dinocephalians.\n\nTherapsids (Therapsida)\n\nAnomodonts (Anomodontia)",
"Therapsids (Therapsida)\n\nAnomodonts (Anomodontia) \n\nThe plant-eating dicynodont Lisowicia bojani is the largest-known of all non-mammalian synapsids, at about long, tall, and in body mass.\n\nDinocephalians (Dinocephalia)",
"Dinocephalians (Dinocephalia) \n\nAmong the largest carnivorous non-mammalian synapsids was the dinocephalian Anteosaurus, which was long, and weighed . Fully grown Titanophoneus from the same family Anteosauridae likely had a skull of long. Another enormous dinocephalian was the Late Permian Eotitanosuchus (a possible synonym to Biarmosuchus). Adult specimens could reach in length and over in weight.\n\nGorgonopsians (Gorgonopsia)",
"Gorgonopsians (Gorgonopsia) \n\nInostrancevia latifrons is the largest known gorgonopsian, with a skull length of more than , a total length approaching and a mass of . Rubidgea atrox is the largest African gorgonopsian, with skull of nearly long. Other large gorgonopsians include Dinogorgon with skull of ~ long, Leontosaurus with skull of almost long, and Sycosaurus with skull of ~ long.",
"Therocephalians (Therocephalia) \nThe largest of therocephalians is Scymnosaurus, which reached a size of the modern hyena.",
"Non-mammalian cynodonts (Cynodontia) \n The largest known non-mammalian cynodont is Scalenodontoides, a traversodontid, which had a maximum skull length of approximately based on a fragmentary specimen. \n Paceyodon davidi was the largest of morganucodontans, cynodonts close to mammals. It is known by a right lower molariform in length, which is bigger than molariforms of all other morganucodontans. \n The largest known docodont was Castorocauda, almost in length.\n\nMammals (Mammalia)\n\nNon-therian mammals",
"Mammals (Mammalia)\n\nNon-therian mammals\n\nGobiconodonts (Gobiconodonta) \n\nThe largest gobiconodont and the largest well-known Mesozoic mammal was Repenomamus. The known adult of Repenomamus giganticus reached a total length of around and an estimated mass of . With such parameters it surpassed in size several small theropod dinosaurs of the Early Cretaceous. Gobiconodon was also a large mammal, it weighed , had a skull of in length, and had in presacral body length.",
"Multituberculates (Multituberculata) \nThe largest multituberculate Taeniolabis taoensis is the largest non-therian mammal known, at a weight possibly exceeding .\n\nMonotremes (Monotremata)",
"Monotremes (Monotremata) \n\n The largest known monotreme (egg-laying mammal) ever was the extinct long-beaked echidna species known as Murrayglossus, known from a couple of bones found in Western Australia. It was the size of a sheep, weighing probably up to . \n The largest known ornithorhynchid is Obdurodon tharalkooschild, it was even larger than -long Monotrematum sudamericanum. \n Kollikodon was likely the largest monotreme in the Mesozoic. Its body length could be up to a .\n\nMetatherians (Metatheria)",
"Metatherians (Metatheria) \n\n The largest non-marsupial metatherian was Thylacosmilus, weigh , one estimate suggesting even . Proborhyaenid Proborhyaena gigantea is estimated to weigh over and possibly reached . Australohyaena is another large metatherian, weighing up to .\n Stagodontid mammal Didelphodon was one of the largest Mesozoic metatherians and all Cretaceous mammals. Its skull could reached over in length and a weight of complete animal was .",
"Marsupials (Marsupialia) \n The largest known marsupial, and the largest metatherian, is the extinct Diprotodon, about long, standing tall and weighing up to . Fellow vombatiform Palorchestes azael was similar in length being around , with body mass estimates indicating it could exceed .\n The largest known carnivorous marsupial was Thylacoleo carnifex. Measurements taken from a number of specimens show they averaged in weight.",
"The largest known kangaroo was an as yet unnamed species of Macropus, estimated to weigh , larger than the largest known specimen of Procoptodon, which could grow up to and weigh . Some species from the genus Sthenurus were similar in size or a bit larger than the extant grey kangaroo (Macropus giganteus).\n The largest potoroid ever recorded was Borungaboodie, which was nearly 30% bigger than the largest living species and weighted up to .",
"Non-placental eutherians\n\nCimolestans (Cimolesta) \nThe largest known cimolestan is Coryphodon, high at the shoulder, long and up to of mass. Barylambda was also a huge mammal, at . Wortmania and Psittacotherium from the group Taeniodonta were among the largest mammals of the Early Paleocene. Lived as soon as half a million years after K–Pg boundary, Wortmania reached in body mass. Psittacotherium, which appeared two million years later, reached .",
"Leptictids (Leptictida) \nThe largest leptictid ever discovered is Leptictidium tobieni from the Middle Eocene of Germany. It had a skull long, head with trunk long, and tail long. Close European relatives from the same family Pseudorhyncocyonidae had skulls of in length.\n\nTenrecs and allies (Afroscida) \nThe larger of the two species of bibymalagasy (Plesiorycteropus madagascariensis), extinct tenrec relatives from Madagascar, is estimated to have weighed from 10 to 18 kilograms (21 to 40 lb).",
"Even-toed ungulates (Artiodactyla) \n\n The largest known land-dwelling artiodactyl was Hippopotamus gorgops with a length of , a height of , and a weight of .\n Daeodon and similar in size and morphology Paraentelodon were the largest-known entelodonts that ever lived, at long and high at the shoulder. The huge Andrewsarchus from the Eocene of Inner Mongolia had skull long though the taxonomy of this genus is disputive.",
"The largest of Bovinae as well as the largest bovid was Bison latifrons. It reached a weight from to , in length, shoulder height of , and had horns that spanned . The North American Bison antiquus reached up to long, tall, weight of , and horn span of . The African Pelorovis reached in weight and had bony cores of the horns about long",
". The African Pelorovis reached in weight and had bony cores of the horns about long. Another enormous bovid, the african giant buffalo (Syncerus antiquus) reached in length from muzzle to the end of the tail, in height at the withers, in height at the hindquarters, and the distance between the tips of its horns was as large as",
". Aside from local populations and subspecies of extant species, such as the gaur population in Sri Lanka, European bison in British Isles, Caucasian wisent and Carpathian wisent, the largest modern extinct bovid is aurochs (Bos primigenius) with an average height at the shoulders of in bulls and in cows, while aurochs populations in Hungary had bulls reaching . The kouprey (Bos sauveli), reaching in shoulder height, has existed since the Middle Pleistocene and is also considered to be possibly extinct.",
"The long-legged Megalotragus is possibly the largest known alcelaphine bovid, bigger than the extant wildebeest. The tips of horns of M. priscus were located at a distance of about from each other.",
"The extinct cervid Irish elk (Megaloceros giganteus) reached over in height, in mass and could have antlers spanning up to across, about twice the maximum span for a moose's antlers. The giant moose (Cervalces latifrons) reached high and was twice as heavy as the Irish elk but its antler span at was smaller than that of Megaloceros. North American stag-moose (Cervalces scotti) reached in length and a weight of .",
"The largest known giraffid, aside from the extant giraffe, is Sivatherium, with a body weight of .\n The largest protoceratid was Synthetoceras, it reached long and in mass.\n The largest known wild suid to ever exist was Kubanochoerus gigas, having measured up to and stood around tall at the shoulder. Megalochoerus could be similar in size, possibly weighing or .",
"The largest tayassuid extinct Platygonus species were similar in size to modern peccaries especially giant peccary, at around in body length, and had long legs, allowing them to run well. They also had a pig-like snout and long tusks which were probably used to fend off predators.",
"The largest camelid was Titanotylopus from the Miocene of North America. It possibly reached and a shoulder height of over . The Syrian camel (Camelus moreli) was twice as big as the modern camels. It was at the shoulder and tall. Camelops had legs to be 20% longer than that of Dromedary, and was about tall at the shoulder and weighed about .",
"Cetaceans (Cetacea)",
"The heaviest archeocete, and possibly the heaviest known mammal was Perucetus, with weight estimated at around , while length is estimated at . The longest of known Eocene archeocete whales was Basilosaurus at in length.\n The largest squalodelphinid was Macrosqualodelphis at in length.",
"The largest squalodelphinid was Macrosqualodelphis at in length.\n Some Neogene rorquals were comparable in size to modern huge relatives. Parabalaenoptera was estimated to be about the size of the modern gray whale, about long. Some balaenopterids perhaps rivaled the blue whale in terms of size, though other studies disagree that any baleen whale grew that large in the Miocene.",
"Odd-toed ungulates (Perissodactyla)",
"The largest known perissodactyl, and the second largest land mammal (see Palaeoloxodon namadicus) of all time was the hornless rhino Paraceratherium. The largest individual known was estimated at tall at the shoulders, in length from nose to rump, and in weight.",
"Some prehistoric horned rhinos also grew to large sizes. The biggest Elasmotherium reached up to long, high and weighed . Such parameters make it the largest rhino of the Quaternary. Woolly rhinoceros (Coelodonta antiquitatis) of the same time reached or , at the shoulder height and in length.\n Metamynodon, an amynodontid, reached in length, comparable to Hippopotamus in measurement and shape.",
"The giant tapir (Tapirus augustus) was the largest tapir ever, at about and tall at the shoulders. Earlier, this mammal was estimated even bigger, at tall, and assigned to the separate genus Megatapirus.\n One of the biggest chalicotheres was Moropus. It stood about tall at the shoulder.",
"One of the biggest chalicotheres was Moropus. It stood about tall at the shoulder.\n Late Eocene perissodactyls from the family Brontotheriidae attained huge sizes. The North American Megacerops (also known as Brontotherium) reached tall at the shoulders, in length, and in weight. Embolotherium from Asia was equal in size.",
"The largest prehistoric horse was Equus giganteus of North America. It was estimated to grow to more than and at the shoulders. The largest anchitherine equid was Hypohippus at , comparable to large modern domestic horses. Megahippus is another large anchitheriine. With the body mass of it was much heavier than most of its close relatives.",
"Phenacodontids (Phenacodontidae) \nThe largest known phenacodontid is Phenacodus. It was long and weighed up to .\n\nDinoceratans (Dinocerata) \nThe largest known dinoceratan was Eobasileus with skull length of , tall at the back and tall at the shoulder. Another huge animal of this group was Uintatherium, with skull length of , tall at the shoulder, in length and , the size of a rhinoceros. Despite their large size, Eobasileus as well as Uintatherium had a very small brain.\n\nCarnivores (Carnivora)",
"Carnivores (Carnivora)\n\nCaniformia",
"The largest terrestrial mammalian carnivore and the largest known bear, as well as the largest known mammalian land predator of all time, was Arctotherium angustidens, the South American short-faced bear. A humerus of A. angustidens from Buenos Aires indicates that the males of the species could have weighed and stood at least tall on their hind-limbs. Another huge bear was the giant short-faced bear (Arctodus simus), with the average weight of and the maximum estimated at",
". There is a guess that the largest individuals of this species could reached even larger mass, up to . The extinct cave bear (Ursus spelaeus) was also heavier than many recent bears. Largest males weighed as much as . Ailuropoda baconi from the Pleistocene was larger than the modern giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca).",
"The biggest odobenid and one of the biggest pinnipeds to have ever existed is Pontolis magnus, with skull length of (twice as large as the skulls of modern male walruses) and more than in total body length. Only the modern males of elephant seals (Mirounga) reaches the similar sizes. The second largest prehistoric pinniped is Gomphotaria pugnax with the skull length of nearly .",
"One of the largest of prehistoric otariids is Thalassoleon, comparable in size to the biggest extant fur seals. An estimated weight of T. mexicanus is no less than .",
"The biggest known mustelid to ever exist was likely the giant otter, Enhydriodon. It exceeded in length, and would have weighed in at around , much larger than any other known mustelid, living or extinct. There were other giant otters, like Siamogale, at around and Megalenhydris, which was larger than a modern-day giant river otter",
". Megalictis was the largest purely terrestrial mustelid (although Enhydriodon had recently been mentioned as the largest mustelid that also happens to be a terrestrial predator). Similar in size to the jaguar, Megalictis ferox had even wider skull, almost as wide as of the black bear. Megalictis had a powerful bite force, allowing it to eat large prey and crush bones, as modern hyenas and jaguars can. Another large-bodied mustelid was the superficially cat-like Ekorus from the Miocene of Africa",
". Another large-bodied mustelid was the superficially cat-like Ekorus from the Miocene of Africa. At almost , the long-legged Ekorus was about the size of a wolf and filling a similar to leopards ecological niche before big cats came to the continent. Other huge mustelids include Perunium and hypercarnivorous Eomellivora, both from the Late Miocene.",
"The heaviest procyonid was possibly South American Chapalmalania. It reached in body length with a short tail and , comparable in size to an American black bear (Ursus americanus). Another huge procyonid was Cyonasua, which weighted about , about the same size as a medium-sized dog.",
"The largest canid of all time was Epicyon haydeni, which stood tall at the shoulder, had a body length of and weighed , with the heaviest known specimen weighing up to . The extinct dire wolf (Aenocyon dirus) reached in length and weighed between . The largest wolf (Canis lupus) subspecies ever existed in Europe is the Canis lupus maximus from the Late Pleistocene of France. Its long bones are 10% larger than those of extant European wolves and 20% longer than those of C. l. lunellensis",
". l. lunellensis. The Late Pleistocene Italian wolf was morphometrically close to C. l. maximus.",
"The largest bear-dog was a species of Pseudocyon weighing around , representing a very large individual.",
"Feliformia",
"The largest nimravid was probably Quercylurus major as its fossils suggest it was similar in size to the modern-day brown bear and was scansorial. In 2021, Eusmilus was declared as the largest of the holplophonine nimravids, reaching the weight of nearly , comparable to a small African lion. However, the largest Hoplophoneus was estimated at .",
"The biggest saber-toothed cats are Amphimachairodus kabir and Smilodon populator, with the males possibly reaching and respectively. Another contender for the largest felid of all time is Machairodus. M. horribilis from China was estimated at while the North American M. lahayishupup weighed up to . Xenosmilus was also a huge cat. It reached around long and weighed around .",
"The heaviest known pantherine felids are the Ngangdong tiger (Panthera tigris soloensis), which are estimated to have weighed up to , the American lion (Panthera atrox), weighing up to and the Eurasian cave lion (Panthera spelaea), weighing up to . Being the ancestor of the modern jaguar, Panthera gombaszoegensis was much larger, up to in maximum weight.",
"Some extinct feline felids also surpassed their modern relatives in size. The Eurasian giant cheetah (Acinonyx pardinensis) reached , approximately twice as large as the modern cheetah. The North American Pratifelis was larger than the extant cougar.\n The largest barbourofelid was Barbourofelis fricki, with the shoulder height of .\n The largest viverrid known to have existed is Viverra leakeyi, which was around the size of a wolf or small leopard at .",
"The largest known fossil hyena is Pachycrocuta, estimated at at the shoulder and weight. Another huge hyena with mass over is the cave hyena. It is actually a subspecies of the African spotted hyena, which is at 10% smaller than the extinct cave hyena.\n The percrocutid feliform, Dinocrocuta, was two or even three times as large as the extant spotted hyena, .",
"The extinct giant fossa (Cryptoprocta spelea) had a body mass in range from to , much larger than the modern fossa weighs (up to for adult males).",
"Hyaenodonts (Hyaenodonta) \nThe largest hyaenodont was Simbakubwa at . Another giant hyaenodont, Megistotherium reached and had a skull of in length.\n\nOxyaenids (Oxyaenidae) \n\nThe largest known oxyaenid was Sarkastodon weighing in at .\n\nMesonychians (Mesonychia) \nSome mesonychians reached a size of a bear. Such large were Mongolonyx from Asia and Ankalagon from North America. Another large mesonychian is Harpagolestes with a skull length of a half a meter in some species.",
"Bats (Chiroptera) \nFound in Quaternary deposits of South and Central Americas, Desmodus draculae had a wingspan of and a body mass of up to . Such proportions make it the largest vampire bat that ever evolved.\n\nHedgehogs, gymnures, shrews, and moles (Eulipotyphla) \n\nThe largest known animal of the group Eulipotyphla was Deinogalerix, measuring up to in total length, with a skull up to long.\n\nRodents (Rodentia)",
"Several of the extinct South American dinomyids were much bigger than the modern rodents. Josephoartigasia monesi was the largest-known rodent of all time, approximately weighing an estimated . Phoberomys pattersoni weighed . Both Josephoartigasia and Phoberomys reached about tall at the shoulder. Another huge dinomyid, Telicomys gigantissimus had a minimal weight of .\n Amblyrhiza inundata from the family Heptaxodontidae was a massive animal, it weighed .",
"Amblyrhiza inundata from the family Heptaxodontidae was a massive animal, it weighed .\n The largest beaver was the giant beaver (Castoroides) of North America. It grew over 2 m in length and weighed roughly , also making it one of the largest rodents to ever exist.\n The largest old world porcupine are the Hystrix refossa was larger than living porcupines. It was approximately 20% larger than its closest relative, the living Indian porcupine (H. indica), reaching lengths of over .",
"Rabbits, hares, and pikas (Lagomorpha) \nThe biggest known prehistoric lagomorph is Minorcan giant lagomorph Nuralagus rex at .\n\nPangolins (Pholidota) \nThe ever largest pangolin extinct Manis palaeojavanica Its total length is measured up to .\n\nPrimates (Primates)",
"The largest known primate as well as the largest hominid of all time was Gigantopithecus blackii, standing tall and weighing . However In 2017, new studies suggested a body mass of for this primate. Another giant hominid was Meganthropus palaeojavanicus at in body height, although it is known from very poor remains.",
"During the Pleistocene, some archaic humans were close in sizes or even larger than early modern humans. Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis) reached and in average weight for males and females, respectively, larger than the parameters of modern humans (Homo sapiens) ( and for males and females, respectively). A tibia from Kabwe (Zambia) indicates an indeterminate Homo individual of possibly in height",
". A tibia from Kabwe (Zambia) indicates an indeterminate Homo individual of possibly in height. It was one of the tallest humans of the Middle Pleistocene and noticeably large even compared to recent humans. The tallest Homo sapiens individuals from the Middle Pleistocene of Spain reached and for males and females, respectively. Some Homo erectus could be as large as tall and in weight.",
"The largest known Old World monkey is the prehistoric baboon, with a male specimen of Dinopithecus projected to weigh an average of and up to . It exceeds the maximum weight record of the chacma baboon, the largest extant baboon. One source projects a specimen of Theropithecus oswaldi to have weighed .\n The largest known New World monkey was Cartelles, which is studied as specimen of Protopithecus, weighing up to . Caipora bambuiorum is another large species, weighing up to .",
"The largest omomyids were Macrotarsius and Ourayia from the Middle Eocene. Both reached in weight.",
"Some prehistoric lemuriform primates grew to huge sizes as well. Archaeoindris was a sloth lemur that lived in Madagascar and weighed , as large as an adult male gorilla. Palaeopropithecus from the same family was also heavier than most modern lemurs, at . Megaladapis is another large extinct lemur at in length and an average body mass of around . Other estimates suggest but its still much larger than any extant lemur.",
"Elephants, mammoths, and mastodons (Proboscidea)",
"The largest known land mammal ever was a proboscidean called Palaeoloxodon namadicus which weighed about and measured about tall at the shoulder. The largest individuals of the steppe mammoth of Eurasia (Mammuthus trogontherii) estimated to reach at the shoulders and in weight. Stegodon zdanskyi, the biggest species of Stegodon, was in body mass. Another one enormous proboscidean is Stegotetrabelodon syrticus, over in height and in weight",
". Another one enormous proboscidean is Stegotetrabelodon syrticus, over in height and in weight. The Columbian mammoth (Mammuthus columbi) was about tall at the shoulder but didn't weigh as much as other huge mammoths. Its average mass was with one unusually large specimen about . Columbian mammoths had very long tusks. The largest known mammoth tusk, long, belonged to this species.",
"The largest mammutid was the Neogene Mammut borsoni. The biggest specimen reached tall and weighed about . This species also had the longest tusks, long from basis to tip along the curve.\n Deinotherium was the largest proboscidean in Deinotheriidae family. Bones retrieved in Crete confirm the existence of specimen tall at the shoulders and more than in weight.",
"Sea cows (Sirenia) \nAccording to reports, Steller's sea cows have grown to long as adults, much larger than any extant sirenians. The weight of Steller's sea cows is estimated to be .\n\nArsinoitheres (Arsinoitheriidae) \n\nThe largest known arsinoitheriid was Arsinoitherium. A. zitteli would have been tall at the shoulders, and long. A. giganteum reached even larger size than A. zitteli.",
"Hyraxes (Hyracoidea)",
"Some of the prehistoric hyraxes were extremely large compared to modern small relatives. The largest hyracoid ever evolved is Titanohyrax ultimus. With the mass estimation in rage of to over it was close in size to Sumatran rhinoceros. Another enormous hyrax is Megalohyrax which had skull of in length and reached the size of tapir. More recent Gigantohyrax was three times as large as the extant relative Procavia capensis, although it is noticeably smaller than earlier Megalohyrax and Titanohyrax.",
"Desmostylians (Desmostylia) \n\nThe largest known desmostylian was a species of Desmostylus, with skull length of and comparable in size to the Steller's sea cow.\n\nPaleoparadoxia is also known as one of the largest desmostylians, with body length of .\n\nArmadillos, glyptodonts and pampatheres (Cingulata) \nThe largest cingulate known is Doedicurus, at long, high and reaching a mass of approximately . The largest species of Glyptodon, Glyptodon clavipes, reached in length and in weight.",
"Anteaters and sloths (Pilosa) \n\nThe largest known pilosan is Eremotherium, a ground sloth with an estimated weight of up to and a length of up to , which is as big as a bull African bush elephant. The closely related ground sloth Megatherium attained similarly large dimensions.",
"Astrapotherians (Astrapotheria) \nSome of the largest known astrapotherians weighed about , including the genus Granastrapotherium and some species of Parastrapotherium (P. martiale). The skeleton remains suggests that the species Hilarcotherium miyou was even larger, with a weight of .\n\nLitopterns (Litopterna) \nThe largest known litoptern was Macrauchenia, which had three hoofs per foot. It was a relatively large animal, with a body length of around .",
"Notoungulates (Notoungulata) \nThe largest notoungulate known of complete remains is Toxodon. It was about in body length, and about high at the shoulder and resembled a heavy rhinoceros. Although incomplete, the preserved fossils suggests that Mixotoxodon were the most massive member of the group, with a weight about .\n\nPyrotherians (Pyrotheria) \nThe largest mammal of the South American order Pyrotheria was Pyrotherium at in length and in weight.\n\nReptiles (Reptilia)\n\nLizards and snakes (Squamata)",
"Giant mosasaurs are the largest-known animals within the Squamata. The largest-known mosasaur is likely Mosasaurus hoffmanni, estimated at more than in length, however these estimations are based on heads and total body length ratio 1:10, which is unlikely for Mosasaurus, and probably that ratio is about 1:7. Another giant mosasaur is Tylosaurus, estimated at in length. Another mosasaur, Prognathodon can reach similar size.",
"The largest known prehistoric snake is Titanoboa cerrejonensis, estimated at in length and in weight. Another known very large fossil snake is Gigantophis garstini, estimated at in length, although later study shows smaller estimation about . A close rival in size to Gigantophis is a fossil snake, Palaeophis colossaeus, which may have been around in length. Later studies speculate that it reached a maximum length of . The largest fossil python is Liasis dubudingala with length roughly",
". The largest fossil python is Liasis dubudingala with length roughly . The largest viper as well as the largest venomous snake ever recorded is Laophis crotaloides from the Early Pliocene of Greece. This snake reached over in length and in weight. Another huge fossil viper is indeterminate species of Vipera. With a length of around it was one of the biggest predators of Mallorca during the Early Pliocene. The largest known blind snake is Boipeba tayasuensis with estimated total length of .",
"The largest known land lizard is probably megalania (Varanus priscus) at in length. As extant relatives, megalania could have been venomous and in that case this lizard was also the largest venomous vertebrate ever evolved. However, maximum size of this animal is subject to debate.",
"Turtles, tortoises and close relatives (Pantestudines)",
"Cryptodira \n The largest known turtle ever was Archelon ischyros at long and . Possible second-largest sea turtle was Protostega at in total body length. There is even a larger specimen of this genus from Texas estimated at in total length. Partially known Cratochelone is estimated to reach in total length. Another huge prehistoric sea turtle is the Late Cretaceous Gigantatypus, estimated at over in length. Psephophorus terrypratchetti from the Eocene attained in body length.",
"The largest tortoise was Megalochelys atlas at up to in shell length and weighing . M. margae had carapace of long; an unnamed species from Java reached at least in carapace length. The Cenozoic Titanochelon were also larger than extant giant tortoises, with a shell length of up to . Other giant tortoises include Centrochelys marocana at in carapace length and Mesoamerican Hesperotestudo sp. at in carapace length.",
"The largest trionychid ever recorded is indeterminate specimen GSP-UM 3019 from the Middle Eocene of Pakistan. Bony carapace of GSP-UM 3019 is long and wide indicates the total carapace diameter (with soft margin) about . Drazinderetes tethyensis from the same formation had a bony carapace long and wide. Another huge trionychid is North American Axestemys byssinus at over in total length.",
"Side-necked turtles (Pleurodira) \n\nThe largest freshwater turtle of all time was the Miocene podocnemid Stupendemys, with an estimated parasagittal carapace length of and weight of up to . Carbonemys cofrinii from the same family had a shell that measured about , complete shell was estimated at .\n\nMacrobaenids (Macrobaenidae) \nThe largest macrobaenids were the Early Cretaceous Yakemys, Late Cretaceous Anatolemys, and Paleocene Judithemys. All reached in carapace length.\n\nMeiolaniformes",
"Meiolaniformes \n\nThe largest meiolaniid was Meiolania. Meiolania platyceps had a carapace long and probably reached over in total body length. An unnamed Late Pleistocene species from Queensland was even larger, up to in carapace length. Ninjemys oweni reached in carapace length and in weight.\n\nSauropterygians (Sauropterygia)\n\nPlacodonts and close relatives (Placodontiformes) \nPlacodus was among the largest placodonts, with a length of up to .",
"Nothosaurs and close relatives (Nothosauroidea) \nThe largest nothosaur as well as the largest Triassic sauropterygian was Nothosaurus giganteus at in length.\n\nPlesiosaurs (Plesiosauria)",
"The largest known plesiosauroid was an indeterminate specimen possibly belonging to Aristonectes (identified as cf. Aristonectes sp.), with a body length of and body mass of . Another long plesiosauroid was Albertonectes at . Thalassomedon rivaled it in size, with its length at . Other large plesiosauroids are Styxosaurus and Elasmosaurus. Both reached some more than in length. Hydralmosaurus (previously synonymized with Elasmosaurus and Styxosaurus) reached in total body length",
". In past, Mauisaurus was considered to be more than in length, but later it was determined as nomen dubium.",
"There is much controversy over the largest-known of the Pliosauroidea. Pliosaurus funkei (also known as \"Predator X\") is a species of large pliosaur, known from remains discovered in Norway in 2008. This pliosaur has been estimated at in length. However, in 2002, a team of paleontologists in Mexico discovered the remains of a pliosaur nicknamed as \"Monster of Aramberri\", which is also estimated at in length, with shorter estimation about",
". This species is, however, claimed to be a juvenile and has been attacked by a larger pliosaur. Some media sources claimed that Monster of Aramberri was a Liopleurodon but its species is unconfirmed thus far. Another very large pliosaur was Pliosaurus macromerus, known from a single incomplete mandible. The Early Cretaceous Kronosaurus queenslandicus is estimated at in length and in weight. The Late Jurassic Megalneusaurus rex could reach lengths of",
". The Late Jurassic Megalneusaurus rex could reach lengths of . Close contender in size was the Late Cretaceous Megacephalosaurus eulerti with a length in range of .",
"Proterosuchids (Proterosuchidae) \nProterosuchus fergusi is the largest known proterosuchid with a skull length of and a possible body length of .\n\nErythrosuchids (Erythrosuchidae) \n\nThe largest erythrosuchid was Erythrosuchus africanus with a maximum length of .\n\nPhytosaurs (Phytosauria) \nSome of the largest known phytosaurs include Redondasaurus with a length of and Smilosuchus with a length of more than .\n\nNon-crocodylomorph pseudosuchians (Pseudosuchia)",
"The largest shuvosaurid and one of the largest pseudosuchian from the Triassic period was Sillosuchus. Biggest specimens could have reached in length.",
"The largest known carnivorous pseudosuchian of the Triassic is loricatan Fasolasuchus tenax, which measured an estimated of . It is both the largest \"rauisuchian\" known to science, and the largest non-dinosaurian terrestrial predator ever discovered. Biggest individuals of Postosuchus and Saurosuchus had a body length of around . A specimen of Prestosuchus discovered in 2010 suggest that this animal also reached lengths of nearly making it one of the largest Triassic pseudosuchians.",
"Desmatosuchus was likely one of the largest known aetosaurs, about in length and in weight.",
"Crocodiles and close relatives (Crocodylomorpha)\n\nAegyptosuchids (Aegyptosuchidae) \nThe Late Cretaceous Aegisuchus is the main contender for the title of the largest crocodylomorph ever recorded. It reached in length by the lower estimate and as much as by the upper estimate, although a length of over 15 m is likely an overestimate.",
"Crocodylians (Crocodylia) \n The largest caiman and likely the largest crocodylian was Purussaurus brasiliensis estimated at . According to another information, maximum estimate measure and almost in length and in weight respectively. Another giant caiman was Mourasuchus. Various estimates suggest the biggest specimens reached in length and in weight or in body length.\n The largest alligatoroid is likely Deinosuchus riograndensis at long and weighing .",
"The largest alligatoroid is likely Deinosuchus riograndensis at long and weighing .\n The largest extinct species of the genus Alligator was the Haile alligator (Alligator hailensis), which had a skull long and was similar in size to the extant American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis).\n The largest gavialids were Asian Rhamphosuchus at and South American Gryposuchus at in length.\n The basal crocodyloidean Astorgosuchus bugtiensis from the Oligocene was large. It estimated at in length.",
"The largest known true crocodile was Euthecodon which estimated to have reached or even long. The largest species of the modern Crocodylus were Kenyan Crocodylus thorbjarnarsoni at in length, Tanzanian Crocodylus anthropophagus at in length and indeterminate species from Kali Gedeh (Java) at in length.",
"Unnamed Pliocene species of Quinkana known from partial remains may have reached up to in length, although other species (known from Oligocene to Pleistocene) are smaller with length just about . It is not only the largest mekosuchian (some studies reject it from this group) but also it could have been Australia's largest Pliocene predator. Paludirex is another large mekosuchian with length over .",
"Paralligatorids (Paralligatoridae) \nThe largest paralligatorid was likely Kansajsuchus estimated at up to long.",
"Tethysuchians (Tethysuchia) \n Some extinct pholidosaurids reached giant sizes. In the past, the Sarcosuchus imperator was believed to be the largest crocodylomorph, with initial estimates proposing a length of and a weight of . However, recent estimates have now shrunk to a length of and a weight of . Related to Sarcosuchus, Chalawan thailandicus could reached more than in length, although other estimates suggest .\n The largest dyrosaurid was Phosphatosaurus gavialoides estimated at in length.",
"Stomatosuchids (Stomatosuchidae) \nStomatosuchus, a stomatosuchid, estimated at in length.",
"Notosuchians (Notosuchia) \n Some of largest terrestrial notosuchian crocodylomorphs were the Miocene sebecid Barinasuchus, with a skull of long, and Eocene sebecid Dentaneosuchus with estimated mandible length of . Various estimates suggest a possible length of these animals between . Using proportion of Stratiotosuchus which is also large to have long skull, Barinasuchus is estimated to have length at least .",
"Other huge notosuchian, although only known from fragmentary material, is an early member Razanandrongobe, which skull size may exceeded that of Barinasuchus and overall length may be around .",
"Thalattosuchians (Thalattosuchia)",
"The largest thalattosuchian as well as the largest teleosauroid was unnamed fossil remain from Paja Formation, which may belongs to animal with length of , which is as large as outdated length estimate of the Early Cretaceous Machimosaurus rex, more recently estimated at in length. Neosteneosaurus edwardsi (previously known as Steneosaurus edwardsi) was the biggest Middle Jurassic crocodylomorph, it reached long.",
"Plesiosuchus was very large metriorhynchid. With the length of it exceeded even some pliosaurids of the same time and locality such as Liopleurodon. Other huge metriorhynchids include Tyrannoneustes at in length and Torvoneustes at in length.",
"Basal crocodylomorphs \nRedondavenator was the largest Triassic crocodylomorph ever recorded, with a skull of at least in length. Another huge basal crocodylomorph was Carnufex at long even through that is immature.\n\nPterosaurs (Pterosauria)",
"The largest known pterosaur was Quetzalcoatlus northropi, at and with a wingspan of . Another close contender is Hatzegopteryx, also with a wingspan of or more. This estimate is based on a skull long. Yet another possible contender for the title is Cryodrakon which had a wingspan. An unnamed pterodactyloid pterosaur from the Nemegt Formation could reach a wingspan of nearly . According to various assumptions, the wingspan of Arambourgiania philadelphiae reached from to more than",
". South American Tropeognathus reached the maximum wingspan of .",
"The largest of non-pterodactyloid pterosaurs as well as the largest Jurassic pterosaur was Dearc, with an estimated wingspan between and . Only a fragmentary rhamphorhynchid specimen from Germany could be larger (184% the size of the biggest Rhamphorhynchus). Other large non-pterodactyloid pterosaurs were Sericipterus, Campylognathoides and Harpactognathus, with the wingspan of , , and , respectively.",
"Choristoderes (Choristodera) \nThe largest known choristoderan, Kosmodraco dakotensis (previously known as Simoedosaurus dakotensis) is estimated to have had a total length of around .\n\nTanystropheids (Tanystropheidae) \n\nTanystropheus, the largest of all tanystropheids, reached up to in length.\n\nThalattosaurs (Thalattosauria) \nThe largest species of thalattosaur, Miodentosaurus brevis grew to more than in length. The second largest member of this group is Concavispina with a length of .",
"Ichthyosaurs (Ichthyosauria)",
"The largest known ichthyosaur and the largest marine reptile was the Late Triassic Shastasaurus sikanniensis at in length and in weight. In April 2018, paleontologists announced the discovery of a previously unknown ichthyosaur that may have reached lengths of making it one of the largest animals known, rivaling some blue whales in size. Another, larger ichthyosaur was found in 1850 in Aust",
". Another, larger ichthyosaur was found in 1850 in Aust. Its remains seemed to surpass the measurements of the other ichthyosaur, but the researchers commented that the remains were too fragmentary for a size estimate to be made. Another huge ichthyosaur was Shonisaurus popularis at in length and in weight. The largest Middle Triassic ichthyosaur as well as the largest animal of that time was Cymbospondylus youngorum at in length and in weight.",
"Tangasaurids (Tangasauridae) \nThe largest tangasaurid was Hovasaurus with an estimated snout-vent length of and a tail of .\n\nPareiasaurs (Pareiasauria) \nLargest pareiasaurs reached up to in length. Such sizes had Middle Permian Bradysaurus, Embrithosaurus, and Nochelesaurus from South Africa, and the Late Permian Scutosaurus from Russia. The most robust Scutosaurus had in body mass.",
"Captorhinids (Captorhinidae) \nThe heavy built Moradisaurus grandis, with a length of , is the largest known captorhinid. The second largest captorhinid was Labidosaurikos with the largest adult skull specimen long.\n\nNon-avian dinosaurs (Dinosauria)\n\nSauropodomorphs (Sauropodomorpha) \nThe largest of non-sauropod sauropodomorphs (\"prosauropod\") was Euskelosaurus. It reached in length and in weight. Another huge sauropodomorph Yunnanosaurus youngi reached long.\n\nSauropods (Sauropoda)",
"A mega-sauropod, Maraapunisaurus fragillimus (previously known as Amphicoelias fragillimus), is a contender for the largest-known dinosaur in history. It has been estimated at in maximum length and in weight. Unfortunately, the fossil remains of this dinosaur have been lost. More recently, it was estimated at in length and in weight.",
"Known from the incomplete and now disintegrated remains, the Late Cretaceous Bruhathkayosaurus matleyi was an anomalously large sauropod. Informal estimations suggested as huge parameters as in length and in weight. Some estimation however, suggests and but it still much heavier than most other sauropods. More recent estimations by Gregory Paul in 2023 has placed its weight range around to a",
". More recent estimations by Gregory Paul in 2023 has placed its weight range around to a . If true, it would make Bruhathkayosaurus the single largest terrestrial animal to have walked the earth and would have rivalled the largest blue whale recorded.",
"BYU 9024, a massive cervical vertebra found in Utah, may belong to Barosaurus lentus or Supersaurus vivianae of a huge size, possibly in length and in body mass. Supersaurus vivianae itself may have been the longest dinosaur yet discovered as a study of 3 specimens suggested length of or over .",
"Mamenchisaurus sinocanadorum was likely the largest mamenchisaurid, reaching nearly in length and in weight. Xinjiangtitan shanshanesis from the same family had -long neck, about 55% of its total length that could be at least .",
"The Middle Jurassic Breviparopus taghbaloutensis was mentioned in The Guinness Book of Records as the longest dinosaur at although this animal is known only from fossil tracks. Originally thought to be a brachiosaurid, it was later identified as a huge diplodocoid, possibly in length and in weight.",
"The tallest sauropod was Sauroposeidon proteles with estimated height at . Asiatosaurus could reach in height but this animal is known only from teeth. Giraffatitan was estimated at in height.",
"Other huge sauropods include Argentinosaurus, Alamosaurus, and Puertasaurus with estimated lengths of and weights of . Patagotitan was estimated at in length and in average weight, and was similar in size to Argentinosaurus and Puertasaurus. Giant sauropods like Supersaurus, Sauroposeidon, and Diplodocus probably rivaled them in length but not in weight. Dreadnoughtus was estimated at in weight and in length but the most complete individual was immature when it died",
". Turiasaurus is considered of being the largest dinosaur from Europe, with an estimated length of and a weight of . However, with lower estimate at and it was smaller than Portuguese Lusotitan that reached in length and in weight.",
"Many large sauropods are still unnamed and may rival the current record holders:\n The \"Archbishop\", a large brachiosaur that was discovered in 1930. , a scientific paper on the specimen is still in progress.\n Brachiosaurus nougaredi is yet another large brachiosaur from Early Cretaceous North Africa. The remains have been lost, but the sacrum drawing remains. It suggests a sacrum of almost long, making it the largest dinosaur sacrum discovered so far, except those of Argentinosaurus and Apatosaurus.",
"In 2010, the femur of a large sauropod was discovered in France. The femur suggests an animal that grew to immense sizes.",
"Non-avian theropods (Theropoda)",
"The largest theropod as well as the largest terrestrial (or possibly semi-aquatic) predator yet known is Spinosaurus aegyptiacus, with the largest specimen known estimated at in length and around in weight. New estimates published in 2014 and 2018, based on a more complete specimen supported that Spinosaurus could reach lengths of . The latest estimates suggest a weight of",
". The latest estimates suggest a weight of . The White Rock spinosaurid had vertebrae comparable in dimensions to Spinosaurus, it was likely a huge theropod with a length over .",
"Other large theropods were Giganotosaurus carolinii, and Tyrannosaurus rex, whose largest specimens known estimated at and in length, and weigh between and to over , respectively. Some other notable giant theropods (e.g. Carcharodontosaurus, Acrocanthosaurus, and Mapusaurus) may also have rivaled them in size.\n Macroelongatoolithus, ranging from in length, is the largest known type of dinosaur egg. It is assigned to oviraptorosaurs like Beibeilong.",
"Armoured dinosaurs (Thyreophora) \nThe largest-known thyreophoran was Ankylosaurus at in length and in weight. Stegosaurus was also long but around tonnes in weight.\n\nPachycephalosaurs (Pachycephalosauria) \nThe largest pachycephalosaur was the eponymous Pachycephalosaurus. Previously claimed to be at in length, it was later estimated about long and a weight of about .\n\nCeratopsians (Ceratopsia)",
"Ceratopsians (Ceratopsia) \n\nThe largest ceratopsian known is Triceratops horridus, along with the closely related Eotriceratops xerinsularis both with estimated lengths of . Pentaceratops and several other ceratopsians rival them in size. Titanoceratops had one of the longest skull of any land animal, at long.\n\nOrnithopods (Ornithopoda)",
"The very largest known ornithopods, like Shantungosaurus were as heavy as medium-sized sauropods at up to , and in length. Magnapaulia reached in length, or, according to original description, even . The Mongolian Saurolophus, S. angustirostris, reached long and possibly more. Such animal could weighed up to . The largest Edmontosaurus reached in length and around in body mass. An estimated maximum length of Brachylophosaurus is resulting in weight of",
". An estimated maximum length of Brachylophosaurus is resulting in weight of . PASAC-1, informally named \"Sabinosaurus\", is the largest well-known North American saurolophine, around long, that is about 20% larger than other known specimens. Hypsibema missouriensis was up to long. The Late Cretaceous Charonosaurus was estimated around in length and in weight.",
"The largest ornithopod outside of Hadrosauroidea was likely the Iguanodon. Biggest specimens reached in length and weighed around . Another large ornithopod is Iguanacolossus, with in length and in weight.\n The largest rhabdodontid was Matheronodon, estimated at in length. Rhabdodon reached approximately and according to 2016 estimates.",
"Birds (Aves) \n\nThe largest bird in the fossil record may be the extinct Giant elephant bird (Aepyornis maximus) of Madagascar, whose closest living relative is the kiwi. Giant elephant birds exceeded in height, and average a mass of \n\nThe largest fowl was the Stirton's mihirung (Dromornis stirtoni) \nof Australia, part of a group called mihirungs of the family Dromornithidae,\nStirton's mihirung exceeded in height, and average a mass of",
"The largest carnivorous bird was the Thunderbird (Brontornis burmeisteri), an extinct flightless bird from South America which reached a weight of and a height of approximately .\n\nThe tallest recorded bird was the Giant ostrich (Pachystruthio dmanisensis), part of the ostrich family. This particular species of ostrich stood at tall and average a mass of \n\nThe largest Neoaves was the Brazilian terror bird (Paraphysornis brasiliensis) \nof South America,\nBrazilian terror bird exceeded in mass,",
"Table of heaviest extinct bird species\n\nEnantiornitheans (Enantiornithes) \n\nOne of the largest enantiornitheans was Enantiornis, with a length in life of around , hip height of , weight of , and wingspan comparable to some of the modern gulls, around . Gurilynia was the largest Mesozoic bird from Mongolia, with a length of , hip height of , and weight of .\n\nAvisauridae",
"Avisauridae \n\nThe Late Cretaceous Avisaurus was almost as large as Enantiornis. It had a wingspan around , a length of , hip height of , and weight of . Even larger could be the Soroavisaurus. One tibiotarsus (PVL-4033) indicates an animal with a length of , hip height of , and weight of . Mirarce was comparable in size to a turkey, much larger than most of other enantiornitheans.\n\nPengornithidae \nOne of the biggest Early Cretaceous enantiornithine bird was Pengornis at in length and skull length of .",
"Gargantuaviidae \nGargantuavis is the largest known bird of the Mesozoic, a size ranging between the cassowary and the ostrich, and a mass of like modern ostriches. In 2019 specimens MDE A-08 and IVPP-V12325 were measured at in length, in hip height, and in weight.\n\nDromornithiformes \n\nThe largest dromornithid was Dromornis stirtoni over tall and in mass for males.",
"The largest dromornithid was Dromornis stirtoni over tall and in mass for males.\n\nGastornid (Gastornithiformes) \nLarge individuals of Gastornis (also known as Diatryma) reaged up to in height. Weight of Gastornis ranges from to and sometimes to for European specimens and from to for North American.\n\nWaterfowl (Anseriformes)",
"Waterfowl (Anseriformes) \n\nPossibly flightless, the Miocene Garganornis ballmanni was larger than any extant members of Anseriformes, with in body mass. Another huge anseriform was the flightless New Zealand goose (Cnemiornis). It reached , approaching in size to small species of moa.",
"Swans (Cygnini) \nThe largest swan of ever evolved was the Pleistocene giant swan (Cygnus falconeri), it reached bill-to-tail length of about , weighed around and had a wingspan of about . The New Zealand swan (Cygnus sumnerensis) weighed up to , much more than related black swan at only . The giant Annakacygna yoshiiensis from the Miocene of Japan was much bigger than the extant mute swan.\n\nAnatinae \nFinsch's duck (Chenonetta finschi) reached in weight, surpassing related modern Australian wood duck ().",
"Pelicans, ibises and allies (Pelecaniformes) \nThe Early Pliocene Pelecanus schreiberi was larger than most extant pelicans. Pelecanus odessanus from the Late Miocene was probably the same size as P. schreiberi, its tarsometatarsus is long.\nThe largest herons Bennu heron (Ardea bennuides) Based on remains discovered, it was approximately tall and had a wingspan up to , thus surpassing the size of the largest living species in the heron family, the goliath heron.",
"The ever largest ibis Jamaican ibis (Xenicibis xympithecus) as a large ibis, weighing about 2 kg (70 oz).",
"Storks and allies (Ciconiiformes) \n\nThe largest known of Ciconiiformes was Leptoptilos robustus, standing tall and weighing an estimated .\n\nCranes (Gruiformes) \nA huge true crane (Gruinae) from the late Miocene (Tortonian) of Germany was equal in size to the biggest extant cranes and resembled the long-beaked Siberian crane (Leucogeranus leucogeranus).",
"Shorebirds (Charadriiformes) \nMiomancalla howardi was the largest charadriiform of all time, weighing approximately (?) more than the great auk with a height of approximately .\n\nHesperornithines (Hesperornithes) \nThe largest known of the hesperornithines was Canadaga arctica at long.\n\nNew World vultures (Cathartiformes)",
"New World vultures (Cathartiformes) \n\nOne of the heaviest flying bird ever was Argentavis from the family Teratornithidae. The immense bird had a wingspan estimated up to and a weight up to . Argentavis humerus was only slightly shorter than an entire human arm. Another huge teratorn was Aiolornis, it had a wingspan around . The Pleistocene Teratornis merriami reached and in wingspan. Even with lower estimates, it was larger than the observed California condor (Gymnogyps californianus) of nowadays.",
"Seriemas and allies (Cariamiformes)",
"The largest known-ever Cariamiforme and largest phorusrhacid or \"terror bird\" (highly predatory, flightless birds of America) was Brontornis, which was about tall at the shoulder, could raise its head above the ground and could have weighed as much as . The immense phorusrhacid Kelenken stood tall with a skull long ( of which was beak), had the largest head of any known bird. South American Phorusrhacos stood nearly tall, and probably weighed nearly , as much as a male ostrich",
". The largest North American phorusrhacid is Titanis, which is about tall, as tall as a forest elephant.",
"Accipitriforms (Accipitriformes)",
"The largest known bird of prey ever was the enormous Haast's eagle (Hieraaetus moorei), with a wingspan of , relatively short for their size. Total length was probably up to in female and they weighed about . Another giant extinct hawk was Titanohierax about that lived in the Antilles and The Bahamas, where it was among the top predators. An unnamed late Quaternary eagle from Hispaniola could be 15–30% larger than the modern golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos)",
". Some extinct species of Buteogallus surpassed their extant relatives in size. Buteogallus borrasi was about 33% larger than the modern great black hawk (B. urubitinga). B. daggetti, also known as \"walking eagle\", was around 40% larger than the savanna hawk (B. meridionalis). Eyles's harrier (Circus eylesi) from the Pleistocene-Holocene of New Zealand was more than twice heavier than the extant C. approximans.",
"Moa (Dinornithiformes) \nThe tallest known bird was the South Island giant moa (Dinornis robustus), part of the moa family of New Zealand that went extinct about 500 years ago. It stood up to tall, and weighed approximately half as much as a large elephant bird due to its comparatively slender frame.",
"Tinamous (Tinamiformes) \nMPLK-03, a tinamou specimen that existed during the Late Pleistocene in Argentina, possibly belongs to the modern genus Eudromia and surpacces extant E. elegans and E. formosa in size by 2.2–8% and 6–14%, respectively.\n\nElephant birds (Aepyornithiformes) \nThe largest bird in the fossil record may be the extinct elephant birds (Vorombe, Aepyornis) of Madagascar, which were related to the ostrich. They exceeded in height and in weight.",
"Ostriches (Struthioniformes)",
"With in body mass, Pachystruthio dmanisensis from the lower Pleistocene of Crimea was the largest bird ever recorded in Europe. Despite its giant size, it was a good runner. A possible specimen of Pachystruthio from the lower Pleistocene of Hebei Province (China) was about in weight, twice heavier than the common ostrich (Struthio camelus). Remains of the massive asian ostrich (Struthio asiaticus) from the Pliocene indicate a size 20% bigger than adult male of the extant Struthio camelus.",
"Pigeons and doves (Columbiformes) \n \nThe largest pigeon relative known was the dodo (Raphus cucullatus), possibly exceeding in height and weighing as much as , although recent estimates have indicated that an average wild dodo weighed much less at approximately .\n\nPheasants, turkeys, gamebirds and allies (Galliformes) \n\nThe largest known of the Galliformes was likely the giant malleefowl, which could reach in weight.",
"Songbirds (Passeriformes) \nThe largest known songbird is the extinct giant grosbeak (Chloridops regiskongi) at long.\n\nCormorants and allies (Suliformes)",
"Cormorants and allies (Suliformes) \n\n The largest known cormorant was the spectacled cormorant of the North Pacific (Phalacrocorax perspicillatus), which became extinct around 1850 and averaged around and .\n The largest known darter was Giganhinga with estimated weight about , earlier study even claims .\n The largest known plotopterid, penguin-like flightless bird was Copepteryx titan that is known from long femur, almost twice as long as that of emperor penguin.",
"Grebes (Podicipediformes) \nThe largest known grebe, the Atitlán grebe (Podylimbus gigas), reached a length of about .",
"Bony-toothed birds (Odontopterygiformes)",
"The largest known of the Odontopterygiformes— a group which has been variously allied with Procellariiformes, Pelecaniformes and Anseriformes and the largest flying birds of all time other than Argentavis were the huge Pelagornis, Cyphornis, Dasornis, Gigantornis and Osteodontornis. They had a wingspan of and stood about tall",
". They had a wingspan of and stood about tall. Exact size estimates and judging which one was largest are not yet possible for these birds, as their bones were extremely thin-walled, light and fragile, and thus most are only known from very incomplete remains.",
"Woodpeckers and allies (Piciformes) \nThe largest known woodpecker is the possibly extinct imperial woodpecker (Campephilus imperialis) with a total length of about .\n\nParrots (Psittaciformes) \nThe largest known parrot is the extinct Heracles inexpectatus with a length of about 1 meter (3.3 feet).\n\nPenguins (Sphenisciformes)",
"One of the heaviest known penguin ever known is Kumimanu fordycei, body mass estimate based on humerus results . Other largest penguins, such as cf. Palaeeudyptes klekowskii of Antarctica, with body length (tip of the bill to tip of the tail) estimated about and body weight is estimated about , is later estimated to , and humerus length is 90% of one from K. fordycei. Another large penguin is Anthropornis nordenskjoeldi of New Zealand and Antarctica. Its body length is once estimated and was in weight",
". Its body length is once estimated and was in weight. There is also an estimate that one remain of Anthropornis can reach that body length of and in weight. However, estimation from humerus shows that it reached up to for A. nordenskjoeldi. Other large penguins are New Zealand giant penguin (Pachydyptes pondeorsus) weighing possibly around , and Icadyptes salasi at .",
"Owls (Strigiformes) \nThe largest known owl of all time was the Cuban Ornimegalonyx at tall probably exceeding .\n\nAmphibians (Amphibia) \nThe largest known amphibian of all time was the long temnospondyl Prionosuchus.\n\nLissamphibians (Lissamphibia)\n\nFrogs and toads (Anura) \n\nThe largest known frog ever was an as yet unnamed Eocene species that was about . The Late Cretaceous Beelzebufo grew to at least (snout-vent length), which is around the size of a modern African bullfrog.",
"Salamanders, newts and allies (Urodela) \n\n Andrias matthewi was the largest lissamphibian ever known, with total length up to .\n Habrosaurus was the largest sirenid. It reached long.\n\nDiadectomorphs (Diadectomorpha) \n\nThe largest known diacectid, herbivorous Diadectes, was a heavily built animal, up to long, with thick vertebrae and ribs.\n\nAnthracosauria \nThe largest known anthracosaur was Anthracosaurus, with skull about in length.\n\nEmbolomeri",
"Embolomeri \n\nThe longest member of this group was Eogyrinus attheyi, species sometimes placed under genus Pholiderpeton. Its skull had length about .\n\nTemnospondyls (Temnospondyli) \n\nThe largest known temnospondyl amphibian is Prionosuchus, which grew to lengths of . Another huge temnospondyl was Mastodonsaurus giganteus at long. Unnamed species of temnospondyl from Lesotho is partial, but possible body length estimation is .\n\nFishes (Pisces) \nFishes are a paraphyletic group of non-tetrapod vertebrates.",
"Fishes (Pisces) \nFishes are a paraphyletic group of non-tetrapod vertebrates.\n\nJawless fish (Agnatha)\n\nConodonts (Conodonta) \nIowagnathus grandis is estimated to have length over .\n\nHeterostracans (Heterostraci) \nSome members of Psammosteidae such as Obruchevia and Tartuosteus are estimated to reached up to .\n\nThelodonts (Thelodonti) \nAlthough known from partial materials, Thelodus parvidens (=T. macintoshi) is estimated to reached up to .",
"Cephalaspidomorphs (Cephalaspidomorphi) \nA species of Parameteoraspis reached up to .\n\nSpiny sharks (Acanthodii) \nThe largest of the now-extinct Acanthodii was Xylacanthus grandis, an ischnacanthiform based on a ~ long jaw bone. Based on the proportions of its relative Ischnacanthus, X. grandis had an estimated total length of .\n\nPlacoderms (Placodermi)",
"Placoderms (Placodermi) \n\nThe largest known placoderm was the giant predatory Dunkleosteus. The largest and most well known species was D. terrelli, various estimate put its length around in length and in weight. Another large placoderm, Titanichthys, may have rivaled it in size. Titanichthys is estimated to have a length around\n\nCartilaginous fish (Chondrichthyes)\n\nMackerel sharks (Lamniformes)",
"Species in the extinct genus Otodus were huge. A giant shark, Otodus megalodon is by far the biggest mackerel shark ever known. Most estimates of megalodon's size extrapolate from teeth, with maximum length estimates up to and average length estimates of . Due to fragmentary remains, there have been many contradictory size estimates for megalodon, as they can only be drawn from fossil teeth and vertebrae",
". Mature male megalodon may have had a body mass of , and mature females may have been , assuming that males could range in length from and females . Related to megalodon, Otodus angustidens and O. chubutensis reached the large sizes too. Each was estimated at and , respectively.",
"Other giant mackerel sharks were Pseudoscapanorhynchidae from the Cretaceous period. Cretodus had a size range of (for C. crassidens), Leptostyrax reached lengths of .\n The Cenozoic Parotodus reached up to in length.\n The heaviest thresher shark was likely Alopias grandis. It was similar in size or even larger than the extant great white shark and probably did not have an elongated dorsal tail, characteristic of modern relatives.",
"Ground sharks (Carcharhiniformes) \nThe Cenozoic Hemipristis serra was considerably larger than its modern-day relatives and had much larger teeth. Its total length is estimated to be at long.\n\nHybodonts (Hybodontiformes) \nOne of the largest hybodontiforms was the Jurassic Asteracanthus with body length of up to . Crassodus reifi is known from less materials, however it is estimated that reached over .",
"Ctenacanthiformes \nThe largest member of ctenacanthiformes is Saivodus striatus with estimated length around .\n\nSkates and allies (Rajiformes) \nThe giant sclerorhynchid Onchopristis reached about in length.\n\nEugeneodont (Eugeneodontida)",
"Eugeneodont (Eugeneodontida) \n\nThe largest known eugeneodont is an as-yet unnamed species of Helicoprion discovered in Idaho. The specimens suggest an animal that possibly exceeded in length. Another fairly large eugeneodont is Parahelicoprion. Being more slimmer than Helicoprion, it reached nearly the same size, possibly up to in length. Both had the largest sizes among the animals of Paleozoic era.\n\nLobe-finned fish (Sarcopterygii)\n\nCoelacanths (Actinistia)",
"Lobe-finned fish (Sarcopterygii)\n\nCoelacanths (Actinistia) \n\nThe largest coelacanth is Cretaceous Mawsonia gigas with estimated total length up to . Jurassic Trachymetopon may have reached size close to that, about . An undetermined mawsoniid from the Maastrichtian deposits of Morocco probably reached in length.\n\nLungfish (Dipnoi) \nCretaceous Ceratodus sp. from Western Interior is estimated to had a length around .\n\nStem-tetrapods (Tetrapodomorpha)",
"Stem-tetrapods (Tetrapodomorpha) \n\n Not only the largest known rhizodont, but also the largest lobe-finned fish was the long Rhizodus. Another large rhizodonts were Strepsodus with estimated length around and Barameda estimated at in length.\n Tristichopterid Hyneria reached length up to .\n\nRay-finned fish (Actinopterygii)\n\nPachycormiformes",
"Ray-finned fish (Actinopterygii)\n\nPachycormiformes \n\nThe largest known ray-finned fish and largest bony fish of all time was the pachycormid, Leedsichthys problematicus, at around long. Earlier estimates have had claims of larger individuals with lengths over .\n\nIchthyodectiformes \n\nThe largest known of ichthyodectiform fish was Xiphactinus, which measured up to long. Ichthyodectes reached long, twice lesser than Xiphactinus.",
"Pycnodontiformes \nThe largest known pycnodontiform was Gyrodus circularis, with length up to .\n\nBichirs (Polypteriformes) \nThe Late Cretaceous Bawitius was likely the largest bichir of all time. It reached up to in length.\n\nOpahes, ribbonfishes, oarfishes and allies (Lampriformes) \nMegalampris was likely the largest fossil opah. This fish was around in length when alive, which is twice the length of the largest living opah species, Lampris guttatus.",
"Salmon and trout (Salmoniformes) \nThe largest salmon was Oncorhynchus rastrosus, varying in size from and to and .\n\nPufferfishes, boxfishes, triggerfishes, ocean sunfishes and allies (Tetraodontiformes) \n\n Austromola angerhoferi had total body length about , and total height , comparable with largest ocean sunfish.\n Some extinct species of Balistes like B. vegai and B. crassidens are estimated to have total length up to .",
"Lizardfishes (Aulopiformes) \nThe largest lizardfish was Stratodus which could reach length of .\n\nEchinoderms (Echinodermata)\n\nCrinozoa\n\nSea lilies (Crinoidea) \nLongest stem of Seirocrinus subangularis reached over .\n\nAsterozoa\n\nStarfish (Asteroidea) \nHelianthaster from Hunsrück Slate had radius about .\n\nGraptolites (Graptolithina) \nThe longest known graptoloid graptolite is Stimulograptus halli at . It found in Silurian deposits of the United Kingdom.",
"Kinorhynchs (Kinorhyncha) \nCambrian kinorhynchs from Qingjiang biota, also known as \"mud dragons\", reached in length, much larger than extant relatives that grow only a few millimeters in length.\n\nArthropods (Arthropoda)\n\nDinocaridida\n\nGilled lobopodians \n\nBased on the findings of mouthparts, the Cambrian gilled lobopodian Omnidens amplus is estimated to have been . It is also known as the largest Cambrian animal known to exist.\n\nRadiodont (Radiodonta)",
"Radiodont (Radiodonta) \n\nThe largest known radiodont is Aegirocassis benmoulai, estimated to have been at least long.\n\nChelicerata\n\nSea spiders (Pycnogonida) \nThe largest fossil sea spider is Palaeoisopus problematicus with legspan about .\n\nHorseshoe crabs and allies (Xiphosura)",
"Horseshoe crabs and allies (Xiphosura) \n\n Willwerathia reached in carapace width and was the largest species of basal (\"synziphosurine\") xiphosurans. However, the Devonian Maldybulakia reached nearly and was assigned to xiphosurans in 2013.\n Horseshoe crab trackway icnofossil Kouphichnium lithographicum from Cerin in Ain indicates length of animal .\n\nChasmataspidids (Chasmataspidida) \n\nThe largest chasmataspidids were the Ordovician Hoplitaspis at in length and similar in size range Chasmataspis.",
"Eurypterids (Eurypterida)",
"The largest known eurypterid was Jaekelopterus rhenaniae at in length, which is also the largest arthropod known to exist. Erettopterus grandis possibly reached this same length but this is based on an incomplete telson only. A close contender was Acutiramus bohemicus at in length. The largest megalograptid as well as the largest Ordovician eurypterid was Pentecopterus. It reached up to in length. All these were eurypterine eurypterids.",
"The largest stylonurine eurypterid was Hibbertopterus, with in length.",
"Arachnids (Arachnida) \n There are three contenders for largest-known arachnid as well as the largest scorpions of all time: Pulmonoscorpius kirktonensis, Brontoscorpio anglicus and Praearcturus gigas. Each was estimated to have been , and up to , respectively.",
"Mongolarachne jurassica is the largest described fossil spider, with the total body length of female is approximately while the front legs reach about in length. Dinodiplura ambulacra had larger body length, combined length of carapace and opisthosoma reaches .",
"The largest of prehistoric whipscorpions and possibly the largest-known whipscorpion ever discovered was Mesoproctus. An unnamed species M. sp. had a carapace of in length and in width, comparable or even larger than the extant Mastigoproctus have.\n The largest Ricinulei to ever exist was Curculioides bohemondi with a body length of .\n The largest fossil acariform mite and also the largest erythraeoid mite ever recorded was Immensmaris chewbaccei with idiosoma of more than in length.",
"The largest known trigonotarbid was Kreischeria with a minimal length of . The second largest was Pleophrynus at in length.",
"Artiopods (Artiopoda) \n\nRetifacies probably reached up to . Tegopelte is another one example of large non-trilobite artiopod, reached long and was the largest of the Burgess Shale bilaterians, surpassing all other benthic organisms by at least twice.",
"Trilobites (Trilobita) \nSome of trilobites exceeded in length. A nearly complete specimen of Isotelus rex from Manitoba attained a length over , and an Ogyginus forteyi from Portugal was almost as long. Fragments of trilobites suggest even larger record sizes. An isolated pygidium of Hungioides bohemicus implies that the full animal was long.\n\nMyriapods (Myriapoda)",
"Myriapods (Myriapoda) \n\nThe largest known myriapod by far was Arthropleura. Measuring long and wide. Some specimens could have been even larger, up to in length and in weight.\n\nNon-hexapod crustaceans (Crustacea)\n\nCycloids (Cyclida) \nThe largest cyclid was Opolanka decorosa, the Late Triassic Halicyne-like cycloid which reached over across the carapace.\n\nRemipedes (Remipedia) \nTesnusocaris had body length at least , larger than every living remipedes which could reach up to .\n\nInsects (Insecta)",
"Insects (Insecta)\n\nSawflies, wasps, bees, ants and allies (Hymenoptera) \n\n The largest known of this group was the giant ant Titanomyrma giganteum with queens growing to . It had a wingspan of .\n Apis lithohermaea is one of the largest honey bees ever found, comparable in size to the modern Apis dorsata.\n The giant horntail Ypresiosirex orthosemos reached in length including the incomplete ovipositor. Another example of giant sawfly is Hoplitolyda duolunica, with wingspan over .",
"Fleas (Siphonaptera) \nThe largest known in Siphonaptera was probably Pseudopulex magnus, growing to in length.\n\nEarwigs (Dermaptera) \n\nExtinct as recently as after 1967 and also submitted as the Holocene subfossils, the Saint Helena giant earwig (Labidura herculeana, with synonym Labidura loveridgei) reached in length uncluding forceps long.",
"Chresmodidae \nChresmodidae had long specialized legs like of the modern Gerridae family. One of the Chresmodidae, Chresmoda obscura could reached a size of about .\n\nBeetles (Coleoptera) \nOne of the largest known fossil beetles in the superfamily Scarabaeoidea is Protognathinus spielbergi. It had total length including mandibles about . The largest fossil scarabaeid was Oryctoantiquus borealis with an estimated body length of .\n\nTitanopterans (Titanoptera)",
"Titanopterans (Titanoptera) \n\nRelated to modern orthopterans, titanopterans from the Triassic period were much larger. The wingspan of Gigatitan vulgaris was up to . Clatrotitan andersoni also reached a huge size, having a forewing of long.\n\nAntlions and related net-winged insects (Neuroptera) \nMakarkinia adamsi from the Crato Formation is estimated to have the longest forewings of any neuropteran species, estimated at .\n\nCockroaches, termites, mantises and allies (Dictyoptera)",
"Cockroaches, termites, mantises and allies (Dictyoptera) \n\n Some Carboniferous cockroach-like insects grouping in Blattoptera like Archoblattina beecheri and Necymylacris (Xenoblatta) scudderi could reach around 9 centimetres in total length, which is comparable to a modern Megaloblatta longipennis.\n Cretaceous cockroach Ptiloteuthis foliatus had long wing.\n Found in the Miocene of Austria, the giant termite Gyatermes styriensis reached in body length and had a wingspan of .",
"Dragonflies, damselflies and griffinflies (Odonatoptera) \n\n The largest known odonatopteran insect was Meganeuropsis permiana with single wing of . Meganeura had a long wing.\n Triadotypid odonatan Reisia gelasii (=Triadotypus guillaumei) from Triassic had long wing, and wingspan can be .\n\nMayflies (Ephemeroptera)",
"Mayflies (Ephemeroptera) \n\n The largest known mayfly is Permian Ponalex maximus, with long hindwing. Cretaceous Epicharmeropsis quadrivenulosus had long forewing.\n Although Bojophlebia prokopi from the Upper Carboniferous of Moravia (Czech Republic) with a wingspan of is described as the largest mayfly, later study shows that this insect is not related to mayflies.",
"Palaeodictyoptera \nThe largest known palaeodictyopteran was Mazothairos, with an estimated wingspan of up to . If subcircular wing known from Piesberg Quarry belongs to palaeodictyopteran, it possibly had single wing length at least .\n\nArchaeognatha (jumping bristletails) and other wingless primitive insects",
"The largest known machilid is Triassic Gigamachilis, with body length not counting the length of the filament, and estimated total length about .\n The largest specimens of the extinct suborder Monura reached or more, not counting the length of the filament.\n Although Ramsdelepidion was once considered as -long silverfish, it was later considered that classification is uncertain and just treated as stem group insect.\n Wingless early insect Carbotriplura had body length about without tail filaments.",
"Ringed worms (Annelida) \nWebsteroprion is the largest known fossil eunicidan annelid, with estimated length ranges , however comparison with closely related extant taxa indicates length around . It also had the biggest scolecodonts of any prehistoric polychaete, up to in length and possibly larger.\n\nMolluscs (Mollusca)\n\nSnails and slugs (Gastropoda)",
"Molluscs (Mollusca)\n\nSnails and slugs (Gastropoda) \n\n The largest known gastropods were in the genus Campanile, with the extinct Campanile giganteum having shell lengths up to or even more than .\n The largest known cowrie is Vicetia bizzottoi, with shell length of .\n Pebasiconcha immanis is the largest land snail ever known, shell height is with a partial specimen that may exceed in height.\n\nBivalves (Bivalvia)",
"The largest known bivalve ever as well as the largest inoceramid was Platyceramus platinus, a giant that usually had an axial length of , but some individuals could reach an axial length of up to . Another large prehistoric bivalve was Inoceramus. In 1952, -long specimen of Inoceramus steenstrupi was found in the Late Cretaceous deposits of Greenland.\n Some Permian alatoconchid genus like Shikamaia had shell length about . Previous estimation reconstructed length of Shikamaia around .",
"The longest ostreid is Konbostrea, with shell height reaching up to .\n Rudist Titanosarcolites had overall size around .",
"Tusk shells (Scaphopoda) \n\n Complete shell length of tusk shell Prodentalium onoi is estimated to be over .\n\nCephalopods (Cephalopoda)\n\nNautiloids (Nautiloidea) \nThe largest and longest known of nautiloids was Endoceras giganteum with a shell length of . There is a record of individual whose shell length had reached , but it is doubtful.",
"Ammonites (Ammonoidea) \nThe largest known ammonite was Parapuzosia seppenradensis. A partial fossil specimen found in Germany had a shell diameter of , but the living chamber was incomplete, so the estimated shell diameter was probably about and weighed about when it was alive. However, later study estimates shell diameter up to around .\n\nBelemnites (Belemnoidea) \nThe largest known belemnite was Megateuthis gigantea, reaching about in maximum diameter and length of rostrum, respectively.",
"Squids, octopuses, cuttlefishes and allies (Neocoleoidea)",
"Octopod Enchoteuthis melanae (considered as specimen of Tusoteuthis longa) had mantle length up to , comparable to the modern-day giant squid. Previously, this taxon is considered as animal like giant squid, with total length including arms over . However, considering other fossil relatives, total length including arms is estimated to be around .\n Both non-octopod Yezoteuthis and teuthid Haboroteuthis are estimated to be similar in size to the modern-day giant squid.\n\nBrachiopods (Brachiopoda)",
"Brachiopods (Brachiopoda) \n\nThe largest brachiopod ever evolved was Striatifera striata from Akkermanovka Quarry, Russia, with height up to . Another huge brachiopod was the Carboniferous Gigantoproductus giganteus, with shell width from to over . Titanaria costellata had large and long shell in width, nearly as large as Gigantoproductus.\n\nHyoliths (Hyolitha) \nThe largest hyolith is Macrotheca almgreeni, with length about .\n\nCnidarians (Cnidaria)",
"Cnidarians (Cnidaria)\n\nJellyfishes and allies (Medusozoa) \nThe largest fossil jellyfish is Cambrian Cordubia gigantea, with diameter of . Specimens from the Cambrian of Wisconsin reached in length.\n\nVendobionts (Vendobionta)\n\nPetalonamids (Petalonamae) \n\nLongest specimens of Trepassia wardae (also known as Charnia wardi) reached in length. Charnia masoni is known from specimens as small as only , up to the largest specimens of in length.",
"Proarticulata \nDickinsonia tenuis reached in length, that makes it one of the largest precambrian organisms.\n\nSponges (Porifera) \nThe largest known Permian sponge Gigantospongia had diameter up to .\n\nSee also \n Dinosaur size\n Largest organisms\n Megafauna\n\nReferences\n\nSources \n \n \n\nLists of prehistoric animals\nPrehistoric"
] |
The Concert for Bangladesh
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Concert%20for%20Bangladesh
|
[
"The Concert for Bangladesh (or Bangla Desh, as the country's name was originally spelt) was a pair of benefit concerts organised by former Beatles guitarist George Harrison and Indian sitar player Ravi Shankar. The shows were held at 2:30 and 8:00pm on Sunday, 1 August 1971, at Madison Square Garden in New York City, to raise international awareness of, and fund relief for refugees from East Pakistan, following the Bangladesh Liberation War-related genocide",
". The concerts were followed by a bestselling live album, a boxed three-record set, and Apple Films' concert documentary, which opened in cinemas in the spring of 1972.",
"The event was the first-ever benefit of such a magnitude, and featured a supergroup of performers that included Harrison, fellow ex-Beatle Ringo Starr, Bob Dylan, Eric Clapton, Billy Preston, Leon Russell and the band Badfinger. In addition, Shankar and Ali Akbar Khan – both of whom had ancestral roots in Bangladesh – performed an opening set of Indian classical music",
". The concerts were attended by a total of 40,000 people, and the initial gate receipts raised close to $250,000 for Bangladesh relief, which was administered by UNICEF.",
"After collecting the musicians easily, Harrison found it extremely difficult to get the recording industry to release the rights for performers to share the stage, and millions of dollars raised from the album and film were tied up in IRS tax escrow accounts for years, but the Concert for Bangladesh is recognised as a highly successful and influential humanitarian aid project, generating both awareness and considerable funds as well as providing valuable lessons and inspiration for projects that followed",
", such as Live Aid",
".",
"By 1985, through revenue raised from the Concert for Bangladesh live album and film, an estimated $12 million had been sent to Bangladesh, and sales of the live album and DVD release of the film continue to benefit the George Harrison Fund for UNICEF. Decades later, Shankar would say of the overwhelming success of the event: \"In one day, the whole world knew the name of Bangladesh. It was a fantastic occasion.\"\n\nBackground",
"As East Pakistan struggled to become the separate state of Bangladesh during the 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War, the political and military turmoil and associated atrocities led to a massive refugee problem, with at least 7 million displaced people pouring into neighbouring India",
". East Pakistan had recently endured devastation as a result of the Bhola cyclone, and the Bengalis' desperate plight increased in March that year when torrential rains and floods arrived in the region, threatening a humanitarian disaster",
". Quoting figures available at the time, a Rolling Stone feature claimed that up to half a million Bengalis had been killed by the cyclone in November 1970 and that the Pakistani army's subsequent campaign of slaughter under Operation Searchlight accounted for at least 250,000 civilians, \"by the most conservative estimates\". Following the mass exodus to Calcutta, a new threat arrived as the refugees faced starvation and the outbreak of diseases such as cholera.",
"Appalled at the situation affecting his homeland and relatives, Bengali musician Ravi Shankar first brought the issue to the attention of his friend George Harrison in the early months of 1971, over dinner at Friar Park, according to Klaus Voormann's recollection",
". By April, Shankar and Harrison were in Los Angeles working on the soundtrack to the film Raga, during which Harrison wrote the song \"Miss O'Dell\", commenting on corruption among the Indian authorities as aid shipments of rice from the West kept \"going astray on [their] way to Bombay\"",
". After returning to England to produce Badfinger's Straight Up album and take part in sessions for John Lennon's Imagine – all the while, being kept abreast of developments by Shankar, via newspaper and magazine cuttings – Harrison was back in LA to finish the Raga album in late June",
". By then, the Sunday Times in London had just published an influential article by Pakistani journalist Anthony Mascarenhas, which exposed the full horror of the Bangladesh atrocities, and a distraught Shankar approached Harrison for help in trying to alleviate the suffering",
". Harrison later talked of spending \"three months\" on the phone organising the Concert for Bangladesh, implying that efforts were under way from late April onwards; it is widely acknowledged that the project began in earnest during the last week of June 1971, however, five or six weeks before the event took place on 1 August.",
"Preparation",
"Shankar's original hope was to raise $25,000 through a benefit concert of his own, compered perhaps by actor Peter Sellers. With Harrison's commitment, and the record and film outlets available to him through the Beatles' Apple Corps organisation, the idea soon grew to become a star-studded musical event, mixing Western rock with Indian classical music, and it was to be held at the most prestigious venue in America: Madison Square Garden, in New York City",
". According to Chris O'Dell, a music-business administrator and former Apple employee, Harrison got off the phone with Shankar once the concept had been finalised, and started enthusing with his wife, Pattie Boyd, about possible performers. Ringo Starr, Lennon, Eric Clapton, Leon Russell, Jim Keltner, Voormann, Billy Preston and Badfinger were all mentioned during this initial brainstorming.",
"O'Dell set about contacting local musicians from the Harrisons' rented house in Nichols Canyon, as Harrison took the long-distance calls, hoping more than anything to secure Bob Dylan's participation. Almost all of Harrison's first-choice names signed on immediately, while a day spent boating with Memphis musician Don Nix resulted in the latter agreeing to organise a group of backing singers",
". A local Indian astrologer had advised early August as a good time in which to stage the concert, and as things transpired, the first day of that month, a Sunday, was the only day that Madison Square Garden was available at such short notice.",
"By the first week of July, Harrison was in a Los Angeles studio recording his purpose-written song, \"Bangla Desh\", with co-producer Phil Spector. The song's opening verse documents Shankar's plea to Harrison for assistance, and the lyrics \"My friend came to me with sadness in his eyes / Told me that he wanted help before his country dies\" provided an enduring image for what United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan later recognised as the basic human aspect behind the cause.",
"Harrison then met with Badfinger in London to explain that he would have to abandon work on Straight Up, before flying to New York on 13 July to see Lennon. During the middle of July also, once back in Los Angeles, Harrison produced Shankar's Bangladesh benefit record, an EP titled Joi Bangla. The latter featured contributions from East Bengal-born Ali Akbar Khan, on sarod, and tabla player Alla Rakha",
". As with Harrison's \"Bangla Desh\", all profits from this recording would go to the newly established George Harrison–Ravi Shankar Special Emergency Relief Fund, to be distributed by UNICEF. Also around the middle of July, the upcoming concert by \"George Harrison and Friends\" was announced \"via a minuscule ad buried in the back pages of the New York Times\", author Nicholas Schaffner wrote in 1977. Tickets sold out in no time, leading to the announcement of a second show.",
"Towards the end of the month, when all parties were due to meet in New York for rehearsals, Harrison had the commitment of a backing band comprising: Preston, on keyboards; the four members of Badfinger, on acoustic rhythm guitars and tambourine; Voormann and Keltner, on bass and drums, respectively; and saxophonist Jim Horn's so-called \"Hollywood Horns\", which included Chuck Findley, Jackie Kelso and Lou McCreary",
". Of the established stars, Leon Russell had committed also, but on the proviso that he be supported by members of his tour band. Eric Clapton insisted that he too would be there, even if O'Dell and other insiders, knowing of the guitarist's incapacity due to severe heroin addiction, were surprised that Harrison had considered him for the occasion.",
"Among Harrison's former bandmates, Lennon initially agreed to take part in the concert without his wife and musical partner Yoko Ono, as Harrison had apparently stipulated. Lennon then allegedly had an argument with Ono as a result of this agreement and left New York in a rage two days before the concerts. Starr's commitment had never been in question, and he interrupted the filming of his movie Blindman in Almeria, Spain, in order to attend",
". Paul McCartney declined to take part, however, citing the bad feelings caused by the Beatles' legal problems on their break-up.",
"Rehearsals",
"The Harrisons decamped to the Park Lane Hotel in New York City, and the first rehearsal took place on Monday, 26 July, at Nola Studios on West 57th Street. Harrison had written a possible setlist for the concert while sketching design ideas for Shankar's Joi Bangla picture sleeve",
". As well as the songs he would go on to perform on 1 August, Harrison's list included his own compositions \"All Things Must Pass\" – \"with Leon [Russell]\", apparently – \"Art of Dying\" and the just-recorded B-side \"Deep Blue\"; Clapton's song \"Let It Rain\" appeared also, while the suggestions for Dylan's set were \"If Not for You\", \"Watching the River Flow\" (his recent, Leon Russell-produced single) and \"Blowin' in the Wind\"",
". Only Harrison, Voormann, the six-piece horn section, and Badfinger's Pete Ham, Joey Molland, Tom Evans and Mike Gibbins were at Nola Studios on that first day, and subsequent rehearsals were similarly carried out in \"dribs and drabs\", as Harrison put it. Only the final run-through, on the night before the concert, resembled a complete band rehearsal.",
"On Tuesday, 27 July, Harrison and Shankar, accompanied by a pipe-smoking Allen Klein, held a press conference to promote the two shows; notoriously performance-shy, Harrison said \"Just thinking about it makes me shake.\" The \"Bangla Desh\" charity single was issued in America on 28 July, with a UK release following two days later. Ringo Starr arrived on the Thursday, and by Friday, 30 July, Russell was in town, interrupting his US tour",
". Russell's band members Claudia Linnear and Don Preston were added to Don Nix's choir of backing singers; Preston would switch to lead guitar for Russell's solo spot during the shows, just as bassist Carl Radle would replace Voormann temporarily. By this point, Clapton's participation was gravely in doubt, and Harrison had drafted in Jesse Ed Davis as a probable replacement",
". The ex-Taj Mahal guitarist received last-minute coaching from Voormann, who was more than familiar with Harrison's songs, as well as those by Billy Preston and Starr.",
"The final rehearsal, the first for some of the participants, was combined with the concert soundcheck, at Madison Square Garden, late on 31 July. Both Dylan and Clapton finally appeared at the soundcheck that night. Even then, Clapton was in the early stages of heroin withdrawal – only a cameraman supplying him with some methadone would result in the English guitarist taking the stage the following day, after his young girlfriend had been unsuccessful in purchasing uncut heroin for him on the street",
". To Harrison's frustration, Dylan was having severe doubts about performing in such a big-event atmosphere and still would not commit to playing. \"Look, it's not my scene, either,\" Harrison countered. \"At least you've played on your own in front of a crowd before. I've never done that.\"",
"Through Harrison's friendship with the Band, Jonathan Taplin served as production manager, while Chip Monck was in charge of lighting. Gary Kellgren from the nearby Record Plant was brought in to record the concerts, overseen by Spector, and \"Klein's people\", led by director Saul Swimmer, would handle the filming of the event. The official concert photographers were Tom Wilkes and Barry Feinstein, the pair responsible for the artwork on Harrison's acclaimed 1970 triple album, All Things Must Pass.",
"Stephen Stills, having proceeded to sell out Madison Square Garden two days before the concert on 30 July, in support of his album, Stephen Stills 2, allowed Harrison to use his stage, sound, lighting system and production manager but was upset when Harrison \"neglected to invite him to perform, mention his name, or say thank you\". Stills then spent the show drunk in Ringo Starr's dressing room, \"barking at everyone\".\n\nConcert programme",
"Afternoon show",
"Except for brief support roles in December 1969 for both the Delaney & Bonnie and Friends band and Lennon's Plastic Ono Band, the Concert for Bangladesh was Harrison's first live appearance before a paying audience since the Beatles had quit touring in August 1966. Dylan had stopped touring that same year, although he had made a moderately successful comeback in August 1969 at the Isle of Wight Festival, his most recent live performance at this point",
". Speaking in 2005, Rolling Stone founder Jann Wenner described the \"buzz\" preceding the first Concert for Bangladesh show as being at a level unexperienced in New York since the Beatles' 1966 visit.",
"In his role as master of ceremonies, Harrison began the afternoon show by asking the audience to \"try to get into\" the opening, Indian music portion of the programme. He then introduced Ravi Shankar and the latter's fellow musicians – sarodya Ali Akbar Khan, tabla player Alla Rakha, and Kamala Chakravarty on tamboura. Shankar first explained the reason for the concerts, after which the four musicians performed a traditional dhun, in the format of a khyal rather than a standard raga, titled \"Bangla Dhun\"",
". Their set included a second piece, authors Chip Madinger and Mark Easter suggest, citing Harrison's own description that each show's Indian music segment lasted for three-quarters of an hour, whereas only seventeen minutes of music appears on the Concert for Bangladesh live album. The recital was afforded a \"fidgety respect\" from fans eager to discover the identity of Harrison's advertised \"Friends\", although the audience's goodwill was more than evident",
". A short intermission ensued while the stage was cleared and a Dutch TV film was shown, displaying footage of the atrocities and natural tragedies taking place in former East Pakistan.",
"To thunderous applause from the New York crowd, Harrison appeared on stage along with his temporary band, comprising Ringo Starr, a very sick Eric Clapton, Leon Russell, Billy Preston, Klaus Voormann, Jim Keltner and eighteen others. Backed by this \"full Phil Spector/All Things Must Pass rock orchestra\", Harrison began the Western portion of the concert with \"Wah-Wah\", followed by his Beatles hit song' \"Something\" and the gospel-rocker \"Awaiting on You All\"",
". Harrison then handed the spotlight over to Preston, who performed his only sizeable hit (thus far), \"That's the Way God Planned It\", followed by Starr, whose song \"It Don't Come Easy\" had recently established the drummer as a solo artist. Nicholas Schaffner was in the audience for this first show and later described Starr's turn as having received the \"biggest ovation\" of the afternoon.",
"Next up was Harrison's \"Beware of Darkness\", with guest vocals on the third verse by Russell, who covered the song on his concurrent album, Leon Russell and the Shelter People (1971). After pausing to introduce the band, Harrison followed this with one of the best-received moments in both the shows – a charging version of the White Album track \"While My Guitar Gently Weeps\", featuring him and Clapton \"duelling\" on lead guitar during the long instrumental playout",
". Both the band introduction and \"While My Guitar Gently Weeps\" are among the few selections from the afternoon show that were included on the album and in the film. Another one was Leon Russell's medley of the Rolling Stones' \"Jumpin' Jack Flash\" and the Coasters' \"Young Blood\", which was also a highlight of Russell's live shows at the time. With Don Preston crossing the stage to play lead guitar with Harrison, there were now temporarily four electric guitarists in the line-up",
". Don Preston, Harrison and Claudia Linnear supplied supporting vocals behind Russell.",
"In an effective change of pace, Harrison picked up his acoustic guitar, now alone on the stage save for Pete Ham on a second acoustic, and Don Nix's gospel choir, off to stage-left. The ensuing \"Here Comes the Sun\" – the first live performance of the song – was also warmly received",
". At this point, Harrison switched back to his white Fender Stratocaster electric guitar and, as recounted to Anthony DeCurtis in 1987, he looked down at the setlist taped to the body of the guitar and saw the word \"Bob\" followed by a question mark. \"And I looked around,\" Harrison recalled of Bob Dylan's entrance, \"and he was so nervous – he had his guitar on and his shades – he was sort of coming on, coming [pumps his arms and shoulders] ..",
"... It was only at that moment that I knew for sure he was going to do it.\" Among the audience, Schaffner wrote, there was \"total astonishment\" at this new arrival.",
"As Harrison had envisaged, Dylan's mini-set was the crowning glory of the Concert for Bangladesh for many observers. Backed by just Harrison, Russell (now playing Voormann's Fender Precision bass) and Starr on tambourine, Dylan played five of his decade-defining songs from the 1960s: \"A Hard Rain's A-Gonna Fall\", \"Blowin' in the Wind\", \"It Takes a Lot to Laugh, It Takes a Train to Cry\", \"Love Minus Zero/No Limit\" and \"Just Like a Woman\".",
"Harrison and the band then returned to perform a final segment, consisting of \"Hear Me Lord\" and his recent international number one hit, \"My Sweet Lord\", followed by the song of the moment – \"Bangla Desh\".\n\nEvening show\nHarrison was reportedly delighted with the outcome of the first show, as was Dylan, who accompanied him back to the Park Lane Hotel afterwards. They discussed possible changes to the setlist for the evening performance, beginning at 8 pm.",
"The songs played and their sequence differed slightly between the first and second shows, most noticeably with Harrison's opening and closing mini-sets. After \"Wah-Wah\", he brought \"My Sweet Lord\" forward in the order, followed by \"Awaiting on You All\", before handing it over to Billy Preston",
". The afternoon's \"creaky\" \"Hear Me Lord\" was dropped, so that the post-Dylan band segment consisted of only two numbers: \"Something\", to close the show, and a particularly passionate reading of \"Bangla Desh\", as an encore. Dylan likewise made some changes, swapping \"Blowin' in the Wind\" and \"It Takes a Lot to Laugh\" in the order, and then playing a well-received \"Mr. Tambourine Man\" in place of \"Love Minus Zero\".",
"The second show was widely acknowledged as superior to the afternoon performance, although Village Voice reviewer Don Heckman noted that many in the audience reacted to the Shankar–Khan opening set with a lack of respect. Not aiding the Indian musicians was the failure of a microphone on Rakha's hand drums, Heckman observed, so denying the crowd a vital element of the musical interplay between sitar and sarod.",
"During the Western portion of the show, Harrison's voice was more confident this time around, the music \"perhaps slightly more lustrous\", according to Rolling Stone. Towards the end of \"That's the Way God Planned It\", Preston felt compelled to get up from behind his Hammond organ and take a show-stealing boogie across the front of the stage.",
"Dylan's walk-on was again the show's \"real cortex-snapping moment\", Heckman opined. Dylan finished his final song, \"Just Like a Woman\", with a victorious salute – \"holding up both fists like a strongman\", Rolling Stones reviewer remarked shortly afterwards. Following Dylan's set, Harrison introduced the band, before taking the show \"to yet another peak\" with \"Something\". Watching from the wings, Pattie Harrison described her husband's performance throughout that evening as \"magnificent\".",
"Following the two sellout concerts, all the participants attended a celebratory party in a basement club known as Ungano's",
". Dylan was so elated, Harrison recalled 16 years later, \"He picked me up and hugged me and he said, 'God! If only we'd done three shows!'\" Like Harrison, the experience of playing at Madison Square that day did not lead to Dylan immediately re-embracing the concert stage; only a brief guest appearance with the Band on New Year's Eve 1971–72 and sitting in during a John Prine club gig eventuated before he returned to touring in January 1974.",
"The post-concert party featured live performances from Harrison and Preston, after which a \"roaring drunk\" Phil Spector played a \"unique\" version of \"Da Doo Ron Ron\". The celebrations broke up in the early hours once Keith Moon of the Who began smashing up the drum kit, which actually belonged to Badfinger's Mike Gibbins.",
"Reviews\nHarrison's manager, Allen Klein, immediately boasted of the entirely peaceful nature of the event: \"There was no rioting. Not one policeman was allowed in there ... Zero!\" In fact, as reported in The Village Voice on 12 August, midway through the evening show, a crowd of 200 non-ticket-holders charged and broke through the doors of Madison Square Garden. Aside from this episode, press reports concerning the Concert for Bangladesh shows were overwhelmingly positive.",
"The appearance of Bob Dylan on the same stage as two former Beatles caused a sensation, and lavish praise was bestowed on George Harrison. \"Beatlemania Sweeps a City!\" was a typical headline, and in Britain the NME declared the concerts \"The Greatest Rock Spectacle of the Decade!\" Billboard described the artists' performances as \"their best music ever\" and commented on the likelihood of a live album from the concerts: \"there is no politics involved",
". What is involved is starving children and for once, relief through 35 musicians who should represent the feeling of anyone who loves their music.\"",
"Dylan's choice of songs, particularly the \"apocalyptic\" \"A Hard Rain's A-Gonna Fall\", were found to have a new relevance in the context of the early 1970s – the words made \"the more chilling for the passage of years\", opined Rolling Stone. The same publication stated of Starr's contribution: \"Seeing Ringo Starr drumming and singing on stage has a joy in it that is one of the happiest feelings on earth still",
".\" Ravi Shankar's role as concert instigator and the true conscience of the UNICEF shows was also noted. Musically, The Village Voice observed, the pairing of Shankar and Ali Akbar Khan was \"almost as unique as the mix of Dylan and Harrison\".",
"In the wider countercultural context of the time, with disillusion increasingly rife with each post-Woodstock rock event, commentators viewed the concerts as, in the words of Rolling Stone, \"a brief incandescent revival of all that was best about the Sixties\". Writing in 1981, NME critic Bob Woffinden likened it to a \"rediscovery of faith\", adding: \"Harrison had put rock music back on course.\"",
"Among Harrison's biographers, Alan Clayson describes the 1971–72 period covering the concerts and their associated releases as \"the George Harrison Moment\", while Gary Tillery states: \"The Concert for Bangladesh sealed Harrison's stature as something more than just a major celebrity ... He changed the perception of recording artists, making it clear they could be good world citizens too – willing to set aside their egos and paychecks in order to help people who were suffering",
".\" According to Niaz Alam, writing in the Dhaka Tribune, \"On artistic merit alone, as encapsulated in the film and LP, the Concert for Bangladesh perhaps holds up better than Woodstock in showcasing the best of its era in terms of music, optimism, and goodwill.\"",
"Aftermath",
"Politically, as Bangladeshi historian Farida Majid would note, the \"warmth, care and goodwill\" of the August 1971 concerts \"echoed all over the world\", inspiring volunteers to approach UNICEF and offer their assistance, as well as eliciting private donations to the Bangladesh disaster fund",
". Although the altruistic spirit would soon wane once more, the Concert for Bangladesh is invariably seen as the inspiration and model for subsequent rock charity benefits, from 1985's Live Aid and Farm Aid to the Concert for New York City and Live 8 in the twenty-first century",
". Unlike those later concerts, which benefitted from continuous media coverage of the causes they supported, the Harrison–Shankar project was responsible for identifying the problem and establishing Bangladesh's plight in the minds of mainstream Western society. According to Gary Tillery: \"Because of its positioning as a humanitarian effort, all descriptions of the show included a summary of the catastrophe in South Asia",
". Overnight, because of their fascination with rock stars, masses of people became educated about geopolitical events they had not even been aware of the week before. The tragedy in Bangladesh moved to the fore as an international issue.\" One of these revelations was that America was supplying weaponry and financial aid to the Pakistani army, led by General Yahya Khan.",
"Harrison's musical biographer, Simon Leng, identifies friendship as the key factor behind the success of the two UNICEF shows, both in bringing all the participants together on the stage and in the affection with which the audience and music critics viewed the event. Klaus Voormann, a close friend of Harrison's since 1960, has often cited this quality as well.",
"Friendship played out through the next, significantly more lucrative stages of the Bangladesh relief project, as the associated live album and concert film were prepared for release. Harrison had assured all the main performers that their appearance would be removed from these releases if the event turned out \"lousy\", to save anyone having to risk possible embarrassment",
". Having sent out personalised letters of thanks to all the participants on 1 September, he expressed his gratitude further by guesting on Billy Preston's first album on A&M Records that autumn and donating a new song to Jesse Ed Davis.",
"Around the same time, there were rumours of a possible repeat of the New York concerts, to be held at London's Wembley Stadium in early October. Harrison and Klein quashed the idea, but an English version of the Concert for Bangladesh did take place, at The Oval in south London on 18 September. Titled \"Goodbye to Summer – a rock concert in aid of famine relief of Bangla Desh\", it included performances by the Who, the Faces, Mott the Hoople, America, Lindisfarne and Quintessence",
". Bangladesh refugees were also one of several charitable causes supported at the Weeley Festival, held near Clacton-on-Sea in Essex in late August. On 22 September, George and Pattie Harrison arrived home in the UK, with mixing having been completed on the upcoming live album, and Harrison due to meet with Patrick Jenkin of the British Treasury, to deal with the unforeseen obstacle of purchase tax being levied on the album",
". This was one of a number of problems that hindered Harrison's Bangladesh project following the Madison Square Garden shows, and the British politician would allegedly tell him: \"Sorry! It is all very well for your high ideals, but Britain equally needs the money!\"",
"On 5 June 1972, in recognition of their \"pioneering\" fundraising efforts for the refugees of Bangladesh, George Harrison, Ravi Shankar and Allen Klein were jointly honoured by UNICEF with its \"Child Is the Father of the Man\" award. In December 2008, seven years after Harrison's death, the BBC reported that moves were under way in the Bangladeshi High Court to have Harrison officially recognised and honoured as a hero for his role during the troubled birth of the nation.",
"Writing in 2003, author Bill Harry bemoaned the lack of recognition afforded Harrison in the UK honours system for his staging of the Concert for Bangladesh",
". Harry said that, given the influence of the event and Harrison's other charitable activities, and also how his company HandMade Films \"virtually revived the British film industry\", it was \"difficult to equate\" his MBE status (which he gained in 1965 as a member of the Beatles) with the knighthoods or other higher orders lavished on the likes of Bob Geldof, comedians, pop stars and other figures in the music business.",
"Funds and controversy\n\nThe two Madison Square Garden shows raised US$243,418.50, which was given to UNICEF to administer on 12 August 1971. By December, Capitol Records presented a cheque to Apple Corps for around $3,750,000 for advance sales of the Concert for Bangladesh live album.",
"Aside from complaints regarding the high retail price for the three-record set, particularly in Britain – a result of the government's refusal to waive its tax surcharge – controversy soon surrounded the project's fundraising. Most importantly, Klein had failed to register the event as a UNICEF benefit beforehand, and it was subsequently denied tax-exempt status by the US Government. As a result, most of the money was held in an Internal Revenue Service escrow account for ten years",
". In an interview with Derek Taylor for his autobiography in the late 1970s, Harrison put this figure at between $8 million and $10 million. Before then, in early 1972, New York magazine reported that some of the proceeds remained unaccounted for and had found their way into Klein's accounts",
". Klein responded by suing the magazine for $150 million in damages, and although the suit was later withdrawn, the accusations attracted unwelcome scrutiny at a time when questions were also being asked about Klein's mismanagement of the Beatles' finances. That year, an estimated $2 million had gone to the refugees via UNICEF before the IRS audit of Apple got under way; finally, in 1981, $8.8 million was added to that total following the audit.",
"By June 1985, according to an article in the Los Angeles Times, nearly $12 million had been sent to Bangladesh for relief. Around this time, according to music journalist Mikal Gilmore, Harrison gave Geldof \"meticulous advice\" to ensure that Live Aid's estimated £50 million found its way, as intended, to victims of the Ethiopian famine. In an interview to promote the 1991 CD release of The Concert for Bangladesh, Harrison said that $13",
".5 million had been raised in the early 1970s, from the concert and the accompanying album and film. He added that, while this figured paled in comparison to ventures such as Live Aid, \"you have to remember, that was at a time when nobody was really aware of this kind of benefit concert, certainly there hadn't been anything like that, and, of course, $13.5 million back then was probably much more than it's worth now.\"",
"Speaking in the 1990s, Harrison said of the Bangladesh relief effort: \"Now it's all settled and the UN own the rights to it themselves, and I think there's been about 45 million dollars made.\" Sales of the DVD and CD of the 1971 Concert for Bangladesh continue to benefit the cause, now known as the George Harrison Fund for UNICEF.",
"In popular culture\nThe Concert for Bangladesh was satirised in two episodes of The Simpsons: \"Like Father, Like Clown\" and \"I'm with Cupid\". In the former, Krusty plays the album while a visitor at the Simpsons household. In \"I'm with Cupid\", Apu's record collection contains The Concert Against Bangladesh, which features a picture of a mushroom cloud on the cover, reflecting contemporary Indian−Pakistani nuclear rivalry in the region.",
"The July 1974 (\"Dessert\") issue of National Lampoon magazine satirised Tom Wilkes' original cover design for The Concert for Bangladesh, by using a chocolate version of the starving child, the head of which has had a bite taken out of it. Two years before this, the National Lampoon team spoofed Harrison's humanitarian role on record, in their track \"The Concert in Bangla Desh\" on the Radio Dinner album",
". In the sketch, two Bangladeshi stand-up comedians (played by Tony Hendra and Christopher Guest) perform to starving refugees in an attempt to collect a bowlful of rice so that \"George Harrison\" can mount a hunger strike.",
"Crowd noises from the Concert for Bangladesh were put into Aerosmith's cover of \"Train Kept A-Rollin'\" by producer Jack Douglas. Some of stills photographer Barry Feinstein's shots from the 1971 concerts were used on the covers of subsequent albums by the participating artists, notably the compilations Bob Dylan's Greatest Hits Vol. II and The History of Eric Clapton.",
"Harrison himself sent up the benefit-show concept on film, in the 1985 HandMade comedy Water. At the so-called Concert for Cascara, he, Starr, Clapton, Jon Lord and others make a surprise appearance on stage, supposedly before the United Nations General Assembly, performing the song \"Freedom\".\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nSources",
"Keith Badman, The Beatles Diary Volume 2: After the Break-Up 1970–2001, Omnibus Press (London, 2001; ).\n Roy Carr & Tony Tyler, The Beatles: An Illustrated Record, Trewin Copplestone Publishing (London, 1978; ).\n Harry Castleman & Walter J. Podrazik, All Together Now: The First Complete Beatles Discography 1961–1975, Ballantine Books (New York, NY, 1976; ).\n Alan Clayson, George Harrison, Sanctuary (London, 2003; ).",
"Alan Clayson, George Harrison, Sanctuary (London, 2003; ).\n The Concert for Bangladesh Revisited with George Harrison and Friends DVD, Apple Corps, 2005 (directed by Claire Ferguson; produced by Olivia Harrison, Jonathan Clyde & Jo Human).\n Peter Doggett, You Never Give Me Your Money: The Beatles After the Breakup, It Books (New York, NY, 2011; ).\n The Editors of Rolling Stone, Harrison, Rolling Stone Press/Simon & Schuster (New York, NY, 2002; ).",
"Joshua M. Greene, Here Comes the Sun: The Spiritual and Musical Journey of George Harrison, John Wiley & Sons (Hoboken, NJ, 2006; ).\n George Harrison, I Me Mine, Chronicle Books (San Francisco, CA, 2002; ).\n Olivia Harrison, George Harrison: Living in the Material World, Abrams (New York, NY, 2011; ).\n Bill Harry, The George Harrison Encyclopedia, Virgin Books (London, 2003; ).\n Clinton Heylin, Bob Dylan: Behind the Shades (20th Anniversary Edition), Faber and Faber (London, 2011; ).",
"Elliot J. Huntley, Mystical One: George Harrison – After the Break-up of the Beatles, Guernica Editions (Toronto, ON, 2006; ).\n Chris Ingham, The Rough Guide to the Beatles, Rough Guides/Penguin (London, 2006; 2nd edn; ).\n Peter Lavezzoli, The Dawn of Indian Music in the West, Continuum (New York, NY, 2006; ).\n Simon Leng, While My Guitar Gently Weeps: The Music of George Harrison, Hal Leonard (Milwaukee, WI, 2006; ).",
"Chip Madinger & Mark Easter, Eight Arms to Hold You: The Solo Beatles Compendium, 44.1 Productions (Chesterfield, MO, 2000; ).\n Dan Matovina, Without You: The Tragic Story of Badfinger, Frances Glover Books (2000; ).\n Chris O'Dell with Katherine Ketcham, Miss O'Dell: My Hard Days and Long Nights with The Beatles, The Stones, Bob Dylan, Eric Clapton, and the Women They Loved, Touchstone (New York, NY, 2009; ).",
"Ray Richmond & Antonia Coffman (eds), The Simpsons: A Complete Guide to Our Favorite Family, HarperPerennial (New York, NY, 1997; ).\n Robert Rodriguez, Fab Four FAQ 2.0: The Beatles' Solo Years, 1970–1980, Backbeat Books (Milwaukee, WI, 2010; ).\n Nicholas Schaffner, The Beatles Forever, McGraw-Hill (New York, NY, 1978; ).\n Stan Soocher, Baby You're a Rich Man: Suing the Beatles for Fun and Profit, University Press of New England (Lebanon, NH, 2015; ).",
"Howard Sounes, Down the Highway: The Life of Bob Dylan, Doubleday (London, 2001; ).\n Bruce Spizer, The Beatles Solo on Apple Records, 498 Productions (New Orleans, LA, 2005; ).\n Gary Tillery, Working Class Mystic: A Spiritual Biography of George Harrison, Quest Books (Wheaton, IL, 2011; ).\n Bob Woffinden, The Beatles Apart, Proteus (London, 1981; ).",
"External links\n\n Official site\n\nMusic festivals in New York City\nMusical advocacy groups\nBenefit concerts in the United States\nGeorge Harrison\nBob Dylan\nEric Clapton\nRingo Starr\n1971 in music\nBangladesh Liberation War\nAugust 1971 events in the United States\n1971 in New York City\n1970s in Manhattan\nMadison Square Garden"
] |
Jake Roberts
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jake%20Roberts
|
[
"Aurelian Smith Jr. (born May 30, 1955), better known by the ring name Jake \"the Snake\" Roberts, is an American professional wrestler and actor currently signed to All Elite Wrestling (AEW) where he performs as manager to Lance Archer, and he also serves a special advisor for AEW's community outreach program, AEW Together. He is also signed to WWE under a legends contract",
". He is also signed to WWE under a legends contract. He is best known for his two stints in the World Wrestling Federation (later called WWE); the first between 1986 and 1992, and the second between 1996 and 1997. He wrestled in the National Wrestling Alliance in 1983, World Championship Wrestling in 1992, and the Mexico-based Asistencia Asesoría y Administración between 1993 and 1994 and again in 1997",
". He appeared in Extreme Championship Wrestling during the summer of 1997 and made appearances for Total Nonstop Action Wrestling from 2006 through 2008.",
"Throughout his career, Roberts, often considered one of professional wrestling's most iconic figures, was known for his intense and cerebral promos, dark charisma, extensive use of psychology in his matches, and innovative use of the DDT finishing move (which was later named the \"coolest\" maneuver of all time by WWE). He often brought snakes into the ring, most famously a python. He was one of the subjects of the 1999 documentary film Beyond the Mat",
". He was one of the subjects of the 1999 documentary film Beyond the Mat. In 2012, he moved in with fellow wrestler Diamond Dallas Page to seek help in getting his life back on track following years of alcohol and drug addiction, a period covered in the 2015 documentary The Resurrection of Jake the Snake. He was inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame on April 5, 2014, and the Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame and Museum in 2020.",
"Early life",
"Aurelian Smith Jr. was born in Houston, Texas. His father, Aurelian \"Grizzly\" Smith (1932–2010), also a wrestler, left his mother when she was 17 by which time she had given birth to another child. Roberts lived with his grandmother until she died in 1966, forcing him to move back to live with his father and his new wife",
". Roberts had a strained relationship with his pedophilic father, and was sexually and physically abused by his stepmother during his childhood, which included vaginal penetration - his father was doing the same thing to his daughters (Aurelian Jr.'s sisters) too. He has a half-brother, Michael Smith, and a half-sister, Robin Smith, both of whom also became wrestlers. During the late 1980s, all three wrestled at the same time for the WWF (now WWE).",
"Professional wrestling career\n\nEarly career (1974–1986)\n\nRoberts started his career in 1974 in the Louisiana area, as a referee and wrestler, making his name in Mid-South Wrestling, Mid-Atlantic Championship Wrestling and Georgia Championship Wrestling. Roberts had trouble developing his character, so in the late 1970s he traveled to Canada to wrestle. While in Stampede Wrestling, Roberts feuded with the Junkyard Dog.",
"It was in Georgia Championship Wrestling during 1983 that Roberts became part of Paul Ellering's stable, the Legion of Doom, and began a feud with Ron Garvin over the NWA World Television Championship that lasted into 1984. In 1984, Roberts entered World Class Championship Wrestling (WCCW) joining up with \"Gentleman\" Chris Adams and Gino Hernandez in their feud against the Von Erichs, winning the WCCW Television title and 6-Man Tag Team title (with Adams and Hernandez)",
". Roberts returned to Mid-South Wrestling for 1985, ending his run there in February 1986 with a feud with Dick Slater after being told by management that he was not considered a top talent even though he was getting the biggest crowd reactions.",
"World Wrestling Federation (1986–1992)\n\nDebut and championship pursuits (1986–1990)\nRoberts debuted in the World Wrestling Federation on March 8, 1986, at the Boston Garden defeating Jose Luis Rivera. A month later, he made his pay-per-view debut, defeating George Wells at WrestleMania 2. During the match, Roberts made Wells foam from the mouth when he wrapped his snake Damien around Wells' head.",
"Roberts' first major feud was against Ricky \"The Dragon\" Steamboat, beginning on a nationally televised episode of Saturday Night's Main Event VI in May 1986. Roberts executed the DDT on Steamboat on the exposed concrete floor right in front of his wife Bonnie and then proceeded to rest his snake Damien on top of a prone Steamboat",
". While Vince McMahon and booker George Scott were adamant about wanting the DDT to take place on the floor, Roberts initially refused until Steamboat told him that he would be able to adequately protect himself from injury. Unfortunately, Steamboat was unable to stop his head from hitting the concrete and was rendered unconscious, sustaining a concussion. After Steamboat's recovery, Steamboat introduced a \"Komodo dragon\" as his pet to combat the psychological effects of Roberts' snake",
". The feud continued with Steamboat winning most of the matches (losing only one because he threw Roberts back in the ring before the 10 count, while not beating the count himself), most notably a Snake Pit Match (ostensibly a no-DQ match) at The Big Event in Toronto, and the rematch on the October 1986 edition of Saturday Night's Main Event XII.",
"Recognizing his microphone skills, Roberts was given his own talk segment called \"The Snake Pit\", which debuted on the first episode of WWF Wrestling Challenge in late 1986. \"The Snake Pit\" was patterned after \"Piper's Pit\", wherein Roberts would conduct interviews with wrestlers or managers to help push wrestlers and get feuds over with the crowd",
". The segment was eventually moved to WWF Superstars of Wrestling (to replace \"Piper's Pit\" after Roddy Piper's retirement following WrestleMania III) until the final segment aired in July 1987.In late 1986, Roberts began to enjoy an upsurge in fan popularity, despite the WWF's attempts to cast him as an unpopular villain. In November 1986, Roberts challenged Randy Savage for the Intercontinental Championship",
". In November 1986, Roberts challenged Randy Savage for the Intercontinental Championship. Before the match, announcer Vince McMahon said the fans would probably support Savage against the disliked Roberts. However, to the surprise of both McMahon and fellow broadcaster Jesse \"The Body\" Ventura, the fans cheered loudly for Roberts throughout the bout. The match ended in a double disqualification",
". The match ended in a double disqualification. Around the same time, the WWF had also tried to set Roberts up as a nemesis to then fan-favorite WWF World Heavyweight Champion Hulk Hogan, and challenging him for the title. However, after Roberts hit Hogan with a DDT during an episode of The Snake Pit, fans responded positively to the attack by chanting \"DDT\" rather than for Hogan, and McMahon abandoned his plans for a feud between them",
". Years later in a 2015 shoot interview, Roberts jokingly thanked the fans for ruining what would have been the biggest (and most profitable) run of his career as at the time Hogan was the biggest and most popular babyface and a run against Hogan would have meant main event television and pay-per-view matches.",
"He officially turned face when he feuded with The Honky Tonk Man, an Elvis impersonator, who attacked Roberts with a guitar during his interview segment The Snake Pit. The Honky Tonk Man's guitar shot actually injured Roberts' neck, as at the time guitars were not prepared to break easily",
". The Honky Tonk Man denies that he purposefully injured Roberts, although Honky's manager Jimmy Hart, as well as a video of the incident (seen on the Pick Your Poison DVD) suggests otherwise with Roberts later claiming that he was picking pieces of wood out of his back for weeks after. The attack led to their match at WrestleMania III in which Roberts had Detroit native Alice Cooper (a known lover of snakes) in his corner",
". After Honky Tonk won the Intercontinental Championship from Ricky Steamboat, Roberts unsuccessfully challenged him for the Championship several times throughout the rest of 1987. The initial plan was for Roberts to win the Intercontinental Championship shortly after The Honky Tonk Man's win over Steamboat and begin an angle with \"The Million Dollar Man\" Ted DiBiase, but because of the injuries from the guitar shot, the decision was made to keep the belt with The Honky Tonk Man.",
"He then had a feud with \"Ravishing\" Rick Rude and his manager Bobby \"The Brain\" Heenan, who began a gimmick of selecting a woman from the crowd to kiss after each match. On the April 23, 1988 edition of WWF Superstars of Wrestling, Rude chose Roberts' real-life wife Cheryl, who refused the kiss and revealed that she was in fact the wife of Jake \"The Snake\". After Rude began insulting Roberts, Cheryl slapped him, angering Rude before Roberts ran out for the save",
". This began a heated feud throughout the summer of 1988, which escalated after Rude began wearing a pair of tights emblazoned with a visage of Mrs. Roberts, which an irate Roberts tore off.",
"Roberts moved from the feud with Rude into a feud with André the Giant who was also managed by Bobby Heenan. On the March 11, 1989, episode of Saturday Night's Main Event XX, André got involved in a match between Rick Rude and Brutus \"The Barber\" Beefcake, siding with fellow Heenan Family member Rude. Roberts came to the ring to help Beefcake, who eventually won by disqualification. Roberts used his snake Damien to scare Andre into an eventual \"heart attack\"",
". Roberts used his snake Damien to scare Andre into an eventual \"heart attack\". Although the subsequent feud on the house show circuit saw André victorious after most of those matches, Roberts can claim a victory via disqualification over André after The Giant attacked special guest referee and former foe Big John Studd at WrestleMania V.",
"Shortly after his feud with André had ended, Roberts entered into a feud with Ted DiBiase. Instead of fighting for the Intercontinental Championship, the prize of the feud was DiBiase's own Million Dollar Championship. It was at this time that Roberts' problems with the discs in his back were publicly acknowledged, as DiBiase attacked Roberts after a victory over his bodyguard Virgil on WWF Superstars of Wrestling",
". In the attack, Roberts was (storyline) injured by DiBiase and needed time off to have surgery to repair the damage. Roberts returned and feuded with DiBiase throughout the end of 1989 into 1990, including a point where Roberts stole DiBiase's Million Dollar Belt, daring him or Virgil to reach into the canvas sack where Damien was to retrieve it",
". The culmination of their feud took place at WrestleMania VI at the Skydome in Toronto, wherein a match where the Million Dollar Belt was on the line, DiBiase gained a count-out victory over Roberts, thus regaining his non-sanctioned title. After the match, Roberts mounted an offensive against DiBiase and Virgil and then began giving away DiBiase's \"money\" including giving some money to actress Mary Tyler Moore who was seated at ringside.",
"Following a brief feud with Bad News Brown in the summer of 1990, Roberts also feuded with Rick \"The Model\" Martel throughout late 1990 into early 1991, after Martel (kayfabe) blinded Roberts by spraying his cologne \"Arrogance\" into his eyes. Roberts went so far as to wear white contact lenses to \"prove\" his blindness",
". Roberts went so far as to wear white contact lenses to \"prove\" his blindness. After several months, the feud culminated in a match at WrestleMania VII, in which both contestants were blindfolded (though both Roberts and Martel did later confess to having some limited vision due to mesh holes in the masks - these were briefly visible due to Jake putting his hand inside the mask after donning it shortly before the start of the match)",
". The bout ended after Roberts was able to \"locate\" Martel and deliver a DDT.",
"Final feuds and departure (1991–1992)",
"In early to mid-1991, Roberts engaged in a feud with Earthquake who \"squashed\" Damien with a pair of Earthquake splashes during their match on the April 27 (taped March 26) edition of WWF Superstars of Wrestling. In reality, Roberts' bag contained hamburger meat intended to look like a snake and a small mechanical device to depict movement",
". The feud was advanced when, several weeks later, Earthquake appeared on WWF Prime Time Wrestling and served \"Quakeburgers\" to co-host Lord Alfred Hayes and Vince McMahon, later claiming that the meat was ground from Damien's carcass, which prompted McMahon to angrily knock the burger tray out of Earthquake's hands. Roberts later introduced a new snake, Damien's \"big brother\" Lucifer. Roberts and Earthquake feuded throughout most of late-spring and into the summer",
". Roberts and Earthquake feuded throughout most of late-spring and into the summer. Roberts defeated Earthquake on July 1, at Madison Square Garden which featured André the Giant in Roberts' corner.",
"In the summer of 1991, there were a series of televised vignettes featuring the Ultimate Warrior turning to Roberts for help in his feud with The Undertaker. In the set-up, Roberts explained to Warrior that, after passing three tests, he would have the \"knowledge of the dark side\" to defeat Undertaker",
". The segments included Warrior being locked inside a coffin (a reprise of an incident that occurred on The Funeral Parlor, hosted by the Undertaker's manager, Paul Bearer; earlier in the year); the Warrior being \"buried alive\" in dirt before being abandoned; and Warrior walking through a room full of live snakes to reach a chest containing \"the answer\". During the latter segment, the Warrior opened the chest, only to be immediately bitten by a king cobra (actually a rubber prop)",
". As Warrior \"weakened\" from the effects of the cobra's strike, Roberts was joined by The Undertaker and Paul Bearer, revealing the three were working together all along; Roberts closed the final segment by proclaiming, \"I'm a snake. Never trust a snake.\", turning Roberts heel for the first time since 1987. A series of matches were planned, but the feud was canceled after the Ultimate Warrior was fired by the WWF the night of SummerSlam.",
"After SummerSlam, Roberts was placed in a feud with Randy Savage. During the post-SummerSlam wedding reception of Savage and Miss Elizabeth (in reality they had been married since 1984), Elizabeth opened a gift package containing a live cobra. Roberts and the Undertaker attacked Savage, until Sid Justice ran them off. A short feud with Sid ensued when Sid was scheduled to wrestle \"El Diablo\" and the Undertaker came out and accepted the challenge to face Sid",
". Paul Bearer offered \"El Diablo\" what appeared to be a bribe to walk away. As the match began, \"El Diablo\" came back to the ring and hit Sid. Then \"El Diablo\" unmasked revealing himself as Jake. Roberts proceeded to unleash a king cobra on Sid, until Hacksaw Jim Duggan intervened. Sid and Jake wrestled on Superstars a week later. But soon, Sid injured his biceps, which forced the feud to end.",
"Roberts immediately began berating Randy Savage in a series of promos, aware that Savage – who had lost a retirement match to the Ultimate Warrior at Wrestlemania VII – was unable to exact revenge",
". On the November 23 (taped October 21) edition of WWF Superstars of Wrestling, Roberts goaded Savage into the ring and brutally attacked him, eventually tying Savage into the ropes and got the king cobra to bite his arm; the snake was devenomized and, according to Roberts' DVD Pick Your Poison, he had trouble getting the cobra to release his bite",
". According to Roberts, on the day the angle was shot, he had to let the cobra bite him on his leg at Savage's request to convince him that the snake had been devenomized and Savage would regularly check on Roberts to make sure he had no side effects from the bite. The segment went on longer than planned, and Savage's blood was clearly visible as it dripped from the puncture wounds",
". Savage stated in a shoot interview that his arm swelled and he developed a high fever afterward and had to be checked at a hospital. He also stated that the cobra died a week after the angle and he joked that the cobra must have got the venom from him.",
"WWF president Jack Tunney reinstated Savage as an active wrestler to get revenge for the attack. To explain the absence of the cobra, Tunney \"banned\" Roberts from ever bringing a snake to the ring again. Savage and Roberts feuded for the next few months. Their first match was at This Tuesday in Texas pay-per-view on December 3 in San Antonio, Texas, which saw Savage earn a victory over Roberts",
". Despite this, Roberts would perform the DDT on Savage 3 times after the match and things came to a head when Roberts slapped Miss Elizabeth. The feud continued through the early part of 1992 and included Savage eliminating Roberts from that year's Royal Rumble match for the vacant WWF World Heavyweight Championship. The feud ended on Saturday Night's Main Event XXX, with Savage getting the win",
". The feud ended on Saturday Night's Main Event XXX, with Savage getting the win. Roberts, livid at having lost to him and having received two of Savage's flying elbow drops (one of which after the match), was helped backstage. Enraged, he grabbed a steel chair and said that he was going to hit whoever came backstage first, whether it was Savage or Elizabeth",
". Just as Roberts was about to swing the chair, he was stopped by the Undertaker; Roberts was distracted long enough for Savage to hit him with the chair instead. That incident helped set up Roberts' feud with the Undertaker. Roberts stated in a shoot interview with Jim Ross that the feud with Savage had to end early because Elizabeth's parents were upset with Savage for not protecting Elizabeth when Roberts kayfabe slapped her.",
"Roberts appeared on The Funeral Parlor to demand answers from the Undertaker about why he stopped him from attacking Elizabeth. When Roberts was dissatisfied with the answers, he hit Bearer with a DDT and, after jamming Undertaker's hand in a coffin, began hitting him with a steel chair; however, Undertaker got up after each chair shot and eventually chased Roberts backstage dragging the coffin behind him",
". At WrestleMania VIII, Roberts lost the match, becoming the second man to lose to The Undertaker at WrestleMania.",
"The WrestleMania VIII match turned out to be Roberts' last for the WWF for nearly four years. His departure came after he was upset that WWF chairman Vince McMahon did not offer him a position on the writing staff, despite being promised such previously. After Pat Patterson stepped down from his post on the writing staff stemming from the recent sexual harassment scandal, McMahon decided that, out of respect for Patterson, the spot would be left vacant",
". Roberts felt he was not only being lied to, but also being betrayed. In response, he threatened to no-show WrestleMania if he was not given a release from his contract. On his Pick Your Poison DVD, Roberts expressed his regret for his actions to get a release from his contract.",
"World Championship Wrestling (1992)",
"Roberts went on to work for World Championship Wrestling (WCW) alongside his father, Grizzly Smith, where he aligned himself with The Barbarian and Cactus Jack to feud against Sting and Nikita Koloff. However, before he could officially join WCW, he had to wait 90 days. According to the Pick Your Poison DVD, Roberts had initially signed a lucrative contract under Kip Allen Frey, who was running WCW at the time",
". On the 87th day, Frey stepped down and was replaced by Bill Watts, for whom Roberts had legit heat with back in his days at Mid-South Wrestling. Ultimately, Roberts estimates that he went from making about $3.5 million a year to approximately $200,000 a year.",
"Roberts made his first television appearance on August 2, 1992, at a Main Event taping in Baltimore, Maryland after coming through the crowd to attack Sting. His first WCW match came six days later when he defeated Marcus Alexander Bagwell on a house show in Chicago, Illinois. He would quickly ally with Cactus Jack and The Barbarian. His first major TV wrestling appearance for WCW was at Clash of the Champions XX, where his team won a 4-man elimination tag match",
". Roberts scored a pinfall victory over Sting, which built their feud further. His single WCW pay-per-view match was against Sting at Halloween Havoc in 1992. Their match was determined via the Spin the Wheel, Make the Deal gimmick. When the wheel stopped, it had landed on what many observers believed was the worst option — the Coal Miner's Glove match. While Halloween Havoc was the company's top-selling pay-per-view for several years, Roberts soon left WCW.",
"Following the loss to Sting he continued his feud, facing him on several house shows immediately after the event. On the November 2 episode of Saturday Night, Tony Schiavone conducted a sit-down interview with Roberts regarding the decision of Bill Watts to ban his bringing of the snake to ringside, and his impending first-round match against Dustin Rhodes in the first round of the King of Cable tournament. He was replaced in the tournament by The Barbarian.",
"Various promotions (1993–1994)\nAfter leaving WCW, Roberts spent his next couple of years wrestling around the world. In February 1993, he took part in a tour in Australia. He won the American Wrestling Federation Heavyweight Title defeating Don Muraco on March 4. Then in April 1993, he toured Europe, particularly Austria and Germany. In September 1993, he took part wrestling a tour for New Japan Pro-Wrestling.",
"Roberts debuted in the Mexican promotion Asistencia Asesoría y Administración (AAA) in April 1993, causing the defeat of Konnan in the career vs. career match at Triplemanía I. Roberts' run-in started a feud that lasted until 1994 at Triplemanía II-C, in which Konnan defeated Roberts in a hair vs. hair match which Roberts got his long hair cut off and shaved bald.",
"In the spring of 1994, Roberts returned to the United States to wrestle for Smoky Mountain Wrestling (SMW). On May 2, he defeated Tony Anthony to win the SMW Heavyweight Championship; the title change aired on May 14. Roberts no-showed several defenses, forcing SMW to give the title back to Anthony on July 5. By the end of 1994, Roberts took a hiatus.\n\nReturn to WWF (1996–1997)",
"Return to WWF (1996–1997)\n\nAfter spending over a year in hiatus, Roberts returned to WWF at the Royal Rumble in 1996, as a Bible-preacher. To go along with his new gimmick, his new albino Burmese python was named \"Revelations\". His gimmick also mirrored his real life, as Roberts had recently become a born-again Christian and had been preaching around the country.",
"During his second tenure with the company, Roberts was pushed as a \"Cinderella story\" and faced Stone Cold Steve Austin in the final match of the 1996 King of the Ring tournament. Changes had to be made to the match's scripting as legitimate injuries sustained earlier in the evening in a match with Vader left Roberts unable to engage in the longer, more evenly matched bout originally intended between the men",
". To prevent Roberts from sustaining a further injury, he was quickly defeated by Austin; in a post-match interview, Austin mocked his recital of the biblical passage John 3:16 by saying, \"You sit there and you thump your Bible, and you say your prayers, and it didn't get you anywhere! Talk about your Psalms, talk about John 3:16..",
"... Austin 3:16 says I just whipped your ass!\" The catchphrase helped propel Austin to the top of the WWF, and is one of the moments that is often cited as the beginning of \"The Attitude Era\". Roberts next feuded with Jerry \"The King\" Lawler, who went to great lengths to ridicule Roberts' past alcoholism.",
"In early 1997, the WWF wanted Roberts to wind down his in-ring career and join the company's backstage side. Since he still loved to wrestle, he did not make this transition well. This led to a relapse with drugs and alcohol. He appeared at the 1997 Royal Rumble where he entered at no. 7 and was eliminated by Stone Cold Steve Austin. His last match with WWF was at Shotgun Saturday Night on January 25, 1997, against Salvatore Sincere in a winning effort. He was released in March 1997.",
"Extreme Championship Wrestling (1997–1998)",
"During the summer of 1997, Roberts debuted in ECW. His introduction came towards the end of a match between Lawler and Tommy Dreamer, which was the main event of the show. As the match went on, the arena lights were turned off. Moments later when the lights came back on, Roberts was already in the ring, and proceeded to give Tommy Dreamer a clothesline. He then went to the camera man and screamed; \"Your God... he giveth, and he can taketh away. My God, he giveth..",
"... he giveth, and he can taketh away. My God, he giveth... but he ain't got the balls to do nothin' else.\" He promptly clotheslined Lawler, who fell onto Dreamer for a two count before exiting the ring.",
"Roberts also teamed with Tommy Dreamer at the 1998 November to Remember as his mystery partner defeating Justin Credible and Jack Victory.",
"Independent circuit (1999–2018)",
"In October 1999, Roberts was one of several former NWA, WWF, and ECW wrestlers brought in to compete in the first Heroes of Wrestling event in Bay St. Louis, Mississippi. He was booked to face Jim Neidhart in one half of the card's double main event in what was billed as a \"special grudge match\" between the two. Roberts was so intoxicated that during the course of the night, he slurred his way through a promo before the match and staggered to, from, and around the ring during his entrance",
". After doing such things as pretending his snake was a penis and stroking it like he was masturbating and attempting to kiss the snake with his tongue, the show's promoter sent King Kong Bundy and Yokozuna, who were supposed to compete in the other main event match, to the ring and made the main event a tag team match with Roberts teaming with Yokozuna against Bundy and Neidhart. Roberts, who was so drunk that he could not stand up, took the fall in the match after Bundy splashed and pinned him.",
"In 2001, Roberts moved to Great Britain, where he began competing for Brian Dixon's All Star Wrestling. In December, he made his debut for Ricky Knight's World Association of Wrestling in Lowestoft. On October 20, 2002, Roberts became the NWA UK Hammerlock Heavyweight Champion in Maidstone, Kent, England by defeating \"Vigilante\" Johnny Moss. Moss regained the title the next night in Ashford, Kent, though",
". Moss regained the title the next night in Ashford, Kent, though. In November 2002, Roberts started his own wrestling promotion in the UK, called \"Real Stars of Wrestling\". RSOW ran three events, each headlined by Roberts vs. The Honky Tonk Man.",
"Roberts made his final British appearance at WAW's October Outrage show in Canvey Island, Essex, once again teaming with Steve Quintain against the UK Pitbulls. However, Roberts turned up at the show \"in no fit state to compete\", but went ahead with his match. Roberts cut a drunken promo paying tribute to Ray Traylor, who had died a few days before, and almost got into a scuffle with several WAW wrestlers who were sent out to defuse the situation.",
"Roberts made an appearance at Booker T's Houston-based Pro Wrestling Alliance (PWA) promotion, in which he cut a promo urging those who want to enter the wrestling business to not follow along his path. At one point, he said he loved the wrestling business more than anything else in the world. PWA wrestler \"Rockstar\" Robbie Gillmore then interrupted Roberts and attempted to make an alliance based upon the fact that Robbie wears an 80s style shirt featuring a cobra",
". Roberts had just said all he ever wanted was a little respect, and the Rockstar's interruption irritated him. Roberts then attacked Gillmore.",
"On October 6, 2007, he lost to Scott Hall at Juggalo Championship Wrestling.\n\nIn May 2009, Roberts joined the Jim Rose Circus for the Jim Rose Circus vs. Jake \"The Snake\" Roberts: The Legends Collide Tour. Advertised as \"a grueling 40 city campaign\" containing pretty girls, wrestling, amazing circus stunts, and a fist fight, the tour features Jim Rose and wrestler Sinn Bodhi as \"Team Jake\".",
"On January 29, 2011, Roberts wrestled what was billed as his retirement match, when he defeated Sinn Bodhi at the Pro Wrestling Guerrilla (PWG) show during the WrestleReunion 5 weekend.",
"On May 18, 2013, Roberts returned to the ring for First State Championship Wrestling, a Delaware-based wrestling promotion, as part of an eight-man tag team main event. He teamed with Eric Chapel and CraziiWolf (Crazii Shea and Greywolf), defeating the team of Salvatore Sincere, Steve C Wrestling and Pretty Ugly (Jimmy Dream and Adam Ugly)",
". On March 15, 2014, Roberts debuted in Regional Championship Wrestling's Rumblemania 9 in Reading, Pennsylvania as a surprise partner for Cliff Serenyi against Russian Mafia with Rich Rogers. This match ended in a DQ. Rogers was knocked out when Roberts stuck the snake in Roger's pants.",
"On June 14, 2014, Roberts participated in a six-man tag match in the main event for Reborn Wrestling (a Christian wrestling organization in Johnson City, Tennessee), teaming with The Stallion and Alex Cage to defeat E. Z. Money, Reborn Champion Cody Ices and Anthony Brody. On June 15, 2014, Roberts was an entrant in the CWF Hollywood Red Carpet Rumble which was won by Willie Mack. He wrestled his last ever match against IamThePROVIDER at BBOW No Limits Wrestling promotion on September 2, 2018.",
"In 2016, he went on his Unspoken Word tour.",
"Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (2006, 2008)",
"Roberts made an appearance on the October 19, 2006 episode of TNA Impact!. He announced he would referee the Monster's Ball match between Brother Runt, Abyss, Raven, and Samoa Joe at Bound for Glory. Roberts then gave a \"mumbling\" promo. After Roberts took his snake out of a bag, Brother Runt told him to put it away. Roberts performed a DDT on Runt instead. At Bound for Glory, he performed a DDT on Raven, which helped Samoa Joe win the match. After the match, Roberts placed his snake on Raven.",
"Roberts made a one-night return to TNA in 2008 as a guest of \"Black Machismo\" Jay Lethal and SoCal Val's storyline wedding at Slammiversary.",
"Second return to WWE (2005, 2014)",
"Roberts made an appearance on March 14, 2005, on Raw, where he confronted Randy Orton, who was preparing to challenge The Undertaker at WrestleMania 21. Roberts warned Orton that facing The Undertaker, particularly at WrestleMania, could be a soul-altering experience; he then fell victim to Orton's \"RKO,\" helping to fuel Orton's \"Legend Killer\" gimmick. He worked with the company to create a DVD retrospective of his career (the aforementioned Pick Your Poison DVD), which was released later that year.",
"In 2013, Roberts announced his desire to return to WWE as a participant in the 2014 Royal Rumble.",
"On January 6, 2014, Roberts made an appearance on the \"Old School\" episode of Raw, laying a python over the face of an unconscious Dean Ambrose. Roberts was announced as part of the 2014 Class of the WWE Hall of Fame. He was inducted by Diamond Dallas Page on April 5, 2014. Regarding his Hall of Fame induction, he later said, \"It wasn't at all what I expected... it was more about healing between a man and his family",
"... it was more about healing between a man and his family.\" After his induction, he would continue to make sporadic appearances, and would also be a regular on WWE Story Time, even making an appearance on the show after his AEW debut.",
"All Elite Wrestling (2019–present)",
"In 2019 during The Road to All Out, Roberts appeared as a dealer at a blackjack table dealing cards to Women's Casino Battle Royale participants, referring to his infamous \"you wanna play 21?\" promo from 1999. On March 4, 2020, he made a surprise appearance on AEW Dynamite, interrupting Cody. In his promo, Roberts claimed that he had a \"client\" incoming to AEW to bring him down, hinting that he would be a manager for a new talent. On March 11, 2020, Roberts revealed Lance Archer as his new client",
". On March 11, 2020, Roberts revealed Lance Archer as his new client. Archer was announced as a participant for the tournament for the AEW TNT Championship; he defeated Colt Cabana in the quarter finals, and Dustin Rhodes in the semi-finals. At Double or Nothing on May 23, 2020, Archer lost the final to Cody Rhodes after Mike Tyson prevented Roberts from interfering on Archer's behalf in the finals match for the new AEW TNT Championship",
". In July 2021, Roberts announced he had signed a 2-year contract extension with AEW. In 2022, Roberts would reunite with Archer, who at the time also aligned himself with American Top Team leader Dan Lambert, during Archer's feud with Adam Page for the AEW World Heavyweight Championship. Roberts would accompany Archer to the ring during Archer's match with Wardlow on the April 27, 2022 episode of Dynamite.",
"On February 1, 2023, it was announced that Roberts, along with Mark Henry, Paul Wight, and Shawn Dean was named a special advisor in AEW's community outreach program, titled AEW Together. In a press release, their roles were explained as \"they will bring their experience and passion for community relations to help identify partner organizations across the country, assist in incorporating talent participation and provide counsel on enhancing activations.\"\n\nProfessional wrestling persona",
"Roberts derived his nickname for seeming snake-like and untrustworthy. On the Pick Your Poison DVD, he says he got his nickname by copying Oakland Raiders quarterback Ken \"The Snake\" Stabler (of whom he was a fan). To accentuate this, he often slid (\"slithered\") into and out of the ring on his belly under the bottom rope. Once he reached the World Wrestling Federation (WWF) in March 1986, he would bring a Burmese python (most were named \"Damien\") to ringside in a canvas bag",
". Other types used were a reticulated python named Lucifer, an unnamed devenomized cobra, and an albino Burmese python named Revelations (during Roberts's Christian conversion gimmick in 1996). After executing a DDT for the pin, he would place a python on the opponent, to various reactions.",
"Roberts has been praised for his ring psychology. Jim Ross said he also stands out for his promo work. Ted DiBiase said he enjoyed working with Roberts, and Bad News Brown called him his second-best opponent. Randy Savage said he enjoyed his run with Roberts, whose work was impressive.",
"Spoken word career\nIn 2018, Roberts embarked on his a series of spoken word shows dubbed The Dirty Details Tour, subtitled \"Tales From The Pit\". According to social media the tour was to feature \"an uncensored night of comedy, stories from the road, Q&A and more\". The tour kicked off on November 6, 2018, at the Lookout Lounge in Omaha, Nebraska.\n\nOther media\nIn the late 1980s, Roberts made a guest appearance on the DJ Kat Show on Fox, challenging DJ to a match after the Kat had badmouthed the profession.",
"In 1996, Roberts, Vader, and Brother Love appeared on the ABC sitcom Boy Meets World for one episode.",
"In 1999, Roberts was unflatteringly featured in the wrestling documentary Beyond the Mat. Throughout the film, he made confessions about his tragic past, including the murder of his sister by her husband's ex-wife and the collapse of his marriage. He was also shown enjoying the taste of a post match cigarette. Amongst the more disturbing moments was Roberts reportedly smoking crack in a hotel room after a reunion with his daughter Brandy, though the act is not shown on camera",
". In 2005, Roberts, along with others, heavily criticized the film for showing him in a negative light, complaining that the depiction of him was \"not the real Jake Roberts.\" Roberts also stated that director Barry Blaustein and Terry Funk lied to him about the aims of the film, telling him it was a television special on the effects of drug and alcohol abuse.",
"Roberts was featured in another wrestling documentary in 2015 entitled The Resurrection of Jake the Snake, which chronicled his time living with Diamond Dallas Page beginning in October 2012.\n\nRoberts appeared as Mr. Lucas, the owner of a gourmet condom company, in the comedy film, The Bet which also featured Dallas Page and Roddy Piper.\n\nRoberts also made an appearance in An Almost True Story: TOXIC TUTU in 2015, as himself, in a scene with Jonny Fairplay from Survivor.",
"Roberts has a role in the 2019 film The Peanut Butter Falcon.\n\nBeginning on January 4, 2022, Roberts will take part in a podcast with Diamond Dallas Page and Conrad Thompson titled DDP Snakepit.",
"Health issues\nIn 2007, WWE started a policy of paying all expenses for its former performers who wanted to start drug rehabilitation programs. Roberts was placed in a 14-week voluntary rehab program by WWE in December 2007. In May 2008, Jim Ross reported that Roberts \"has been doing well the past few weeks, after completing a treatment program\".",
"In October 2012, while financially distressed and having resumed abusing alcohol and drugs, Roberts moved in with former wrestler Diamond Dallas Page in Atlanta, Georgia, a time which was chronicled in the documentary The Resurrection of Jake the Snake. His weight had ballooned to over 300 lb (136 kg) and he was having trouble doing simple tasks such as walking without becoming short of breath. During filming, Roberts had shoulder surgery which was paid for through crowdfunding",
". During filming, Roberts had shoulder surgery which was paid for through crowdfunding. After 18 months, he had lost over 50 lb (22 kg) and regained mobility.",
"In February 2014, TMZ reported that Roberts had muscular cancer below his knee and was scheduled to go into surgery. In a response to the article, Roberts was quoted as saying, \"If the devil can't defeat me, cancer doesn't stand a chance in hell! Pray for sick children who face this horrible disease 'cause The Snake will be just fine.\" In July 2014, he announced that he was cancer-free after various surgeries.",
"In August 2014, Roberts fell ill during a flight from Atlanta to Las Vegas, where he was scheduled to attend a birthday event for fellow wrestler Nick Cvjetkovich. First reports indicated that Roberts had fallen unconscious, but his manager/lawyer, Kyle P. Magee, confirmed that Roberts was alert and awake during the flight and notified the flight attendant of his pain and shortness of breath. Magee said that Roberts was induced to a \"coma-like\" state in order to treat pneumonia",
". Magee said that Roberts was induced to a \"coma-like\" state in order to treat pneumonia. He was diagnosed with the flu two weeks earlier and ignored doctors' advice of rest and continued to travel to events. Upon arrival at the ICU in Las Vegas, he was diagnosed with double pneumonia. Doctors also found an abnormality on his brain which they felt could be a result of all the bumps Roberts took over his long career.",
"Jim Ross in one of the episodes of his 'Grilling JR' podcast revealed that Roberts still remains in poor health with breathing issues and pending surgeries.\n\nIn November 2020, Roberts was taken to the hospital after feeling breathless during a long period of persistent coughing. After several days, he was diagnosed with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. He missed AEW tapings on December 16 and 17, citing this illness.\n\nChampionships and accomplishments",
"All-Star Wrestling Network (Georgia)\nAWN World Heavyweight Championship (1 time)\nAmericas Wrestling Federation\nAWF Puerto Rico Heavyweight Championship (1 time)\nBad Boys of Wrestling\nBBOW Heavyweight Championship (1 time)\nCauliflower Alley Club\nMen's Wrestling Award (2013)\nGeorgia Championship Wrestling\nNWA National Television Championship (1 time)\nNWA World Television Championship (Georgia version) (2 times)\n One Night Tournament (1984)\nMid-South Wrestling Association",
"One Night Tournament (1984)\nMid-South Wrestling Association\nMid-South Louisiana Heavyweight Championship (1 time)\nMid-South North American Heavyweight Championship (2 times)\nMid-South Television Championship (1 time)\nMid-South Television Championship Tournament (1986)\nPro Wrestling Federation\nPWF Tag Team Championship (1 time) - with Mike Blade \nPro Wrestling Illustrated\nInspirational Wrestler of the Year (1996)\nRanked No. 23 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 1991",
"Ranked No. 23 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 1991\nRanked No. 100 of the top 500 singles wrestlers of the \"PWI Years\" in 2003\nProfessional Wrestling Hall of Fame and Museum\nClass of 2020\nSmoky Mountain Wrestling\nSMW Heavyweight Championship (1 time)\nStampede Wrestling\nStampede North American Heavyweight Championship (1 time)\nWorld Class Championship Wrestling\nNWA World Six-Man Tag Team Championship (Texas version) (1 time) – with Chris Adams and Gino Hernandez",
"WCCW Television Championship (1 time)\nWWE\nWWE Hall of Fame (Class of 2014)",
"Luchas de Apuestas record\n\nSee also\n Animals in professional wrestling\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links",
"20th-century professional wrestlers\n21st-century professional wrestlers\n1955 births\nAll Elite Wrestling personnel\nAmerican Christians\nAmerican male professional wrestlers\nAmerican podcasters\nConverts to Christianity\nLiving people\nPeople from Gainesville, Texas\nPeople from St Albans (district)\nPeople from Stone Mountain, Georgia\nProfessional wrestlers from Texas\nProfessional Wrestling Hall of Fame and Museum\nProfessional wrestling managers and valets\nProfessional wrestling podcasters",
"Professional wrestling managers and valets\nProfessional wrestling podcasters\nProfessional wrestling trainers\nSportspeople from Atlanta\nStampede Wrestling alumni\nWWE Hall of Fame inductees\nWWC Puerto Rico Champions\nSMW Heavyweight Champions\nStampede Wrestling North American Heavyweight Champions\nNWA National Television Champions\nWCWA Television Champions\nWCWA World Six-Man Tag Team Champions"
] |
Organizational culture
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational%20culture
|
[
"Historically there have been differences among investigators regarding the definition of organizational culture. Edgar Schein, a leading researcher in this field, defined \"organizational culture\" as comprising a number of features, including a shared \"pattern of basic assumptions\" which group members have acquired over time as they learn to successfully cope with internal and external organizationally relevant problems",
". Elliott Jaques first introduced the concept of culture in the organizational context in his 1951 book The Changing Culture of a Factory. The book was a published report of \"a case study of developments in the social life of one industrial community between April, 1948 and November 1950\". The \"case\" involved a publicly-held British company engaged principally in the manufacture, sale, and servicing of metal bearings",
". The study concerned itself with the description, analysis, and development of corporate group behaviours.",
"Ravasi and Schultz (2006) characterise organizational culture as a set of shared assumptions that guide behaviors. It is also the pattern of such collective behaviors and assumptions that are taught to new organizational members as a way of perceiving and, even thinking and feeling. Thus organizational culture affects the way people and groups interact with each other, with clients, and with stakeholders. In addition, organizational culture may affect how much employees identify with an organization.",
"Schein (1992), Deal and Kennedy (2000), and Kotter (1992) advanced the idea that organizations often have very differing cultures as well as subcultures. Although a company may have its \"own unique culture\", in larger organizations there are sometimes co-existing or conflicting subcultures because each subculture is linked to a different management team. Flamholtz and Randle (2011) suggest that one can view organizational culture as \"corporate personality\".",
"They define it as it consisting of the values, beliefs, and norms which influence the behavior of people as members of an organization.",
"The organizational culture influences the way people interact, the context within which knowledge is created, the resistance they will have towards certain changes, and ultimately the way they share (or the way they do not share) knowledge. According to Ravasi and Schultz (2006) and Allaire and Firsirotu (1984), organizational culture represents the collective values, beliefs and principles of organizational members",
". It may also be influenced by factors such as history, type of product, market, technology, strategy, type of employees, management style, and national culture. Culture includes the organization's vision, values, norms, systems, symbols, language, assumptions, environment, location, beliefs and habits. Though Gallup finds that just 22% of U.S. employees feel connected to their organization's culture.",
"Origins",
"According to Jaques, \"the culture of the factory is its customary and traditional way of thinking and doing of things, which is shared to a greater or lesser degree by all its members, and which new members must learn, and at least partially accept, in order to be accepted into service in the firm...\" In simple terms, to the extent that people can share common wishes, desires and aspirations, they can commit themselves to work together",
". Sagiv (2011) and Dwyer (1997) noted that it is a matter of being able to care about the same things, and it applies to nations as well as to associations and organizations within nations.",
"Elaborating on the work in The Changing Culture of a Factory, Jaques said \"Here is a list of valued entitlements that can reach the hearts of people, and gain from them their full commitment. Together they make up an organizational credo.\" This concept of requisite organization established a list of valued entitlements or organizational values that can gain from people their full commitment Together they make an organizational culture or credo:",
"These general values are reflected in a specific valuing of:",
"Work for everyone at a level consistent with their level of potential capability, values and interests.\n Opportunity for everyone to progress as his or her potential capability matures, within the opportunities available in the organization.\n Fair and just treatment for everyone, including fair pay based upon equitable pay differentials for level of work and merit recognition related to personal effectiveness appraisal.",
"Leadership interaction between managers and subordinates, including shared context, personal effectiveness appraisal, feedback and recognition, and coaching.\n Clear articulation of accountability and authority to engender trust and confidence in all working relationships.\n Articulation of long-term organizational vision through direct communication from the top.\n Opportunity for everyone individually or through representatives to participate in policy development.",
"The role of managerial leadership at every level [...] are the means of making these organizational values operationally real.New members of an organization integrate into the organizational culture in a process called organizational assimilation.",
"Usage",
"Organizational culture refers to culture in any type of organization including that of schools, universities, not-for-profit groups, government agencies, or business entities. In business, terms such as corporate culture and company culture are often used to refer to a similar concept. The term corporate culture became widely known in the business world in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Corporate culture was already used by managers, sociologists, and organizational theorists by the beginning of the 80s",
". The related idea of organizational climate emerged in the 1960s and 70s, and the terms are now somewhat overlapping.",
"Smircich (1983) categorized two main approaches to studying organizational culture: a variable and a process (root metaphor). The former could be an external or internal variable including values, norms, rituals, structures, principles, assumptions, beliefs, etc. (Driskill and Brenton, 2019), which is also considered difficult to be defined primarily across different national cultures",
". However, according to Harris and Moran (2000), if defined, it provides an understanding of how it influences productivity, performance, innovation, etc., and provides the key to winning over the competition. Thus, one can understand the importance of understanding how national culture influences the corporate culture is fundamental to analyze the uniqueness of an organization and its performance. On the other hand, the root metaphor suggests that organization is culture, and both terms are interchangeable",
". Culture describes the characteristic of an environment rather than explains an element it has. Driskill and Brenton (2019) clarified that culture could be researched as a shared cognition, systems of shared symbols, and as the expression of unconscious processes. Keyton (2011, in Littlejohn et al., 2010) noted that each organization has its own values, patterns, meaning, and understanding that are unique from other organizations that influence behavior and employees' communication activities.",
"If organizational culture is seen as something that characterizes an organization, it can be manipulated and altered depending on leadership and members. Culture as root metaphor sees the organization as its culture, created through communication and symbols, or competing metaphors. Culture is basic, with personal experience producing a variety of perspectives.",
"The organizational communication perspective on culture views culture in three different ways:\n Traditionalism: views culture through objective things such as stories, rituals, and symbols\n Interpretivism: views culture through a network of shared meanings (organization members sharing subjective meanings)\n Critical-interpretivism: views culture through a network of shared meanings as well as the power struggles created by a similar network of competing meanings.",
"Business executive Bernard L. Rosauer (2013) defines organizational culture as an emergence – an extremely complex incalculable state that results from the combination of a few ingredients. In \"Three Bell Curves: Business Culture Decoded\", Rosauer outlines the three manageable ingredients which (he claims) guide business culture:\n\n employee (focus on engagement)\n the work (focus on eliminating waste increasing value)\n the customer (focus on likelihood of referral)",
"Rosauer writes that the Three Bell Curves methodology aims to bring leadership, their employees, the work and the customer together for focus without distraction, leading to an improvement in culture and brand. He states: \"If a methodology isn't memorable, it won't get used. The Three Bell Curves Methodology is simple (to remember) but execution requires strong leadership and diligence. Culture can be guided by managing the ingredients",
". Culture can be guided by managing the ingredients.\" Reliance of the research and findings of Sirota Survey Intelligence, which has been gathering employee data worldwide since 1972, the Lean Enterprise Institute, Cambridge, Massachusetts, and Fred Reichheld/Bain/Satmetrix research relating to NetPromoterScore",
".The Net Promoter Score (NPS) is defined as per Reichheld (2003) as \"a widely used market research metric that typically takes the form of a single survey question asking respondents to rate the likelihood that they would recommend a company, product, or a service to a friend or colleague.\" Colvin (2020) on the other hand elaborated the reason behind the popularity of this model due to its simple and transparent use method.",
"Ukrainian researcher Oleksandr Babych in his dissertation formulated the following definition: Corporate culture is a certain background of activity of the organization, which contributes to the strengthening of the vector of effectiveness depending on the degree of controllability of the conscious values of the organization, which is especially evident in dynamic changes in the structure or type of activity. This background includes a set of collective basic beliefs of the participants of the organization",
". This background includes a set of collective basic beliefs of the participants of the organization.",
"Typology of cultural types",
"Typology refers to the \"study of or analysis or classification based on types or categories\". Organizational culture and climate may be erroneously used interchangeably. Organizational culture has been described as an organization's ideals, vision, and mission, whereas climate is better defined as employees' shared meaning related to the company's policies and procedures and reward/consequence systems",
". Many factors, ranging from depictions of relative strength to political and national issues, can contribute to the type or types of culture that can be observed in organizations and institutions of all sizes. Below are examples of organizational culture types.",
"Strong and weak typology of organizational culture",
"There are two types of cultures, namely, strong and weak. A strong culture is characterized by reinforcing tools such as ceremonies and policies to ensure instilling and spreading its norms and values (Madu, 2012), its focus and orientation towards its employees and their performance, and the group conformity (Ahmad, 2012). Also, it focuses on high-performance and constructive pressure",
". Also, it focuses on high-performance and constructive pressure. Such actions strongly influence the behavior of employees and their common purpose and, according to Karlsen (2011), are described as a successful culture.",
"Flamholtz and Randle state that: \"A strong culture is one that people clearly understand and can articulate. A weak culture is one that employees have difficulty defining, understanding, or explaining.\"\nStrong culture is said to exist where staff respond to stimulus because of their alignment to organizational values. In such environments, strong cultures help firms operate like well-oiled machines, engaging in outstanding execution with only minor adjustments to existing procedures as needed.",
"Conversely, there is weak culture where there is little alignment with organizational values, and control must be exercised through extensive procedures and bureaucracy.",
"Research by Büschgens et al. (2013) and Farkas (2013) shows that organizations that foster strong cultures have clear values that give employees a reason to embrace the culture. Chatman and Jehn (1994) and Oliva and Kallenberg (2003) noted that a \"strong\" culture may be especially beneficial to firms operating in the service sector since members of these organizations are responsible for delivering the service and for evaluations important constituents make about firms",
". Organizations may derive the following benefits from developing strong and productive cultures:",
"Better aligning the company towards achieving its vision, mission, and goals\n High employee motivation and loyalty\n Increased team cohesiveness among the company's various departments and divisions\n Promoting consistency and encouraging coordination and control within the company\n Shaping employee behavior at work, enabling the organization to be more efficient",
"Irving Janis defined groupthink as \"a mode of thinking that people engage in when they are deeply involved in a cohesive in-group, when the members' strivings for unanimity override their motivation to realistically appraise alternative courses of action.\" This is a state in which even if group members have different ideas, they do not challenge organizational thinking. As a result, innovative thinking is stifled. Groupthink can lead to lack of creativity and decisions made without critical evaluation",
". Groupthink can lead to lack of creativity and decisions made without critical evaluation. Hogg (2001) and Deanne et al. (2013) clarified that Groupthink can occur, for example, when group members rely heavily on a central charismatic figure in the organization or where there is an \"evangelical\" belief in the organization's values. Groupthink can also occur in groups characterized by a friendly climate conducive to conflict avoidance.",
"Healthy \n\nOrganizations should strive for what is considered a \"healthy\" organizational culture in order to increase productivity, growth, efficiency and reduce counterproductive behavior and turnover of employees. A variety of characteristics describe a healthy culture, including:",
"Acceptance and appreciation for diversity\n Regard for fair treatment of each employee as well as respect for each employee's contribution to the company\n Employee pride and enthusiasm for the organization and the work performed\n Equal opportunity for each employee to realize their full potential within the company\n Strong communication with all employees regarding policies and company issues\n Strong company leaders with a strong sense of direction and purpose",
"Strong company leaders with a strong sense of direction and purpose\n Ability to compete in industry innovation and customer service, as well as price\n Lower than average turnover rates (perpetuated by a healthy culture)\n Investment in learning, training, and employee knowledge",
"Additionally, performance oriented cultures have been shown to possess statistically better financial growth. Such cultures possess high employee involvement, strong internal communications and an acceptance and encouragement of a healthy level of risk-taking in order to achieve innovation. Additionally, organizational cultures that explicitly emphasize factors related to the demands placed on them by industry technology and growth will be better performers in their industries.",
"According to Kotter and Heskett (1992), organizations with adaptive cultures perform much better than organizations with unadaptive cultures. An adaptive culture translates into organizational success; it is characterized by managers paying close attention to all of their constituencies, especially customers, initiating change when needed, and taking risks. An unadaptive culture can significantly reduce a firm's effectiveness, disabling the firm from pursuing all its competitive/operational options.",
"Healthy companies are able to deal with employees' concerns about the well-being of the organization internally, before the employees would even feel they needed to raise the issues externally. It is for this reason that whistleblowing, particularly when it results in serious damage to a company's reputation, is considered to be often a sign of a chronically dysfunctional corporate culture.",
"Another relevant concept is the notion of \"cultural functionality\". Specifically, some organizations have \"functional\" cultures while others have \"dysfunctional\" cultures. A \"functional\" culture is a positive culture that contributes to an organization's performance and success. A \"dysfunctional\" culture is one that hampers or negatively affects an organization's performance and success.",
"Management types of communication \n\nThere are many different types of communication that contribute in creating an organizational culture:",
"Metaphors such as comparing an organization to a machine or a family reveal employees' shared meanings of experiences at the organization.\n Stories can provide examples for employees of how to or not to act in certain situations.\n Rites and ceremonies combine stories, metaphors, and symbols into one. Several different kinds of rites affect organizational culture:\n Rites of passage: employees move into new roles\n Rites of degradation: employees have power taken away from them",
"Rites of degradation: employees have power taken away from them\n Rites of enhancement: public recognition for an employee's accomplishments\n Rites of renewal: improve existing social structures\n Rites of conflict reduction: resolve arguments between certain members or groups\n Rites of integration: reawaken feelings of membership in the organization\n Reflexive comments are explanations, justifications, and criticisms of our own actions. This includes:\n Plans: comments about anticipated actions",
"Plans: comments about anticipated actions\n Commentaries: comments about action in the present\n Accounts: comments about an action or event that has already occurred\n Such comments reveal interpretive meanings held by the speaker as well as the social rules they follow.",
"Bullying culture type \n\nBullying is seen to be prevalent in organizations where employees and managers feel that they have the support, or at least implicitly the blessing, of senior managers to carry on their abusive and bullying behaviour. Furthermore, new managers will quickly come to view this form of behaviour as acceptable and normal if they see others get away with it and are even rewarded for it.",
"When bullying happens at the highest levels, the effects may be far reaching. That people may be bullied irrespective of their organisational status or rank, including senior managers, indicates the possibility of a negative ripple effect, where bullying may be cascaded downwards as the targeted supervisors might offload their own aggression on their subordinates. In such situations, a bullying scenario in the boardroom may actually threaten the productivity of the entire organisation.",
"Tribal type of culture \nDavid Logan and coauthors have proposed in their book Tribal Leadership that organizational cultures change in stages, based on an analysis of human groups and tribal cultures. They identify five basic stages:\nLife sucks (a subsystem severed from other functional systems like tribes, gangs and prison—2 percent of population);",
"My life sucks (I am stuck in the Dumb Motor Vehicle line and can't believe I have to spend my time in this lost triangle of ineffectiveness—25 percent of population);\nI'm great (and you're not, I am detached from you and will dominate you regardless of your intent—48 percent of population);\nWe are great, but other groups suck (citing Zappo's and an attitude of unification around more than individual competence—22 percent of population) and",
"Life is great (citing Desmond Tutu's hearing on truth and values as the basis of reconciliation—3 percent of population).\nThis model of organizational culture provides a map and context for leading an organization through the five stages.",
"Personal culture\n\nOrganizational culture is taught to the person as culture is taught by his/her parents thus changing and modeling his/her personal culture. Indeed, employees and people applying for a job are advised to match their \"personality to a company's culture\" and fit to it. Some researchers even suggested and have made case studies research on personality changing.",
"National culture type",
"Corporate culture is used to control, coordinate, and integrate company subsidiaries. However differences in national cultures exist contributing to differences in the views on management. Differences between national cultures are deep rooted values of the respective cultures, and these cultural values can shape how people expect companies to be run, and how relationships between leaders and followers should be, resulting in differences between the employer and the employee regarding expectations",
". (Geert Hofstede, 1991) Perhaps equally foundational; observing the vast differences in national copyright (and taxation, etc.) laws suggests deep rooted differences in cultural attitudes and assumptions about property rights and sometimes about the desired root function, place, or purpose of corporations relative to the population.",
"Multiplicity\n\nXibao Zhang (2009) carried out an empirical study of culture emergence in the Sino-Western international cross-cultural management (SW-ICCM) context in China. Field data were collected by interviewing Western expatriates and Chinese professionals working in this context, supplemented by non-participant observation and documentary data. The data were then analyzed objectively to formulate theme-based substantive theories and a formal theory.",
"The major finding of this study is that the human cognition contains three components, or three broad types of \"cultural rules of behavior\", namely, Values, Expectations, and Ad Hoc Rules, each of which has a mutually conditioning relationship with behavior. The three cognitive components are different in terms of the scope and duration of their mutual shaping of behavior",
". Values are universal and enduring rules of behavior; Expectations, on the other hand, are context-specific behavioral rules; while Ad Hoc Rules are improvised rules of behavior that the human mind devises contingent upon a particular occasion. Furthermore, they need not be consistent, and frequently are not, among themselves",
". Furthermore, they need not be consistent, and frequently are not, among themselves. Metaphorically, they can be compared to a multi-carriage train, which allows for the relative lateral movements by individual carriages so as to accommodate bumps and turns in the tracks",
". In fact, they provide a \"shock-absorber mechanism\", so to speak, which enables individuals in SW-ICCM contexts to cope with conflicts in cultural practices and values, and to accommodate and adapt themselves to cultural contexts where people from different national cultural backgrounds work together over extended time",
". It also provides a powerful framework which explains how interactions by individuals in SW-ICCM contexts give rise to emerging hybrid cultural practices characterized by both stability and change.",
"One major theoretical contribution of this \"multi-carriage train\" perspective is its allowance for the existence of inconsistencies among the three cognitive components in their mutual conditioning of behavior. This internal inconsistency view is in stark contrast to the traditional internal consistency assumption explicitly or tacitly held by many culture scholars",
". The other major theoretical contribution, which follows logically from the first one, is to view culture as an overarching entity which is made of a multiplicity of Values, Expectations, and Ad Hoc Rules. This notion of one (multiplicity) culture to an organization leads to the classification of culture along its path of emergence into nascent, adolescent, and mature types, each of which is distinct in terms of the pattern of the three cognitive components and behavior.",
"Risk aware culture \nRisk aware culture refers to company have an over-all sense of potential risk they may faces. The suggested risk-aware culture components are leadership, involvement, learning, accountability and communication.\n\nEffects\nResearch suggests that numerous outcomes have been associated either directly or indirectly with organizational culture. A healthy and robust organizational culture may provide various benefits, including the following:",
"Competitive edge derived from innovation and customer service\n Consistent, efficient employee performance\n Team cohesiveness\n High employee morale\n Strong company alignment towards goal achievement\n Healthy information security compliant culture and employee compliance behavior",
"Although little empirical research exists to support the link between organizational culture and organizational performance, there is little doubt among experts that this relationship exists. Organizational culture can be a factor in the survival or failure of an organization – although this is difficult to prove given that the necessary longitudinal analyses are hardly feasible",
". The sustained superior performance of firms like IBM, Hewlett-Packard, Procter & Gamble, and McDonald's may be, at least partly, a reflection of their organizational cultures.",
"A 2003 Harvard Business School study reported that culture has a significant effect on an organization's long-term economic performance. The study examined the management practices at 160 organizations over ten years and found that culture can enhance performance or prove detrimental to performance. Organizations with strong performance-oriented cultures witnessed far better financial growth",
". Organizations with strong performance-oriented cultures witnessed far better financial growth. Additionally, a 2002 Corporate Leadership Council study found that cultural traits such as risk taking, internal communications, and flexibility are some of the most important drivers of performance, and may affect individual performance. Furthermore, innovativeness, productivity through people, and the other cultural factors cited by Peters and Waterman (1982) also have positive economic consequences.",
"Denison, Haaland, and Goelzer (2004) found that culture contributes to the success of the organization, but not all dimensions contribute the same. It was found that the effects of these dimensions differ by global regions, which suggests that organizational culture is affected by national culture. Additionally, Clarke (2006) found that a safety climate is related to an organization's safety record.",
"Organizational culture is reflected in the way people perform tasks, set objectives, and administer the necessary resources to achieve objectives. Culture affects the way individuals make decisions, feel, and act in response to the opportunities and threats affecting the organization.",
"Adkins and Caldwell (2004) found that job satisfaction was positively associated with the degree to which employees fit into both the overall culture and subculture in which they worked. A perceived mismatch of the organization's culture and what employees felt the culture should be is related to a number of negative consequences including lower job satisfaction, higher job strain, general stress, and turnover intent.",
"It has been proposed that organizational culture may affect the level of employee creativity, the strength of employee motivation, and the reporting of unethical behavior, but more research is needed to support these conclusions.",
"Organizational culture also affects recruitment and retention. Individuals tend to be attracted to and remain engaged in organizations that they perceive to be compatible. Additionally, high turnover may be a mediating factor in the relationship between culture and organizational performance. Deteriorating company performance and an unhealthy work environment are signs of an overdue cultural assessment.",
"Moreover, organizational culture also has an effect on knowledge sharing. Succeeding in knowledge transfer is highly dependent on an organizational culture that fosters, adopts and utilizes knowledge-transfer processes.Also, studies in transportation organizations (e. g. bus organizations) showed that organizational culture has an effect on road traffic crashes.",
"Change",
"When an organization does not possess a healthy culture or requires some kind of organizational culture change, the change process can be daunting. Organizational culture can hinder new change efforts, especially where employees know their expectations and the roles that they are supposed to play in the organization. This is corroborated by Mar (2016:1) who argues that 70% of all change efforts fail because of the culture of an organization's employees",
". One major reason why such change is difficult is that organizational cultures, and the organizational structures in which they are embedded, often reflect the \"imprint\" of earlier periods in a persistent way and exhibit remarkable levels of inertia",
". Culture change may be necessary to reduce employee turnover, influence employee behavior, make improvements to the company, refocus the company objectives and/or rescale the organization, provide better customer service, and/or achieve specific company goals and results",
". Culture change is affected by a number of elements, including the external environment and industry competitors, change in industry standards, technology changes, the size and nature of the workforce, and the organization's history and management. Some organizations change or modify their cultures with intentional directed effort",
"There are a number of methodologies specifically dedicated to organizational culture change such as Peter Senge's Fifth Discipline. There are also a variety of psychological approaches that have been developed into a system for specific outcomes such as the Fifth Discipline's \"learning organization\" or Directive Communication's \"corporate culture evolution\". Ideas and strategies, on the other hand, seem to vary according to particular influences that affect culture.",
"Burman and Evans (2008) argue that it is 'leadership' that affects culture rather than 'management', and describe the difference. When one wants to change an aspect of the culture of an organization one has to keep in consideration that this is a long-term project. Corporate culture is something that is very hard to change and employees need time to get used to the new way of organizing. For companies with a very strong and specific culture it will be even harder to change.",
"Prior to a cultural change initiative, a needs assessment is needed to identify and understand the current organizational culture. This can be done through employee surveys, interviews, focus groups, observation, customer surveys where appropriate, and other internal research, to further identify areas that require change. The company must then assess and clearly identify the new, desired culture, and then design a change process.",
"Cummings & Worley (2004, p. 491–492) give the following six guidelines for cultural change, these changes are in line with the eight distinct stages mentioned by Kotter (1995, p. 2):\n Formulate a clear strategic vision (stage 1, 2, and 3). In order to make a cultural change effective a clear vision of the firm's new strategy, shared values and behaviors is needed. This vision provides the intention and direction for the culture change (Cummings & Worley, 2004, p. 490).",
"Display top-management commitment (stage 4). It is very important to keep in mind that culture change must be managed from the top of the organization, as willingness to change of the senior management is an important indicator (Cummings & Worley, 2004, page 490). The top of the organization should be very much in favor of the change in order to actually implement the change in the rest of the organization",
". De Caluwé & Vermaak (2004, p 9) provide a framework with five different ways of thinking about change.",
"Model culture change at the highest level (stage 5). In order to show that the management team is in favor of the change, the change has to be notable at first at this level. The behavior of the management needs to symbolize the kinds of values and behaviors that should be realized in the rest of the company",
". It is important that the management shows the strengths of the current culture as well; it must be made clear that the current organizational culture does not need radical changes, but just a few adjustments. (See for more: Deal & Kennedy, 1982; Sathe, 1983; Schall; 1983; Weick, 1985; DiTomaso, 1987). This process may also include creating committees, employee task forces, value managers, or similar. Change agents are key in the process and key communicators of the new values",
". Change agents are key in the process and key communicators of the new values. They should possess courage, flexibility, excellent interpersonal skills, knowledge of the company, and patience. As McCune (May 1999) puts it, these individuals should be catalysts, not dictators.",
"The fourth step is to modify the organization to support organizational change. This includes identifying what current systems, policies, procedures and rules need to be changed in order to align with the new values and desired culture. This may include a change to accountability systems, compensation, benefits and reward structures, and recruitment and retention programs to better align with the new values and to send a clear message to employees that the old system and culture are in the past.",
"Select and socialize newcomers and terminate deviants (stage 7 & 8 of Kotter, 1995, p. 2). A way to implement a culture is to connect it to organizational membership, people can be selected and terminated in terms of their fit with the new culture (Cummings & Worley, 2004, p. 491). Encouraging employee motivation and loyalty to the company is key and will also result in a healthy culture",
". The company and change managers should be able to articulate the connections between the desired behavior and how it will affect and improve the company's success, to further encourage buy-in in the change process. Training should be provided to all employees to understand the new processes, expectations and systems.",
"Develop ethical and legal sensitivity. Changes in culture can lead to tensions between organizational and individual interests, which can result in ethical and legal problems for practitioners. This is particularly relevant for changes in employee integrity, control, equitable treatment and job security (Cummings & Worley, 2004, p. 491)",
". 491). It is also beneficial, as part of the change process, to include an evaluation process, conducted periodically to monitor the change progress and identify areas that need further development. This step will also identify obstacles of change and resistant employees, and acknowledge and reward employee improvement, which will encourage continued change and evolvement. It may also be helpful and necessary to incorporate new change managers to refresh the process",
". It may also be helpful and necessary to incorporate new change managers to refresh the process. Outside consultants may also be useful in facilitating the change process and providing employee training. Change of culture in organizations is very important and inevitable. Cultural innovation is bound to be more difficult than cultural maintenance because it entails introducing something new and substantially different from what prevails in existing cultures",
". People often resist changes, hence it is the duty of management to convince people that likely gain will outweigh the losses. Besides institutionalization, deification is another process that tends to occur in strongly developed organizational cultures. The organization itself may come to be regarded as precious in itself, as a source of pride, and in some sense unique. The organization's members begin to feel a strong bond with it that transcends material returns, and they begin to identify with it",
". The organization turns into a sort of clan.",
"Mergers and cultural leadership\nOne of the biggest obstacles in the way of the merging of two organizations is organizational culture. Each organization has its own unique culture and most often, when brought together, these cultures clash. When mergers fail employees point to issues such as identity, communication problems, human resources problems, ego clashes, and inter-group conflicts, which all fall under the category of \"cultural differences\".",
"One way to combat such difficulties is through cultural leadership. Organizational leaders must also be cultural leaders and help facilitate the change from the two old cultures into the one new culture. This is done through cultural innovation followed by cultural maintenance.\n Cultural innovation includes:\n Creating a new culture: recognizing past cultural differences and setting realistic expectations for change\n Changing the culture: weakening and replacing the old cultures",
"Changing the culture: weakening and replacing the old cultures\n Cultural maintenance includes:\n Integrating the new culture: reconciling the differences between the old cultures and the new one\n Embodying the new culture: Establishing, affirming, and keeping the new culture",
"Corporate subcultures\nCorporate culture is the total sum of the values, customs, traditions, and meanings that make a company unique. Corporate culture is often called \"the character of an organization\", since it embodies the vision of the company's founders. The values of a corporate culture influence the ethical standards within a corporation, as well as managerial behavior.",
"Senior management may try to determine a corporate culture. They may wish to impose corporate values and standards of behavior that specifically reflect the objectives of the organization. In addition, there will also be an extant internal culture within the workforce. Work-groups within the organization have their own behavioral quirks and interactions which, to an extent, affect the whole system",
". Roger Harrison's four-culture typology, adapted by Charles Handy, suggests that unlike organizational culture, corporate culture can be 'imported'. For example, computer technicians will have expertise, language and behaviors gained independently of the organization, but their presence can influence the culture of the organization as a whole.",
"Authors Gerard Egan and William Tate speak of organizations having a \"shadow side\". In Egan's work on the \"shadow side\" of organizations, he defined the shadow side as: \n\nTate describes the shadow side as the \"often disagreeable, messy, crazy and opaque aspects of [an] organisation's personality\".",
"Legal aspects\nCorporate culture can legally be found to be a cause of injuries and a reason for fining companies in the US, e.g., when the US Department of Labor Mine Safety and Health Administration levied a fine of more than 10.8 million US dollars on Performance Coal Co. following the Upper Big Branch Mine disaster in April 2010. This was the largest fine in the history of this U.S. government agency.\n\nResearch and models",
"Research and models\n\nSeveral methods have been used to classify organizational culture. While there is no single \"type\" of organizational culture and organizational cultures vary widely from one organization to the next, commonalities do exist and some researchers have developed models to describe different indicators of organizational cultures. Some are described below:\n\nHofstede",
"Hofstede (1991) defined organizational culture as \"the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one organization from another.\" Hofstede (1980) looked for differences between over 160 000 IBM employees in 50 countries and three regions of the world, in an attempt to find aspects of culture that might influence business behavior",
". He suggested things about cultural differences existing in regions and nations, and the importance of international awareness and multiculturalism for their own cultural introspection. Cultural differences reflect differences in thinking and social action, and even in \"mental programs\", a term Hofstede uses for predictable behavior",
". Hofstede relates culture to ethnic and regional groups, but also organizations, professional, family, social and subcultural groups, national political systems and legislation, etc.",
"Hofstede suggests the need for changing \"mental programs\" with changing behavior first, which will lead to value change. Though certain groups like Jews and Gypsies have maintained their identity through centuries, their values show adaptation to the dominant cultural environment.\n\nHofstede demonstrated that there are national and regional cultural groupings that affect the behavior of organizations and identified four dimensions of culture (later five) in his study of national cultures:",
"Power distance (Mauk Mulder, 1977) – Different societies find different solutions regarding social inequality. Although invisible, inside organizations power inequality of the \"boss-subordinate relationships\" is functional and according to Hofstede reflects the way inequality is addressed in the society",
". \"According to Mulder's Power Distance Reduction theory subordinates will try to reduce the power distance between themselves and their bosses and bosses will try to maintain or enlarge it\", but there is also a degree to which a society expects there to be differences in the levels of power. A high score suggests that there is an expectation that some individuals wield larger amounts of power than others. A low score reflects the view that all people should have equal rights.",
"Uncertainty avoidance is the way of coping with uncertainty about the future. Society copes with it with technology, law and religion (though different societies have different ways of addressing it), and according to Hofstede organizations deal with it with technology, law and rituals, or in two ways – rational and non-rational, with rituals being the non-rational",
". Hofstede listed some of the rituals as the memos and reports, some parts of the accounting system, a large part of the planning and control systems, and the nomination of experts.",
"Individualism vs. collectivism – disharmony of interests on personal and collective goals (Parsons and Shils, 1951). Hofstede raises the idea that society's expectations of Individualism/Collectivism will be reflected by the employee inside the organization. Collectivist societies will have more emotional dependence on members in their organizations; when in equilibrium an organization is expected to show responsibility to members. Extreme individualism is seen in the US",
". Extreme individualism is seen in the US. In fact, collectivism in the US is seen as \"bad\". Other cultures and societies than the US will therefore seek to resolve social and organizational problems in ways different from American ways. Hofstede says that a capitalist market economy fosters individualism and competition, and depends on it, but individualism is also related to the development of the middle class. Some people and cultures might have both high individualism and high collectivism",
". Some people and cultures might have both high individualism and high collectivism. For example, someone who highly values duty to his or her group does not necessarily give a low priority to personal freedom and self-sufficiency.",
"Masculinity vs. femininity – reflects whether a certain society is predominantly male or female in terms of cultural values, gender roles and power relations.",
"Long- Versus Short-Term Orientation which he describes as \"The long-term orientation dimension can be interpreted as dealing with society's search for virtue. Societies with a short-term orientation generally have a strong concern with establishing the absolute Truth. They are normative in their thinking. They exhibit great respect for traditions, a relatively small propensity to save for the future, and a focus on achieving quick results",
". In societies with a long-term orientation, people believe that truth depends very much on situation, context and time. They show an ability to adapt traditions to changed conditions, a strong propensity to save and invest, thriftiness, and perseverance in achieving results.\"",
"These dimensions refer to the effect of national cultures on management, and can be used to adapt policies to local needs.\nIn a follow-up study, another model is suggested for organizational culture. Soeters and Schreuder (1988) have used Hofstede's dimensions to study the interaction between national and organizational cultures in accounting firms.\n\nO'Reilly, Chatman, and Caldwell \n\nTwo common models and their associated measurement tools have been developed by O'Reilly et al. and Denison.",
"O'Reilly, Chatman & Caldwell (1991) developed a model based on the belief that cultures can be distinguished by values that are reinforced within organizations. Their Organizational Cultural Profile (OCP) is a self-reporting tool which makes distinctions according eight categories – Innovation, Supportiveness, Stability, Respect for People, Outcome Orientation, Attention to Detail, Team Orientation, and Aggressiveness",
". The model is also suited to measure how organizational culture affects organizational performance, as it measures most efficient persons suited to an organization and as such organizations can be termed as having good organizational culture. Takeda (2007) explained that such model can measure both the person-situation fit and the person-culture fit. Such measurements allow to understand the level of compatibility between employees and companies (culture)",
". Employee values are measured against organizational values to predict employee intentions to stay and turnover. This is done through an instrument like Organizational Culture Profile (OCP) to measure employee commitment.",
"Daniel Denison \n\nDaniel Denison's model (1990) asserts that organizational culture can be described by four general dimensions – Mission, Adaptability, Involvement and Consistency. Each of these general dimensions is further described by the following three sub-dimensions:",
"Mission – Strategic Direction and Intent, Goals and Objectives and Vision\n Adaptability – Creating Change, Customer Focus and Organizational Learning\n Involvement – Empowerment, Team Orientation and Capability Development\n Consistency – Core Values, Agreement, Coordination/Integration\n\nDenison's model also allows cultures to be described broadly as externally or internally focused as well as flexible versus stable. The model has been typically used to diagnose cultural problems in organizations.",
"Deal and Kennedy \nTerrence E. Deal and Allan A. Kennedy (1982) defined organizational culture as the way things get done around here.\n\nDeal and Kennedy created a model of culture that is based on four different types of organizations. They each focus on how quickly the organization receives feedback, the way members are rewarded, and the level of risks taken:",
"Work-hard, play-hard culture: This has rapid feedback/reward and low risk resulting in: Stress coming from quantity of work rather than uncertainty. High-speed action leading to high-speed recreation. Examples: Restaurants, software companies.\nTough-guy macho culture: This has rapid feedback/reward and high risk, resulting in the following: Stress coming from high risk and potential loss/gain of reward. Focus on the present rather than the longer-term future. Examples: police, surgeons, sports.",
"Process culture: This has slow feedback/reward and low risk, resulting in the following: Low stress, plodding work, comfort and security. Stress that comes from internal politics and stupidity of the system. Development of bureaucracies and other ways of maintaining the status quo. Focus on security of the past and of the future. Examples: banks, insurance companies.",
"Bet-the-company culture: This has slow feedback/reward and high risk, resulting in the following: Stress coming from high risk and delay before knowing if actions have paid off. The long view is taken, but then much work is put into making sure things happen as planned. Examples: aircraft manufacturers, oil companies.",
"Edgar Schein \n\nAccording to Schein (1992), culture is the most difficult organizational attribute to change, outlasting organizational products, services, founders and leadership and all other physical attributes of the organization. His organizational model illuminates culture from the standpoint of the observer, described at three levels: artifacts, espoused values and basic underlying assumptions.",
"At the first and most cursory level of Schein's model is organizational attributes that can be seen, felt and heard by the uninitiated observer – collectively known as artifacts. Included are the facilities, offices, furnishings, visible awards and recognition, the way that its members dress, how each person visibly interacts with each other and with organizational outsiders, and even company slogans, mission statements and other operational creeds.",
"Artifacts comprise the physical components of the organization that relay cultural meaning. Daniel Denison (1990) describes artifacts as the tangible aspects of culture shared by members of an organization. Verbal, behavioral and physical artifacts are the surface manifestations of organizational culture.",
"Rituals, the collective interpersonal behavior and values as demonstrated by that behavior, constitute the fabric of an organization's culture. The contents of myths, stories, and sagas reveal the history of an organization and influence how people understand what their organization values and believes. Language, stories, and myths are examples of verbal artifacts and are represented in rituals and ceremonies. Technology and art exhibited by members of an organization are examples of physical artifacts.",
"The next level deals with the professed culture of an organization's members – the values. Shared values are individuals' preferences regarding certain aspects of the organization's culture (e.g. loyalty, customer service). At this level, local and personal values are widely expressed within the organization. Basic beliefs and assumptions include individuals' impressions about the trustworthiness and supportiveness of an organization, and are often deeply ingrained within the organization's culture",
". Organizational behavior at this level usually can be studied by interviewing the organization's membership and using questionnaires to gather attitudes about organizational membership.",
"At the third and deepest level, the organization's tacit assumptions are found. These are the elements of culture that are unseen and not cognitively identified in everyday interactions between organizational members. Additionally, these are the elements of culture which are often taboo to discuss inside the organization. Many of these 'unspoken rules' exist without the conscious knowledge of the membership",
". Many of these 'unspoken rules' exist without the conscious knowledge of the membership. Those with sufficient experience to understand this deepest level of organizational culture usually become acclimatized to its attributes over time, thus reinforcing the invisibility of their existence. Surveys and casual interviews with organizational members cannot draw out these attributes—rather much more in-depth means is required to first identify then understand organizational culture at this level",
". Notably, culture at this level is the underlying and driving element often missed by organizational behaviorists.",
"Using Schein's model, understanding paradoxical organizational behaviors becomes more apparent. For instance, an organization can profess highly aesthetic and moral standards at the second level of Schein's model while simultaneously displaying curiously opposing behavior at the third and deepest level of culture. Superficially, organizational rewards can imply one organizational norm but at the deepest level imply something completely different",
". This insight offers an understanding of the difficulty that organizational newcomers have in assimilating organizational culture and why it takes time to become acclimatized. It also explains why organizational change agents usually fail to achieve their goals: underlying tacit cultural norms are generally not understood before would-be change agents begin their actions",
". Merely understanding culture at the deepest level may be insufficient to institute cultural change because the dynamics of interpersonal relationships (often under threatening conditions) are added to the dynamics of organizational culture while attempts are made to institute desired change.",
"According to Schein (1992), the two main reasons why cultures develop in organizations is due to external adaptation and internal integration. External adaptation reflects an evolutionary approach to organizational culture and suggests that cultures develop and persist because they help an organization to survive and flourish. If the culture is valuable, then it holds the potential for generating sustained competitive advantages",
". Additionally, internal integration is an important function since social structures are required for organizations to exist. Organizational practices are learned through socialization at the workplace. Work environments reinforce culture on a daily basis by encouraging employees to exercise cultural values.",
"Organizational culture is shaped by multiple factors, including the following:\n External environment\n Industry\n Size and nature of the organization's workforce\n Technologies the organization uses\n The organization's history and ownership",
"Gerry Johnson \n\nGerry Johnson (1988) described a cultural web, identifying a number of elements that can be used to describe or influence organizational culture:",
"The paradigm: What the organization is about, what it does, its mission, its values.\nControl systems: The processes in place to monitor what is going on. Role cultures would have vast rule-books. There would be more reliance on individualism in a power culture.\nOrganizational structures: Reporting lines, hierarchies, and the way that work flows through the business.\nPower structures: Who makes the decisions, how widely spread is power, and on what is power based?",
"Power structures: Who makes the decisions, how widely spread is power, and on what is power based?\nSymbols: These include organizational logos and designs, but also extend to symbols of power such as parking spaces and executive washrooms.\nRituals and routines: Management meetings, board reports and so on may become more habitual than necessary.\nStories and myths: build up about people and events, and convey a message about what is valued within the organization.",
"These elements may overlap. Power structures may depend on control systems, which may exploit the very rituals that generate stories which may not be true.\n\nStanley G. Harris \n\nSchemata (plural of schema) are knowledge structures a person forms from past experiences, allowing the person to respond to similar events more efficiently in the future by guiding the processing of information. A person's schemata are created through interaction with others, and thus inherently involve communication.",
"Stanley G. Harris (1994) argues that five categories of in-organization schemata are necessary for organizational culture:",
"Self-in-organization schemata: a person's concept of oneself within the context of the organization, including her/his personality, roles, and behavior.\nPerson-in-organization schemata: a person's memories, impressions, and expectations of other individuals within the organization.\nOrganization schemata: a subset of person schemata, a person's generalized perspective on others as a whole in the organization.",
"Object/concept-in-organization schemata: knowledge an individual has of organization aspects other than of other persons.\nEvent-in-organization schemata: a person's knowledge of social events within an organization.",
"All of these categories together represent a person's knowledge of an organization.\nOrganizational culture is created when the schematas (schematic structures) of differing individuals across and within an organization come to resemble each other (when any one person's schemata come to resemble another person's schemata because of mutual organizational involvement), primarily done through organizational communication, as individuals directly or indirectly share knowledge and meanings.\n\nCharles Handy",
"Charles Handy \n\nCharles Handy (1976), popularized Roger Harrison (1972) with linking organizational structure to organizational culture. The described four types of culture are:",
"Power culture: concentrates power among a small group or a central figure and its control is radiating from its center like a web. Power cultures need only a few rules and little bureaucracy but swift in decisions can ensue.",
"Role culture: authorities are delegated as such within a highly defined structure. These organizations form hierarchical bureaucracies, where power derives from the personal position and rarely from an expert power. Control is made by procedures (which are highly valued), strict roles descriptions and authority definitions. These organizations have consistent systems and are very predictable. This culture is often represented by a \"Roman Building\" having pillars",
". This culture is often represented by a \"Roman Building\" having pillars. These pillars represent the functional departments.",
"Task culture: teams are formed to solve particular problems. Power is derived from the team with the expertise to execute against a task. This culture uses a small team approach, where people are highly skilled and specialized in their own area of expertise. Additionally, these cultures often feature the multiple reporting lines seen in a matrix structure.",
"Person culture: formed where all individuals believe themselves superior to the organization. It can become difficult for such organizations to continue to operate, since the concept of an organization suggests that a group of like-minded individuals pursue organizational goals. However some professional partnerships operate well as person cultures, because each partner brings a particular expertise and clientele to the firm.",
"Kim Cameron and Robert Quinn \n\nKim Cameron and Robert Quinn (1999) conducted research on organizational effectiveness and success. Based on the Competing Values Framework, they developed the Organizational Culture Assessment Instrument that distinguishes four culture types.",
"Competing values produce polarities like flexibility vs. stability and internal vs. external focus – these two polarities were found to be most important in defining organizational success. The polarities construct a quadrant with four types of culture:",
"Clan culture (internal focus and flexible) – A friendly workplace where leaders act like father figures.\nAdhocracy culture (external focus and flexible) – A dynamic workplace with leaders that stimulate innovation.\n Market culture (external focus and controlled) – A competitive workplace with leaders like hard drivers\nHierarchy culture (internal focus and controlled) – A structured and formalized workplace where leaders act like coordinators.",
"Cameron and Quinn designated six characteristics of organizational culture that can be assessed with the Organizational Culture Assessment Instrument (OCAI).",
"Clan cultures are most strongly associated with positive employee attitudes and product and service quality. Market cultures are most strongly related with innovation and financial effectiveness criteria",
". Market cultures are most strongly related with innovation and financial effectiveness criteria. The primary belief in market cultures that clear goals and contingent rewards motivate employees to aggressively perform and meet stakeholders' expectations; a core belief in clan cultures is that the organization's trust in and commitment to employees facilitates open communication and employee involvement",
". These differing results suggest that it is important for executive leaders to consider the match between strategic initiatives and organizational culture when determining how to embed a culture that produces competitive advantage. By assessing the current organizational culture as well as the preferred situation, the gap and direction to change can be made visible as a first step to changing organizational culture.",
"Robert A. Cooke \n\nRobert A. Cooke defines culture as the behaviors that members believe are required to fit in and meet expectations within their organization. The Organizational Culture Inventory measures twelve behavioral norms that are grouped into three general types of cultures:",
"Constructive cultures, in which members are encouraged to interact with people and approach tasks in ways that help them meet their higher-order satisfaction needs.\n Passive/defensive cultures, in which members believe they must interact with people in ways that will not threaten their own security.\n Aggressive/defensive cultures, in which members are expected to approach tasks in forceful ways to protect their status and security.\n\nConstructive cultures",
"Constructive cultures \n\nIn constructive cultures, people are encouraged to be in communication with their co-workers, and work as teams, rather than only as individuals. In positions where people do a complex job, rather than something simple like a mechanical task, this culture is efficient.",
"Achievement: completing a task successfully, typically by effort, courage, or skill (pursue a standard of excellence) (explore alternatives before acting) – Based on the need to attain high-quality results on challenging projects, the belief that outcomes are linked to one's effort rather than chance and the tendency to personally set challenging yet realistic goals. People high in this style think ahead and plan, explore alternatives before acting and learn from their mistakes.",
"Self-actualizing: realization or fulfillment of one's talents and potentialities – considered as a drive or need present in everyone (think in unique and independent ways) (do even simple tasks well) – Based on needs for personal growth, self-fulfillment and the realization of one's potential. People with this style demonstrate a strong desire to learn and experience things, creative yet realistic thinking and a balanced concern for people and tasks.",
"Humanistic-encouraging: help others to grow and develop (resolve conflicts constructively) – Reflects an interest in the growth and development of people, a high positive regard for them and sensitivity to their needs. People high in this style devote energy to coaching and counselling others, are thoughtful and considerate and provide people with support and encouragement.",
"Affiliative: treat people as more valuable than things (cooperate with others) – Reflects an interest in developing and sustaining pleasant relationships. People high in this style share their thoughts and feelings, are friendly and cooperative and make others feel a part of things.",
"Organizations with constructive cultures encourage members to work to their full potential, resulting in high levels of motivation, satisfaction, teamwork, service quality, and sales growth. Constructive norms are evident in environments where quality is valued over quantity, creativity is valued over conformity, cooperation is believed to lead to better results than competition, and effectiveness is judged at the system level rather than the component level",
". These types of cultural norms are consistent with (and supportive of) the objectives behind empowerment, total quality management, transformational leadership, continuous improvement, re-engineering, and learning organizations.",
"Passive/defensive cultures \n\nNorms that reflect expectations for members to interact with people in ways that will not threaten their own security are in the Passive/Defensive Cluster.\n\nThe four Passive/Defensive cultural norms are:\n\n Approval\n Conventional\n Dependent\n Avoidance",
"In organizations with Passive/Defensive cultures, members feel pressured to think and behave in ways that are inconsistent with the way they believe they should in order to be effective. People are expected to please others (particularly superiors) and avoid interpersonal conflict. Rules, procedures, and orders are more important than personal beliefs, ideas, and judgment",
". Rules, procedures, and orders are more important than personal beliefs, ideas, and judgment. Passive/Defensive cultures experience a lot of unresolved conflict and turnover, and organizational members report lower levels of motivation and satisfaction.",
"Aggressive/defensive cultures \n\nThis style is characterized with more emphasis on task than people. Because of the very nature of this style, people tend to focus on their own individual needs at the expense of the success of the group. The aggressive/defensive style is very stressful, and people using this style tend to make decisions based on status as opposed to expertise.",
"Oppositional – This cultural norm is based on the idea that a need for security that takes the form of being very critical and cynical at times. People who use this style are more likely to question others work; however, asking those tough question often leads to a better product. Nonetheless, those who use this style may be overly-critical toward others, using irrelevant or trivial flaws to put others down.",
"Power – This cultural norm is based on the idea that there is a need for prestige and influence. Those who use this style often equate their own self-worth with controlling others. Those who use this style have a tendency to dictate others opposing to guiding others' actions.",
"Competitive – This cultural norm is based on the idea of a need to protect one's status. Those who use this style protect their own status by comparing themselves to other individuals and outperforming them. Those who use this style are seekers of appraisal and recognition from others.",
"Perfectionistic – This cultural norm is based on the need to attain flawless results. Those who often use this style equate their self-worth with the attainment of extremely high standards. Those who often use this style are always focused on details and place excessive demands on themselves and others.",
"Organizations with aggressive/defensive cultures encourage or require members to appear competent, controlled, and superior. Members who seek assistance, admit shortcomings, or concede their position are viewed as incompetent or weak. These organizations emphasize finding errors, weeding out \"mistakes\" and encouraging members to compete against each other rather than competitors. The short-term gains associated with these strategies are often at the expense of long-term growth.\n\nAdam Grant",
"Adam Grant, author of the book Give and Take, distinguishes organizational cultures into giver, taker and matcher cultures according to their norms of reciprocity",
". In a giver culture, employees operate by \"helping others, sharing knowledge, offering mentoring, and making connections without expecting anything in return\", whereas in a taker culture \"the norm is to get as much as possible from others while contributing less in return\" and winners are those who take the most and are able to build their power at the expense of others",
". The majority of organizations are mid-way, with a matcher culture, in which the norm is to match giving with taking, and favours are mostly traded in closed loops.",
"In a study by Harvard researchers on units of the US intelligence system, a giver culture turned out to be the strongest predictor of group effectiveness.",
"As Grant points out, Robert H. Frank argues that \"many organizations are essentially winner-take-all markets, dominated by zero-sum competitions for rewards and promotions\". In particular, when leaders implement forced ranking systems to reward individual performance, the organisational culture tends to change, with a giver culture giving way to a taker or matcher culture. Also awarding the highest-performing individual within each team encourages a taker culture.\n\nStephen McGuire",
"Stephen McGuire (2003) defined and validated a model of organizational culture that predicts revenue from new sources",
". An Entrepreneurial Organizational Culture (EOC) is a system of shared values, beliefs and norms of members of an organization, including valuing creativity and tolerance of creative people, believing that innovating and seizing market opportunities are appropriate behaviors to deal with problems of survival and prosperity, environmental uncertainty, and competitors' threats, and expecting organizational members to behave accordingly.",
"Elements \n\n People and empowerment focused\n Value creation through innovation and change\n Attention to the basics\n Hands-on management\n Doing the right thing\n Freedom to grow and to fail\n Commitment and personal responsibility\n Emphasis on the future",
"Eric Flamholtz",
"Eric Flamholtz (2001; 2011) has identified and validated a model of organizational culture components that drive financial results (Flamholtz and Randle, 2011). The model consist of five identified dimensions of corporate culture: 1) treatment of customers, 2) treatment of people, 3) performance standards and accountability, 4) innovation and change, and 5) process orientation",
". These five dimensions have been confirmed by factor analysis (Flamholtz and Narasimhan-Kannan, 2005) in addition, Flamholtz has published empirical research that show the impact of organizational culture on financial performance (Flamholtz, 2001). Flamholtz has also proposed that organizational (corporate) culture is not just an asset in the economic sense; but is also an \"asset\" in the conventional accounting sense (Flamholtz 2005)",
". Flamholtz and Randle have also examined the evolution of organizational culture at different stages of organizational growth (Flamholtz and Randle, 2014).",
"Ethical frameworks and evaluations of corporate culture \nThe cultural framework helps researchers to analyze culture with different ethnographic within organizations. Those frameworks can be categorized into the following: \nFrameworks including\n\n1. Kets de Vries and Miller (1984): the researcher linked neurotic styles with organizational functioning by focusing on the culture's negative features and aspects. They categorized cultures into Paranoid, Avoidant, Charismatic, Bureaucratic, and Schizoid.",
"2. Mitroff and Kilmann (1975): the researchers studied managers' decision-making within a politicized culture and categorized culture types into Sensation thinking, Sensation feeling, Intuitive thinking, and Intuitive feeling.\n\n3. Sethia and Von Gilnow in 1985: the researchers categorized culture based on the company's main concern into Caring, Apathetic, Integrative, and Exacting.",
"4. Deal and Kennedy (1982): the researchers defined cultures based on organizational environment, core beliefs, heroes of the culture, folklore, myths, rites, rituals of culture, and the cultural network.\n\n5. Ouchi and Jaeger (1978): the researcher classified cultures into types A (allows some decision making), J (tribal control), and Z (tribal decision making).",
"A cultural audit, on the other hand, is an assessment of an organization's values, and it helps organizations classify what corporate culture they have.",
"COVID-19 impact on organizational culture \nSince the COVID-19 outbreak, cultures have been redefined within different organizations, and the responsibility to fight the spread of the disease and its transmission, especially in workplaces become a collective responsibility. For that, employees who had returned to work at offices found it necessary to wear masks either by choice or by companies' regulations.",
"Joung (2020) explained that it is not new by any stretch to wear a mask in Asia; however, it became the new face of the culture in the rest of the world in retrospect after the pandemic hit at the beginning of 2020. Therefore, it is essential to understand the underlying cultural narrative behind wearing masks in Asia long before the COVID-19 pandemic.",
"Keggins (2021) explained the reason behind wearing masks to multiple reasons, including the spread of different types of flu in Asia over the years, such as; Spanish flu, Italian flu, Hong Kong flu, Avian flu, and Swine flu. Additionally, the spread of SARS, an increase of Pollen count and Hay fever, Great Kanto earthquake and its emissions of smoke, ash, gas, and air pollution, Tōkohu earthquake and tsunami, and radioactive particles",
". So naturally, after decades, wearing a mask became a common cultural practice, and wearing it is considered a good manner and a civic duty.",
"Somers (2021) categorized cultures based on whether the need of the individual or the group is favored on account of the other to individualistic and collectivism cultures, respectively. For example, wearing a mask is considered a characteristic of a collectivism culture, and thus the collective responsibility symbolizes solidarity and the new image of cultural value. Also, Joung (2020) explained that wearing masks could serve as a social firewall because it attracts less attention",
". However, Sorenson (2002, in Daum and Maraist, 2021) argued that one of the strong cultural characteristics is the resistance to the change, which puts it at a disadvantage, especially in times of pandemics and when implementing safety measures for employees. By contrast, Flynn & Chatman claimed that strong culture focuses on innovation, and thus it has a more tendency to change and adapt to crisis circumstances.",
"Bhattarai (2020) claimed that wearing face masks could lead to misinterpretation of attitudes during interactions because face-to-face meetings and conversation creates rapport and trust. Therefore, wearing a mask side by side with social distancing needs to be addressed as an issue to find solutions to develop a sustainable interaction between employees on one hand and employees with customers on the other hand",
". Having said that, Cleeland (2020) claimed that face masks are there to curtail the spread of the Corona Virus and not as a piece of personal protective equipment.",
"In light of this, as defined by Young and Maraist (2020), culture is the corporation personality that influences people's stances toward \"conflict, change, failure, and success\". Such influence results in imparting a sense of security and thus satisfaction for employees",
". Such influence results in imparting a sense of security and thus satisfaction for employees. Weston (2021) added that it influences employees' working experience, engagement, stress, happiness, satisfaction, motivation, and productivity, which leads us to discuss how did the COVID-19 impact the organizational cultures, working experience, and values.",
"Daum and Maraist (2021) discussed in their paper titled \"The importance of culture in the era of COVID-19\" that COVID-19 has affected organizational culture to a large extent. The authors explain the importance and urgent need for organizations to readdress concepts such as adversity and change pre and post-pandemic as that concept is the core definition of culture.",
"To this end, corporate life did not stop during the pandemic; instead, the pandemic changed how operations took place. As a result, the Strategist (2020) suggested that a new model emerged, namely the \"geographically dispersed delivery model\". In addition, Thomas (2021) noted that there became an accelerated utilization and adoption of digital tools to bridge distances",
". Such tools included; \"videoconferencing, screen-sharing, digital shared file storage, simultaneous multi-authoring of documents, digital whiteboards, and smartphone chat groups.\"",
"However, the excessive use of technology as a primary way of communication has led to many issues, including Zoom fatigue. Additionally, newly hired employees, especially in the period of pandemics, faced difficulty assimilating into their teams due to working in a remote capacity. On the other hand, older employees met a changed dynamics where it is hard to overreach the organization's mission",
". Additionally, Klynn (2021) highlighted how cultures suffered, and employees felt disengaged, expandable rather than essential, alienated, and exhausted.",
"Klynn (2021) suggested many solutions to solve the lack of communication, advance the organization's strategies, and keep employees in connection with the company's core values",
". Such solutions included making employees feel valued, heard, and engaged, creating equity for all team members, communicating with employees through proactive conversation, identifying unnecessary old habits and getting rid of them, identifying newly emerged practices that proved valuable, designing and building the new culture/norm, and making change explicit",
". Similarly, Weston (2021) and Stoller (2020) stressed the need to invest in technology and multiple dissemination media to develop new policies and have iterative communication.",
"The Strategist (2020) suggested maintaining daily stand-ups, extending meeting time and skip meetings for informal conversation, enhancing the sense of community at work, and expressing more gratitude by saying thank you to colleagues who cannot see you. Also, Thomas (2021) suggested frequent check-ins.",
"After listing possible problems and their solutions that may happen due to remote work, Sull and Sull (2020) reported that during the pandemic, employees had rated their leadership highly on account of honest communication, integrity in addressing the pandemic, and more transparency than in preceding years. Also, employers and leaders have given more attention to employees' welfare and work agility during a time of turmoil. The authors concluded that such an outcome has a positive impact on cultural values",
". The authors concluded that such an outcome has a positive impact on cultural values. However, Chambers (2020) claimed that such results do not reflect the organizational culture change rather a response to the pandemic. Thus corporates need to incorporate such changes in the internal culture long after the pandemic is gone.",
"Deloitte (2020) argued that due to COVID-19, employees originated a sense of purpose, inspiration, and contribution. On the other hand, leaders became more tolerant of employees' failure because of a significant increase in experimenting and risk-taking, which led to improved productivity. Additionally, increased agility and flexibility in policies at work, side by side with a loose hierarchy that drives a culture of accountability",
". In comparison, De Castro and Meneses (2020) found that organizational culture is a precise predictor of innovation. Additionally, the pandemic has helped adhocracy cultures adopt product innovations and market cultures, process innovations.",
"To this end, Daum and Maraist (2021) explained that the meaning of a sense of purpose does not refer to the goals and productivity of a company; instead, it relates to humans/customers and the society of which employees are part. They claimed that depending on the sector, such value might differ, bringing a comparison between hospitals and retail shops. The former had a higher sense of purpose during the pandemic, where the latter had a less sense of purpose",
". They added that during COVID-19, companies, whether redefined or expanded their purposes to provide emergency assistance to society. Also, the authors discussed how does the pandemic affects the way employees are treated by employers and the commitment to which employers took to ensure their safety as well as customers while at the same time focusing on making a profit.",
"Furthermore, remote work and dependence on technology as a primary way of communication resulted in creating subcultures within the central organizational culture. Having said that, subcultures initially existed in a traditional working setting and are considered as a part of a cohesive environment and the larger culture. For example, Spicer (2020) pointed out that some rituals used to occur near water coolers and are now being replaced by technological tools.",
"Critical views",
"Criticism of the usage of the term by managers began already in its emergence in the early 80s. Most of the criticism comes from the writers in critical management studies who for example express skepticism about the functionalist and unitarist views about culture that are put forward by mainstream management writers. They stress the ways in which these cultural assumptions can stifle dissent towards management and reproduce propaganda and ideology",
". They suggest that organizations do not encompass a single culture, and cultural engineering may not reflect the interests of all stakeholders within an organization.",
"Parker (2000) has suggested that many of the assumptions of those putting forward theories of organizational culture are not new. They reflect a long-standing tension between cultural and structural (or informal and formal) versions of what organizations are. Further, it is reasonable to suggest that complex organizations might have many cultures, and that such sub-cultures might overlap and contradict each other",
". The neat typologies of cultural forms found in textbooks rarely acknowledge such complexities, or the various economic contradictions that exist in capitalist organizations.",
"Among the strongest and most widely recognized writers on corporate culture, with a long list of articles on leadership, culture, gender and their intersection, is Linda Smircich. As a part of the critical management studies, she criticizes theories that attempt to categorize or 'pigeonhole' organizational culture. She uses the metaphor of a plant root to represent culture, saying that it drives organizations rather than vice versa",
". Organizations are the product of organizational culture; we are unaware of how it shapes behavior and interaction (also implicit in Schein's (2002) underlying assumptions of the organization. According to Packer (2002), Schein's underlying assumptions are the beliefs, perceptions, thoughts, and feelings taken for granted and can be observed and considered the ultimate source of values and action",
". Such assumptions are categorized into assumptions about the problem (what is the organization trying to achieve), assumptions about the solution, and assumptions on how to organize to achieve a solution? Such assumptions undermine attempts to categorize and define organizational culture.",
"See also\n\nReferences",
"Notes\n \n Burman, R. and Evans, A.J. (2008) \"Target Zero: A Culture of safety\", Defence Aviation Safety Centre Journal, pp. 22–27.\n Cameron, Kim S. & Quinn, Robert E. (1999), Diagnosing and Changing Organizational Culture: Based on the Competing Values Framework, Prentice Hall, , reprinted John Wiley & Sons, 2011\n \n Cummings, Thomas G. & Worley, Christopher G. (2004), Organization Development and Change, 8th Ed., South-Western College Pub.",
"Denison, Daniel R. (1990) Corporate culture and organizational effectiveness, Wiley.\n Denison, Daniel R., Haaland, S. and Goelzer, P. (2004) \"Corporate Culture and Organizational Effectiveness: Is Asia Different from the Rest of the World?\" Organizational Dynamics, pp. 98–1 09",
"Flamholtz, Eric G and Randle, Yvonne (2011), \"Corporate Culture: The Ultimate Strategic Advantage,\" Stanford University Press, Stanford California, pp. 5–6 and 26–27. \nFlamholtz, Eric and Randle Yvonne,(2014). \"Implications of organizational Life Cycles for Corporate Culture and Climate,\" Chapter 13 in B. Schneider and K. Barbera, The oxford Handbook of organizational Climate and Culture, Oxford Library of psychology, Oxford university press, 2014, pp. 235–265.",
"Handy, Charles B. (1976) Understanding Organizations, Oxford University Press\n \n Harrison, Roger (1972) Understanding your organisation's character, Harvard Business Review\n Hofstede, Geert (1980) Culture's Consequences: International Differences in Work Related Values, Beverly Hills, CA, Sage Publications, reprinted 1984\n Hofstede, Geert (1991), Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind., McGraw-Hill Professional",
"McGuire, Stephen J.J. (2003). \"Entrepreneurial Organizational Culture: Construct Definition and Instrument Development and Validation, Ph.D. Dissertation\", The George Washington University, Washington, DC.\n Mulder, Mauk (1977) The daily power game, Martinus Nijhoff Socìal Sciences Division\n \n Parker, M. (2000) Organizational Culture and Identity, London: Sage.",
"Parker, M. (2000) Organizational Culture and Identity, London: Sage.\n Parsons, Talcott, Shils, Edward (1951), Toward a General Theory of Action, reprinted as Parsons, Talcott, Shils, Tolman, Stouffer and Kluckhohn et al., Toward a General Theory of Action: Theoretical foundations of the Social Sciencies, Transaction Publishers, 2001\n Peters and Waterman (1982). In Search of Excellence. Harper & Row (New York).",
"Peters and Waterman (1982). In Search of Excellence. Harper & Row (New York).\n Stoykov, Lubomir (1995). Фирмената култура и комуникация (Company culture and communication), Stopanstvo, Sofia.\n Zhang, Xibao (2009). Values, Expectations, Ad Hoc Rules, and Culture Emergence in International Cross Cultural Management Contexts. New York: Nova Science Publishers.",
"Further reading\n \n Black, Richard J. (2003) Organizational Culture: Creating the Influence Needed for Strategic Success, London UK, \n \n Boddy, C. R. (2011) Corporate Psychopaths: Organizational Destroyers, Palgrave Macmillan\n \n Jex, Steven M. Jex & Britt, Thomas W. (2008) Organizational Psychology, A Scientist-Practitioner Approach, John Wiley & Sons, .\n Kleinbaum, Rob and Aviva (2013). Creating a Culture of Profitability, Probabilistic Publishing, .",
"O'Donovan, Gabrielle (2006). The Corporate Culture Handbook: How to Plan, Implement and Measure a Successful Culture Change Programme, The Liffey Press, \n Papa, Michael J., et al. (2008). Organizational Communication Perspectives and Trends (4th Ed.). Sage Publications.\n Phegan, B. (1996–2000) Developing Your Company Culture, A Handbook for Leaders and Managers, Context Press, \n Sopow, E. (2007). Corporate personality disorder. Lincoln Neb.: iUniverse.",
"Sopow, E. (2007). Corporate personality disorder. Lincoln Neb.: iUniverse.\n Luthans, F. & Doh Jonathan, P. (2015). \"International Management, Culture, Strategy and Behavior\" (9th ed.). Mc Graw Hill",
"External links\nOrganizational Culture and Institutional Transformation (pdf) – From the Education Resources Information Center Clearinghouse on Higher Education Washington, DC; Corporate executives discuss the importance of building a healthy, effective organizational culture \nOrganizational Culture, Joel Peterson (Chairman of JetBlue Corporation and managing partner of Trammell Crow Company), Stanford Graduate School of Business",
"Organizational Culture Trumps Strategy, Mindy Grossman (CEO of the Home Shopping Network [HSN]), Stanford Graduate School of Business \n Organizational Culture, Isadore Sharp (founder and chairman of Four Seasons Hotels and Resorts), Stanford Graduate School of Business\nOrganizational Debt is like Technical debt – but worse, Steve Blank (entrepreneur, investor and Stanford University professor)",
"Industrial and organizational psychology\nCorporatism\nCultural economics\nCultural studies\nHuman resource management\nLabour law"
] |
Inalienable possession
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inalienable%20possession
|
[
"In linguistics, inalienable possession (abbreviated ) is a type of possession in which a noun is obligatorily possessed by its possessor. Nouns or nominal affixes in an inalienable possession relationship cannot exist independently or be \"alienated\" from their possessor. Inalienable nouns include body parts (such as leg, which is necessarily \"someone's leg\" even if it is severed from the body), kinship terms (such as mother), and part-whole relations (such as top)",
". Many languages reflect the distinction but vary in how they mark inalienable possession. Cross-linguistically, inalienability correlates with many morphological, syntactic, and semantic properties.",
"In general, the alienable–inalienable distinction is an example of a binary possessive class system in which a language distinguishes two kinds of possession (alienable and inalienable). The alienability distinction is the most common kind of binary possessive class system, but it is not the only one. Some languages have more than two possessive classes. In Papua New Guinea, for example, Anêm has at least 20 classes, and Amele has 32.",
"Statistically, 15–20% of the world's languages have obligatory possession.\n\nComparison to alienable possession \nWith inalienable possession, the two entities have a permanent association in which the possessed has little control over their possessor. For instance, body parts (under normal circumstances) do not change and cannot be removed from their possessor. The following real-world relationships often fall under inalienable possession:",
"Alienable possession, on the other hand, has a less permanent association between the two entities. For instance, most objects may or may not be possessed. When such types of objects are possessed, the possession is alienable. Alienable possession is used generally for tangible items that one might cease to own at some point (such as my money), but inalienable possession generally refers to a perpetual relationship that cannot be readily severed (such as my mother or my arm).",
"The table above outlines some common inalienable relationships, but it is important to note that they are just the most common types of inalienable nouns. Languages with an alienable/inalienable possession distinction differ in which classes fall under each type of possession. However, if a language has such a distinction, kinship roles or body parts (or both) make up some of the entities that are inalienably possessed",
". Also, languages may make different distinctions within the categories on how many and which entities are treated as inalienable.",
"Moreover, some languages allow the same noun to be either alienable or inalienable. Thus, trying to determine if a noun is alienable or inalienable based on its meaning or its affiliation to a specific noun category (for instance, body parts) can be difficult.",
"Variation by languages",
"Although the relationships listed above are likely to be instances of inalienable possession, those that are ultimately classified as inalienable depend on conventions that are specific by language and culture. It is impossible to say that a particular relationship is an example of inalienable possession without specifying the languages for which that holds true. For example, neighbor may be an inalienable noun in one language but alienable in another",
". For example, neighbor may be an inalienable noun in one language but alienable in another. Additionally, in some languages, one entity can be both alienably possessed and inalienably possessed, and its type of possession is influenced by other properties of the sentence. Thus, whether a certain type of relationship is described as alienable or inalienable can be arbitrary. In that respect, alienability is similar to other types of noun classes such as grammatical gender.",
"The examples below illustrate that the same phrase, the table's legs, is regarded as inalienable possession in Italian but alienable possession in French: (1b) is ungrammatical (as indicated by the asterisk). French cannot use the inalienable possession construction for a relationship that is alienable.\n\n{|\n!(1)\n!a.\n!Italian - inalienable possession relationship\n|-\n|\n|\n| \n|-\n!\n! b.\n! French - alienable possession relationship\n|-\n|\n|\n| \n|-\n|\n|\n|(Cinque & Krapova 2008: 68 (ia, ib)))\n|}",
"Bernd Heine argues that language change is responsible for the observed cross-linguistic variation in the categorization of (in)alienable nouns. He states that \"rather than being a semantically defined category, inalienability is more likely to constitute a morphosyntactic or morphophonological entity, one that owes its existence to the fact that certain nouns happened to be left out when a new pattern for marking attributive possession arose",
".\" He considers that nouns that are \"ignored\" by a new marking pattern come to form a separate noun class.",
"Morphosyntactic strategies for marking distinction",
"The distinction between alienable and inalienable possession is often marked by various morphosyntactic properties such as morphological markers and word order. The morphosyntactic differences are often referred to as possession split or split possession, which refer to instances of a language making a grammatical distinction between different types of possession. In a language with possession split, grammatical constructions with alienable nouns will differ from constructions with inalienable nouns.",
"There is a strong typological pattern for inalienable possession to require fewer morphological markers than alienable possession constructions.",
"Inalienable possession constructions involve two nouns or nominals: the possessor and the possessee. Together, they form a unit, the determiner phrase (DP), in which the possessor nominal may occur either before the possessee (prenominal) or after its possessee (postnominal), depending on the language. French, for example, can use a postnominal possessor (the possessor (of) Jean occurs after the possessee the arm):",
"{|\n!(2)\n!a.\n!French: inalienable body-part noun = postnominal possessor\n|-\n|\n|\n| (Guéron 2007: 590 (la))\n|-\n!\n!b.\n!French: inalienable kin noun = postnominal possessor\n|-\n|\n|\n| \n|-\n!\n!c.\n!French: alienable noun = postnominal possessor\n|-\n|\n|\n| \n|}\n\nIn contrast, English generally uses a prenominal possessor (Johns brother). However, in some situations, it may also use a postnominal possessor, as in the brother of John.\n\nMorphological markers",
"Morphological markers\n\nNo overt possessive markers\nThe South American language Dâw uses a special possessive morpheme (bold in the examples below) to indicate alienable possession. The possessive morpheme ɛ̃̀ɟ in examples (3a) and (3b) indicates an alienable relationship between the possessor and the possessee.",
"{|\n|-\n!(3)\n!a.\n!Alienable\n|-\n|\n|\n| \n|-\n!\n!b.\n|-\n|\n|\n| (Martins 2004: 546)\n|}\nThe possessive marker does not occur in inalienable possession constructions. Thus, the absence of ɛ̃̀ɟ, as in example (4), indicates that the relationship between the possessor and the possessee is inalienable possession.",
"Identical possessor deletion\nIgbo, a West African language, the possessor is deleted in a sentence if both its subject and the possessor of an inalienable noun refer to the same entity. In (5a), both referents are the same, but it is ungrammatical to keep both of them in a sentence. Igbo uses the processes of identical possessor deletion, and the yá (his), is dropped, as in the grammatical (5b).\n\nA similar process occurs in some Slavic languages, notably Serbian:\n\nWord order",
"Word order\n\nPossessor switch\nThe distinction between alienable and inalienable possession constructions may be marked by a difference in word order. Igbo uses another syntactic process when the subject and the possessor refer to different entities. In possessor switch, the possessor of the inalienable noun is placed as close as possible to the verb. In the following examples, the possessor yá is not deleted because both referents are different:",
"In the ungrammatical (8a), the verb wàra (to split) follows the possessor m. Possessor switch requires the verb to be placed nearer to the possessor. The grammatical (8b) does so switching wàra with the possessor:\n\nGenitive-noun ordering\nThe Maybrat languages in New Guinea vary the order of the genitive case and the noun between alienable and inalienable constructions:\n\nIn (9), the genitive Sely precedes the possessee me, marking inalienable possession.",
"In (9), the genitive Sely precedes the possessee me, marking inalienable possession.\n\nHowever, the genitive follows the possessee in alienable possession constructions, such as (10) whose genitive Petrus follows the possessee amah.\n\nPossessor marking",
"Possessor marking\n\nExplicit possessors\nAnother way for languages to distinguish between alienable and inalienable possession is to have one noun class that cannot appear without an explicit possessor. For example, Ojibwe, an Algonquian language, has a class of nouns that must have explicit possessors.",
"If explicit possessors are absent (as in (11b) and (12b)), the phrase is ungrammatical. In (11), the possessor ni is necessary for the inalienable noun nik (arm). In (12), the same phenomenon is found with the inalienable noun ookmis (grandmother), which requires the possessor morpheme n to be grammatical.",
"Prepositions\nHawaiian uses different prepositions to mark possession, depending on the noun's alienability: a (alienable of) is used to indicate alienable possession as in (13a), and o (inalienable of) indicates inalienable possession as in (13b).",
"However, the distinction between a (alienable of) and o (inalienable of) is used for other semantic distinctions that are less clearly attributable to common alienability relationships except metaphorically. Although lei is a tangible object, but in Hawaiian, it can be either alienable (15a) or inalienable (15b), depending on the context.",
"Definite articles\nSubtler cases of syntactic patterns sensitive to alienability are found in many languages. For example, French can use a definite article, rather than the possessive, for body parts.\n\nUsing the definite article with body parts, as in the example above, creates ambiguity. Thus, the sentence has both an alienable and an inalienable interpretation:\n\nSuch an ambiguity also occurs in English with body-part constructions.",
"Such an ambiguity also occurs in English with body-part constructions.\n\nSpanish also uses a definite article (el, los, la, or las) to indicate inalienable possession for body parts.\n\nGerman uses a definite article (die) for inalienable body parts but a possessive (meine) for alienable possession.",
"No distinction in grammar\nAlthough English has alienable and inalienable nouns (Mary's brother [inalienable] vs. Mary's squirrel [alienable]), it has few such formal distinctions in its grammar. One subtle grammatical distinction is the postnominal genitive construction, which is normally reserved for inalienable relational nouns. For example, the brother of Mary [inalienable] is normal, but *the squirrel of Mary [alienable] would be awkward.",
"Since the alienability distinction is rooted in semantics, languages like English with few morphological or syntactic distinctions sensitive to alienability can have ambiguities occur. For example, the phrase she has her father's eyes has two different meanings:",
"Another example in semantic dependency is the difference between possible interpretations in a language that marks inalienable possession (such as French) with a language that does not mark it (such as English). Inalienable possession is semantically dependent and is defined in reference to another object to which it belongs. Sentence (20) is ambiguous and has two possible meanings. In the inalienable possessive interpretation, la main belongs to the subject, les enfants",
". In the inalienable possessive interpretation, la main belongs to the subject, les enfants. The second interpretation is that la main is an alienable object and does not belong to the subject. The English equivalent of the sentence (The children raised the hand) has only the alienable possessive reading in which the hand does not belong to the children.",
"Syntactically, Noam Chomsky proposed that some genitive or possessive cases originate as part of the determiner in the underlying structure. The inalienable possessives are derived from a different deep structure than that of alienable possession. An example is interpretations of the phrase John's arm:",
"In the inalienable reading, arm is a complement of the determiner phrase. That contrasts to the alienable reading in which John has an arm is part of the determiner. Charles J. Fillmore and Chomsky make a syntactic distinction between alienable and inalienable possession and suggest that the distinction is relevant to English.",
"In contrast, others have argued that semantics plays a role in inalienable possession, but it is not central to the syntactic class of case-derived possessives. An example is the difference between the book's contents and the book's jacket. A book cannot be divorced from its contents, but it can be removed from its jacket. Still, both phrases have the same syntactic structure. Another example is Mary's mother and Mary's friend",
". Another example is Mary's mother and Mary's friend. The mother will always be Mary's mother, but an individual might not always be Mary's friend. Again, both have the same syntactic structure.",
"The distinction between alienable and inalienable possessions can be influenced by cognitive factors. Languages such as English that do not encode the alienability distinction in their grammar rely on the real-world relationship between the possessed noun and possessor noun. Nouns that are \"inherently relational\" and whose possession is associated with a single dominant interpretation (mother) are of the inalienable type, and nouns whose possession is open to interpretation (car) are of the alienable type.",
"Interaction with coreference\nThere are few grammatical distinctions between alienable and inalienable possession in English, but there are differences in the way coreference occurs for such possessive constructions. For instance, examples (21a) and (21b) have interpretations that differ by the type of (in)alienable possession:\n\nIn example (1a), the pronominal possessor (her) can refer to Lucy or to another possessor not mentioned in the sentence. As such, two interpretations of the sentence are possible:",
"However, in example (21b), the pronominal possessor (her) can only grammatically refer to Lucy. As such, the hand being discussed must belong to Lucy.",
"Therefore, the pronominal possessor patterns with pronominal binding in the alienable construction, but the pronominal possessor patterns with anaphoric binding in the inalienable construction. In anaphoric binding, an anaphor requires a coreferent antecedent that c-commands the anaphor and that is in the domain of the anaphor. For example (1b) to obey those conditions, the pronominal possessor must refer to Lucy, not to another possessor that is not mentioned in the sentence",
". Thus, by having only one grammatical interpretation, (1b) is consistent with anaphoric binding. On the other hand, the interpretation of alienable constructions such as 1a can be ambiguous since it is not restricted by the same properties of anaphoric binding.",
"Cross-linguistic properties\nAlthough there are different methods of marking inalienability, inalienable possession constructions usually involve the following features:",
"The distinction is confined to attributive possession.\n Alienable possession requires more phonological or morphological features than inalienable possession.\nInalienable possession involves a tighter structural bond between the possessor and the possessee.\n Possessive markers on inalienable nouns are etymologically older\n Inalienable nouns include kinship terms and/or body parts.\n Inalienable nouns form a closed class, but alienable nouns form an open class. \n(Heine 1997: 85-86 (1-6))",
"Restricted to attributive possession\n\n \nAlienability can be expressed only in attributive possession constructions, not in predicative possession.",
"Attributive possession is a type of possession in which the possessor and possessee form a phrase. That contrasts to predicative possession constructions in which the possessor and possessee are part of a clause, and the verb affirms the possessive relationship. The examples in (22) express the same alienable relationship between possessor and possessee but illustrate the difference between attributive and predicative possession:",
"Requires fewer morphological features\nIf a language has separate alienable and inalienable possession constructions, and one of the constructions is overtly marked and the other is \"zero-marked\", the marked form tends to be alienable possession. Inalienable possession is indicated by the absence of the overt marker. An example is the data from Dâw.",
"One typological study showed that in 78% of South American languages that distinguish between inalienable and alienable possession, inalienable possession was associated with fewer morphological markers than was its alienable counterpart. By contrast, only one of the surveyed languages required more morphological features to mark inalienable possession than alienable possession",
". If a language makes a grammatical distinction between alienable and inalienable nouns, having an overt possessive marker to mark inalienability is redundant. After all, by being inalienable, a noun must be possessed.",
"Tighter structural bond between possessor and possessee",
"In inalienable possession constructions, the relationship between the possessor and possessee is stronger than in alienable possession constructions. Johanna Nichols characterizes that by the tendency of inalienable possession to be head-marked but alienable possession to be dependent-marked. In head-marking, the head of an inalienable possession construction (the possessed noun) is marked, but in dependent-marking, the dependent (the possessor noun) is marked.",
"Theories of representation in syntax",
"Since the possessor is crucially linked to an inalienable noun's meaning, inalienable nouns are assumed to take their possessors as a semantic argument. Possessors to alienable and inalienable nouns can be expressed with different constructions. Possessors in the genitive case like the friend of Mary appear as complements to the possessed noun, as part of the phrase headed by the inalienable noun. That is an example of internal possession since the possessor of the noun is inside the determiner phrase.",
"External possession\n\nInalienable possession can also be marked with external possession. Such constructions have the possessor appearing outside the determiner phrase. For example, the possessor may appear as a dative complement of the verb.\n\nFrench exhibits both external possessor construction and internal possessor construction, as in (23):",
"However, those types of possessors are problematic. There is a discrepancy between the possessor appearing syntactically in an inalienable possession construction and what its semantic relationship to the inalienable noun seems to be. Semantically, the possessor of an inalienable noun is intrinsic to its meaning and acts like a semantic argument. On the surface syntactic structure, however, the possessor appears in a position that marks it as an argument of the verb",
". Thus, there are different views on how those types of inalienable possession constructions should be represented in the syntactic structure. The binding hypothesis argues that the possessor is an argument of the verb. Conversely, the possessor-raising hypothesis argues that the possessor originates as an argument of the possessed noun and then moves to a position in which on the surface, it looks like an argument of the verb.",
"Binding hypothesis (Guéron 1983)\nThe binding hypothesis reconciles the fact that the possessor appears both as a syntactic and semantic argument of the verb but as a semantic argument of the possessed noun. It assumes that inalienable possession constructions are subject to the following syntactic constraints:",
"There must be an obligatory possessor.\n The possessor must be in the same minimal domain of the possessee.\n The possessor must c-command the possessee or its trace (The c-command must occur in the underlying or surface structures of the inalienable possession constructions.",
"It is assumed that inalienable possession constructions are one form of anaphoric binding: obligatory control. Thus, the possessor DP originates in the specifier of the verb; the fact that the possessor seems to be a semantic argument of the noun arises from the binding relationship between the possessor and the possessee DPs. The parallel between inalienable possession constructions and obligatory control can be seen in the examples below:",
"The hypothesis accounts for differences between French and English, and it may also eliminate the ambiguity created by definite determiners. According to the hypothesis, anaphoric binding in inalienable possession constructions relates to the theta-features that a language assigns to its determiners",
". The hypothesis predicts that inalienable possession constructions exist in languages that assign variable theta-features to its determiners and that inalienable possession constructions do not exist in languages that lack variable theta-feature assignment. Therefore, inalienable possession is predicted to exist in Romance languages and also Russian but not in English or Hebrew. In the French sentence Il lève les mains, the determiner les is assigned theta-features",
". In the French sentence Il lève les mains, the determiner les is assigned theta-features. Thus, it is understood as inalienable possession. However, in the English translation, the determiner the does not have theta-features since English is considered not to assign theta-features to its determiners. Therefore, the does not necessarily signify inalienable possession and so ambiguity surfaces.",
"That hypothesis, however, does not account for verbs allowing reflexive anaphora (Jean se lave 'Jean washes himself'). To account for the grammaticality of such verbs, Guéron proposes that in an inalienable construction the POSS DP (possessor DP) and BP DP (body part DP) constitute two links of a lexical chain, in addition to their anaphoric relation. The two links of a lexical chain must obey the same constraints as anaphora, which accounts for the locality restrictions on inalienable construals",
". Every chain is then associated with one theta-role. Inalienable possession surfaces as ungrammatical when the possessed DP and the possessor DP are assigned two different theta-roles by the verb. That explains why sentence (25b) is ungrammatical. The POSS DP is assigned an agent theta-role, and the BP DP is assigned a theme theta-role.",
"Possessor-raising hypothesis (Landau 1999)\n\nPossessor-raising is a syntactic hypothesis that attempts to explain the structures of inalienable DPs. Landau argues that the possessor is initially introduced in the specifier position of DP (Spec-DP), but it later raises to the specifier of the VP. The possessor DP gets its theta-role from the head D, which gives rise to the meaning that the possessor is related to the possessee.",
"Landau's analysis is made on the basis of several properties possessives in the data case in Romance languages.\n\n The possessor dative must be interpreted as a possessor, not an object/theme.\n Possession interpretation is obligatory.\n The possessed DP cannot be an external argument.\n The possessor dative must c-command the possessed DP (or its trace).\n Possessive interpretation is constrained by locality. (Nakamoto 2010: 76)",
"The French data below illustrate how the analysis is thought to work. The possessor lui originates in the specifier of DP as an argument of the noun figure. That is equivalent to an underlying structure Gilles a lavé lui la figure. The possessor raises to the specifier of VP, which is seen in the surface structure Gilles lui a lavé la figure.",
"According to Guéron, a benefit of the hypothesis is that it is consistent with principles of syntactic movement such as locality of selection and c-command. If the position to which it must move is already filled, as with a transitive verb like see, the possessor cannot raise, and the sentence is correctly predicted to be ungrammatical.",
"However, some languages like Russian do not have to raise the DP possessor and can leave it in situ and so it is unclear why the possessor would ever have to raise. Possessor-raising also violates a constraint on syntactic movement, the specificity constraint: an element cannot be moved out of a DP if that DP is specific. In (23), the DP lui is specific, but possessor-raising predicts it can be moved out of the larger DP lui la figure. Such movement is excluded by the specificity constraint.",
"Possessor suppression with kin and body-part nouns (Lødrup 2014)\nNorwegian is a North Germanic language that is spoken mainly in Norway and is its official language. Norwegian expresses inalienability by possessor suppression, which takes place when noun phrases referring to inalienable possessions use the definite form and contain no possessive determiner.",
"In sentence (28), \"haken\", the syntactic object, contains a suppressed possessor in its definite form. It does not contain an explicit possessive marker. In contrast, the English translation contains an explicit possessive determiner, \"her\", which denote possession. Possessive determiners are obligatory in English for subject-controlled body-part terms.",
"Norwegian treats kinship nouns and body-part nouns similarly in relation to bound variable interpretations. When a definite noun is present, it usually has a referential reading. In (29a), the referential reading is present. However, the presence of definite kinship or body part nouns may also bring about the bound variable reading in which a kinship or body part noun contains a variable bound by the quantifier in the subject, and (29b) may produce both the referential and bound variable readings",
". With the referential reading, the professors washed a face or father, mentioned earlier. With the bound variable reading, the professors washed their own face or father. Additionally, both kinship and body part nouns behave similarly in sentences with VP pronominalization. VP pronominalization involving both nouns allow for both a referential reading and a \"sloppy reading\", which involves variable binding. In (29c) in the referential reading, John and Mari wash a face or a mother been mentioned earlier",
". In (29c) in the referential reading, John and Mari wash a face or a mother been mentioned earlier. In the \"sloppy reading\", John washes his face or mother, and Mari washes hers.",
"Finally, both kinship and body part nouns bear similarities in locality. Both behave in such a way that the definite form of the noun is bound by the closest subject. In (30a), the possessor must be the subordinate clause subject, not the main clause subject. Likewise, in (30b), the father mentioned is preferably the father of the subordinate clause subject referent, not of the main clause subject referent.",
"On the other hand, definite kinship and body-part nouns in Norwegian have a syntactic difference. Definite body part nouns allow a first- or second-person possessor, but some definite kinship nouns do not. For instance, the sentence in (31a) is not allowed as it contains a first-person possessor and kinship term. The kinship term can be used only with a third-person possessor, such as in (31b).\n\nHowever, body part nouns do not have the restriction on first- or second-person possessors like in (32).",
"Form function motivations\nInalienable possession constructions often lack overt possessors. There is a debate as to how to account for the linguistically-universal difference in form. Iconicity explains the in terms of the relationship between the conceptual distance between the possessor and the possessee, and economy explains it by the frequency of possession.",
"Iconic motivation (Haiman 1983)",
"Haiman describes iconic expression and conceptual distance and how both concepts are conceptually close if they share semantic properties, affect each other and cannot be separated from each other. Joseph Greenberg hypothesizes that the distance between the possessor and possessee in a sentence with alienable possession is greater than in a sentence with inalienable constructions",
". Because the possessor and the possessee have a close conceptual relationship, their relative positions with a sentence reflect that, and there is little distance between them. Increasing the distance between both would in turn increase their conceptual independence.",
"That is demonstrated in Yagaria, a Papuan language that marks alienable possession by a free form pronoun as in (33a). In contrast, inalienable possession constructions use an inalienable possessor that is prefixed on the possessee, as in (33b), a construction that has less linguistic distance between the possessor and possessee than the alienable construction has:",
"However, there are cases of linguistic distance not necessarily reflecting conceptual distance. Mandarin Chinese has two ways to express the same type of possession: POSSESSOR + POSSESSEE and POSSESSOR + de + POSSESSEE. The latter has more linguistic distance between the possessor and the possessee, but it reflects the same conceptual distance. Both possessive expressions, with and without the marker de, are found in the Mandarin phrase \"my friend\", which is seen in (34a) unlike (34b):",
"{|\n|+ (34)\n! POSSESSOR + de + POSSESSEE\n! POSSESSOR + POSSESSEE\n|-\n| \n| \n|}",
"In contrast to the previous example, the omission of the marker de is ungrammatical, as in example (35b). The linguistic distance between the possessor and the possessee is much smaller in (35b) than in (35a). It has been argued that the omission of de occurs only in kinship relationships, but phrasal constructions with a mandatory de encompasse other cases of inalienable possession, such as body parts",
". That contradicts the notion that inalienable possession is marked by less linguistic distance between the possessor and the possessee.",
"Economic motivation (Nichols 1988)\nNichols notes that frequently-possessed nouns, such as body parts and kinship terms, almost always occur with possessors, and alienable nouns occur less often with possessors.\n\nThe following shows the frequency of possession between alienable and unalienable nouns in German. The table below shows the number of times that each noun occurred with or without a possessor in texts from the German Goethe-Corpus of the works of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.",
"The alienable nouns above are rarely possessed, but the inalienable kinship terms are frequently possessed. Consequently, inalienable nouns are expected to be possessed even if they lack a distinct possessive marker. Therefore, overt markings on inalienable nouns are redundant, and for economical syntactic construction, languages often have zero-marking for their inalienable nouns.",
"That could be explained by Zipf's Law in which the familiarity or the frequency of an occurrence motivates the linguistic simplification of the concept. A listener who hears an inalienable noun can predict that it will be possessed, which eliminates the need for an overt possessor.\n\nGlossary of abbreviations\n\nMorpheme glosses\n\nSyntactic trees\n\nOther languages\n\nAustronesian languages",
"Rapa",
"Old Rapa is the indigenous language of Rapa Iti, an island of French Polynesia in the Bass Islands archipelago. The language structure of Rapa has two primary possessive particles: a and o. The usage of both particles is dependent on the relation between the possessor and the object. When words are categorized by possessive particles, there is a very close resemblance to the usage of the possessive particle and the object's alienability",
". However, the relation is better defined by William Wilson in his article Proto-Polynesian Possessive Marking.",
"Briefly, through his two theories, the Simple Control Theory and Initial Control Theory, Wilson s contrast and thus better defines the usage of the possessive particles. The Simple Control Theory speculates that the determining factor directly correlated to the possessor's control over the object and emphasises a dominant vs. less-dominant relationship",
". less-dominant relationship. Old Rapa adheres closer to the Initial Control Theory, which speculates that \"the possessor's control over the initiation of the possessive relationship is the determining factor.\" Here, the Initial Control Theory can also be generally expanded to the whole Polynesian language family in terms of better describing the \"alienability\" of possession.",
"In the case of Old Rapa, the possession particle o is used to define a possession relationship that was not initiated on the basis of choice. The possession particle a defines possession relationships that are initiated with the possessor's control. The following list and classifications are literal examples provided by Mary Walworth in her dissertation of Rapa. Words that are marked with the o possessive markers are nouns that are:\n Inalienable (leg, hand, foot)",
"Inalienable (leg, hand, foot)\n A whole of which the possessor is a permanent part (household)\n Kinship (father, mother, brother)\n Higher social or religious status (teacher, pastor, president)\n Vehicles (canoe, car)\n Necessary actions (work)\n Involuntary body functions (heartbeat, stomach, pupils, breathing)\n Words that relate to indigenous identity (language, country)",
"However, Wilson's theory falls short of properly categorizing a few miscellaneous items such as articles of clothing and furniture that his theory would incorrectly predict to be marked with the possessive particle a. The reverse occurs for objects such as food and animals. The synthesis of Wilson's theory and others approach a better understanding of the Rapa language. Svenja Völkel proposed the idea of looking further into the ritualistic beliefs of the community: its mana",
". That idea has been related to other languages in the Eastern Polynesian language family. It states that objects with less mana than the possessor use the a-possessive particle, and the usage of the o-possessive marker is reserved for the possessor's mana that is not superior.",
"The same usage of the possessive particles in possessive pronouns can be seen in the contracted portmanteau, the combination of the articles and possessive markers. The results are the prefixes tō and tā in the following possessive pronouns, as can be seen in the table below:\n\nWuvulu \nWuvulu language is a small language spoken in Wuvulu Island. Direct possession has a close relationship with inalienability in Oceanic linguistics. Similarly, the inherent possession of the possessor is called the possessum.",
"The inalienable noun also has a possessor suffix and includes body parts, kinship terms, locative part nouns and derived nouns. According to Hafford's research, \"-u\" (my), \"-mu\" (your) and \"na-\"（his/her/its) are three direct possession suffix in Wuvulu.\n Body parts \nDirect- possession suffix \"-u\"(my), \"-mu\" (your) and \"na-\"（his/her/its) can be taken to attach the noun phrase of body part.\n\n Kinship terms \nKinship terms in Wuvulu language take singular possessive suffixes.",
"Kinship terms \nKinship terms in Wuvulu language take singular possessive suffixes.\n\n Derived nouns (Nouns that derived from other words)\nExample:\n\nʔei wareamu (Your word) is derived from the verb ware (talk)\n\nSuch a word can take the direct possessor suffix. \"-mu\" (your {singular])\n\nTokelauan \nHere is a table displaying the predicative possessive pronouns in Tokelauan:\n\nHere is a table with the Tokelauan possessive pronouns:\n\nSee also",
"Here is a table with the Tokelauan possessive pronouns:\n\nSee also\n\n Possession (linguistics)\n Obligatory possession\n Noun class\n Determiner phrase\n Noun phrase\n Possessive\n Possessive affix\n English possessive\n Genitive case\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links \n A map of the world's languages colored by possessive classification complexity from the World Atlas of Language Structures.\n\nGrammatical categories\nGrammar\nGenitive construction\nGrammatical construction types\nFormal semantics (natural language)"
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History of the Boston Celtics
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Boston%20Celtics
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[
"The Boston Celtics are an American professional basketball team based in Boston. Founded in 1946 as a charter member of the Basketball Association of America, the Celtics then moved into the National Basketball Association (NBA) in 1949, as said league was formed by the merger of the BAA and the National Basketball League. Currently playing in the Atlantic Division of the Eastern Conference, the Celtics are tied with the Lakers with the most NBA titles with 17 championships",
". Eleven of those occurred between 1957 and 1969, with a dynasty led by center Bill Russell and coach/general manager Red Auerbach. The Celtics won two more titles in the 1970s under coach Tom Heinsohn, and three more in the 1980s under the leadership of forward Larry Bird. After a 22-year drought, the Celtics got their latest title in 2008.",
"1946–1956: Building the dynasty\n\nThe Celtics were formed in 1946 as a team in the Basketball Association of America, and became part of the National Basketball Association after the merger of the BAA and the National Basketball League to form the NBA in the fall of 1949. In 1950, the Celtics became the first franchise to draft an African American player, signing Chuck Cooper.",
"The Celtics had struggled during their early years, but the hiring of Coach Red Auerbach would change their fortunes. One of the first major players to join the Celtics was Bob Cousy, whom Auerbach initially refused to draft. Cousy eventually became the property of the Chicago Stags. When that franchise went bankrupt, Cousy was acquired by the Celtics in a dispersal draft. He would become a huge part of the Celtics' success and eventually became good friends with his new coach",
". Under Auerbach the Celtics improved dramatically, becoming a consistent threat to win in the NBA's Eastern Division in each of his first six seasons, although they fell short each time.",
"After the 1955–56 season, Auerbach made a stunning trade. He sent perennial All-Star Ed Macauley to the St. Louis Hawks along with the draft rights to Cliff Hagan in exchange for the Hawks' first round draft pick, the second overall. After negotiating with the Rochester Royals, Auerbach used the pick to select University of San Francisco center Bill Russell. Auerbach also acquired Holy Cross standout, and 1957 NBA Rookie of the Year, Tommy Heinsohn",
". Auerbach also acquired Holy Cross standout, and 1957 NBA Rookie of the Year, Tommy Heinsohn. Russell and Heinsohn worked extraordinarily well with Cousy, and they were the players around whom Auerbach would build the Celtics for more than a decade. Russell, who delayed joining until the middle of the 1957 season in order to play for the U.S. Olympic Team, had an immediate impact.",
"1957–1969: The dynasty",
"Russell joined the Celtics in December 1956 and went on to play most every game during which the Celtics advanced to the NBA Finals and defeated the St. Louis Hawks in seven games, giving the Celtics the first of their record 17 NBA Championships. In 1958, the Celtics again advanced to the NBA Finals, this time losing to the Hawks in 6 games. However, with the acquisition of K.C. Jones that year, the Celtics began a dynasty that would last for more than a decade",
".C. Jones that year, the Celtics began a dynasty that would last for more than a decade. In 1959, with Cousy at point guard, Russell at center and Heinsohn at forward, the Celtics won the NBA Championship after sweeping the Minneapolis Lakers. Still coached by Auerbach, the Celtics won seven more consecutive championships, extending their streak to eight in a row. During that timespan, the Celtics met the Lakers in the Finals six times, starting an intense and often bitter rivalry",
". In 1964, Auerbach made the Celtics the first team to have an all African American starting lineup.",
"After the 1966 championship, Auerbach retired as coach and Russell took over as player-coach. With his appointment, Russell also became the first African American coach in any sport. Auerbach would remain the general manager, a position he would hold well into the 1980s. However, that year the Celtics' string of NBA titles was broken as they lost to the Philadelphia 76ers in the Eastern Conference Finals",
". The aging team managed two more championships in 1968 and 1969, defeating the Lakers each time in the NBA Finals. Russell retired after the 1969 season, effectively ending a dominant Celtics dynasty that had garnered 11 NBA titles in 13 seasons. The streak of 8 consecutive NBA championships is the longest streak of consecutive championships in U.S. professional sports history. Other important players during this era included Sam Jones, John Havlicek, Bill Sharman, Frank Ramsey, and Satch Sanders.",
"Despite being the dominant team of the late '50s and most of the 1960s, the Celtics were never a big draw averaging only around 8,500 fans per game. The only times they averaged 10,000 fans per game was in the 1956-57 (Bill Russell's rookie season; 10,517) and the 1966-67 (Russell's first year as player-coach; 10,409) seasons. In contrast, the Celtics fellow tenants of Boston Garden, the Boston Bruins, drew on average around 12,000 fans per game despite being a losing team for the majority of that era.",
"1970–1978: Rebuilding the dynasty",
"The 1970 season was a rebuilding year, as the Celtics had their first losing record since the 1949–50 season, the year prior to Auerbach's arrival. However, with the acquisition of Dave Cowens, Paul Silas, and Jo Jo White, the Celtics soon became dominant again. After losing in the Eastern Conference Finals in 1972, the Celtics regrouped and came out determined in 1973 and posted an excellent 68–14 regular season record",
". But the season ended in disappointment, as they were upset in 7 games by the New York Knicks in the Conference Finals and became the team with the best record ever to have failed to make the Finals. The Celtics returned to the playoffs the next year, defeating the Milwaukee Bucks in the NBA Finals in 1974 for their 12th NBA Championship",
". The teams split the first four games, and after the Celtics won Game 5 in Milwaukee they headed back to Boston leading three games to two, with a chance to claim the title on their home court. However, the Bucks won Game 6 when Kareem Abdul-Jabbar nestled in a hook shot with three seconds left in the game's second overtime, and the series returned to Milwaukee. But Cowens was the hero in Game 7, scoring 28 points, as the Celtics brought the title back to Boston for the first time in five years",
". In 1976, the team won yet another championship, defeating the Phoenix Suns in 6 games. The Celtics advanced to the 1976 NBA Finals, which featured one of the greatest games in the history of the NBA. With the series tied at two games apiece, the Suns trailed early in the Boston Garden, but came back to force overtime. In double overtime, a Gar Heard turn-around jumper at the top of the key sent the game to a third overtime, at which point the Celtics prevailed",
". Tommy Heinsohn coached the team for those two championships. After the 1976 championship and a playoff appearance in 1977, Boston went into another phase of rebuilding.",
"In the 1977 NBA draft, the Celtics drafted a young forward from the UNC Charlotte named Cedric Maxwell. Maxwell did not contribute much in his rookie season, but he showed promise. Auerbach's job became even tougher following a horrible 1977–78 in which they went 32–50 as John Havlicek, the Celtics All-Time leading scorer, retired after 16 seasons.\n\n1979–1992: The Larry Bird era",
"Thanks to a trade and their poor record in 1977–78, the Celtics owned two of the top eight picks in the 1978 NBA draft. Since the Celtics had two draft choices, Auerbach took a risk and selected junior Larry Bird of Indiana State with the 6th pick, knowing that Bird would elect to remain in college for his senior year. The Celtics would retain his rights for one year, a rule that was later changed, and Auerbach believed that Bird's potential would make him worth the wait",
". Auerbach also felt that when the college season ended the Celtics would have a great chance to sign Bird. Auerbach was right and Bird signed soon after leading Indiana State to the NCAA Championship game, where they fell to a Michigan State University team that was led by Magic Johnson.",
"Prior to the 1978–79 season, the Celtics changed ownership, as Irv Levin was looking to move to his native California, and entered an arrangement with John Y. Brown, Jr., who at the time was the owner of the Buffalo Braves. Brown traded ownership of the Braves for Levin's stake in the Celtics, thus allowing Brown to remain as a team owner and freeing up Levin to make the move he desired to make",
". Thus, Brown became the new owner of the Celtics while Levin moved the Braves to San Diego, California, where they became known as the San Diego Clippers. As part of the deal, trades were made between the Braves/Clippers franchise and the Celtics franchise which resulted in many former Braves joining the team",
". One of these trades led to Brown's first of many ongoing disputes with Auerbach, that where franchise center Bob McAdoo joined the Celtics for three first round draft picks that Auerbach had planned on using for the future rebuilding project he was trying to undertake. The dispute nearly led Auerbach to resign as general manager for a position with the New York Knicks",
". With public support strongly behind Auerbach, Brown elected to sell the team rather than face the wrath of the city for being the man who drove Red to a hated rival. During his short ownership, Brown orchestrated a trade for Bob McAdoo that Auerbach despised, and the team unraveled. The Celtics would struggle through the season, going 29–53 without Bird. Newcomers Chris Ford, Rick Robey, Cedric Maxwell and Tiny Archibald failed to reverse the team's momentum.",
"Bird would debut for the Celtics during the 1979–80 season, a year after his selection. With a new owner in place, Auerbach made a number of moves that would create a whole new dynasty. Auerbach traded the unhappy McAdoo, a former NBA scoring champion, to the Detroit Pistons in exchange for guard M.L. Carr, a defensive specialist, and two first-round picks in the 1980 NBA draft. He also picked up point guard Gerald Henderson from the CBA",
". He also picked up point guard Gerald Henderson from the CBA. Carr, Archibald, Henderson and Ford would form a highly competent backcourt, with their unique skills blending in perfectly with the talented frontcourt of Cowens, Maxwell and Bird, who would go on to win NBA Rookie of the Year honors. The Celtics improved by 32 games, at the time the best single-season turnaround in NBA history, going 61–21 and losing to the Philadelphia 76ers in the Eastern Conference Finals.",
"After the season, Auerbach completed what may be the most lopsided trade in NBA history. Auerbach had been known for stockpiling draft picks, so even after the success of 1979–80 the Celtics had both the 1st and 13th picks in the 1980 NBA draft left over from the M.L. Carr trade. Auerbach saw an opportunity to improve the team immediately, sending the two picks to the Golden State Warriors in exchange for center Robert Parish and the Warriors first-round pick, the 3rd overall",
". With the draft pick, Auerbach selected University of Minnesota power forward Kevin McHale. The acquisitions along with Bird gave the Celtics three future Hall of Famers, forming a core that became known as the \"Big Three\" while leading the Celtics to three NBA championships in the 1980s.",
"The Celtics went 62–20 under coach Bill Fitch in 1980–81, despite losing center Dave Cowens to retirement late in training camp. Once again the Celtics matched up with the 76ers in the Eastern Conference Finals. The Celtics fell behind 3 games to 1 before coming back to win a classic 7th game, 91–90. The Celtics went on to capture the 1981 NBA Championship over the Houston Rockets, just two years after Bird had been drafted. Maxwell was named NBA Finals MVP.",
"The Celtics only reached the Eastern Conference finals in 1982, losing to Philadelphia in 7 games. The following season culminated in an embarrassing second round playoff loss in the 1983 NBA Playoffs to the Milwaukee Bucks, 4 games to 0. Ford had retired after 1982 and Archibald's age, declining skills and injury problems led to his release after the 1982–83. Fitch was fired, and K.C. Jones was named head coach",
". Fitch was fired, and K.C. Jones was named head coach. Archibald was replaced when popular reserve forward Rick Robey, a close friend of Bird, was traded to the Phoenix Suns in exchange for point guard Dennis Johnson, a former Finals MVP himself. With Johnson starting alongside ex-CBA player Gerald Henderson, and former Toronto Blue Jays third baseman Danny Ainge, veterans Quinn Buckner and M.L",
".L. Carr coming off the bench, the Celtics once again had the backcourt depth to complement their talented frontline.",
"In 1983–84 the Celtics would go 62–20 and finally get back to the NBA Finals after a three-year hiatus. In the final, the Celtics came back from a 2–1 deficit to defeat the Los Angeles Lakers, winning their 15th championship. Bird renewed his college rivalry with Lakers star Magic Johnson during this series",
". Bird renewed his college rivalry with Lakers star Magic Johnson during this series. After the series the Celtics traded Henderson, whose dramatic steal in game 2 altered the course of the series and gave the Celtics a chance, to the Seattle SuperSonics in exchange for their first-round pick in the 1986 NBA draft.",
"In 1985, the Lakers and Celtics would meet again, but this time the Lakers would take the championship. During the following offseason the Celtics acquired Bill Walton from the Los Angeles Clippers in exchange for Cedric Maxwell. Walton was a star with the Portland Trail Blazers, but injuries had kept him from living up to expectations. He was also a lifelong Celtics fan and willing to come off the bench, deferring to the three big men already with the team",
". Walton would be a big part of the Celtics' success in 1986.",
"In 1985–86 the Celtics fielded one of the best teams in NBA history. The 1986 Celtics won 67 games, going 40–1 at their home, the Boston Garden. Bird won his third consecutive MVP award after having arguably his finest season, and Walton won the Sixth Man of the Year Award. They would win their 16th championship, easily defeating the Houston Rockets in the NBA Finals.",
"Drafting of Len Bias, his death and aftermath",
"Thanks to the 1984 trade of Gerald Henderson and the subsequent fall of the Seattle SuperSonics, at the end of the 1985–86 season, the Celtics not only had the best team in the NBA, but they also had the second overall pick in the 1986 NBA draft. The Celtics drafted Len Bias with the pick and had high hopes for the young University of Maryland star. Fans believed Bias had superstar potential, and that he would be the perfect complement to the aging, but still strong, Celtics",
". The hope was that his presence would ensure that the franchise would remain a powerhouse after Bird, McHale and Parish retired. However, Bias died 48 hours after he was drafted, after using cocaine at a party and overdosing.",
"Despite the loss of Bias, the Celtics remained competitive in 1986–87, going 59–23 and again winning the Eastern Conference Championship. However, in the Finals the tired, aging, and injured Celtics ran into perhaps the best Los Angeles Lakers team of the decade. The biggest injury was yet another foot injury for Bill Walton, who only played 10 regular season games in 1986–87 after playing 80 games the year before",
". Walton fought through the injury, playing 12 games (out of 23) in the playoffs, but was not the same player as he was the year before. McHale, Parish and Ainge were also fighting injuries, forcing reserves Darren Daye and Fred Roberts to play larger roles in the series, which the Celtics lost 4 games to 2.",
"The Celtics started the 1987–88 season without Kevin McHale, who was recovering from a foot injury that had hobbled him in the 1987 playoffs. Bill Walton was also recovering from injury, and while Walton stuck with the franchise for the 1987–88 and 1988–89 seasons, he had played his last game in the NBA in the 1987 NBA Playoffs. The Celtics did add some new players in the 1987 NBA draft",
". The Celtics did add some new players in the 1987 NBA draft. In the first round, the Celtics selected a promising guard/forward out of Northeastern University by the name of Reggie Lewis. The Celtics also added Brad Lohaus in the second round, giving head coach K.C. Jones a few more weapons to choose from.",
"Jones was not one to play rookies, however, and both Lewis and Lohaus spent much of the 1987–88 season on the bench while Jones continued to play his veterans. The team won another division title, finishing 57–25 and earning home court advantage throughout the playoffs. Jones' reliance on his veterans came back to haunt him in the playoffs, as the Celtics appeared tired and worn down",
". Danny Ainge had played the most minutes of his career, and Bird's body was starting to wear down after averaging 39 minutes per game. The Celtics struggled to defeat the Atlanta Hawks in the Eastern Conference Semifinals, needed a 20-point 4th quarter from Larry Bird in the decisive game 7 to finally put the Hawks away 118–116. Emotionally and physically drained from the Hawks series, the Celtics fell in the Eastern Conference Finals to the Detroit Pistons, 4 games to 2.",
"After the 1987–88 season, head coach K.C. Jones retired. Jones' teams had had the best regular season record in the Eastern Conference in all five of his seasons as coach. In addition, he led the Celtics to four NBA Finals appearances and two NBA Championships. Jones was replaced as head coach by assistant Jimmy Rodgers.",
"Rodgers faced immediate trouble in 1988–89 when, 6 games into the season, Bird decided to have surgery to remove bone spurs in both feet. The injury was expected to sideline Bird until well after the All-Star Break, when presumably he would be able to return. However, he was unable to make it back as the Celtics stumbled to a 42–40 record and a first round playoff defeat to the Detroit Pistons.",
"Bird returned in 1989–90 to play in 75 games and led the Celtics to a 52–30 record. The season was not completely smooth sailing, as second year guard Brian Shaw caused a stir when he held out of the season for a bigger contract, instead playing the entire season in Italy. However, in the playoffs, after winning the first two games of a Best of 5 series against the New York Knicks the Celtics collapsed, losing 3 straight, including the decisive 5th game at the Boston Garden",
". In the wake of the defeat, Rodgers was fired and replaced by assistant coach (and former Celtic player) Chris Ford.",
"Under Ford's leadership, the Celtics improved to 56–26 in 1990–91, recapturing the Atlantic Division title even though Bird missed 22 games with a variety of injuries and Parish and McHale's skills had begun to decline. McHale was never the same after playing through the 1987 Finals with a broken foot. Most significant were the developing back problems that hobbled Bird, causing him to miss one playoff game",
". Reggie Lewis blossomed into a star, and swingman Kevin Gamble provided a consistent scoring presence when Bird was out of the lineup. Shaw returned from Italy and teamed with rookie Dee Brown at the point guard spot. In the playoffs, the Celtics First round series against the Indiana Pacers was highlighted by a climactic game 5 win in the Boston Garden. Bird left the game midway through the second quarter after hitting his head hard on the parquet floor while diving for a loose ball",
". He sustained a concussion & a broken eye socket, though he returned in the third quarter and electrified the crowd after the Pacers had grabbed the lead. The Celtics won the game behind Bird's 32 points and advanced to the Eastern Conference Semi-finals, where they lost to their longtime nemesis, the Detroit Pistons, 4 games to 2.",
"In 1992, a late-season rally allowed the Celtics to catch the Knicks and repeat as Atlantic Division champions. The team finished 51–31 and again matched up with the Indiana Pacers in the first round, this time sweeping the series 3 games to 0. In the Eastern Conference Semifinals, the Celtics lost a grueling 7 game series to the Cleveland Cavaliers, 4 games to 3. Due to back problems, Larry Bird played in only 45 of the 82 regular season games, and only 4 of the 10 playoff games.",
"After thirteen seasons with the club and winning a gold medal in the Barcelona Olympics with the Dream Team, Bird retired in 1992 primarily due to his back injuries.",
"1993–2001: Tragedy and decline",
"At the time of Bird's retirement former Celtics guard Chris Ford was the coach of the Celtics. Twenty-six-year-old Reggie Lewis (out of Boston's Northeastern University) was seen as Bird's successor as the franchise player for the Celtics. In Bird's final season it was Lewis who led the team in scoring, and he made his first All-Star appearance in the 1992 All-Star Game. Lewis, a small forward, fainted during a 1993 first round playoff matchup with the Charlotte Hornets",
". It was later revealed that Lewis had heart problems, yet he was able to get doctors to clear him for a comeback. He died of a heart attack after participating in a pickup basketball game during the offseason. The Celtics honored his memory during the following season by retiring his number 35.",
"The team took another hit after the season, as Kevin McHale retired after 13 seasons in the NBA. The Celtics were now down to one member of the \"Big Three\" for the 1993–94, as well as without Lewis, their captain and young star. The Celtics drafted Acie Earl in the first round of the 1993 NBA draft, and planned on making him Parish's successor in the middle",
". After missing the playoffs for the first time since 1978–79, the year before Bird joined the franchise, Robert Parish left as a free agent to join the Charlotte Hornets. The time of \"Big Three\" was officially over.",
"In 1994, the Celtics hired former player M.L. Carr to be the team's new G.M. In his first draft in charge of the Celtics, he drafted University of North Carolina star Eric Montross with his first round draft pick. The Acie Earl era was already nearing an end, as Montross became the new heir apparent in the paint.",
"1994–95 was the Celtics final season in the Boston Garden. The Celtics signed the aging Dominique Wilkins as a free agent, and he led the team in scoring with 17.8 PPG. Second-year player Dino Rađa, a power forward from Croatia, added an interior presence to the team that had been lacking in 1993–94. The Celtics made the playoffs, losing to the heavily favored Orlando Magic in 4 games.",
"In 1995, the Celtics moved from the Boston Garden into the Fleet Center (renamed the TD Banknorth Garden in 2005). Carr fired Chris Ford and took the coaching reins himself. After drafting Providence College star Eric Williams, the Celtics struggled to a 33–49 record. Things got worse in 1996–97 as the Celtics lost a franchise record 67 games, winning only 15 times despite the emergence of 1st-round draft pick Antoine Walker.",
"Pitino years",
"Carr stepped aside to another job in the organization when the Celtics convinced Rick Pitino to join the franchise as the team's president, front office manager, and head coach. Pitino had led the University of Kentucky to an NCAA Championship and was a very successful head coach at the college level, with a short NBA stint with the New York Knicks several years prior",
". Some controversy was generated when Pitino was given the title of team \"President\", taking such title away from Red Auerbach (Auerbach, who by 1997 was holding the title in a \"ceremonial\" way, became the \"Vice Chairman of the Board\") Unfortunately for the Celtics, Pitino was not the savior everyone expected him to be, although he did acquire several talented young players during his tenure.",
"The Celtics, after going 15–67 in 1996–97, had the best chance at winning the NBA's draft lottery in 1997. Their odds were augmented even further by a 1996 trade that sent Eric Montross to Dallas in exchange for the Mavericks 1st round pick in 1997 (as well as a swap in draft picks in 1996 that allowed the Celtics to move up to select Walker), which gave the Celtics a second lottery pick and more chances to win the coveted first pick",
". The San Antonio Spurs won the lottery and selected Tim Duncan first overall in the 1997 NBA draft.",
"The Celtics received the third and sixth picks, and used the picks to select a brand new backcourt through Chauncey Billups and Ron Mercer. Much of the young team that lost 67 games the year before was dismantled: David Wesley and Rick Fox were let go, and Williams was traded to the Denver Nuggets for a pair of second round draft picks. Walter McCarty was also acquired in a trade with the Knicks",
". Walter McCarty was also acquired in a trade with the Knicks. The Celtics seemed ready to pair Billups and Mercer with Antoine Walker, the second-year player out of Kentucky who was coming off a solid rookie season. Unfortunately, two of these players would not remain as fixtures on the team in the long term: Billups was sent to the Toronto Raptors by the trade deadline, and Mercer was traded to the Nuggets during his third season.",
"The team still had a promising start, upsetting the defending champions Chicago Bulls at home on opening night, and hard play from the youngsters that led to leaderships in turnovers and steals, improving its victories from 15 to 36 despite many losing streaks.",
"The following year the Celtics drafted Paul Pierce, a college star who had been expected to be drafted much higher than the Celtics' number 10 pick overall. Pierce had an immediate impact during the lockout-shortened 1998–99 NBA season, being named Rookie of The Month in February as he led the league in steals. However, the team continued to struggle, finishing only fifth in its division with a 19–31 record",
". However, the team continued to struggle, finishing only fifth in its division with a 19–31 record. The following season, Mercer was sent to the Nuggets in return to Danny Fortson and a returning Eric Williams, who had only played 42 games in two seasons in Colorado following a knee injury. Pitino's promises of improvement still did not realize, with a losing season in 1999–2000 and a bad start to the 2000–01 season that led to record low attendances at the FleetCenter",
". Eventually Pitino resigned in January 2001, leaving the Celtics in the hands of assistant coach Jim O'Brien, a friend of Pitino's who had followed Pitino to the Celtics. Chris Wallace became the general manager of the team and the title of \"Team President\" was returned to Red Auerbach.",
"2001–2006: Attempts to rebuild",
"Back to contention – O'Brien years",
"Following the resignation of Rick Pitino, the Celtics improved greatly under coach Jim O'Brien. Paul Pierce matured into an NBA star and was ably complemented by Antoine Walker, along with the other role players acquired over the years. The team finished the season going 24–24 under O'Brien (after going 12–22 before Pitino's resignation) and following the 2000–01 season O'Brien was given the job of head coach on a permanent basis",
". As a result of numerous trades, the Celtics had three picks in the 2001 NBA draft, a luxury that seemed to set the franchise up well for the long term. General Manager Chris Wallace used the picks on Joe Johnson, Joe Forte (a favorite of Red Auerbach) and Kedrick Brown.",
"The Celtics entered the 2001–02 season with low expectations. The team's success in the latter stages of 2000–01 was largely forgotten, and critics were surprised when the team (along with the New Jersey Nets) surged to the top of the Atlantic Division ahead of teams like the Philadelphia 76ers, who were fresh off a trip to the NBA Finals",
". A trade at the February trade deadline sent Joe Johnson, who was having an inconsistent rookie season, along with little-used bench players Randy Brown and Milt Palacio to the Phoenix Suns in exchange for Tony Delk and Rodney Rogers. The season salvaged by the trade, the Celtics went on to win 49 games. The 49 victories were the franchises most since 1992, when Larry Bird was still playing, and the Celtics made the playoffs for the first time since 1995.",
"The Celtics won a hard-fought five game series with the 76ers in the first round, 3 games to 2. Pierce scored 46 points in the series-clinching blowout at the Fleet Center. In the conference semifinals the Celtics defeated the favored Detroit Pistons 4 games to 1 in a series best remembered for the Celtics low-scoring (66–64) game 3 victory",
". In their first trip to the Eastern Conference Finals since 1988, the Celtics would jump out to a 2–1 series lead over the New Jersey Nets (after rallying from 21 points down in the fourth quarter to win game 3) but would lose the next three games to fall 4 games to 2.",
"Following their defeat at the hands of the Nets, the Celtics once again overhauled their roster. Gone were Rodney Rogers, who signed with new rival New Jersey as a free agent, Vitaly Potapenko, Kenny Anderson and Joe Forte, who were sent to Seattle in a five-player trade that brought Vin Baker and Shammond Williams to Boston.",
"In 2003, the Celtics were sold by owner Paul Gaston to Boston Basketball Partners LLC, led by H. Irving Grousbeck, Wycliffe Grousbeck, Steve Pagliuca, Robert Epstein, David Epstein, and John Svenson. The team made it back to the playoffs but were swept by the Nets in the second round, despite bringing Game 4 to double overtime.",
"Before their elimination, the team hired Danny Ainge to take over the front office, pushing Chris Wallace to another job in the organization. Ainge believed the team had reached its peak and promptly stunned the team by sending Antoine Walker to the Dallas Mavericks (along with Tony Delk). In return, the Celtics received the oft-injured Raef LaFrentz and a first-round draft pick in 2004.",
"Rebuilding anew – Ainge years\nOn the heels of the off-season Walker trade, Ainge continued to dismantle O'Brien's team with a midseason trade that sent Eric Williams, Tony Battie, and struggling Kedrick Brown to Cleveland in exchange for troubled guard Ricky Davis, center Chris Mihm and center Michael Stewart. Reportedly distraught by this trade, O'Brien stepped down during the 2003–04 Season and was replaced by interim coach John Carroll.",
"Davis proved to be an exciting player, and Welsch an offensive threat from three-point range (albeit an inconsistent one), but neither was capable of playing the tenacious defense that had become a trademark of O'Brien's teams. Vin Baker proved to be not up to the task of playing near his home state of Connecticut; alcoholism forced the Celtics to first suspend him, then void his contract. He played only 37 games for the Celtics in 2004, and 17 more with the New York Knicks in a minor role",
". The acquisition of LaFrentz also proved problematic, as LaFrentz's chronic knee problems acted up and forced the big man to miss all but 17 games.",
"Still, with Pierce playing at his usual level, Davis providing a second scoring punch, and occasional help from rookie Marcus Banks at point guard the Celtics prepared for yet another playoff run",
". In February, the Celtics helped their former nemeses, the Detroit Pistons acquire Rasheed Wallace for their own title run, sending Mike James off to Detroit in exchange for a 1st-round pick as well as Chucky Atkins, who would provide the Celtics with a stabilizing veteran point guard to go with the inconsistent Banks. The Celtics made the playoffs only to be badly swept in the first round by the Indiana Pacers losing all 4 by blowout margins.",
"Ainge received a lot of criticism for dismantling the previous team, but he attempted to redeem himself in the draft. After selecting Banks and center Kendrick Perkins in 2003, Ainge added high school power forward Al Jefferson, St. Joseph's University standout Delonte West (with the Mavericks pick from the Antoine Walker trade), and the athletic Tony Allen (with the Pistons 1st-round pick acquired in the Atkins-James swap) in 2004",
". During his second off-season, Ainge was able to unload some payroll when he acquired veterans Gary Payton and Rick Fox from the Los Angeles Lakers in exchange for Mihm, Atkins and bench player Jumaine Jones. Fox retired rather than rejoin the team and Payton threatened to hold out of training camp, but he eventually ended up playing for the team during the 2004–05 Season.",
"The Celtics were a young team under new coach Doc Rivers, yet they seemed to have a core of good young players, led by rookie Al Jefferson, to go along with a selection of able veterans (Paul Pierce, a now-healthy Raef LaFrentz, and Ricky Davis). Before the trading deadline in the winter of 2005 the Celtics re-acquired Antoine Walker when they dealt Gary Payton to the Atlanta Hawks (Payton would re-sign with the team after being released from the Hawks a week later)",
". With Walker back in the fold, the Celtics improved enormously. The Celtics went 45–37 and won their first Atlantic Division title since 1991–92. The Pacers defeated them in the first round yet again, with the series culminating in an embarrassing 27 point 7th game loss at the Fleet Center.",
"At the conclusion of the 2004–05 season Payton and Walker both became free agents. Walker was sent to the Miami Heat in a multi-team sign-and-trade deal (the largest trade in NBA history) that brought the Celtics Qyntel Woods and Curtis Borchardt, both of whom would later be released, two future second-round draft picks, the rights to Spanish center Albert Miralles, and cash. Payton later chose to sign with the Heat as well",
". Payton later chose to sign with the Heat as well. Ainge brought in a few more young players during the draft, including Gerald Green, Ryan Gomes, and Orien Greene. Ainge also added the veteran Brian Scalabrine, signing Scalabrine to a 5-year/$15 million contract.",
"During the 2005–06 season, Ainge traded Davis, Blount, Banks, Justin Reed, and two conditional second-round draft picks to the Minnesota Timberwolves for forward Wally Szczerbiak, centers Michael Olowokandi and Dwayne Jones, and a first-round pick. Many were skeptical about this decision. However, Ainge stated more than once that he was committed to continuing the rebuilding process under team captain Paul Pierce, who played some of the best basketball of his career in 2006",
". Despite Pierce's excellence, the Celtics missed the 2006 playoffs with a 33–49 record.",
"2006 off-season",
"The Boston Celtics continued to rebuild on the night of the 2006 NBA draft. Danny Ainge traded the rights to seventh overall pick Randy Foye, Dan Dickau and Raef LaFrentz to the Portland Trail Blazers in exchange for Sebastian Telfair, Theo Ratliff, and a future second-round pick. A subsequent trade with the Philadelphia 76ers for Allen Iverson was reported as a potential move beneficial to each team, although such a trade never happened and Iverson was shipped to the Denver Nuggets in December",
". Orien Greene was waived, and the Celtics replaced him by trading a first-round pick in the 2007 NBA draft to the Phoenix Suns for the rights to Rajon Rondo. In the second round the Celtics added Leon Powe to the team, and later signed Villanova star Allan Ray as an undrafted free agent.",
"2006–07 season",
"The 2006–07 season was a gloomy one for the franchise. The season began with the death of Red Auerbach at the age of 89. Auerbach was one of the few remaining people who had been a part of the NBA since its inception in 1946. The Celtics went 2–22 from late December 2006 through early February 2007 after losing Paul Pierce to injury, the result of a stress reaction in his left foot (he would later miss the latter part of March and all of April because of swelling in his left elbow)",
". At first, the Celtics received a much needed boost from guard Tony Allen but he tore his ACL on a dunk attempt in a game vs. the Indiana Pacers on January 10, 2007. The Celtics recorded a record of 24–58, second-worst in the NBA, including a franchise record 18-game losing streak that lasted from January 5 to February 14",
". As the streak grew, some suggested that Pierce sit out the rest of the season to the let the young players such as Al Jefferson, Gerald Green, Rajon Rondo and Delonte West get more experience. Green became the second Celtic, joining Dee Brown, to capture the Slam Dunk Contest during All-Star Weekend.",
"On February 22, 2007, former Celtic Dennis Johnson died at the age of 52. Johnson had been coaching the franchise's NBDL affiliate in Austin, Texas at the time of his death. Johnson was honored at the very next Celtics game, even though it was against the Lakers in Los Angeles. The Celtics also held a special ceremony for him at the Garden on February 28, 2007, before a game against the New York Knicks.",
"One bright spot of the season happened on St. Patrick's Day against the eventual champions San Antonio Spurs. The Celtics beat the Spurs 91–85, ending the 17-year away drought at San Antonio, as well as the 10-year drought against the Spurs (Boston's first victory against Tim Duncan).\n\nOn April 18, the team promoted COO Rich Gotham to President.\n\n2007–present: Back to relevance",
"2007–08: Back to glory",
"On May 22, the Celtics were assigned the 5th overall selection in the NBA draft lottery, essentially losing their chance of drafting either Greg Oden or Kevin Durant, who both were considered to go 1st and 2nd in the Draft. The 5th pick was the worst-case scenario for the Celtics, who had a 19.9% chance of obtaining the 1st overall selection",
".9% chance of obtaining the 1st overall selection. However, on June 28, the day of the 2007 NBA draft, the Celtics traded the 5th pick along with Wally Szczerbiak and Delonte West to the Seattle SuperSonics in exchange for All-Star 3-point specialist Ray Allen and the 35th overall selection prior to the event, and with the 5th pick selected forward Jeff Green for Seattle",
". In the second round of the Draft, the Celtics selected guard Gabe Pruitt with the 32nd pick, which was their own, and forward Glen \"Big Baby\" Davis with the 35th pick, previously obtained from Seattle. On July 31, the Celtics traded for 10-time All-Star and 2004 MVP Kevin Garnett in the single largest trade for one player in NBA history",
". He was acquired from the Minnesota Timberwolves in exchange for Al Jefferson, Ryan Gomes, Theo Ratliff, Gerald Green, Sebastian Telfair, Boston's 2009 first-round draft pick (top three protected), the return of Minnesota's conditional first-round draft pick previously obtained in the 2006 Ricky Davis–Wally Szczerbiak trade and cash considerations",
". By adding Garnett to All-Stars Paul Pierce and Ray Allen, the trade brought a new era of relevancy to the long struggling franchise, but it also left the roster short-handed. Adding depth became an immediate concern. The Celtics followed the Garnett trade by signing guards Eddie House and Jackie Manuel, and later center Scot Pollard. Later, Ainge called and asked 5-time All-Star Reggie Miller to return from his 2-year retirement and join the roster in a reserve role",
". Miller strongly considered the possibility of playing alongside Garnett, but ultimately decided not to join the Celtics. On August 27, forward James Posey signed with the team and was considered a decisive signing which instantly gave the Celtics a drastic improvement to their bench.",
"On September 26, center Esteban Batista and guard Dahntay Jones signed non-guaranteed contracts with the Celtics, two days before the beginning of training camp and the team's departure to Rome for the 2007 NBA Europe Live Tour",
". Curiously, Jones was involved in a trade back in the 2003 NBA draft, in which the Celtics drafted him with the 20th overall selection, but immediately traded him with the 16th pick, Troy Bell, to the Memphis Grizzlies in exchange for the 13th pick, Marcus Banks, and the 27th pick, Kendrick Perkins",
". Ultimately, the Celtics waived Batista on October 16, and Manuel and Jones on October 25, bringing the roster down to 14 players, one shy of the league maximum of 15 players, in order to have roster flexibility and be able to sign another player midway through the season.",
"The Celtics started the season hot, winning their first eight games, and going into 2008 with a 26–3 record. Before 2007 closed, Brandon Wallace was released in order to have even more roster flexibility, bringing the roster down to the league minimum of 13 players. During the 2008 NBA All-Star Weekend, Allen and Pierce invited resting center P. J. Brown to join the Celtics, and Brown eventually signed with the team on February 28",
". J. Brown to join the Celtics, and Brown eventually signed with the team on February 28. The final roster move occurred on March 4, as guard free agent Sam Cassell signed with the Celtics, even if his debut was delayed due to attending a family funeral on his hometown of Baltimore.",
"The regular season had the Celtics finish with a league-high 66–16 record, which was also the most wins in a single season since their previous championship season of . Their record guaranteed them home court advantage for the entire playoffs. The 2008 NBA Playoffs, however, were bumpier than many believed they should be. Their First round series was against the eighth-seeded Atlanta Hawks",
". Their First round series was against the eighth-seeded Atlanta Hawks. At home, the Celtics were dominant: their lowest home margin of victory against the Hawks in the playoffs was 19, in Game 2. However, the Hawks were able to beat the Celtics in Atlanta. The series went seven games, with the home team winning each game. The second round against LeBron James and the Cleveland Cavaliers also went to seven games, with each match won by the home team.",
"In the Eastern Conference Finals, the Celtics faced Chauncey Billups, Richard Hamilton and the Detroit Pistons. In Game 2, the Celtics finally lost at home, and rumors began to fly that the Celtics had gotten too tired from consecutive seven-game series to pull off a title, especially with the Pistons having taken their first two series in six and five games, respectively. But the Celtics bounced back to win Game 3 on the road in Detroit",
". But the Celtics bounced back to win Game 3 on the road in Detroit. The series continued, and the Celtics took down the Pistons in six games, winning the deciding game on the road.",
"The 2008 NBA Finals were contested with Kobe Bryant, Pau Gasol, Lamar Odom and a Los Angeles Lakers team in the middle of a dominant playoff run. They swept the Denver Nuggets in the first round, took the Utah Jazz in the second round in six games, and extinguished the repeat hopes of the defending-champion San Antonio Spurs in five games in the Western Conference Finals.",
"The first few games of the series started with the Celtics once again dominating at the TD Banknorth Garden, the Celtics home turf. Game 1 saw Paul Pierce come back after apparently suffering a knee injury earlier in the game, and taking over the game for a 98–88 Celtics win. But in Game 2, Boston nearly lost a 20-point lead, ultimately winning, 97–91. Squandered leads would later become the story of the series",
". Squandered leads would later become the story of the series. When the Lakers returned to Staples Center and won Game 3, 87–81, then took a 24-point lead in the second quarter of Game 4, some believed momentum in the series had shifted the Lakers' way.",
"However, the Celtics did not give up. Led by a bench that outscored the Lakers bench by 20 points, they fought back. The Celtics locked up their defense and took over Game 4 with a crushing 97–91 victory, the biggest comeback in NBA Finals history. Although the Lakers took Game 5, 103–98, the series went back to Boston for Game 6, and the Celtics finished it off with a dominating 131–92 victory. This game would mark the largest margin of victory for a clinching finals game in NBA history",
". This game would mark the largest margin of victory for a clinching finals game in NBA history. The \"Boston Three Party\", as Garnett, Allen and NBA Finals MVP Paul Pierce became known, had finally brought a 17th banner to Boston, the first new banner for the new Garden and the first such win in 22 years",
". Indicating the bumpy the playoffs were for the Celtics, they had to play 26 playoff games, the most a team had ever endured in a single postseason, surpassing the 1994 New York Knicks, whom Celtics Coach Doc Rivers played for, and the 2005 Detroit Pistons, each of whom played 25, but lost their respective finals in seven games (Knicks in , Pistons in ). This record was set in Game 6 of the Finals",
". This record was set in Game 6 of the Finals. It was also the most a team needed to win a championship, surpassing the 1988 Los Angeles Lakers, who needed 24 in order to win the championship that year.",
"After the championship",
"The Celtics followed up the championship season with more dominance, winning the Atlantic Division with a record of 62–20. Unfortunately, it was announced just before the playoffs that Garnett would miss the entire post-season. In the first round of the 2009 NBA Playoffs, the team faced the seventh seed Chicago Bulls. Although the Celtics were favored, the Bulls surprised them with overtime wins in games 1 and 4. Thanks to Ray Allen and Paul Pierce, Boston had a 3–2 advantage going back to Chicago",
". Thanks to Ray Allen and Paul Pierce, Boston had a 3–2 advantage going back to Chicago. In game six, though Ray Allen scored 51 points, the Bulls would win in a dramatic triple-overtime victory thanks to John Salmons, Ben Gordon and eventual NBA Rookie of the Year Derrick Rose. The Celtics, however would ultimately prevail in game 7.",
"In the second round, Boston faced the Orlando Magic in a series that would also go to seven games. However, aided by Hedo Türkoğlu's 25 points, the Magic would defeat the Celtics in Boston 101–82, ending their bid for a second straight title.",
"Prior to the 2009–10 NBA Season, Boston signed Rasheed Wallace. Wallace had had a major impact in his seasons with the Detroit Pistons, where he had won the 2004 NBA Championship. They won the Atlantic Division with a record of 50–32, then beat Miami 4–1 in the playoffs, followed by the Cavaliers 4–2. After a 4–2 series over the Magic in the ECF, the Celtics once again contested the Finals with the Lakers, but fell to them 4–3, with games 1, 2, 6, and 7 played in Los Angeles.",
"The 2010 off-season saw the Celtics make the controversial move of signing veteran center Shaquille O'Neal for the veteran minimum salary, as he added still more age to a roster with most of its players over 30. They won the division again with a 56–26 record and acquired the No. 3 playoff seed. After sweeping the Knicks 4–0, they faced the now LeBron James-led Miami Heat, but the age of the Celtics' roster finally caught up with them as Miami won the series 4–1",
". O'Neal, who had been injured much of the season, retired shortly afterwards.",
"At the 2011 NBA draft, the Celtics selected Providence swingman MarShon Brooks with the 25th overall pick then immediately traded his rights to the Brooklyn Nets for the rights to the 27th overall pick, power forward JaJuan Johnson. Then the Celtics selected E'Twaun Moore with the 55th overall pick in the 2nd round (reason being for his choice of #55), which reunited the Purdue teammates",
". During the short preseason following the 2011 NBA lockout, the Celtics signed free agents Marquis Daniels, Chris Wilcox, Keyon Dooling and Greg Stiemsma, while acquiring Brandon Bass from the Magic for Glen Davis and Von Wafer. They also re-signed Jeff Green, only to have it voided after a physical revealed that Green was diagnosed with an aortic aneurysm, forcing him to miss the season. The Celtics started the season 0–3 with Paul Pierce out with a heel injury",
". The Celtics started the season 0–3 with Paul Pierce out with a heel injury. To fill the void, the Celtics signed French swingman Mickaël Piétrus, but did not make his season debut until January 6, 2012, against the Indiana Pacers. The Celtics, however, continued to struggle, at one point posting a five-game losing streak that was the longest in the 'Big Three' era. At the All Star break, the Celtics were below .500 with a 15–17 record",
". At the All Star break, the Celtics were below .500 with a 15–17 record. However, they were one of the hottest teams after the break, going 24–10 the rest of the year and winning their 5th division title in a row. The Celtics would end up making the playoffs as the fourth seed in the Eastern Conference in the 2012 NBA Playoffs.",
"In the playoffs, the Celtics faced the Atlanta Hawks in the first round, beating them in six games led by strong play from Pierce and Garnett. In the Conference Semifinals the Celtics faced the Philadelphia 76ers led by Doug Collins and a young group of promising players that would push the Celtics into a full-seven game series. Following a Game 7 85–75 win the Celtics faced the Miami Heat in the Eastern Conference Finals, who had defeated them in the playoffs the previous year",
". After losing Game 1 93–79, Boston fought back, pushing Miami into a Game 2 overtime, but ultimately fell short losing 115–111. Facing a 0–2 deficit heading back to Boston, the Celtics would come back with a strong 101–91 Game 3 win and then a hard-fought 93–91 Game 4 overtime win, with Dwyane Wade missing a potential game-winning three-point shot at the buzzer. The C's then won Game 5 in Miami 94–90, giving them a chance to take the series back at the Garden",
". The C's then won Game 5 in Miami 94–90, giving them a chance to take the series back at the Garden. The Celtics could not close out the series, however. Game 6 ended up in a blowout home loss of 98–79 taking the series back to Miami for Game 7, where the Celtics built an early lead but eventually lost 101–88; Miami would go on to defeat the Oklahoma City Thunder in the Finals.",
"End of the \"Big Three\"",
"2012 was a pivotal year to Danny Ainge's Celtics, as both Ray Allen and Kevin Garnett became free agents and In the 2012 NBA draft, the Celtics drafted three players, Jared Sullinger, Fab Melo and Kris Joseph with their 21st, 22nd and 51st picks respectively. While Garnett renewed, Allen chose to sign with the Miami Heat for less money, bringing the five-year \"Big Three\" era to a somewhat acrimonious end",
". The Celtics also signed free agents Jason Terry, Jason Collins, Leandro Barbosa and Darko Miličić, acquired Courtney Lee in a three-team sign and trade – where Johnson, Moore, Sean Williams and a future second round pick were sent to the Houston Rockets and the Portland Trail Blazers got Sasha Pavlovic – and renewed with Brandon Bass and Keyon Dooling along with Chris Wilcox and Jeff Green, who both were returning to play after sustaining season-ending heart ailments",
". Dooling wound up waived, and briefly hired as player development coordinator for the Celtics before a half-season signing with the Memphis Grizzlies.",
"Later in the season, it was announced that Miličić would return to Europe for a family matter. On December 24, the Celtics signed forward Jarvis Varnado of the NBA D-League team Sioux Falls to a deal. He was then waived on January 6 along with rookie forward Kris Joseph. On January 27, 2013, it was revealed that Rajon Rondo had torn the ACL on his right knee and would miss the rest of the season along with part of the next season",
". On February 2, it was announced that Jared Sullinger would also miss the rest of the season due to back surgery. Despite losing Rondo and Sullinger to injury, the Celtics compiled a seven-game winning streak, including victories over the Heat in double overtime and the Nuggets in triple overtime. The winning streak was snapped on February 12 when Leandro Barbosa suffered a torn ACL; he would miss the rest of the season as well.",
"Then on February 18, the Celtics signed swingman Terrence Williams to a deal. On February 21, the Celtics traded Leandro Barbosa and center Jason Collins for Washington Wizards guard Jordan Crawford. On February 28 and March 21, respectively, the Celtics signed forwards D. J. White and Shavlik Randolph.",
"The Celtics finished the season with 41 wins, but played only 81 games after a home game against the Indiana Pacers on April 16 was cancelled following the Boston Marathon bombing; the game was not made up with both teams already assured of their playoff positions. The 41 wins were the lowest totals the Celtics achieved as a playoff-bound team since 2004. The Celtics trailed 3–0 to the New York Knicks in the first round of the 2013 NBA Playoffs, before losing the series in six games",
". In Game 6, the Celtics nearly completed a comeback when they went on a 20–0 run to cut the lead to 4, but that was the closest they got as the New York Knicks would take over to win.",
"On June 3, 2013, head coach Doc Rivers was allowed out of his contract to coach Los Angeles Clippers and the Celtics were given a 2015 unprotected first-round pick as compensation. A few days later, Paul Pierce and Kevin Garnett (after waiving his no-trade clause), along with Jason Terry and D. J",
". J. White, were traded to the Brooklyn Nets for Keith Bogans, MarShon Brooks, Kris Humphries, Kris Joseph, Gerald Wallace, and three future first-round draft picks (2014, 2016, 2018), with the option of swapping 2018 pick with Brooklyn's 2017 pick. The deal was later approved by the league on July 12, 2013, effectively ending the 'Big 3' era and marking the start of a youth movement for the team. One of the leaders of said movement was 2013 draft pick Kelly Olynyk.",
"2013–2021: Brad Stevens era",
"On July 3, 2013, Butler University head coach Brad Stevens was hired to replace Doc Rivers as head coach. On January 15 the Celtics traded Jordan Crawford and MarShon Brooks to the Golden State Warriors in exchange for future first and second round picks as well as Miami Heat center Joel Anthony. On January 19, Rajon Rondo made his return from an ACL tear. He was named the new Captain of the Boston Celtics, the 15th Team Captain in team history",
". He was named the new Captain of the Boston Celtics, the 15th Team Captain in team history. The 2013–14 season marked Boston's first failure to qualify for the playoffs since 2007.",
"The next off-season, the Celtics drafted Marcus Smart with the 6th overall pick and James Young with the 17th overall pick in the 2014 NBA draft. The Celtics would also sign Evan Turner. On December 18, 2014, Rondo and rookie Dwight Powell were traded to Dallas for center Brandan Wright, forward Jae Crowder, veteran point guard Jameer Nelson, and future picks. The Celtics would make several roster moves the next few months acquiring Isaiah Thomas, Luigi Datome, and Jonas Jerebko",
". On February 23, it was announced that Sullinger, the team's leading scorer and rebounder, would miss the remainder of the season with a left metatarsal stress fracture; Sullinger returned on April 3, 2015, on limited minutes. The Celtics finished the season with a 40–42 record, but still managed to clinch the seventh seed in the Eastern Conference Playoffs. The Celtics were swept by the second seeded Cleveland Cavaliers, in the first round of the 2015 NBA Playoffs",
"In the 2015 NBA draft Boston selected Terry Rozier, R. J. Hunter, Jordan Mickey, and Marcus Thornton with the 16th, 28th, 33rd, and 45th selections respectively.\n\nIn the 2015–16 season, Boston once again made the playoffs under Stevens. They were the fifth seed, finishing 48–34, and they faced the Atlanta Hawks in the first round. Boston still could not get past the first round, as the Hawks beat them in six games.",
"The next season, Boston took the league by storm. They had a hot start, led by Isaiah Thomas. He truly emerged as a star, and with the help of Boston's excellent depth, Boston finished as the #1 seed in the Eastern Conference, with a 53–29 record. Just before the Celtics' first round playoff series against the Chicago Bulls, Thomas' sister Chyna died in a car crash. That led to Thomas being even more dominant, and Boston took the series in six after losing the first two games",
". That series win was the first since 2012. In the second round, Boston faced the Washington Wizards. Thomas dropped 33 and 53 points on them in Games 1 and 2, respectively. Boston took the series in 7. In the Eastern Conference Finals, Boston faced the Cleveland Cavaliers. Thomas got a hip injury and was ruled out for the season, and the Cavs won the series in five.",
"2021-present: Under Ime Udoka and NBA Finals appearance",
"On June 28, 2021, Ime Udoka was hired as the head coach replacing Brad Stevens. Under Udoka, the Celtics, led by Jayson Tatum and Jaylen Brown, were able to advance to their first NBA Finals since 2010. They met the Golden State Warriors in a rematch of the 1964 Finals. After splitting the first two games in San Francisco, with Boston winning Game 1, the Celtics won Game 3 on their home court but lost the next three games and the entire series to the Warriors.",
"References \n\nBoston Celtics\nBoston"
] |
List of ships built by Harland & Wolff (1930–2002)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20ships%20built%20by%20Harland%20%26%20Wolff%20%281930%E2%80%932002%29
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[
"The following is a list of ships that were built by Harland and Wolff, a heavy industrial company specialising in shipbuilding and offshore construction. It is based in Belfast, Northern Ireland, and had yards at Govan (1914–1963) and Greenock (1920–1928) in Scotland. The 1,600 ships are listed in order of the date of their launch. This list covers the period 1930–2002.",
"1930s\n, cargo ship for British & African Steamship Co, launched 14 January 1930, completed 10 May 1930.\n, cargo ship for Argentine Navigation Co, launched 28 January 1920, completed 27 May 1930.\n, cargo ship for H Hogarth & Sons, launched 12 February 1930, completed 21 March 1930.\n, cargo ship for Silver Line, launched 18 February 1930, completed 18 June 1930.\n, cargo ship for British & African Steamship Co, launched 27 February 1930, completed 29 May 1930.",
", cargo ship for British & African Steamship Co, launched 27 February 1930, completed 29 May 1930.\n, cargo ship for British & African Steamship Co, launched 28 February 1930, completed 3 July 1930.\n, ferry for City of Cork Steam Packet Co, launched 4 March 1930, completed 14 June 1930.\nCeledonia, lighter for Argentine Navigation Co, launched 5 March 1930, completed 25 March 1930.\n, cargo ship for Silver Line, launched 15 April 1930, completed 23 July 1930.",
", cargo ship for Silver Line, launched 15 April 1930, completed 23 July 1930.\n, cargo ship for H Hogarth & Sons, launched 17 March 1930, completed 17 April 1930.\n, cargo ship for Richard Hughes & Co, launched 28 April 1930, completed 20 May 1930.\n, cargo ship for British & African Steamship Co, launched 29 April 1930, completed 20 August 1930.\n, passenger ship for Union Castle, launched 29 April 1930, completed 16 January 1931, maiden voyage 30 January 1931, sunk by on 14 November 1942.",
", cargo ship for Argentine Navigation Co, launched 8 May 1930, completed 17 September 1930.\n, cargo ship for Richard Hughes & Co, launched 12 May 1930, completed 7 June 1930.\n, asphalt carrier for Ebano Oil Co, launched 27 May 1930, completed 30 October 1930.\n, cargo ship for Silver Line, launched 29 May 1930, completed 2 September 1930.\n, cargo ship for Worms & Cie, launched 30 May 1930, completed 26 June 1930.\n, cargo ship for Bank Line, launched 12 June 1930, completed 10 November 1930.",
", cargo ship for Bank Line, launched 12 June 1930, completed 10 November 1930.\n, cargo ship for Worms & Cie, launched 12 June 1930, completed 8 July 1930.\n, ferry for Argentine Navigation Co, launched 26 June 1930, completed 14 November 1930.\n, cargo ship for Silver Line, launched 26 June 1930, completed 19 September 1930.\n, cargo ship for Argentine Navigation Co, launched 30 June 1930, completed 14 October 1930.\n, cargo ship for French Line, launched 1 July 1930, completed 24 September 1930.",
", cargo ship for French Line, launched 1 July 1930, completed 24 September 1930.\n, cargo ship for Worms & Cie, launched 10 July 1930, completed 23 August 1930.\n, cargo ship for Bank Line, launched 10 July 1930, completed 11 December 1930.\n, cargo ship for Worms & Cie, launched 11 August 1930, completed 11 September 1930.\n, cargo ship for French Line, launched 14 August 1930, completed 11 November 1930.",
", cargo ship for French Line, launched 14 August 1930, completed 11 November 1930.\n, cargo ship for Nourse Line, launched 26 August 1930, completed 29 October 1930, sunk by enemy action 1942.\n, cargo ship for French Line, launched 11 September 1930, completed 10 December 1930.\n, passenger ship for PSNC, launched 23 September 1930, completed 24 March 1931, scrapped 1958.\n, cargo ship for Richard Hughes & Co, launched 25 September 1930, completed 24 October 1930.",
", cargo ship for Richard Hughes & Co, launched 25 September 1930, completed 24 October 1930.\n, cargo ship for Hain Shipping Co, launched 9 October 1930, completed 18 December 1930.\n, cargo ship for Richard Hughes & Co, launched 14 October 1930, completed 7 November 1930.\n, ferry for Argentine Navigation Co, launched 22 October 1930, completed 25 January 1931.\n, cargo ship for French Line, launched 23 October 1930, completed 23 January 1931.",
", cargo ship for French Line, launched 23 October 1930, completed 23 January 1931.\n, cargo ship for French Line, launched 20 November 1930, completed 6 March 1931.\n, coaster for Clyde Shipping Co, launched 10 December 1930, completed 29 January 1931.\n, cargo ship for French Line, launched 20 December 1930, completed 17 April 1931.\n, cargo ship for British Phosphate Carriers, launched 22 January 1931, completed 21 March 1931.",
", cargo ship for British Phosphate Carriers, launched 22 January 1931, completed 21 March 1931.\n, ferry for Southern Railways Co, launched 5 February 1931, completed 26 March 1931.\n, stern-wheel paddle steamer for Elder Dempster, launched 5 March 1931, completed 17 April 1931.\n, oil tanker for Anglo Saxon Petroleum Co, launched 14 May 1931, completed 14 October 1931.\n, oil tanker for Lago Shipping Co, launched 21 May 1931, completed 16 June 1931.",
", oil tanker for Lago Shipping Co, launched 21 May 1931, completed 16 June 1931.\n, oil tanker for Anglo Saxon Petroleum Co, launched 2 July 1931, completed 22 December 1931.\n, passenger ship for White Star Line, launched 12 November 1931, completed 10 June 1932, maiden voyage 25 June 1932, scrapped 1956.\n, passenger ship for Nelson Steamship Co, launched 10 December 1931, completed 15 May 1932, torpedoed and sunk 1940.",
"East Goodwin, lightship for Trinity House, launched 23 December 1931, completed 13 April 1932.\n, floating crane for Cowans, Sheldon & Co, launched 15 March 1932, completed 20 August 1932.\n, ferry for Wallasey Corporation, launched 22 March 1932, completed 12 May 1932.\n, cargo ship for H Hogarth & Sons, launched 4 May 1932, completed 4 June 1932.\n, (Govan-built), Clyde steamer for Caledonian Steam Packet Co, launched 5 May 1932, completed 24 June 1932, scrapped 1974.",
", ferry for Bombay Steam Navigation Co, launched 5 July 1932, completed 10 September 1932.\nNorth Carr Lightship, (Clyde-built), lightship for Trinity House, launched 2 December 1932, completed 27 February 1933\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Shaw Savill Line, launched 1 May 1934, completed 29 August 1934.\n, ferry for Bombay Steam Navigation Co, launched 4 July 1933, completed 31 August 1933.\n, cargo ship for H Hogarth & Sons, launched 9 August 1933, completed 22 September 1933.",
", cargo ship for H Hogarth & Sons, launched 9 August 1933, completed 22 September 1933.\n, ferry for Bombay Steam Navigation Company, launched 17 August 1933, completed 28 September 1933.\n, cargo ship for H Hogarth & Sons, launched 6 September 1933, completed 4 October 1933.\n, yacht for Alan F Craig, launched 9 May 1934, completed 2 July 1934.\n, target towing ship for British Admiralty, launched 14 June 1934, completed 12 September 1934.",
", target towing ship for British Admiralty, launched 14 June 1934, completed 12 September 1934.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Shaw Savill Line, launched 28 June 1934, completed 19 October 1934.\n, tug for South African Railways, launched 26 July 1934, completed 9 October 1934.\n, cargo ship for MacLay & MacIntyre Ltd, launched 16 August 1934, completed 21 September 1934.\n, tug for Clyde Shipping Co, launched 20 August 1934, completed 15 September 1934.",
", tug for Clyde Shipping Co, launched 20 August 1934, completed 15 September 1934.\n, tug for South African Railways, launched 28 August 1934, completed 9 November 1934.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Blue Star Line, launched 9 October 1934, completed 29 December 1934.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Shaw Savill Line, launched 9 October 1934, completed 26 January 1935.\n, cargo ship for P Henderson & Co, launched 11 October 1934, completed 22 November 1934.",
", cargo ship for P Henderson & Co, launched 11 October 1934, completed 22 November 1934.\n, cargo ship for P Henderson & Co, launched 8 November 1934, completed 26 December 1934.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Blue Star Line, launched 22 November 1934, completed 1 March 1935.\n, cargo ship for H Hogarth & Sons, launched 10 December 1934, completed 16 January 1935.\n, oil tanker for Anglo Saxon Petroleum Co, launched 19 December 1934, completed 28 February 1935.",
", oil tanker for Anglo Saxon Petroleum Co, launched 19 December 1934, completed 28 February 1935.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Union Castle, launched 20 December 1934, completed 4 May 1935, scrapped 1967.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Blue Star Line, launched 12 January 1935, completed 17 April 1935.\n, coaster for Nyasaland Railways, delivered 1 February 1935.\n, cargo ship for H Hogarth & Sons, launched 6 February 1935, completed 3 March 1935.",
", cargo ship for H Hogarth & Sons, launched 6 February 1935, completed 3 March 1935.\n, passenger ship for Elder Dempster, launched 7 February 1935, completed 19 March 1935.\n, oil tanker for Eagle Oil and Shipping Company, launched 19 February 1935, completed 17 April 1935.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Union Castle, launched 21 February 1935, completed 11 May 1935, ran aground and lost 1940.\n, cargo ship for Christian Salvesen, launched 6 March 1935, completed 15 April 1935.",
", cargo ship for Christian Salvesen, launched 6 March 1935, completed 15 April 1935.\n, paddle ferry for London and North Eastern Railway, launched 10 April 1935, completed 12 June 1935.\nTSS Duke of York, ferry for London, Midland and Scottish Railway, launched 7 March 1935 completed 4 June 1935, renamed HMS Duke of Wellington 1942, Duke of York 1948, York 1963 and Fantasia 1964, scrapped 1976.\n, cargo ship for T&J Harrison, launched 3 July 1935, completed 11 September 1935.",
", cargo ship for T&J Harrison, launched 3 July 1935, completed 11 September 1935.\n, passenger ship for Union Castle, launched 15 August 1935, completed 29 January 1936, maiden voyage 7 February 1936, scrapped 1966.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Blue Star Line, launched 26 September 1935, completed 20 December 1935.\n, cruiser for British Admiralty, launched 15 October 1935, completed 15 November 1936, torpedoed and sunk 18 February 1944.",
", passenger ship for Union Castle, launched 28 November 1935, completed 13 May 1936, maiden voyage 22 May 1936, scrapped 1965.\n, passenger ship for McIlwraith & MacEachern Ltd, launched 12 December 1935, completed 26 April 1936.\n, ferry for Bombay Steam Navigation Co, launched 26 November 1935, completed 21 February 1936.\n, fruit carrier for Erin Steamship Co, launched 9 January 1936, completed 8 April 1936.\n, oil tanker for Anglo Saxon Petroleum Co, launched 9 January 1936, completed 16 April 1936.",
", oil tanker for Anglo Saxon Petroleum Co, launched 9 January 1936, completed 16 April 1936.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Blue Star Line, launched 11 January 1936, completed 19 March 1936.\n, passenger ship for Union Castle, launched 25 January 1936, completed 27 June 1936, maiden voyage 10 July 1936, renamed Victoria 1958, The Victoria 1976 and Princesa Victoria 1993, scrapped 2004.\n, oil tanker for Anglo Saxon Petroleum Co, launched 20 February 1936, completed 14 May 1936.",
", oil tanker for Anglo Saxon Petroleum Co, launched 20 February 1936, completed 14 May 1936.\n, ferry for Burns & Laird Line, launched 10 March 1936, completed 13 June 1936, renamed HMS Royal Ulsterman and Sounion, sunk by mine 3 March 1973.\n, ferry for Burns & Laird Line, launched 11 March 1936, completed 29 May 1936, renamed HMS Royal Scotsman 1940 and Apollo 1967, scrapped 1984.",
", passenger ship for Union Castle, launched 26 March 1936, completed 27 August 1936, renamed HMS Dunvegan Castle, torpedoed and sunk 1940.\n, cargo ship for Huddart Parker, launched 5 May 1936, completed 18 July 1936.\n, tug for McKie & Baxter Ltd, launched 13 May 1936, completed 15 July 1936.\n, trawler for Lancashire Sea Fisheries, launched 27 May 1936, completed 17 July 1936.\n, ferry for Bombay Steam Navigation Co, launched 14 July 1936, completed 17 September 1936.",
", ferry for Bombay Steam Navigation Co, launched 14 July 1936, completed 17 September 1936.\n, livestock carrier for Burns & Laird Line, launched 21 July 1936, completed 15 August 1936.\n, livestock carrier for Burns & Laird Line, launched 6 August 1936, completed 26 August 1936.\n, ferry for Belfast Harbour Commissioners, launched 25 August 1936, completed 17 March 1937.\n, livestock carrier for Burns & Laird Line, launched 3 September 1936, completed 24 September 1936.",
", livestock carrier for Burns & Laird Line, launched 3 September 1936, completed 24 September 1936.\n, (Clyde-built), oil tanker for British Tanker Company, launched 16 September 1936, completed 16 December 1936.\n, cargo ship for Union Castle, launched 17 September 1936, completed 30 November 1936. Sunk 21 September 1941 while serving as a convoy rescue ship.\n, collier for John Kelly Ltd, launched 6 October 1936, completed 28 November 1936 .",
", collier for John Kelly Ltd, launched 6 October 1936, completed 28 November 1936 .\n, (Clyde-built), oil tanker for British Tanker Company, launched 3 November 1936, completed 21 January 1937.\n, cargo ship for Bank Line, launched 17 November 1936, completed 18 February 1937.\n, coaster for William Robertson Ltd, launched 2 December 1936, completed 3 February 1937.\n, oil tanker for Anglo Saxon Petroleum, launched 29 December 1936, completed 10 March 1937.",
", oil tanker for Anglo Saxon Petroleum, launched 29 December 1936, completed 10 March 1937.\n, lightship tender for Commissioners of Irish Lights, launched 14 January 1937, completed 30 March 1937.\n, coaster for North Coast Steam Navigation Company, launched 27 January 1937, completed 7 April 1937.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Union Castle, launched 11 February 1937, completed 29 April 1937.\n, cargo ship for Ulster Steamship Co, launched 25 February 1937, completed 10 April 1937.",
", cargo ship for Ulster Steamship Co, launched 25 February 1937, completed 10 April 1937.\n, cargo ship for Donaldson Line, launched 11 March 1937, completed 17 August 1937.\n, ferry for Union Steamship Co, launched 16 March 1937, completed 8 May 1937.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Union Castle, launched 25 March 1937, completed 26 June 1937.\n, cargo ship for Lamport & Holt, launched 12 April 1937, completed 6 July 1937.\n, oil tanker for British Tanker Company, launched 22 April 1937, completed 7 June 1937.",
", oil tanker for British Tanker Company, launched 22 April 1937, completed 7 June 1937.\n, (Clyde-built), oil tanker for British Tanker Company, launched 22 June 1937, completed 8 September 1937.\n, ferry for British & Irish Steam Packet Co, launched 24 June 1937, completed 2 November 1937.\n, collier for John Kelly Ltd, launched 5 August 1937, completed 9 September 1937.\n, oil tanker for British Tanker Company, launched 2 September 1937, completed 3 November 1937.",
", oil tanker for British Tanker Company, launched 2 September 1937, completed 3 November 1937.\nRMMV Capetown Castle, passenger ship for Union Castle, launched 23 September 1937, completed 31 March 1938, scrapped 1967.\n, cargo ship for Lamport & Holt, launched 21 October 1937, completed 17 January 1938.\n, oil tanker for British Tanker Co, launched 27 October 1937, completed 19 January 1938.\n, ferry for British & Irish Steam Packet Co, launched 3 November 1937, completed 22 February 1938.",
", ferry for British & Irish Steam Packet Co, launched 3 November 1937, completed 22 February 1938.\n, (Clyde-built), oil tanker for British Tanker Company, launched 4 November 1937, completed 29 December 1937, torpedoed and sunk 23 May 1941.\n, cargo ship for West Australian Government, launched 16 December 1937, completed 2 April 1938.\n, cargo ship for Lamport & Holt, launched 21 December 1937, completed 14 February 1938.\n, cargo ship for Royal Mail Line, launched 3 March 1938, completed 29 July 1938.",
", cargo ship for Royal Mail Line, launched 3 March 1938, completed 29 July 1938.\n, cruiser for British Admiralty, launched 17 March 1938, completed 3 August 1939, museum ship 1971.\n, oil tanker for Anglo Saxon Petroleum Co, launched 28 April 1938, completed 7 July 1938.\n, cargo ship for Shaw Savill Line, launched 31 May 1938, completed 6 October 1938.\n, passenger ship for Union Castle, launched 14 June 1938, completed 15 December 1938.",
", passenger ship for Union Castle, launched 14 June 1938, completed 15 December 1938.\n, oil tanker for Anglo Saxon Petroleum Company, launched 28 June 1938, completed 14 September 1938, scrapped 1962.\n, oil tanker for British Tanker Company, launched 25 August 1938, completed 26 October 1938.\n, passenger ship for Union Castle, launched 12 October 1938, completed 18 April 1939, renamed HMS Pretoria Castle 1939 and Warwick Castle 1946, scrapped 1962.",
", oil tanker for British Admiralty, launched 25 October 1938, completed 26 January 1939, sunk on 30 May 1941.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Union Castle, launched 8 November 1938, completed 11 February 1939.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Union Castle, launched 8 December 1938, completed 11 March 1939.\n, oil tanker for Eagle Oil Co, launched 20 December 1938, completed 5 April 1939.\n, coaster for North Coast Navigation Co, launched 25 January 1939, completed 15 March 1939.",
", coaster for North Coast Navigation Co, launched 25 January 1939, completed 15 March 1939.\n, passenger ship for Royal Mail Line, launched 7 March 1939, completed 24 September 1939, scrapped 1971.\n, ferry for Government of Fiji, delivered 18 April 1939.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Blue Star Line, launched 20 April 1939, completed 24 August 1939.\n, tug for Government of South Africa, launched and completed 23 May 1939.",
", tug for Government of South Africa, launched and completed 23 May 1939.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Blue Star Line, launched 20 June 1939, completed 4 November 1939.\n, tug for Government of South Africa, launched 6 July 1939, completed 1 November 1939.\n, passenger ship for Shaw Savill Line, launched 1 August 1939, completed 24 November 1939.\n, aircraft carrier for British Admiralty, launched 17 August 1939, completed 24 November 1940, scrapped 1953.",
", (Clyde-built), for British Admiralty, launched 12 December 1939, completed 9 March 1940. Converted to pilot tender Helm in 1946, and to Mozambique as Magul in 1948.",
"1940s\n, (Clyde-built), Tree-class trawler for British Admiralty, launched 27 January 1940, completed 30 April 1940.\n, for British Admiralty, launched 14 February 1940, completed 5 April 1940, renamed USS Saucy 1942, HMS Snapdragon 1945, SS Katina 1947 and SS Tewfik 1950.\n, Flower-class corvette for British Admiralty, launched 24 February 1940, completed 8 April 1940, renamed USS Restless 1942, Perilock 1947, scrapped 1953.",
", Flower-class corvette for British Admiralty, launched 7 March 1940, completed 22 April 1940, scrapped 1947.\n, Flower-class corvette for British Admiralty, launched 21 March 1940, completed 6 May 1940, renamed USS Ready 1942, Villa Cisneros 1948 and Villa Bens 1949.\n, cargo ship for Court Line, launched 21 March 1940, completed 26 June 1940.\n, Flower-class corvette for British Admiralty, launched 21 March 1940, completed 5 September 1940, torpedoed and sunk 12 August 1941.",
", cargo ship for Lamport & Holt, launched 23 March 1940, completed 23 May 1940.\n, Flower-class corvette for British Admiralty, launched 6 April 1940, completed 21 May 1940, renamed USS Spry 1942 and Madonna 1947, scrapped 1955.\n, Flower-class corvette for British Admiralty, launched 20 April 1940, completed 4 June 1940, renamed USS Courage 1942, Roskva 1951, Douglas 1956 and Seabird 1958, sunk December 1958.\n, paddle steamer for London & North Eastern Railway, launched 27 April 1940, completed 4 July 1941.",
", paddle steamer for London & North Eastern Railway, launched 27 April 1940, completed 4 July 1941.\n, Flower-class corvette for British Admiralty, launched 4 May 1940, completed 18 June 1940, renamed Hetty W Vinke 1948, scrapped 1965.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Royal Mail Line, launched 21 May 1940, completed 15 August 1940.\n, Flower-class corvette for British Admiralty, launched 22 May 1940, completed 2 July 1940, renamed Nada 1944, Partizanka 1946 and El Sudan 1948.",
", (Govan-built), for British Admiralty, launched 23 May 1940, completed 4 November 1940, renamed KNM Glomma 1945.\n, (Clyde-built), Flower-class corvette for British Admiralty, launched 23 May 1940, completed 17 August 1940, scrapped 1952.\n, cargo ship for T&J Harrison, launched 4 June 1940, completed 8 August 1940.\n, Flower-class corvette for British Admiralty, launched 4 June 1940, completed 2 August 1940, renamed BP Sachtouris 1943, scrapped 1952.",
", cargo ship for Bank Line, launched 6 June 1940, completed 24 October 1940.\n, Flower-class corvette for British Admiralty, launched 18 June 1940, completed 9 August 1940, sunk by mine 9 February 1943.\n, cargo ship for Lamport & Holt, launched 20 June 1940, completed 30 August 1940.\n, (Clyde-built), Flower-class corvette for British Admiralty, launched 26 June 1940, completed 20 October 1940, renamed Annlock, scrapped 1952.",
", Flower-class corvette for British Admiralty, launched 2 July 1940, completed 22 August 1940, scrapped 1947.\n, Bangor-class minesweeper for British Admiralty, launched 4 July 1940, completed 7 February 1941.\n, cargo ship for Bank Line, launched 20 July 1940, completed 5 December 1940.\n, Flower-class corvette for British Admiralty, launched 6 August 1940, completed 22 September 1940, scrapped 1947.",
", oil tanker for British Admiralty, launched 22 August 1940, completed 27 January 1941, renamed Petrola XIV 1973, scrapped 1979.\n, cargo ship for Ulster Steamship Co, launched 3 September 1940, completed 19 December 1940.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Royal Mail Line, launched 4 September 1940, completed 19 November 1940.\n, (Clyde-built), Flower-class corvette for British Admiralty, launched 31 October 1940, completed 27 February 1941, renamedThessaloniki 1946.",
", refrigerated cargo ship for Royal Mail Line, launched 2 November 1940, completed 23 January 1941.\n, submarine depot ship for British Admiralty, launched 30 November 1940, completed 28 February 1942, scrapped 1970.\n, oil tanker for British Admiralty, launched 12 December 1940, completed 11 April 1941, scrapped 1975.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Royal Mail Line, launched 14 January 1941, completed 2 April 1941.",
", refrigerated cargo ship for Royal Mail Line, launched 14 January 1941, completed 2 April 1941.\n, oil tanker for British Admiralty, launched 29 January 1941, completed 6 June 1941, renamed Korytsa 1972, scrapped 1987.\n, (Clyde-built), Flower-class corvette for British Admiralty, launched 12 February 1941, completed 26 May 1941, renamed Southern Broom 1948, scrapped 1967.",
"RFA Dingledale, (Govan-built), for British Admiralty, launched 27 March 1941, completed 10 September 1941, renamed Royaumont 1959, scrapped 1967.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Ministry of Shipping, launched 27 March 1941, completed 22 October 1941, sunk by enemy action 11 August 1942.\n, (Govan-built), oil tanker for British Admiralty, launched 29 May 1941, completed 24 October 1941, torpedoed and sunk 24 January 1942.",
", oil tanker for Ministry of War Transport, launched 10 July 1941, completed 12 November 1941, renamed Norsol 1942, Kollbjørg 1946 and Storo 1956, scrapped 1959.\n, (Clyde-built), for British Admiralty, launched 31 July 1940, completed 12 November 1940.\n, Flower-class corvette for British Admiralty, launched 19 August 1940, completed 3 October 1940, renamed Apostolis 1943, scrapped 1952.\n, (Clyde-built), Dance-class trawler for British Admiralty, launched 29 August 1940, completed 2 January 1941.",
", Flower-class corvette for British Admiralty, launched 2 September 1940, completed 18 October 1940, renamed Maj Vinke 1950.\n, Flower-class corvette for British Admiralty, launched 17 September 1940, completed 1 November 1940, scrapped 1947.\n, Flower-class corvette for British Admiralty, launched 3 October 1940, completed 19 November 1940, renamed Freelock 1946, sunk 1 April 1947.",
", Flower-class corvette for British Admiralty, launched 15 October 1940, completed 29 November 1940, mined and sunk 21 August 1944.\n, Flower-class corvette for British Admiralty, launched 31 October 1940, completed 3 January 1941, renamed Rubis 1947 and Seislim 1954, scrapped 1959.\n, (Clyde-built), coaster for Ministry of Shipping, launched 13 November 1940, completed 2 April 1941, renamed Borthwick 1947, Agostino in 1960 and Ivy in 1972.",
", Flower-class corvette for British Admiralty, launched 16 November 1940, completed 16 June 1942, renamed HNoMS Polarfront II 1947.\n, Flower-class corvette for British Admiralty, launched 16 November 1940, completed 9 January 1941, scrapped October 1948.\n, Flower-class corvette for British Admiralty, launched 28 November 1940, completed 3 February 1941, renamed Kraft 1948 and Arne Skontorp 1954, scrapped 1966.\n, Tank Landing Craft for British Admiralty, launched 9 December 1940, completed 16 December 1940.",
", Tank Landing Craft for British Admiralty, launched 9 December 1940, completed 16 December 1940.\n, Tank Landing Craft for British Admiralty, launched 9 December 1940, completed 16 December 1940.\n, Flower-class corvette for British Admiralty, launched 17 December 1940, completed 13 February 1941, renamed Laconia 1949, Constantinos S 1950 and Parnon 1952, sunk 16 July 1954.",
", Flower-class corvette for British Admiralty, launched 15 January 1941, completed 1 March 1941, renamed Silverlord 1949 and Sir Edgar 1954, scrapped 1960.\n, Flower-class corvette for British Admiralty, launched 16 January 1941, completed 28 March 1941, renamed Deppie 1948, Canastel 1950, Rio Blanco 1952 and Lillian 1955.\n, Flower-class corvette for British Admiralty, launched 12 February 1941, completed 11 April 1941, scrapped 24 May 1946.",
", (Govan-built), coaster for Ministry of Shipping, launched 13 February 1941, completed 17 June 1941, renamedAngularity 1946 and Elpis 1967, sank 1968.\n, Flower-class corvette for British Admiralty, launched 15 February 1941, completed 9 May 1941, renamed Syros 1947, Delphini 1951 and Ekaterina 1955, scrapped 1974.\n, Tank Landing Craft for British Admiralty, launched 11 March 1941, completed 25 March 1941.\n, Tank Landing Craft for British Admiralty, launched 11 March 1941, completed 25 March 1941.",
", Tank Landing Craft for British Admiralty, launched 11 March 1941, completed 25 March 1941.\n, Flower-class corvette for British Admiralty, launched 12 March 1941, completed 9 June 1941, torpedoed and sunk 20 February 1945.\n, for British Admiralty, launched 20 March 1941, completed 28 June 1941.\n, Flower-class corvette for British Admiralty, launched 10 April 1941, completed 24 April 1942, renamed HNoMS Buttercup 1944, HNoMS Nordkyn 1946 and Thoris 1956, scrapped 1969.",
", Flower-class corvette for British Admiralty, launched 11 April 1941, completed 26 January 1942, renamedCommandant Drogou 1942, Terje 10 1947 and NRP Caravalho Araujo 1959.\n, Shakesperian-class trawler for British Admiralty, launched 3 May 1941, completed 20 October 1941.\n, Flower-class corvette for British Admiralty, launched 28 May 1941, completed 9 August 1941, scrapped 1949.\n, Tank Landing Craft for British Admiralty, launched 9 June 1941, completed 29 June 1941.",
", Tank Landing Craft for British Admiralty, launched 9 June 1941, completed 29 June 1941.\n, Tank Landing Craft for British Admiralty, launched 9 June 1941, completed 11 July 1941.\n, Flower-class corvette for British Admiralty, launched 11 June 1941, completed 27 August 1941, renamed Soroy 1946.\n, Tank Landing Craft for British Admiralty, launched 17 June 1941, completed 31 August 1941.\n, Tank Landing Craft for British Admiralty, launched 17 June 1941, completed 16 September 1941.",
", Tank Landing Craft for British Admiralty, launched 17 June 1941, completed 16 September 1941.\n, (Govan-built), oil tanker for Ministry of War Transport, launched 21 August 1941, completed 25 December 1941, renamed Nortind 1942, torpedoed and sunk 16 January 1943.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Ministry of War Transport, launched 25 August 1941, completed 1 April 1942, scrapped 1963.",
"RFA Derwentdale, (Govan-built), landing ship gantry for British Admiralty, launched 12 April 1941, completed 30 August 1941, renamed Irvingdale I 1959, scrapped 1966.\n, (Clyde-built), coaster for Ministry of War Transport, launched 26 June 1941, completed 23 September 1941, renamed Peregrine 1946, Libya 1965 and Rozmary 1971.\n, Flower-class corvette for British Admiralty, launched 22 July 1941, completed 31 October 1941, renamed Andria 1947 and V.D. Chidambaram 1949, scrapped 1955.",
", Flower-class corvette for British Admiralty, launched 24 July 1941, completed 18 December 1941, scrapped 1961.\n, (Clyde-built), Flower-class corvette for British Admiralty, launched 28 August 1941, completed 27 December 1941, renamed LÉ Maev 1946.\n, cargo ship for Ministry of War Transport, launched 4 September 1941, completed 7 May 1942, renamed Van der Helst 1943, Tjimenteng 1946 and Diamandis 1963, scrapped 1970.",
", coaster for Ministry of War Transport, launched 9 September 1941, completed 30 October 1941, renamed Starkenborgh 1942, Spaarnestroom 1947, Erato Sartes 1961 and Antonios P 1963, scrapped July 1969.\n, (Clyde-built), Flower-class corvette for British Admiralty, launched 18 October 1941, completed 5 March 1942, scrapped 1949.\n, oil tanker for Ministry of War Transport, launched 21 October 1941, completed 11 April 1942 as RFA Dinsdale, torpedoed and sunk 31 May 1942.",
"MV Empire Ballantyne, (Clyde-built), cargo ship for Ministry of War Transport, launched 21 October 1941, completed 25 February 1942, renamed MV Belgian Airman 1942, torpedoed and sunk 14 April 1945.\n, aircraft maintenance carrier for British Admiralty, launched 20 November 1941, completed 12 March 1943, scrapped 1959.\n, cargo ship for Ministry of War Transport, launched 18 December 1941, completed 1 September 1942, renamed Medon 1946 and Tina 1963, scrapped 1970.",
", for British Admiralty, launched 22 December 1941, completed 24 March 1942, torpedoed and sunk 15 November 1942.\nMV Empire Bede, (Govan-built), cargo ship for Ministry of War Transport, launched 6 January 1942, completed 31 March 1942, torpedoed and sunk 18 August 1942.\nMV Empire Chapman, oil tanker for Ministry of War Transport, launched 17 January 1942, completed 25 June 1942, renamed British Commando 1946, scrapped 1959.",
", Algerine-class minesweeper for British Admiralty, launched 5 February 1942, completed 16 May 1942, lost 2 January 1943.\n, oil tanker for Ministry of War Transport, launched 17 February 1942, completed 29 April 1942, torpedoed and sunk 8 December 1942.\n, (Govan-built), oil tanker for Ministry of War Transport, launched 18 February 1942, completed 23 May 1942. Later renamed Empire Vigilance, torpedoed and sunk 24 January 1943.\n, for British Admiralty, launched 4 March 1942, completed 24 April 1942.",
", for British Admiralty, launched 4 March 1942, completed 24 April 1942.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Royal Mail Line, launched 17 March 1942, completed 28 November 1942.\n, Algerine-class minesweeper for British Admiralty, launched 2 April 1942, completed 16 June 1942.\n, Isles-trawler for British Admiralty, launched 3 April 1942, completed 15 June 1942.",
", Isles-trawler for British Admiralty, launched 3 April 1942, completed 15 June 1942.\n, oil tanker for Ministry of War Transport, launched 4 April 1942, completed 31 July 1942, renamed Backhuysen 1944, Chama 1947 and Anastasia 1955, scrapped 1959.\n, Algerine-class minesweeper for British Admiralty, launched 14 April 1942, completed 30 July 1942.\n, oil tanker for British Tanker Co, launched 16 April 1942, completed 9 July 1942.",
", oil tanker for British Tanker Co, launched 16 April 1942, completed 9 July 1942.\n, Algerine-class minesweeper for British Admiralty, launched 27 May 1942, completed 9 September 1942.\n, cargo ship for Ministry of War Transport, launched 28 May 1942, completed 22 December 1942, renamed Saxon Star 1946, Redbrook 1961 and MV E Evangelia 1965, ran aground and lost 15 October 1968.\n, oil tanker for Eagle Oil Co, launched 30 May 1942, completed 31 December 1942.",
", oil tanker for Eagle Oil Co, launched 30 May 1942, completed 31 December 1942.\n, Algerine-class minesweeper for British Admiralty, launched 27 June 1942, completed 16 October 1942.\n, Algerine-class minesweeper for British Admiralty, launched 12 August 1942, completed 1 December 1942.\n, for British Admiralty, launched 27 August 1942, completed 20 November 1943, renamed HMNZS Black Prince 1946, scrapped 1962.",
", cargo ship for Ministry of War Transport, launched 27 August 1942, completed 31 January 1943, renamed Gothic Star 1946, Nelson Star 1948, Patagonia Star 1958, Eirini 1961 and Byzantium 1970, scrapped 8 July 1971.\n, Algerine-class minesweeper for British Admiralty, launched 22 September 1942, completed 22 January 1943.\n, Algerine-class minesweeper for British Admiralty, launched 10 October 1942, completed 26 February 1943, scrapped 1967.\n, ferry for Nyasaland Railway Co, delivered 23 October 1942.",
", ferry for Nyasaland Railway Co, delivered 23 October 1942.\n, Algerine-class minesweeper for British Admiralty, launched 27 October 1942, completed 26 March 1943.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Royal Mail Line, launched 21 November 1942, completed 29 June 1943.\n, Algerine-class minesweeper for British Admiralty, launched 9 December 1942, completed 22 April 1943 and renamed HMS Loyalty, sunk 22 August 1944.\n, Algerine-class minesweeper for British Admiralty, launched 11 January 1943, completed 21 May 1943.",
", Algerine-class minesweeper for British Admiralty, launched 20 March 1943, completed 18 June 1943.\n, Algerine-class minesweeper for British Admiralty, launched 3 April 1943, completed 9 July 1943.\n, Algerine-class minesweeper for British Admiralty, launched 20 April 1943, completed 20 August 1943.\n, for British Admiralty, launched 17 June 1943, completed 7 March 1944, scrapped 1955.\n, Algerine-class minesweeper for British Admiralty, launched 19 June 1943, completed 10 September 1943, sunk 26 July 1945.",
", cargo ship for Royal Mail Line, launched 25 September 1943, completed 1 February 1944.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Union Castle, launched 23 December 1942, completed 23 April 1943.\n, (Clyde-built), oil tanker for Ministry of War Transport, launched 20 December 1941, completed 10 March 1942, bombed and sunk 14 June 1943, raised and repaired 1948, renamed Asteria 1953 and Sanjacopo 1958, scrapped 1974.",
", (Clyde-built), for British Admiralty, launched 24 June 1942, completed 4 December 1942, scrapped 1957.\n, (Govan-built), oil tanker for Ministry of War Transport, launched 30 June 1942, completed 24 September 1942, bombed and sunk 2 January 1943, raised and scrapped 1950.\n, oil tanker for Ministry of War Transport, launched 8 August 1942, completed 18 February 1943 as MV Empire Bombardier, renamed British Bombardier 1946, scrapped 1959.",
", (Clyde-built), oil tanker for Ministry of War Transport, launched 31 August 1942, completed 11 November 1942, renamed INS Sambhar 1948.\n, cargo ship for Ministry of War Transport, launched 23 September 1942, completed 17 March 1943, renamed King Robert 1946, Ardgem 1961 and Kelso 1967, scrapped 1969.\n, oil tanker for Eagle Oil Co, launched 23 September 1942, completed 30 December 1942.\n, tank landing craft for British Admiralty, launched 24 September 1942, completed 14 March 1943.",
", tank landing craft for British Admiralty, launched 24 September 1942, completed 14 March 1943.\n, tank landing craft for British Admiralty, launched 24 October 1942, completed 2 April 1943.\n, (Clyde-built), cargo ship for Ministry of War Transport, launched 29 October 1942, completed 29 December 1942, renamed Argos Hill 1948, Queen Maud 1951, Scotia 1954 and Skotia 1960, scrapped 1962.",
", oil tanker for Ministry of War Transport, launched 24 November 1942, completed 20 April 1943, renamed Athelqueen 1946 and Mariverda 1955, scrapped 1961.\n, (Clyde-built), River-class frigate for British Admiralty, launched 24 November 1942, completed 28 April 1943, torpedoed and sunk 1944.\n, tank landing craft for British Admiralty, launched 12 December 1942, completed 1 May 1943, scrapped 1958.",
", (Clyde-built), cargo ship for Ministry of War Transport, launched 23 December 1942, completed 23 February 1943.\n, (Clyde-built), oil tanker for Ministry of War Transport, launched 26 December 1942, completed 21 April 1943, renamed Kleinella 1946, Shellbrit 1948, BP Marketer 1952 and Sarroch 1964, scrapped September 1983.\n, (Clyde-built), Isles-class trawler for the British Admiralty, launched 26 January 1943, completed 22 May 1943.",
", oil tanker for Anglo Saxon Petroleum Co, launched 7 February 1943, completed 28 May 1943.\n, oil tanker for British tanker Co, launched 23 March 1943, completed 15 June 1943.\n, cargo ship for PSNC, launched 23 March 1943, completed 9 August 1943.\n, (Clyde-built), oil tanker for Ministry of War Transport, launched 27 March 1943, completed 22 June 1943.\n, oil tanker for Ministry of War Transport, launched 4 May 1943, completed 16 September 1943.",
", oil tanker for Ministry of War Transport, launched 4 May 1943, completed 16 September 1943.\n, cargo ship for Ministry of War Transport, launched 31 May 1943, completed 31 July 1943, renamed Pilote Garnier 1945 and Kyra Hariklia 1960, scrapped 1966.\n, (Govan-built), merchant aircraft carrier for British Admiralty, launched 17 June 1943, completed 5 October 1943, renamed British Swordfish 1946, scrapped 1959.",
", oil tanker for Ministry of War Transport, launched 29 June 1943, completed 28 October 1943, renamed Pechelbronn 1946, Eagle 1956 and Jajce 1959, scrapped 1969.\nHMCS Ontario, for British Admiralty, launched 29 July 1943, completed 25 May 1945, scrapped 1960.\n, Algerine-class minesweeper for British Admiralty, launched 3 August 1943, completed 15 October 1943.",
", (Clyde-built), River-class frigate for British Admiralty, launched 4 August 1943, completed 31 December 1943, renamed HMCS Meon 1944, scrapped 1966.\n, cargo ship for PSNC, launched 17 August 1943, completed 28 October 1943.\n, Algerine-class minesweeper for British Admiralty, launched 19 August 1943, completed 12 November 1943.\n, oil tanker for Anglo Saxon Petroleum Co, launched 31 August 1943, completed 3 December 1943.",
", oil tanker for Anglo Saxon Petroleum Co, launched 31 August 1943, completed 3 December 1943.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Shaw Savill Line, launched 20 September 1943, completed 29 October 1944.\n, (Clyde-built), River-class frigate for British Admiralty, launched 5 June 1943, completed 15 October 1943, scrapped 1957.\n, (Clyde-built), Flower-class corvette for Royal Canadian Navy, launched 28 September 1943, completed 15 January 1944, renamed Rexton Kent II 1947 and Rexton Kent, scuttled 1966.",
", Algerine-class minesweeper for British Admiralty, launched 29 September 1943, completed 10 December 1943.\n, oil tanker for Anglo Saxon Petroleum Co, launched 14 October 1943, completed 3 March 1944.\n, Algerine-class minesweeper for British Admiralty, launched 26 October 1943, completed 14 January 1944.\n, oil tanker for Eagle Oil Co, launched 2 November 1943, completed 30 December 1943.",
", oil tanker for Eagle Oil Co, launched 2 November 1943, completed 30 December 1943.\n, (Clyde-built), oil tanker for Ministry of War Transport, launched 10 November 1943, completed 30 December 1943, renamed Shellbrit 5 1946 and BP Engineer in 1952, scrapped June 1965.\n, oil tanker for Anglo Saxon Petroleum Co, launched 14 November 1943, completed 30 March 1944.\n, Algerine-class minesweeper for British Admiralty, launched 25 November 1943, completed 11 February 1944, scrapped 1972.",
", for British Admiralty, launched 27 November 1943, completed 2 April 1945, scrapped 1961.\n, for British Admiralty, launched 11 December 1943, completed 10 March 1944, scrapped 1960.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Royal Mail Line, launched 30 December 1943, completed 25 July 1944.\n, Castle-class corvette for British Admiralty, launched 11 January 1944, completed 10 June 1944, renamed Weather Monitor 1962 and Admiral Beaufort 1976, scrapped 1982.",
", cargo ship for Royal Mail Line, launched 20 January 1944, completed 8 July 1944.\n, cargo ship for Ministry of War Transport, launched 25 January 1944, completed 30 May 1944, renamed Homer City 1947, Grosvenor Mariner 1966 and Red Sea 1966, scrapped 1971.\n, (Clyde-built), River-class frigate for British Admiralty, launched 28 January 1944, completed 11 May 1944, renamed Halladale 1949, Norden 1962 and Turist Expressen 1962.",
", cargo ship for Royal Mail Line, launched 8 February 1944, completed 7 September 1944.\n, Castle-class corvette for British Admiralty, launched 8 February 1944, completed 26 June 1944 as HMCS Arnprior, renamed Montevideo 1946.\n, Castle-class corvette for British Admiralty, launched 24 February 1944, completed 14 July 1944, renamed HMCS Petrolia 1944.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Union Castle, launched 23 March 1944, completed 28 September 1944.",
", refrigerated cargo ship for Union Castle, launched 23 March 1944, completed 28 September 1944.\nRFA Wave King, (Govan-built), oil tanker for British Admiralty, launched 6 April 1944, completed 22 July 1944, scrapped 1960.\n, cargo ship for Lamport & Holt, launched 12 April 1944, completed 20 August 1944.\n, Castle-class corvette for British Admiralty, launched 12 April 1944, completed 20 September 1944 as HMCS Humberstone.",
", Algerine-class minesweeper for British Admiralty, launched 20 April 1944, completed 16 August 1944, mined and scuttled 24 July 1945.\n, Algerine-class minesweeper for British Admiralty, launched 6 May 1944, completed 14 September 1944.\n, oil tanker for Ministry of War Transport, launched 6 May 1944, completed 20 September 1944, renamed Nayadis 1946, scrapped 1961.\n, (Clyde-built), oil tanker for Ministry of War Transport, launched 15 May 1944, completed 26 June 1944, renamed Allurity 1947, scrapped 1966.",
", (Clyde-built), cargo ship for Ministry of War Transport, launched 19 May 1944, completed 10 July 1945, renamed King Edgar 1946, scrapped 1959.\n, Colossus-class aircraft carrier for British Admiralty, launched 20 May 1944, completed 14 March 1946, renamed HMCS Warrior 1946 and ARA Independencia 1958, scrapped 1971.\n, Algerine-class minesweeper for British Admiralty, launched 22 May 1944, completed 13 October 1944.\n, for British Admiralty, launched 23 May 1944, completed 15 June 1944, scrapped 1963.",
", for British Admiralty, launched 23 May 1944, completed 15 June 1944, scrapped 1963.\n, Loch-class frigate for British Admiralty, launched 8 June 1944, completed 7 July 1944, renamed Orion 1961.\n, Algerine-class minesweeper for British Admiralty, launched 20 June 1944, completed 10 November 1944, renamed HMNS Nigeria 1959.\n, Loch-class frigate for British Admiralty, launched 6 July 1944, completed 9 September 1945, scrapped 1970.",
", oil tanker for British Admiralty, launched 6 July 1944, completed 3 November 1944.\n, Algerine-class minesweeper for British Admiralty, launched 20 July 1944, completed 9 December 1944.\n, (Clyde-built), Castle-class corvette for British Admiralty, launched 20 July 1944, completed 10 December 1944, renamed Weather Reporter 1957.\n, Loch-class frigate for British Admiralty, launched 2 August 1944, completed 2 January 1945 as HMSAS Transvaal for South African Navy, scuttled 1978.",
", oil tanker for Anglo Saxon Petroleum Co, launched 3 August 1944, completed 20 December 1944.\n, Algerine-class minesweeper for British Admiralty, launched 22 August 1944, completed 18 January 1945.\n, (Clyde-built), oil tanker for Ministry of War Transport, launched 28 August 1944, completed 16 October 1944, renamed Samshoo 1946, Pass of Glenogle 1951, Marcello Garolla 1961 and Marcello G 1969, scrapped 1979.",
", cargo ship for Ministry of War Transport, launched 2 September 1944, completed 21 February 1945, maiden voyage 25 February 1945, renamed Stirlingshire 1946, scrapped 1966.\n, landing ship, tank for British Admiralty, launched 3 September 1944, completed 15 September 1944.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Royal Mail Line, launched 5 September 1944, completed 20 December 1944.\n, landing ship, tank for British Admiralty, launched 16 September 1944, completed 28 September 1944.",
", (Govan-built), oil tanker for Ministry of War Transport, launched 21 September 1944, completed 29 December 1944, renamed Saint Gaudens 1946, Sevane 1948 and Progres 1958, scrapped in 1970.\n, landing ship, tank for British Admiralty, launched 30 September 1944, completed 5 April 1945.\n, (Clyde-built), oil tanker for Ministry of War Transport, launched 19 October 1944, completed 22 December 1944, renamed Miliana 1946, Rivoli 1948, Pass of Drumochter 1952 and Santa Giulia 1962, scrapped 1971.",
", for British Admiralty, launched 19 October 1944, completed 13 April 1945, scrapped 1957.\n, landing ship, tank for British Admiralty, launched 31 October 1944, completed 4 May 1945.\n, landing ship, tank for British Admiralty, launched 31 October 1944, completed 6 June 1945.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Union Castle, launched 31 October 1944, completed 14 February 1945.",
", refrigerated cargo ship for Union Castle, launched 31 October 1944, completed 14 February 1945.\nHMS Magnificent, for British Admiralty, launched 16 November 1944, completed 21 May 1948 and delivered as HMCS Magnificent, scrapped 1965.\n, oil tanker for Anglo Saxon petroleum Co, launched 17 November 1944, completed 22 March 1945.\n, Bay-class frigate for British Admiralty, launched 18 November 1944, completed 29 May 1945, scrapped 1959.",
", Bay-class frigate for British Admiralty, launched 16 December 1944, completed 30 July 1945, scrapped 1956.\n, (Clyde-built), oil tanker for Ministry of War Transport, launched 30 November 1944, completed 26 February 1945, renamed Alchymist 1950, scrapped 1969.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Ministry of War Transport, launched 30 December 1944, completed 30 June 1945, renamed Rakaia 1946, scrapped 1971.\n, landing ship, tank for British Admiralty, launched 30 December 1944, completed 11 May 1945.",
", landing ship, tank for British Admiralty, launched 30 December 1944, completed 11 May 1945.\n, Bay-class frigate for British Admiralty, launched 16 January 1945, completed 15 June 1945, scrapped 1962.\n, (Clyde-built), oil tanker for Ministry of War Transport, launched 19 January 1945, completed 11 April 1945, renamed Adib 1948 and BP Transporter 1952, scrapped 1965.\n, landing ship, tank for British Admiralty, launched 31 January 1945, completed 16 November 1945.",
", landing ship, tank for British Admiralty, launched 31 January 1945, completed 16 November 1945.\n, landing ship, tank for British Admiralty, launched 12 February 1945, completed 14 August 1945.\n, Bay-class frigate for British Admiralty, launched 15 February 1945, completed 6 September 1945, scrapped 1958.\nHMS Powerful, Majestic-class aircraft carrier for British Admiralty, launched 27 February 1945, completed 21 January 1957 as HMCS Bonaventure, scrapped 1971.",
", cargo ship for Lamport & Holt, launched 28 February 1945, completed 31 May 1945.\n, landing ship, tank for British Admiralty, launched 12 March 1945, completed 25 September 1945.\n, (Clyde-built), oil tanker for Ministry of War Transport, launched 16 March 1945, completed 19 June 1945, renamed Aqueity 1947, sunk by mine 1947.\n, oil tanker for British Tanker Co, launched 29 March 1945, completed 7 June 1945.",
", oil tanker for British Tanker Co, launched 29 March 1945, completed 7 June 1945.\n, Bay-class frigate for British Admiralty, launched 29 March 1945, completed 11 October 1945, scrapped 1959.\n, landing ship, tank for British Admiralty, launched 24 April 1945, completed 24 November 1945.\n, Bay-class frigate for British Admiralty, launched 26 April 1945, completed 19 January 1946, scrapped 1959.",
", refrigerated cargo ship for Ministry of War Transport, launched 14 May 1945, completed 26 October 1945, renamed Tuscan Star 1947, Timaru Star 1948 and California Star 1959, scrapped 1969.\n, oil tanker for British Tanker Co, launched 26 July 1945, completed 21 December 1945.\n, (Clyde-built), oil tanker for Ministry of War Transport, launched 31 July 1945, completed 19 September 1945, renamed Fulgar 1946, Shelbrit 9 1948 and BP Manager 1952, scrapped 1967.",
", cargo ship for Royal Mail Line, launched 21 August 1945, completed 14 December 1945.\n, aircraft carrier for British Admiralty, launched 22 September 1945 by Vickers-Armstrong, completed 1957 by Harland and Wolff and delivered as INS Vikrant 1961, scrapped 2014\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Union Castle, launched 23 October 1945, completed 11 March 1946.\n, oil tanker for Anglo Saxon Petroleum Co, completed 24 January 1946.",
", oil tanker for Anglo Saxon Petroleum Co, completed 24 January 1946.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Port Line, launched 5 December 1945, completed 29 August 1946.\n, oil tanker for British Tanker Co, launched 20 December 1945, completed 11 April 1946.\n, cargo ship for PSNC, launched 17 January 1946, completed 2 May 1946.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Union Castle, launched 5 March 1946, completed 25 June 1946.",
", refrigerated cargo ship for Union Castle, launched 5 March 1946, completed 25 June 1946.\n, (Clyde-built), oil tanker for Ministry of War Transport, launched 30 April 1945, completed 14 August 1945, renamed Anonity 1947, Petrola II 1966 and Kalymnos 1969, scrapped 1970.\n, (Clyde-built), oil tanker for Ministry of War Transport, launched 12 June 1945, completed 9 October 1945, renamed Alignity 1952, scrapped 1971.",
", (Clyde-built), oil tanker for Ministry of War Transport, launched 14 August 1945, completed 27 November 1945, renamed Frenulina 1947, Anlok 1962, Permina VI 1962 and Bimoli 01 1974.\n, oil tanker for Ministry of War Transport, launched 20 October 1945, completed 4 February 1946, renamed Fischeria 1947, Acuity 1951, Vittoriosa 1967 and Neptunia 1969, scrapped 1975.",
", (Clyde-built), oil tanker for Ministry of War Transport, launched 30 November 1945, completed 12 March 1946, renamed Felipes 1947, Shelbrit 10 1948 and Shell Director 1952, scrapped 1966.\n, (Clyde-built), oil tanker for Ministry of War Transport, launched 5 February 1946, completed 7 May 1946, renamed Fusinus 1947 and Aqueity 1949, scrapped 1965.\n, cargo ship for Ministry of War Transport, launched 4 March 1946, completed 18 December 1946 as Empire Star for Blue Star Line, scrapped 1971.",
", oil tanker for Anglo Saxon Petroleum Co, launched 6 March 1946, completed 20 June 1946.\n, for British Admiralty, launched 19 March 1946, completed 31 October 1951, scrapped 1978.\n, (Clyde-built), oil tanker for Ministry of War Transport, launched April 1946, completed 6 September 1946, renamed Fusus 1947, Monaco 1964 and Hanna 1965, scrapped 1965.\n, cargo ship for PSNC, launched 2 April 1946, completed 16 August 1946.",
", cargo ship for PSNC, launched 2 April 1946, completed 16 August 1946.\n, (Govan-built), oil tanker for British Admiralty, launched 4 April 1946, completed 27 August 1946 as |RFA Wave Chief, scrapped 1975.\n, oil tanker for Anglo Saxon petroleum Co, launched 16 April 1946, completed 19 September 1946.\n, oil tanker for British Tanker Co, launched 12 June 1946, completed 25 September 1946.\n, bitumen tanker for Anglo Saxon Petroleum Co, launched 28 June 1945, completed 17 December 1946.",
", bitumen tanker for Anglo Saxon Petroleum Co, launched 28 June 1945, completed 17 December 1946.\n, Landing Ship, Tank Mk.3 for British Admiralty, launched 12 September 1945, completed 26 January 1946.\n, oil tanker for Ministry of War Teansport, launched 4 October 1945, completed 24 December 1945.\n, (Clyde-built), oil tanker for Ministry of War Transport, launched 31 October 1945, completed 7 February 1946, renamed British Pluck 1951, scrapped 1954.",
", whale factory ship for United Whalers Ltd, launched 18 April 1946, completed 28 September 1946.\n, for Ministry of Transport, launched 5 June 1946, completed 2 August 1946. \n, L-class tug for Ministry of Transport, launched 12 June 1946, completed 2 August 1946. \n, L-class tug for Ministry of Transport, launched 4 July 1946, completed 2 August 1946. \n, L-class tug for Ministry of Transport, launched 4 July 1946, completed 2 August 1946.",
", L-class tug for Ministry of Transport, launched 4 July 1946, completed 2 August 1946. \n, L-class tug for Ministry of Transport, launched 17 August 1946, completed 18 September 1946. \n, L-class tug for Ministry of Transport, launched 17 August 1946, completed 18 September 1946. \n, cargo ship for Blue Funnel Line, launched 27 August 1946, completed 17 January 1947.\n, cargo ship for French Line, launched 12 September 1946, completed 4 June 1947.",
", cargo ship for French Line, launched 12 September 1946, completed 4 June 1947. \n, refrigerated cargo ship for Royal Mail Line, launched 24 September 1946, completed 29 May 1947.\n, oil tanker for Anglo Saxon Petroleum Co, launched 26 September 1946, completed 6 February 1947.\n, paddle steamer for London and North Eastern Railway, launched 2 October 1946, completed 5 June 1947.\n, oil tanker for Anglo Saxon Petroleum Co, launched 11 October 1946, completed 25 March 1947.",
", oil tanker for Anglo Saxon Petroleum Co, launched 11 October 1946, completed 25 March 1947.\n, cargo ship for French Line, launched 21 November 1946, completed 3 July 1947. \n, passenger ship for Shaw Savill Line, launched 26 November 1946, completed 16 July 1947, maiden voyage 1 August 1947.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Royal Mail Line, launched 27 November 1946, completed 3 September 1947.f1\n, cargo ship for French Line, launched 20 February 1947, completed 17 September 1947.",
", cargo ship for French Line, launched 20 February 1947, completed 17 September 1947. \n, passenger ship for Cunard-White Star Line, launched 25 February 1947, completed 7 April 1948, maiden voyage 10 April 1948, renamed SS Remuera 1961 and SS Aramac 1965, scrapped 1970.\n, cargo ship for PSNC, launched 7 March 1947, completed 18 November 1947.\n, ferry for Coast Lines, launched 25 March 1947, completed 17 January 1948.\n, for British Admiralty, launched 22 April 1947, completed 1953, scrapped 1973.",
", for British Admiralty, launched 22 April 1947, completed 1953, scrapped 1973.\n, ferry for The China Navigation Company, launched 23 April 1947, completed 18 December 1947.\n, ferry for Coast Lines, launched 20 May 1947, completed 25 March 1948.\n, cargo ship for Moss Hutchinson Line, launched 3 June 1947, completed 19 November 1947.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Blue Star Line, launched 17 June 1947, completed 12 March 1948.",
", refrigerated cargo ship for Blue Star Line, launched 17 June 1947, completed 12 March 1948.\n, whale factory ship for A/S Thor Dahl Ltd, launched 19 June 1947, completed 9 October 1947.\nPretoria Castle, passenger ship for Union Castle, launched 19 August 1947, completed 10 July 1948, renamed SS Oranje 1966. \n, cargo ship for PSNC, launched 29 August 1947, completed 20 March 1948.\n, pilot tender for Trinity House, launched 2 September 1947, completed 28 January 1948.",
", pilot tender for Trinity House, launched 2 September 1947, completed 28 January 1948.\n, oil tanker for Anglo Saxon Petroleum Co, launched 30 September 1947, completed 30 December 1947.\n, cargo ship for Moss Hutchinson Line, launched 2 October 1947, completed 30 January 1948.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Blue Star Line, launched 2 October 1947, completed 14 July 1948.\nEdinburgh Castle, passenger ship for Union Castle, launched 16 October 1947, completed 26 November 1948.",
", pilot boat for Trinity House, launched 30 October 1947, completed 7 April 1948.\n, oil tanker for British Tanker Co, launched 11 December 1947, completed 3 June 1948.\n, lightship tender for Commissioners of Irish Lights, launched 14 February 1948, completed 18 July 1948.\n, oil tanker for British Tanker Co, launched 27 February 1948, completed 7 July 1948.\n, oil tanker for Anglo Saxon Petroleum Co, launched 11 March 1948, completed 7 September 1948.",
", oil tanker for Anglo Saxon Petroleum Co, launched 11 March 1948, completed 7 September 1948.\n, cargo ship for Holland America Line, launched 11 March 1948, completed 14 October 1948.\n, passenger ship for Royal Mail Line, launched 11 May 1948, completed 18 February 1949, wrecked 25 April 1949 on maiden voyage.\n, cargo ship for Ulster Steamship Co, launched 25 May 1948, completed 26 August 1948.\n, whale catcher for United Whalers Ltd, launched 26 May 1948, completed 20 October 1948.",
", whale catcher for United Whalers Ltd, launched 26 May 1948, completed 20 October 1948.\n, oil tanker for British Tanker Co, launched 8 June 1948, completed 12 November 1948.\n, cargo ship for Holland America Line, launched 10 June 1948, completed 19 February 1949.\n, aircraft carrier for British Admiralty, launched 22 June 1948, completed 2 November 1953, scrapped 1984.\n, oil tanker for A/S Bulls Rederi, launched 6 July 1948, completed 17 September 1948.",
", oil tanker for A/S Bulls Rederi, launched 6 July 1948, completed 17 September 1948.\n, whale catcher for United Whalers Ltd, launched 6 July 1948, completed 8 November 1948.\n, ferry for British Railways, launched 22 July 1948, completed 5 April 1949, maiden voyage 14 April 1949, renamed Express Apollon 1976, scrapped 1980.\n, oil tanker for British Tanker Co, launched 16 September 1948, completed 29 December 1948.",
", oil tanker for British Tanker Co, launched 16 September 1948, completed 29 December 1948.\n, ferry for British Railways, launched 21 September 1948, completed 17 May 1949, renamed Altaif 1976.\n, ferry for Bombay Steam Navigation Co, launched 19 October 1948, completed 20 August 1949.\n, ferry for Bombay Steam Navigation Co, launched 19 October 1948, completed 20 June 1949.\n, cargo ship for Blue Funnel Line, launched 2 November 1948, completed 3 May 1949.",
", cargo ship for Blue Funnel Line, launched 2 November 1948, completed 3 May 1949.\n, oil tanker for Fred Olsen & Co, launched 4 November 1948, completed 31 March 1949.\n, oil tanker for British Tanker Co, launched 16 November 1948, completed 24 March 1949.\n, whale catcher for United Whalers Ltd, launched 28 December 1948, completed 18 August 1949.\n, oil tanker for Estrella Maritima SA, launched 27 January 1949, completed 15 June 1949.",
", oil tanker for Estrella Maritima SA, launched 27 January 1949, completed 15 June 1949.\n, oil tanker for Estrella Maritima SA, launched 15 February 1949, completed 6 July 1949.\n, whale catcher for United Whalers Ltd, launched 17 February 1949, completed 2 September 1949.\n, oil tanker for A/S Thor Thorsen, launched 17 March 1949, completed 27 June 1949.\n, cargo ship for Moss Hutchinson Line, launched 29 March 1949, completed 6 July 1949.",
", cargo ship for Moss Hutchinson Line, launched 29 March 1949, completed 6 July 1949.\n, ferry for Bombay Steam Navigation Co, launched 29 March 1949, completed 20 October 1949.\n, ferry for Bombay Steam Navigation Co, launched 30 March 1949, completed 20 October 1949.\n, cargo ship for Blue Funnel Line, launched 13 April 1949, completed 29 October 1949.\n, whale catcher for United Whalers Ltd, launched 24 May 1949, completed 19 September 1949.",
", whale catcher for United Whalers Ltd, launched 24 May 1949, completed 19 September 1949.\n, cargo ship for Moss Hutchinson Line, launched 31 May 1949, completed 12 October 1949.\n, oil tanker for Panama City Tanker Co, launched 10 June 1949, completed 7 October 1949.\n, whale catcher for United Whalers Ltd, launched 28 June 1949, completed 12 October 1949.\n, cargo liner for Blue Funnel Line, launched 27 July 1949, completed 31 March 1950.",
", cargo liner for Blue Funnel Line, launched 27 July 1949, completed 31 March 1950.\n, whale catcher for Union Whaling Co, launched 28 July 1949, completed 4 November 1949.\n, oil tanker for British Tanker Co, launched 11 August 1949, completed 25 November 1949.\n, whale catcher for Union Whaling Co, launched 16 August 1949, completed as Arnt Karlsen 9 November 1949.",
", passenger ship for Union Castle, launched 24 August 1949, completed 25 March 1950, maiden voyage 6 April 1950, renamed Patris 1959, Mediterranean Island 1979, Mediterranean Star 1981 and Terra 1988, scrapped 1989.\n, oil tanker for A/S Truma, launched 22 September 1949, completed 27 January 1950.\n, research trawler for South African Government, launched 10 October 1949, completed 27 January 1950.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Shaw Savill Line, launched 21 October 1949, completed 24 March 1950.",
", refrigerated cargo ship for Shaw Savill Line, launched 21 October 1949, completed 24 March 1950.\n, oil tanker for Commons Bros Ltd, launched 26 October 1949, completed 24 February 1950.\n, oil tanker for British Tanker Co, launched 21 November 1949, completed 23 February 1950.",
"1950s\n, oil tanker for British Tanker Co, launched 2 February 1950, completed 9 June 1950.\n, whale catcher for Australian Whaling Commission, launched 6 February 1950, completed 27 April 1950.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Shaw Savill Line, launched 7 March 1950, completed 5 July 1950.\n, oil tanker for British Tanker Co, launched 21 March 1950, completed 8 July 1950.\n, whale factory ship for Compania Argentina de Pesca, launched 4 April 1950, completed 15 October 1951.",
", oil tanker for British Tanker Co, launched 1 June 1950, completed 28 September 1950.\n, oil tanker for Borgestad A/S, launched 14 June 1950, completed 5 October 1950.\n, cargo ship for Blue Funnel Line, launched 15 June 1950, completed 21 November 1950.\n, oil tanker for Anglo Saxon Petroleum Co, launched 29 June 1950, completed 9 November 1950.\n, cargo ship for Blue Funnel Line, launched 28 July 1950, completed 5 January 1951.",
", cargo ship for Blue Funnel Line, launched 28 July 1950, completed 5 January 1951.\n, oil tanker for British Tanker Co, launched 15 August 1950, completed 8 December 1950.\n, oil tanker for Hunting & Sons, launched 26 September 1950, completed 29 December 1950.\n, oil tanker for Per Gjerding, launched 28 September 1950, completed 19 December 1950.\n, whale catcher for Falkland Shipowners Co, launched 28 September 1950, completed 27 November 1950.",
", whale catcher for Falkland Shipowners Co, launched 28 September 1950, completed 27 November 1950.\n, oil tanker for Fred Olsen & Co, launched 28 September 1950, completed 17 January 1951.\n, oil tanker for Olav Ringdal, launched 12 December 1950, completed 12 March 1951.\n, oil tanker for Sigval Bergsen, launched 12 January 1951, completed 15 May 1951.\n, oil tanker for Moltzaua & Christensen, launched 8 February 1951, completed 17 April 1951.",
", oil tanker for Moltzaua & Christensen, launched 8 February 1951, completed 17 April 1951.\n, tug for East African Railways, launched 12 March 1951, completed 8 June 1951.\n, passenger ship for Union Castle, launched 5 April 1951, completed 6 October 1951.\n, whale catcher for United Whalers, launched 3 May 1951, completed 15 September 1951.\n, oil tanker for Fred Olsen & Co, launched 5 May 1951, completed 6 October 1951.\n, oil tanker for Sigurd Herlofsen A/S, launched 22 May 1951, completed 31 August 1951.",
", oil tanker for Sigurd Herlofsen A/S, launched 22 May 1951, completed 31 August 1951.\n, tug for East African Railways, launched 23 May 1951, completed 15 September 1951.\n, whale catcher for United Whalers, launched 7 June 1951, completed 11 October 1951.\n, cargo ship for Port Line, launched 19 June 1951, completed 31 October 1951.\n, passenger ship for Union Castle, launched 21 June 1951, completed 16 February 1952, renamed Amerikanis 1967, scrapped 2001.",
", oil tanker for Lorentzen A/S, launched 2 July 1951, completed 12 November 1951.\n, whale catcher for Hvalfinger A/S, launched 9 July 1951, completed 30 October 1951.\n, cargo ship for Australia China Line, launched 2 August 1951, completed 20 December 1951.\n, whale catcher for Union Whaling Co, launched 3 August 1951, completed 24 October 1951.\n, whale catcher for Union Whaling Co, launched 23 August 1951, completed 15 November 1951.",
", whale catcher for Union Whaling Co, launched 23 August 1951, completed 15 November 1951.\n, oil tanker for Societe Navale Delmas Vieljeux, launched 11 October 1951, completed 25 April 1952.\n, cargo ship for Royal Mail Line, launched 29 November 1951, completed 12 June 1952.\n, cargo ship for King Line, launched 29 November 1951, completed 29 February 1952.\n, cargo ship for Ulster Steamship Co, launched 17 December 1951, completed 20 March 1952.",
", cargo ship for Ulster Steamship Co, launched 17 December 1951, completed 20 March 1952.\n, oil tanker for British Tanker Co, launched 16 January 1952, completed 12 June 1952.\n, cargo ship for Elder Dempster, launched 29 January 1952, completed 5 June 1952.\n, cargo ship for King Line, launched 14 February 1952, completed 6 May 1952.\n, cargo ship for Royal Mail Line, launched 25 March 1952, completed 11 September 1952.\n, oil tanker for Spermacet Whaling Co, launched 25 March 1952, completed 9 July 1952.",
", oil tanker for Spermacet Whaling Co, launched 25 March 1952, completed 9 July 1952.\n, passenger ship for Union Castle, launched 5 April 1952, completed 8 November 1952.\n, ferry for Coast Lines, launched 8 May 1952, completed 17 October 1952.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Shaw Savill Line, launched 22 May 1952, completed 11 November 1952.\n, whale catcher for Tongsberg A/S, launched 10 June 1952, completed 5 September 1952.\n, cargo ship for Elder Dempster, launched 24 June 1952, completed 12 November 1952.",
", cargo ship for Elder Dempster, launched 24 June 1952, completed 12 November 1952.\n, oil tanker for Spermacet Whaling Co, launched 8 July 1952, completed 30 January 1953.\n, cargo ship for Lamport & Holt, launched 6 August 1952, completed 28 November 1952.\n, oil tanker for Hunting & Sons, launched 16 September 1952, completed 21 January 1953.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Shaw Savill Line, launched 5 November 1952, completed 15 May 1953.",
", refrigerated cargo ship for Shaw Savill Line, launched 5 November 1952, completed 15 May 1953.\n, cargo ship for King Line, launched 19 November 1952, completed 19 March 1953.\n, cargo ship for Bank Line, launched 3 December 1952, completed 26 February 1953.\n, cargo ship for Bank Line, launched 18 December 1952, completed 24 June 1953.\n, oil tanker for Blandford Shipping, launched 19 December 1952, completed 14 May 1953.",
", oil tanker for Blandford Shipping, launched 19 December 1952, completed 14 May 1953.\n, oil tanker for Anglo Saxon Petroleum Co, launched 29 January 1953, completed 11 June 1953.\n, (Clyde-built), ferry for British Railways, launched 4 March 1953, completed 1 June 1953, renamed City of Piraeus 1975 and City of Corfu 1993.\n, (Clyde-built), paddle steamer for British Railways, launched 5 March 1953, completed 4 May 1953.",
", (Clyde-built), paddle steamer for British Railways, launched 5 March 1953, completed 4 May 1953.\n, (Clyde-built), ferry for British Railways, launched 2 April 1953, completed 24 June 1953, renamed Ala 1976.\n, oil tanker for A/S Field, launched 15 April 1953, completed 8 July 1953.\n, oil tanker for Arthur H Mathieson, launched 12 May 1953, completed 17 September 1953.\n, cargo ship for Bank Line, launched 29 June 1953, completed 14 October 1953.",
", cargo ship for Bank Line, launched 29 June 1953, completed 14 October 1953.\n, whale catcher for Hector Whaling Ltd, launched 15 July 1953, completed 19 November 1953.\n, cargo ship for Ulster Steamship Co, launched 10 August 1953, completed 4 November 1953.\n, oil tanker for Anders Jahre A/S, launched 23 October 1953, completed 9 January 1954.\n, cargo ship for Blue Funnel Line, launched 11 November 1953, completed 22 April 1954.",
", cargo ship for Blue Funnel Line, launched 11 November 1953, completed 22 April 1954.\n, oil tanker for A/S Kosmos, launched 25 August 1953, completed 20 November 1953.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Port Line, launched 22 September 1953, completed 4 February 1954.\n, cargo ship for Union Castle, launched 22 October 1953, completed 5 March 1954.\n, oil tanker for British Tanker Co, launched 24 November 1953, completed 30 April 1954.",
", oil tanker for British Tanker Co, launched 24 November 1953, completed 30 April 1954.\n, for British Admiralty, launched 27 November 1953, completed 21 May 1954, scrapped 1975.\n, oil tanker for British Tanker Co, launched 9 December 1953, completed 1 July 1954.\n, oil tanker for British Tanker Co, launched 9 December 1953, completed 6 May 1954.\n, cargo ship for Royal Mail Line, launched 19 January 1954, completed 27 June 1954.",
", cargo ship for Royal Mail Line, launched 19 January 1954, completed 27 June 1954.\n, passenger ship for P&O, launched 21 January 1954, completed 10 September 1954, maiden voyage 15 September 1954, scrapped 1973.\n, collier for John Kelly Ltd, launched 3 February 1954, completed 7 May 1954.\n, cargo ship for Union Castle, launched 4 February 1954, completed 5 June 1954.\n, Ton-class minesweeper for British Admiralty, launched 18 February 1954, completed 21 August 1954, scrapped 1991.",
", seaward defence craft for British Admiralty, launched 19 February 1954, completed 8 May 1954.\nYC 327, lighter for British Admiralty, launched 19 March 1954, completed 1 July 1954.\n, seaward defence craft for British Admiralty, launched 2 April 1954, completed 10 September 1954.\n, oil tanker for British Tanker Co, launched 14 April 1954 completed 20 August 1954.\n, Ton-class minesweeper for British Admiralty, launched 18 May 1954, completed 10 March 1955, scrapped 1985.",
", ship for Pelagos A/S, launched 2 June 1954, completed 15 September 1954.\n, oil tanker for Hadley Shipping Co, launched 29 June 1954, completed 9 November 1954.\n, for British Admiralty, launched 1 July 1954, completed 10 May 1956, scrapped 1987.\n, Ton-class minesweeper for British Admiralty, launched 30 July 1954, completed 10 March 1955, scrapped 1970.",
", passenger ship for Shaw Savill Line, launched 17 August 1954, delivered 28 February 1955, renamed Calypso 1973, Calypso I 1980, ''Azure Seas 1981 and Ocean Breeze 1992, scrapped 2003.\n, fleet tanker for Royal Australian Navy, launched 1 September 1954, completed 17 May 1955, renamed RFA Tide Austral 1955 and HMAS Supply 1962.\n, oil tanker for Belships Co, launched 28 September 1954, completed 24 February 1955.\n, cargo ship for Blue Funnel Line, launched 29 September 1954, completed 5 January 1955.",
", cargo ship for Blue Funnel Line, launched 29 September 1954, completed 5 January 1955.\n, cargo ship for Elder Dempster, launched 14 October 1954, completed 21 January 1955.\n, Ton-class minesweeper for British Admiralty, launched 26 October 1954, completed 29 June 1955, scrapped 1971.\n, cargo ship for Prince Line, launched 29 December 1954, completed 27 April 1955.\nHarlandic II, launch for Harland and Woolf, launched 1953.",
"Harlandic II, launch for Harland and Woolf, launched 1953.\n, Ton-class minesweeper for British Admiralty, launched 2 March 1955, completed 25 August 1955, scrapped 1972.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Port Line, launched 10 March 1955, completed 7 July 1955.\n, cargo ship for Bank Line, launched 24 March 1955, completed 4 August 1955.\n, cargo ship for British Phosphate Carriers, launched 21 April 1955, completed 21 October 1955.",
", cargo ship for British Phosphate Carriers, launched 21 April 1955, completed 21 October 1955.\n, coaster for Belfast Steamship Co, launched 26 April 1955, completed 20 September 1955.\n, oil tanker for Shell Oil Co, launched 5 May 1955, completed 20 October 1955.\n, Ton-class minesweeper for British Admiralty, launched 23 May 1955, completed 25 November 1955.\nSS Reina Del Mar, passenger ship for PSNC, launched 7 June 1955, completed 8 April 1956, maiden voyage 3 May 1956.",
", cargo ship for Royal Mail Line, launched 5 July 1955, completed 14 December 1955.\n, cargo ship for Bank Line, launched 5 July 1955, completed 27 October 1955.\n, oil tanker for Shell Oil Co, launched 6 July 1955, completed 21 December 1955.\n, cargo ship for Blue Funnel Line, launched 4 August 1955, completed 5 January 1956.\n, Ton-class minesweeper for British Admiralty, launched 31 August 1955, completed 1 June 1956, renamed Tahan 1966.",
", refrigerated cargo ship for Royal Mail Line, launched 19 October 1955, completed 1 February 1956. \n, for British Admiralty, launched 15 November 1955, completed 19 March 1956.\n, cargo ship for Prince Line, launched 16 November 1955, completed 8 March 1956.\n, oil tanker for Knut Knudsen A/S, launched 17 November 1955, completed 11 April 1956.\n, ferry for British Railways, launched 1 December 1955, completed 22 August 1956.",
", ferry for British Railways, launched 1 December 1955, completed 22 August 1956.\n, cargo ship for Elder Dempster, launched 15 December 1955, completed 26 April 1956.\n, ferry for British Railways, launched 12 January 1956, 1956, completed 22 September 1956, renamed Neptunia 1975, Corinthia 1987, Faith Power 1994, Fairy Princess 1995 and Zenith.\n, Confiance-class tug for British Admiralty, launched 17 January 1956, completed 6 September 1956.",
", Confiance-class tug for British Admiralty, launched 17 January 1956, completed 6 September 1956. \n, Ton-class minesweeper for British Admiralty, launched 27 January 1956, completed 8 November 1956, scrapped 1975.\n, lighter for Shell Oil, launched 31 January 1956, completed 23 March 1956.\n, oil tanker for Sigval Bergsen, launched 2 March 1956, completed 13 June 1956.\n, cargo ship for Johnston Warren & Co, launched 27 March 1956, completed 27 June 1956.",
", cargo ship for Johnston Warren & Co, launched 27 March 1956, completed 27 June 1956.\n, oil tanker for Shell Oil Co, launched 26 April 1956, completed 20 September 1956.\n, Ton-class minesweeper for British Admiralty, launched 1 May 1956, completed 11 December 1957.\n, Ton-class minesweeper for British Admiralty, launched 24 May 1956, completed 19 February 1957, scrapped 1989.\n, cargo ship for Elder Dempster, launched 7 June 1956, completed 24 October 1956.",
", cargo ship for Elder Dempster, launched 7 June 1956, completed 24 October 1956.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Royal Mail Line, launched 21 June 1956, completed 25 October 1956. \n, oil tanker for Texaco Oil Co, launched 7 August 1956, completed 26 January 1957. \n, ferry for Coast Lines, launched 21 August 1956, completed 1 March 1957.\n, Ton-class minesweeper for British Admiralty, launched 22 October 1956, completed 21 August 1957, scrapped 1995.",
", tug for Clyde Shipping Co, launched 23 May 1956, completed 29 October 1956.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Royal Mail Line, launched 1 November 1956, completed 13 February 1957.\n, oil tanker for Sigval Bergsen, launched 20 November 1956, completed 31 January 1957.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Port Line, launched 21 November 1956, completed 12 March 1957.\n, tug for Clyde Shipping Co, launched 29 November 1956, completed 17 May 1957.",
", tug for Clyde Shipping Co, launched 29 November 1956, completed 17 May 1957.\n, cargo ship for Bank Line, launched 21 December 1956, completed 7 March 1957.\n, ore carrier for Commons Bros Ltd, launched 14 February 1957, completed 20 June 1957.\n, Whitby-class frigate for British Admiralty, launched 14 February 1957, completed 14 August 1958, scrapped 1978.\n, cargo ship for Bank Line, launched 15 February 1957, completed 7 June 1957.",
", cargo ship for Bank Line, launched 15 February 1957, completed 7 June 1957.\n, T2 tanker of Esso Petroleum Co, new midsection launched 14 March 1957, completed 17 August 1957.\n, cargo ship for King Line, launched 15 March 1957, completed 25 June 1957.\n, oil tanker for Shell Oil, launched 16 April 1957, completed 4 July 1957.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Royal Mail Line, launched 30 April 1957, completed 22 August 1957.",
", refrigerated cargo ship for Royal Mail Line, launched 30 April 1957, completed 22 August 1957.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Royal Mail Line, launched 29 May 1957, completed 26 September 1957.\n, cargo ship for Bank Line, launched 30 May 1957, completed 27 September 1957.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Royal Mail Line, launched 9 August 1957, completed 30 December 1957.\n, cargo ship for King Line, launched 27 August 1957, completed 19 December 1957.",
", cargo ship for King Line, launched 27 August 1957, completed 19 December 1957.\n, cargo ship for Bank Line, launched 28 August 1957, completed 17 January 1958.\n, Confiance-class tug for British Admiralty, launched 10 September 1957, completed 15 October 1958.\n, oil tanker for British Tanker Co, launched 25 September 1957, completed 31 January 1958.\n, cargo ship for Shaw Savill Line, launched 8 October 1957, completed 13 February 1958.",
", cargo ship for Shaw Savill Line, launched 8 October 1957, completed 13 February 1958.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Port Line, launched 22 November 1957, completed 26 March 1958.\n, tug for Clyde Shipping Co, launched 11 December 1957, completed 27 March 1958.\n, passenger ship for Union Castle, launched 24 December 1957, completed 14 November 1958, maiden voyage 1 January 1959, renamed Ocean Queen, Sinbad and Sinbad I, scrapped 1980.",
", cargo ship for Bank Line, launched 27 December 1957, completed 2 April 1958.\n, ore carrier for Vallum Shipping Co, launched 20 January 1958, completed 22 May 1958.\n, oil tanker for Sigval Bergsen, launched 7 March 1958, completed 11 July 1958.\n, oil tanker for Texaco Oil Co, launched 20 March 1958, completed 13 September 1958. \n, phosphate carrier for British Phosphate Carriers, launched 15 May 1958, completed 31 October 1958.",
", coaster for Associated Humber Lines, launched 19 May 1958, completed 8 October 1958.\n, Whitby-class frigate for Indian Navy, launched 18 June 1958, completed 14 January 1960.\n, cargo ship for Bank Line, launched 19 June 1958, completed 25 September 1958.\n,cargo ship for Ulster Steamship Co, launched 2 July 1958, completed 18 November 1958.\n, Ton-class minesweeper, launched 3 July 1958, completed 11 February 1959 for South African Navy, commissioned as SAS Mosselbaai.",
", cargo ship for King Line, launched 15 August 1958, completed 5 December 1958.\n, cargo ship for British India Steam Navigation Co, launched 25 September 1958, completed 26 March 1959.\n, Confiance-class tug for British Admiralty, launched 16 October 1958, completed 17 June 1959.\n, Ton-class minesweeper, launched 8 November 1958, completed 10 July 1958. Commissioned into South African Navy as SAS Port Elizabeth.\n, oil tanker for British Tanker Co, launched 27 November 1958, completed 18 April 1959.",
", oil tanker for British Tanker Co, launched 27 November 1958, completed 18 April 1959.\n, coaster for Associated Humber Lines, launched 2 December 1958, completed 16 April 1959.\n, Ton-class minesweeper, launched 10 December 1958, completed 21 May 1959. Commissioned into South African Navy as SAS Walvisbaai.\n, cargo ship for Manchester Liners Ltd, launched 12 December 1958, completed 19 March 1959.\n, cargo ship for Bank Line, launched 30 December 1958, completed 3 April 1959.",
", cargo ship for Bank Line, launched 30 December 1958, completed 3 April 1959.\n, cargo ship for British India Steam Navigation Co, launched 22 January 1959, completed 27 August 1959.\n, cargo ship for bank Line, launched 27 January 1959, completed 2 May 1959.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Blue Star Line, launched 26 February 1959, completed 3 July 1959, scrapped 1979.\n, cargo ship for PSNC, launched 9 April 1959, completed 10 July 1959.",
", cargo ship for PSNC, launched 9 April 1959, completed 10 July 1959.\n, oil tanker for Hunting & Sons, launched 21 May 1959, completed 22 December 1959.\n, oil tanker for British Tanker Co, launched 22 May 1959, completed 15 November 1959.\n, cargo ship for Bank Line, launched 5 June 1959, completed 24 September 1959.\n, passenger ship for Royal Mail Line, launched 7 July 1959, completed 31 December 1959, maiden voyage January 1960.",
", coaster for Associated Humber Lines, launched 8 July 1959, completed 14 November 1959.\n, cargo liner for Royal Mail Lines, launched 20 October 1959, completed 12 April 1960, maiden voyage 29 April 1960.\n, oil tanker for British Tanker Co, launched 3 November 1959, completed 6 May 1960.\n, for British Admiralty, launched 15 December 1959, completed 9 June 1961, sunk as target 1986.\n, oil tanker for British tanker Co, launched 29 December 1959, completed 29 April 1960.",
", oil tanker for British tanker Co, launched 29 December 1959, completed 29 April 1960.\n, cargo ship for Bank Line, launched 29 December 1959, completed 28 April 1960.",
"1960s\n, oil tanker for PSNC, launched 15 January 1960, completed 1 July 1960.\n, bulk carrier for Sigval Bergsen, launched 1 March 1960, completed 11 June 1960.\n, cargo ship for British India Steam Navigation Co, launched 10 March 1960, completed 19 September 1960.\n, launched 16 March 1960, completed 19 May 1961, maiden voyage 6 June 1961, scrapped 1997.\n, Refrigerated cargo liner for Royal Mail Lines, launched 13 April 1960, completed 23 September 1960, maiden voyage 7 October 1960.",
", ore carrier for Hindustan Shipping Co, launched 25 May 1960, completed 1 November 1960.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Shaw Savill Line, launched 23 June 1960, completed 19 December 1960.\n, oil tanker for Stevinson Hardy & Co, launched 24 August 1960, completed 27 February 1961.\n, cargo ship for British India Steam Navigation Co, launched 6 September 1960, completed 30 January 1961.\n, cargo ship for Bank Line, launched 6 October 1960, completed 13 January 1961.",
", cargo ship for Bank Line, launched 6 October 1960, completed 13 January 1961.\n, bulk carrier for Sigval Bergsen, launched 23 November 1960, completed 8 April 1961.\nMV Clyde, launch for Clyde Navigation Trust, launched 14 December 1960, completed 13 March 1961.\n, oil tanker for Norsk Braendselojle A/S, launched 20 December 1960, completed 28 April 1961.\n, oil tanker for British Tanker Co, launched 19 January 1961, completed 6 July 1961.",
", oil tanker for British Tanker Co, launched 19 January 1961, completed 6 July 1961.\n, oil tanker for Sigval Bergsen, launched 31 January 1961, completed 30 May 1961.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Port Line, Launched 1 March 1961, completed 8 September 1961.\n, oil tanker for PSNC, launched 17 March 1961, completed 6 July 1961.\n, cargo ship for British India Steam Navigation Co, launched 29 March 1961, completed 28 August 1961.\n, cargo ship for Bank Line, launched 28 April 1961, completed 11 August 1961.",
", cargo ship for Bank Line, launched 28 April 1961, completed 11 August 1961.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Port Line, launched 31 May 1961, completed 20 October 1961.\n, for British Admiralty, launched 28 June 1961, completed 28 March 1963, sunk as target 1989.\n, oil tanker for British Tanker Co, launched 24 August 1961, completed 12 January 1962.\n, dredger for British Transport Commission, launched 24 August 1961, completed 4 April 1962.",
", dredger for British Transport Commission, launched 24 August 1961, completed 4 April 1962.\n, for British Admiralty, launched 27 September 1961, completed 17 August 1963, scrapped 1998.\n, cargo ship for Bank Line, launched 26 October 1961, completed 26 January 1962.\n, oil tanker for British Tanker Co, launched 23 November 1961, completed 19 May 1962.\n, cargo ship for Bank Line, launched 21 December 1961, completed 12 April 1962.",
", cargo ship for Bank Line, launched 21 December 1961, completed 12 April 1962.\n, oil tanker for British Tanker Co, launched 9 January 1962, completed 7 June 1962.\n, oil tanker for Texaco Oil Co, launched 5 April 1962, completed 23 November 1962.\nMV Port Nicholson, refrigerated cargo ship for Port Line, launched 4 May 1962, completed 9 November 1962.\n, dredger for British Transport Commission, launched 17 May 1962, completed 29 March 1963.",
", dredger for British Transport Commission, launched 17 May 1962, completed 29 March 1963.\n, cargo ship for Ringals Rederi A/S, launched 31 May 1962, completed 29 September 1962.\n, cargo ship for Belships Co, launched 26 September 1962, completed 23 January 1963.\n, oil tanker for British Tanker Co, launched 28 September 1962, completed 28 June 1963.\n, cargo ship for Bank Line, launched 25 January 1963, completed 3 July 1963.\n, cargo ship for Bank Line, launched 21 June 1963, completed 31 October 1963.",
", cargo ship for Bank Line, launched 21 June 1963, completed 31 October 1963.\n, oil tanker for Sigval Bergsen, launched 19 August 1963, completed 18 December 1963.\n, LNG carrier for Methane Tanker Finance Co, launched 19 September 1963, completed 26 May 1964.\n, assault ship for British Admiralty, launched 19 December 1963, completed 27 November 1965, scrapped 2007.\n, cargo ship for Bank Line, launched 31 December 1963, completed 26 March 1964.",
", cargo ship for Bank Line, launched 31 December 1963, completed 26 March 1964.\n, cargo ship for Bank Line, launched 27 January 1964, completed 20 May 1964.\n, cargo ship for Bank Line, launched 25 June 1964, completed 9 September 1964.\n, oil tanker for Texaco (Panama) Inc., launched 6 August 1964, completed 14 January 1965.\n, oil tanker for British tanker Co, launched 23 September 1964, completed 26 March 1965.\n, oil tanker for Eden Tankers Ltd, launched 5 March 1965, completed 2 July 1967.",
", oil tanker for Eden Tankers Ltd, launched 5 March 1965, completed 2 July 1967.\n, Leander-class frigate for Royal New Zealand Navy, launched 18 February 1965, completed 19 September 1966, scuttled 2000.\n, oil tanker for British Tanker Co, launched 15 June 1965, completed 11 January 1966.\n, bulk carrier for Buries Marks Ltd, launched 30 June 1965, completed 30 September 1965.\n, bulk carrier for Buries Marks Ltd, launched 24 November 1965, completed 12 February 1966.",
", bulk carrier for Buries Marks Ltd, launched 24 November 1965, completed 12 February 1966.\n, motor barge for Scott (Toombridge) Ltd, launched 1965.\n, oil tanker for Shell International Marine, launched 25 January 1966, completed 30 March 1966.\nRFA Regent, fleet oiler for British Admiralty, launched 9 March 1966, completed 6 June 1967, scrapped 1993.\n, cargo ship for Bank Line, launched 6 May 1966, completed 7 July 1966.",
", cargo ship for Bank Line, launched 6 May 1966, completed 7 July 1966.\n, oil tanker for Shell International Marine, launched 5 July 1966, completed 16 December 1966.\n, ferry for Coast Lines, launched 13 October 1966, completed 6 April 1967.\n, bulk carrier for Norwegian Bulk Carriers, launched 25 April 1967, completed 29 August 1967.\n, cargo ship for Bank Line, launched 24 May 1967, completed 15 August 1967.\n, supertanker for Deutsche Shell AG, launched 6 September 1967, completed 24 April 1968.",
", supertanker for Deutsche Shell AG, launched 6 September 1967, completed 24 April 1968.\n, bulk carrier for Norwegian Bulk Carriers, launched 21 November 1967, completed 1 March 1968.\n, cargo ship for Bank Line, launched 1 December 1967, completed 30 January 1968.\n, Leander-class frigate for British Admiralty, launched 28 February 1968, completed 6 June 1969, sunk as target 1993.\n, bulk carrier for Norwegian Bulk Carriers, launched 14 May 1968, completed 28 August 1968.",
", bulk carrier for Norwegian Bulk Carriers, launched 14 May 1968, completed 28 August 1968.\n, bulk carrier for Norwegian Bulk Carriers, launched 9 August 1968, completed 29 October 1968.\n, bulk carrier for CH Sorensen, launched 18 March 1969, completed 16 May 1969.",
"1970s\n, bulk carrier for Buries Marks Ltd, launched 22 January 1970, completed 13 May 1970.\n, bulk carrier for Kriship Shipping Co, launched 6 May 1970, completed 14 September 1970.\n, oil tanker for Esso Petroleum Co, launched 11 May 1970, completed 6 October 1970.\n, bulk carrier for Bowring Shipping Ltd, launched 2 June 1970, completed 10 September 1970.\n, bulk carrier for Ropner Shipping, launched 11 December 1960, completed 1 March 1971.",
", bulk carrier for Ropner Shipping, launched 11 December 1960, completed 1 March 1971.\n, oil tanker for Esso Petroleum Co, launched 29 May 1971, completed 6 September 1971.\n, bulk carrier for Ropner Shipping, launched 8 October 1971, completed 7 December 1971.\n, bulk carrier for Mascot A/S, launched 18 December 1971, completed 18 February 1972.\n, bulk carrier for Mascot A/S, launched 26 April 1972, completed 30 June 1972.",
", bulk carrier for Mascot A/S, launched 26 April 1972, completed 30 June 1972.\n, supertanker for Carlow Maritime Panama, launched 7 October 1972, completed 24 November 1972.\n, oil tanker for Lakeport Navigation Co, launched 4 August 1973, completed 7 September 1973.\n, bulk carrier for Furness Withy, launched 1 October 1973, completed 16 November 1973.\n, supertanker for Worldwide Shipping Co, launched 23 March 1974, completed 12 June 1974.",
", supertanker for Worldwide Shipping Co, launched 23 March 1974, completed 12 June 1974.\n, bulk carrier for Bibby Shipping, launched 6 October 1974, completed 29 November 1974.\n, supertanker for Shell Tankers Ltd, launched 13 December 1974, completed 27 February 1975.\n, supertanker for Shell Tankers Ltd, launched 5 July 1975, completed 17 November 1975.\n, bulk carrier for Ruud Pedersen A/S, launched 8 October 1975, completed 5 January 1976.",
", bulk carrier for Ruud Pedersen A/S, launched 8 October 1975, completed 5 January 1976.\n, supertanker for Shell Tankers Ltd, launched 27 January 1976, completed 26 July 1976.\n, supertanker for Shell Tankers Ltd, launched 2 July 1976, completed 30 December 1976.\n, supertanker for Shell Tankers Ltd, launched 11 December 1976, completed 3 June 1977.\n, bulk carrier for Ropner Shipping, launched 21 March 1977, completed 5 July 1977.",
", bulk carrier for Ropner Shipping, launched 21 March 1977, completed 5 July 1977.\n, supertanker for Woodstock Shipping Co, launched 18 June 1977, completed 25 March 1980.\n, supertanker for Pomona Shipping Co, launched 27 January 1978, completed 25 March 1980.\n, bulk carrier for Ropner Shipping, launched 24 June 1978, completed 31 October 1978.\n, products tanker for Furness Withy, launched 6 October 1978, completed 20 June 1979.",
", products tanker for Furness Withy, launched 6 October 1978, completed 20 June 1979.\n, products tanker for Furness Withy, launched 27 January 1979, completed 24 October 1979.\n, ferry for Sealink, launched 24 May 1979, completed 22 April 1980.\n, bulk carrier for British Steel Corporation, launched 7 September 1979, completed 14 December 1979.\nMV St Anselm, ferry for Sealink, launched 5 December 1979, completed 16 October 1980.",
"1980s\n, ferry for Sealink, launched 20 March 1980, completed 6 March 1981.\nMV St David, ferry for Sealink, launched 25 September 1980, completed 24 July 1981.\n, LPG carrier for Shell Tankers Ltd, launched 21 March 1981, completed 30 April 1982.\n, LPG carrier for Shell Tankers Ltd, launched 23 January 1982, completed 29 October 1982.\n, oil tanker for British Petroleum, launched 3 July 1982, completed 26 April 1983.\n, oil tanker for British Petroleum, launched 28 March 1983, completed 14 February 1984.",
", oil tanker for British Petroleum, launched 28 March 1983, completed 14 February 1984.\n, bulk carrier for British Steel Corporation, launched 28 January 1984, completed 19 October 1984.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Blue Star Line, launched 23 September 1984, completed 7 January 1986.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Blue Star Line, launched 23 September 1984, completed 2 April 1985.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Blue Star Line, launched 4 March 1985, completed 21 January 1986.",
", refrigerated cargo ship for Blue Star Line, launched 4 March 1985, completed 21 January 1986.\n, refrigerated cargo ship for Blue Star Line, launched 1 July 1985, completed 4 February 1986.\n, bulk carrier for British Steel Corporation, completed 23 September 1987.\n SWOPS ship for BP Petroleum Development, completed 1987.",
"1990s\n, Fleet replenishment ship for British Admiralty, launched 12 June 1990, completed 24 June 1994.\n, Suezmax tanker for Fred Olsen & Co, completed 3 January 1992. \n, Suezmax tanker for Fred Olsen & Co, launched 30 April 1992, completed 10 July 1992.\n, Suezmax tanker for Fred Olsen & Co, launched 10 October 1992, completed 15 January 1993.\n, Suezmax tanker for Fred Olsen & Co, launched 5 June 1993, completed 30 June 1993.",
", Suezmax tanker for Fred Olsen & Co, launched 5 June 1993, completed 30 June 1993.\n, bulk carrier for China Navigation Company, launched 20 January 1994, completed 5 April 1994.\n, Suezmax tanker for Fred Olsen & Co, launched 11 June 1994, completed 21 October 1994.\nLowlands Trassey, bulk carrier for Trassey Shipping (Fred Olsen), launched 28 April 1995, completed 12 May 1995.\nKnock Muir, Suezmax tanker for Fred Olsen & Co, launched 8 January 1996, completed 30 January 1996.",
"Knock Muir, Suezmax tanker for Fred Olsen & Co, launched 8 January 1996, completed 30 January 1996.\n, oil tanker for Fred Olsen & Co, launched 13 June 1996, completed 30 September 1996.\nSeillean, SWOPS vessel for British Petroleum, launched 1 August 1996, completed 1 March 1998.\n, ultra deep water drillship for Global Marine Ltd, launched 23 September 1999, completed 16 March 2000.",
"2000s\n, ultra deep water drillship for Global Marine Ltd, completed 1 August 2000.\n, ferry for Bank Line, launched 1 August 2002, completed 17 January 2003.\n, ferry for the Bank Line, launched 6 September 2002, completed 10 December 2002.\n\nSee also\nList of ships built by Harland and Wolff (1859-1929)\n\nReferences\n\nHarland and Wolff\nHarland and Wolff"
] |
Campus sexual assault
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campus%20sexual%20assault
|
[
"Campus sexual assault is the sexual assault, including rape, of a student while attending an institution of higher learning, such as a college or university. The victims of such assaults are more likely to be female, but any gender can be victimized. Estimates of sexual assault, which vary based on definitions and methodology, generally find that somewhere between 19 and 27% of college women and 6–8% of college men are sexually assaulted during their time in college.",
"In response to charges that schools have poorly supported women who have reported sexual assaults, in 2011 the United States Department of Education issued a \"Dear Colleague\" letter to universities, advising academic institutions on various methods intended to reduce incidents of sexual assault on campuses. Some legal experts have raised concerns about risks of abuses against the accused",
". Some legal experts have raised concerns about risks of abuses against the accused. Following changes to disciplinary processes, lawsuits have been filed by men alleging bias and/or violations of their rights.",
"Measures \n\nThere is currently no evidence that women who attend college are at a higher risk of being sexually assaulted than women of the same age who do not attend college. A review of the published research in 2017 found that about 1 in 5 women was \"a reasonably accurate average across women and campuses\" for the percentage of women who are sexually assaulted during their time in college.",
"Studies that have examined sexual assault experiences among college students in western countries other than the U.S. have found results similar to those found by American researchers. A 1993 study of a nationally representative sample of Canadian College students found that 28% of women had experienced some form of sexual assault in the preceding year, and 45% of women had experienced some form of sexual assault since entering college. A 1991 study of 347 undergraduates in New Zealand found that 25",
". A 1991 study of 347 undergraduates in New Zealand found that 25.3% had experienced rape or attempted rape, and 51.6% had experienced some form of sexual victimization. A 2011 study of students in the United Kingdom found that 25% of women had experienced some type of sexual assault while attending university and 7% of women had experienced rape or attempted rape as college students.",
"Reporting",
"Research consistently shows that the majority of rape and other sexual assault victims do not report their attacks to law enforcement. The majority of women who are sexually assaulted do not report because of various reasons surrounding embarrassment and shame. In order to encourage those in need of support/guidance to reach out for help, the stigma encompassing sexual assault must end. As a result of non-reporting, researchers generally rely on surveys to measure sexual assault",
". As a result of non-reporting, researchers generally rely on surveys to measure sexual assault. Research estimates that between 10% and 29% of women are a victim of rape or attempted rape since starting college. The National Crime Victimization Survey estimates that 6.1 sexual assaults occur per 1,000 students per year. However, this source is generally believed by researchers to be a significant underestimate of the number of sexual assaults",
". Methodological differences, such as the method of survey administration, the definition of rape or sexual assault used, the wording of questions, and the time period studied contribute to these disparities. There is currently no consensus on the best way to measure rape and sexual assault.",
"If someone wanted to reach out for help privately, there are many call hotlines available to receive support anonymously and confidentially. The nation's largest anti-sexual violence organization is RAINN (the Rape, Abuse & Incest National Network). RAINN provides support and guidance to survivors in many ways.",
"College campuses are also required to provide support to any students who have experienced sexual assault under Title IX laws",
". \"The Women's Rights Project, in collaboration with Students Active For Ending Rape (SAFER) — a national nonprofit that empowers students to hold colleges accountable for sexual assault in their communities — has put together the fact sheet, podcast series, and other resources on this page to get the word out to student activists about how they can use Title IX as an effective tool for change.\" Because of this students can not be turned away from support services provided by their college or university",
". This allows survivors to receive the required support following their assault.",
"Criticism",
"Some popular commentators, such as Stuart Taylor Jr., have argued that many of the surveys used to measure sexual assault are invalid because they are more likely to be taken by sexual assault victims. He also said that extrapolating the number of people who said that they had reported their rape to their school in the past year resulted in 44,000 annual reports of rape, when in reality there are only 5,000 reports of sexual assault of all types (including rape) per year to universities",
". He also complained that the definition of sexual assault used in the surveys was broader than the one defined by the law, and that the term \"sexual assault\" or \"rape\" was not used in the survey.",
"Explanations \nThere are three broad approaches used to explain sexual assault.",
"The first approach, \"individual determinants\", stems from the psychological perspective of rape. This approach views campus sexual assault as primarily the result of individual characteristics possessed by either the perpetrator and/or the victim. For example, Malamuth & Colleagues identified individual characteristics of hostile masculinity and impersonal sexual behavior as critical predictors of sexual aggression against women",
". Their psychological model states that men who display hostile masculinity traits (e.g. a desire to control/dominate women and an insecure, hypersensitive and distrustful orientation toward women) and impersonal sexual behavior (e.g. an emotionally detached, promiscuous and non-committal orientation towards sexual relations) are more likely to support the use of violence against women and engage in sexual assault",
". Their findings have been replicated in college student samples and non-student adult samples (Malamuth et al., 1991; Malamuth et al., 1993). Further, narcissistic entitlement and trait aggression have been identified as major individual risk factors for rape (LeBreton et al., 2013). General desire or need for sex, contrary to popular opinion, is not significantly associated with sexual assault, indicating that sexual assault is an act of dominance rather than sexual gratification (Abbey & McAuslan, 2004)",
". In regards to victims, white women, first-year students, non-students on college campuses, prior victims, and women who are more sexually active are more vulnerable to being sexually assaulted.",
"The rape culture approach stems from second-wave feminism and focuses on how rape is pervasive and normalized due to societal attitudes about gender and sexuality.",
"The third approach to explaining rape identifies the contexts in which that rape and sexual assault occur. This approach suggests that, although rape culture is a factor to why sexual assault occurs, it is also the characteristics of its setting that can increase vulnerability. For instance, practices, rules, distribution or resources, and the ideologies of the university or college can promote unhealthy beliefs about gender and can in turn contribute to campus sexual assault",
". Fraternities are known for hosting parties in which binge drinking and casual sex are encouraged, which increase the risk of sexual assault.",
"Characteristics\n\nPerpetrator demographics \nResearch by David Lisak found that serial rapists account for 90% of all campus rapes with an average of six rapes each. A 2015 study of male students led by Kevin Swartout at Georgia State University found that four out of five perpetrators did not fit the profile of serial predators.",
"Of the 1,084 respondents to a 1998 survey at Liberty University, 8.1% of males and 1.8% of females reported perpetrating unwanted sexual assault. According to Carol Bohmer and Andrea Parrot in \"Sexual Assault on Campus\" males are more likely to commit a sexual assault if they choose to live in an all-male residency.",
"Both athletic males and fraternities have higher rates of sexual assault. Student athletes commit one-third of all campus sexual assaults at a rate six times higher than non-athletes. In a study conducted by the NASPA in 2007 and 2009 suggest, \"that fraternity members are more likely than non-fraternity members to commit rape\".",
"In another article by Antonia Abby she found that there are certain characteristics that male perpetrators that put them at risk of committing sexual assault. As she stresses perpetrators vary \"but many show a lack of concern for other people, scoring high on narcissism and low on empathy. Many have high levels of anger in general well as hostility toward women; they are suspicious of women's motives, believe common rape myths, and have a sense of entitlement about sex\"",
". Also, males on athletic teams are more likely to commit an assault after a game. The commonality between the two instances are the involvement of alcohol. Assailants are not limited to these two situations however there can also be a connection made in regards to their status in school.",
"Victim demographics",
"Research of American college students suggests that white women, prior victims, first-year students, and more sexually active women are the most vulnerable to sexual assault. Women who have been sexually assaulted prior to entering college are at a higher risk of experiencing sexual assault in college. Another study shows that white women are more likely than non-white women to experience rape while intoxicated, but less likely to experience other forms of rape",
". It has been found that \"the role of party rape in the lives of white college women is substantiated by recent research that found that 'white women were more likely [than non-white women] to have experienced rape while intoxicated and less likely to experience other rape. This high rate of rape while intoxicated accounts for white women reporting a higher overall rate of sexual assault than non-white women, although further research is needed into racial differences and college party organization",
". Regardless of race, the majority of victims know the assailant. Black women in America are more likely to report sexual assault that has been perpetrated by a stranger. Victims of rape are mostly between 10 and 29 years old, while perpetrators are generally between 15 and 29 years old. Nearly 60% of rapes that occur on campuses happen in either the victim's dorm or apartment. These rapes occur more often off campus than on campus.",
"A 2007 National Institute of Justice study found that, in terms of perpetrators, about 80% of survivors of physically forced or incapacitated sexual assault were assaulted by someone that they knew.",
"The 2015 AAU Campus Climate Survey report found that transgender and gender non-conforming students were more likely than their peers to experience a sexual assault involving physical force or incapacitation. Out of 1,398 students who identified as TGQN, 24.1% of undergraduates and 15.5% of graduate/professional students reported experiencing a sexual assault involving physical force since enrolled. By comparison, 23.1% of female undergraduates and 8",
". By comparison, 23.1% of female undergraduates and 8.8% of female graduate students reported the same type of sexual assault, along with 5.4% of male undergraduates and 2.2% of male graduate/professional students. Overall, sexual assault or misconduct was experienced at a rate of 19% among transgender and gender non-conforming students, 17% among female students, and 4.4% of male students.",
"Many victims completely or partially blame themselves for the assault because they are embarrassed and shamed, or fear not being believed. These elements may lead to underreporting of the crime. According to research, \"myths, stereotypes, and unfounded beliefs about male sexuality, in particular male homosexuality\", contribute to underreporting among males. In addition, \"male sexual assault victims have fewer resources and greater stigma than do female sexual assault victims",
".\" Hispanic and Asian students may have lower rates of knowing a victim or perpetrator due to cultural values discouraging disclosure.",
"The Neumann study found that fraternity members are more likely than other college students to engage in rape; surveying the literature, it described numerous reasons for this, including peer acceptance, alcohol use, the acceptance of rape myths and viewing women as sexualized objects, as well as the highly masculinized environment. Although gang rape on college campuses is an issue, acquaintance, and party rape (a form of acquaintance rape where intoxicated people are targeted) are more likely to happen.",
"Sexual orientation and gender identity \n\n10% of sexual minority men, 18% of sexual minority women, and 19% of non-binary or transitioning students reported an unwanted sexual encounter since beginning college as opposed to heterosexual majority.",
"A direct association has been found between internalized homophobia and unwanted sexual experiences among LGBTQ college aged students, suggesting that the specific stresses of identifying as LGBTQ as a college aged student puts people more at risk for sexual violence. The obstacles that LGBTQ students face with regard to sexual assault can be attributed not only to internalized homophobia, but also to institutionalized heterosexism and cisexism within college campuses.\n\nDisclosure rates",
"Within the broader category of LGBTQ students as a whole, gendered and racial trends of sexual violence mirror those of sexual violence among heterosexual college students, with sexual violence occurring at a higher rate among women and Black/African-American young adults. When LGBTQ disclose to a formal resource like a doctor or counselor they are often ill-equipped to deal with the specific vulnerabilities and stresses of LGBTQ students, leading LGBTQ students to be less likely to disclose in the future.",
"Sexual violence and mental health \n\nThere is research that indicates that there is an association between sexual violence and a mental-health problems. These problems vary from PTSD (post-traumatic stress disorder), depression, psychosis, and substance abuse problems. The research also indicates that a high percentage of people that use mental-health resources for help have had experience with sexual violence.",
"Incidents of sexual assault among LGBTQ students may be influenced by a variety of situational factors. Many members of the LGBTQ youth community suffer from serious depression and suicidal thoughts. The prevalence of attempted suicide among LGBTQ populations ranges from 23% to 42% for youth. Many LGBTQ youth use alcohol to cope with depression. One study found that 28% of those [who are \"those\"?] interviewed had received treatment for alcohol or drug abuse",
". Furthermore, rates of substance use and abuse are much higher among LGBTQ college students than heterosexuals, with LGBTQ women being 10.7 times more likely to drink than heterosexual women. Unfortunately, many predators target those appearing to be vulnerable and it was found that over one half of all sexual abuse victims reported they had been drinking when they were abused.",
"Risk factors",
"Researchers have identified a variety of factors that contribute to heightened levels of sexual assault on college campuses. Individual factors (such as alcohol consumption, impersonal sexual behavior and hostile attitudes toward women), environmental and cultural factors (such as peer group support for sexual aggression, gender role stress and skewed gender ratios), as well inadequate enforcement efforts by campus police and administrators have been offered as potential causes",
". In addition, general cultural notions relating to victim-blaming are at play as the majority of assaults are never reported due to shame or fear.",
"Semester and class rank \nSeveral studies have reported that the risk of sexual assault is higher for students in their first year or second year of college, and that sexual assaults happen more frequently in the periods between August and November when many students are first arriving on campus. This time period is often referred to as the \"red zone\" by sexual assault researchers and in sexual assault prevention materials.",
"Although the existence of a \"red zone\" was initially based mostly on anecdotal evidence, several recent studies have found that the reported rate of sexual assault is highest among freshmen women, and higher among sophomore women compared to women in the third and fourth years of college. A 2008 study by Kimble et al",
". A 2008 study by Kimble et al. also found support for the claim that sexual assaults happened more frequently in the fall semester, but the authors cautioned that \"local factors\" such as the timing of semesters, the campus residential system, or the timing of major fraternity events may influence the temporal risk of sexual assault.",
"Researchers have posited several possible reasons for the \"red zone\" pattern: freshmen and sophomores are more likely to attend parties and consume alcohol more frequently compared to juniors and seniors, both of which are associated with an increased risk of sexual assault",
". Freshmen may be more vulnerable to sexual assault during their first semester because they do not have close friends who could intervene if they are in danger of assault, or because they are not aware of informal strategies that older students use to avoid unwanted sexual attention",
". Several scholars have also noted that the period between August and November typically coincides with fraternity \"rush\" week, when students are more likely to attend fraternity parties, which may be associated with a higher risk of sexual assault.",
"Influence of alcohol \nBoth victims and perpetrators of sexual assault frequently report that they were consuming alcohol when the assault occurred. For instance, the 2007 Campus Sexual Assault study found that most sexual assaults occurred after women voluntarily consumed alcohol. In a 1998 study, 47% of men who admitted to having committed a sexual assault also reported that they were drinking alcohol at the time of the attack.",
"During social interactions, alcohol consumption encourages biased appraisal of a partner's sexual motives, impairs communication about sexual intentions, and enhances misperception of sexual intent. These effects are exacerbated by peer influence about how to act when drinking.",
"The effects of alcohol at point of forced sex are likely to impair ability to rectify misperceptions, diminish ability to resist sexual advancements, and justifies aggressive behavior. Alcohol provides justification for engaging in behaviors that are usually considered inappropriate. The increase of assaults on college campuses can be attributed to the social expectation that students participate in alcohol consumption",
". The peer norms on American college campuses are to drink heavily, to act in an uninhibited manner and to engage in casual sex. However, a study on the reports of women in college shows that their substance use is not a risk factor for forced sexual assault, but is a risk factor for sexual assault while the victim is incapacitated.",
"Various studies have concluded the following results:\n At least 47% of college students' sexual assaults are associated with alcohol use\n Women whose partners abuse alcohol are 3.6 times more likely than other women to be assaulted by their partners\n In 2013, more than 14,700 students between the ages of 18 and 24 were victims of alcohol-related sexual assault in the U.S.",
"In those violent incidents recorded by the police in which alcohol was a factor, about 9% of the offenders and nearly 14% of the victims were under age 21",
"Some have noted gender-specific and variable standards for intoxicated consent. In a recent lawsuit against Duke University, a Duke administrator, when asked whether verbal consent need be mutual when both participants are drunk, stated, \"Assuming it is a male and female, it is the responsibility in the case of the male to gain consent before proceeding with sex",
".\" Other institutions state only that a rape victim has to be \"intoxicated\" rather than \"incapacitated\" by alcohol or drugs to render consent impossible.",
"In one study that Antonia Abby describes in her article, a group of 160 men students listen to an audiotape recording of a date rape. In the beginning the woman agrees to kissing and touching but once the man tries to remove her clothes and she refuses the male becomes more aggressive verbally and physically. The men were asked to stop the tape at the point that they felt the man's behavior was inappropriate",
". \"Participants who consumed alcohol allowed the man to continue for a longer period of time and rated the women's sexual arousal higher than did sober participants. The findings suggest that intoxicated men may project their own sexual arousal onto a women, missing or ignoring her active protest\".",
"A study conducted by Elizabeth Armstrong, Laura Hamilton and Brian Sweeney in 2006 suggests that it is the culture and gendered nature of fraternity parties that create an environment with greater likelihood of sexual assault. They state \"Culture expectations that party goers drink heavily and trust party-mates become problematic when combined with expectations that women be nice and defer to men",
". Fulfilling the role of the parties produced vulnerability on the part of women, which some men exploit to extract non-consensual sex\".",
"Alcohol is a factor in many rapes and other sexual assaults. As the study by Armstrong, Hamilton, and Sweeney suggests it might be one of the reasons for the under-reporting of rape where because of having been drinking victims fear that they will be ignored or not believed.\n\nAttitudes",
"Individual and peer group attitudes have also been identified as an important risk factor for the perpetration of sexual assault among college aged men in the United States. Both the self-reported proclivity to commit rape in a hypothetical scenario, as well as self-reported history of sexual aggression, positively correlate with the endorsement of rape tolerant or rape supportive attitudes in men",
". Acceptance of rape myths – prejudicial and stereotyped beliefs about rape and situations surrounding rape such as the belief that \"only promiscuous women get raped\" or that \"women ask for it\" – are correlated with self reported past sexual aggression and with self-reported willingness to commit rape in the future among men.",
"A 2007 study found that college-aged men who reported previous sexual aggression held negative attitudes toward women and gender roles, were more acceptant of using alcohol to obtain sex, were more likely to believe that rape was justified in some circumstances, were more likely to blame women for their victimization, and were more likely to view sexual conquest as an important status symbol.",
"According to sociologist Michael Kimmel, rape-prone campus environments exist throughout several university and college campuses in North America. Kimmel defines these environments as \"one in which the incidence of rape is reported by observers to be high, or rape is excused as a ceremonial expression of masculinity, or rape as an act by which men are allowed to punish or threaten women.\"",
"Prevention efforts",
"In the United States, Title IX prohibits gender-based discrimination at any school or university that receives federal funding. Since the 1980s, regulators and courts have held that preventing gender discrimination requires schools to implement policies to protect students from sexual violence or hostile educational environments, reasoning that these can limit women's ability to access to education",
". Under Title IX, schools are required to make efforts to prevent sexual violence and harassment, and to have policies in place for investigating complaints and protecting victims. While schools are required to notify victims of sexual assault that they have a right to report their attack to the police, this reporting is voluntary. Schools are required to investigate claims and hold disciplinary procedures independently, regardless of whether a sexual assault is reported or investigated by police",
". An estimated 83% of officers on college campuses are male, however, research shows that more female law enforcement officers increases the number of sexual assault reports.",
"The best known articulation that rape and sexual assault is a broader problem was the 1975 book Against Our Will. The book broadened the perception of rape from a crime by strangers, to one that more often included friends and acquaintances, and raised awareness. As early as the 1980s, campus rape was considered an under-reported crime. Reasons included to the involvement of alcohol, reluctance of students to report the crime, and universities not addressing the issue.",
"A pivotal change in how universities handle reporting stemmed from the 1986 rape and murder of Jeanne Clery in her campus dormitory. Her parents pushed for campus safety and reporting legislation which became the foundation for The Jeanne Clery Disclosure of Campus Security Policy and Campus Crime Statistics Act. The Clery Act requires that all schools in the U.S. that participate in federal student aid programs implement policies for addressing sexual assault.",
"A 2000 study by the National Institute of Justice found that only about a third of U.S. schools fully complied with federal regulations for recording and reporting instances of sexual assault, and only half offered an option for anonymous reporting of sexual assault victimization. One recent study indicated that universities also greatly under-report assaults as part of the Clery Act except when they are under scrutiny",
". When under investigation, the reported rate by institutions rises 44%, only to drop back to baseline levels afterwards.",
"Numerous colleges in the United States have come under federal investigation for their handling of sexual assault cases, described by civil rights groups as discriminatory and inappropriate.",
"Mandatory reporting of campus sexual assaults has recently been included in proposed bills. In March 2015, the National Alliance to End Sexual Violence (NAESV) conducted a survey in conjunction with Know Your IX regarding the right of the survivor to choose to report the assault to police authorities versus legislation which would enforce legal action upon reporting sexual assault to a university or college",
". \"When asked their concerns if reporting to police were mandatory, 79% said, \"this could have a chilling effect on reporting\", while 72% were concerned that \"survivors would be forced to participate in the criminal justice system/go to trial\".",
"About 50% of sexual assaults that happen on campus typically happen between the beginning of the fall semester to Thanksgiving break. This is usually called the \"red zone\". This time frame is said to be more dangerous for freshman students. Bustle explains, \"These months are often full of booze-filled back-to-school parties, where freshman with little drinking experience (and few friends watching out for them) are especially vulnerable to attack",
".\" It is very likely that freshman students are not as informed when it comes to taking preventative measures to avoid such attacks. Some tips would be to be aware of surroundings, pay attention to your drinks, and pay attention to your friends and make sure they are safe.",
"Affirmative consent policies",
"In an effort to police student conduct, some states such as New York, Connecticut, and California established that many schools require \"affirmative consent\" (commonly known as \"yes means yes\"). The policies require students to receive ongoing and active consent throughout any sexual encounter. The policies hold that \"Silence or lack of resistance, in and of itself, does not demonstrate consent\", in a shift away from \"no means no\" to a \"yes means yes\" requirement for sex to be consensual",
". Schools can include drug or alcohol intoxication in their considerations of whether a student granted consent under this policy such that a \"drunk\" student cannot give consent. These policies are challenging to students because non-verbal cues are difficult to interpret and the policies are confusing. Furthermore, researchers have found that legal definitions of affirmative consent are not aligned with student understanding and practices. There has also been push-back from the legal community",
". There has also been push-back from the legal community. In May 2016, American Law Institute overwhelmingly rejected a proposal to endorse affirmative consent which would have otherwise required it to be included in the penal codes. A letter written to the committee by 120 members stated \"By forcing the accused to prove the near-impossible – that a sexual encounter was vocally agreed upon at each stage – affirmative consent standards deny the accused due process rights",
".\" A Tennessee court also found that student expelled under an affirmative consent policy was required to prove his innocence, contrary to legal practice and due process rights.",
"According to California's Yes Means Yes policy, California higher education institutes are required to enact specific protocols and policies in an attempt to combat power-based violence such as sexual assault on college campuses within the state. The state bill, as with others of the same degree, established the standard of consent known as \"affirmative consent\". This standard of consent placed the responsibility of attaining and maintaining consent to everyone involved in the sexual acts",
". In order to receive state funding for such matters, California campuses are responsible for collaborating with organizations both on and off campus in order to provide resources and assistance to the student body and make such services available when necessary. They must also exhibit prevention and outreach services to the campus community through programming, awareness campaigns, and education",
". This also includes holding awareness programming such as bystander intervention for incoming students during their orientation.",
"Student and organizational activism \nIn view of what they considered poor responses by institutions to protect women, some student and other activists groups started raising awareness of the threats and harm women experience on campus. The first \"Take Back the Night\" march took place in 1978 in San Francisco, and then spread to many college campuses. SlutWalk is a more recent movement against sexual violence.",
"Some individuals have become notable activists. Emma Sulkowicz, then a student at Columbia University, created the performance art Mattress Performance (Carry That Weight). Lena Sclove, a student at Brown University, made headlines for saying that a fellow student, who reportedly sexually assaulted her, was not sufficiently punished after he received a one-year suspension. The man accused in her case has publicly disputed the report and was found not guilty by the criminal justice system",
". He was found responsible under the university's preponderance of the evidence standard. Such cases have led to controversy and concerns regarding presumption of innocence and due process, and have also highlighted the difficulties that universities face in balancing the rights of the accuser and the rights of the accused when dealing with sexual assault complaints",
". Nearly 100 colleges and universities had a significant number of reports of rape on their main campuses in 2014, with Brown University and the University of Connecticut tied for the highest annual total — 43 each. The Sulkowicz and Sclove cases have led to further complaints of bias by the men against the universities (Title IX or civil) regarding how they handled the matters.",
"Chanel Miller, a student at UC Santa Barbara, was sexually assaulted by a Stanford student, Brock Turner, after attending a fraternity party at Stanford. Turner was charged with five counts of sexual assault but was sentenced to only six months in prison. Throughout the trial, Miller remained anonymous through the pseudonym \"Emily Doe\" but stirred the public with her victim impact statement, starting a nationwide conversation",
". She later identified herself and published a memoir titled Know My Name, which began her activism about rape on college campuses.",
"One outside group, UltraViolet, has used online media tactics, including search engine advertisements, to pressure universities to be more aggressive when dealing with reports of rape. Their social media campaign uses advertisements that sometimes lead with \"Which College Has The Worst Rape Problem?\" and other provocative titles that appear in online search results for a targeted school's name.",
"Our Turn, a Canadian student-driven initiative to end campus sexual violence, began in 2017. The initiative was launched by three Carleton University students, including Jade Cooligan Pang, and soon spread to 20 student unions in eight Canadian provinces. In October 2017, Our Turn released a survey evaluating the sexual assault policies of 14 Canadian universities along with an action plan for student unions to support survivors of sexual assault",
". The action plan includes creating Our Turn committees on campus to address sexual violence through prevention, support, and advocacy work at the campus, provincial, and national levels.",
"In 2019, students at Princeton University staged a sit-in and social media campaign concerning the implementation of Title IX policies regarding sexual assault cases on Princeton's campus, which made national headlines. The protests were conducted in response to a student's disciplinary sentence, which was considered retaliatory by protesters.",
"Obama administration efforts",
"In 2011, the United States Department of Education sent a letter, known as the \"Dear Colleague\" letter, to the presidents of all colleges and universities in the United States re-iterating that Title IX requires schools to investigate and adjudicate cases of sexual assault on campus. The letter also states that schools must adjudicate these cases using a \"preponderance of the evidence\" standard, meaning that the accused will be responsible if it is determined that there is at least a 50",
".1% chance that the assault occurred. The letter expressly forbade the use of the stricter \"clear and convincing evidence\" standard used at some schools previously.",
"In 2014, a survey of college and university assault policies conducted at the request of the U.S. Senate found that more than 40% of schools studied had not conducted a single rape or sexual assault investigation in the past five years, and more than 20% had failed to conduct investigations into assaults they had reported to the Department of Education. The \"Dear Colleague\" letter is credited by victim's advocates with de-stigmatizing sexual assault and encouraging victims to report",
". However it also created a climate where the accused rights are considered secondary. Brett Sokolow, executive director of the Association of Title IX Administrators and president of the National Center for Higher Education Risk Management stated, \"I think probably a lot of colleges translated the 'Dear Colleague' letter as 'favor the victim'.\"",
"In 2014, President Barack Obama established the White House Task Force to Protect Students from Sexual Assault, which published a report reiterating the interpretation of Title IX in the \"Dear Colleague\" letter and proposing a number of other measures to prevent and respond to sexual assault on campus, such as campus climate surveys and bystander intervention programs. One example of a campus climate survey that was developed in response to this task force is the ARC3 Survey",
". Shortly thereafter, the Department of Education released a list of 55 colleges and universities across the country that it was investigating for possible Title IX violations in relation to sexual assault. As of early 2015, 94 different colleges and universities were under ongoing investigations by the U.S. Department of Education for their handling of rape and sexual assault allegations.",
"In September 2014, President Obama and Vice President Joe Biden launched the \"It's on Us\" campaign as part of an initiative to end sexual assault on college campuses. The campaign partnered with many organizations and college campuses to get students to take a pledge to end sexual assault on campuses.",
"Criticism",
"The Department of Education's approach toward adjudicating sexual assault accusations has been criticized for failing to consider the possibility of false accusations, mistaken identity, or errors by investigators. Critics claim that the \"preponderance of the evidence\" standard required by Title IX is not an appropriate basis for determining guilt or innocence, and can lead to students being wrongfully expelled",
". Campus hearings have also been criticized for failing to provide many of the due process protections that the United States Constitution guarantees in criminal trials, such as the right to be represented by an attorney and the right to cross-examine witnesses.",
"The Foundation for Individual Rights in Education (FIRE) has been critical of university definitions of consent that it considers overly broad. In 2011, FIRE criticized Stanford University after it held a male student responsible for a sexual assault for an incident where both parties had been drinking",
". FIRE said that Stanford's definition of consent, quoted as follows \"A person is legally incapable of giving consent if under age 18 years; if intoxicated by drugs and/or alcohol;\", was so broad that sexual contact at any level of intoxication could be considered non-consensual",
". Writing for The Atlantic magazine, Conor Friedersdorf noted that a Stanford male who alleges he was sexually assaulted in 2015 and was advised against reporting it by on-campus sexual assault services, could have been subjected to a counterclaim based on Stanford policy by his female attacker who was drunk at the time",
". FIRE was also critical of a poster at Coastal Carolina University, which stated that sex is only consensual if both parties are completely sober and if consent is not only present, but also enthusiastic. The FIRE argued that this standard converted ordinary lawful sexual encounters into sexual assault even while drinking is very common at most institutions.",
"In May 2014, the National Center for Higher Education Risk Management, a law firm that advises colleges on liability issues, issued an open letter to all parties involved in the issue of rape on campus. In it, NCHERM expressed praise for Obama's initiatives to end sexual assault on college campuses, and called attention to several areas of concern they hoped to help address",
". While acknowledging appreciation for the complexities involved in changing campus culture, the letter offered direct advice to each party involved in campus hearings, outlining the improvements NCHERM considers necessary to continue the progress achieved since the issuance of the \"Dear Colleague\" letter in 2011",
". In early 2014, the group RAINN (Rape, Abuse & Incest National Network) wrote an open letter to the White House calling for campus hearings to be de-emphasized due to their lack of accountability for survivors and victims of sexual violence. According to RAINN, \"The crime of rape does not fit the capabilities of such boards. They often offer the worst of both worlds: they lack protections for the accused while often tormenting victims.\"",
"Many institutions today are facing Title IX investigations due to the alleged lack of response on their campus to sexual assault. New policies by colleges have spawned \"a cottage industry\" of experts to address sexual assault on their campuses. \"The Federal Education Department urges colleges to make sure their discipline policies do not discourage students from coming forward to report sexual assaults",
".\" Colleges need to be away of their policies in order to not victim blame their students and provide them with the adequate support that is need for the student. Many campuses are facing the same challenges on how to address the problem of sexual assault and are taking measures to do so, by hiring teams for addressing Title IX complaints.",
"In October 2014, 28 members of the Harvard Law School Faculty co-signed a letter decrying the change in the way reports of sexual harassment are being processed. The letter asserted that the new rules violate the due process rights of the responding parties. In February 2015, 16 members of the University of Pennsylvania Law School Faculty co-signed a similar letter of their own.",
"In response to concerns, in 2014 the White House Task Force provided new regulations requiring schools to permit the accused to bring advisers and be clearer about their processes and how they determine punishments. In addition to concerns about legal due process, which colleges currently do not have to abide, the push for stronger punishments and permanent disciplinary records on transcripts can prevent students found responsible from ever completing college or seeking graduate studies",
". Even for minor sexual misconduct offenses, the inconsistent and sometimes \"murky\" notes on transcripts can severely limit options. Mary Koss, a University of Arizona professor, co-authored a peer-reviewed paper in 2014 that argues for a \"restorative justice\" response – which could include counseling, close monitoring, and community service – as a better paradigm than the judicial model most campus hearing panels resemble.",
"Some critics of these policies have characterized the concerns about sexual assault on college campuses as a moral panic, such as libertarian critics of feminism Cathy Young, Laura Kipnis, and Christina Hoff Sommers who criticized the CDC 1 in 5 statistic by claiming issues with its methodology and that it did not line up with the Bureau of Justice Statistics pointing to \"approximately one-in-forty college women\".",
"Lawsuits \nSince the issuance of the \"Dear Colleague\" letter, a number of lawsuits have been filed against colleges and universities by male students alleging that their universities violated their rights over the course of adjudicating sexual assault accusations. Xavier University entered into a settlement in one such lawsuit in April 2014.",
"Other examples include:",
"In October 2014, a male Occidental College student filed a Title IX complaint against the school after he was expelled for an alleged sexual assault. The assault occurred after a night of heavy drinking in which both parties were reported to have been extremely impaired",
". The investigator hired by the school found that although the accuser had sent multiple text messages indicating an intent to have sex, found and entered the accused student's bedroom under her own power, and told witnesses she was fine when they checked on her during the sex acts, her estimated level of intoxication meant she was incapacitated and did not consent",
". A police investigation however found that \"witnesses were interviewed and agreed that the victim and suspect were both drunk [and] that they were both willing participants exercising bad judgement.\" The accused student attempted to file a sexual assault claim against his accuser, but the university declined to hear his complaint because he would not meet with an investigator without an attorney present.",
"In March 2015, federal regulators (OCR) opened an investigation on how Brandeis University handles sexual assault cases, stemming from a lawsuit where a male student was found responsible for sexual misconduct. The accused was not permitted to see the report created by the special investigator that determined his responsibility until after a decision had been reached.",
"In June 2015 an Amherst College student who was expelled for forcing a woman to complete an oral sex act sued the college for failing to discover text messages from the accuser that suggested consent and undermined her credibility. The accuser said she described the encounter as consensual because she was not \"yet ready to address what had happened\". The suit alleges that the investigation was \"grossly inadequate\"",
". The suit alleges that the investigation was \"grossly inadequate\". When student later learned of the messages favorable to him, Amherst refused to reconsider the case. In its response to the lawsuit, the school stated the process was fair and that the student had missed the seven-day window in which to file an appeal.",
"In July 2015 a California court ruled that the University of California, San Diego (UCSD) acted improperly by using a deeply flawed system to adjudicate a sexual assault allegation and sanctioning the accused based on a process that violated his rights. The student was not given adequate opportunity to challenge the accusations and the panel relied on information deliberately withheld from the student despite repeated requests",
". The judge also admonished a dean who had punitively increased the student's penalty without explanation each time he appealed, while the student's counsel criticized the dean for a perceived conflict of interest.",
"In August 2015, a Tennessee judge ruled against the University of Tennessee-Chattanooga who expelled a student for rape under a \"yes-means-yes\" policy. The student had been cleared by the school which later reversed its opinion on appeal using an affirmative consent policy",
". The judge found the school had no evidence the accuser did not consent, and found the school had \"improperly shifted the burden of proof and imposed an untenable standard upon\" the student \"to disprove the accusation\" that he assaulted a classmate.",
"In June 2017, a divided panel of the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit found that the University of Houston did not violate the Constitution's Due Process Clause or Title IX when it expelled a student for committing sexual assault in a dorm room then abandoning the nude victim in a dorm elevator, as well as his girlfriend, who had recorded the assault and shared the video on social media.",
"A former Boston College student has won more than $100,000 from his alma mater after a federal jury found the private nonprofit institution mishandled sexual assault allegations against him. The case is significant in that it is the first sex assault lawsuit against a university to reach a jury trial since 2011, when the Obama administration rewrote the rules for how college officials should investigate and arbitrate sexual violence on campuses.",
"In February 2022, The University of California agreed to pay almost $250m to over 200 women who were allegedly sexually assaulted by a campus gynecologist.",
"Trump administration efforts \nOn 22 September 2017, Betsy DeVos, the Secretary of Education in the Trump administration, rescinded some Obama-era campus guidelines regarding campus sexual assault. The rescinded guidelines included: having a low standard of proof to establish guilt, a 60-day investigation period, and not permitting mediation between involved parties.",
"In May 2020, DeVos released the finalized new set of regulations under Title IX. Some of the new regulations hold that employees, such as faculty, athletic staff, and more, are no longer required to report allegation of sexual misconduct and those going through misconduct investigations are required to hold live hearings with the opportunity to cross-examine the accuser. If an assault happens outside of campus grounds, they no longer fall under Title IX protections",
". If an assault happens outside of campus grounds, they no longer fall under Title IX protections. This is regardless to the fact if any or all parties involved are students. Allegations must meet the new criteria in order to formally be investigated, otherwise schools are allowed to dismiss the case",
". Kathryn Nash, a higher education attorney at Lathrop GPM states, \"under the new regulations, to meet the definition of sexual harassment, the conduct 'has to be so severe, pervasive and objectively offensive that it effectively denies a person equal access to the recipient's education program or activity, so that's definitely a higher burden.",
"Criticisms/General Response",
"University of California system response",
"After the announcement of the new finalized Title IX regulations, the UC system president, Janet Napolitano, released a statement in response. In this statement, Napolitano announced their opposition with these new rules. It is believed by the UC system that along with the challenges faced by COVID-19, these new regulations will only further the barrier already in place when it comes to reporting",
". Their largest concern comes from the direct-examination students will be subject to if a formal complaint turns into an investigation. Lower standards from schools is also seen to \"weaken fair and just policies that have taken decades to establish.\" However, there were aspects that the system agreed with, such as the inclusion relationship violence into the mix.",
"College programs",
"Some colleges and universities have taken additional steps to prevent sexual violence on campus. These include educational programs designed to inform students about risk factors and prevention strategies to avoid victimization, bystander education programs (which encourage students to identify and defuse situations that may lead to sexual assault), and social media campaigns to raise awareness about sexual assault",
". FYCARE is one example of an educational program designed to inform students that the University of Illinois has implemented. FYCARE is a new student program that each student at the university is required to take. It focuses on informing students of sexual assault on campus and how they too can get involved in the fight against sexual assault. A cheerful banner campaign at a large university found positive results, suggesting that an upbeat campaign can engage students in productive conversation.",
"The Bystander Intervention programs is a system many schools are promoting to help students to feel empowered and knowledgeable. The program provides skills to effectively assist in the prevention of sexual violence. This gives a specific to that students can use in preventing sexual violence, including naming and stopping situations that could lead to sexual violence before it happens, stepping in during an incident, and speaking out against ideas and behaviors that support sexual violence",
". A few schools that are currently promoting the program are Johnson County Community College, The University of Massachusetts, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Loyola University of Chicago.",
"One study found that a large percentage of university students know victims of sexual assault, and that this personal knowledge differs among ethnic groups. These findings have implications for college programs, suggesting that prevention efforts be tailored to the group for which the program is intended.\n\nMedia and Activism \nMedia shapes the perceptions and attitudes students have regarding sexual assault.",
"Since media has been around, students have found ways to incorporate it into their fight against sexual assault within colleges, universities, and institutions. Social media is an important tool on college campuses that pushes the conversation further, addresses myths, and helps provide education and support for survivors and allies. It is also a tool used for activism, in this case, student activism. Student activism is an organization or movement to push for systematic change on campus.",
"Before social media, activism was more biased and failed to address the implicit biases of race, gender, and class. Online activism and media have shown a new way to ensure inclusivity to those who are a part of marginalized groups. Media has done this by providing an open platform for students and a space for people to share stories which helps victims and survivors to feel less isolated and heal from their experiences",
". Social media also helps student activists connect with other student activists on other campuses, which builds a community and continues the progression of combating sexual assault in colleges.",
"Mainstream media is seen to primarily portray stereotypes of white women. Social media combats this by allowing activists to have a space to address the intersectionality within sexual assault in ways the mainstream media does not. Media also provides rape myths, false accusations and does not always provide all the facts of a case. This can cause a culture where victims on a college campus are hesitant to report a sexual assault.",
"Effective media campaigns to enhance student awareness can not be created without understanding the relationship students have with media and the mindset students have regarding sexual assault. Repetitive exposure to sexual assault in the media will help students understand the topic's importance. Incorporating campaigns to correct students' misconceptions about sexual assault can help reduce myths and stereotypes.",
"The hashtag and sharing function on social media platforms helps to reach audiences and demographics that may not have seen it otherwise. Younger generations, such as college students, use social media as their primary source to gain information. Hashtags are significant when it comes to sexual assault awareness within college campuses as they create easy access to a community of support for survivors, victims, and activists",
". Survivors can share their stories which could then have the potential to impact and help new and old victims who are working to heal. The #MeToo is a pivotal point in media involvement and an example of how Hashtags have been used.",
"International students \nAs the development of the educational system around the world, more and more students have the opportunity to study abroad and gain knowledge and experiences.",
"Gap between cultures and the impact of sexual assaults",
"According to Pryor et al. (1997), the definition of sexual assault can differ depending on the countries and cultures and some students are unaware of what behaviors are considered to be sexual harassment in the country or culture where they are studying. Research conducted by Pryor et al. reported that college student definitions of sexual harassment in Germany, Australia, Brazil, and North America vary",
". They found that the most frequent definitional response for North Americans, Australians, and Germans includes unwanted verbal or physical sexual overtures. The most common response for Brazilian college students was \"to seduce someone, to be more intimate (sexually), to procure a romance\". In addition, they found that Australians, Germans, and North Americans defined sexual harassment as an abuse of power, gender discrimination, and harmful sexual behavior",
". Brazilians defined sexual harassment as innocuous seductive behaviors. In this case, the certain student groups which have lower standards to the sexual assaults are easier to be assaulted. When students are unable to confirm whether the type of assault will match the country and culture's definition of sexual assault, they are at risk of exhibiting behaviors such as a loss of morale, dissatisfaction with their career goals, or perform more poorly in school.",
"Education",
"Levels of sexual education can differ depending on the country, which runs a risk of a lack of understanding of the domestic definitions of sexual assault and the legal repercussions. If a student is found to have committed sexual assault this can lead to their dismissal from the college or influence their visa status. Some campuses provide orientation programs to international students within a few days of their arrival, where the school laws and solutions for dangerous solutions are covered",
". These programs may not take into consideration if the student is familiar with the topics being discussed or potential language or cultural barriers.",
"See also",
"Bullying in academia\n Campus Accountability and Safety Act, pending\n Duke lacrosse case, notable for false rape accusation at Duke University\n The Hunting Ground (2015), documentary film about this issue\n Post-assault treatment of sexual assault victims\nRape chant\n Rape in the United States#Jurisdiction\n \"A Rape on Campus\", a now-discredited and withdrawn article on an alleged gang rape at the University of Virginia\n Safe Campus Act\n Sexual harassment in education\n Violence against women",
"Safe Campus Act\n Sexual harassment in education\n Violence against women\n Violence against men\n Campus Police\nVanderbilt rape case\nSexual Violence and Misconduct Policy Act (British Columbia)",
"References\n\nFurther reading \n\n \n\n \n \n \n \n\n \nRape\nSex crimes"
] |
Inside Man
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inside%20Man
|
[
"Inside Man is a 2006 American crime thriller film directed by Spike Lee and written by Russell Gewirtz. It centers on an elaborate bank heist turned hostage situation on Wall Street over a 24-hour period",
". The film stars Denzel Washington as Detective Keith Frazier, the NYPD's hostage negotiator, Clive Owen as Dalton Russell, the mastermind who orchestrates the heist, and Jodie Foster as Madeleine White, a Manhattan fixer who becomes involved at the request of the bank's founder Arthur Case (Christopher Plummer) to keep something in his safe deposit box protected from the robbers.",
"Gewirtz spent five years developing the premise before working on what became his first original screenplay. After he completed the script in 2002, Imagine Entertainment purchased it to be made by Universal Pictures, with Imagine co-founder Ron Howard attached to direct. After Howard stepped down, his business partner Brian Grazer began looking for a new director and ultimately hired Lee. Principal photography took place on location in New York City from June to August 2005.",
"Inside Man premiered in New York on March 20, 2006, before being released across the United States four days later. It received generally positive reviews from critics and earned $184.4 million worldwide against its $45 million production budget, making it the highest grossing film in Lee's filmography.\n\nPlot",
"In a small, dimly-lit cell, Dalton Russell proclaims he has committed the perfect bank robbery. In New York City, masked robbers, dressed in painter coveralls and using variants of the name \"Steve\" as aliases, seize control of a Manhattan bank, taking patrons and employees hostage",
". They divide the hostages into groups and hold them in different rooms, forcing them to don masks and coveralls identical to their own, rotating them among various rooms and occasionally inserting themselves covertly into the groups. They also take turns working on a project involving demolishing the floor in one of the bank's storage rooms.",
"Police surround the bank, and Detectives Keith Frazier and Bill Mitchell take charge of negotiations. Russell, the head robber, demands food be provided. The police send pizzas whose boxes have hidden listening devices. The bugs pick up someone speaking Albanian (initially misunderstood to be Russian), which is later identified as propaganda recordings of the late Albanian leader Enver Hoxha, implying that the robbers anticipated the attempted surveillance.",
"When Arthur Case, the bank's founder and chairman, learns about the holdup, he hires fixer Madeleine White to try to protect the contents of a safe deposit box within the bank. Russell breaks into a safe deposit box and finds, among other things, documents from Nazi Germany. White, using her influence with the Mayor of New York, is introduced to Frazier and persuades him to let her to talk to Russell, who agrees to allow her inside the bank so they can talk privately",
". Russell implies that Case started his bank with money he received for collaborating with the Nazis, resulting in many Jews dying during World War II.",
"Frazier demands to inspect the hostages before allowing the robbers to leave and Russell shows him around the bank. As he is being shown out, Frazier attacks Russell, but is restrained by another robber. Afterwards, Frazier explains he deliberately provoked him, concluding that Russell is not a killer. However, Frazier's conclusion is almost immediately tested when a hostage execution is staged. The execution prompts an Emergency Services Unit team into action",
". The execution prompts an Emergency Services Unit team into action. They plan to storm the bank, using rubber bullets to knock out those inside. Frazier discovers that the robbers have planted a listening device on the police; aware of the police plans, the robbers detonate smoke grenades, remove their masks, and exit the bank hidden among the hostages.",
"The police detain and question everyone but cannot distinguish the identically dressed hostages from the robbers. A search of the bank reveals the robbers' weapons were plastic replicas. They find props showing that the hostage execution was faked, and no money or valuables appear to have been stolen. Unable to identify the suspects and unable to show a robbery has even been committed, Frazier's superior orders him to drop the case. Frazier, however, searches bank records and finds that safe deposit box No",
". Frazier, however, searches bank records and finds that safe deposit box No. 392 has never appeared on any records since the bank's founding in 1948. He obtains a search warrant to open it. White then confronts Frazier to persuade him to drop his investigation and during their conversation she hints at Case's Nazi dealings. Frazier refuses to stop his investigation and plays a recording he had surreptitiously made of an incriminating conversation that took place earlier between White and Frazier",
". White confronts Case, who admits the box contained loose diamonds and a diamond ring he took from a Jewish friend whom he betrayed to the Nazis.",
"Russell's opening monologue is revealed to have happened while he hid behind a fake wall the robbers had constructed inside the bank's supply room. He emerges a week after the robbery with the contents of Case's safe deposit box, including incriminating documents and several bags of diamonds. On his way out, he bumps into Frazier, who does not recognize him. Russell exits the bank and enters a waiting car filled with his co-conspirators, some of whom the police had questioned",
". When Frazier opens the safe deposit box, he finds the ring and a note from Russell that says, \"follow the ring\". He confronts Case, urging White to contact the Office of War Crimes Issues at the State Department about Case's war crimes. At home, Frazier finds a loose diamond and realizes that Russell slipped it into his pocket during their collision while exiting the bank.",
"Cast",
"Denzel Washington as Detective Keith Frazier, New York City police detective with a scandal attached to his name who is desperate to make Detective First Grade. He is assigned to negotiate with the ringleader of a Manhattan bank heist. The film marks Washington's fourth collaboration with director Spike Lee. Lee first approached Washington and gave him the opportunity to play either Frazier or Dalton Russell. Washington turned down the latter, citing concerns over the character's disguise",
". Washington turned down the latter, citing concerns over the character's disguise. He cited his Broadway performance as Brutus in Julius Caesar as inspiration, stating, \"I think it actually helped me prepare for Frazier—Russell [Gewirtz]'s script is heavy with great dialogue. My character does a lot of talking! I kind of thought of Frazier as Brutus goes to Brooklyn",
". My character does a lot of talking! I kind of thought of Frazier as Brutus goes to Brooklyn. For me, there is a certain rhythm and cadence of New Yorkers, and this gave me the opportunity to play a New York kind of guy who's going through a lot while dealing with this smart and challenging adversary.\"",
"Clive Owen as Dalton Russell, the ringleader of the elaborate bank heist. Russell first appears at the beginning of the film, breaking the fourth wall and narrating in medias res of how he will commit the perfect bank robbery. Owen nearly turned down the role; like Washington, he expressed concerns over the character's disguise of a hood, mask and sunglasses",
". He said, \"To play whole scenes where you're masked, you've got on sunglasses and you're wearing a hood is very weird, because a lot of acting is often through intent, and intent is shown through the eyes. To suddenly have that taken away and have this big barrier there was very disarming.\" Owen, however, accepted the role after further discussing the part with Lee. The script was also revised to include scenes in which Owen's face could be shown.",
"Jodie Foster as Madeleine White, Manhattan power broker who is hired to act as a \"fixer\" in response to the bank heist. Foster saw the film as an opportunity to collaborate with Lee, explaining, \"Spike is somebody who always fascinated me, and I've loved his movies. I've always wanted to be involved in something he's making.\" She described her character as a woman with \"a relaxed kind of witty quality to her",
".\" She described her character as a woman with \"a relaxed kind of witty quality to her. All the while being very strong, not having to raise her voice very much, not having to yell at anybody — she's got authority. There's seductiveness, a charm, if you will, to her ability to get into people's psyches that's been immensely fun to play. It all went way too fast for me.\"",
"Christopher Plummer as Arthur Case, the chairman of the board of directors and founder of the fictional Manhattan Trust bank. In response to the bank heist, Case hires White to prevent a possible career-ending situation. Inside Man is Plummer's second collaboration with Lee and Washington, following 1992's Malcolm X. He described Case as a \"wonderful, rich head of all sorts of organizations — I suppose a kind of 'Enron creature' — who runs banks and other world businesses",
". He has tentacles everywhere, and he's a real son-of-a-bitch who's trying to keep a secret in the process.\"",
"Willem Dafoe as Captain John Darius, veteran captain of the NYPD Emergency Services Unit. Dafoe saw the film as opportunity to work in New York City and collaborate with Lee. He felt that the film was \"about the city; it's about authority; it's about the mentality of crime; and it's about power ... and payback.\"",
"Chiwetel Ejiofor as Detective Bill Mitchell, New York City police detective and Frazier's partner. The film is Ejiofor's second collaboration with Lee, after She Hate Me (2004). He first learned of the film after meeting with the director. He explained, \"He said he wanted me to read the script and see if I wanted to be involved. Spike asks so many people to come back and work with him in different capacities and as different types of characters.\"\n Spike Lee as Civilian (Uncredited)",
"Spike Lee as Civilian (Uncredited)\nAppearing as Russell's accomplices are:\n Kim Director as Valerie Keepsake / Stevie, she is Russell's girlfriend who keeps the female hostages under control.\n James Ransone as Darius Peltz / Steve-O, he protects Russell when Frazier attempts to apprehend him.\n Carlos Andrés Gómez as Kenneth Damerjian / Steve, an Armenian who uses recordings on his iPod of Albanian leader Enver Hoxha to throw off the police wiretap.",
"Bernie Rachelle as Chaim, an older Jewish man who works as a professor at Columbia Law School, who teaches courses on genocide, slave labor, and war reparation claims, who is part of the plot but was not one of the \"Steves\", given his age and physique.",
"Appearing as some of the more notable hostages are Ken Leung as Wing, who was distracted in the bank before the heist by the bosomy woman (played by Samantha Ivers) standing behind him and talking loudly on her phone; Gerry Vichi as Herman Gluck, an elderly hostage suffering chest pains who is quickly released by the robbers; Waris Ahluwalia as Vikram Walia, a Sikh bank clerk whose turban is removed by the cops, which is a religious sacrilege for a Sikh male; Peter Frechette as Peter Hammond",
", which is a religious sacrilege for a Sikh male; Peter Frechette as Peter Hammond, a bank employee whose attempt to hide his cell phone from Russell results in his getting beaten up; Amir Ali Said as Brian Robinson, an 8-year-old boy who speaks with both Russell and Frazier and who plays a killing video game; Ed Onipede Blunt as Ray Robinson, Brian's father; and Marcia Jean Kurtz as Miriam Douglas",
", Brian's father; and Marcia Jean Kurtz as Miriam Douglas, an older woman who initially refuses to strip and is forced to do so by Stevie; Kurtz reprises her role as Miriam from Dog Day Afternoon (1975), in which she was depicted as a hostage",
". Lionel Pina, who also appeared in Dog Day Afternoon as a policeman posing as pizza delivery man, reprises his role in Inside Man, delivering pizzas at the bank's front doors.",
"Other roles include Cassandra Freeman as Officer Sylvia, Frazier's girlfriend; Peter Gerety as Captain Coughlin, Frazier and Mitchell's superior; Victor Colicchio as Sergeant Collins, the first officer to respond to the bank robbery; Jason Manuel Olazabal as ESU Officer Hernandez; Al Palagonia as Kevin, a sanitation worker who recognizes the language as Albanian, as he was formerly married to an Albanian-born woman; Florina Petcu as Ilina Miritia",
", as he was formerly married to an Albanian-born woman; Florina Petcu as Ilina Miritia, the Albanian woman in question who explains that they are hearing recordings of Enver Hoxha; Peter Kybart as the Mayor of New York City; Anthony Mangano as an ESU officer; and Daryl Mitchell and Ashlie Atkinson as Mobile Command Officers",
".",
"Production",
"Development",
"The script for Inside Man was written by Russell Gewirtz, a former lawyer who conceived the idea while vacationing in several countries. A first time-screenwriter, Gewirtz studied a number of screenplays, and spent five years developing the premise. His friend Daniel M. Rosenberg assisted in developing the script, then known as \"The Inside Man\". After it was completed in 2002, the script was passed around several times",
". After it was completed in 2002, the script was passed around several times. Rosenberg shopped it to a number of Los Angeles agencies, until Universal Pictures executives Scott Stuber and Donna Langley persuaded Gewirtz to take the script to Universal and Imagine Entertainment. Imagine purchased Gewirtz's screenplay in 2002, and the project began development at Universal, who retitled the film Inside Man.",
"Imagine co-founder Ron Howard was attached to direct the film, but turned it down after being asked by Russell Crowe to helm Cinderella Man (2005). Howard's Imagine partner Brian Grazer began looking for a new director. After Howard stepped down, Menno Meyjes contributed to Gewirtz's screenplay, and Terry George incorporated the Nazi Germany and diamond ring elements to the script",
". Meyjes was in negotiations to direct the film, but after he declined, Grazer thought this project was a chance to work with Spike Lee, who had already learned of Gewirtz's script. Lee said of the screenplay, \"I liked the script and really wanted to do it. Dog Day Afternoon,' directed by Sidney Lumet, is one of my favorite films, and this story was a contemporary take on that kind of a movie",
".\"; ultimately, Marcia Jean Kurtz and Lionel Pina were additionally cast to reprise their roles from Dog Day Afternoon in Easter egg cameo appearances.",
"After being cast, Denzel Washington and Chiwetel Ejiofor worked together on studying their lines and understanding their characters. Lee helped prepare his actors by screening a number of heist films including Dog Day Afternoon (1975). Washington, Ejiofor, Willem Dafoe and other actors met and worked with members of the New York City Police Department, who shared their experiences and stories involving civilians and hostage situations.",
"Filming\nPrincipal photography\nThe film was shot on location in New York City, with principal photography beginning in June 2005. Universal Pictures provided a budget of $45 million. By filming in New York, the production was eligible for the city's \"Made in NY\" incentives program. Interior sets were created at the New York-based Steiner Studios, and Inside Man was the second film (after 2005's The Producers) to be shot inside the 15-acre facility.",
"Location scouting revealed a former Wall Street bank at 20 Exchange Place had been closed down and repurposed as a cigar bar. The building stood in for the fictional Manhattan Trust Bank branch, where the bank heist occurs. \"Without a bank, we didn't have a movie,\" Lee explained. \"But everything ended up going very smoothly. We shot in the heart of Wall Street in a bank that had been closed down. It was like having a back lot in the middle of Wall Street.\" An office at the Alexander Hamilton U.S",
".\" An office at the Alexander Hamilton U.S. Custom House doubled as the office of Arthur Case (Christopher Plummer). Plummer believed that the office's design was essential to his character: \"The space literally presents Case's power, so I found that part of my character was to simply play very cool about everything. You don't have to push the power, because it's all around you.\" The location was also used to film a scene where Frazier confronts Madeleine White (Jodie Foster)",
".\" The location was also used to film a scene where Frazier confronts Madeleine White (Jodie Foster). The American Tract Society Building, located at 150 Nassau Street and Spruce Street, Manhattan, doubled as White's office. Cafe Bravo, a coffee shop located at 76 Beaver Street and Hanover Street, was also used for filming. Other filming locations included Battery Park and the New York Supreme Court House's Appellate Division located at East 25th Street and Madison Avenue, Manhattan",
". Principal photography concluded in August after 43 days of filming.",
"Design",
"Wynn Thomas supervised the production design, continuing a 20-year collaboration with Lee. With a former Wall Street bank doubling as the fictional Manhattan Trust branch, Thomas and his team restored the former bank to its 1920s architectural structure. The first floor underwent renovations and was used as the first place where the hostages are held captive by the robbers. The bank's basement was one of several interior sets created at Steiner Studios",
". The bank's basement was one of several interior sets created at Steiner Studios. Thomas and his team also designed Frazier's apartment, which he described as \"very masculine and rich and highly monochromatic in its many hues of brown.\" He was also tasked with designing a police interrogation room, as well as the interiors of the New York City Police Department and a light-duty Mobile Command vehicle. An actual Mobile Command vehicle, supplied by LDV Inc., was used for exteriors.",
"Cinematography\n\nThe film was director of photography Matthew Libatique's second collaboration with Lee. Because the filmmakers intended to finish with a digital intermediate (the post-production digital manipulation of color and lighting), Libatique chose to shoot the film in the Super 35 format for a 2.35:1 aspect ratio. He mainly used Kodak Vision2 500T 5218 and Vision2 Expression 500T 5229 film stocks. The film was shot with Arricam and Arriflex cameras and Cooke S4 lenses.",
"Several scenes required multiple-camera setups. Lee wanted to create a visual distinction between the characters Russell (Owen) and Frazier (Washington), while incorporating visual metaphors. Russell's scenes, in which he masterminds the bank heist, were shot with a Steadicam to suggest that the character is in control. Frazier's scenes, in which he is tasked with handling the hostage situation, were filmed with multiple hand-held cameras to display the character's confusion",
". Libatique explained, \"I said, 'We want to create a sense of control and largely centered frames with Clive's character, and we want to have movement with Denzel's.' Having three operators on the same character, I'd watch all three. In a handheld shot, a long lens has a little bit of movement and a wider lens is inherently smoother. I would actually talk to the operator and tell him not to be so steady. It was the first time I'd worked with so many operators where I wasn't one myself",
". It was the first time I'd worked with so many operators where I wasn't one myself.\" Telephone conversations between Russell and Frazier were shot using two cameras simultaneously filming the actors performing on two different sets of a soundstage at Steiner Studios. Steadicam operator Stephen Consentino estimated that 80% of the film was shot with hand-held cameras or a Steadicam. A total of seven cameras were used to film the scene where the hostages are finally released",
". A total of seven cameras were used to film the scene where the hostages are finally released. A Technocrane was used for a crane shot that would cover the following moment, in which the hostages are placed in buses.",
"The film features a number of scenes which involve Detectives Frazier and Mitchell (Chiwitel Ejiofor) interrogating several hostages during the aftermath of the heist. Libatique described these scenes as a \"flash-forward\" to events, explaining that Lee \"wanted a look that would jump out and tell you you're somewhere else.\" Libatique photographed the scenes with Kodak Ektachrome 100D 5285 reversal film",
".\" Libatique photographed the scenes with Kodak Ektachrome 100D 5285 reversal film. Technicolor then cross-processed the filmed footage before it was put through a bleach bypass, which neutralized color temperature and created more contrast. Libatique explained, \"Basically, it unifies all the color ... When you try to apply correction, the film moves in very strange ways.\"",
"Post-production facility EFILM carried out the digital intermediate (DI), with Libatique overseeing the process and working with colorists Steve Bowen and Steve Scott: \"It's difficult to match all of your shots meticulously when you have three cameras and one lighting setup, so I spent the majority of the DI just adhering to the original vision of the disparity in color temperature, which I can accentuate, versus the unified color temperature",
".\" A majority of Inside Man was scanned on a Northlight film scanner, while the interrogation scenes had to be scanned on a Spirit DataCine, as the negatives proved \"too dense for the Northlight to perform the task.\"",
"Effects\nVideo game sequence",
"The film features a scene in which Russell (Owen) interacts with Brian Robinson (Amir Ali Said), an 8-year-old boy who is playing a violent video game titled Gangstas iz Genocide on his PlayStation Portable. The scene is intercut with a 30-second animated sequence of the fictional game, in which a character performs a drive-by shooting, before killing an intended target with a hand grenade",
". Using the Grand Theft Auto franchise as a reference, Lee wanted the scene to serve as a social commentary on gangsta rap, violent crime among African Americans and the rising level of killings in video games.",
"Cinematographer Matthew Libatique enlisted his cousin, Eric Alba, and a team of graphic artists known as House of Pain to design the 30-second animated sequence. Lee asked for the sequence to show two black characters in a ghetto environment dressed in gangster attire. He also gave the artists mockups of two scenarios that ended in homicide—one being a robbery at an ATM, and the other a drive-by shooting.",
"House of Pain spent 10 days working on Gangstas iz Genocide. Alba digitally photographed images of buildings near the Marcy Houses in Brooklyn, New York. Portions of the sequence were pre-visualized in 3D Studio Max, while stills were imported as texture maps and added to animated cut scenes created in 3D modeling package Maya. The artists also improvised the use of a hand grenade. When Lee saw how violent the sequence was, he improvised the line \"Kill Dat Nigga!\" as a subtitle",
". When Lee saw how violent the sequence was, he improvised the line \"Kill Dat Nigga!\" as a subtitle. The entire sequence was rendered out to play onscreen in full frame. The original running time of the animated sequence was 60 seconds. Lee cut it to 30 seconds, feeling that a shorter length would make more of an impact. Upon Inside Mans theatrical release, he remarked that, \"The sad thing is somebody is probably gonna make a game out of it and take that as inspiration.\"",
"Music",
"Jazz musician and trumpeter Terence Blanchard composed the film score, marking his eleventh collaboration with Lee. The soundtrack features the song \"Chaiyya Chaiyya\", composed by A. R. Rahman, which originally appeared in the 1998 Hindi film Dil Se.. The song is featured during the opening credits of the film",
".. The song is featured during the opening credits of the film. A remix of the song, titled \"Chaiyya, Chaiyya Bollywood Joint\" plays during the end credits, and features Panjabi MC's added rap lyrics about people of different backgrounds coming together in order to survive. The soundtrack, titled Inside Man: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack, was released on CD in North America on March 21, 2006, through record label Varèse Sarabande.",
"Release\nInside Man held its premiere in New York at the Ziegfeld Theatre on March 20, 2006, coinciding with Lee's 49th birthday. On March 24, 2006, Universal Pictures released the film in 2,818 theatres in North America. The film was given the widest release of any Spike Lee film, edging out Summer of Sam (1999) by 1,282 theatres. Inside Man was also released throughout 62 foreign markets. The film was released on DVD on August 8, 2006, on HD DVD on October 23, 2007 and on Blu-ray on May 26, 2009.",
"Box office\nOn its opening day in North America, the film grossed $9,440,295 with an average of $3,350 per theatre. By the end of its opening weekend, it had grossed $28,954,945, securing the number one position at the box office. Inside Man held the record for the highest opening weekend gross as a Denzel Washington starring vehicle, surpassing Man on Fire (2004) which debuted with $22.7 million on its first weekend.",
"Inside Man had dropped 46.7% in its second weekend, earning $15,437,760; it had dropped to second place behind Ice Age: The Meltdown. The film dropped an additional 40.9% in its third week, bringing in $9,131,410, though it remained in the Top 10 rankings for the weekend, placing fourth overall. The film remained in the top ten for the fourth weekend in a row, grossing about $6,427,815 and finishing sixth for the week",
". In its fifth weekend, Inside Man had grossed an additional $3,748,955, while in eighth place. In its sixth weekend, Inside Man fell out of the box office top ten, finishing eleventh with an estimated $2,081,690. The film ended its theatrical run in North America on July 6, 2006 after 15 weeks (105 days) of release. It grossed $88,513,495 in the United States and Canada, ranking as Lee's highest-grossing film, ahead of Malcolm X (1992), which had ended its North American release with over $48 million.",
"Inside Man was released overseas on March 23, 2006. On its opening weekend, it grossed about $9,600,000 in ten territories. The film grossed $95,862,759 in the overseas box office, with a worldwide total of $184,376,254. In North America, it was the 22nd highest-grossing film of 2006, while it ranked the 21st highest-grossing film released worldwide.\n\nCritical response",
"On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 86% based on 210 reviews and an average rating of 7.3/10. The site's critical consensus reads, \"Spike Lee's energetic and clever bank-heist thriller is a smart genre film that is not only rewarding on its own terms, but manages to subvert its pulpy trappings with wit and skill – and Denzel Washington is terrific as a brilliant hostage negotiator",
".\" Metacritic, another review aggregator, assigned the film a weighted average score of 76 out of 100 based on 39 critics, considered to be \"generally favorable reviews\". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of \"B+\" on an A+ to F scale, with exit polls showing that 54% of the audience was male, while 68% was at least 30 years old or older. The American Film Institute named Inside Man as one of the top ten films of 2006.",
"Manohla Dargis of The New York Times wrote \"Inside Man works because it takes a familiar setup—in this case, a Wall Street bank heist that mutates into a hostage crisis—and twists it ever so slightly. A particularly solid screenplay helps here, as do stars who can actually act ... along with an excellent supporting cast and the best lineup of pusses and mugs outside The Sopranos",
".\" The Wall Street Journal wrote \"Our willingness to go along with the film's flaws is a tribute to its strengths, and to a cast that includes Chiwetel Ejiofor and Willem Dafoe, plus scores of character actors in small but striking roles.\" Empire gave the film four stars out of five, concluding, \"It's certainly a Spike Lee film, but no Spike Lee Joint. Still, he's delivered a pacy, vigorous and frequently masterful take on a well-worn genre",
". Still, he's delivered a pacy, vigorous and frequently masterful take on a well-worn genre. Thanks to some slick lens work and a cast on cracking form, Lee proves (perhaps above all to himself?) that playing it straight is not always a bad thing.\" Wesley Morris of The Boston Globe wrote, \"The basic story is elemental, but because Lee and Gewirtz invest it with grit, comedy, and a ton of New York ethnic personality, it's fresh anyway",
".\" David Ansen of Newsweek commented, \"As unexpected as some of its plot twists is the fact that this unapologetic genre movie was directed by Spike Lee, who has never sold himself as Mr. Entertainment. But here it is, a Spike Lee joint that's downright fun.\" Giving the film a B+ rating, Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly described the film as \"a hybrid of studio action pic and Spike Lee joint. Or else it's a cross between a 2006 Spike Lee joint and a 1970s-style movie indictment of urban unease.\"",
"Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times criticized the narrative, writing, \"Here is a thriller that's curiously reluctant to get to the payoff, and when it does, we see why: we can't accept the motive and method of the bank robbery, we can't believe in one character and can't understand another.\" Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian called it a \"supremely annoying and nonsensical film\". Rex Reed of The New York Observer wrote, \"Inside Man has two things going for it: better actors than usual and a slicker look",
". Otherwise, it's no different from nine out of 10 other preposterous, contrived, confusingly written, unevenly directed, pointless and forgettable junk films we've been getting these days.\"",
"Sequel",
"In November 2006, it was announced that a sequel to Inside Man was in development, with Russell Gewirtz reprising screenwriting duties. Under the working title Inside Man 2, the film would have Brian Grazer again serve as producer. Spike Lee was in negotiations to reprise his directing duties while serving as an executive producer alongside returning member Daniel M. Rosenberg",
". Rosenberg. In 2008, Terry George was in negotiations to write the screenplay for the sequel; he later replaced Gewirtz, whose screenplay was abandoned. The plot for the sequel was intended to continue after the events of the first film, with Dalton Russell (played by Clive Owen) masterminding another robbery, and again matching wits with NYPD hostage negotiator Keith Frazier (Denzel Washington). Lee confirmed that Washington, Owen, Jodie Foster and Chiwetel Ejiofor would all reprise their roles",
". He also expressed interest in filming Inside Man 2 during the fall of 2009.",
"In 2011, it was announced that plans to make Inside Man 2 had been cancelled. Lee confirmed this, expressing that he could not secure funding for the project. \"Inside Man was my most successful film, but we can't get the sequel made,\" he said. \"And one thing Hollywood does well is sequels. The film's not getting made. We tried many times. It's not going to happen.\"\n\nIn 2019, a sequel titled Inside Man: Most Wanted was released direct-to-video and streaming on Netflix.\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links",
"References\n\nExternal links",
"2006 crime thriller films\n2000s English-language films\n2000s heist films\n2000s police procedural films\n40 Acres and a Mule Filmworks films\nAmerican crime thriller films\nAmerican heist films\nAmerican police detective films\nFilms about bank robbery\nFilms about hostage takings\nFilms about the New York City Police Department\nFilms directed by Spike Lee\nFilms produced by Brian Grazer\nFilms scored by Terence Blanchard\nFilms set in 2005\nFilms set in Manhattan\nFilms shot in New York City",
"Films set in 2005\nFilms set in Manhattan\nFilms shot in New York City\nImagine Entertainment films\nUniversal Pictures films\n2000s American films"
] |
Cambodia
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambodia
|
[
"Cambodia (; ; UNGEGN: ), officially the Kingdom of Cambodia (; UNGEGN: ), is a country in Mainland Southeast Asia, spanning an area of , bordered by Thailand to the northwest, Laos to the north, Vietnam to the east, and the Gulf of Thailand to the southwest. The capital and most populous city is Phnom Penh.",
"In 802 AD, Jayavarman II declared himself king, uniting the warring Khmer princes of Chenla under the name \"Kambuja\". This marked the beginning of the Khmer Empire. The Indianised kingdom facilitated the spread of first Hinduism and then Buddhism to Southeast Asia and undertook religious infrastructural projects throughout the region. In the fifteenth century, Cambodia experienced a decline of power, and in 1863, it became a protectorate of France",
". After a period of Japanese occupation during the Second World War, Cambodia gained independence in 1953. The Vietnam War extended into the country in 1965 via the Ho Chi Minh and Sihanouk trails. A 1970 coup installed the US-aligned Khmer Republic, which was overthrown by the Khmer Rouge in 1975. The Khmer Rouge ruled the country and carried out the Cambodian genocide from 1975 until 1979, when they were ousted in the Cambodian–Vietnamese War",
". The Vietnamese-occupied People's Republic of Kampuchea became the de facto government. Following the 1991 Paris Peace Accords which formally ended the war with Vietnam, Cambodia was governed by a United Nations mission (1992–93). The UN withdrew after holding elections in which around 90% of the registered voters cast ballots. The 1997 coup d'état consolidated power under Prime Minister Hun Sen and the Cambodian People's Party (CPP)",
". While constitutionally a multi-party state, CPP dominates the political system and dissolved its main opposition party in 2017, making Cambodia a de facto one-party state.",
"The United Nations designates Cambodia as a least developed country. Cambodia is a member of the United Nations, ASEAN, the RCEP, the East Asia Summit, the WTO, the Non-Aligned Movement and La Francophonie. Cambodia is a dialogue partner of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation. Agriculture remains the dominant economic sector, with growth in textiles, construction, garments, and tourism leading to increased foreign investment and international trade",
". Cambodia is considered among the most vulnerable countries to climate change.",
"Etymology",
"The Kingdom of Cambodia is the official English name of the country. The English Cambodia is an anglicisation of the French Cambodge, which in turn is the French transliteration of the Khmer (, ). Kâmpŭchéa is the shortened alternative to the country's official name in Khmer (,",
". Kâmpŭchéa is the shortened alternative to the country's official name in Khmer (, . The Khmer endonym Kâmpŭchéa derives from the Sanskrit name Kambojadeśa, composed of Deśa (\"land of\" or \"country of\") and (Kamboja), referring to the descendants of Kambu (a legendary Indian sage from the ancient Indian kingdom of Kamboja). The term Cambodia was already in use in Europe as early as 1524, since Antonio Pigafetta cites it in his work Relazione del primo viaggio intorno al mondo (1524–1525) as Camogia.",
"Scholar George Coedes refers to a 10th-century inscription of a Cambodian dynastic legend in which the hermit Kambu Swayambhuva and the celestial nymph Mera unite and establish the Cambodian Solar royal dynasty (Kambu-Mera), that begins with the Chenla ruler Srutavarman and his son Sreshthavarman. Coedes suggests that the Kambu Swayambhuva legend has its origins in southern India, as a version of the Kanchi Pallava dynasty creation myth.",
"Colloquially, Cambodians refer to their country as either Srok Khmer ( , ; meaning \"Land of the Khmers\"), or the slightly more formal (, ; \"Country of Kampuchea\"). The name Cambodia is used most often in the Western world while Kampuchea is more widely used in the East.\n\nHistory\n\nPre-history",
"There exists sparse evidence for a Pleistocene human occupation of present-day Cambodia, which includes quartz and quartzite pebble tools found in terraces along the Mekong River, in Stung Treng and Kratié provinces, and in Kampot Province, although their dating is unreliable",
". Some slight archaeological evidence shows communities of hunter-gatherers inhabited the region during Holocene: the most ancient archaeological discovery site in Cambodia is considered to be the cave of Laang Spean, which belongs to the Hoabinhian period. Excavations in its lower layers produced a series of radiocarbon dates around 6000 BC. Upper layers in the same site gave evidence of transition to Neolithic, containing the earliest dated earthenware ceramics in Cambodia.",
"Archaeological records for the period between Holocene and Iron Age remain equally limited. A pivotal event in Cambodian prehistory was the slow penetration of the first rice farmers from the north, which began in the late third millennium BC. The most curious prehistoric evidence in Cambodia are the various \"circular earthworks\" discovered in the red soils near Memot and in the adjacent region of Vietnam in the latter 1950s",
". Their function and age are still debated, but some of them possibly date from second millennium BC. Other prehistoric sites of somewhat uncertain date are Samrong Sen (not far from the ancient capital of Oudong), where the first investigations began in 1875, and Phum Snay, in the northern province of Banteay Meanchey.",
"Iron was worked by about 500 BC, with supporting evidence coming from the Khorat Plateau, in modern-day Thailand. In Cambodia, some Iron Age settlements were found beneath Baksei Chamkrong and other Angkorian temples while circular earthworks at the site of Lovea a few kilometres north-west of Angkor. Burials testify to improvement of food availability and trade, and the existence of a social structure and labour organization",
". Different kinds of glass beads recovered from several sites across Cambodia, such as the Phum Snay site in the northwest and the Prohear site in the southeast, suggest that there were two main trading networks at the time. The two networks were separated by time and space, which indicate that there was a shift from one network to the other at about 2nd–4th century AD, probably due to changes in socio-political powers.",
"Pre-Angkorian and Angkorian era",
"During the 3rd, 4th, and 5th centuries, the Indianised states of Funan and its successor, Chenla, coalesced in present-day Cambodia and southwestern Vietnam. For more than 2,000 years, what was to become Cambodia absorbed influences from India, passing them on to other Southeast Asian civilisations that are now Thailand and Laos. Little else is known for certain of these polities, however Chinese chronicles and tribute records do make mention of them",
". It is believed that the territory of Funan may have held the port known to Alexandrian geographer Claudius Ptolemy as \"Kattigara\". The Chinese chronicles suggest that after Jayavarman I of Chenla died around 681, turmoil ensued which resulted in the division of the kingdom into Land Chenla and Water Chenla which was loosely ruled by weak princes under the dominion of Java.",
"The Khmer Empire grew out of these remnants of Chenla, becoming firmly established in 802 when Jayavarman II (reigned – ) declared independence from Java and proclaimed himself a Devaraja. He and his followers instituted the cult of the God-king and began a series of conquests that formed an empire which flourished in the area from the 9th to the 15th centuries. During the rule of Jayavarman VIII the Angkor empire was attacked by the Mongol army of Kublai Khan, however, the king was able to buy peace",
". Around the 13th century, Theravavada missionaries from Sri Lanka reintroduced Theravada Buddhism to Southeast Asia; having sent missionaries previously in 1190s. The religion spread and eventually displaced Hinduism and Mahayana Buddhism as the popular religion of Angkor; however it was not the official state religion until 1295 when Indravarman III took power.",
"The Khmer Empire was Southeast Asia's largest empire during the 12th century. The empire's centre of power was Angkor, where a series of capitals were constructed during the empire's zenith. In 2007 an international team of researchers using satellite photographs and other modern techniques concluded that Angkor had been the largest pre-industrial city in the world with an urban sprawl of",
". The city, which could have supported a population of up to one million people and Angkor Wat, the best known and best-preserved religious temple at the site, still serves as a reminder of Cambodia's past as a major regional power.",
"Post-Angkor Period",
"After a long series of wars with neighbouring kingdoms, Angkor was sacked by the Ayutthaya Kingdom and abandoned in 1432 because of ecological failure and infrastructure breakdown. This led to a period of economic, social, and cultural stagnation when the kingdom's internal affairs came increasingly under the control of its neighbours. By this time, the Khmer penchant for monument building had ceased",
". By this time, the Khmer penchant for monument building had ceased. Older faiths such as Mahayana Buddhism and the Hindu cult of the god-king had been supplanted by Theravada Buddhism.",
"The court moved the capital to Longvek where the kingdom sought to regain its glory through maritime trade. The first mention of Cambodia in European documents was in 1511 by the Portuguese. Portuguese travellers described the city as a place of flourishing wealth and foreign trade. Continued wars with Ayutthaya and the Vietnamese resulted in the loss of more territory and Longvek being conquered and destroyed by King Naresuan the Great of Ayutthaya in 1594",
". A new Khmer capital was established at Oudong south of Longvek in 1618, but its monarchs could survive only by entering into what amounted to alternating vassal relationships with the Siamese and Vietnamese for the next three centuries with only a few short-lived periods of relative independence.",
"The hill tribe people in Cambodia were \"hunted incessantly and carried off as slaves by the Siamese (Thai), the Annamites (Vietnamese), and the Cambodians\".",
"In the nineteenth century, a renewed struggle between Siam and Vietnam for control of Cambodia resulted in a period when Cambodia became the Tây Thành Province of Nguyễn Vietnam, during which Vietnamese officials attempted to force the Khmers to adopt Vietnamese customs. This led to several rebellions against the Vietnamese and appeals to Thailand for assistance. The Siamese–Vietnamese War (1841–1845) ended with an agreement to place the country under joint suzerainty",
". This later led to the signing of a treaty for French Protection of Cambodia by King Norodom Prohmborirak.",
"French colonisation \n\nIn 1863, King Norodom, who had been installed by Siam, sought the protection of Cambodia from Siam by French rule. In 1867, Rama IV signed a treaty with France, renouncing suzerainty over Cambodia in exchange for the control of Battambang and Siem Reap provinces which officially became part of Siam. The provinces were ceded back to Cambodia by a border treaty between France and Siam in 1907.",
"Cambodia continued as a protectorate of France from 1867 to 1953, administered as part of the colony of French Indochina, though occupied by the Japanese empire from 1941 to 1945. and briefly existing as the puppet state of Kingdom of Kampuchea in mid-1945. Between 1874 and 1962, the total population increased from about 946,000 to 5.7 million. After King Norodom's death in 1904, France manipulated the choice of king, and Sisowath, Norodom's brother, was placed on the throne",
". The throne became vacant in 1941 with the death of Monivong, Sisowath's son, and France passed over Monivong's son, Monireth, feeling he was too independently minded. Instead, Norodom Sihanouk, a maternal grandson of King Sisowath was enthroned. The French thought young Sihanouk would be easy to control. They were wrong, however, and under the reign of King Norodom Sihanouk, Cambodia gained independence from France on 9 November 1953.",
"Independence and the Vietnam War",
"Cambodia became a constitutional monarchy under King Norodom Sihanouk. When French Indochina was given independence, Cambodia lost hope of regaining control over the Mekong Delta as it was awarded to Vietnam. Formerly part of the Khmer Empire, the area had been controlled by the Vietnamese since 1698, with King Chey Chettha II granting the Vietnamese permission to settle in the area decades before",
". This remains a diplomatic sticking point with over one million ethnic Khmers (the Khmer Krom) still living in this region. The Khmer Rouge attempted invasions to recover the territory which, in part, led to Vietnam's invasion of Cambodia and deposition of the Khmer Rouge.",
"In 1955, Sihanouk abdicated in favour of his father to participate in politics and was elected prime minister. Upon his father's death in 1960, Sihanouk again became head of state, taking the title of prince. As the Vietnam War progressed, Sihanouk adopted an official policy of neutrality in the Cold War. Sihanouk allowed the Vietnamese communists to use Cambodia as a sanctuary and a supply route for their arms and other aid to their armed forces fighting in South Vietnam",
". This policy was perceived as humiliating by many Cambodians. In December 1967 Washington Post journalist Stanley Karnow was told by Sihanouk that if the US wanted to bomb the Vietnamese communist sanctuaries, he would not object unless Cambodians were killed.",
"The same message was conveyed to US President Johnson's emissary Chester Bowles in January 1968. However, in public Sihanouk refuted the right of the U.S. to use air strikes in Cambodia, and on 26 March he said \"these criminal attacks must immediately and definitively stop\"",
". On 28 March a press conference was held and Sihanouk appealed to the international media: \"I appeal to you to publicise abroad this very clear stand of Cambodia—that is, I will, in any case, oppose all bombings on Cambodian territory under whatever pretext.\" Nevertheless, the public pleas of Sihanouk were ignored and the bombing continued. Members of the government and army became resentful of Sihanouk's ruling style as well as his tilt away from the United States.",
"Khmer Republic (1970–1975)",
"While visiting Beijing in 1970 Sihanouk was ousted by a military coup led by Prime Minister General Lon Nol and Prince Sisowath Sirik Matak. US support for the coup remains unproven. However, once the coup was completed, the new regime, which immediately demanded that the Vietnamese communists leave Cambodia, gained the political support of the United States",
". The North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces, desperate to retain their sanctuaries and supply lines from North Vietnam, immediately launched armed attacks on the new government. The king urged his followers to help in overthrowing this government, hastening the onset of civil war.",
"Soon Khmer Rouge rebels began using him to gain support. However, from 1970 until early 1972, the Cambodian conflict was largely one between the government and army of Cambodia, and the armed forces of North Vietnam. As they gained control of Cambodian territory, the Vietnamese communists imposed a new political infrastructure, which was eventually dominated by the Cambodian communists now referred to as the Khmer Rouge",
". Between 1969 and 1973, Republic of Vietnam and US forces bombed Cambodia in an effort to disrupt the Viet Cong and Khmer Rouge.",
"Documents uncovered from the Soviet archives after 1991 reveal that the North Vietnamese attempt to overrun Cambodia in 1970 was launched at the explicit request of the Khmer Rouge and negotiated by Pol Pot's then second in command, Nuon Chea. NVA units overran many Cambodian army positions while the Communist Party of Kampuchea (CPK) expanded their small-scale attacks on lines of communication",
". In response to the North Vietnamese invasion, US President Richard Nixon announced that US and South Vietnamese ground forces had entered Cambodia in a campaign aimed at destroying NVA base areas in Cambodia (see Cambodian Incursion). Although a considerable quantity of equipment was seized or destroyed by US and South Vietnamese forces, containment of North Vietnamese forces proved elusive.",
"The Khmer Republic's leadership was plagued by disunity. In 1972, a constitution was adopted, a parliament elected, and Lon Nol became president. But disunity, the problems of transforming a 30,000-man army into a national combat force of more than 200,000 men, and spreading corruption weakened the civilian administration and army. The Communist insurgency inside Cambodia continued to grow, aided by supplies and military support from North Vietnam",
". Pol Pot and Ieng Sary asserted their dominance over the Vietnamese-trained communists, many of whom were purged. At the same time, the CPK forces became stronger and more independent of their Vietnamese patrons. By 1973, the CPK were fighting battles against government forces with little or no North Vietnamese troop support, and they controlled nearly 60% of Cambodia's territory and 25% of its population",
". The government made three unsuccessful attempts to enter into negotiations with the insurgents, but by 1974, the CPK were operating openly as divisions, and some of the NVA combat forces had moved into South Vietnam. More than 2 million refugees from the war lived in Phnom Penh and other cities.",
"On New Year's Day 1975, Communist troops launched an offensive which, in 117 days of the hardest fighting of the war, led to the collapse of the Khmer Republic. Simultaneous attacks around the perimeter of Phnom Penh pinned down Republican forces, while other CPK units overran fire bases controlling the vital lower Mekong resupply route. A US-funded airlift of ammunition and rice ended when Congress refused additional aid for Cambodia",
". A US-funded airlift of ammunition and rice ended when Congress refused additional aid for Cambodia. The Lon Nol government in Phnom Penh surrendered on 17 April 1975, just five days after the US mission evacuated Cambodia.",
"Khmer Rouge regime (1975–1978)",
"The Khmer Rouge reached Phnom Penh and took power in 1975. Led by Pol Pot, they changed the official name of the country to Democratic Kampuchea. The new regime modelled itself on Maoist China during the Great Leap Forward, immediately evacuated the cities, and sent the entire population on forced marches to rural work projects. They attempted to rebuild the country's agriculture on the model of the 11th century, discarded Western medicine, and destroyed temples, libraries, and anything considered Western.",
"Estimates as to how many people were killed by the Khmer Rouge regime range from approximately one to three million; the most commonly cited figure is two million (about a quarter of the population). This era gave rise to the term Killing Fields, and the prison Tuol Sleng became notorious for its history of mass killing. Hundreds of thousands fled across the border into neighbouring Thailand. The regime disproportionately targeted ethnic minority groups",
". The regime disproportionately targeted ethnic minority groups. The Cham Muslims suffered serious purges with as much as half of their population exterminated. Pol Pot was determined to keep his power and disenfranchise any enemies or potential threats, and thus increased his violent and aggressive actions against his people.",
"Forced repatriation in 1970 and deaths during the Khmer Rouge era reduced the Vietnamese population in Cambodia from between 250,000 and 300,000 in 1969 to a reported 56,000 in 1984. However, most of the victims of the Khmer Rouge regime were not ethnic minorities but ethnic Khmer. Professionals, such as doctors, lawyers and teachers, were also targeted. According to Robert D. Kaplan, \"eyeglasses were as deadly as the yellow star\" as they were seen as a sign of intellectualism.",
"Religious institutions were targeted by the Khmer Rouge particularly fiercely. Religion was so viciously persecuted to such a terrifying extent that the vast majority of Cambodia's historic architecture, 95% of Cambodia's Buddhist temples, was completely destroyed.\n\nVietnamese occupation and transition (1978–1992)",
"In November 1978, Vietnamese troops invaded Cambodia in response to border raids by the Khmer Rouge and conquered it. The People's Republic of Kampuchea (PRK) was established as a pro-Soviet state led by the Kampuchean People's Revolutionary Party, a party created by the Vietnamese in 1951, and led by a group of Khmer Rouge who had fled Cambodia to avoid being purged by Pol Pot and Ta Mok",
". It was fully beholden to the occupying Vietnamese army and under the direction of the Vietnamese ambassador to Phnom Penh. Its arms came from Vietnam and the Soviet Union.",
"In opposition to the newly created state, a government-in-exile referred to as the Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea (CGDK) was formed in 1981 from three factions. This consisted of the Khmer Rouge, a royalist faction led by Sihanouk, and the Khmer People's National Liberation Front. Its credentials were recognised by the United Nations",
". Its credentials were recognised by the United Nations. The Khmer Rouge representative to the UN, Thiounn Prasith, was retained, but he had to work in consultation with representatives of the noncommunist Cambodian parties. The refusal of Vietnam to withdraw from Cambodia led to economic sanctions by the US and its allies.",
"Peace efforts began in Paris in 1989 under the State of Cambodia, culminating two years later in October 1991 in a Paris Comprehensive Peace Settlement. The UN was given a mandate to enforce a ceasefire and deal with refugees and disarmament known as the United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC).\n\nModern Cambodia (1993–present)",
"In 1993, the monarchy was restored with Norodom Sihanouk reinstated as King, and the first post-war election was coordinated by UNTAC. The election was won by FUNCINPEC led by Sihanouk's son Ranariddh in a hung parliament. A power-sharing agreement was agreed with Ranariddh and Hun Sen of the Cambodian People's Party both simultaneously being co-Prime Ministers after the CPP threatened to secede part of the country if power was fully transferred to FUNCINPEC",
". The stability established following the conflict was shaken in 1997 by a coup d'état led by the co-Prime Minister Hun Sen, who ousted Ranariddh and other parties represented in the government and consolidated power for the CPP. After its government was able to stabilize under Sen, Cambodia was accepted into the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) on 30 April 1999. Norodom Sihamoni was crowned Cambodia's king in 2004 after his father Sihanouk's abdication.",
"During the late 1990s and early 2000s, reconstruction efforts progressed which led to some political stability through a multiparty democracy under a constitutional monarchy although Sen's rule has been marred by human rights abuses and corruption. Cambodia's economy grew rapidly in the 2000s and 2010s, and it received considerable investment and infrastructure development support from China as part of its Belt and Road Initiative",
".A UN-backed war crimes tribunal, the Khmer Rouge Tribunal sought out to investigate crimes committed during the Democratic Kampuchea period and prosecute its leaders. However, Hun Sen has opposed extensive trials or investigations of former Khmer Rouge officials. In July 2010, Kang Kek Iew was the first Khmer Rouge member found guilty of war crimes and crimes against humanity in his role as the former commandant of the S21 extermination camp and he was sentenced to life in prison",
". In August 2014, the tribunal sentenced Khieu Samphan, the regime's 83-year-old former head of state, and Nuon Chea, its 88-year-old chief ideologue, to life in prison on war crimes charges for their role in the country's terror period in the 1970s.",
"After the 2013 Cambodian general election, allegations of voter fraud from opposition party Cambodia National Rescue Party led to widespread anti-government protests that continued into the following year. The protests ended after a crackdown by government forces. The Cambodia National Rescue Party was dissolved ahead of the 2018 Cambodian general election and the ruling Cambodian People's Party also enacted tighter curbs on mass media",
". The CPP won every seat in the National Assembly without major opposition, effectively solidifying de facto one-party rule in the country.",
"The global COVID-19 pandemic spread to Cambodia in early 2020. Despite minimising the disease's spread for much of 2020 the country's health system was put under strain by a major outbreak in early 2021, which prompted several lockdowns. It also had a severe economic impact, with the tourism industry particularly affected due to international travel restrictions.",
"Prime Minister Hun Sen assumed office and is one of the world's longest-serving leaders. He has been accused of crackdowns on opponents and critics. In December 2021, Hun Sen announced his support for his son Hun Manet to succeed him after the next general election in 2023. In October 2022, Hun Sen warned CPP members that the country's newest and largest opposition party, the Candlelight Party, may be dissolved before the 2023 general election",
". The warning comes after a June 2022 lawsuit filed by the National Election Committee against the party's deputy president, Son Chhay, accusing him of defamation by speaking out against electoral fraud by the CPP.",
"A July 2023 Human Rights Watch report showed numerous and significant election fraud and vote tampering in the June 2022 commune elections.\n\nIn the July 2023 election, the ruling Cambodian People's Party (CPP) easily won by a landslide in a flawed election, after the disqualification of Cambodia's most important opposition, Candlelight Party. On 22 August 2023, Hun Manet was sworn in as the new Cambodian prime minister.\n\nGeography",
"Geography \n\nCambodia has an area of and lies entirely within the tropics, between latitudes 10° and 15°N, and longitudes 102° and 108°E. It borders Thailand to the north and west, Laos to the northeast, and Vietnam to the east and southeast. It has a coastline along the Gulf of Thailand.",
"Cambodia's landscape is characterised by a low-lying central plain that is surrounded by uplands and low mountains and includes the Tonle Sap (Great Lake) and the upper reaches of the Mekong River delta. Extending outward from this central region are transitional plains, thinly forested and rising to elevations of about above sea level.",
"To the north the Cambodian plain abuts a sandstone escarpment, which forms a southward-facing cliff stretching more than from west to east and rising abruptly above the plain to heights of . This cliff marks the southern limit of the Dângrêk Mountains.",
"Flowing south through Cambodia's eastern regions is the Mekong River. East of the Mekong the transitional plains gradually merge with the eastern highlands, a region of forested mountains and high plateaus that extend into Laos and Vietnam. In southwestern Cambodia two distinct upland blocks, the Krâvanh Mountains and the Dâmrei Mountains, form another highland region that covers much of the land area between the Tonle Sap and the Gulf of Thailand.",
"In this remote and largely uninhabited area, Phnom Aural, Cambodia's highest peak rises to an elevation of . The southern coastal region adjoining the Gulf of Thailand is a narrow lowland strip, heavily wooded and sparsely populated, which is isolated from the central plain by the southwestern highlands.",
"The most distinctive geographical feature is the inundations of the Tonle Sap, measuring about during the dry season and expanding to about during the rainy season. This densely populated plain, which is devoted to wet rice cultivation, is the heartland of Cambodia. Much of this area has been designated as a biosphere reserve.\n\nClimate",
"Climate \n\nCambodia's climate, like that of the rest of Southeast Asia, is dominated by monsoons, which are known as tropical wet and dry because of the distinctly marked seasonal differences.",
"Cambodia has a temperature range from and experiences tropical monsoons. Southwest monsoons blow inland bringing moisture-laden winds from the Gulf of Thailand and Indian Ocean from May to October. The northeast monsoon ushers in the dry season, which lasts from November to April. The country experiences the heaviest precipitation from September to October with the driest period occurring from January to February.",
"According to the International Development Research Center and The United Nations, Cambodia is considered Southeast Asia's most vulnerable country to the effects of climate change, alongside the Philippines. Nearly all provinces in Cambodia are affected by climate change. Rural coastal populations are particularly at risk. Shortages of clean water, extreme flooding, mudslides, higher sea levels and potentially destructive storms are of particular concern, according to the Cambodia Climate Change Alliance",
". Climate change has also had a major impact on water levels, ecology and productivity of the Tonlé Sap in recent years, affecting the food security and agriculture of a large proportion of Cambodia's population.",
"Cambodia has two distinct seasons. The rainy season, which runs from May to October, can see temperatures drop to and is generally accompanied with high humidity. The dry season lasts from November to April when temperatures can rise up to around April. Disastrous flooding occurred in 2001 and again in 2002, with some degree of flooding almost every year. Severe flooding also affected 17 provinces in Cambodia during the 2020 Pacific typhoon season.\n\nBiodiversity and conservation",
"Biodiversity and conservation \n\nCambodia's biodiversity is largely founded on its seasonal tropical forests, containing some 180 recorded tree species, and riparian ecosystems. There are 212 mammal species, 536 bird species, 240 reptile species, 850 freshwater fish species (Tonle Sap Lake area), and 435 marine fish species recorded by science. Much of this biodiversity is contained around the Tonle Sap Lake and the surrounding biosphere.",
"The Tonle Sap Biosphere Reserve is a reserve surrounding the Tonle Sap lake. It encompasses the lake and nine provinces: Kampong Thom, Siem Reap, Battambang, Pursat, Kampong Chhnang, Banteay Meanchey, Pailin, Oddar Meanchey and Preah Vihear. In 1997, it was successfully nominated as a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve",
". In 1997, it was successfully nominated as a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve. Other key habitats include the evergreen and dry Dipterocarp forests of Mondolkiri province, protected by Keo Seima Wildlife Sanctuary, Phnom Prich Wildlife Sanctuary, and Srepok Wildlife Sanctuary, as well as Ratanakiri province, and the Cardamom Mountains ecosystem, including Preah Monivong National Park, Botum-Sakor National Park, and the Phnom Aural Wildlife Sanctuary and Phnom Samkos Wildlife Sanctuary.",
"The Worldwide Fund for Nature recognises six distinct terrestrial ecoregions in Cambodia – the Cardamom Mountains rain forests, Central Indochina dry forest, Southeast Indochina dry evergreen forest, Southern Annamite Range tropical forest, Tonle Sap freshwater swamp forest, and Tonle Sap-Mekong peat swamp forest.",
"The rate of deforestation in Cambodia is one of the highest in the world and it is often perceived as the most destructive, singular environmental issue in the country. Cambodia's primary forest cover fell from over 70% in 1969 to just 3.1% in 2007. Since 2007, less than of primary forest remain with the result that the future sustainability of the forest reserves of Cambodia is under severe threat. In 2010–2015, the annual rate of deforestation was 1.3%",
". In 2010–2015, the annual rate of deforestation was 1.3%. The environmental degradation also includes national parks and wildlife sanctuaries on a large scale and many endangered and endemic species are now threatened with extinction due to loss of habitats. Reasons for the deforestation in Cambodia range from opportunistic illegal loggings to large scale clearings from big construction projects and agricultural activities",
". The deforestation involves the local population, Cambodian businesses and authorities as well as transnational corporations from all over the world.",
"Plans for hydroelectric development in the Greater Mekong Subregion, by Laos in particular, pose a \"real danger to the food supply of Vietnam and Cambodia. Upstream dams will imperil the fish stocks that provide the vast majority of Cambodia's protein and could also denude the Mekong River of the silt Vietnam needs for its rice basket.\" The rich fisheries of Tonle Sap, the largest freshwater lake in Southeast Asia, largely supply the impoverished country's protein",
". The lake is unusual: It all but disappears in the dry season and then expands massively as water flow from the Mekong backs up when the rains come. \"Those fish are so important for their livelihoods, both economically and nutritionally\", said Gordon Holtgrieve, a professor at the University of Washington; he points out that none of the dams that are either built or being built on the Mekong river \"are pointing at good outcomes for the fisheries\".",
"In the 2010s, the Cambodian government and educational system has increased its involvement and co-operation with both national and international environmental groups. A new National Environmental Strategy and Action Plan (NESAP) for Cambodia is to be implemented from late 2016 to 2023 and contains new ideas for how to incite a green and environmentally sustainable growth for the country.\n\nPolitics\n\nGovernment",
"National politics in Cambodia take place within the framework of the nation's constitution of 1993. The government is a constitutional monarchy operated as a parliamentary representative democracy. The Prime Minister of Cambodia, currently Hun Manet, is the head of government, while the King of Cambodia (currently Norodom Sihamoni) is the head of state. The prime minister is appointed by the king, on the advice and with the approval of the National Assembly",
". The prime minister and the ministerial appointees exercise executive power.",
"Legislative powers are shared by the executive and the bicameral Parliament of Cambodia (, ), which consists of a lower house, the National Assembly (, ) and an upper house, the Senate (, ). Members of the 123-seat National Assembly are elected through a system of proportional representation and serve for a maximum term of five years",
". The Senate has 61 seats, two of which are appointed by the king and two others by the National Assembly, and the rest elected by the commune councillors from the 24 provinces of Cambodia. Senators serve six-year terms.",
"On 14 October 2004, King Norodom Sihamoni was selected by a special nine-member Royal Throne Council, part of a selection process that was quickly put in place after the abdication of King Norodom Sihanouk a week prior. Sihamoni's selection was endorsed by Prime Minister Hun Sen and National Assembly Speaker Prince Norodom Ranariddh (the king's half-brother and current chief advisor), both members of the throne council. He was enthroned in Phnom Penh on 29 October 2004.",
"Officially a multiparty democracy, in reality, \"the country remain[ed] a one-party state dominated by the Cambodian People's Party and Prime Minister Hun Sen, a recast Khmer Rouge official in power since 1985. The open doors to new investment during his reign have yielded the most access to a coterie of cronies of his and his wife, Bun Rany",
".\" Cambodia's government has been described by Human Rights Watch's Southeast Asian director, David Roberts, as a \"relatively authoritarian coalition via a superficial democracy\".",
"Prime Minister Hun Sen vowed to rule until he turned 74. His government was regularly accused of ignoring human rights and suppressing political dissent. The 2013 election results were disputed by the opposition, leading to demonstrations in the capital. Demonstrators were injured and killed in Phnom Penh where a reported 20,000 protesters gathered, with some clashing with riot police",
". From a humble farming background, Hun Sen was just 33 when he took power in 1985, and was by some considered a long-ruling dictator. Hun Sen was succeeded by his son Hun Manet as Prime Minister in August 2023 following an election that was deemed to be neither free nor fair. Hun Sen remains the de facto ruler of Cambodia through his continued leadership of the Cambodian People's Party.",
"Since the 2017 crackdowns on political dissent and free press, Cambodia has been described as a de facto one-party state.\n\nForeign relations \n\nThe foreign relations of Cambodia are handled by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs under Prak Sokhon. Cambodia is a member of the United Nations, the World Bank, and the International Monetary Fund. It is a member of the Asian Development Bank (ADB), ASEAN, and joined the WTO in 2004. In 2005 Cambodia attended the inaugural East Asia Summit in Malaysia.",
"Cambodia has established diplomatic relations with numerous countries; the government reports twenty embassies in the country including many of its Asian neighbours and those of important players during the Paris peace negotiations, including the US, Australia, Canada, China, the European Union (EU), Japan, and Russia. As a result of its international relations, various charitable organisations have assisted with social, economic, and civil infrastructure needs.",
"While the violent ruptures of the 1970s and 1980s have passed, several border disputes between Cambodia and its neighbours persist. There are disagreements over some offshore islands and sections of the boundary with Vietnam and undefined maritime boundaries. Cambodia and Thailand also have border disputes, with troops clashing over land immediately adjacent to the Preah Vihear temple in particular, leading to a deterioration in relations",
". Most of the territory belongs to Cambodia, but a combination of Thailand disrespecting international law, Thai troops upbuild in the area and lack of resources for the Cambodian military have left the situation unsettled since 1962.",
"Cambodia and China have cultivated ties in the 2010s. A Chinese company with the support of the People's Liberation Army built a deep-water seaport along stretch of Cambodian coastline of the Gulf of Thailand in Koh Kong province; the port is sufficiently deep to be used by cruise ships, bulk carriers or warships. Cambodia's diplomatic support has been invaluable to Beijing's effort to claim disputed areas in the South China Sea",
". Because Cambodia is a member of ASEAN, and because under ASEAN rules \"the objections of one member can thwart any group initiative\", Cambodia is diplomatically useful to China as a counterweight to southeast Asian nations that have closer ties to the United States.",
"Military \n\nThe Royal Cambodian Army, Royal Cambodian Navy, Royal Cambodian Air Force and Royal Gendarmerie collectively form the Royal Cambodian Armed Forces, under the command of the Ministry of National Defence, presided over by the Prime Minister of Cambodia. His Majesty King Norodom Sihamoni is the Supreme Commander of the Royal Cambodian Armed Forces (RCAF), and the country's Prime Minister Hun Sen effectively holds the position of commander-in-chief.",
"The introduction of a revised command structure early in 2000 was a key prelude to the reorganisation of the Cambodian military. This saw the defence ministry form three subordinate general departments responsible for logistics and finance, materials and technical services, and defence services under the High Command Headquarters (HCHQ). The minister of National Defense is General Tea Banh. The Secretaries of State for Defense are Chay Saing Yun and Por Bun Sreu.",
"In 2010, the Royal Cambodian Armed Forces comprised about 102,000 active personnel (200,000 reserve). Total Cambodian military spending stands at 3% of national GDP. The Royal Gendarmerie of Cambodia total more than 7,000 personnel",
". The Royal Gendarmerie of Cambodia total more than 7,000 personnel. Its civil duties include providing security and public peace, to investigate and prevent organised crime, terrorism, and other violent groups; to protect state and private property; to help and assist civilians and other emergency forces in a case of emergency, natural disaster, civil unrest, and armed conflicts.",
"Hun Sen has accumulated highly centralised power in Cambodia, including a praetorian guard that 'appears to rival the capabilities of the country's regular military units', and is allegedly used by Hun Sen to quell political opposition.' Cambodia signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.\n\nPolitical culture \n \nThe Cambodian People's Party (CPP) is the sole dominant-party in Cambodia. The CPP currently commands 120 of the 125 seats in the National Assembly and 58 of 62 seats in the Senate.",
"Hun Sen and his government have seen much controversy. Hun Sen was a former Khmer Rouge commander who was originally installed by the Vietnamese and, after the Vietnamese left the country, maintains his strong man position by violence and oppression when deemed necessary. In 1997, fearing the growing power of his co-prime minister, Prince Norodom Ranariddh, Hun launched a coup, using the army to purge Ranariddh and his supporters",
". Ranariddh was ousted and fled to Paris while other opponents of Hun Sen were arrested, tortured, and some summarily executed.",
"In addition to political oppression, the Cambodian government has been accused of corruption in the sale of vast areas of land to foreign investors resulting in the eviction of thousands of villagers as well as taking bribes in exchange for grants to exploit Cambodia's oil wealth and mineral resources. Cambodia is consistently listed as one of the most corrupt governments in the world",
". Cambodia is consistently listed as one of the most corrupt governments in the world. Amnesty International currently recognises one prisoner of conscience in the country: 33-year-old land rights activist Yorm Bopha.",
"Journalists covering a protest over disputed election results in Phnom Penh on 22 September 2013 say they were deliberately attacked by police and men in plain clothes, with slingshots and stun guns. The attack against the president of the Overseas Press Club of Cambodia, Rick Valenzuela, was captured on video.",
"The violence came amid political tensions as the opposition boycotted the opening of Parliament due to concerns about electoral fraud. Seven reporters sustained minor injuries while at least two Cambodian protesters were hit by slingshot projectiles and hospitalized.",
"In 2017, Cambodia's Supreme Court dissolved the main opposition party, Cambodia National Rescue Party (CNRP), paving the way for a return to a yet more authoritarian political system.\n\nCorruption",
"Corruption \n\nThe level of corruption in Cambodia exceeds most countries in the world. Despite adopting an 'Anti-Corruption Law' in 2010, corruption prevails throughout the country. Corruption affects the judiciary, the police, and other state institutions. Favouritism by government officials and impunity is commonplace. Lack of a clear distinction between the courts and the executive branch of government also makes for a deep politicisation of the judicial system.",
"Examples of areas where Cambodians encounter corrupt practices in their everyday lives include obtaining medical services, dealing with alleged traffic violations, and pursuing fair court verdicts. Companies deal with extensive red tape when obtaining licenses and permits, especially construction-related permits, and the demand for and supply of bribes are commonplace in this process",
". The 2010 Anti-Corruption Law provided no protection to whistle-blowers, and whistle-blowers can be jailed for up to 6 months if they report corruption that cannot be proven.",
"Legal profession \nThe Cambodian legal profession was established in 1932. By 1978, due to the Khmer Rouge regime, the entire legal system was eradicated. Judges and lawyers were executed after being deemed \"class enemies\" and only 6–12 legal professionals actually survived and remained in the country. Lawyers did not reappear until 1995 when the Bar Association of the Kingdom of Cambodia was created.\n\nHuman rights",
"Human rights \n\nA US State Department report says \"forces under Hun Sen and the Cambodian People's Party have committed frequent and large-scale abuses, including extrajudicial killings and torture, with impunity\". According to the 2016 Global Slavery Index, an estimated 256,800 people are enslaved in modern-day Cambodia, or 1.65% of the population.",
"Forced land evictions by senior officials, security forces, and government-connected business leaders are commonplace in Cambodia. Land has been confiscated from hundreds of thousands of Cambodians over more than a decade for the purpose of self-enrichment and maintaining power of various groups of special interests",
". Credible non-governmental organisations estimate that \"770,000 people have been adversely affected by land grabbing covering at least four million hectares (nearly 10 million acres) of land that have been confiscated\", says Paris-based International Federation for Human Rights (FIDH).",
"On 14 March 2018, the UN expert on the human rights situation in Cambodia \"expressed serious concerns about restrictions on the media, freedom of expression and political participation ahead of a national election in July\". Some critics of the government have been arrested for allegedly spreading fake news about the COVID-19 pandemic in Cambodia.\n\nAdministrative divisions",
"Administrative divisions \n\nThe autonomous municipality () and provinces () of Cambodia are first-level administrative divisions. Cambodia is divided into 25 provinces including the autonomous municipality.\n\nMunicipalities and districts are the second-level administrative divisions of Cambodia. The provinces are subdivided into 159 districts and 26 municipalities. The districts and municipalities in turn are further divided into communes () and quarters ().\n\nEconomy",
"In 2017 Cambodia's per capita income is $4,022 in PPP and $1,309 in nominal per capita. The United Nations designates Cambodia as a least developed country. Most rural households depend on agriculture and its related sub-sectors. Rice, fish, timber, garments, and rubber are Cambodia's major exports. The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) reintroduced more than 750 traditional rice varieties to Cambodia from its rice seed bank in the Philippines. These varieties had been collected in the 1960s.",
"Based on the Economist, IMF: Annual average GDP growth for the period 2001–2010 was 7.7% making it one of the world's top ten countries with the highest annual average GDP growth. Tourism was Cambodia's fastest-growing industry, with arrivals increasing from 219,000 in 1997 to over 2 million in 2007. In 2004, inflation was at 1.7% and exports at US$1.6 billion.",
"\"Two decades of economic growth have helped make Cambodia a global leader in reducing poverty. The success story means the Southeast Asian nation that overcame a vicious civil war now is classified as a lower-middle income economy by the World Bank Group (WBG). Among 69 countries that have comparable data, Cambodia ranked fourth in terms of the fastest poverty reduction in the world from 2004 to 2008. (See more details of Cambodia's achievements on poverty reduction",
". (See more details of Cambodia's achievements on poverty reduction. The poverty rate fell to 10 per cent in 2013, and further reduction of poverty is expected for both urban and rural households throughout 2015–2016. However, human development, particularly in the areas of health and education, remains an important challenge and development priority for Cambodia\"",
"Oil and natural gas deposits found beneath Cambodia's territorial waters in 2005 yield great potential but remain mostly untapped, due in part to territorial disputes with Thailand.",
"The National Bank of Cambodia is the central bank of the kingdom and provides regulatory oversight to the country's banking sector and is responsible in part for increasing the foreign direct investment in the country. Between 2010 and 2012 the number of regulated banks and micro-finance institutions increased from 31 covered entities to over 70 individual institutions underlining the growth within the Cambodian banking and finance sector.",
"In 2012, Credit Bureau Cambodia was established with direct regulatory oversight by the National Bank of Cambodia. The Credit Bureau further increases the transparency and stability within the Cambodian Banking Sector as all banks and microfinance companies are now required by law to report accurate facts and figures relating to loan performance in the country.",
"One of the largest challenges facing Cambodia is still the fact that the older population often lacks education, particularly in the countryside, which suffers from a lack of basic infrastructure. Fear of renewed political instability and corruption within the government discourage foreign investment and delay foreign aid, although there has been significant aid from bilateral and multilateral donors",
". Donors pledged $504 million to the country in 2004, while the Asian Development Bank alone has provided $850 million in loans, grants, and technical assistance. Bribes are often demanded from companies operating in Cambodia when obtaining licences and permits, such as construction-related permits.",
"Cambodia ranked among the worst places in the world for organised labour in the 2015 International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC) Global Rights Index, landing in the category of countries with \"no guarantee of rights\".'",
"In April 2016 Cambodia's National Assembly has adopted a Law on Trade Unions. \"The law was proposed at a time when workers have been staging sustained protests in factories and in the streets demanding wage increases and improvements in their working conditions\". The concerns about Cambodia's new law are shared not only by labour and rights groups but international organisations more generally",
". The International Labour Organization Country Office for Thailand, Cambodia and Lao PDR, has noted that the law has \"several key concerns and gaps\".",
"Textiles \n\nThe garment industry represents the largest portion of Cambodia's manufacturing sector, accounting for 80% of the country's exports. In 2012, the exports grew to $4.61 billion up 8% over 2011. In the first half of 2013, the garment industry reported exports worth $1.56 billion. The sector employs 335,400 workers, of which 91% are female.",
"Better Factories Cambodia was created in 2001 as a unique partnership between the UN's International Labour Organization (ILO) and the International Finance Corporation (IFC), a member of the World Bank Group. The programme engages with workers, employers, and governments to improve working conditions and boost the competitiveness of the garment industry",
". On 18 May 2018, the Project Advisory Committee (PAC) of the ILO Better Factories Cambodia Programme met in Phnom Penh to provide input into the draft conclusions and recommendations of the BFC's independent mid-term evaluation, as well as to discuss options on how to further strengthen the programme's transparent reporting initiative. The members of the PAC concurred with the findings of the evaluation related to the impact the programme has had on the Cambodian garment sector and workers, including:",
"a. contributing to sustained overall growth of the garment industry\nb. improving the lives of at least half a million Cambodian workers of factories in the BFC\nprogramme and many more of their family members;\nc. ensuring that workers receive correct wages and social protection benefits\nd. virtually eliminating child labour in the sector\ne. making Cambodia's garment factories safer overall\nf. creating a \"level playing field\" for labour across garment sector",
"f. creating a \"level playing field\" for labour across garment sector\ng. influencing business practices through (1) using factory data to highlight areas for\nimprovement and (2) being a core part of risk management strategies of international\nbrands/buyers.",
"Tourism \n\nThe tourism industry is the country's second-greatest source of hard currency after the textile industry. International visitor arrivals in 2018 topped six million, a ten-fold increase since the beginning of the 21st century. Tourism employs 26% of the country's workforce, which translates into roughly 2.5 million jobs for Cambodians.",
"Besides Phom Penh and Angkor Wat, other tourist destinations include Sihanoukville in the southwest which has several popular beaches and Battambang in the northwest, both of which are popular stops for backpackers who make up a significant portion of visitors to Cambodia. The area around Kampot and Kep including the Bokor Hill Station are also of interest to visitors. Tourism has increased steadily each year in the relatively stable period since the 1993 UNTAC elections.",
"Most international arrivals in 2018 were Chinese. Tourism receipts exceeded US$4.4 billion in 2018, accounting for almost ten per cent of the kingdom's gross national product. The Angkor Wat historical park in Siem Reap Province, the beaches in Sihanoukville, the capital city Phnom Penh, and Cambodia's 150 casinos (up from just 57 in 2014) are the main attractions for foreign tourists.",
"Cambodia's reputation as a safe destination for tourism however has been hindered by civil and political unrest and several high-profile examples of serious crime committed against tourists visiting the kingdom.",
"Cambodia's tourist souvenir industry employs a lot of people around the main places of interest. The quantity of souvenirs that are produced is not sufficient to face the increasing number of tourists and a majority of products sold to the tourists on the markets are imported from China, Thailand, and Vietnam.\n\nAgriculture",
"Agriculture \n\nAgriculture is the mainstay of the Cambodian economy. Agriculture accounted for 90 per cent of GDP in 1985 and employed approximately 80 per cent of the workforce. Rice is the principal commodity. Major secondary crops include maize, cassava, sweet potatoes, groundnuts, soybeans, sesame seeds, dry beans, and rubber. The principal commercial crop is rubber. In the 1980s it was an important primary commodity, second only to rice, and one of the country's few sources of foreign exchange.",
"Transport \n\nThe civil war and neglect severely damaged Cambodia's transport system. With assistance from other countries, Cambodia has been upgrading the main highways to international standards and most are vastly improved from 2006. Most main roads are now paved.",
"Cambodia has two rail lines, totalling about of single, gauge track. The lines run from the capital to Sihanoukville on the southern coast. Trains are again running to and from the Cambodian capital and popular destinations in the south. After 14 years, regular rail services between the two cities restarted recently – offering a safer option than road for travellers. Trains also run from Phnom Penh to Sisophon (although trains often run only as far as Battambang)",
". Trains also run from Phnom Penh to Sisophon (although trains often run only as far as Battambang). As of 1987, only one passenger train per week operated between Phnom Penh and Battambang but a US$141 million project, funded mostly by the Asian Development Bank, has been started to revitalise the languishing rail system that will \"(interlink) Cambodia with major industrial and logistics centers in Bangkok and Ho Chi Minh City\".",
"Besides the main inter-provincial traffic artery connecting Phnom Penh with Sihanoukville, resurfacing a former dirt road with concrete/asphalt and bridging five major river crossings have now permanently connected Phnom Penh with Koh Kong, and hence there is now uninterrupted road access to neighbouring Thailand and its road network.",
"Cambodia's road traffic accident rate is high by world standards. In 2004, the number of road fatalities per 10,000 vehicles was ten times higher in Cambodia than in the developed world, and the number of road deaths had doubled in the preceding three years.",
"Cambodia's extensive inland waterways were important historically in international trade. The Mekong and the Tonle Sap River, their numerous tributaries, and the Tonle Sap provided avenues of considerable length, including navigable all year by craft drawing and another navigable to craft drawing .",
"Cambodia has two major ports, Phnom Penh and Sihanoukville, and five minor ones. Phnom Penh, at the junction of the Bassac, the Mekong, and the Tonle Sap Rivers, is the only river port capable of receiving 8,000-ton ships during the wet season and 5,000-ton ships during the dry season.",
"With increasing economic activity has come an increase in automobile use, though motorcycles still predominate. \"Cyclo\" (as hand-me-down French) or Cycle rickshaws were popular in 1990s but are increasingly replaced by remorques (carriages attached to motorcycles) and rickshaws imported from India. Cyclos are unique to Cambodia in that the cyclist sits behind the passenger seat.",
"Cambodia has three commercial airports. In 2018, they handled a record of 10 million passengers. Phnom Penh International Airport is the busiest airport in Cambodia. Siem Reap-Angkor International Airport is the second busiest, and serves the most international flights in and out of Cambodia. Sihanouk International Airport, is in the coastal city of Sihanoukville.\n\nScience and technology",
"Science and technology \n\nA National Committee for Science and Technology representing 11 ministries has been in place since 1999. Although seven ministries are responsible for the country's 33 public universities, the majority of these institutions come under the umbrella of the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports.",
"In 2010, the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports approved a Policy on Research Development in the Education Sector. This move represented the first step towards a national approach to research and development across the university sector and the application of research for the purposes of national development.",
"This policy was followed by the country's first National Science and Technology Master Plan 2014–2020. It was officially launched by the Ministry of Planning in December 2014, as the culmination of a two-year process supported by the Korea International Cooperation Agency. The plan makes provision for establishing a science and technology foundation to promote industrial innovation, with a particular focus on agriculture, primary industry and ICTs",
". Cambodia was ranked 101st in the Global Innovation Index in 2023.",
"Energy",
"Cambodia has high potential for developing renewable energy resources. Even though the country has not attracted much international investment in renewable energy by 2020, the country serves as a model to learn from for other ASEAN countries in terms of conducting solar power auctions",
". To attract more investment in renewable energy, the government could improve renewable energy governance, adopt clear targets, develop an effective regulatory framework, improve project bankability and facilitate market entry for international investors. Cambodia is highly vulnerable to the negative effects of climate change and it is advised that the country focuses more on developing renewable energy as part of climate change mitigation measures.",
"Society\n\nDemographics \n\nThe first official census conducted by the French protectorate of Cambodia was in 1921; however, only men aged 20 to 60 were counted as its purpose was for the collection of taxes. After the 1962 population census was conducted, Cambodia's civil conflicts and instability lead to a 36-year-long gap before the country could have another official census in 1998.",
"At present, fifty per cent of the Cambodian population is younger than 22 years old. At a 1.04 female to male ratio, Cambodia has the most female-biased sex ratio in the Greater Mekong Subregion. Among the Cambodian population aged over 65, the female to male ratio is 1.6:1.",
"The total fertility rate in Cambodia was 2.5 children per woman in 2018.\nThe fertility rate was 4.0 children in 2000. Women in urban areas have 2.2 children on average, compared with 3.3 children per woman in rural areas. Fertility is highest in Mondol Kiri and Rattanak Kiri Provinces, where women have an average of 4.5 children, and lowest in Phnom Penh where women have an average of 2.0 children.\n\nEthnic groups",
"Ethnic groups \n\nThe vast majority of Cambodia's population is of ethnic Khmer origin (over 95%) who are speakers of the Khmer language, the country's sole official language. Cambodia's population is largely homogeneous. Its minority groups include Chams (1.2%), Vietnamese (0.1%) and Chinese (0.1%).",
"The largest ethnic group in Cambodia are the Khmers, who comprise around 90% of the total population in Cambodia, and are indigenous to the lowland Mekong subregion in which they inhabit. The Khmers historically have lived near the lower Mekong River in a contiguous diagonal arc, from where modern-day Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia meet in the northwest, all the way to the mouth of the Mekong River in southeastern Vietnam.",
"The Vietnamese are the second-largest ethnic minority in Cambodia, with an estimated 16,000 living in provinces concentrated in the southeast of the country adjacent to the Mekong Delta. Although the Vietnamese language has been determined to be a Mon–Khmer language, there are very few cultural connections between the two peoples because the early Khmers were influenced by the Indian cultural sphere while the Vietnamese are part of the Chinese cultural sphere",
". Ethnic tensions between the Khmer and the Vietnamese can be traced to the Post-Angkor Period (from the 16th to 19th centuries), during which time a nascent Vietnam and Thailand each attempted to vassalise a weakened post-Angkor Cambodia, and effectively dominate all of Indochina.",
"Chinese Cambodians are approximately 0.1% of the population. Most Chinese are descended from 19th–20th-century settlers who came in search of trade and commerce opportunities during the time of the French protectorate. Most are urban dwellers, engaged primarily in commerce.",
"The indigenous ethnic groups of the mountains are known collectively as Montagnards or Khmer Loeu, a term meaning \"Highland Khmer\". They are descended from neolithic migrations of Mon–Khmer speakers via southern China and Austronesian speakers from insular Southeast Asia",
". Being isolated in the highlands, the various Khmer Loeu groups were not Indianized like their Khmer cousins and consequently are culturally distant from modern Khmers and often from each other, observing many pre-Indian-contact customs and beliefs.",
"The Cham are descended from the Austronesian people of Champa, a former kingdom on the coast of central and southern present-day Vietnam and former rival to the Khmer Empire. The Cham in Cambodia number under a million and often maintain separate villages in the southeast of the country. Almost all Cham in Cambodia are Muslims.\n\nLargest cities\n\nLanguages",
"The Khmer language is a member of the Mon–Khmer subfamily of the Austroasiatic language group. French, once the language of government in Indochina, is still spoken by many older Cambodians, and is also the language of instruction in some schools and universities that are funded by the government of France. There is also a French-language newspaper and some TV channels are available in French. Cambodia is a member of La Francophonie",
". Cambodia is a member of La Francophonie. Cambodian French, a remnant of the country's colonial past, is a dialect found in Cambodia and is sometimes used in government, particularly in court. Since 1993, there has been a growing use of English, which has been replacing French as the main foreign language. English is widely taught in several universities and there is also a significant press in that language, while street signs are now bilingual in Khmer and English",
". Due to this shift, mostly English is now used in Cambodia's international relationships, and it has replaced French both on Cambodia's stamps and, since 2002, on Cambodian currency.",
"The Khmer script is derived from the South Indian Pallava script.\n\nReligion \n\nTheravada Buddhism is the official religion of Cambodia, practised by more than 95 per cent of the population with an estimated 4,392 monastery temples throughout the country. Cambodian Buddhism is deeply influenced by Hinduism and native animism.",
"The close interrelationship between spirits and the community, the efficacy of apotropaic and luck-attracting actions and charms, and the possibility of manipulating one's life through contact with spiritual entities such as the \"baromey\" spirits originates from the native folk religion",
". Hinduism has left little trace beyond the magical practices of Tantricism and a host of Hindu gods now assimilated into the spirit world (for example, the important neak ta spirit called Yeay Mao is the modern avatar of the Hindu goddess Kali).",
"Mahayana Buddhism is the religion of the majority of Chinese and Vietnamese in Cambodia. Elements of other religious practices, such as the veneration of folk heroes and ancestors, Confucianism, and Taoism mix with Chinese Buddhism are also practised.\n\nIslam is followed by about 2% of the population and comes in three varieties, two practised by the Cham people and a third by the descendants of Malays, resident in the country for generations. Cambodia's Muslim population is reported to be 80% ethnic Cham.",
"Health \n\nCambodian life expectancy was 75 years in 2021, a major improvement since 1995 when the average life expectancy was 55. Health care is offered by both public and private practitioners and research has found that trust in health providers is a key factor in improving the uptake of health care services in rural Cambodia. The government plans to increase the quality of healthcare in the country by raising awareness of HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases.",
"Cambodia's infant mortality rate has decreased from 86 per 1,000 live births in 1998 to 24 in 2018.\n\nIn the province with worst health indicators, Ratanakiri, 22.9% of children die before age five.",
"Cambodia was once one of the most landmined countries in the world. According to some estimates, unexploded land mines have been responsible for over 60,000 civilian deaths and thousands more maimed or injured since 1970. The number of reported landmine casualties has sharply decreased, from 800 in 2005 to 111 in 2013 (22 dead and 89 injured). Adults that survive landmines often require amputation of one or more limbs and have to resort to begging for survival",
". Cambodia is expected to be free of land mines by 2025 but the social and economic legacy, including orphans and one in 290 people being an amputee, is expected to affect Cambodia for years to come.",
"In Cambodia, landmines and exploded ordnance alone have caused 44,630 injuries between 1979 and 2013, according to the Cambodia Mine/UXO Victim Information System.\n\nEducation",
"Education \n\nThe Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports is responsible for establishing national policies and guidelines for education in Cambodia. The Cambodian education system is heavily decentralised, with three levels of government, central, provincial, and district – responsible for its management. The constitution of Cambodia promulgates free compulsory education for nine years, guaranteeing the universal right to basic quality education.",
"The 2019 Cambodian census estimated that 88.5% of the population was literate (91.1% of men and 86.2% of women). Male youth age (15–24 years) have a literacy rate of 89% compared to 86% for females.",
"The education system in Cambodia continues to face many challenges, but during the past years, there have been significant improvements, especially in terms of primary net enrolment gains, the introduction of program based-budgeting, and the development of a policy framework which helps disadvantaged children to gain access to education. The country has also significantly invested in vocational education, especially in rural areas, to tackle poverty and unemployment.",
"Two of Cambodia's most acclaimed universities are based in Phnom Penh.",
"Traditionally, education in Cambodia was offered by the wats (Buddhist temples), thus providing education exclusively for the male population. During the Khmer Rouge regime, education suffered significant setbacks. Education has also suffered setbacks from child labour, A study by Kim (2011) reports that most employed children in Cambodia are enrolled in school but their employment is associated with late school entry, negative impacts on their learning outcomes, and increased drop out rates",
". With respect to academic performance among Cambodian primary school children, research showed that parental attitudes and beliefs played a significant role.",
"Crime \n\nIn 2017, Cambodia had a homicide rate of 2.4 per 100,000 population.\n\nProstitution is illegal in Cambodia but yet appears to be prevalent. In a series of 1993 interviews of women about prostitution, three quarters of the interviewees found being a prostitute to be a norm and a profession they felt was not shameful having. That same year, it was estimated that there were about 100,000 sex workers in Cambodia.",
"On 18 August 2019, Prime Minister Hun Sen signed a directive banning the Finance Ministry from issuing new online gambling licenses, while operators currently holding online licenses would only be allowed to continue operating until those licenses expire. The directive cited the fact that \"some foreigners have used this form of gambling to cheat victims inside and outside the country\" as justifying the new policy. Cambodia had issued over 150 such licenses before the new policy was announced.\n\nCulture",
"Various factors contribute to the Cambodian culture including Theravada Buddhism, Hinduism, French colonialism, Angkorian culture, and modern globalization. The Cambodian Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts is responsible for promoting and developing Cambodian culture",
". Cambodian culture not only includes the culture of the lowland ethnic majority, but also some 20 culturally distinct hill tribes colloquially known as the Khmer Loeu, a term coined by Norodom Sihanouk to encourage unity between the highlanders and lowlanders.",
"Rural Cambodians wear a krama scarf which is a unique aspect of Cambodian clothing. The sampeah is a traditional Cambodian greeting or a way of showing respect to others. Khmer culture, as developed and spread by the Khmer empire, has distinctive styles of dance, architecture, and sculpture, which have been exchanged with neighbouring Laos and Thailand throughout history",
". Angkor Wat (Angkor means \"city\" and Wat means \"temple\") is the best-preserved example of Khmer architecture from the Angkorian era along with hundreds of other temples that have been discovered in and around the region.",
"Traditionally, the Khmer people have a recorded information on Tra leaves. Tra leaf books record legends of the Khmer people, the Ramayana, the origin of Buddhism and other prayer books. They are taken care of by wrapping in cloth to protect from moisture and the climate.",
"Bon Om Touk (Cambodian Water & Moon Festival), the annual boat rowing contest, is the most attended Cambodian national festival. Held at the end of the rainy season when the Mekong River begins to sink back to its normal levels allowing the Tonle Sap River to reverse flow, approximately 10% of Cambodia's population attends this event each year to play games, give thanks to the moon, watch fireworks, dine, and attend the boat race in a carnival-type atmosphere.",
"Popular games include soccer, kicking a sey, which is similar to a footbag, and chess. Based on the classical Indian solar calendar and Theravada Buddhism, the Cambodian New Year is a major holiday that takes place in April. Recent artistic figures include singers Sinn Sisamouth and Ros Serey Sothea (and later Preap Sovath and Sokun Nisa), who introduced new musical styles to the country.",
"Every year, Cambodians visit pagodas across the country to mark the Pchum Ben (Ancestors' Day). During the 15-day festival, people offer prayers and food to the spirits of their dead relatives. For most Cambodians, it is a time to remember their relatives who died during the 1975–1979 Khmer Rouge regime.\n\nCuisine",
"Cuisine \n\nRice is the staple grain, as in other Southeast Asian countries. Fish from the Mekong and Tonlé Sap rivers is also an important part of the diet. The supply of fish and fish products for food and trade was per person or 2 ounces per day per person. Some of the fish can be made into prahok for longer storage.",
"The cuisine of Cambodia contains tropical fruits, soups and noodles. Key ingredients are kaffir lime, lemon grass, garlic, fish sauce, soy sauce, tamarind, ginger, oyster sauce, coconut milk and black pepper. Some delicacies are num banhchok (នំបញ្ចុក), fish amok (អាម៉ុកត្រី) and aping (អាពីង). The country also boasts various distinct local street foods.",
"French influence on Cambodian cuisine includes the Cambodian red curry with toasted baguette bread. The toasted baguette pieces are dipped in the curry and eaten. Cambodian red curry is also eaten with rice and rice vermicelli noodles. Probably the most popular dine out dish, kuyteav, is a pork broth rice noodle soup with fried garlic, scallions, green onions that may also contain various toppings such as beef balls, shrimp, pork liver or lettuce",
". Kampot pepper is reputed to be the best in the world and accompanies crab at the Kep crab shacks and squid in the restaurants on the Ou Trojak Jet river. The cuisine is relatively unknown to the world compared to that of its neighbours Thailand and Vietnam.",
"Cambodians drink plenty of tea, grown in Mondulkiri Province and around Kirirom. te krolap is a strong tea, made by putting water and a mass of tea leaves into a small glass, placing a saucer on top, and turning the whole thing upside down to brew. When it is dark enough, the tea is decanted into another cup and plenty of sugar added, but no milk. Lemon tea , made with Chinese red-dust tea and lemon juice, is refreshing both hot and iced and is generally served with a hefty dose of sugar",
". Regarding coffee, the beans are generally imported from Laos and Vietnam – although domestically produced coffee from Ratanakiri Province and Mondulkiri Province can be found in some places. Beans are traditionally roasted with butter and sugar, plus various other ingredients that might include anything from rum to pork fat, giving the beverage a strange, sometimes faintly chocolatey aroma.",
"Cambodia has several industrial breweries, located mainly in Sihanoukville Province and Phnom Penh. There are also a growing number of microbreweries in Phnom Penh and Siem Reap. , there are 12 brewpubs or microbreweries in Cambodia. Rice wine is a popular alcoholic drink. Its quality varies widely and it is often infused with fruits or medicinal herbs. When prepared with macerated fruits or spices, like the Sombai liqueur, it is called sra tram (soaked wine).\n\nSports",
"Sports \n\nFootball (soccer) is one of the most popular sports, although professional organised sports are not as prevalent in Cambodia as in western countries because of the economic conditions. Soccer was brought to Cambodia by the French and became popular with the locals. The Cambodia national football team managed fourth in the 1972 Asian Cup, but development has slowed since the civil war.",
"Western sports such as basketball, volleyball, bodybuilding, field hockey, rugby union, golf, and baseball are gaining popularity. Volleyball is by far the most popular sport in the country. Native sports include traditional boat racing, buffalo racing, Pradal Serey, Khmer traditional wrestling and Bokator. Cambodia first participated in the Olympics during the 1956 Summer Olympic Games sending equestrian riders. Cambodia also hosted the GANEFO Games in 1966 and recently, the SEA Games in 2023.\n\nDance",
"Dance \n\nCambodian dance can be divided into three main categories: Khmer classical dance, folk dance, and social dances. The exact origins of Khmer classical dance are disputed. Most native Khmer scholars trace modern dance forms back to the time of Angkor, seeing similarities in the temple engravings of the period, while others hold that modern Khmer dance styles were learned (or re-learned) from Siamese court dancers in the 1800s.",
"Khmer classical dance is the form of stylised performance art established in the royal courts of Cambodia exhibited for both entertainment and ceremonial purposes. The dances are performed by intricately costumed, highly trained men and women on public occasions for tribute, invocation or to enact traditional stories and epic poems such as Reamker, the Khmer version of the Ramayana",
". Known formally as Robam Preah Reach Troap ( \"theater of royal wealth\") it is set to the music of a pinpeat ensemble accompanied by a vocal chorus.",
"Cambodian folk dance, often performed to mahori music, celebrates the various cultural and ethnic groups of Cambodia. Folk dances originated in the villages and are performed, for the most part, by the villagers for the villagers. The movements are less stylised and the clothing worn is that of the people the dancers are portraying, such as hill tribes, Chams or farmers",
". Typically faster-paced than classical dance, folk dances display themes of the \"common person\" such as love, comedy or warding off evil spirits.",
"Social dances are those performed by guests at banquets, parties or other informal social gatherings. Khmer traditional social dances are analogous to those of other Southeast Asian nations. Examples include the circle dances Romvong and Romkbach as well as Saravan and Lam Leav. Modern western popular dances including Cha-cha, Bolero, and the Madison, have also influenced Cambodian social dance.",
"Libraries\nThe National Library of Cambodia opened in 1924. It suffered much destruction during the Khmer Rouge era.\n\nMusic",
"Music \n\nTraditional Cambodian music dates back as far as the Khmer Empire. Royal dances like the Apsara Dance are icons of the Cambodian culture as are the Mahori ensembles that accompany them. More rural forms of music include Chapei and Ayai. The former is popular among the older generation and is most often a solo performance of a man plucking a Cambodian guitar (chapei) in between a cappella verses. The lyrics usually have moral or religious theme.",
"A Yai can be performed solo or by a man and woman and is often comedic in nature. It is a form of lyrical poetry, often full of double entendres, that can be either scripted or completely impromptu and ad-libbed. When sung by a duo, the man and women take turns, \"answering\" the other's verse or posing riddles for the other to solve, with short instrumental breaks in between verses. Pleng kaah (lit",
". Pleng kaah (lit. \"wedding music\") is a set of traditional music and songs played both for entertainment and as accompaniment for the various ceremonial parts of a traditional, days-long Khmer wedding.",
"Cambodian popular music is performed with western style instruments or a mixture of traditional and western instruments. Dance music is composed in particular styles for social dances. The music of crooner Sinn Sisamouth, Ros Sereysothea, and Pen Ran from the 1960s to the 1970s is considered to be the classic pop music of Cambodia. During the Khmer Rouge Revolution, many classic and popular singers of the 1960s and 1970s were murdered, starved to death, or overwork to death by the Khmer Rouge",
". and many original master tapes from the period were lost or destroyed.",
"In the 1980s, Keo Surath, (a refugee resettled in the United States) and others carried on the legacy of the classic singers, often remaking their popular songs. The 1980s and 1990s also saw the rise in popularity of kantrum, a music style of the Khmer Surin set to modern instrumentation.\n\nThe Australian hip hop group Astronomy Class has recorded with Kak Channthy, a native born Cambodian female singer.",
"The Dengue Fever rock and roll band features a Cambodian female singer and back-up band from California. It is classified as \"world music\" and combines Cambodian music with Western-style rock.\n\nSee also \n\n Index of Cambodia-related articles\n Outline of Cambodia\n Landmines in Cambodia\n\nReferences\n\nCitations\n\nCited sources and further reading",
"References\n\nCitations\n\nCited sources and further reading\n\n Deth, Sok Udom, and Serkan Bulut, eds. Cambodia's Foreign Relations in Regional and Global Contexts (Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung, 2017; comprehensive coverage) full book online free.\n Path Kosal, \"Introduction: Cambodia's Political History and Foreign Relations, 1945–1998\" pp 1–26 \n Strangio, Sebastian. Cambodia: From Pol Pot to Hun Sen and Beyond (2020)\n Un, Kheang. Cambodia: Return to Authoritarianism (2019) excerpt\n\nExternal links",
"External links \n\n Cambodia. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.\n Cambodia from UCB Libraries GovPubs (archived 3 July 2008)\n \n Cambodia profile from the BBC News\n Cambodia at Encyclopædia Britannica\n \n \n Key Development Forecasts for Cambodia from International Futures",
"Government\n King of Cambodia, Norodom Sihanouk Official website of former King Norodom Sihanouk \n Official Royal Government of Cambodia Website (English Version)\n Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation\n Ministry of Tourism (archived 2 February 2002)",
"Civil society\n Cooperation Committee for Cambodia)\n Cambodian Human Rights and Development Association (archived 30 December 2010)\n Cambodian Center for Human Rights\n Cambodian League for the Promotion and Defense of Human Rights\n Action IEC Working For Cambodian Community Education Through Media and Culture\n Freedom in the World 2011: Cambodia..\n Freedom of the Press 2011: Cambodia. .",
"Former French colonies\nLeast developed countries\nMember states of ASEAN\nMember states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie\nMember states of the United Nations\nSoutheast Asian countries\nStates and territories established in the 800s\n802 establishments\nStates and territories established in 1953\n1953 establishments in Asia\nStates and territories established in 1993\n1993 establishments in Asia\nCountries in Asia\nKingdoms"
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Heilbronn
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heilbronn
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[
"Heilbronn () is a city in northern Baden-Württemberg, Germany, surrounded by Heilbronn District. With over 126,000 residents, it is the sixth-largest city in the state.",
"From the late Middle Ages on, it developed into an important trading centre. At the beginning of the 19th century, Heilbronn became one of the centres of early industrialisation in Württemberg. Heilbronn's old town was completely destroyed during the air raid of 4 December 1944 and rebuilt in the 1950s. Today Heilbronn is the economic centre of the Heilbronn-Franken region.\n\nHeilbronn is known for its wine industry and is nicknamed Käthchenstadt, after Heinrich von Kleist's Das Käthchen von Heilbronn.",
"Geography\nHeilbronn is located in the northern corner of the Neckar basin at the bottom of the Wartberg (308 m). It occupies both banks of the Neckar, and the highest spot inside city limits is the Schweinsberg with a height of 372 meters. Heilbronn is adjacent to the Swabian-Franconian Forest Nature Park and is surrounded by vineyards.",
"Heilbronn and its surroundings are located in the northern part of the larger Stuttgart metropolitan area. The city is the economic center of the Heilbronn-Franken region and is one of fourteen such cities in the Baden-Württemberg master plan of 2002",
". It also serves Abstatt, Bad Rappenau, Bad Wimpfen, Beilstein, Brackenheim, Cleebronn, Eberstatt, Ellhofen, Eppingen, Flein, Gemmingen, Güglingen, Ilsfeld, Ittlingen, Kirchardt, Lauffen am Neckar, Lehrensteinsfeld, Leingarten, Löwenstein, Massenbachhausen, Neckarwestheim, Nordheim, Obersulm, Pfaffenhofen, Schwaigern, Siegelsbach, Talheim, Untergruppenbach, Weinsberg, Wüstenrot, and Zaberfeld as a regional economic centre.",
"Neighboring communities\nHeilbronn shares a border with the following cities and towns, all part of Heilbronn County and listed here clockwise from the North: Bad Wimpfen, Neckarsulm, Erlenbach, Weinsberg, Lehrensteinsfeld, Untergruppenbach, Flein, Talheim, Lauffen am Neckar, Nordheim, Leingarten, Schwaigern, Massenbachhausen and Bad Rappenau.\n\nBoroughs\nThe city is divided into nine boroughs:\n\nClimate\n\nHistory",
"Boroughs\nThe city is divided into nine boroughs:\n\nClimate\n\nHistory\n\nUp to AD 1200\nThe oldest traces of humans in and around Heilbronn date back to the Old Stone Age (30,000 BC). The fertile Neckar floodplains in the Heilbronn basin aided early settlement by farmers and ranchers. The city limits of present-day Heilbronn contain many sites of Bronze Age finds. Later on, but still before AD, the Celts already mined here for salt from brine.",
"Under Roman Emperor Domitian (AD 81–96) the Romans pushed east away from the Rhine and the outer boundary of the Roman Empire was set at the Neckar-Odenwald Limes. A castle in today's borough of Böckingen was part of that limes, and nearby numerous Roman villas and plantations were built",
". Around AD 150, the Neckar-Odenwald Limes became obsolete when the boundary of the Roman Empire was moved approximately to the east, where it was subsequently fortified with the construction of the Upper Germanic Limes complete with parapet and trenches.",
"Around 260, the Romans surrendered the limes, and the Alamanni became rulers of the Neckar basin. Between the 4th and 7th centuries, the area became part of the Frankish Empire, and the first settlement was built in the general vicinity of the present center of town.",
"In 741, Heilbronn is first mentioned in an official document of the Diocese of Würzburg as villa Helibrunna (together with a Michaelsbasilica), and in 841, King Louis the German set up court here for a period of time. The name Heilbrunna (healing well) hints to a well that is located not far from the basilica",
". The name Heilbrunna (healing well) hints to a well that is located not far from the basilica. In 1050, a significant settlement of Jews is noted in official documents, and the Codex of the monastery in Hirsau documented Heilbronn's right to hold market days and mint coins, mentioning its harbor and vineyards as well. The name of the city became a widespread Jewish surname in many varieties, see Heilprin, Halpern, and Halperin.",
"1200–1500",
"In 1225, Heilbronn was incorporated into the Hohenstaufen Empire as oppidum Heilecbrunnen. Oppidum signified a city fortified by parapet and trenches. Later during the 13th century, the Teutonic Knights obtained ownership of a large area south of Heilbronn which would remain owned by that order until German Mediatisation in 1805. Starting in 1268, the order built the Deutschhof there as one of its residences",
". Starting in 1268, the order built the Deutschhof there as one of its residences. The church building of the order that was located on the premises was modified and expanded several times: First in 1350 it was expanded (Gothic), then it was remodeled in 1719 (Baroque), and in 1977, it was consecrated as a cathedral.",
"After the demise of the Staufen dynasty, King Rudolf I returned city status to Heilbronn in 1281 and installed a regal advocate to rule the city. In addition to the advocate he put a council in place that was headed up by a mayor. Around 1300, the first city hall was erected in the market place and the Kilianskirche (built on the foundation of the Michaelsbasilica) was expanded",
". The Neckar privilege gave the city the right to modify the flow of the river in 1333, which meant it now had the right to construct dams, harbors and mills. Because of the infrastructure thus created, during the 14th century Heilbronn grew attractive to merchants and craftspeople, who now demanded the right to determine their own fate.",
"In 1371, Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor, issued a new charter to the city. Now Heilbronn needed to answer only to the Emperor and as such was an Imperial Free City. Craftspeople and merchants were now represented in its council and the villages of Böckingen, Flein, Frankenbach and Neckargartach became part of Heilbronn's territory.",
"As an Imperial Free City Heilbronn was threatened by the ambitious House of Württemberg. A relationship with the Holy Roman Emperor and a treaty with the Electorate of the Palatinate in effect from 1417 to 1622 strengthened Heilbronn's position and kept the House of Württemberg at bay. The political stability enjoyed by the city during the 15th century enabled it to expand, and many of its historic structures, such as the Kilianskirche (1455–60), trace their origins to that era.\n\n1500–1700",
"Götz von Berlichingen spent three years in \"knightly custody\" in Heilbronn starting in 1519 and even spent a night in the tower of the bastion. That same year people first took note of the pub owner Jäcklein Rohrbach who with accomplices would later kill the executor of Böckingen. After he had spent some time in the Hohenlohe Plains and collected similarly minded characters around him, he returned to Heilbronn in April 1525 just as the German Peasants' War was getting into full swing",
". On April 16 the peasants killed many of the nobles in Weinsberg and on April 18 the Heilbronn monastery of the Order of Our Lady of Mt. Carmel was attacked and ransacked. The city opened its gates in response to demands of the peasants and consequently more churches and municipal institutions were robbed the next day. For about a month Heilbronn remained under the control of rebellious peasants",
". For about a month Heilbronn remained under the control of rebellious peasants. And even though Johann Lachmann, later a church reformer, had attempted to mediate, the peasants did not leave the city until one of their armies was defeated on May 12, 1525, in Böblingen. Their leader Rohrbach was executed on May 21, 1525, in Neckargartach and his home town of Böckingen was partially burnt to the ground in punishment.",
"In 1528, the replacement of the mayor by Hans Riesser, a Protestant, brought on the previously delayed Reformation and through the efforts of Reformer Lachmann schools and healthcare were also reorganized. In 1529 the Kilianskirche (church tower of the Kilianskirche) was completed. It was the first important religious building of the Renaissance in Germany",
". It was the first important religious building of the Renaissance in Germany. The year 1530 brought about the acceptance of the Augsburg Confession by city council and residents and the Heilbronn Catechism of 1536 is the second oldest catechism in the Protestant Church. In 1538 Heilbronn joined the Schmalkaldic League but by 1546 squabbles between troops of the Schmalkaldic League and those of the Emperor Charles V escalated into battles that were won by the Emperor",
". As a result, Charles V spent Christmas 1546 in Heilbronn to attend the ensuing criminal proceedings. It is also Charles V who in 1522 changed the charter of the city and this charter survived almost unscathed until 1803.",
"During the Thirty Years' War the city and surrounding villages suffered badly. After the battle of Wimpfen in 1622, Neckargartach was burnt to the ground. In 1631 Heilbronn was occupied by imperial troops but the same year the Swedes succeeded in conquering the city. From 1644 through 1647, Heilbronn was again part of the Holy Roman Empire, but then French troops moved in and later those of the Electorate of the Palatinate",
". The city was not free of occupying forces until four years after the Peace of Westphalia of 1648. But already in the 1670s the city again became the stage for armed manoeuvres, until it was occupied by French troops in 1688. But while that occupation of the city only lasted several months, the French were only persuaded to leave the surrounding areas in 1693, after a large defensive army had been put into the field and fortifications had been erected.",
"1700–1900\n\nDuring the 18th century, archives suggest all members of the city council enjoyed some sort of formal education; Schiller and Goethe came to visit; and elaborate buildings were being constructed in the Rococo style.",
"On September 9, 1802, Heilbronn lost its status as an Imperial Free City when the troops of Duke Friedrich I of Württemberg arrived. The duke had conceded the left bank of the Rhine to France during the French Revolutionary Wars but had been compensated with areas on the right bank. This is how Heilbronn and other former Imperial Free Cities became part of Württemberg in 1803",
". This is how Heilbronn and other former Imperial Free Cities became part of Württemberg in 1803. Heilbronn became the seat of an Oberamt (district), and the four Imperial Free villages became separate communities within the district. In 1806 the Duchy of Württemberg became the Kingdom of Württemberg.",
"In 1815, Heilbronn again became a staging area for major armies ahead of the campaign against Napoleon, and 10,000 troops paraded in front of Emperor Franz of Austria and more than one hundred German princes and generals in the Theresienwiese. Tsar Alexander I of Russia met in Heilbronn with the Baltic Baroness Juliane von Krüdener, who talked him into founding the \"Holy Alliance\".",
"Industrialization arrived in 1820. When the first train lines were placed in service in Württemberg, Heilbronn was at the end of the line of the northern branch that connected Heilbronn with Stuttgart and further fueled industrialization.",
"For a while Heilbronn suffered from the upheavals of the Baden Revolution that its civil guard participated in. During that time the 8th infantry regiment switched sides and joined the revolutionaries until it was subsequently disarmed and force-transferred out of the area.\n\nIn 1849, the Hoerner Bank, one of the oldest still functioning banks in Germany, was founded in Heilbronn.\n\nHeilbronn became part of the German Empire in 1871 during the unification of Germany.",
"Heilbronn became part of the German Empire in 1871 during the unification of Germany.\n\nIn the 1860s the city's train tracks were extended to Heidelberg via Bad Wimpfen, to Würzburg via Osterburken, and to Crailsheim (and later on to Nuremberg) via Schwäbisch Hall. In 1880, the Kraichgau line was completed and created an important connection towards Karlsruhe, and by the end of the 19th century, Heilbronn had become an important hub, second in Wuerttemburg to Stuttgart in industrial output.",
"The year 1892 brought a connection to the power plant in Lauffen; thus Heilbronn became the first city in the world to enjoy long-distance electric power.\n\n1900–1945\n\nWith the dissolution of monarchy in the German Reich as a result of World War I, Heilbronn became part of the Free People's State of Württemberg in 1918.",
"After almost a century of economic boom and growth of the local industry Heilbronn's citizenry included many labourers. The city came to be known as a \"red hot spot\"; numerous worker and sports clubs were begun. Already prior to World War I the SPD cornered the majority of the vote and stayed that course during the Weimar Republic. At his visit to the city on May 15, 1926, Hitler was clearly not welcome by everyone, and several people were injured when a man was mistaken for Hitler and attacked",
". Hitler himself was able to give his speech in the city's community center Harmonie, but the SPD had the majority in Heilbronn over the NSDAP as late as the elections on March 5, 1933.",
"Richard Drauz, who had been born into a respected Heilbronn family, became Heilbronn's NSDAP Kreisleiter (District Leader) in 1932. He was also elected to the Reichstag from 1933 on and pushed hard for the Gleichschaltung of the Heilbronn clubs and press in Nazi Germany.",
"On July 28, 1935, the port was opened in a canal off the Neckar, and 1936 saw the Autobahn between Heilbronn and Stuttgart completed. Economy and infrastructure were booming in Württemberg, and Heilbronn was at the logistic centre of it all. As the result of a district reform on October 1, 1938, Heilbronn became the seat of the newly created Heilbronn County and regained independent city status",
". At the same time the previously independent communities of Böckingen, Sontheim, and Neckargartach were annexed, and with 72,000 residents Heilbronn then was the second largest city in Württemberg. The port turned into an important transfer station on the Neckar and one of the ten largest interior ports in the country.",
"On November 10, 1938, the Heilbronn synagogue was destroyed during the Kristallnacht. Soon thereafter the Jewish community was all but eliminated.",
"Starting in 1942 during World War II, the salt mines in and around Heilbronn were used to store art and artifacts from Germany, France, and Italy. Similarly, important producers of the war industry were moved into the mine shafts. The expansion of the shafts was undertaken by labour brigades of the concentration camp branches in Kochendorf and Neckargartach",
". From Heilbronn all the way to Neckarelz numerous subterraneous complexes, some of them gigantic, were constructed; on November 20, 1942, the Heilbronn Bureau of Labour had 8,000 forced labourers registered in its district.",
"In 1940 allied air raids began, and the city and its surrounding area were hit about 20 times with minor damage. On September 10, 1944, a raid by the allies targeted the city specifically, in particular the Böckingen train transfer station. As a result of 1,168 bombs dropped that day, 281 residents died. The city was carpet-bombed from the southern quarter all the way to the Kilianskirche in the center of town. The church was burnt out.",
"After a ten-day battle, with the allies advancing over the strategically important Neckar crossings, the war ended for the destroyed city, and it was occupied by the U.S. Army on April 12, 1945. Local NSDAP leader Richard Drauz became a fugitive because of executions of American prisoners of war he had ordered in March 1945. He was eventually arrested, tried, and hanged by the Allies in Landsberg on December 4, 1946.\n\nSecond Half of the 20th Century",
"Second Half of the 20th Century\n\nAfter the war, Emil Beutinger, mayor until 1933, returned to office and began the formidable task of reconstruction that was subsequently continued by his successors Paul Metz and Paul Meyle. Milestones were the rededication of historic city hall in 1953 and the reopening of the community centre, Harmonie. Heilbronn was part of Württemberg-Baden until 1952, after which it became part of Baden-Württemberg.",
"After 1951, US troops were permanently stationed in Heilbronn. They used barracks built prior to World War II and added some structures of their own.\n\nThe opening of the Autobahn A 6 from Heilbronn to Mannheim in 1968 was an important economic event. When the A 81 to Würzburg and the A 6 to Nuremberg was completed in 1974 and 1979, respectively, Heilbronn became an important logistical centre in southern Germany. As a result, many large companies opened offices in Heilbronn.",
"When Klingenberg became part of Heilbronn on January 1, 1970, the city's population exceeded 100,000 for the first time; thus Heilbronn attained \"major city\" (Großstadt) status. During the last district reform in the 1970s, Kirchhausen, Biberach, Frankenbach and Horkheim were incorporated into Heilbronn, and the city was reconfirmed as independent city and seat of Heilbronn County. It was also declared seat of the newly formed Franken region, now Heilbronn-Franken.",
"Also during the 1970s, the centre of the city was transformed into a pedestrian zone and the rededication of the city theatre in 1982 closed one of the largest holes left in the inner city from World War II.",
"Pursuant to the NATO Double-Track Decision of 1979, Pershing II intermediate-range nuclear missiles were stationed just uphill of Heilbronn in the Waldheide. This made Heilbronn the only major city in Germany with atomic missiles inside its city limits — a fact that became front-page news during the missile accident on January 11, 1985. After the INF Treaty was signed in 1987, the missiles were removed.",
"In the 1980s, Heilbronn hosted Heimatttage and Landesgartenschau staged by the State of Baden-Württemberg.\n\n21st Century \n\nIn 1998, Heilbronn was connected to the S-Bahn net with Karlsruhe. This further transformed the city centre, and an extension of the S-Bahn towards Öhringen opened on December 10, 2005, marking the completion of the east–west axis of the Baden-Wuerttemburg regional transportation system. In 2013, the north–south axis to Neckarsulm was opened.",
"Heilbronn won the European competition \"Entente Florale 2000\" on September 9, 2000, in Broughshane, Northern Ireland, and in 2005–06 the city became the first UNICEF children's city in Germany.",
"Late in 2005, Heilbronn was chosen to host the Bundesgartenschau in 2019. More than 2.3 million visitors came to the garden and city exhibition in 2019, which took place on a former commercial site of about 40 hectares located directly north of the main station. Now a part of the site is being developed into a new Urban district called Neckarbogen, where up to 3,500 people will live and 1,000 people will work in the future",
". The first buildings of the green and family-friendly quarter have been highly acclaimed and already received several awards.",
"Other major new buildings in the city area in recent years include two Neckar bridges, the two shopping centres Stadtgalerie and Klosterhof, the experimenta Science Center and the Bildungscampus.\n\nIn 2021, the State of Baden-Wuerttemberg decides to locate its new innovation park artificial intelligence in Heilbronn.\n\nReligion",
"Religion\n\nEver since the Franks under Chlodwig settled in the Neckar region around 500 the area has been predominantly Christian and when Heilbronn was first mentioned in an official document in 741 Christian Michaelsbasilica, present day's Kilianskirche, was mentioned along with the city. The Teutonic Knights constructed its church from the 13th century and both churches were continually expanded. They were joined later by other churches and cloisters in the city.",
"Around 1050 an important Jewish community was mentioned that had settled in what became known as the Judengasse (Lohtorstraße). In 1298, 143 Jews were killed during the Rintfleisch-Pogrom and in 1350 Jews suffered attacks again during a European epidemic of the Bubonic plague",
". The city's constitution required the council to include Jews, but already in the middle of the 15th century Jews were the target of vigilantes again until they were evicted from the city in 1490 with the blessings of Emperor Frederick III.",
"It is worth noting that the common Jewish name Halpern, and many variants such as Alpert, derive from the name of this city Heilbronn, and the early Jewish community there.",
"While Heilbronn was part of the Diocese of Würzburg, the independent villages of Böckingen, Neckargartach and Frankenbach were attached to the Diocese of Worms. From 1514 on the Heilbronn native Johann Lachmann was caretaker of the parish in St. Kilian, in 1521 he became its preacher, in 1524 he converted to Lutheranism and proceeded to teach and lead the Reformation in Heilbronn against the wishes of both dioceses",
". After the Protestant reformation of Heilbronn was complete the city remained Lutheran for centuries and the council and citizens accepted the Augsburg Confession without dissent. Catholics were no longer welcome, Jews were prohibited from settling in Heilbronn, and the city took part in the Protestation at Speyer on April 19, 1529 (the Protestation was the origin of the terms Protestant and Protestantism).",
"The Age of Enlightenment brought Heilbronn freedom of religion. From 1803 Jews were again permitted to settle in the city, Catholics also began to move back in and by the 1860s Jews were granted equal rights as Heilbronn citizens.",
"After the city became part of Württemberg in 1803 it also became seat of a deaconry and the Prelate or regional bishop of the Protestant State Church in Württemberg. To this day Protestants are in the majority in Heilbronn. The Catholic parishes belong to the Deacony Heilbronn and are part of the Diocese of Rottenburg-Stuttgart.",
"Around 1920 first groups of \"Serious Bible Students\" (now: Jehovah's Witnesses) formed. Their small community suffered from oppression during the Third Reich and many of its members died in concentration camps. Similarly, the Jewish community had to watch as its colossal synagogue went up in flames and its 350 members were subsequently all but extinguished. Jehovah's Witnesses built a first meeting room in Heilbronn in 1953 and many more have been added since then.",
"Since the 1970s, after guest workers and immigrants from Islamic or Russian-Orthodox countries settled here, these faiths are practiced by a growing part of the population and numerous mosques have been created since the 1990s in the city and county of Heilbronn.\n\nDistrict reform\nOver the years, the following, formerly independent towns or communities, have been annexed to Heilbronn:",
"Demographics\nFigures reflect city limits at the time and are estimates (until 1870) or Census data (¹), or official extensions thereof, counting only primary residences.\n\n¹ Census data",
"Government",
"In connection with the district reform in the 1970s, municipal laws of Baden-Württemberg were amended to introduce borough councils for certain boroughs. Residents of such boroughs elect their borough council at each municipal election and the borough council must be consulted on all matters of significance to the respective borough. The Borough President also presides over the Borough Council",
". The Borough President also presides over the Borough Council. In Heilbronn the boroughs of Biberach, Böckingen, Frankenbach, Horkheim, Kirchhausen, Klingenberg, Neckargartach, and Sontheim have borough councils.",
"City council\nAfter the municipal elections of May 26, 2019 the city council of Heilbronn was made up of 40 seats. One member changed form Pro Heilbronn to AfD, Therefore, the members belong to political parties as follows:\n\nMayor\nAt first Heilbronn was governed by a regal advocate and an executor. Later, the city had two mayors but ever since the city was made part of Württemberg it has had just one mayor at a time.",
"Representatives from Heilbronn\nThe city of Heilbronn together with the northern municipalities of Heilbronn County makes up the electoral District 268 for national elections of representatives to the Bundestag.\n\nFor State elections to the Landtag of Baden-Württemberg Heilbronn makes up an electoral district (District 18) together with Erlenbach. Before the 2006 elections, it was an electoral district all by itself.",
"Coat of arms\nHeilbronn's coat of arms features a black eagle with red tongue and claws on golden background. The eagle is protected by a red, silver and blue shield. The city flag is red, white and blue.",
"The oldest seal of the city dates back to 1265. The eagle is the symbol for the imperial freedom enjoyed by Heilbronn until it was annexed by the Grand Duchy (and later Kingdom) of Württemberg. While it is established that it appeared for the first time with shield in 1556 to distinguish it from other versions of eagles, the origin of the colors of the shield has yet to be determined",
". The colors also appeared in reverse order in 1556, 1581 and 1681 and there have been other variations of colour as well, such as white rather than golden background.",
"Interesting is the fact that Heilbronn sports three colours in its flag. Newly dedicated municipal flags in Baden-Württemberg only use two colours. According to State municipal laws, Heilbronn's flag was grandfathered as it had been in use prior to 1935.\n\nMain sights\n\nBuildings",
"Main sights\n\nBuildings\n\n Historic manual crane\n Bollwerksturm\n Deutschhof\n Steam power plant\n Community centre \"Harmonie\"\n Court and Fleischhaus\n Götzenturm\n Hafenmarktturm (port market tower)\n Haus Zehender at the market place\n Käthchenhaus at the market place\n City Hall with historic astronomic clock\n Schießhaus\n Trappenseeschlösschen\n Weinvilla",
"Churches\n Kilianskirche (Protestant): The tower from the early Renaissance is the logo of the city. The high altar by Hans Seyffer was completed in 1498.\n Deutschordensmünster St.-Peter-und-Paul (Catholic)\n Nikolaikirche (Protestant)\n\nMuseums\n Museum of Natural History\n City Galery Deutschhof\n Museum of archeology\n Kleist-Archiv Sembdner\n South-German Train Museum Heilbronn",
"Other sights\n Old cemetery (created in 1530, a park since 1882)\n Viewing tower on the Wartberg hill provides a nice view of Heilbronn and the neighboring area.\n Ehrenfriedhof for the victims of the air raid on December 4, 1944\n Fleinertorbrunnen\n Robert Mayer Memorial in the market place\n Bismarck Memorial\n Siebenröhrenbrunnen\n Trappensee\n\nCulture\n\nLanguage \nHeilbronn is located near the border between the Swabian and the South Franconian dialects of the German language.",
"Theater\nThe Heilbronn municipal theatre on Berliner Platz was built between 1979 and 1982 and continues the tradition of the municipal theatre that was once located there. Together with the adjacent Logentheater of the Theaterforum K3, completed in 2001, the Salon 3 and the BOXX the Heilbronn Theatre offers drama, musical and opera performances.\n\nThe Theaterschiff Heilbronn, located on the Neckar river, also offers changing performances.",
"The Theaterschiff Heilbronn, located on the Neckar river, also offers changing performances.\n\nThe young theatre label Tacheles and Tarantismus has created a place of encounter and dialogue with the theatre laboratory STILBRUCH. The programme includes in-house productions and own play developments, workshops with students, readings, performance pieces, concerts, open-stage formats and party series.",
"Museum",
"The Heilbronn's municipal museum in the Deutschhof shows its art and sculpture collections as well as exhibits on the history of the city, archaeology and the history of the earth. The municipal art collection focuses on works by regional artists, including 18th and 19th century painters such as Heinrich Friedrich Füger and Carl Doerr as well as 20th century artists such as Heinrich Altherr and Hal Busse",
". There is also a special collection of small sculptures and bozzetti by international sculptors such as Wilhelm Lehmbruck and Henry Moore. The archaeology collection is in the tradition of the earlier municipal collection of ground finds founded by Alfred Schliz (1849-1915) and largely destroyed during the Second World War",
". Friedrich von Alberti (1795-1878), who gave the name Triassic to the sequence of Buntsandstein, Muschelkalk and Keuper, was particularly responsible for research into the history of the earth in and around Heilbronn.",
"The Deutschhof is also home to Haus der Stadtgeschichte (House of City History), which hosts a permanent exhibition on the city's history by the Heilbronn City Archive. Admission to the permanent exhibitions of the municipal museums and the city archives is free, and the exhibition rooms are structurally connected. The municipal museums also run the Vogelmann Art Gallery together with the Heilbronn Art Association.",
"The Kunsthalle Vogelmann is a municipal exhibition hall in Heilbronn and focusses on modern art. The Kunsthalle was built in 2009/2010 as an extension of the municipal concert and congress center Harmonie.\n\nThe most important art associations in the city are the Kunstverein Heilbronn, which has existed with two new foundations since 1879 and has held more than 400 events since 1956, and the Künstlerbund, Heilbronn.",
"The Literaturhaus Heilbronn has opened in 2020. It is located in the Trappenseeschlösschen, a striking baroque building in the middle of a lake in the east of the city. With readings by contemporary authors, lectures, discussions, workshops and conferences as well as smaller temporary exhibitions, the Literaturhaus Heilbronn offers a variety of formats on the subject of literature and reading",
". Associated to the Literaturhaus is the Kleist Archiv Semdner, an archive and study center on the famous German author Heinrich von Kleist.",
"In 2009, Experimenta, the largest science centre in southern Germany, opened in the Hagenbucher, a former storage building. The exhibition was expanded by 2019 with a new building, designed by Sauerbruch Hutton, an architecture practice based in Berlin, Germany.\n\nMusic \nThe Württemberg Chamber Orchestra Heilbronn (WKO), founded in 1960 by Jörg Faerber, is one of the best known German chamber orchestras.",
"Since 2015 the Classic Open Air Festival takes place in the city centre. With free admission and in the open air, orchestras and music groups from Heilbronn present themselves with a varied concert program.\n\nThe Heilbronn municipal music school is housed in the K3 theatre forum.\n\nThe jazz club Cave 61, founded in 1961, is a nationally known organizer of jazz concerts with jazz groups from all over the world. Its venue is an old theatre.",
"Other cultural venues \nThe city of Heilbronn supports various cultural projects, including the art and cultural workhouse Zigarre and Kommunales Kino in the Kulturkeller in the Gewerkschaftshaus as well as the free cultural center Maschinenfabrik, which started in 2021 in an old factory.",
"Events",
"In February the citizens of Heilbronn and the surrounding area have an opportunity to enjoy themselves at the Pferdemarkt. In May the Trollinger marathon takes place. The Heilbronner Volksfest on the Theresienwiese is the largest festival of its kind in Heilbronn. Each year it begins on the last Friday in July and ends on the second Monday in August",
". Each year it begins on the last Friday in July and ends on the second Monday in August. In September, people enjoy themselves at the Heilbronner Weindorf, in October at the Hafenmarkt and in November and December at the Weihnachtsmarkt, a Christmas market.",
"Sport\nFC Heilbronn is a football club based in Heilbronn, Baden-Württemberg formed only recently – in 2003 – out of a merger between two former clubs with the elder dating back to 1896 and playing a five-year stint in the Regionalliga Süd (II) / 2nd Bundesliga Süd from 1969 to 1975.\n\nHeilbronn hosts an annual tennis tournament Heilbronn Open (see Heilbronn Open website) which is part of the ATP Challenger tour.",
"Heilbronn is also the hometown of ice hockey team Heilbronner Falken (Heilbronn Falcons). The team currently plays in the second German ice hockey league. The Eisbären Heilbronn (Heilbronn polar bears) is the second ice hockey team, which is playing in the regional league South-West in Baden-Württemberg.\n\nThe „Red Devils“ Heilbronn is a wrestling team, which is part of the national wrestling league.",
"The „Red Devils“ Heilbronn is a wrestling team, which is part of the national wrestling league.\n\nThe city's 68 sport clubs offer a wide range of different sporting activities and have around 30,000 members.\n\nEconomy and infrastructure",
"Viticulture has a long tradition in Heilbronn and is an important part of its economy to this day. Its 514 ha, two thirds of it growing red grapes, is the third largest vineyard in Württemberg's vine-growing region after Brackenheim and Lauffen am Neckar. In 1888, the vintners of the Heilbronn area combined and formed the Weingärtnergesellschaft Heilbronn, a cooperative",
". In 1933, that cooperative then merged with the competing cooperative Winzergenossenschaft Heilbronn that had formed in 1919 and that cooperative again merged with the Vintner cooperatives of Erlenbach and Weinsberg to form the Genossenschaftskellerei Heilbronn-Erlenbach-Weinsberg with seat just outside the city limits in Erlenbach. In addition to the cooperative, numerous independent vintners are also located here.",
"South of the steam power plant is located the conveyor tower of the Südwestdeutsche Salzwerke AG (SWS). The SWS runs a salt mine in the Heilbronn area. That mine was connected through a tunnel with the now shut-down (since 1994) salt mine Kochendorf in Bad Friedrichshall. Extraction had extended the Heilbronn mine far to the west so that in 2004 a new shaft, Konradsberg, was added — probably the last mining shaft that was constructed in all of Germany.\n\nInfrastructure",
"Infrastructure\n\nThe city of Heilbronn is readily accessible by road courtesy of the Weinsberg Intersection just to the northeast of the city, the intersection of the Autobahn A 81 from Würzburg to Gottmadingen and the A 6 from Saarbrücken to Waidhaus. In addition to the Autobahns the city is connected via the Bundesstraßen B 27 from Blankenburg to Schaffhausen, B 39 from Frankenstein (Palatine) to Mainhardt and B 293 from Karlsruhe to Heilbronn that both run through the city itself.",
"Heilbronn is also a forerunner of right turn on red in Germany and 65 \"Green arrow\" signs have been installed at appropriate intersections since 1996.",
"Although Heilbronn Hauptbahnhof (central station) does not benefit from the Deutsche Bahn long-distance service, the city is well connected by train. The Franconia Railway (Frankenbahn) connects Stuttgart and Würzburg, the Neckar Valley Railway and Elsenz Valley Railway run from Heilbronn to Heidelberg and Mannheim, and the Hohenlohe Railway accommodates travel to Schwäbisch Hall via Öhringen.",
"The Heilbronn and Karlsruhe Stadtbahns provide a connection all the way to Karlsruhe on the Kraichgau Railway's tracks. Currently the S 4 takes travellers from Karlsruhe through the central train station past the centre of town all the way to the Öhringen borough of Cappel (since December 11, 2005)",
". Because of massive delays in the construction of the S-Bahn tracks through Heilbronn's city limits and with the modernization and electrification of the existing tracks from Heilbronn to Öhringen meant that the new section's official opening needed to be postponed several times. In the future, additional S-Bahn lines are planned to Neckarsulm, Lauffen am Neckar and Zaberfeld. As well a these new lines, additional stops will also be built in the inner city of Heilbronn",
". As well a these new lines, additional stops will also be built in the inner city of Heilbronn. In 2014 the S-Bahn line to Neckarsulm was established.",
"Whilst the original Straßenbahn of Heilbronn, nicknamed the Spatzenschaukel (German for \"sparrows' swing\"), was discontinued on April 1, 1955, the city used electrically powered trolley buses until 1960. Today, public transportation is provided by the S-Bahn that runs through Heilbronn similar to the Karlsruhe model and this is complemented by buses run by the Stadtwerke Heilbronn (Verkehrsbetriebe) and several other enterprises. All now belong to the Heilbronner Verkehrsverbund.",
"The canal port on the Neckar is one of the ten largest German interior ports.\n\nPower plant\nIn the industrial part of Heilbronn EnBW AG runs a large powerplant that is powered by coal. Its two chimneys (250 m tall) and cooling tower (140 m tall) are visible from afar, see Heilbronn Power Station",
"Transport\nThe public light rail system with the lines S4, S41 and S42 (Heilbronn Stadtbahn) is run by the Albtal-Verkehrs-Gesellschaft. The local bus system is run by the Stadtwerke Heilbronn (municipal utilities of Heilbronn). There are also various regional bus lines to the Zabergäu area, the Schozach/Bottwartal area, the Kraichgau area and the Kochertal area. These are run by OVR (a part of the Transdev group) and Regiobus Stuttgart (a part of DB Regio).",
"Media\nHeilbronn is home to one of the studios of Südwestrundfunk (SWR). From here regional programmes like Frankenradio are broadcast on SWR4 Baden-Württemberg. The Heilbronner Stimme is a daily newspaper published in the city and the advertisers Neckar Express, echo am Mittwoch and echo am Sonntag are available weekly free of charge. Heilbronners also peruse the monthly city magazines Freizeit Journal and Moritz.\n\nPublic service",
"Public service\n\nSeveral courts are located in Heilbronn, two belonging to the Stuttgart court district, a specialty court hearing labour issues, and a family court whose district includes the city of Heilbronn and the counties of Heilbronn, Ludwigsburg, Schwäbisch Hall, Hohenlohe and Main-Tauber.\n\nThe city is also the seat of the Prelature of Heilbronn and of the church district of Heilbronn (of the Protestant State Church as well as of the Heilbronn Deacony of the Diocese of Rottenburg-Stuttgart).",
"Education\nHeilbronn offers a wide range of higher education institutions developing very dynamically. In 2020, 9054 people were studying in Heilbronn, almost 60 percent more than ten years ago. On 1 February 2020 the Ministry of the Interior of Baden-Württemberg awarded the city of Heilbronn the designation of University City.",
"Heilbronn is the seat of the main campus of the Hochschule Heilbronn, founded in 1961 as a public engineering school. Since 1971 the school was known as the Fachhochschule Heilbronn (Heilbronn University) and has operated a secondary campus in Künzelsau since 1988. Starting with the fall semester on September 1, 2005, the Fachhochschule was awarded the status of a Hochschule. In 2009 a third campus in Schwäbisch Hall was established.",
"Today the business faculties of the Hochschule Heilbronn reside at the Bildungscampus of the Dieter Schwarz Foundation in the heart of Heilbronn along with the Baden-Wuerttemberg Cooperative State University Heilbronn (DHBW Heilbronn), the Baden-Wuerttemberg Cooperative State University - Center for Advanced Studies (DHBW CAS) as well as the Campus Heilbronn of the Technical University of Munich and other educational establishments and scientific institutions.",
"42 Heilbronn, a full-time tuition-free coding school, was established in 2021 nearby the Bildungscampus.",
"As far as general education is concerned, Heilbronn operates five college-track highschools or gymnasiums (Elly-Heuss-Knapp-Gymnasium, Justinus-Kerner-Gymnasium, Mönchsee-Gymnasium, Robert-Mayer-Gymnasium and Theodor-Heuss-Gymnasium), four non-college-track highschools or Realschulen (Dammrealschule, Helene-Lange-Realschule, Heinrich-von-Kleist-Realschule in Böckingen and Mörike-Realschule)",
". There are also six special-education schools run by the city Wilhelm-Hofmann-Förderschule, Pestalozzi-Förderschule, and Paul-Meyle-Schule for the mentally and physically impaired, two special-education schools run by Heilbronn County (Gebrüder-Grimm-Schule for the speech impaired and Hermann-Herzog-Schule for the seeing impaired), and the Lindenparkschule, which is run by the state of Baden-Württemberg for the hearing and speech impaired. The latter also includes a boarding school and consultation centre.",
"City primary schools are the Damm-Grundschule, Deutschorden-Grundschule Kirchhausen, Grundschule Horkheim, Grundschule Klingenberg, Grünewaldschule Grundschule Böckingen, Reinöhlschule Grundschule Böckingen, Silcherschule Grundschule and Uhlandschule Grundschule Sontheim",
". Grammar and middle schools (some include vocational training programs) are Albrecht-Dürer-Schule Neckargartach, Elly-Heuss-Knapp-Schule Böckingen, Fritz-Ulrich-Schule Böckingen, Gerhart-Hauptmann-Schule, Grund- und Hauptschule mit Werkrealschule Biberach, Grund- und Hauptschule mit Werkrealschule Frankenbach, Ludwig-Pfau-Schule, Rosenauschule, Staufenbergschule Sontheim, Wartbergschule and Wilhelm-Hauff-Schule.",
"The Gustav-von-Schmoller-Schule and the Technische Schulzentrum Heilbronn consisting of the Johann-Jakob-Widmann-Schule and the Wilhelm-Maybach-Schule are professional training schools run by the city. The county runs the Andreas-Schneider-Schule and Christiane-Herzog-Schule, and in the fall of 2005 the Peter-Bruckmann-Schule was added to the already operating professional training schools.",
"Finally, the following private schools round out the education options offered in Heilbronn:\n The Abendrealschule Heilbronn e.V. allows students with middle school diplomas to achieve the first in a series of steps to gain college entrance prerequisites on a part-time basis after work. It is part of a structured program commonly referred to as the Alternate Path to Higher Education.\n Academy for Communication sciences\n Alice-Salomon-Schule\n Altenpflegeschule Heilbronn\n Berufskolleg für Grafik Heilbronn",
"Alice-Salomon-Schule\n Altenpflegeschule Heilbronn\n Berufskolleg für Grafik Heilbronn\n Freie Waldorfschule Heilbronn\n Internationaler Bund e. V. Bildungszentrum Heilbronn\n Katholisches Freies Bildungszentrum St. Kilian Heilbronn with grammar, middle, and college-track as well as non-college-track highschools\n Kolping-Bildungszentrum Heilbronn",
"Crime\nA female police officer, Michéle Kiesewetter, was in 2007 fatally shot in Heilbronn, an event that gave its name to the so-called Phantom of Heilbronnan elusive serial killer hunted by German police for several years. The \"Phantom\" was in March 2009 revealed not be a serial killer, but the result of procedural errors by the German police. In 2011 the police discovered that Kiesewetter was murdered by National Socialist Underground terrorists.\n\nTwin towns – sister cities\n\nHeilbronn is twinned with:",
"Twin towns – sister cities\n\nHeilbronn is twinned with:\n\n Béziers, France (1965)\n Solothurn, Switzerland (1981)\n Stockport, England (1982)\n Frankfurt (Oder), Germany (1988)\n Słubice, Poland (1998)\n Novorossiysk, Russia (2019)\n\nNotable people\n\nGallery\n\nFootnotes\n\nReferences",
"Notable people\n\nGallery\n\nFootnotes\n\nReferences\n\nSources\n (Publications from the archives of the city of Heilbronn; 36)\n Published so far are Vols. I–VII (741 to 1957) and X (1970 to 1974)\n Keyser, Erich (ed.) (1962). Württembergisches Städtebuch. In: Deutsches Städtebuch. Handbuch städtischer Geschichte. Vol. 4,2. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer Verlag.\n\nExternal links\n\n Official website of the City of Heilbronn\n Hochschule Heilbronn (Heilbronn University)\n Bildungscampus Heilbronn (Education and Science Campus)",
"Stuttgart (region)\nFree imperial cities\nSwabian Circle\nSwabian League\nWürttemberg\nFormer states and territories of Baden-Württemberg\nHolocaust locations in Germany"
] |
Limehouse Cut
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limehouse%20Cut
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[
"The Limehouse Cut is a largely straight, broad canal in the East End of London which links the lower reaches of the Lee Navigation to the River Thames. Opening on 17 September 1770, and widened for two-way traffic by 1777, it is the oldest canal in the London area. Although short, it has a diverse social and industrial history. Formerly discharging directly into the Thames, since 1968 it has done so indirectly by a connection through Limehouse Basin.",
"The Cut is about long. It turns in a broad curve from Bow Locks, where the Lee Navigation meets Bow Creek; it then proceeds directly south-west through the London Borough of Tower Hamlets, finally making a short hook to connect to Limehouse Basin.\n\nOrigins\n\nBefore the Cut",
"Already in Elizabethan times there was a vigorous river trade between towns on the River Lea and the City of London, but watermen had to await the tides and row round the Isle of Dogs. Thus in 1588 (wrote G. B. G. Bull): The goods came from even further afield: by 1663 the road from Huntingdon and Cambridge was worn out \"by reason of the great Trade of Barley and Mault, that cometh to Ware, and so is conveyed by water to the City of London\"",
". In 1739, 25,000 tons of malt and \"all sorts of Grain, Flower, and other Commodities\" went by the Lee. When the Limehouse Cut was built this traffic had increased to 36,000 tons—about a quarter of London's grain supply.",
"Planning and authorisation",
"The Limehouse Cut was authorised by the Lee Navigation Improvement Act 1766, after the engineer John Smeaton identified the need to make several cuts and to replace existing flash locks on the river with pound locks. It occurred to Smeaton as an afterthought to have a cut from Bromley to the Thames at Limehouse and his assistant Thomas Yeoman had the same idea. Thomas Yeoman was appointed as the surveyor to the River Lee trustees, and one of his first tasks was to investigate a route for the Limehouse Cut",
". As authorised by Parliament, it would provide a short-cut from the Lee Navigation at Bromley-by-Bow to the River Thames \"at or near Limehouse Bridge Dock\", avoiding the tortuous curves of the lower reaches of the River Lea at Bow Creek, and the need to wait for the tide to make the long detour round the Isle of Dogs. The trustees accepted Yeoman's proposed route on 14 September 1767, which would terminate at Dingley's Wharf at Limehouse.",
"Excavation and lock building\n\nThe contract for the excavation of the cut was split into two, with Charles Dingley, owner of the wharf and also a trustee, getting the southern section up to Rose Lane and Jeremiah Ilsley getting the northern section to Bow Locks. Dingley contracted to make his end of the canal for 10d. per foot; Ilsley's charge was 7d. per foot.",
"The construction of Bromley Lock was let as a separate contract, which was awarded to a millwright from Bromley called Mr Cooper, who also built some of the locks on the Edmonton Cut. The lock into the Thames was designed by Mr Collard, another of the trustees, who produced a model and plan for the structure. The estimated cost was £1,547, but Collard had miscalculated the length, and it had to be increased by , resulting in the estimate's rising to £1,696.",
"Inauguration and widening\nBy 1769, barges were using part of the cut, and in May 1770 an opening date of 2 July was set. However, of brickwork failed, and fell into the canal, delaying the opening until 17 September. There were further problems in December, when a bridge collapsed, blocking the canal, but once the teething problems were resolved, traffic increased steadily.",
"The cut was only wide enough for one barge, and in May 1772, a passing place was added, but by March 1773, the company had decided to widen the whole cut, so that barges could pass as any point. The contract for the work was given to Jeremiah Ilsley in June 1776, and the widened cut was operational from 1 September 1777, having cost £975.\n\nFurther widening",
"Further widening\n\nAt some stage the Cut was further widened from 55 feet to its present width of 75 feet. When this happened is unclear. It has been suggested it happened during the Beardmore modifications of the 1850s (see below), but this seems improbable. Widening was not called for by Rendel's plans, nor is it mentioned by Beardmore himself. Possibly it happened during the construction of the Commercial Road. An 1809 print seems to show widening excavations alongside the Cut.",
"Hydraulics\nAlthough the newly constructed Limehouse Cut could save vessels time navigating down Bow Creek and around the Isle of Dogs, its performance was suboptimal. Unusually, it was a tidal canal. It could be short of water and liable to shoal.",
"At the northern end of the Cut was a conflict with a property called Four Mills, which was in fact a group of five tidal water wheels. Nathaniel Beardmore, the Lee trustees' engineer, described the conflict as it was in early Victorian times: At an 1850 inquiry by William Cubitt it was explained that because the Cut was unnavigable for four or five days at neap tides, barges had no way out to the Thames except via Bow Creek (which was toll free). Hence the tolls were lost.",
"The Cut had no locks except at either end—despite the fall in the land, which was 17½ feet. The shallowest point was therefore critical. \"Limehouse Cut had always occasioned a great deal of trouble\", added Beardmore, \"on account of the water falling short, and of the slipping of the moving sands and gravel, which lay where the London clay was denuded\". No systematic attempt to improve the navigation was made until the Victorian era.",
"The first Limehouse basin\nNear its Limehouse end the Cut was widened to form a basin with an island in it. This was the first Limehouse basin, made 25 years before the better known Regent's Canal Dock. The reason for this is described below, see \"The Island in the Cut and its mills\".\n\nVictorian modifications\n\nRailway competition\nBy 1843 a railway had been built from Stratford to Hertford: it became the Eastern Counties Railway. The line ran beside the River Lee and threatened its carrying trade.",
"Closing the Four Mills\nAs an essential first step in 1847 the trustees of the Lee Navigation bought out the troublesome Four Mills and gradually stopped them using water power.",
"James Rendel's scheme",
"In 1849 James Rendel was asked to devise a scheme to improve the infrastructure, which was dilapidated. He reported that \"if [the Navigation] is to compete successfully with Railways, it should be made an efficient branch of the Thames, viz. navigable by the largest class of barges there employed\"",
". navigable by the largest class of barges there employed\". He proposed, besides numerous improvements on the river proper, the reconstruction of Bromley Lock; deepening the Limehouse Cut; forming a towing path under Britannia Bridge (Commercial Road); and the construction of a new outfall lock into the Thames, with cills 19 feet below Trinity High Water, and with tide gates.",
"Financing and politics\n\nThe engineering of the Limehouse Cut was affected by political disputes upstream. The Lee had multiple uses. It was a highway for traders. It supplied London with drinking water. It powered grain mills. It was a sewer for towns and factories. There was no Conservancy Board to manage these clashing interests, just the trustees responsible for its navigation.",
"The navigation of the River Lee was governed by a board of 65–120 unpaid trustees, typically country magistrates. The most influential was James Gascoyne-Cecil, 2nd Marquess of Salisbury, who became chairman in 1851. A powerful nobleman with a deep knowledge of parliamentary procedure, his biographer has described him as an eighteenth century aristocrat in a nineteenth century world. Of the few trustees who used to turn up to meetings, only one was a trader who owned barges.",
"Rendel's estimate for his scheme was £230,000—about £30 million today—yet the Trust's revenue was small. However, John Marchant, clerk to the trustees, had hit on the idea of borrowing the capital and paying off the loans by selling more water to the London water companies. This was essential to the scheme's success, Hertford's MP William Cowper told Parliament.",
"The scheme was controversial. It was opposed by many river traders who complained the benefits were not worth the money and the Trust would incur large debts: meaning higher tolls. Its promoters were certain it would pay for itself. At an unusually large meeting of the Trust at Ware, the scheme was carried by 27–25 votes. A Bill was put before Parliament to authorise it and, despite opposition from radical politician John Bright—who suspected an ulterior motive—became law on 1 August 1850.",
"The pessimists proved correct. While the London water companies were interested in buying the water, and had said so, they had not tied themselves to a price; and soon showed who had the stronger bargaining power. First, the New River [Water] Company struck a deal with the town of Hertford to get water from the pure and copious River Mimram—an upstream tributary, outside the Lee Trust's jurisdiction",
". Then they and the East London Waterworks applied for Acts of Parliament of their own, by which they would get the River Lee's water. There was litigation; the Trust ran into cashflow problems; and the eventual compromise was that the Companies got the whole of the River Lee's water—apart from that required for navigation—for comparatively small amounts.",
"The upshot was that though there were valuable improvements, the Trust incurred a large debt without any obvious means to pay it off. Though they had increased the tolls (sometimes steeply), they ran out of funds. Sacrifices had to be made, and were made on the Limehouse Cut.\n\nBeardmore's implementation",
"Beardmore's implementation\n\nRendel's plans were implemented by his former pupil Nathaniel Beardmore. The first tranche of work was supposed to comprise the tidal portion (from the Thames to Old Ford), hence the Limehouse Cut. However funds ran out, work stopped in 1853, and some of Rendel's plans had to be curtailed. When more funding became available in 1855 it had to be devoted to non-tidal parts of the Lee.",
"Some changes were made before funds ran out, with the following effect. The governing level in Limehouse Cut was increased: the water was not allowed to fall 2 feet below Trinity High Water mark. The Cut under the Commercial Road bridge was made wider and given a towpath. Larger barges could now be handled:\n\nThese and other improvements were said to increase the tonnage on the Lee Navigation by 25% (but the tolls by 50%), despite competition from the Eastern Counties Railway.",
"The Regent's Canal Company: the link to their basin\n\nThe outlet to the Thames, \"an old timber lock of small dimensions\", had become \"more and more ruinous\". In October 1852 Beardmore reported that \"The Limehouse Lock has bulged and the late Lock keepers house must be pulled down both to get at the repair required and because the house is in the act of Tumbling down\".",
"At about this time the Lee trustees, who were afterwards alleged to be too cosy with the Regent's Canal Company, agreed to sell it the southern portion of the Limehouse Cut. Since it was public trust property it could not be done without the sanction of Parliament, to whom a Bill was presented. The nearby Regent's Canal Dock, already enlarged to a 9-acre basin, was crowded with shipping so the Company intended to enlarge it further, absorbing Limehouse Cut's lock and the remnants of its basin.",
"While this matter was pending a link was dug (early 1854) to the Regent's Canal Dock, thus affording an alternative outlet to the river. Work south of the Commercial road was supervised jointly by Beardmore and the Regent Canal's engineer.",
"The new route to the Thames could get congested and the proposal was not popular with the Lee and Stort bargemen. said a Harlow bargeman. They disliked the prospect of being under Regent's Canal regulations. They organised meetings, learnt to use the democratic machinery of the day, and defeated the proposal in Parliament reputedly at small cost to themselves. The Regent's Canal Company had to be content with a more modest dock enlargement and in May 1864 the link was filled in.",
"Beardmore replaced the old timber Limehouse Lock with an \"economical structure\" which was wider and had arched sheets overhead to stop bulging, after the Dutch fashion.\n\nBritannia Bridge and Lock",
"Britannia Bridge and Lock\n\nBritannia Bridge is where the Commercial Road crosses the Cut. It was named after the Britannia Tavern (c.1770-1911), which can be found in Horwood's 1819 map and is visible in the image Limehouse in 1809 (above, \"Further widening\"), left background. The original bridge cramped the Cut and interrupted its towpath.",
"When the Limehouse Cut was connected to the Regent's Canal Dock (above), a potential hydraulic problem was created. Since the Limehouse Cut was tidal, but the Regent's Canal was not, at times water might escape from the Dock and move up the Cut. (Conversely, at other times water from the Cut might overfill the Dock.) To restrict the loss of water a new lock was built at Britannia Bridge",
".) To restrict the loss of water a new lock was built at Britannia Bridge. It was a double regulating lock, with gates pointing in both directions, and new wing walls so as to form, conjointly, a new and more spacious Bridge. Horses could pass along the new towpath underneath. The work was supervised jointly by Beardmore and the Regent Canal's engineer.",
"The lock gates were little used (\"they never were, nor could be, used to keep out the tidal water, which comes into the Cut through many channels\", wrote engineer Joe Child), and they were removed.\n\nThe new Bromley Lock\nBromley Lock was completely rebuilt in a slightly different position. Said Beardmore: The new lock was 137 feet long and 22 feet broad, with cills 11 feet below Trinity high water mark.",
"In 1888 Joe Child (one of Beardmore's successors) wrote: Bromley Lock was finally removed; according to Lee historian Richard Thomas, one gate can still be seen, behind the floating towpath.",
"Twentieth century modifications\nBow Locks were originally semi-tidal, as high spring tides flowed over the top of the locks, altering the level in the Limehouse Cut and the southern section of the Lee Navigation. They were modified in 2000, when a flood wall and an extra pair of flood gates were installed, enabling the lock to be used at all states of the tide and stabilising the level of the cut. Funding for the project was provided by the London Waterway Partnership.",
"Following the takeover of the canal by British Waterways in 1948, a vertical guillotine gate was fitted on the north side of Britannia Bridge but this was removed in the 1990s.",
"By the 1960s, the lock that connected the cut to the Thames was in need of replacement. It had been rebuilt in 1865, after the closing of the link to the Regents Canal Dock, and the design had included massive timber ties over the top of it to prevent bulging of the walls. These were eventually replaced with a steel cage, which served the same purpose",
". These were eventually replaced with a steel cage, which served the same purpose. Access to the lock from the cut and from the Thames was awkward, and the gates were operated by winches and chains as the site was too narrow to accommodate balance beams. At the time, there was significant commercial activity on the cut, which would have been severely disrupted by the construction of a new lock. The solution adopted was to reinstate a link to the Regents Canal Dock",
". The solution adopted was to reinstate a link to the Regents Canal Dock. The route used in the 1860s could not be reused, as it was now covered by buildings, and so a new length of canal, only about long, was built. The new link was opened on 1 April 1968, when the tug Miriam towed four lighters through it. The old lock was then filled in but one of the winches was saved and was put on display at Hampstead Lock.",
"Social and industrial history\n\nThe Island in the Cut and its mills\nJohn Cary's New and Accurate Plan of London of 1795 shows that, by that date, a portion of the canal, near its outlet at Limehouse, had been expanded to form a large basin, with an island in the middle marked \"Timber Yd\", accessible by a causeway. This was the first basin in Limehouse, built 25 years before the better known Regent's Canal dock which now bears that name.\n\nCharles Dingley's sawmill",
"Charles Dingley's sawmill\n\nIn Richard Horwood's 1819 map (extract reproduced here) the basin with Island are drawn to scale; nearby rows of houses are named 'Island Row' and 'Mill Place', respectively. Those streets still exist in Limehouse but the \"Island\" and the \"Mill\" themselves are largely forgotten. They originated as follows.",
"Charles Dingley was an entrepreneur and speculator who built, amongst many other things, the southern end of the Limehouse Cut. At that time wooden planks were expensive because they were sawn by hand, or imported ready sawn; in England there was hostility to sawmills, which were thought to be illegal. Dingley, who was also a major timber merchant, decided to defy convention by building a wind-powered sawmill",
". He bought up a \"stranglehold\" of land in Limehouse and built the sawmill strategically close to the line of the intended Cut, which he may have promoted with that very intention. It was the only sawmill in England and did good business.",
"However, on 10 May 1768—the day of the St George's Fields Massacre riots—a mob of 500 men, including hand-sawyers, attacked his sawmill and destroyed the machinery—anticipating the Luddite machine-smashers of later years. It caused Parliament to pass the Malicious Injury Act 1769 (9 Geo. 3. c. 29) making it a felony to vandalise mills. Dingley repaired his mill by 1769. Surviving records are consistent with the island and basin being constructed to isolate and protect the repaired sawmill.",
"The Island Lead Mills\n\n \nThe sawmill fell into disuse before 1806, but by 1817 a lead mill was built on the island, called The Island Lead Mills. It continued a thriving business into the twentieth century—it had one of the first telephones in the East End of London—and its barges used the Cut; the company ceased to exist only in 1982.",
"By about 1868, however, the expanding Regent's Canal Dock had encroached so that the Island was no longer strictly such, and further portions were filled in later in the nineteenth century. Even so, traces can still be discerned adjacent Victory Place, Limehouse, which is built on the site.\n\nBoatbuilding alongside Limehouse Cut",
"At Limehouse, across the Cut from the Island, was the boatyard of T & W Forrestt, builders to the Royal National Lifeboat Institution. The firm built the Institution's self-righting lifeboat, which they publicised by testing in the waters of the adjoining Cut. Reportedly these boats saved upwards of 12,000 lives. Other notable builds included the Admiralty's fast anti-torpedo boats powered by the noiseless Willans engine, and the yawl Rob Roy (one of the first vessels used in solo adventuring)",
". When it became urgent to send an expedition to the Sudan to rescue General Gordon the firm built and delivered, in less than a month, 100 boats to a special design for ascending the cataracts of the Nile.",
"Forrestt's yard was called Norway Yard, a name that survives in Norway Place. The image—an engraving in the Illustrated London News—shows the boatyard after its restoration from a disastrous 1858 fire. In the foreground is the London and Blackwall Railway with (in the distance) Stepney Station, now Limehouse DLR. The railway arches traverse Mill Place and Island Row. The Cut is visible at left centre. Across the Cut is the Island, with the Island Lead Mills (smoking chimney)",
". Across the Cut is the Island, with the Island Lead Mills (smoking chimney). The rigging in the background reveals shipping lying in the Thames (left) or in the Regent's Canal Dock (centre).",
"Stinkhouse Bridge\nBow Common Lane met the Cut at Stinkhouse Bridge, so called even in official documents. The name first appears in an 1819 map and in an 1826 magistrates' report listing the bridges of Middlesex.",
"It was a desolate area originally, recalled a local historian, so chemical manufacturers went there for the opportunity to pollute. Hence the stench and the name. A subsidiary cause was filth from the notorious Black Ditch—a medieval sewer, originating in Spitalfields and discharging its waste in Limekiln Dock. At this place an open ditch, it had been fed under the Cut by a syphon, but it overflowed in stormy weather. More than once Stinkhouse Bridge required the attention of Joseph Bazalgette himself",
". More than once Stinkhouse Bridge required the attention of Joseph Bazalgette himself. \"The smell is so bad that sometimes we cannot sleep in our beds\", complained an 1856 petition. The main cause of the stink, thought Bazalgette, was factories discharging effluent into the Cut.",
"As time went by Stinkhouse Bridge became the nucleus of \"the largest chemical and inflammable factories in London\": the district was a fire risk. In 1866 it caught fire at last. So tremendous was the blaze that, reportedly, every unit in the London Fire Brigade knew to turn out—and where to go—just by \"the great light in the sky\". Many people jumped into the Cut to avoid being burned to death.",
"About 200 yards up the Cut was the RNLI's storeyard. Lifeboats were kept there prior to release to service. Before that, they were sunk in the waters of the Cut to test their self-righting powers, as shown. The tests also required men to stand on a gunwale until it was submerged. Across the Cut began the notorious Fenian Barracks slum area, see below.",
"There are many reports of individuals trying to end their lives by jumping off Stinkhouse Bridge. In 1909 Coroner Wynne Baxter remarked that he had held inquests on over 50 suicides there. In a derisory attempt to enhance its image it was renamed Lavender Bridge. So dirty was the water that when a local labourer dived in to save a woman trying to drown herself, the magistrate awarded him special compensation from the poor box.",
"The bridge was rebuilt in 1929. It continued to be a well known East End placename even after the stink had gone. In Call the Midwife: A True Story of the East End in the 1950s the runaway Irish girl Mary lingers at Stinkhouse Bridge. \"It was pleasant standing by the bridge, looking down at the moving water.\"\n\nBathing\nIn 1833 the Limehouse Cut was the place most frequented for bathing, an East London magistrate told Parliament. The authorities tried to ban the practice for indecency.",
"Pollution. The cholera and smallpox controversies.\n\nThe Cut becomes an open sewer\n\nUntil about 1815 it was illegal to discharge human waste except into cesspools; \"sewers\" originally were for rainwater. Then the practice gradually changed and in 1846 it became compulsory to drain houses into sewers. Sewers had always discharged into the Thames, and so Limehouse Cut itself became another sewer — in the modern sense — and, when population and industries crowded around its banks, a \"very filthy\" one.",
"William Farr wrote that in 1849 some houses near the Lea had no drinking-water supply, so the poor were forced to dip their pails in the Limehouse Cut. Apart from the chemical waste, he said, \"the canal is a receptacle for dead dogs, cats, and other small animals, frequently seen floating on the discoloured waters; and on every occasion of opening the locks at Bromley there is a rush of floating scum into the Lea'. Amongst those who drank the water, deaths by cholera were observed.",
"As population increased the Lee itself became polluted with sewage, as did the Thames: the sewage was brought in by the tides and locked in the Cut, where it accumulated. In 1866 the Lee Navigation's engineer agreed that in hot dry weather the Cut was \"An open continuous cesspit ... As foul as it could be.\". In 1877 it was complained the layer of sediment was several feet thick.",
"Cholera epidemic",
"In 1866 there was a major cholera epidemic in East London. Conventional medicine (the miasma theory) blamed polluted air, so there was an outcry against the Limehouse Cut. However, The Lancet appointed a sanitary commission who plotted the cases on a large map and discovered that living near (or far from) the canal had nothing to do with the risk of dying of the disease. They were led to reject the miasma explanation and to suspect the drinking-water",
". They were led to reject the miasma explanation and to suspect the drinking-water. It was afterwards proved that faecally contaminated water had got into the East London Waterworks Company's supply and been pumped to households — a step in medical science towards rejecting the miasma theory and establishing the currently accepted germ theory of disease.",
"But Thomas Orton, the Limehouse medical officer of health, was not a convert. In his district, he said, \"water-drinkers\" (teetotallers) scarcely ever got the cholera: it must be the bad air from the canals.\n\nThe smallpox hospital",
"In 1876 there was a smallpox outbreak in London and the authorities struggled to find suitable hospital accommodation. Some patients were placed in a hospital in Hampstead but this attracted the ire of local residents; one of them, Sir Rowland Hill, sued. The authorities then rented the disused Silver factory - sandwiched between the Limehouse Cut and Dod Street - and made plans to convert it into a hospital",
". It infuriated East Enders that West End bureaucrats should send smallpox patients to a crowded working district in Limehouse (\"Another opportunity for the West to look down on and revile the denizens of the East\" sneered the East London Observer) and there were demonstrations in Trafalgar Square and threats of violence.",
"Samuel Charlesworth, Rector of St Anne's Limehouse, wrote that it was a very bad place for patients anyway. Highly insalubrious, it had no ventilation \"to move the fog often settling there, except the current of offensive vapour moving up and down the fœtid canal.\" He, the Rev. Charleswoth, knew the Cut was unhealthy because he lived next to it himself; his children \"when at home always fail in health\". Opposite, six children of one family had died in one month — of some blood infection",
". Opposite, six children of one family had died in one month — of some blood infection. Their coffins had been superposed in the same grave.",
"Cleanup\nBut the cleanup of Limehouse Cut was already underway. It worked for two reasons: Bazalgette's strategic system of intercepting sewers; and an Act of Parliament which gave the Lee Conservancy Board powers to pursue polluters — for this purpose the Limehouse Cut was deemed to be part of the Lee — and to dredge sewage. In the Cut, already by 1877 the Board had closed down 36 private sewers. By the end of the century its dredgers were removing 40 tons of sediment a day.",
"The Burdett Road Bridge enclave",
"In 1819 the Cut ran through open countryside from Bromley lock to Britannia Bridge, Commercial Road. There was no way of crossing this except at Stinkhouse Bridge. To the northwest, see map, was the Patent Cable Works, a long ropewalk founded by Captain Joseph Huddart where was made his twice-as-strong ship's cable",
". In due course the area was built up, the Cable Works closed and in 1858 its line was used to construct the \"Victoria Park Approach Road\" — soon renamed Burdett Road after philanthropist Angela Burdett-Coutts. A new bridge had to be made over the Cut. For the sake of the barge traffic Parliament required the bridge to allow headroom of at least \"Eight Feet above High Water Mark, Trinity Standard\".",
"Dod Street and socialism\nDod Street, on the corner by Burdett Road Bridge and whose factories overlooked the Cut, was built and named by 1861. It first attracted public attention in the smallpox hospital controversy (above) and then as a site for Sunday political meetings. Socialists like John Burns, Amie Hicks, Henry Hyndman Eleanor Marx, William Morris and George Bernard Shaw, among others, were speakers there.\n\nThe Dod Street trick",
"Dod Street gave rise to the expression \"the Dod Street trick\" used in socialist politics. The police felt these meetings were subversive and sought to prevent them by arresting demonstrators for highway obstruction. Since there was no traffic to obstruct — it was a street of canal-side factories on a Sunday — the police were perceived as denying freedom of speech.",
"The Dod Street trick, devised to counter this, was thus described by Bernard Shaw: which is what happened. Public indignation gathered enormous crowds of people — only a very few of which were socialists — and they were let alone.",
"The image captioned The law blacks William Morris' boots is a political caricature mocking class justice and Morris' genteel socialism. At a trial in Arbour Square magistrates court, plebeian demonstrators had been found guilty and punished, but Morris was only dismissed with a warning",
". It symbolically has the law blacking Morris' boots in Dod Street — his foot rests on comrades who did get jail time or \"smarting\" fines — while on his banner is an ironical reference to his high-flown poem The Earthly Paradise.",
"Detail image\n\nThe cartoon captioned Dod Street Demonstrations contains an inset which, though incidentally, illustrates the area in late Victorian times. The detail is reproduced here. The points towards Limehouse Cut.\n\nIn the left foreground is the rubber factory of Abbott, Anderson & Abbott who made the capes for the Metropolitan Police and oilskins for the Royal Navy.",
"The last building on the left — the one with the double lamps — is the \"Silver Tavern\" public house, informal headquarters of the East End Football Association, in which played such teams as Millwall Rovers, Tottenham Hotspur and the East End mission of Eton College.",
"In the distance is St Anne's Limehouse, while at the bottom of the street can be seen the Burdett Road horse-drawn tramway — a tram has just crossed the Bridge. Across Burdett Road begins the notorious St Anne Street Rookery, described below.\n\nThe last building on the right is a warehouse soon to become the Outcasts' Haven (below).\n\nCutting edge industry",
"Taking up most of the north side of Dod Street and backing onto the Limehouse Cut was the highly innovative H. Herrmann factory. Opened in 1877 by American Henry Herrmann, it made hardwood furniture and was the first in England to do so almost entirely by machine. Its stock of timber — easily imported by water — was described in the East London Observer as \"something enormous\", yet swiftly turned into good furniture \"at the lowest possible prices\"",
". Handled by a steam crane — risky in timber yards — the whole factory burned down in a colossal fire in 1887. (The fire got dangerously close to the East London Saltpetre Works, until extinguished by the Fire Brigade's floating engines on the Cut). Herrmann rebuilt the factory and introduced one of the world's first electric travelling cranes to save on the steep insurance premiums. As there was no electrical supply in London, he generated his own, and had the factory electrically lit.",
"At Herrmann's in 1884, while planning his London bombing campaign, worked Irish-American dynamitard Harry Burton; he lodged round the corner in Pelling Street.\n\nThe Fire Brigade continued to use floating fire engines on the Cut (\"fire boats\") until at least 1929.\n\nThe Outcasts' Haven",
"The Outcasts' Haven\n\nIn a disused warehouse at 1A Dod Street, opposite the Silver Tavern, was the Outcasts' Haven. According to Charles Dickens Jr., the first rule of the establishment was this: Any policeman on the beat \"who finds some poor outcast shrinking from the flash of his lantern\", wrote Dickens, knew to send the child to Dod Street.",
"But, according to an exposé in the investigative journal Truth, it was part of a charity scam. Run by a man called Walter Austin and his mistress Frances Napton (\"the Lady Superintendent\"), the charity put on stunts (see illustration), sent out heart-rending appeals, collected large donations, but kept no proper accounts. While it did spend some money on homeless children, its proprietor lived well.",
"Victorian recycling",
"East End refuse collectors — called \"dustmen\", because households produced much coal ash — took the product to two yards on the Limehouse Cut, where it was hand-sorted into separate hills by gangs of old men, women and boys",
". The ash and breeze was sent by barge to Kent, where it was made into bricks; the rags, bones and metal were sold to \"marine-store dealers\"; the old tin was sold to trunk-makers; the old bricks and oyster shells were sold to builders and road-makers; the old boots were sold to Prussian blue manufacturers; the money and jewellery were kept.",
"The Copenhagen Wharf recycling facility can just be discerned in the 1886 photograph (left background). The scene is a few yards west of Burdett Road bridge. In the centre is Hirsch's Copenhagen Oil Mills, where seeds were crushed to make oil. Dumb barges are moored in the foreground. To the right is the Victoria Lead Works.\n\nRookeries\nA rookery was a slum area whose inhabitants aggressively and cooperatively opposed law enforcement.\n\nSt Anne's Street Rookery",
"St Anne's Street Rookery\n\nAcross Burdett Road was St Anne's Rookery, \"a vile quarter lying between Limehouse Church and Limehouse-cut\". Marked black on Charles Booth's poverty maps — the colour coding denoted \"Lowest class. Vicious, semi-criminal\" — it was one of the few slums alongside the Cut; usually, the land was too valuable for housing.",
"This notorious enclave, into which a policeman might be dragged by a mob, continually featured in newspaper reports. It included St Anne Street, where a man starved his wife in \"peculiarly horrible\" circumstances (1872); and Merchant's Row, where a labourer kicked his mother to death (1897). Law enforcement could be dangerous.\n\nThe Fenian Barracks",
"The Fenian Barracks\n\nEven more dangerous to police was the district near Stinkhouse Bridge bounded by Limehouse Cut to the south and centred on Furze Street. Charles Booth's police informants called it the Fenian Barracks, which \"sent more police to hospital than any other block in London and in which only Irish were tolerated to settle\".",
"George H. Duckworth, one of Booth's researchers, wrote that the Barracks was about the worst district in London — \"three policemen wounded there last week\". According to his informant Inspector Carter, if they attempted an arrest \"a rescue is always organized. They fling brick bats, iron, any thing they can lay their hands on.\" As was typical for rookeries, adjoining houses had internal passages designed for eluding police pursuit",
". Summarised Duckworth: In contrast, rent collectors went about the district in broad daylight wearing top hats and black coats and carrying umbrellas.",
"A fat refinery alongside the canal attracted visitors who, said Inspector Carter, were more terrifying than the human inhabitants: \n\nThe East End was surveyed again in 1929 by researchers from the London School of Economics who found that, though the level of destitution in East London was now only about one-third as high as in Charles Booth's time, the Fenian Barracks area was still an ugly pocket of chronic poverty.\n\nCaird & Rayner",
"At 777 Commercial Road, opposite Limehouse Church, and backing onto the Limehouse Cut, stands a derelict building bearing the faded sign V.I.P. Garage. Originally (1869) a ships chandler's, with the best surviving example of a sail loft in Docklands, it was then extended to the east and formed the workshop and offices of Caird & Rayner. This firm specialised in desalination apparatus, crucial for maintaining ship's boilers — and drinking water — on long sea voyages",
". Patented in 1888, their apparatus was fitted on dreadnoughts, British and Japanese battleships, Cunard liners, and \"the Czar's new yacht\". A specimen is in the Science Museum. Water from the Cut was used for testing the equipment. The firm moved in 1972.",
"In 2000 the building was listed, both for its historical and architectural interest. The engineering workshop is a very early example of fully steel structural framework, probably the only surviving one in London.\n\nNational politics\nOn 25 January 1981 the Gang of Four stood on the bridge over former Limehouse Lock and issued the Limehouse Declaration.\n\nOther names\nLimehouse Cut has been known by other or alternative names:\n\nToday",
"Other names\nLimehouse Cut has been known by other or alternative names:\n\nToday \n\nMost use of the canal is for pleasure, both on the water and beside the water on the towpaths. Regent's Canal, the Hertford Union Canal, the Lee Navigation and the Limehouse Cut form a four-sided loop, covering a distance of , which can be walked or cycled. The scenic towpaths cut across roads and railways in the area, providing a distinct viewpoint.",
"Access on foot along the Limehouse Cut was difficult in the area below the Blackwall Tunnel approach road, but was made easier as a result of an innovative scheme to create a floating towpath. This was opened in July 2003 and consisted of 60 floating pontoons, creating a walkway complete with green glowing edges.",
"The Cut is part of the Lee Navigation and is administered by the Canal & River Trust. It was built for sailing barges, and can accommodate vessels which are . Headroom is limited to . The lock from Limehouse Basin to the Thames was originally a ship lock, but has been replaced with a smaller one",
". Although the area around Limehouse Basin and the original lock into the Thames have been extensively developed as part of the Docklands Regeneration scheme, the row of houses overlooking the lock, which were built in 1883 by the Lee Conservators, have been retained and refurbished, while the site of the lock is now a shallow pool. At the end of the London 2012 torch relay, David Beckham arrived with the Olympic torch on a speedboat via the Limehouse Cut to the Olympic opening ceremony.",
"Points of interest\n\nSee also \n\n Spratt's Complex, an adjacent warehouse conversion including a large building called Limehouse Cut\n Canals of the United Kingdom\n History of the British canal system\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nSources\n\nBooks, journals, conference papers and web encyclopaedias\n\nActs of Parliament and law reports\n (\"Lee Navigation Improvement Act 1766\") \n (\"Lee Navigation Improvement Act 1850\")\n (\"River Lee Water Act, 1855\")\n (\"\"Victoria Park Approach Act, 1858\")\n\nMaps",
"Maps\n\nNewspaper and magazine reports\nNote: Newspapers that are not free-to-view (blue link) are mostly accessible at the British Newspaper Archive (subscription required).\n\nTools\n\nExternal links \n\n Limehouse Cut – a history\nOld Ford to Limehouse Basin (Video in rapid motion showing part of the Lee Navigation and the whole of Limehouse Cut)\nAt Caird & Rayner (detailed history of the firm with numerous photographs)",
"Buildings and structures in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets\nCanals in London\nCanals opened in 1769\nGeography of the London Borough of Tower Hamlets\nLee Navigation\nLimehouse\nPoplar, London\nBow Common\nBow\nBromley-by-Bow\nTransport in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets\nTransport in the London Borough of Newham"
] |
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