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Otherwise the reception was warm - the development environment is preferred to CodeWarrior, the IDE is based on Java so there are some speed and memory concerns, the IDE is often slow and has a pretty big memory foot print, all trademarks of the Java environment. Carbide.c++ has made steady progress in addressing issues brought up by the developer community. CodeWarrior usage has dropped off significantly due to improvements in Carbide and CodeWarrior's lack of support for the newer versions of Symbian OS. References
External links
Nokia-specific SDKs
An alternative - Symbian OS development within Apple's XCode IDE
Symbian C++ - Nokia Developer Wiki
Free mobile software
Symbian OS
C++ software | [
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Melvin Dresher (born Dreszer; March 13, 1911 – June 4, 1992) was a Polish-born American mathematician, notable for developing, with Merrill Flood, the game theoretical model of cooperation and conflict known as the Prisoner's dilemma while at RAND in 1950 (Albert W. Tucker gave the game its prison-sentence interpretation, and thus the name by which it is known today). Dresher came to the United States in 1923. He obtained his B.S. from Lehigh University in 1933 and his Ph.D. from Yale University in 1937; the title of his dissertation was "Multi-Groups: A Generalisation of the Notion of Group." Dresher worked as instructor of mathematics, Michigan State College, 1938–1941; statistician, War Production Board, 1941–1944; mathematical physicist, National Defense Research Committee, 1944–1946; professor of mathematics, Catholic University, 1946–1947; research mathematician, RAND, from 1948. He was the author of several RAND research papers on game theory, and his widely acclaimed The Mathematics of Games of Strategy: Theory and Applications (originally published in 1961 as Games of Strategy: Theory and Applications) continues to be read today. Dresher's research has been referred to and discussed in a variety of published books, including Prisoner's Dilemma by William Poundstone and A Beautiful Mind by Sylvia Nasar. References
Obituary, July 2, 1992 issue of the Palisadian-Post newspaper (Pacific Palisades, California). "In Remembrance", July 9, 1992 issue of RAND Items (a biweekly publication for employees of RAND). | [
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1911 births
1992 deaths
Game theorists
Yale University alumni
RAND Corporation people
20th-century American mathematicians
American people of Polish-Jewish descent
Polish emigrants to the United States
People from Krasnystaw | [
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A wireless ad hoc network (WANET) or mobile ad hoc network (MANET) is a decentralized type of wireless network. The network is ad hoc because it does not rely on a pre-existing infrastructure, such as routers in wired networks or access points in wireless networks. Instead, each node participates in routing by forwarding data for other nodes, so the determination of which nodes forward data is made dynamically on the basis of network connectivity and the routing algorithm in use. In the Windows operating system, ad hoc is a communication mode (setting) that allows computers to directly communicate with each other without a router. Wireless mobile ad hoc networks are self-configuring, dynamic networks in which nodes are free to move. Such wireless networks lack the complexities of infrastructure setup and administration, enabling devices to create and join networks "on the fly". Each device in a MANET is free to move independently in any direction, and will therefore change its links to other devices frequently. Each must forward traffic unrelated to its own use, and therefore be a router. The primary challenge in building a MANET is equipping each device to continuously maintain the information required to properly route traffic. This becomes harder as the scale of the MANET increases due to 1) the desire to route packets to/through every other node, 2) the percentage of overhead traffic needed to maintain real-time routing status, 3) each node has its own goodput to route independent and unaware of others needs, and 4) all must share limited communication bandwidth, such as a slice of radio spectrum. | [
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Such networks may operate by themselves or may be connected to the larger Internet. They may contain one or multiple and different transceivers between nodes. This results in a highly dynamic, autonomous topology. MANETs usually have a routable networking environment on top of a link layer ad hoc network. History on packet radio
The earliest wireless data network was called PRNET, the packet radio network, and was sponsored by Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) in the early 1970s. Bolt, Beranek and Newman Inc. (BBN) and SRI International designed, built, and experimented with these earliest systems. Experimenters included Robert Kahn, Jerry Burchfiel, and Ray Tomlinson. Similar experiments took place in the amateur radio community with the x25 protocol. These early packet radio systems predated the Internet, and indeed were part of the motivation of the original Internet Protocol suite. Later DARPA experiments included the Survivable Radio Network (SURAN) project, which took place in the 1980s. A successor to these systems was fielded in the mid-1990s for the US Army, and later other nations, as the Near-term digital radio. Another third wave of academic and research activity started in the mid-1990s with the advent of inexpensive 802.11 radio cards for personal computers. Current wireless ad hoc networks are designed primarily for military utility. Problems with packet radios are: (1) bulky elements, (2) slow data rate, (3) unable to maintain links if mobility is high. The project did not proceed much further until the early 1990s when wireless ad hoc networks were born. | [
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Early work on MANET
The growth of laptops and 802.11/Wi-Fi wireless networking have made MANETs a popular research topic since the mid-1990s. Many academic papers evaluate protocols and their abilities, assuming varying degrees of mobility within a bounded space, usually with all nodes within a few hops of each other. Different protocols are then evaluated based on measures such as the packet drop rate, the overhead introduced by the routing protocol, end-to-end packet delays, network throughput, ability to scale, etc. In the early 1990s, Charles Perkins from SUN Microsystems USA, and Chai Keong Toh from Cambridge University separately started to work on a different Internet, that of a wireless ad hoc network. Perkins was working on the dynamic addressing issues. Toh worked on a new routing protocol, which was known as ABR – associativity-based routing. Perkins eventually proposed DSDV – Destination Sequence Distance Vector routing, which was based on distributed distance vector routing. Toh's proposal was an on-demand based routing, i.e. routes are discovered on-the-fly in real-time as and when needed. ABR was submitted to IETF as RFCs. ABR was implemented successfully into Linux OS on Lucent WaveLAN 802.11a enabled laptops and a practical ad hoc mobile network was therefore proven to be possible in 1999. Another routing protocol known as AODV was subsequently introduced and later proven and implemented in 2005. In 2007, David Johnson and Dave Maltz proposed DSR – Dynamic Source Routing. | [
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Applications
The decentralized nature of wireless ad hoc networks makes them suitable for a variety of applications where central nodes can't be relied on and may improve the scalability of networks compared to wireless managed networks, though theoretical and practical limits to the overall capacity of such networks have been identified. Minimal configuration and quick deployment make ad hoc networks suitable for emergency situations like natural disasters or military conflicts. The presence of dynamic and adaptive routing protocols enables ad hoc networks to be formed quickly. Wireless ad hoc networks can be further classified by their applications:
Mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs)
A mobile ad hoc network (MANET) is a continuously self-configuring, self-organizing, infrastructure-less network of mobile devices connected without wires. It is sometimes known as "on-the-fly" networks or "spontaneous networks". Vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs)
VANETs are used for communication between vehicles and roadside equipment. Intelligent vehicular ad hoc networks (InVANETs) are a kind of artificial intelligence that helps vehicles to behave in intelligent manners during vehicle-to-vehicle collisions, accidents. Vehicles are using radio waves to communicate with each other, creating communication networks instantly on-the-fly while vehicles move along roads. VANET needs to be secured with lightweight protocols. Smartphone ad hoc networks (SPANs)
A SPAN leverages existing hardware (primarily Wi-Fi and Bluetooth) and software (protocols) in commercially available smartphones to create peer-to-peer networks without relying on cellular carrier networks, wireless access points, or traditional network infrastructure. | [
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SPANs differ from traditional hub and spoke networks, such as Wi-Fi Direct, in that they support multi-hop relays and there is no notion of a group leader so peers can join and leave at will without destroying the network. Most recently, Apple's iPhone with version 8.4 iOS and higher have been enabled with multi-peer ad hoc mesh networking capability, in iPhones, allowing millions of smart phones to create ad hoc networks without relying on cellular communications. It has been claimed that this is going to "change the world". Wireless mesh networks
Mesh networks take their name from the topology of the resultant network. In a fully connected mesh, each node is connected to every other node, forming a "mesh". A partial mesh, by contrast, has a topology in which some nodes are not connected to others, although this term is seldom in use. Wireless ad hoc networks can take the form of a mesh networks or others. A wireless ad hoc network does not have fixed topology, and its connectivity among nodes is totally dependent on the behavior of the devices, their mobility patterns, distance with each other, etc. Hence, wireless mesh networks are a particular type of wireless ad hoc networks, with special emphasis on the resultant network topology. While some wireless mesh networks (particularly those within a home) have relatively infrequent mobility and thus infrequent link breaks, other more mobile mesh networks require frequent routing adjustments to account for lost links. | [
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Army tactical MANETs
Military or tactical MANETs are used by military units with emphasis on data rate, real-time requirement, fast re-routing during mobility, data security, radio range, and integration with existing systems. Common radio waveforms include the US Army's JTRS SRW, Persistent System's WaveRelay and the Domo Tactical Communications (DTC) MeshUltra Tactical Waveform. Ad hoc mobile communications come in well to fulfill this need, especially its infrastructureless nature, fast deployment and operation. Military MANETs are used by military units with emphasis on rapid deployment, infrastructureless, all-wireless networks (no fixed radio towers), robustness (link breaks are no problem), security, range, and instant operation. Air Force UAV Ad hoc networks
Flying ad hoc networks (FANETs) are composed of unmanned aerial vehicles, allowing great mobility and providing connectivity to remote areas. Unmanned aerial vehicle, is an aircraft with no pilot on board. UAVs can be remotely controlled (i.e., flown by a pilot at a ground control station) or can fly autonomously based on pre-programmed flight plans. Civilian usage of UAV include modeling 3D terrains, package delivery (Logistics), etc. UAVs have also been used by US Air Force for data collection and
situation sensing, without risking the pilot in a foreign unfriendly environment. With wireless ad hoc network technology embedded into the UAVs, multiple UAVs can communicate with each other and work as a team, collaboratively to complete a task and mission. If a UAV is destroyed by an enemy, its data can be quickly offloaded wirelessly to other neighboring UAVs. | [
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The UAV ad hoc communication network is also sometimes referred to UAV instant sky network. More generally, aerial MANET in UAVs are now (as of 2021) successfully implemented and operational as mini tactical reconnaissance ISR UAVs like the BRAMOR C4EYE from Slovenia. Navy ad hoc networks
Navy ships traditionally use satellite communications and other maritime radios to communicate with each other or with ground station back on land. However, such communications are restricted by delays and limited bandwidth. Wireless ad hoc networks enable ship-area-networks to be formed while at sea, enabling high speed wireless communications among ships, enhancing their sharing of imaging and multimedia data, and better co-ordination in battlefield operations. Some defense companies (such as Rockwell Collins and Rohde & Schwartz) have produced products that enhance ship-to-ship and ship-to-shore communications. Wireless sensor networks
Sensors are useful devices that collect information related to a specific parameter, such as noise, temperature, humidity, pressure, etc. Sensors are increasingly connected via wireless to allow large scale collection of sensor data. With a large sample of sensor data, analytics processing can be used to make sense out of these data. The connectivity of wireless sensor networks rely on the principles behind wireless ad hoc networks, since sensors can now be deploy without any fixed radio towers, and they can now form networks on-the-fly. "Smart Dust" was one of the early projects done at U C Berkeley, where tiny radios were used to interconnect smart dust. More recently, mobile wireless sensor networks (MWSNs) have also become an area of academic interest. | [
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Ad hoc network of robots
Robots are mechanical systems that drive automation and perform chores that would seem difficult for humans. Efforts have been made to co-ordinate and control a group of robots to undertake collaborative work to complete a task. Centralized control is often based on a "star" approach, where robots take turns to talk to the controller station. However, with wireless ad hoc networks, robots can form a communication network on-the-fly, i.e., robots can now "talk" to each other and collaborate in a distributed fashion. With a network of robots, the robots can communicate among themselves, share local information, and distributively decide how to resolve a task in the most effective and efficient way. Disaster rescue ad hoc network
Another civilian use of wireless ad hoc network is public safety. At times of disasters (floods, storms, earthquakes, fires, etc. ), a quick and instant wireless communication network is necessary. Especially at times of earthquakes when radio towers had collapsed or were destroyed, wireless ad hoc networks can be formed independently. Firemen and rescue workers can use ad hoc networks to communicate and rescue those injured. Commercial radios with such capability are available on the market. Hospital ad hoc network
Wireless ad hoc networks allow sensors, videos, instruments, and other devices to be deployed and interconnected wirelessly for clinic and hospital patient monitoring, doctor and nurses alert notification, and also making senses of such data quickly at fusion points, so that lives can be saved. | [
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Data monitoring and mining
MANETS can be used for facilitating the collection of sensor data for data mining for a variety of applications such as air pollution monitoring and different types of architectures can be used for such applications. A key characteristic of such applications is that nearby sensor nodes monitoring an environmental feature typically register similar values. This kind of data redundancy due to the spatial correlation between sensor observations inspires the techniques for in-network data aggregation and mining. By measuring the spatial correlation between data sampled by different sensors, a wide class of specialized algorithms can be developed to develop more efficient spatial data mining algorithms as well as more efficient routing strategies. Also, researchers have developed performance models for MANET to apply queueing theory. Adaptive video streaming in ad hoc networks
The use of an adaptive strategy when transmitting video can help to reduce network congestion and packet loss. By using SVC, the video source is able to adjust bit rate according to available bandwidth. Challenges
Several books and works have revealed the technical and research challenges facing wireless ad hoc networks or MANETs. The advantages for users, the technical difficulties in implementation, and the side effect on radio spectrum pollution can be briefly summarized below:
Advantages for users
The obvious appeal of MANETs is that the network is decentralised and nodes/devices are mobile, that is to say there is no fixed infrastructure which provides the possibility for numerous applications in different areas such as environmental monitoring [1], [2], disaster relief [3]–[5] and military communications [3]. | [
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Since the early 2000s interest in MANETs has greatly increased which, in part, is due to the fact mobility can improve network capacity, shown by Grossglauser and Tse along with the introduction of new technologies. One main advantage to a decentralised network is that they are typically more robust than centralised networks due to the multi-hop fashion in which information is relayed. For example, in the cellular network setting, a drop in coverage occurs if a base station stops working, however the chance of a single point of failure in a MANET is reduced significantly since the data can take multiple paths. Since the MANET architecture evolves with time it has the potential to resolve issues such as
isolation/disconnection from the network. Further advantages of MANETS over networks with a fixed topology include flexibility (an ad hoc network can be created anywhere with mobile devices), scalability (you can easily add more nodes to the network) and lower administration costs (no need to build an infrastructure first). In summary:
Highly performing network. No expensive infrastructure must be installed
Quick distribution of information around sender
No single point of failure. multi hop
scalability
Implementation difficulties
With a time evolving network it is clear we should expect variations in network performance due to no fixed architecture (no fixed connections). Furthermore, since network topology determines interference and thus connectivity, the mobility pattern of devices within the network will impact on network performance, possibly resulting in data having to be resent a lot of times (increased delay) and finally allocation of network resources such as power remains unclear. | [
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Finally, finding a model that accurately represents human mobility whilst remaining mathematically tractable remains an open problem due to the large range of factors that influence it. Some typical models used include the random walk, random waypoint and levy flight models. In summary:
All network entities may be mobile, so a very dynamic topology is needed. Network functions must have a high degree of adaptability. There are no central entities, so operations must be managed in a completely distributed manner. Battery constraints
Side effects
Use of unlicensed frequency spectrum, contributing to radio spectrum pollution. Radios and Modulation
Wireless ad hoc networks can operate over different types of radios. All radios use modulation to move information over a certain bandwidth of radio frequencies. Given the need to move large amounts of information quickly over long distances, a MANET radio channel ideally has large bandwidth (e.g. amount of radio spectrum), lower frequencies, and higher power. Given the desire to communicate with many other nodes ideally simultaneously, many channels are needed. Given radio spectrum is shared and regulated, there is less bandwidth available at lower frequencies. Processing many radio channels requires many resources. Given the need for mobility, small size and lower power consumption are very important. Picking a MANET radio and modulation has many trade-offs; many start with the specific frequency and bandwidth they are allowed to use. Radios can be UHF (300 – 3000 MHz), SHF (3 – 30 GHz), and EHF (30 – 300 GHz). Wi-Fi ad hoc uses the unlicensed ISM 2.4 GHz radios. | [
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They can also be used on 5.8 GHz radios. The higher the frequency, such as those of 300 GHz, absorption of the signal will be more predominant. Army tactical radios usually employ a variety of UHF and SHF radios, including those of VHF to provide a variety of communication modes. At the 800, 900, 1200, 1800 MHz range, cellular radios are predominant. Some cellular radios use ad hoc communications to extend cellular range to areas and devices not reachable by the cellular base station. Next generation Wi-Fi known as 802.11ax provides low delay, high capacity (up to 10Gbit/s) and low packet loss rate, offering 12 streams – 8 streams at 5 GHz and 4 streams at 2.4 GHz. IEEE 802.11ax uses 8x8 MU-MIMO, OFDMA, and 80 MHz channels. Hence, 802.11ax has the ability to form high capacity Wi-Fi ad hoc networks. At 60 GHz, there is another form of Wi-Fi known as WiGi – wireless gigabit. This has the ability to offer up to 7Gbit/s throughput. Currently, WiGi is targeted to work with 5G cellular networks. Circa 2020, the general consensus finds the 'best' modulation for moving information over higher frequency waves to be Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing, as used in 4G LTE, 5G, and Wi-Fi. Protocol stack
The challenges affecting MANETs span from various layers of the OSI protocol stack. The media access layer (MAC) has to be improved to resolve collisions and hidden terminal problems. The network layer routing protocol has to be improved to resolve dynamically changing network topologies and broken routes. | [
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The transport layer protocol has to be improved to handle lost or broken connections. The session layer protocol has to deal with discovery of servers and services. A major limitation with mobile nodes is that they have high mobility, causing links to be frequently broken and reestablished. Moreover, the bandwidth of a wireless channel is also limited, and nodes operate on limited battery power, which will eventually be exhausted. These factors make the design of a mobile ad hoc network challenging. The cross-layer design deviates from the traditional network design approach in which each layer of the stack would be made to operate independently. The modified transmission power will help that node to dynamically vary its propagation range at the physical layer. This is because the propagation distance is always directly proportional to transmission power. This information is passed from the physical layer to the network layer so that it can take optimal decisions in routing protocols. A major advantage of this protocol is that it allows access of information between physical layer and top layers (MAC and network layer). Some elements of the software stack were developed to allow code updates in situ, i.e., with the nodes embedded in their physical environment and without needing to bring the nodes back into the lab facility. Such software updating relied on epidemic mode of dissemination of information and had to be done both efficiently (few network transmissions) and fast. Routing
Routing in wireless ad hoc networks or MANETs generally falls into three categories, namely: (a) proactive routing, (b) reacting routing, and (c) hybrid routing. | [
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Proactive routing
This type of protocols maintains fresh lists of destinations and their routes by periodically distributing routing tables throughout the network. The main disadvantages of such algorithms are:
Respective amount of data for maintenance. Slow reaction on restructuring and failures. Example: Optimized Link State Routing Protocol (OLSR)
Distance vector routing
As in a fix net nodes maintain routing tables. Distance-vector protocols are based on calculating the direction and distance to any link in a network. "Direction" usually means the next hop address and the exit interface. "Distance" is a measure of the cost to reach a certain node. The least cost route between any two nodes is the route with minimum distance. Each node maintains a vector (table) of minimum distance to every node. The cost of reaching a destination is calculated using various route metrics. RIP uses the hop count of the destination whereas IGRP takes into account other information such as node delay and available bandwidth. Reactive routing
This type of protocol finds a route based on user and traffic demand by flooding the network with Route Request or Discovery packets. The main disadvantages of such algorithms are:
High latency time in route finding. Excessive flooding can lead to network clogging. However, clustering can be used to
limit flooding. The latency incurred during route discovery is not significant compared to
periodic route update exchanges by all nodes in the network. Example: Ad hoc On-Demand Distance Vector Routing (AODV)
Flooding
Is a simple routing algorithm in which every incoming packet is sent through every outgoing link except the one it arrived on. | [
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Flooding is used in bridging and in systems such as Usenet and peer-to-peer file sharing and as part of some routing protocols, including OSPF, DVMRP, and those used in wireless ad hoc networks. Hybrid routing
This type of protocol combines the advantages of proactive and reactive routing. The routing is initially established with some proactively prospected routes and then serves the demand from additionally activated nodes through reactive flooding. The choice of one or the other method requires predetermination for typical cases. The main disadvantages of such algorithms are:
Advantage depends on number of other nodes activated. Reaction to traffic demand depends on gradient of traffic volume. Example: Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP)
Position-based routing
Position-based routing methods use information on the exact locations of the nodes. This information is obtained for example via a GPS receiver. Based on the exact location the best path between source and destination nodes can be determined. Example: "Location-Aided Routing in mobile ad hoc networks" (LAR)
Technical requirements for implementation
An ad hoc network is made up of multiple "nodes" connected by "links." Links are influenced by the node's resources (e.g., transmitter power, computing power and memory) and behavioral properties (e.g., reliability), as well as link properties (e.g. length-of-link and signal loss, interference and noise). Since links can be connected or disconnected at any time, a functioning network must be able to cope with this dynamic restructuring, preferably in a way that is timely, efficient, reliable, robust, and scalable. | [
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The network must allow any two nodes to communicate by relaying the information via other nodes. A "path" is a series of links that connects two nodes. Various routing methods use one or two paths between any two nodes; flooding methods use all or most of the available paths. Medium-access control
In most wireless ad hoc networks, the nodes compete for access to shared wireless medium, often resulting in collisions (interference). Collisions can be handled using centralized scheduling or distributed contention access protocols. Using cooperative wireless communications improves immunity to interference by having the destination node combine self-interference and other-node interference to improve decoding of the desired signals. Simulation
One key problem in wireless ad hoc networks is foreseeing the variety of possible situations that can occur. As a result, modeling and simulation (M&S) using extensive parameter sweeping and what-if analysis becomes an extremely important paradigm for use in ad hoc networks. One solution is the use of simulation tools like OPNET, NetSim or ns2. A comparative study of various simulators for VANETs reveal that factors such as constrained road topology, multi-path fading and roadside obstacles, traffic flow models, trip models, varying vehicular speed and mobility, traffic lights, traffic congestion, drivers' behavior, etc., have to be taken into consideration in the simulation process to reflect realistic conditions. Emulation testbed
In 2009, the U.S. Army Research Laboratory (ARL) and Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) developed a Mobile Ad-Hoc Network emulation testbed, where algorithms and applications were subjected to representative wireless network conditions. | [
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The testbed was based on a version of the "MANE" (Mobile Ad hoc Network Emulator) software originally developed by NRL. Mathematical models
The traditional model is the random geometric graph. Early work included simulating ad hoc mobile networks on sparse and densely connected topologies. Nodes are firstly scattered in a constrained physical space randomly. Each node then has a predefined fixed cell size (radio range). A node is said to be connected to another node if this neighbor is within its radio range. Nodes are then moved (migrated away) based on a random model, using random walk or brownian motion. Different mobility and number of nodes present yield different route length and hence different number of multi-hops. These are graphs consisting of a set of nodes placed according to a point process in some usually bounded subset of the n-dimensional plane, mutually coupled according to a boolean probability mass function of their spatial separation (see e.g. unit disk graphs). The connections between nodes may have different weights to model the difference in channel attenuations. One can then study network observables (such as connectivity, centrality
or the degree distribution) from a graph-theoretic perspective. One can further study network protocols and algorithms to improve network throughput and fairness. Security
Most wireless ad hoc networks do not implement any network access control, leaving these networks vulnerable to resource consumption attacks where a malicious node injects packets into the network with the goal of depleting the resources of the nodes relaying the packets. | [
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To thwart or prevent such attacks, it was necessary to employ authentication mechanisms that ensure that only authorized nodes can inject traffic into the network. Even with authentication, these networks are vulnerable to packet dropping or delaying attacks, whereby an intermediate node drops the packet or delays it, rather than promptly sending it to the next hop. In a multicast and dynamic environment, establishing temporary 1:1 secure 'sessions' using PKI with every other node is not feasible (like is done with HTTPS, most VPNs, etc. at the transport layer). Instead, a common solution is to use pre-shared keys for symmetric, authenticated encryption at the link layer, for example MACsec using AES-256-GCM. With this method, every properly formatted packet received is authenticated then passed along for decryption or dropped. It also means the key(s) in each node must be changed more often and simultaneously (e.g. to avoid reusing an IV). Trust management
Trust establishment and management in MANETs face challenges due to resource constraints and the complex interdependency of networks. Managing trust in a MANET needs to consider the interactions between the composite cognitive, social, information and communication networks, and take into account the resource constraints (e.g., computing power, energy, bandwidth, time), and dynamics (e.g., topology changes, node mobility, node failure, propagation channel conditions). Researchers of trust management in MANET suggested that such complex interactions require a composite trust metric that captures aspects of communications and social networks, and corresponding trust measurement, trust distribution, and trust management schemes. | [
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Continuous monitoring of every node within a MANET is necessary for trust and reliability but difficult because it by definition is dis-continuous, 2) it requires input from the node itself and 3) from its 'nearby' peers. See also
Delay-tolerant networking
Independent basic service set (IBSS)
List of ad hoc routing protocols
Mobile wireless sensor network
Personal area network (PAN)
Smart meter
Wi-Fi Direct
Wireless community network
Wireless mesh network
Wireless sensor networks
References
Further reading
External links
IETF MANET group
Wireless networking | [
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Cradle-to-cradle design (also referred to as 2CC2, C2C, cradle 2 cradle, or regenerative design) is a biomimetic approach to the design of products and systems that models human industry on nature's processes, where materials are viewed as nutrients circulating in healthy, safe metabolisms. The term itself is a play on the popular corporate phrase "cradle to grave", implying that the C2C model is sustainable and considerate of life and future generations—from the birth, or "cradle", of one generation to the next generation, versus from birth to death, or "grave", within the same generation. C2C suggests that industry must protect and enrich ecosystems and nature's biological metabolism while also maintaining a safe, productive technical metabolism for the high-quality use and circulation of organic and technical nutrients. It is a holistic, economic, industrial and social framework that seeks to create systems that are not only efficient but also essentially waste free. Building off the whole systems approach of John T. Lyle's regenerative design, the model in its broadest sense is not limited to industrial design and manufacturing; it can be applied to many aspects of human civilization such as urban environments, buildings, economics and social systems. The term "Cradle to Cradle" is a registered trademark of McDonough Braungart Design Chemistry (MBDC) consultants. The Cradle to Cradle Certified Products Program began as a proprietary system; however, in 2012 MBDC turned the certification over to an independent non-profit called the Cradle to Cradle Products Innovation Institute. | [
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Independence, openness, and transparency are the Institute's first objectives for the certification protocols. The phrase "cradle to cradle" itself was coined by Walter R. Stahel in the 1970s. The current model is based on a system of "lifecycle development" initiated by Michael Braungart and colleagues at the Environmental Protection Encouragement Agency (EPEA) in the 1990s and explored through the publication A Technical Framework for Life-Cycle Assessment. In 2002, Braungart and William McDonough published a book called Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the Way We Make Things, a manifesto for cradle-to-cradle design that gives specific details of how to achieve the model. The model has been implemented by a number of companies, organizations and governments around the world, predominantly in the European Union, China and the United States. Cradle-to-cradle design has also been the subject of many documentary films such as Waste = Food. Introduction
In the cradle-to-cradle model, all materials used in industrial or commercial processes—such as metals, fibers, dyes—fall into one of two categories: "technical" or "biological" nutrients. Technical nutrients are strictly limited to non-toxic, non-harmful synthetic materials that have no negative effects on the natural environment; they can be used in continuous cycles as the same product without losing their integrity or quality. In this manner these materials can be used over and over again instead of being "downcycled" into lesser products, ultimately becoming waste. Biological nutrients are organic materials that, once used, can be disposed of in any natural environment and decompose into the soil, providing food for small life forms without affecting the natural environment. | [
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This is dependent on the ecology of the region; for example, organic material from one country or landmass may be harmful to the ecology of another country or landmass. The two types of materials each follow their own cycle in the regenerative economy envisioned by Keunen and Huizing. Structure
Initially defined by McDonough and Braungart, the Cradle to Cradle Products Innovation Institute's five certification criteria are:
Material health, which involves identifying the chemical composition of the materials that make up the product. Particularly hazardous materials (e.g. heavy metals, pigments, halogen compounds etc.) have to be reported whatever the concentration, and other materials reported where they exceed 100 ppm. For wood, the forest source is required. The risk for each material is assessed against criteria and eventually ranked on a scale with green being materials of low risk, yellow being those with moderate risk but are acceptable to continue to use, red for materials that have high risk and need to be phased out, and grey for materials with incomplete data. The method uses the term 'risk' in the sense of hazard (as opposed to consequence and likelihood). Material reutilization, which is about recovery and recycling at the end of product life. Assessment of energy required for production, which for the highest level of certification needs to be based on at least 50% renewable energy for all parts and subassemblies. Water, particularly usage and discharge quality. Social responsibility, which assesses fair labor practices. | [
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The certification is available at several levels: basic, silver, gold, platinum, with more stringent requirements at each. Prior to 2012, MBDC controlled the certification protocol. Health
Currently, many human beings come into contact or consume, directly or indirectly, many harmful materials and chemicals daily. In addition, countless other forms of plant and animal life are also exposed. C2C seeks to remove dangerous technical nutrients (synthetic materials such as mutagenic materials, heavy metals and other dangerous chemicals) from current life cycles. If the materials we come into contact with and are exposed to on a daily basis are not toxic and do not have long term health effects, then the health of the overall system can be better maintained. For example, a fabric factory can eliminate all harmful technical nutrients by carefully reconsidering what chemicals they use in their dyes to achieve the colours they need and attempt to do so with fewer base chemicals. Economics
The C2C model shows high potential for reducing the financial cost of industrial systems. For example, in the redesign of the Ford River Rouge Complex, the planting of Sedum (stonecrop) vegetation on assembly plant roofs retains and cleanses rain water. It also moderates the internal temperature of the building in order to save energy. The roof is part of an $18 million rainwater treatment system designed to clean of rainwater annually. This saved Ford $30 million that would otherwise have been spent on mechanical treatment facilities. Following C2C design principles, product manufacture can be designed to cost less for the producer and consumer. | [
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Theoretically, they can eliminate the need for waste disposal such as landfills. Definitions
Cradle to cradle is a play on the phrase "cradle to grave", implying that the C2C model is sustainable and considerate of life and future generations. Technical nutrients are basically inorganic or synthetic materials manufactured by humans—such as plastics and metals—that can be used many times over without any loss in quality, staying in a continuous cycle. Biological nutrients and materials are organic materials that can decompose into the natural environment, soil, water, etc. without affecting it in a negative way, providing food for bacteria and microbiological life. Materials are usually referred to as the building blocks of other materials, such as the dyes used in colouring fibers or rubbers used in the sole of a shoe. Downcycling is the reuse of materials into lesser products. For example, a plastic computer case could be downcycled into a plastic cup, which then becomes a park bench, etc. ; this eventually leads to plastic waste. In conventional understanding, this is no different from recycling that produces a supply of the same product or material. Waste = Food is a basic concept of organic waste materials becoming food for bugs, insects and other small forms of life who can feed on it, decompose it and return it to the natural environment which we then indirectly use for food ourselves. Existing synthetic materials
The question of how to deal with the countless existing technical nutrients (synthetic materials) that cannot be recycled or reintroduced to the natural environment is dealt with in C2C design. | [
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The materials that can be reused and retain their quality can be used within the technical nutrient cycles while other materials are far more difficult to deal with, such as plastics in the Pacific Ocean. Hypothetical examples
One potential example is a shoe that is designed and mass-produced using the C2C model. The sole might be made of "biological nutrients" while the upper parts might be made of "technical nutrients". The shoe is mass-produced at a manufacturing plant that utilizes its waste material by putting it back into the cycle, potentially by using off-cuts from the rubber soles to make more soles instead of merely disposing of them; this is dependent on the technical materials not losing their quality as they are reused. Once the shoes have been manufactured, they are distributed to retail outlets where the customer buys the shoe at a reduced price because the customer is only paying for the use of the materials in the shoe for the period of time that they will be wearing them. When they outgrow the shoe or it is damaged, they return it to the manufacturer. When the manufacturer separates the sole from the upper parts (separating the technical and biological nutrients), the biological nutrients are returned to the natural environment while the technical nutrients can be used to create the sole of another shoe. Another example of C2C design is a disposable cup, bottle, or wrapper made entirely out of biological materials. | [
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] |
When the user is finished with the item, it can be disposed of and returned to the natural environment; the cost of disposal of waste such as landfill and recycling is greatly reduced. The user could also potentially return the item for a refund so it can be used again. Finished products
Rohner Textile AG Climatex-textile
Biofoam, a cradle-to-cradle alternative to expanded polystyrene
Sewage sludge treatment plants are facilities that may create fertiliser from sewage sludge. This approach is green retrofit for the current (inefficient) system of organic waste disposal; as composting toilets are a better approach in the long run. Aquion Energy large scale batteries
Ecovative Design packaging and insulation made from waste by binding it together with mycelium
Implementation
The C2C model can be applied to almost any system in modern society: urban environments, buildings, manufacturing, social systems, etc. Five steps are outlined in Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the Way We Make Things:
Get "free of" known culprits
Follow informed personal preferences
Create "passive positive" lists—lists of materials used categorised according to their safety level
The X list—substances that must be phased out, such as teratogenic, mutagenic, carcinogenic
The gray list—problematic substances that are not so urgently in need of phasing out
The P list—the "positive" list, substances actively defined as safe for use
Activate the positive list
Reinvent—the redesign of the former system
Products that adhere to all steps may be eligible to receive C2C certification. | [
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Other certifications such as Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) and Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method (BREEAM) can be used to qualify for certification, and vice versa in the case of BREEAM. C2C principles were first applied to systems in the early 1990s by Braungart's Hamburger Umweltinstitut (HUI) and The Environmental Institute in Brazil for biomass nutrient recycling of effluent to produce agricultural products and clean water as a byproduct. In 2005, IE Business School in Madrid launched the Center for Eco-Intelligent Innovation in collaboration between Dr. Gregory Unruh William McDonough to study the implementation of cradle-to-cradle design approaches in pioneering businesses. The academic research of companies lead to the elaboration of the Biosphere Rules, a set of five principles derived from nature that guide the implementation of circular models in production. In 2007, MBDC and the EPEA formed a strategic partnership with global materials consultancy Material ConneXion to help promote and disseminate C2C design principles by providing greater global access to C2C material information, certification and product development. As of January 2008, Material ConneXion's Materials Libraries in New York, Milan, Cologne, Bangkok and Daegu, Korea, started to feature C2C assessed and certified materials and, in collaboration with MBDC and EPEA, the company now offers C2C Certification, and C2C product development. While the C2C model has influenced the construction or redevelopment of smaller sites, several large organizations and governments have also implemented the C2C model and its ideas and concepts:
Major implementations
The Lyle Center for Regenerative Studies incorporates holistic & cyclic systems throughout the center. Regenerative design is arguably the foundation for the trademarked C2C. | [
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The Government of China contributed to the construction of the city of Huangbaiyu based on C2C principles, utilising the rooftops for agriculture. This project is largely criticized as a failure to meet the desires & constraints of the local people. The Ford River Rouge Complex redevelopment, cleaning of rainwater annually. The Netherlands Institute of Ecology (NIOO-KNAW) planned to make its laboratory and office complex completely cradle-to-cradle compliant. Several private houses and communal buildings in the Netherlands. Fashion Positive, an initiative to assist the fashion world in implementing the cradle-to-cradle model in five areas: material health, material reuse, renewable energy, water stewardship and social fairness. Coordination with other models
The cradle-to-cradle model can be viewed as a framework that considers systems as a whole or holistically. It can be applied to many aspects of human society, and is related to life-cycle assessment. See for instance the LCA-based model of the eco-costs, which has been designed to cope with analyses of recycle systems. The cradle-to-cradle model in some implementations is closely linked with the car-free movement, such as in the case of large-scale building projects or the construction or redevelopment of urban environments. It is closely linked with passive solar design in the building industry and with permaculture in agriculture within or near urban environments. An earthship is a perfect example where different re-use models are used, including cradle-to-cradle design and permaculture. Constraints
A major constraint in the optimal recycling of materials is that at civic amenity sites, products are not disassembled by hand and have each individual part sorted into a bin, but instead have the entire product sorted into a certain bin. | [
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This makes the extraction of rare-earth elements and other materials uneconomical (at recycling sites, products typically get crushed after which the materials are extracted by means of magnets, chemicals, special sorting methods, ...) and thus optimal recycling of, for example metals is impossible (an optimal recycling method for metals would require to sort all similar alloys together rather than mixing plain iron with alloys). Obviously, disassembling products is not feasible at currently designed civic amenity sites, and a better method would be to send back the broken products to the manufacturer, so that the manufacturer can disassemble the product. These disassembled product can then be used for making new products or at least to have the components sent separately to recycling sites (for proper recycling, by the exact type of material). At present though, few laws are put in place in any country to oblige manufacturers to take back their products for disassembly, nor are there even such obligations for manufacturers of cradle-to-cradle products. One process where this is happening is in the EU with the Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive. Also, the European Training Network for the Design and Recycling of Rare-Earth Permanent Magnet Motors and Generators in Hybrid and Full Electric Vehicles (ETN-Demeter) makes designs of electric motors of which the magnets can be easily removed for recycling the rare earth metals. Criticism and response
Criticism has been advanced on the fact that McDonough and Braungart previously kept C2C consultancy and certification in their inner circle. Critics argued that this lack of competition prevented the model from fulfilling its potential. | [
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Many critics pleaded for a public-private partnership overseeing the C2C concept, thus enabling competition and growth of practical applications and services. McDonough and Braungart responded to this criticism by giving control of the certification protocol to a non-profit, independent Institute called the Cradle to Cradle Products Innovation Institute. McDonough said the new institute "will enable our protocol to become a public certification program and global standard". The new Institute announced the creation of a Certification Standards Board in June 2012. The new board, under the auspices of the Institute, will oversee the certification moving forward. Experts in the field of environment protection have questioned the practicability of the concept. Friedrich Schmidt-Bleek, head of the German Wuppertal Institute, called his assertion that the "old" environmental movement had hindered innovation with its pessimist approach "pseudo-psychological humbug". Schmidt-Bleek said of the Cradle-to-Cradle seat cushions Braungart developed for the Airbus 380: "I can feel very nice on Michael's seat covers in the airplane. Nevertheless I am still waiting for a detailed proposal for a design of the other 99.99 percent of the Airbus 380 after his principles." In 2009 Schmidt-Bleek stated that it is out of the question that the concept can be realized on a bigger scale. Some claim that C2C certification may not be entirely sufficient in all eco-design approaches. Quantitative methodologies (LCAs) and more adapted tools (regarding the product type which is considered) could be used in tandem. The C2C concept ignores the use phase of a product. | [
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According to variants of life-cycle assessment (see: ) the entire life cycle of a product or service has to be evaluated, not only the material itself. For many goods e.g. in transport, the use phase has the most influence on the environmental footprint. For example, the more lightweight a car or a plane the less fuel it consumes and consequently the less impact it has. Braungart fully ignores the use phase. It is safe to say that every production step or resource-transformation step needs a certain amount of energy. The C2C concept foresees its own certification of its analysis and therefore is in contradiction to international publishing standards (ISO 14040 and ISO 14044) for life-cycle assessment whereas an independent external review is needed in order to obtain comparative and resilient results. See also
Appropriate technology
Ellen MacArthur Foundation
List of environment topics
Modular construction systems
Planned obsolescencethe opposite of durable, no waste design
The Blue Economy
Upcycling
References
External links
Sustainable design
Environmental design
Industrial ecology
Sustainable building | [
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In mathematical logic, Lindenbaum's lemma, named after Adolf Lindenbaum, states that any consistent theory of predicate logic can be extended to a complete consistent theory. The lemma is a special case of the ultrafilter lemma for Boolean algebras, applied to the Lindenbaum algebra of a theory. Uses
It is used in the proof of Gödel's completeness theorem, among other places. Extensions
The effective version of the lemma's statement, "every consistent computably enumerable theory can be extended to a complete consistent computably enumerable theory," fails (provided Peano Arithmetic is consistent) by Gödel's incompleteness theorem. History
The lemma was not published by Adolf Lindenbaum; it is originally attributed to him by Alfred Tarski. Notes
References
Mathematical logic
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In mathematics, comparison theorems are theorems whose statement involves comparisons between various mathematical objects of the same type, and often occur in fields such as calculus, differential equations and Riemannian geometry. Differential equations
In the theory of differential equations, comparison theorems assert particular properties of solutions of a differential equation (or of a system thereof), provided that an auxiliary equation/inequality (or a system thereof) possesses a certain property. Chaplygin inequality
Grönwall's inequality, and its various generalizations, provides a comparison principle for the solutions of first-order ordinary differential equations. Sturm comparison theorem
Aronson and Weinberger used a comparison theorem to characterize solutions to Fisher's equation, a reaction--diffusion equation. Hille-Wintner comparison theorem
Riemannian geometry
In Riemannian geometry, it is a traditional name for a number of theorems that compare various metrics and provide various estimates in Riemannian geometry. Rauch comparison theorem relates the sectional curvature of a Riemannian manifold to the rate at which its geodesics spread apart. Toponogov's theorem
Myers's theorem
Hessian comparison theorem
Laplacian comparison theorem
Morse–Schoenberg comparison theorem
Berger comparison theorem, Rauch–Berger comparison theorem
Berger–Kazdan comparison theorem
Warner comparison theorem for lengths of N-Jacobi fields (N being a submanifold of a complete Riemannian manifold)
Bishop–Gromov inequality, conditional on a lower bound for the Ricci curvatures
Lichnerowicz comparison theorem
Eigenvalue comparison theorem
Cheng's eigenvalue comparison theorem
See also: Comparison triangle
Other
Limit comparison theorem, about convergence of series
Comparison theorem for integrals, about convergence of integrals
Zeeman's comparison theorem, a technical tool from the theory of spectral sequences
References
Mathematical theorems | [
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Nunc A/S of Denmark was founded in 1953. Nunc specialized in laboratory plastic ware including products for cell culture, cell biology assays, sample prep, and sample storage. The company merged with the Nalge Company, which was founded in 1949 by chemist Emanuel Goldberg of Rochester, New York in 1995. References
Manufacturing companies of Denmark
Companies based in Roskilde Municipality
Danish companies established in 1949 | [
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The Digital Curation Centre (DCC) was established to help solve the extensive challenges of digital preservation and digital curation and to lead research, development, advice, and support services for higher education institutions in the United Kingdom. Throughout its history the DCC has been an active organisation in the realm of digital preservation. In partnership with other institutions, the DCC has created and developed tools for tackling issues in digital preservation and curation. Such tools include a lifecycle model for data curation, a risk assessment for digital repositories, and an interview protocol to assist institutions in understanding their research data collections. Purpose
The original call to establish the DCC described its function as
"...to provide a national focus for research into curation issues and expertise in the processes of digital archiving, preservation and management. Particular emphasis will be placed on the needs of users of the Centre's outputs." Scientists, researchers and scholars across the UK generate increasingly vast amounts of digital data, with further investment in digitization and purchase of digital content and information. The scientific record and the documentary heritage created in digital form are at risk from obsolescence, from the fragility of digital media, and from lack of the basics of good practice, such as adequate documentation for the data. Activities
Working with other practitioners, the DCC supports UK institutions who store, manage and preserve these data to help ensure their enhancement and their continuing long-term use. | [
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The DCC also provides a national focus for research and development into digital curation issues and to promote expertise and good practice, both national and international, for the management of all research outputs in digital format. It provides information about tools developed by the DCC and others which support all parts of the digital curation lifecycle. It provides training in the use of tools and other aspects of digital curation. It provides online tools, such as the Data Management Planning tool, to support the creation and management of research data. Another tool developed by the DCC, the DCC Curation Lifecycle Model, provides a pictorial representation of the steps and behaviours necessary to the curation and preservation of digital objects. The DCC runs a number of regular events to support different aspects of its mission. The International Digital Curation Conference (IDCC) acts as a focus for research activity in digital curation as well as reports of practice. The Research Data Management Forum brings together practitioners from a wide range of backgrounds including government, publishers, researchers and funders, to focus on particular topics of common interest. The Data Management Roadshows aim to raise awareness amongst UK universities of the assistance that the DCC can offer with establishing or improving research data services. Developments
Curation Lifecycle Model
The Curation Lifecycle Model, developed by the DCC, was first published in 2007 and finalised in 2008. It is a graphic which describes the overarching digital curation process with archival and preservation processes being only portions of this overall digital curation process. The model outlines various curation actions. | [
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There are full lifecycle actions, which include description and representation information, preservation planning, community watch and participation, and curate and preserve. There are sequential actions, which include conceptualise; create or receive; appraise and select; ingest; preservation action; store; access, use, and reuse; and transform. Finally, there are occasional actions, which include dispose, reappraise, and migrate. Full lifecycle actions are reoccurring actions that pertain to each phase of a digital object or databases’ lifecycle and curation process. The full lifecycle actions indicate the need to create quality metadata to represent a digital object, the importance of planning how to preserve an object throughout the entirety of the curation process, the necessity of collaborating with a community in order to adapt new standards, and the essential task of adhering to any preconceived steps to manage the curation and preservation of the digital object. Sequential actions, unlike full lifecycle actions, occur in a particular order as part of a digital object’s curation lifecycle. These steps are always performed in order, though can be repeated indefinitely as long as the object’s curation continues to be a priority. Occasional actions including dispose, reappraise, and migrate represent activities undertaken only when certain criteria regarding the object’s lifecycle are met. | [
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For example, when an object is appraised (a sequential action that always occurs in the lifecycle of a digital object’s curation) if it adheres to or, more aptly, doesn’t adhere to certain institutional curation policies, it can be disposed of or reappraised—both of which are occasional actions in the lifecycle. The DCC Curation Lifecycle Model is especially relevant to three key participants in the digital curation process: data creators, data archivists, and data reusers. The model highlights the importance of data creation, such as metadata, in successful, sustainable curation practices. This is relevant to data creators. Data archivists will find the model beneficial as an outline of the necessary processes to guarantee the thoroughness of their curation actions. Finally, because the model outlines the aforementioned steps, it prompts the successful curation of data and, therefore, the ability of that data to be accessed in the future and reused. Digital Repository Audit Method Based on Risk Assessment
DRAMBORA or the Digital Repository Audit Method Based on Risk Assessment is another development of both the DCC and DigitalPreservationEurope. This is a tool, published in 2007, which can be used by digital repositories to self-assess their own organisations and the preservation activities undertaken therein. It was developed in the aspiration of working toward a standardised certification of all digital repositories. The DRAMBORA methodology acts as a checklist to ensure that a particular institution adheres to a set of standards. The self-assessment undertaken using the DRAMBORA methodology is intended to determine weaknesses within a digital repository that could affect its credibility. | [
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Data Asset Framework
The Data Asset Framework or DAF is a data audit methodology developed by HATII at the University of Glasgow in conjunction with the Digital Curation Centre. Originally the Data Audit Framework, the Data Asset Framework is an interview protocol utilised by educational institutions to better understand their growing research data collections. With this tool, institutions can learn to manage their data more effectively. The audit allows institutions to assess their data collections, determine their state, and measure the worth of the data through the assessment of “five core questions:
1. What data assets currently exist? 2. Where are these assets located? 3. How have these been managed to date? 4. Which of these assets need to be maintained in the long term? 5. Do current data management practices place these assets at risk?”
By performing this audit, a comprehensive registry of data assets is compiled, which can then be used by the institution to improve their management of those assets. The intent of DAF is to raise awareness within an institution regarding their data management practices. Auditing data assets creates a better understanding of the digital collections owned by an institution and allows them to more efficiently organise their data, structure their data, and determine accountability for said data, all while minimising the potential loss of assets in the future and increasing accessibility. The goal of the Data Asset Framework is to create a standard for the management of a library’s research data that can then be utilised industry-wide. | [
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History
Jisc took a decision to establish the Digital Curation Centre some time in 2002, having funded a number of projects in the field of digital preservation. Jisc's then digital preservation focus, Neil Beagrie, recognised that a number of the more compelling challenges required more than simple preservation of materials. The term digital curation was coined to refer to more active long-term management of digital material. The original call for bids to run the center was withdrawn in July 2003, allowing the UK's e-science programme to add funding for a 4-year research programme to complement the work on education and advocacy funded by Jisc. The revised call from July 2003 required bids by 2003-09-18 with an intention to establish the DCC early in 2004. The range of expertise required meant that the funders expected to see collaborative, multi-centre bids. A number were shortlisted with the winning bid chosen on 2003-11-26. Led by the University of Edinburgh (involving its School of Informatics, the National e-Science Centre (NeSC), the EDINA national data centre and the AHRC Centre for the Studies in Intellectual Property and Technology Law) the winning consortium also included HATII at the University of Glasgow, UKOLN at the University of Bath, and the Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC). The DCC began operations early in 2004, with a formal launch on 5 November of that year at Edinburgh's e-science institute. | [
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Although it was intended that the centre would be inaugurated by the Duke of Edinburgh, then the university's Chancellor, he instead had to attend the funeral of Princess Alice and his place was taken by Lord Sutherland of Houndwood. The first Acting Director was Peter Burnhill, head of EDINA. He was succeeded by Chris Rusbridge from 2005-02-21 who served until 2010-04-19, when he was succeeded by Kevin Ashley. The original Associate Directors were David Giaretta STFC, Liz Lyon University of Bath, and Seamus Ross HATII. Following the initial 3-year grant, Jisc funded two further phases of work at the DCC commencing in 2007 and 2010. The latter continued until March 2013. Research funding from the e-science core program did not continue after the core program itself was wound up. The DCC has continued research and development activities funded by a wide range of grants from other sources. In 2011, the DCC received additional funding from HEFCE's Universities Modernisation Fund (UMF) to implement salient recommendations from the UK Research Data Service report of 2010. See also
Digital Repository Audit Method Based on Risk Assessment
Framework Programmes for Research and Technological Development
References
Archives in the United Kingdom
British digital libraries
Digital preservation
Educational organisations based in Scotland
Heritage organisations in the United Kingdom
Information technology organisations based in the United Kingdom
Jisc
Organisations based in Edinburgh
Science and technology in Edinburgh
University of Edinburgh | [
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NetDynamics Application Server was an early Java-based integrated software platform. The product was developed by NetDynamics, a Silicon Valley start-up company founded in 1995 by Zack Rinat and Ofer Ben-Shachar. Unlike other early application server competitors, NetDynamics chose Java as the development language for the platform. As Java became the dominant development language for web-based applications, NetDynamics experienced significant revenue growth in 1997 and 1998. However, the product soon encountered problems due to the relative immaturity of Java and the rush to release new product versions in a rapidly changing marketplace. Believing that the new JDBC API was too immature, NetDynamics created a proprietary database development API based on a product from Rogue Wave Software. NetDynamics, Inc. was acquired by Sun Microsystems in July 1998. The application server software, together with the Netscape Application Server, was the basis for Sun's iPlanet Application Server offering. Competition
NetDynamics initially competed against Bluestone, an application server based on the C Programming Language, and the Kiva application server. By mid-1998, a new competitor, WebLogic, Inc., released a Java application server that was compliant with JDBC and another emerging standard, JavaBeans. WebLogic Application Server eventually won out in the marketplace. The explosive growth of the application server business caught the attention of larger information technology companies. By 1998, the early application server start-up companies were all acquired: Hewlett-Packard purchased Bluestone, Sun Microsystems acquired NetDynamics, Netscape Communications Corporation bought out Kiva, and Weblogic was acquired by BEA Systems. Only Weblogic continues to survive as a product; Oracle Corporation acquired BEA in 2008, and the product was renamed Oracle Weblogic. | [
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] |
See also
iPlanet
Comparison of application servers
References
Sun Microsystems software
Web server software | [
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Netscape Web Server was an integrated software platform for developing and running transaction-oriented business applications on the web. It was developed originally by Kiva Software, which Netscape acquired in 1997. When Netscape and Sun Microsystems formed the Sun-Netscape Alliance in 1999, the Netscape Web Server was chosen as the basis for their iPlanet Application Server offering over the NetDynamics Application Server, which had been acquired by Sun in 1998. See also
iPlanet
Sun ONE
Sun Java System
Comparison of application servers
References
Web server software
Netscape | [
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Frequency difference of arrival (FDOA) or differential Doppler (DD), is a technique analogous to TDOA for estimating the location of a radio emitter based on observations from other points. (It can also be used for estimating one's own position based on observations of multiple emitters). TDOA and FDOA are sometimes used together to improve location accuracy and the resulting estimates are somewhat independent. By combining TDOA and FDOA measurements, instantaneous geolocation can be performed in two dimensions. It differs from TDOA in that the FDOA observation points must be in relative motion with respect to each other and the emitter. This relative motion results in different doppler shifts observations of the emitter at each location in general. The relative motion can be achieved by using airborne observations in aircraft, for example. The emitter location can then be estimated with knowledge of the observation points' location and vector velocities and the observed relative doppler shifts between pairs of locations. A disadvantage of FDOA is that large amounts of data must be moved between observation points or to a central location to do the cross-correlation that is necessary to estimate the doppler shift. The accuracy of the location estimate is related to the bandwidth of the emitter's signal, the signal-to-noise ratio at each observation point, and the geometry and vector velocities of the emitter and the observation points. See also
Multilateration
Further reading
Ho, K.C. ; Chan, Y.T. ;, "Geolocation of a known altitude object from TDOA and FDOA measurements," IEEE Transactions on Aerospace and Electronic Systems, vol.33, no.3, pp.770-783, July 1997. , IEEE XPlore. | [
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In mathematics and economics, transportation theory or transport theory is a name given to the study of optimal transportation and allocation of resources. The problem was formalized by the French mathematician Gaspard Monge in 1781. In the 1920s A.N. Tolstoi was one of the first to study the transportation problem mathematically. In 1930, in the collection Transportation Planning Volume I for the National Commissariat of Transportation of the Soviet Union, he published a paper "Methods of Finding the Minimal Kilometrage in Cargo-transportation in space". Major advances were made in the field during World War II by the Soviet mathematician and economist Leonid Kantorovich. Consequently, the problem as it is stated is sometimes known as the Monge–Kantorovich transportation problem. The linear programming formulation of the transportation problem is also known as the Hitchcock–Koopmans transportation problem. Motivation
Mines and factories
Suppose that we have a collection of m mines mining iron ore, and a collection of n factories which use the iron ore that the mines produce. Suppose for the sake of argument that these mines and factories form two disjoint subsets M and F of the Euclidean plane R2. Suppose also that we have a cost function c : R2 × R2 → [0, ∞), so that c(x, y) is the cost of transporting one shipment of iron from x to y. For simplicity, we ignore the time taken to do the transporting. We also assume that each mine can supply only one factory (no splitting of shipments) and that each factory requires precisely one shipment to be in operation (factories cannot work at half- or double-capacity). | [
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Having made the above assumptions, a transport plan is a bijection T : M → F.
In other words, each mine m ∈ M supplies precisely one target factory T(m) ∈ F and each factory is supplied by precisely one mine. We wish to find the optimal transport plan, the plan T whose total cost
is the least of all possible transport plans from M to F. This motivating special case of the transportation problem is an instance of the assignment problem. More specifically, it is equivalent to finding a minimum weight matching in a bipartite graph. Moving books: the importance of the cost function
The following simple example illustrates the importance of the cost function in determining the optimal transport plan. Suppose that we have n books of equal width on a shelf (the real line), arranged in a single contiguous block. We wish to rearrange them into another contiguous block, but shifted one book-width to the right. Two obvious candidates for the optimal transport plan present themselves:
move all n books one book-width to the right ("many small moves");
move the left-most book n book-widths to the right and leave all other books fixed ("one big move"). If the cost function is proportional to Euclidean distance (c(x, y) = α|x − y|) then these two candidates are both optimal. | [
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If, on the other hand, we choose the strictly convex cost function proportional to the square of Euclidean distance (c(x, y) = α|x − y|2), then the "many small moves" option becomes the unique minimizer. Note that the above cost functions consider only the horizontal distance traveled by the books, not the horizontal distance traveled by a device used to pick each book up and move the book into position. If the latter is considered instead, then, of the two transport plans, the second is always optimal for the Euclidean distance, while, provided there are at least 3 books, the first transport plan is optimal for the squared Euclidean distance. Hitchcock problem
The following transportation problem formulation is credited to F. L. Hitchcock:
Suppose there are m sources for a commodity, with units of supply at xi and n sinks for the commodity, with the demand at yj. If is the unit cost of shipment from xi to yj, find a flow that satisfies demand from supplies and minimizes the flow cost. This challenge in logistics was taken up by D. R. Fulkerson and in the book Flows in Networks (1962) written with L. R. Ford Jr.
Tjalling Koopmans is also credited with formulations of transport economics and allocation of resources. Abstract formulation of the problem
Monge and Kantorovich formulations
The transportation problem as it is stated in modern or more technical literature looks somewhat different because of the development of Riemannian geometry and measure theory. The mines-factories example, simple as it is, is a useful reference point when thinking of the abstract case. | [
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In this setting, we allow the possibility that we may not wish to keep all mines and factories open for business, and allow mines to supply more than one factory, and factories to accept iron from more than one mine. Let X and Y be two separable metric spaces such that any probability measure on X (or Y) is a Radon measure (i.e. they are Radon spaces). Let c : X × Y → [0, ∞] be a Borel-measurable function. Given probability measures μ on X and ν on Y, Monge's formulation of the optimal transportation problem is to find a transport map T : X → Y that realizes the infimum
where T∗(μ) denotes the push forward of μ by T. A map T that attains this infimum (i.e. makes it a minimum instead of an infimum) is called an "optimal transport map". Monge's formulation of the optimal transportation problem can be ill-posed, because sometimes there is no T satisfying T∗(μ) = ν: this happens, for example, when μ is a Dirac measure but ν is not. We can improve on this by adopting Kantorovich's formulation of the optimal transportation problem, which is to find a probability measure γ on X × Y that attains the infimum
where Γ(μ, ν) denotes the collection of all probability measures on X × Y with marginals μ on X and ν on Y. | [
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] |
It can be shown that a minimizer for this problem always exists when the cost function c is lower semi-continuous and Γ(μ, ν) is a tight collection of measures (which is guaranteed for Radon spaces X and Y). (Compare this formulation with the definition of the Wasserstein metric W1 on the space of probability measures.) A gradient descent formulation for the solution of the Monge–Kantorovich problem was given by Sigurd Angenent, Steven Haker, and Allen Tannenbaum. Duality formula
The minimum of the Kantorovich problem is equal to
where the supremum runs over all pairs of bounded and continuous functions and such that
Economic interpretation
The economic interpretation is clearer if signs are flipped. Let stand for the vector of characteristics of a worker, for the vector of characteristics of a firm, and for the economic output generated by worker matched with firm . Setting and , the Monge-Kantorovich problem
rewrites:
which has dual :
where the infimum runs over bounded and continuous function and . If the dual problem has a solution, one can see that:
so that interprets as the equilibrium wage of a worker of type , and interprets as the equilibrium profit of a firm of type . Solution of the problem
Optimal transportation on the real line
For , let denote the collection of probability measures on that have finite -th moment. Let and let , where is a convex function. If has no atom, i.e., if the cumulative distribution function of is a continuous function, then is an optimal transport map. It is the unique optimal transport map if is strictly convex. | [
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We have
The proof of this solution appears in Rachev & Rüschendorf (1998). Discrete version and linear programming formulation
In the case where the margins and are discrete, let
and be the probability masses respectively assigned to and , and let be the probability of an assignment. The objective function in the primal Kantorovich problem is then
and the constraint expresses as
and
In order to input this in a linear programming problem, we need to vectorize the matrix by either stacking its columns or its rows, we call this operation. In the column-major order, the constraints above rewrite as
and
where is the Kronecker product, is a matrix of size with all entries of ones, and is the identity matrix of size . As a result, setting , the linear programming formulation of the problem is
s.t. which can be readily inputted in a large-scale linear programming solver (see chapter 3.4 of Galichon (2016)). Semi-discrete case
In the semi-discrete case, and is a continuous distribution over , while is a discrete distribution which assigns probability mass to site . In this case, we can see that the primal and dual Kantorovich problems respectively boil down to:
for the primal, where means that and , and:
for the dual, which can be rewritten as:
which is a finite-dimensional convex optimization problem that can be solved by standard techniques, such as gradient descent. In the case when , one can show that the set of assigned to a particular site is a convex polyhedron. The resulting configuration is called a power diagram. | [
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Quadratic Normal Case
Assume the particular case , , and where is invertible. One then has
The proof of this solution appears in Galichon (2016). Separable Hilbert spaces
Let be a separable Hilbert space. Let denote the collection of probability measures on that have finite -th moment; let denote those elements that are Gaussian regular: if is any strictly positive Gaussian measure on and , then also. Let , , for . Then the Kantorovich problem has a unique solution , and this solution is induced by an optimal transport map: i.e., there exists a Borel map such that
Moreover, if has bounded support, then
for -almost all for some locally Lipschitz, c-concave and maximal Kantorovich potential . (Here denotes the Gateaux derivative of .) Entropic regularization
Consider a variant of the discrete problem above, where we have added an entropic regularization term to the objective function of the primal problem
s.t. and
One can show that the dual regularized problem is
where, compared with the unregularized version, the "hard" constraint in the former dual () has been replaced by a "soft" penalization of that constraint (the sum of the terms ). The optimality conditions in the dual problem can be expressed as
Denoting as the matrix of term , solving the dual is therefore equivalent to looking for two diagonal positive matrices and of respective sizes and , such that and . The existence of such matrices generalizes Sinkhorn's theorem and the matrices can be computed using the Sinkhorn-Knopp algorithm, which simply consists of iteratively looking for to solve , and to solve . | [
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Sinkhorn-Knopp's algorithm is therefore a coordinate descent algorithm on the dual regularized problem. Applications
The Monge–Kantorovich optimal transport has found applications in wide range in different fields. Among them are:
Image registration and warping
Reflector design
Retrieving information from shadowgraphy and proton radiography
Seismic tomography and reflection seismology
See also
Wasserstein metric
Transport function
Hungarian algorithm
Transportation planning
Earth mover's distance
Monge–Ampère equation
References
Further reading
Calculus of variations
Matching (graph theory)
Mathematical economics
Measure theory
Transport economics
Optimization in vector spaces
Mathematical optimization in business | [
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] |
These are some of the honorifics used in Italy. Nobility
As part of the republican constitution that became effective in Italy on 1 January 1948, titles of nobility ceased to be recognized in law (although they were not, strictly, abolished or banned), and the organ of state which had regulated them, the Consulta Araldica, was abolished. However the so-called predicati — territorial or manorial designations that were often connected to a noble title by use of a nobiliary particle such as di, da, della, dei, could be resumed as part of the legal surname upon judicial approval for persons who possessed it prior to 28 October 1922 (date of Italian fascism's accession to power). In practice, this meant that, e.g., "John Doe, Duke of Somewhere" or "Princess Jane of Kingdom" might become "John Doe di Somewhere" or "Jane della Kingdom", respectively. Nonetheless, titles are often still used unofficially in villages, private clubs and some social sets. Signore and Signora (formerly signifying landed nobility) are translations of "Lord" and "Lady", used also in the military hierarchy and for persons in official positions or for members of a society's elite. A few titles are also common in diminutive form as terms of affection for young people (e.g. Principino for "Princeling" or Contessina for "the Little Countess"). | [
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Imperatore (Emperor) / Imperatrice (Empress)
Re (King) / Regina (Queen)
Principe (Prince) / Principessa (Princess)
Duca (Duke) / Duchessa (Duchess)
Marchese (Marquis) / Marchesa (Marchioness)
Conte (Count or Earl) / Contessa (Countess)
Visconte (Viscount) / Viscontessa (Viscountess)
Barone (Baron) / Baronessa (Baroness)
Patrizio (Patrician) / Patrizia
Nobiluomo – n.h./n.u. (Nobleman) / Nobildonna – n.d. (Noblewoman)
Cavaliere Ereditario (Baronet) / no female equivalent
Use of the prefix "Don" as a style for certain persons of distinction spread to the Kingdom of Naples and Sicily during the Spanish domination of southern Italy in the 16th century. Officially, it was the style to address a noble (as distinct from a reigning) prince (principe) or duke (duca), and their children and agnatic descendants. Any Italian monarch (as in Spain) might informally be addressed or referred to with this prefix, for example King Carlos III of Spain was widely known in his Neapolitan realm as "Don Carlo". Genealogical databases and dynastic works still reserve the title for this class of noble by tradition, although it is no longer a right under Italian law. In practice, especially in the countryside, Don was also used as an honorific title for untitled noblemen, such as knights. The feminine is "Donna". State honours
The President of the Republic can award “honours of the Republic”. | [
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These are:
Medals (Gold, Silver, Bronze) to persons or entity for merit or valor
Knighthood (Cavaliere di Gran Croce, Grande Ufficiale, Commendatore – comm., Cavaliere Ufficiale – cav. uff., Cavaliere – cav.) of five Orders (Ordine al Merito della Repubblica Italiana, Ordine Militare d’Italia, Ordine al Merito del Lavoro, Ordine della Stella d'Italia, Ordine di Vittorio Veneto)
Ordine al Merito della Repubblica Italiana (Order of Merit of the Italian Republic) is for outstanding merit in regard to the nation
Ordine Militare d’Italia (Military Order of Italy) rewards the actions of units of the armed forces or by individual soldiers, demonstrating expertise, responsibility and valour. The title may be given posthumously
Ordine al Merito del Lavoro (Order of Merit for Labour) for those who have worked with skilfulness, contributing to the development of the nation and improving the status of the workers
Ordine della Stella d'Italia (Order of the Star of Italy) for a contribution to the post-war reconstruction of Italy
Ordine di Vittorio Veneto (Order of Vittorio Veneto) for Italian soldiers of the First World War
In addition, the Orders of Chivalry of the Royal House of Savoy and other Italian dynasties may confer honorifics (Cavaliere and Dama), as do the Holy See and the Order of Malta. Oddly, the Italian Republic bestows the rank of knight but not that of dame, though ladies may be decorated with knightly rank. State-related honorifics
Presidente – pres. | [
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(President): used for the President of the Republic, or for the President of the Senate, of the Chamber of Deputies, of the Council of Ministers (Prime Minister), of the Constitutional Court, of a Region Council, for Judges president of a Court
Presidente emerito – pres. em. (Emeritus President): used for former President of the Republic
Senatore – sen. (Senator): some are for life (ex-Presidents of the Republic and persons who 'glorified' the Country)
Onorevole - on. (Honourable): member of the Chamber of Deputies and member of the municipal Council of Rome. Ministro – min. (Minister)
Giudice (Judge)
Console – cons. (Consul)
others
Work/profession-related titles
Dottore / Dottoressa – dott. (Doctor; in Italy it is used for any person holding a university degree. This often confuses foreigners.) Dottore / Dottoressa magistrale - dott. mag. (Magistral Doctor; More specific title for people holding a laurea magistrale the Italian equivalent to a master degree)
Dottore / Dottoressa di ricerca - dott. ric. | [
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( Doctor of research; More specific title for people holding a dottorato di ricerca the Italian equivalent to a Doctorate, this title is the equivalent of the English Doctor)
Maestro / Maestra (teacher or expert artisan or musician)
Mastro (archaic for artisans)
Professore – prof. / Professoressa – prof.ssa (Professor, usually used for university teachers, and high school teachers)
Full professors in the university are most formally addressed as Chiarissimo Professor (Chiar.mo Prof.), derived from Latin clarus which meant famed. University headmasters (Rettore) are formally addressed as Magnifico Rettore (Magnificent Headmaster). Academic/professional qualification-related titles
High school diplomas:
Ragioniere – rag. (business economics). Geometra – geom. (land surveying and construction). Perito – per. (degree of technical extraction in a specific branch, such as chemistry or mechanics or naval or nautical; in some cases, however, a perito holds no more than a three-year university laurea.) Maestro / Maestra (degree from a music conservatory or educational program). Note, however, that grade-school teachers of all levels are frequently called "maestro" in common, everyday use, while high-school teachers are called "professore"). University degrees:
Dottore – dott. (all people holding a laurea degree). The laurea was previously the only academic degree given by Italian Universities. With the Riforma Universitaria, the Italian system has moved closer to conformity with the rest of Europe and North America. | [
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Laurea may now refer to a three-year degree (the laurea triennale) or to a laurea magistrale, or Master's degree, which requires two additional years of study. The former confers the title dottore; holders of the latter receive the academic title dottore magistrale. Outside Italy, however, it is inappropriate for the holder of a new laurea to use the title "Doctor". Avvocato – avv. (Lawyer, a laurea specialistica in law and a state-exam are both required.) Ingegnere – ing. (Engineer, a laurea specialistica in engineering and a state-exam are both required.) Architetto – arch. (Architect, a laurea specialistica in architecture and a state-exam are both required.) Dottore di Ricerca (holder of a Ph.D., literally "Doctor of Research"). Roman Catholic Church titles
Besides normal titles, there are some honorifics that are peculiar to the Catholic Church, being found in European countries of Catholic tradition:
Don - used for members of the secular clergy, more a form of address than a title as such, don comes from a medieval styling for very esteemed persons, it is a colloquial form of Dominus - the Latin for Lord, Sir. It is still used for Bishops, or citizens in some areas (as in Spain, Portugal and Latin America). prevosto: provost - title used in northern Italy and Tuscany for important parish priests. arciprete: archpriest - usually used for the senior priest in an important or significant town that is not a bishop's seat, i.e. not the centre of a diocese. | [
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curato: curate - parish priest of the countryside. canonico: canon - the senior priests attached to the cathedral, who have special liturgical and administrative responsibilities both there and in the diocese. Military titles of rank
Esercito (Army): see Italian Army enlisted military ranks and Italian Army officers military ranks
Marina Militare (Navy): see Naval officer ranks
Aeronautica Militare (Air force)
Carabinieri (gendarmerie): officers ranks are the same as in the Italian Army. Style for letters
Excluding special titles or antique versions, in Italy this is the manner of address in letters:
See also
Italian orders of merit
Military Order of Italy
Italian medals 1860-today (Italian Wikipedia)
References
External links
State honorifics from the site of the Presidency of the Italian Republic
Armed Forces on the site of the Ministry of Defence
Site of the Ministry of Instruction
Site of the Ministry of University and Research
Honorifics by country
Italian culture
Italian language
Honorifics by language | [
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Judaeo-Aragonese (Aragonese: Chodigo-Aragonés) was a Judaeo-Romance language, a Jewish language that was derived from Aragonese. It was used by Spanish Jews in north-central Spain from the mid-8th century to the 1492 Alhambra Decree, which expelled Jews from Spain. Later, it either merged with the various Judaeo-Spanish dialects or fell out of use because the far more influential Judaeo-Spanish. While there are some scholars that believe that the language may have had some speakers until the Second World War, most scholars believe that it died out in the Middle Ages. Along with Judaeo-Catalan, Judaeo-Aragonese shares a marked component of Judaeo-Greek. It has been suggested that Judaeo-Catalan's influence on Judaeo-Aragonese was because of the influx of Judaeo-Catalan-speakers in the 14th century, especially after the 1391 pogroms. References
Aragonese language
Extinct Romance languages
Judaeo-Spanish languages
Medieval languages | [
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Cybersource is a payment service provider. The company lets customers process online payments, streamline online fraud management, and simplify payment security. , Cybersource provides online payment management solutions to over 400,000 merchants globally across multiple industries. One single connection to Cybersource can enable a merchant to conduct global business without the merchant having to integrate to local payment providers/methods one by one, which largely improves the merchant's go-to-market speed. Meanwhile, with Cybersource's Decision Manager, one-of-the world's largest fraud detection radar, a merchant can combat fraud effectively. Offering secure and Express Checkout experience is also one of Cybersource's core capabilities by having developed hosted payment page and Tokenization technology. In addition to normal direct card payment, popular and innovative payment methods are also supported on Cybersource, such as Visa Checkout (Cybersource is Visa Inc.'s wholly owned subsidiary since 2010), Apple Pay, Alipay, etc. History
Founded in 1994, Cybersource provides online payment and fraud management services for medium and large-sized merchants. Cybersource acquired the U.S. small business payment services provider, Authorize.Net, in November 2007 for $565 million. On April 22, 2010, Visa Inc agreed to acquire Cybersource for about $2 billion. See also
List of on-line payment service providers
References
External links
Companies based in Foster City, California
Visa acquisitions
American companies established in 1994
Financial services companies established in 1994
1994 establishments in California
2010 mergers and acquisitions
Payment service providers
Online payments
Internet fraud | [
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The hamster zona-free ovum test (HZFO test), or hamster test is a method for diagnosing male infertility due to the inability of the sperm to penetrate the ova. This test has limited value for most people experiencing infertility. Procedure
In this test, sperm are incubated with several hamster eggs. After seven to twenty hours, the number of sperm penetrations per egg is measured. The hamster eggs have had the zona pellucida, the outer membrane, removed- hence, zona-free. Having all eggs penetrated by multiple sperm is considered to be a positive sign for fertility. Results suggest that men whose sperm fail the hamster test are a third as fertile than those whose sperm pass. Donated sperm and intracytoplasmic sperm injection techniques are considered more strongly for those whose sperm fail this test. Contrary to some assertions by medical professionals, if the human sperm penetrates the hamster egg, a hybrid embryo is indeed created. The resulting hamster-hybrid is known as a humster. These embryos are typically destroyed before they divide into two cells and are never known to have been implanted in either a hamster or human uterus to develop. This test evaluates the acrosome reaction of human spermatozoa. However, the incidence of acrosome reaction in freely swimming human sperm does not accurately reflect the fertilizing ability of the sperm. Legal permit
The practice is made licensable in the United Kingdom by the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 1990. Uses
The hamster zona-free ovum test was frequently performed by sperm banks when screening potential sperm donors. | [
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However, owing to the unreliability of these tests and the advancement of computer tests for the screening of sperm, tests by sperm banks using these methods largely fell out of favor during the 1990's. Significance
This test has a poor predictive value for the success of fertilization in IVF treatment at any insemination concentration. No strong correlation has been found between hamster egg penetration rates and the various semen parameters and the role of the hamster egg penetration test in the investigation of the causes of infertility should be evaluated further. However, a negative result on the hamster test correlates with a lower probability of the man's partner becoming pregnant. References
Medical tests
Fertility medicine
Semen | [
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Vuk Ćosić (; born 31 July 1966) is a Serbian contemporary artist associated with the net.art movement. Active in politics, literature and art, Ćosić has exhibited, published, and been active since 1994. He is well known for his challenging, ground-breaking work as a pioneer in the field of net.art. His constantly evolving oeuvre is characterized by an interesting mix of philosophical, political, and conceptual network-related issues on the one hand, and an innovative feeling for contemporary urban and underground aesthetics on the other. One of the pioneers of net.art, Ćosić became deeply interested in ASCII code during a long period of research (1996–2001) on low-tech aesthetics, the economy, ecology and archaeology of the media, on the intersections between text and computer code, on the use of spaces in information, its fluid nature and infinite convertibility. Out of this came History of Art for the Blind, ASCII Unreal (an art game), ASCII Camera, ASCII Architecture, Deep ASCII and ASCII History of Moving Images, a history of the cinema converted into text format. He is a co-founder of Nettime, Syndicate, 7-11, and Ljubljana Digital Media Lab. The most notable venues, among many others, include Videotage, Hong Kong; Media Artlab, Tel Aviv; Venice Biennial; MIT Medialab; Walker Center, Minneapolis; Postmasters, NYC; Kunsthalle, Vienna; LAMoCA, Los Angeles; ICA, London and Beaubourg, Paris. Art
Ćosić uses ASCII characters (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) to form images or videos. | [
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He created his own software to convert the pixels from still and moving images into ASCII, and he has also experimented with audio and camera movement being transcribed through ASCII. Short sentences or paragraphs relevant to his work are often briefly summarized through few fragments of text in ASCII form. Ćosić has put together a retrospective of some of his net.art, including various images from History of Art For Airports. Ćosić borrowed both iconic and lesser known images, reducing them to resemble the kind of pictograms found on lavatory doors. The sources of many of the images are instantly recognizable, such as Cézanne's Card Players and Warhol's Campbell's Soup. Some of his more notable works were made from scenes from classic films including ASCII History of Moving Images in 1999, portraying a scene from Alfred Hitchcock's film Psycho. Another depicting a scene from the pornographic movie Deep Throat, remade as Deep ASCII. Ćosić had made a series of short animated sequences form various films and TV series going from Star Trek to King Kong, while in addition, constructing photographs of classical art such as Venus, Lascaux, and more. The major focus into classical mediums indicates Ćosić's possible interest in the historical aspects of art. The show also includes a new work, File Extinguisher, which Ćosić describes as "a project that fixes the web by providing the surfer with a totally free file deleting service. All you need to do is upload your file and we'll delete it for you, completely." | [
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The ASCII History of Art for the Blind is a webpage that describes selected images verbally by reading each of the ASCII characters that make up the image through an automatic recordings. War is a collection of files stored with images taken in front of a TV screen in 1999, recording the events that took place during the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia. Personal exhibitions and projects
1991
Basta, Dubrovnik (with Krpan, Martek, Opalić, Talent, Tolj), Dubrovnik
1992
Ljubljana, Flat Jurij Krpan
Trieste, Galeria Juliet
Total Egal, St. Lambrecht (with Antun Maračič & Nenad Dančuo)
1994
Hollywood, Ljubljana, Ljubljana Castle
1995
Le Coco Fruitwear (Urbanaria - Part Two, with Matej Andraž Vogrinčič), Ljubljana, Prešernov trg > (Trabakula), Rijeka, Dubrovnik, Split > London, ICA > (Biennale dei Giovani Artisti dell'Europa e del Mediterraneo), Torino
1996
Velodrome Online (with Luka Frelih & Strip Core, The Drug of the Natyon), Copenhagen, Electronic Cafe International
1997
Raziskovalni Inštitut za Geo-umetniško statistiko Republike Slovenije: Public presentation of the mobile etalon of the Slovene Mediterranean metre (with Alenka Pirman & Irena Wölle), Piran, Tartinijev trg > Biennale dei Giovani Artisti dell'Europa e del Mediterraneo, Torino
A Day in the Life of a Net.artist (Media in Media), Ljubljana, Mestna galerija
1998
History of Art for the Airports, Tank, No. | [
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1, London
Lascaux, venus, st. sebastien, pieta, Cézanne, duchamp, malevich, warhol, lumiere bros, star trek, king kong, haiku, jodi, bunting, shoulgin
1998
ASCII History of Moving Art, Ćosić's work presents seven short clips from well-known sources that recall points when film, television, and video were finding their voices as the new media of their day
2010
As part of the 2010 celebrations in Ljubljana for having been nominated by UNESCO as the tenth World Book Capital, Ćosić held a book burning exhibit and lecture at the Trubar Literature House in homage to the anti-protestant book burning in the same city, in 1598 (where books by the protestant reformer Primož Trubar, after whom the venue is named, were presumably burned). The exhibit also alluded to the book burning event by Hebrew and Yiddish writer Ka-Tzetnik, who in 1993 stole a rare copy of his prewar book of poetry from the National Library of Israel, purportedly burnt it, and sent the remains back to the library with instructions to burn them, like all that was dear to him had burned in the Auschwitz crematoria. | [
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Videography
DEEP ASCII
TTYvideo software, java, VHS, Vuk Ćosić, Amsterdam-Ljubljana 1998, 55'
Script & Dir Vuk Ćosić
Programming Luka Frelih
C'Mon Babe Light My Fire 03.15
Purple Haze 02.46
California Dreamin 02.50
Venus 03.16
My Generation 03.08
Should I Stay or Should I Go 03.50
video de musica
ASciikk
TTYvideo software, java, VHS, Vuk Ćosić, Amsterdam-Ljubljana 1998, 55'
Script & Dir Vuk Ćosić
Programming Luka Frelih
6 video clips by the Russian cyberpunk artist Alexei Shoulgin in the moving ASCII, published at a web site as well as on a VinylVideoTM record. Ćosić's Net.Art
File Extinguisher
War
ASCII Camera
This is unreal
ascii history of art for the blind
ascii history of moving images
history of art for airports
net.art per se
References
New Media Art· Mark Tribe and Reena Jana. "Vuk Ćosić." Artforum International 40.7 (Mar. 2002): 40. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. [Library name], [City], [State abbreviation]. 29 Apr. 2008 <>. Vuk COSIC. http://www.videodokument.org/cosic/cosic.htm; accessdate=2008-05-05. author= Barbara
External links
History of art for airports
Official website
Sources
Araújo, Sandra. (2010). Deconstructing Vuk Ćosić: Data as Language. Art & Education. Rinehard, Richard. (2011). "Vuk Ćosić: ASCII History of Moving Images" University of California, Berkeley Art Museum & Pacific Film Archive. 1966 births
Net.artists
Slovenian contemporary artists
Artists from Belgrade
Artists from Ljubljana
Living people
Slovenian people of Serbian descent | [
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A line source, as opposed to a point source, area source, or volume source, is a source of air, noise, water contamination or electromagnetic radiation that emanates from a linear (one-dimensional) geometry. The most prominent linear sources are roadway air pollution, aircraft air emissions, roadway noise, certain types of water pollution sources that emanate over a range of river extent rather than from a discrete point, elongated light tubes, certain dose models in medical physics and electromagnetic antennas. While point sources of pollution were studied since the late nineteenth century, linear sources did not receive much attention from scientists until the late 1960s, when environmental regulations for highways and airports began to emerge. At the same time, computers with the processing power to accommodate the data processing needs of the computer models required to tackle these one-dimensional sources became more available. In addition, this era of the 1960s saw the first emergence of environmental scientists who spanned the disciplines required to accomplish these studies. For example, meteorologists, chemists, and computer scientists in the air pollution field were required to build complex models to address roadway air dispersion modeling. Prior to the 1960s, these specialities tended to work within their own disciplines, but with the advent of NEPA, the Clean Air Act, the Noise Control Act in the United States, and other seminal legislation, the era of multidisciplinary environmental science had begun. | [
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For electromagnetic linear sources, the principal early advances in computer modeling arose in the Soviet Union and USA when the end of World War II and the Cold War were fought partially by progress in electronic warfare, including the technologies of active antenna arrays. Linear air pollution source
Air pollution levels near major highways and urban arterials are in violation of U.S. National Ambient Air Quality Standards where millions of Americans live or work. Even the interior of a building does not really protect inhabitants from adverse exterior air quality, since the exterior air is the intake supply, and it is well known that indoor air quality is typically worse than exterior air. A roadway travelled by motor vehicles can be idealized by a line source emitting air pollutants. This mathematical problem was first solved in 1970 by a collaboration of physics, mathematics and computer science. The original theory assumed steady-state traffic conditions and meteorology on a perfectly straight roadway. Currently the models have evolved to treat variable meteorology, time-variant traffic operations and complex roadbed geometries. Current technology allows highway designers and city planners to analyze alternative roadway development plans and assess air quality impacts. The same basic model theory can be applied to airport operations, since the linear source is merely an inclined line. In the early 1970s these ESL models were refined into area source models to account for the finite width of the roadway. Linear noise source
Roadway noise is the most important example of a linear noise source, since it comprises about 80 percent of the environmental noise exposure for humans worldwide. | [
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In the 1960s, when computer modeling of this phenomenon was perfected, the first applications of linear source noise modeling became systematic. After passage of the National Environmental Policy Act and Noise Control Act, the demand for detailed analysis soared, and decision makers began to look to acoustical scientists for answers regarding the planning of new roadways and the design of noise mitigation. The intensity of roadway noise is governed by the following variables: traffic operations (speed, truck mix, age of vehicle fleet), roadway surface type, tire types, roadway geometrics, terrain, micrometeorology and the geometry of area structures. Due to the complexity of the variables, a line source acoustic model must be a computer model that can analyze sound levels in the vicinity of roadways. The first meaningful models arose in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Two of the leading research teams were BBN in Boston and ESL Inc. of Sunnyvale, California. Both of these groups developed complex mathematical models to allow the study of alternate roadway designs, traffic operations and noise mitigation strategies in an arbitrary setting. Later model alterations have come into widespread use among state Departments of Transportation and city planners, but the accuracy of early models has had little change in 40 years. Generally line source acoustic models trace sound ray bundles and calculate spreading loss along with ray bundle divergence (or convergence} from refractive phenomena. Diffraction is usually addressed by establishing secondary emitters at any points of topographic or anthropomorphic “sharpness” (such as noise barriers or building surfaces. | [
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Meteorology can be addressed in a statistical manner allowing for actual wind rose and wind speed statistics (along with thermocline data). Water pollution line source
Less common are line source applications in the field of water pollutant dispersal. This phenomenon generally arises when surface runoff scours soil contaminants from upper soil layers and transports these pollutants to a linear receiving water, such as a river. The underlying land management practices which lead to such sources of water pollution are logging, pesticide application, construction grading, slash-and-burn activity and urban stormwater runoff. Again computer models are needed to address the complexity of such an extended linear discharge into a dynamic medium such as flowing water. The resulting surface runoff water carrying pollutants may be considered a line source discharging into a river or stream. The chemical composition of this surface runoff may be characterized by a surface runoff model such as the USGS runoff precipitation algorithm, while the instream transport may be analyzed by a dynamic river pollutant model such as DSSAM. Light emission line source
In the study of illumination, a variety of sources are linear in nature, most commonly the fluorescent tube, During the process of interior lighting design it is important to calculate the light intensity at work stations or other user areas, not only to ensure sufficient light is present, but more importantly to avoid over-illumination and its attendant energy wastage as well as adverse health effects. Thus the scientists involved in light transmission calculations employ computer models that recognize linear sources when fluorescent fixtures are used. | [
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In a typical setting there may be hundreds of finite length light sources that comprise the light output in an office environment. A related concept are the ultraviolet tubes used in phototherapy, where output radiation from the tube can be accurately modeled by treating the tube as a line source. On a larger scale, an illuminated roadway may act as a line source of light pollution. See also
Air pollution dispersion terminology
Area source (pollution)
Atmospheric dispersion modeling
Effluent
Fenceline community
Line array
List of atmospheric dispersion models
Phased array
Point source (pollution)
Roadway noise
Surface runoff
Volume source (pollution)
References
External links
EPA Support Center for Regulatory Atmospheric Modeling
U.S. Federal Highway Administration Roadway Construction Noise Model
Air pollution
Atmospheric dispersion modeling
Experimental physics
Noise pollution
Nonimaging optics
Water pollution | [
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The Location API for Java ME is a compact and generic Java 2 ME API that produces information about the device's present physical location to Java applications. This API can be optionally supported by mobile phone and PDA manufacturers, with the minimum Java platform required for this API being CLDC v1.1. The Location API was developed under the Java Community Process as JSR 179, released in September 2003 and updated to version 1.0.1 in March 2006. Nokia is the main author and maintainer of this JSR. OpenLAPI is an LGPL implementation for use in emulator environments where the Nokia reference implementation does not exist and for devices which can access a GPS device over Bluetooth. Features
The Location API is designed to work with many different positioning methods. Generic interfaces lets application developers implement systems that can retrieve location data from multiple sources, based on their availability on the device. It has advantages over a single means of tracking, including fail-over, indoor/outdoor transparency, and a choice between the speed and accuracy trade-offs between GPS, cellular, or other positioning methods. The API supports:
Current location - current latitude, longitude, altitude, direction, and speed of the phone, and methods to convert it to text. Landmark proximity - a store of landmarks can be stored on the phone's memory, and the current location can be added as a landmark. Address data - the nearest landmark's textual details, such as postal address, phone number, country, and the building and its URL. Location listeners - for dynamic location-based applications that will be triggered by when the current location changes. | [
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The Location API does not support:
Topological data - which is usually derived from the shapes of cell site coverage. Location-based queries - although the current location of the device can be calculated. Device independence
Previously, location service implementations were provider specific. The aim of this API was to provide a common API for retrieving the location information on a variety of devices. OpenLAPI supports several back-ends:
GPS over Bluetooth
NMEA logfile (for development)
KML (Keyhole Markup Language) (for development)
random entry from a persistent landmark store (for development)
along with device specific wrappers. Support
Since many providers choose not to implement this optional JSR, the goal of universality has still not happened and developers are often required to create custom builds for different devices. The Location API is available to Java applications on some BlackBerry and Windows Mobile devices, recent Motorola and Sony Ericsson devices, and all Nokia Series 60 3rd Edition devices. References
External links
JSR 179 Location API for J2ME
OpenLAPI - an LGPL implementation
Java device platform
Java specification requests
Keyhole Markup Language
Java APIs | [
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In Microsoft Windows system administration, a Uniqueness Database File (UDF) is a text file that enables the administrator to supply the information that must be unique to each computer or each user. Used in conjunction with a single answer file, when Windows XP Professional is deployed to several client computers that require different setup configurations. External links
http://www.microsoft.com/technet/archive/ntwrkstn/reskit/dep02.mspx?mfr=true
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The grammar of the Ukrainian language describes its phonological, morphological, and syntactical rules. Ukrainian contains seven cases and two numbers for its nominal declension and two aspects, three tenses, three moods, and two voices for its verbal conjugation. Adjectives must agree in number, gender, and case with their nouns. In order to understand Ukrainian grammar, it is necessary to understand the various phonological rules that occur due to the collision of two or more sounds. Doing so markedly decreases the number of exceptions and makes understanding the rules better. The origin of some of these phonological rules can be traced all the way back to Indo-European gradation (ablaut). This is especially common in explaining the differences between the infinitive and present stem of many verbs. This article presents the grammar of the literary language, which is followed by most dialects. The main differences in the dialects are vocabulary with occasional differences in phonology and morphology. Further information can be found in the article Ukrainian dialects. Phonology
The following points of Ukrainian phonology need to be considered in order to properly understand the grammar of Ukrainian. Classification of vowels
Two different classifications of vowels can be made: a historical perspective and a modern perspective. | [
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] |
From a historical perspective, the Ukrainian vowels can be divided into two categories:
Hard vowels (in Cyrillic: а, и (from Common Slavic *ы), о, and у or transliterated as a, y (from Common Slavic *y), o, and u)
Soft vowels (in Cyrillic: е, і and и (from Common Slavic *и) or transliterated as e, i and y (from Common Slavic *i)). The iotified vowels are considered to be soft vowels
From a modern perspective, the Ukrainian vowels can be divided into two categories:
Hard Vowels (In Cyrillic: а, е, и, і, о, and у or transliterated as a, e, y, i, o, and u). This category as can be seen from the table is different from the historical hard category
Iotified Vowel (In Cyrillic: я, є, ї, and ю or transliterated as ja, je, ji, and ju). | [
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To this category can also be added the combination of letters йо/ьо (transliterated as jo)
Classification of consonants
In Ukrainian, consonants can be categorised as follows:
Labials (in Cyrillic: б, в, м, п, and ф or transliterated as b, v, m, p, and f) are almost always hard in Ukrainian (there are orthographic exceptions), can never be doubled or in general be followed by an iotified vowel (exception: in combinations CL where C is a dental and L is a labial, a soft vowel can follow, e.g., svjato/свято). Post-alveolar sibilants (in Cyrillic: ж, ч, and ш or transliterated as ž, č, and š. The digraph щ (šč) should also be included) were in Common Slavic all palatal (soft). They hardened in Ukrainian, leading to the creation of the mixed declension of nouns. They can't be followed by a soft sign (in Cyrillic: ь; transliterated as apostrophe (’)) or any iotified vowel. All but the digraph щ can be doubled, in which case they can be followed by a soft vowel, e.g., zbižžja/збіжжя. Dentals (in Cyrillic: д, з, л, н, с, т and ц or transliterated as d, z, l, n, s, t, and c) can be both hard and soft in Ukrainian, as in Common Slavic. These letters can never (unless they are the last letter in a prefix) be followed by an apostrophe. | [
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Furthermore, these letters can be doubled. Alveolar (in Cyrillic: р or transliterated as r) can be either hard or soft but is always hard at the end of a syllable. Therefore, r is always hard at the end of a word and is never followed by a soft sign. r can never be doubled, except in foreign words (such as сюрреалізм). Velars (in Cyrillic: г, ґ, к, and х or transliterated as h, g, k, and x) are always hard in both Ukrainian and Common Slavic. If an iotified or soft vowel are to follow them, they undergo the first and second palatalisations. Hence, these letters can never be doubled or followed by an apostrophe. Historical changes
In the Ukrainian language, the following sound changes have occurred between the Common Slavic period and current Ukrainian:
In a newly closed syllable, that is, a syllable that ends in a consonant, Common Slavic o and e mutate into i if the next vowel in Common Slavic was one of the yers (ь/ĭ and ъ/ŭ). Pleophony: The Common Slavic combinations, ToRT and TeRT, where T is any consonant and R is either r or l become in Ukrainian. | [
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TorT gives ToroT (Common Slavic *borda gives Ukrainian boroda)
TolT gives ToloT (Common Slavic *bolto gives Ukrainian boloto)
TerT gives TereT (Common Slavic *berza gives Ukrainian bereza)
TelT gives ToloT (Common Slavic *melko gives Ukrainian moloko)
The Common Slavic nasal vowel ę, derived from an Indo-European *-en, *-em, or one of the sonorants n and m, is reflected as ja except after a single labial where it is reflected as ″ja (’я), or after a post-alveolar sibilant where it is reflected as a. For example,
Common Slavic *pętь gives in Ukrainian p″jat (п’ять);
Common Slavic *telę gives in Ukrainian telja; and
Common Slavic kurčę gives in Ukrainian kurča. | [
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The Common Slavic letter, ě (ѣ), is reflected in Ukrainian generally as i except:
word-initially, where it is reflected as ji: Common Slavic *ěsti gives the Ukrainian jisty
after the post-alveolar sibilants where it is reflected as a: Common Slavic *ležěti gives the Ukrainian ležaty
Common Slavic i and y are both reflected in Ukrainian as y
The Common Slavic combination -CьjV, where C is any consonant and V is any vowel, becomes in Ukrainian the following combination -CCjV, except
if C is labial or 'r' where it becomes -C"jV
if V is the Common Slavic e, then the vowel in Ukrainian mutates to a, e.g., Common Slavic *žitьje gives the Ukrainian žyttja
if V is the Common Slavic ь, then the combination becomes ej, e.g., genitive plural in Common Slavic *myšьjь gives the Ukrainian myšej
if one or more consonants precede the C then there is no doubling of the consonants in Ukrainian
Common Slavic combinations dl and tl are simplified to l, for example, Common Slavic *mydlo gives Ukrainian mylo
Common Slavic ъl and ьl became ov, while word final lъ became v. For example, Common Slavic *vьlkъ becomes vovk in Ukrainian
Current changes
The first palatalisation concerns the velars and the following vowels: e, y from Common Slavic i, a/i from Common Slavic ě, derived from the Indo-European ē. Before these vowels,
h/g mutates into ž.
k mutates into č.
x mutates into š. | [
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The second palatalisation concerns the velars and the following vowels: y from Common Slavic i that is derived from an Indo-European diphthong and a/i from Common Slavic ě, derived from an Indo-European diphthong. Before these vowels,
h/g mutates into z.
k mutates into c.
x mutates into s.
The iotification concerns all consonants and the semi-vowel j (й). The following changes occur:
The labials insert an l between the labial and the semivowel: Common Slavic *zemja give Ukrainian zemlja. The velars followed by a semivowel mutate as in the first palatalisation. The semivowel is dropped. This change can be traced back to Common Slavic. ktj, tj becomes č
dj becomes ž, except in verbs where it becomes dž
sj becomes š
stj, skj become šč (щ)
zdj, zhj become ždž
zkj becomes žč
l, n, r becomes lj, nj, rj (that is, ль, нь, рь)
In Ukrainian, when two or more consonants occur word-finally, then a float vowel is inserted under the following conditions. Given a consonantal grouping C1(ь)C2(ь), where C is any Ukrainian consonant. The fill vowel is inserted between the two consonants and after the ь. A fill vowel is only inserted if C2 is one of the following consonants: k, v, l, m, r, n, and c. In this case:
If C1 is one of the following h, k, or x, then the fill vowel is always o
If C2 is k or v, then the fill vowel is o. | [
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No fill vowel is inserted if the v is derived from a voiced l, for example, vovk
If C2 is l, m, r, or c, then the fill vowel is e
The only known exception is vid′om, which should take e as the fill vowel, but instead adds an o. The combinations, -stv and -s′k are not broken up
If the C1 is j (й), then the above rules can apply. However, both forms (with and without the fill vowel) often exist
Assimilation
The following assimilations occur:
Before the с of a suffix (-ський or -ство)
If the root ends in г(ґ), ж, or з, then it mutates to з and the с of the suffix is lost. If the root ends in к, ч, or ц, then it mutates to ц and the с of the suffix is lost. If the root ends in х, с, or ш, then it mutates to с and the с of the suffix is lost (or the last letter of the root drops out). The following combinations of letters change:
{ж, з} + дн is contracted to {ж, з} + н.
ст + {л, н} is contracted to с + {л, н}. {п, р} + тн is contracted to {п, р} + н. | [
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{с, к} + кн is contracted to {с, к} + н.
Dissimilation
The most common dissimilation is encountered in the infinitive of verbs, where {д, т} + т dissimilates to ст, for example, крад + ти gives красти and плет + ти gives плести. Morphology
Nominal
Nouns
The nominal declension has seven cases (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, locative, and vocative), in two numbers (singular and plural), and absolutely obeying grammatical gender (masculine, feminine and neuter). Adjectives, pronouns, and the first two cardinal numbers have gender specific forms. A third number, the dual, also existed in Old East Slavic, but except for its use in the nominative and accusative cases with the numbers two, three and four, e.g. dvi hryvni/дві гривні vs. dvoje hryven' /двоє гривень (recategorised today as a nominative plural), it has been lost. Other traces of the dual can be found when referring to objects of which are commonly in pairs: eyes, shoulders, ears, e.g. plečyma. Occasionally, dual forms can distinguish between meanings. In Ukrainian, there are 4 declension types. The first declension is used for most feminine nouns. The second declension is used for most masculine and neuter nouns. The third declension is used for feminine nouns ending in ь or a post-alveolar sibilant. The fourth declension is used for neuter nouns ending in я/а (Common Slavic *ę). Most of the types consist of 3 different subgroups: hard, mixed, and soft. | [
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The soft subgroup consists of nouns whose roots end in a soft letter (followed by iotified vowel or soft vowel). The mixed subgroup consists of the nouns whose roots end in a post-alveolar sibilant or occasionally r. The hard group consists of all other nouns. If the hard group endings are taken as the basis, then the following rules can be used to derive the corresponding mixed and soft endings:
Mixed subgroup: Following a post-alveolar sibilant,,
All о change to е. All и change to і. Soft subgroup: Whenever a soft sign or the semi-vowel encounters the vowel of the ending, the following changes occur (These are mainly orthographic changes, but same can be traced to similar changes in Common Slavic):
ьа or йа gives я
ьо gives е
йе gives є
ьи gives і
йи gives ї
ьу or йу gives ю
ьі gives і
йі gives ї
Nouns ending in a consonant are marked in the following tables with ∅ (no ending). First declension
This declension consists of nouns that end in а or я. It consists primarily of feminine nouns, but a few nouns with these ending referring to professions can be either masculine or feminine. In these cases, the genitive plural is often formed by adding -ів. Nouns referring to people can also take this ending. (1) A velar consonant undergoes the appropriate second palatalisation changes
(2) If two or more consonants are left at the end of the word, then a fill vowel may be inserted. | [
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(3) The genitive form is used for all animate nouns, while inanimate nouns take the nominative form. Second declension
The second declension consists of masculine and neuter nouns.Masculine nouns: This group consists primarily of nouns ending in a consonant, a soft sign ь, or й. In this declension, nouns ending in р can belong to any of the three declension subgroups: hard, mixed, and soft. There is no way of knowing from the nominative form alone to which group the noun belongs. Notes:
(1) Only with soft nouns ending in р. (2) The ending to be used depends on the nature of the noun. The following rules are given in Ukrainian Orthography:
Use the ending -а with
Names of professions, people’s names (first and last)
Names of plants and animals
Names of objects
Names of settlements and geographic places
Names of measuring units
Names of machines
Words of foreign origin, which describe geometric parts, concrete objects. Use the ending -у with
Chemical elements, materials (note a few exceptions)
Collective nouns
Names of buildings and their parts
Names of organisations and their places
Natural phenomena
Feelings
Names of processes, states, phenomena of social life (both concrete and abstract)
Names of foreign origin that denote physical or chemical processes
Names of games and dances
(3) The ending in -ові is preferred. (4) The accusative case for animate nouns is identical to the genitive case; for inanimate nouns, it is identical to the nominative. | [
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(5) To avoid the second palatalisation, velar root nouns take the -у ending. For non-velar roots, both -і and -ові types are acceptable. As usual, the -і ending triggers the first palatalisation. (6) If the ending -е is used, then the first palatalisation occurs. However, it can be avoided by using the -у form. (7) The second ending occurs is a small group of nouns. (8) The genitive form is used with animate objects, while inanimate objects take the nominative forms.Neuter nouns:
This category consists of neuter nouns ending in о, е, and substantives ending in я, preceded by either a double consonant, apostrophe, or two consonants, which primarily are derived from verbs. This last category once did end in *ĭjе, but due to the sound change given above developed an я ending. (1) As necessary, the second palatalisation occurs, except for the *ĭjе nouns. (2) The double consonant is made single if the ь is used. However, if a post-alveolar sibilant is the last consonant, then no ь is used, but a single consonant is also written. For a labial final consonant, the ending is -’їв. Finally, monosyllabic nouns take the ending -ів. If two or more consonants appear word finally, then it is possible that a fill vowel must be inserted. Third declension
This declension consists solely of feminine nouns that end in a consonant. This declension has only 2 subgroups: a mixed and soft group. | [
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(1) Since this ending is derived from the Common Slavic ending *-ĭjǫ, doubling of the consonant occurs as per the rules outlined above. Furthermore, if in the nominative form the noun has an -і for an -о, then so will the instrumental form, for example, ніччю (instrumental singular) and ніч (nominative singular)
Fourth declension
This declension consists of solely neuter nouns that are derived from Common Slavic *ę. There are two subgroups: those with an н insert, and those with a т insert. Adjectives
Ukrainian adjectives agree with the nouns they modify in gender, number, and case. In Ukrainian, there exist a small number of adjectives, primarily possessives, which exist in the masculine in the so-called short form. This "short" form is a relic of the indefinite declension of adjectives in Common Slavic. Common examples of this anomalous declension are бабин (masculine) compared to бабина (feminine); братів (masculine) compared to братова (feminine); and повинен (masculine) compared to повинна. This short form only exists in the masculine nominative form. All other forms are regular. Declension
In Ukrainian, there are 2 different declension types: hard and soft. The soft type can be further subdivided into two types. Unlike for the nouns, the post-alveolar sibilants are counted as hard. There also exists a special mixed declension for adjectives ending in -лиций. These adjectives are derived from the noun лице, describing types of faces, for example, білолиций. | [
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Note about the declensions:
(1) In the accusative case (except the feminine singular), a difference is made between animate (=genitive) and inanimate (=nominative) adjectives. (2) The ending in -ому is more often encountered. The other form is a relic of the indefinite declension of adjectives in Common Slavic. Other forms of the adjective
In Ukrainian adjectives also have a comparative and superlative forms. The comparative form is created by dropping ий and adding the ending -(і)ший. The resulting form is declined like a regular hard stem adjective. As usual, some adjectives have irregular forms. The superlative form is created by prefixing най- to the comparative form. Words associated with religion often prefix пре- (very) to the comparative form. As usual, some adjectives have irregular forms. Adverbs
In Ukrainian, adverbs are formed by taking the stem of the adjective (that is dropping the −а from the feminine nominative singular form; forms ending in −я are replaced by −ьа (after consonants) or −йа (after vowels), before dropping the −а.) and adding the ending
-о, is the general ending,
-е, can be used for some stems that are hard (no ь or й at the end), for example, добре from добрий. This is very common for the comparative form of the adjective. For example, гарний gives гарно. The comparative and superlative forms of an adverb are formed by taking the corresponding form of the adjective and replacing −ий by -е, for example, гарніше from гарніший. | [
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Adverbs can also be derived from the locative or instrumental singular of a noun, for example, ввечері (from в plus the locative of вечера), нагорі (from на plus the locative of гора). Pronouns
Personal pronouns
The personal pronouns are declined as follows. Demonstrative pronouns
The demonstrative pronouns той (that) and цей (this) are declined as follows. Possessive pronouns
The first (мій) and second person (твій) singular possessive pronouns are declined similarly as can be seen from the table below. The first (наш) and second (ваш) person plural possessive pronouns are declined as below. The masculine nominative forms are the short forms. The third person plural possessive pronoun, їхній, is declined as a normal soft adjective. Interrogative pronouns
The interrogative pronouns, хто and що, are declined as follows. The interrogative pronoun, чий, is declined as given in the table below. Numbers
(The "Adverbial" column corresponds to English once, twice, thrice, four times, etc.) Comments:
(1) Any soft signs are dropped if they occur word finally in the original cardinal number. (2) This is a dual construction. (3) This is a plural nominative construction. (4) This is the genitive plural construction (All hundreds after 500 are so created.). In general, the following rules are used to determine agreement between the cardinal number and a noun. In the nominative case, the nouns agree with the last number in any compound number. | [
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Nouns that must agree with a number ending in 2, 3, or 4 are in the nominative plural, but retain the stress of the dual, that is the genitive singular. Nouns, which must agree with a number ending in 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0, and all the teens are in the genitive plural. In any other case, the nouns and numbers are in the same case. Verbs
Grammatical conjugation is subject to three persons in two numbers and three simple tenses (present/future, future, and past), with periphrastic forms for the future and Conditional, as well as imperative forms and present/past participles, distinguished by adjectival and adverbial usage. There are two voices, active and middle/passive, which is constructed by the addition of a reflexive suffix -ся/сь to the active form. An interesting feature is that the past tense is actually made to agree in gender with the subject, for it is the participle in an originally periphrastic perfect formed with the present of быть (modern: бути) ,"to be." Verbal inflection today is considerably simpler than in Common Slavic. The ancient aorist and imperfect have been lost. The loss of three of the former six tenses has been offset by the reliance, as in other Slavic languages, on verbal aspect. Most verbs come in pairs, one with imperfective or continuous connotation, the other with perfective or completed, usually formed with a (prepositional) prefix, but occasionally using a different root. | [
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The present tense of the verb бути, "to be", today normally has the form, є used for all persons and numbers. Previously (before 1500) and occasionally in liturgical settings, aspects of the full conjugation, can be found. The paradigm shows as well as anything else the Indo-European affinity of Ukrainian:
Note: Ukrainian forms followed by * are considered archaic in Standard Ukrainian (albeit those are still used in dialects) and are replaced by є. In the present tense, the verb бути is often omitted (or replaced by a dash "—" in writing), for example, "Мій брат — вчитель" ("My brother is a teacher"). "—" is not used when the subject is a pronoun, "Я студент" ("I am a student"). Classification of verbs
There exist two different classification of verbs: traditional and historical/linguistic. The traditional classification of verbs subdivides the verbs into two categories based on the form of the 3rd person singular present indicative form of the verb. The е stems, which have the ending -е or -є in the 3rd person singular. The и stems, which have the ending -ить in the 3rd person singular. The historical/linguistic classification of verbs subdivides the verbs into 5 categories. Classes 1,2 and 3 correspond to the е stems of the traditional classification, while class 4 corresponds to the и stems. Class 5 consists of the athematic verbs. | [
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Class 1: Stems in -е
The same stem in the Present and the Infinitive
The same consonantal stem (the last three examples do not quite resemble the first example or the classification name due to various sound changes (palatalisation) in Ukrainian):
нести / несе
пекти / пече
умерти / умре
почати / почне
The same vowel stem
плисти / пливе
Infinitive in -ати
Consonantal stem
брати / бере
Vowel stems
рвати / рве
Class 2: "n" verbs (mostly perfective verbs)
двигнути / двигне
Class 3: Presents in є (undergo changes associated with iotification)
Primary verbs
Same stem in the Present and Infinitive
Same vowel stem
знати / знає
Same consonantal stem (these stem often have a pleophonic form for the infinitive)
молоти (Common Slavic *melti) / меле (мелю)
полоти (Common Slavic *polti) / поле (полю)
Infinitive in -ати
Same vowel stem (-я)
сіяти / сіє
Same consonantal stem
орати / оре (орю)
Stems that undergo the changes associated with the doubling of the consonants (the result is slightly regularised in that -ĭje does not mutate into -я as would be expected)
бити: б’ю, б’єш ... (Common Slavic: *biti: bĭjǫ, bĭješĭ ...)
пити
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Derived Verbs (all vowel stems)
a-stems
думати / думає
ě-stems
жовтіти / жовтіє
uva-stems
купувати / купує
Class 4: i-stems in the Present (undergo changes associated with iotification)
i-stems in both the Present and Infinitive
хвалити / хвалить
ě-stems
вертіти / вертить
лежати / лежить
Class 5: Athematic Verbs (-m presents)
їсти
дати
-вісти
бути
Voices
Ukrainian had 2 voices: (1) active voice and (2) passive voice. The active voice is the only voice with a complete set of conjugations. The active voice, in general, shows a direct effect of the verb on its subject. Indicative active mood
The indicative mood is used to describe events, which have occurred, are occurring, or will occur. In Ukrainian, the indicative mood contains the present, future, and past tenses. Present tense
Historically, this is derived from the Indo-European present tense. In Common Slavic and later Ukrainian, it retained its present meaning only for imperfective verbs and developed a future meaning for perfective verbs. For the е stems (Classes 1, 2, and 3), the endings are:
All verbs whose roots end in a velar undergo the first palatalisation in all forms of the present (even though historically speaking the first person singular should not). The endings in є are used for roots whose stem ends in a vowel. All verbs in Class 3 and those that end in a vowel use -ю and -ють. Furthermore, Class 3 verbs undergo iotification in those forms that use -ю-. | [
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